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December 1 , 2014 , the band released " Joel the Lump of Coal " . The single features late night talk show host Jimmy Kimmel . The song marks the ninth consecutive year in which the band has released a Christmas song . All proceeds went to AIDS charities as part of the Product Red campaign .
= = = 2015 – present : Return and fifth studio album = = =
In 2015 the Killers headlined the inaugural Kaaboo Festival in San Diego as well as the Firefly Music Festival in Delaware . In September 2015 , the Killers played at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in Las Vegas , the Killers ' home town .
In an October 2015 interview with Jo Whiley on BBC Radio 2 , Brandon Flowers remarked that in a ‘ perfect world ’ the band would be releasing new material in late 2016 , and appeared to indicate that the Killers would follow a schedule similar to that of Battle Born . According to Flowers in a later interview with Loaded , the band are currently working with Flood and Alan Moulder on their fifth studio album , and had been working on a potential new track titled " Look Alive " . The frontman has spoken of developing a ‘ powerful rock vibe ’ for the group 's fifth album . In February 2016 , Elton John revealed he plans to go to Las Vegas and write with the band for their upcoming album .
On May 24 , 2016 , the band announced that Mark Stoermer was taking a break from touring " to pursue other educational goals and releasing a solo album . " The statement emphasized that Stoermer was still involved in working on the band 's fifth album , and that he may still occasionally perform live with them in the future .
= = Battle Born Studios and solo work = =
Since 2008 , the Killers have owned and operated Battle Born Studios ( formerly Studio Vegas ) in Winchester , Nevada .
Brandon Flowers released the chart @-@ topping albums Flamingo ( 2010 ) and The Desired Effect ( 2015 ) .
Ronnie Vannucci 's side project Big Talk released albums Big Talk ( 2011 ) and Straight In No Kissin ' ( 2015 ) .
Mark Stoermer released album Another Life ( 2011 ) .
= = Musical style = =
The Killers have been referred to as various genres , including alternative rock , indie rock , post @-@ punk revival , new wave and heartland rock .
= = Activism and philanthropy = =
= = = Political relations = = =
Invited by U.S. President Barack Obama , the band played on the White House South Lawn on July 4 , 2010 for the second annual " Salute To The Military " United Service Organizations concert as part of Independence Day celebrations , which Flowers described as a " monumental honor " . Despite their hiatus , the band got together to play " Human " , " Somebody Told Me " , " Mr. Brightside " , " A Dustland Fairytale " , " God Bless America / Read My Mind " and " When You Were Young " . Flowers , Keuning and Stoermer also played at a campaign rally on July 8 , 2010 in Nevada for Obama and U.S. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid who was up for re @-@ election . The Killers played an acoustic version of " Read My Mind " and did a folksy rendition of the state song , " Home Means Nevada " . In February 2011 , Flowers had a private lunch with Mitt Romney during Romney 's visit to the Republican Party convention in Nevada . In 2012 , the band remained neutral in the election . In 2015 , Flowers performed a folksy rendition of the state song , " Home Means Nevada " for Obama and U.S. Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid at the National Clean Energy Summit .
= = = Annual Christmas singles = = =
Since 2006 , the Killers have released annual Christmas themed singles and videos in aid of the charity Product Red , supporting The Global Fund to Fight AIDS , Tuberculosis and Malaria . To date they have released ten Christmas themed songs and music videos : " A Great Big Sled " ( 2006 ) , " Don 't Shoot Me Santa " ( 2007 ) , " Joseph , Better You Than Me " ( 2008 ) , " Happy Birthday Guadalupe ! " ( 2009 ) , " Boots " ( 2010 ) , " The Cowboys ' Christmas Ball " ( 2011 ) , " I Feel It In My Bones " ( 2012 ) , " Christmas In LA " ( 2013 ) , " Joel the Lump of Coal " ( 2014 ) , and " Dirt Sledding " ( 2015 ) . On November 30 , 2011 they released the ( RED ) Christmas EP on iTunes which features all six songs that had been released up to that point . Over the years they have enlisted the help of other musicians and celebrities including Elton John , Neil Tennant ( Pet Shop Boys ) , Toni Halliday ( Curve ) , Wild Light , Mariachi El Bronx , Dawes , Owen Wilson , Jimmy Kimmel & Richard Dreyfuss . All proceeds from the songs have been donated to Product Red campaign and the fight against AIDS in Africa and as of 2015 they have raised over $ 850 @,@ 000 for the charity .
= = = Additional contributions = = =
The Killers song " Goodnight , Travel Well " was used in an effort to promote awareness for sex trafficking headed by UNICEF , MTV EXIT : End Exploitation And Trafficking and the US Agency for International Development . The song " Hotel California " was covered by the Killers and Rhythms del Mundo with proceeds benefiting climate crisis and natural disaster relief . The song " Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " was covered by the Killers with proceeds benefiting famine @-@ stricken areas .
= = Awards and accolades = =
The Killers have been nominated for seven Grammy Awards , seven BRIT Awards , and twenty @-@ four NME Awards .
The Killers have won four NME Awards for " Best International Band " in 2005 , 2008 , 2009 , and 2013 . The band has won a BRIT Award for " Best International Band " in 2006 as well as a MTV Europe Music Award for " Best Rock Group " in 2006 . Also in 2006 , the band won for " Best Video " for " When You Were Young " at the Q Awards . To date , the band has received six nominations for " Best International Band " at the NME Awards , three nominations for " Best International Group " at the BRIT Awards , and three nominations for " Best Rock Group " at the MTV Europe Music Awards .
= = = Additional honors = = =
University of Nevada , Las Vegas College of Fine Arts Hall of Fame Inductee ( 2008 )
ASCAP Vanguard Award Recipient ( 2010 )
= = Band members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Hot Fuss ( 2004 )
Sam 's Town ( 2006 )
Day & Age ( 2008 )
Battle Born ( 2012 )
= Pennsylvania Route 546 =
Pennsylvania Route 546 ( PA 546 ) is an 3 @.@ 586 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 771 km ) state highway in the northernmost regions of McKean County , Pennsylvania . The route , known locally as Oil Valley Road , begins at an intersection with PA 346 in the community of Duke Center ( located in Otto Township ) . The highway heads northward , through mountainous regions before crossing the state line and into New York , where it continues as Duke Center Road to New York State Route 16 ( NY 16 ) .
PA 546 was designated in the 1928 numbering of state highways in the commonwealth . The route was under construction and unpaved for two years afterward , and by 1930 , the route was complete and has remained virtually intact since .
= = Route description = =
PA 546 begins at an intersection with PA 346 in the community of Duke Center . The highway , known locally as Oil Valley Road , progresses to the northeast , intersecting with a short connector back to PA 346 ( SR 9112 ) . Duke Center is small and PA 546 runs along the center of the community . The community and PA 546 run along the base of the 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) mountain . PA 546 parallels the Knapp Creek , and after an intersecting with Galespie Hollow Road , the highway leaves Duke Center .
Continuing northward , the highway enters the community of Oil Valley , which the road is named for . At an intersection with Bootleg Hollow , Knapp Creek turns off PA 546 . A short distance later , the highway passes through several taller mountains , some reaching as high as 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) tall . The route crosses the state line and continues northward as Duke Center Road , which heads northward to an intersection with NY 16 in Knapp Creek , New York .
= = History = =
PA 546 began in the 1928 numbering of state highways in the commonwealth of Pennsylvania . The route was assigned at the time on its current alignment , but the highway was not completely constructed . At the time , the sections of PA 546 from the community of Duke Center to a location 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north were incomplete . By 1929 , this missing piece was completed , and was paved . However , the road was not complete , as there was an unpaved piece of PA 546 from that point This unpaved area was finished by the next year . PA 546 , although , has remained intact in terms of alignment since its assignment in 1928 .
Duke Center Road , the road that continues north into New York , was originally designated as County Route 45 in Cattaraugus County , but the designation was decommissioned and turned over to the town of Allegany .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Otto Township , McKean County .
= Simon Byrne =
Simon Byrne ( 1806 – 2 June 1833 ) , nicknamed " The Emerald Gem " , was an Irish bare @-@ knuckle prize fighter . The heavyweight boxing champion of Ireland , he was drawn to England by the larger sums of prize money on offer and his hopes of becoming the heavyweight champion there as well . He became one of only six fighters ever to have been involved in fatal fights as both survivor and deceased since records began in 1741 .
Byrne fought in an era when English boxing , although illegal , was patronised by many powerful individuals . Its patronage and popularity did not , however , free it from corruption , heavy betting , and staged fights . Byrne fought eight recorded matches , but accounts of his career focus on the last three , against the Scottish champion Alexander McKay , the English champion Jem Ward , and James Burke for the vacant championship of England . The injuries McKay received in his fight with Byrne resulted in his death the following day , and rioting in his home country of Scotland . Byrne went on to lose his next match against Jem Ward , which some commentators believed he was not sufficiently in condition to fight . His final contest in May 1833 was a gruelling 99 rounds against James Burke that lasted for 3 hours and 6 minutes , the longest ever recorded prize fight . Byrne died three days later as the result of damage to his brain caused by the beating he had received . Burke was arrested and tried for manslaughter but was acquitted . Following the death in 1838 of another fighter , William Phelps , also known as Brighton Bill , the London Prize Ring Rules were introduced to more clearly define the rules of prize fighting and to introduce certain safety measures , rules that still form the basis for the modern sport of boxing .
= = Early 19th @-@ century English boxing = =
During the first half of the 19th century pugilism , better known as prize @-@ fighting , held a curious position in British society . Although supported by members of the establishment from the royal princes downwards , it was considered illegal under the terms of the Riot Act of 1715 , which defined a riot as " a tumultuous disturbance of the peace by three or more persons assembling together , of their own authority , with intent mutually to execute a violent enterprise to the terror of the people " .
The boxer George Stevenson had died a few days after his 35 @-@ minute fight with the English champion Jack Broughton in 1741 , an event that triggered Broughton to draw up a set of rules with the help of some of his patrons to prevent a recurrence . Published on 16 August 1743 , Broughton 's Rules outlawed hitting or seizing any part of an opponent 's body below the waist , or striking him when he was down , but otherwise left much to the discretion of referees . Rounds were not of a fixed length but continued until one of the fighters was knocked or thrown to the ground , after which those in his corner were allowed 30 seconds to return him to the " scratch " – the middle of the ring – failing which his opponent was declared the victor .
The sport enjoyed an unprecedented surge in popularity during the Regency period when it was openly patronised by the Prince Regent ( later George IV ) and his brothers . Championship boxing matches acquired a louche reputation as the places to be seen by the wealthy upper classes . Thus a match would often be attended by thousands of people , many of whom had wagered money on the outcome . The Duke of Cumberland ( an uncle of King George III ) was reported to have bet thousands of pounds on Jack Broughton , who was the English champion for 18 years .
Boxing had become a nest of " gambling related corruption " by the 1820s . The epitome
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" , " Breaking the Girl " , and " If You Have to Ask " . Guitarist John Frusciante quit the band mid @-@ tour in 1992 ( not returning until 1998 ) due to his inability to cope with the album 's popularity . Blood Sugar Sex Magik is recognized as an influential and seminal component of the alternative rock explosion in the early 1990s . Steve Huey of AllMusic stated that Blood Sugar Sex Magik is " ... probably the best album the Chili Peppers will ever make . "
= = Background = =
The band 's previous album , 1989 's Mother 's Milk would become the band 's second album to enter in the Billboard 200 , peaking at number 52 and at the time the biggest of their career . Although the record was mildly successful , production was weighed down by producer Michael Beinhorn . He convinced Frusciante to play with an overall heavier tone , and instructed Kiedis to write lyrics that would be more radio viable , thus causing the band to feel restricted creatively .
As the Chili Peppers ' contract with EMI came to an end , they began looking for a new record company to release their next album . The group reached a consensus to go with Sony BMG / Epic , with the proviso that they buy out their last album from EMI . Even though the label promised it would take only a few days , the process stretched out into several months . Although a deal had been made with Sony / Epic , Mo Ostin of Warner Bros. Records called Kiedis to congratulate him on the successful deal , and complimented the rival record label . Kiedis recalled of the situation : " The coolest , most real person we had met during all these negotiations had just personally called to encourage me to make a great record for a rival company . That was the kind of guy I 'd want to be working for . " The group pursued the idea , and eventually dropped the contract with Sony in favor of a deal with Warner Bros. Ostin called an old friend at EMI , who immediately allowed for the label transfer .
= = Recording and production = =
Now settled into Warner Bros. Records , the Chili Peppers began looking for a suitable producer . One person in particular , Rick Rubin , stood out , as he was more broadminded in contrast to individuals they had worked with in the past even though Rubin previously turned down the band 's offer to produce their 1987 album The Uplift Mofo Party Plan due to the drug problems of Kiedis and guitarist Hillel Slovak who would die of a heroin overdose a year later . Eventually , the band decided Rubin would be the best choice as a producer , and therefore hired him to produce what would become Blood Sugar Sex Magik . Unlike the Peppers ' previous producers , Rubin was someone that they felt confident to ask for guidance and input during times of difficulty . He would often help arrange drum beats , guitar melodies and lyrics .
The band sought to record the album in an unconventional setting , believing it would enhance their creative output . Rubin suggested the mansion magician Harry Houdini once lived in , to which they agreed . A crew was hired to set up a recording studio and other equipment required for production in the house . The band decided that they would remain inside the mansion for the duration of recording , though Smith , convinced the location was haunted , refused to stay . He would , instead , come each day by motorcycle . Frusciante agreed with Smith , and said " There are definitely ghosts in the house , " but unlike Smith , Frusciante felt they were " very friendly . We [ the band ] have nothing but warm vibes and happiness everywhere we go in this house . "
Frusciante , Kiedis , and Flea each had their own separate rooms at each end of the house . When not recording with the band , Frusciante would spend his time painting , listening to music , reading and recording songs he 'd written . Due to the seclusion , Kiedis ended up recording all his vocals in his room , as it was large enough to accommodate the recording equipment . For over thirty days , the Chili Peppers worked inside the house ; Kiedis felt it was an accommodating and resourceful environment which allowed him to complete the rest of the lyrics . During production , the band agreed to let Flea 's brother @-@ in @-@ law document the creative process on film . When the album 's recording was complete , the Chili Peppers released the film , titled Funky Monks .
= = Music = =
Blood Sugar Sex Magik was written at a more rapid pace than the band 's previous album . Prior to the Chili Peppers relocation into the mansion , Frusciante and Kiedis collaborated at each other 's homes , in order to arrange song structures and guitar riffs . They would then present ideas to Flea and Smith , and the band would , as a whole , decide what they would use for the bass , guitar , vocal and percussion ensembles .
Kiedis focused lyrically on sexual references and innuendos as they were frequently on his mind . Songs such as " Suck My Kiss , " " If You Have to Ask , " " Sir Psycho Sexy , " " Give It Away " and " Blood Sugar Sex Magik " all contained various sexual links , with lyrics like " A state of sexual light / Kissing her virginity / My affinity " and " Glorious euphoria / Is my must / Erotic shock / Is a function of lust . " The concept behind " The Greeting Song " was a request by Rubin , who asked Kiedis to write a song solely about girls and cars . Although Kiedis disliked the concept , he wrote the song as Rubin requested and ended up hating nearly every aspect of the lyrics . Kiedis also began to write about anguish , and the self mutilating thoughts he would experience as a result of his heroin and cocaine addiction ; he believed his life had come to its lowest point under a bridge in downtown Los Angeles . Over a month later , Rubin stumbled upon a poem that would become the lyrics to " Under the Bridge " , and suggested Kiedis show it to the rest of the band . Kiedis was , however , apprehensive because he believed the lyrics to be " too soft " and unlike the band 's style . After singing the verse to Frusciante , they began structuring the song the next day . The two worked for several hours arranging chords and melodies until they both agreed it was complete . Frusciante ultimately chose the chords he played in the intro to balance out the depressing atmosphere of the song : " my brain interpreted it as being a really sad song so I thought if the lyrics are really sad like that I should write some chords that are happier . " " Naked in the Rain " was one of the first songs written for the album and even played once at the end of the Mother 's Milk Tour in 1990 while the intros for " The Greeting Song " and " Sir Psycho Sexy " were also teased during the end of that tour but neither song was completed or had lyrics .
Blood Sugar Sex Magik integrated the band 's typical punk and funk style , but moved away from this with more melodically driven songs . Tracks like " The Righteous and the Wicked , " " Suck My Kiss , " " Blood Sugar Sex Magik , " " Give it Away " and " Funky Monks " still incorporated use of heavy metal guitar riffs , but differed from Mother 's Milk in that they contained less distortion . Flea , who had centered his bass playing around the slapping technique , downplayed on this in favor of more traditional and melodic bass lines . He also adopted a minimalist , " less is more " philosophy : " I was trying to play simply on Blood Sugar Sex Magik because I had been playing too much prior to that , so I thought , ' I 've really got to chill out and play half as many notes ' . When you play less , it 's more exciting — there 's more room for everything . If I do play something busy , it stands out , instead of the bass being a constant onslaught of notes . Space is good . " Kiedis felt that the album would expand the Chili Peppers ' musical horizons , and that it was a departure from their previous material . One of Blood Sugar Sex Magik 's more melodic tracks , " Breaking the Girl , " was written about Kiedis ' constantly shifting relationships . He feared that he was following in his father 's footsteps and simply becoming a womanizer , rather than establishing stable and long @-@ term relationships : " ... As exciting and temporarily fulfilling as this constant influx of interesting and beautiful girls can be , at the end of the day , that shit is lonely and you 're left with nothing . " The track also featured a bridge in the middle , consisting of percussion instruments salvaged from a garbage dump .
Although jams had always been an integral aspect of song creation for the Chili Peppers , Blood Sugar Sex Magik saw songs being created with more structure . One specific jam would lead to the breakout song on the album : Frusciante , Flea and Smith were all playing together — with Kiedis at another part of the room watching — when " ... Flea started playing this insane bass line , and Chad cracked up and played along ... I always had fragments of song ideas or even specific isolated phrases in my mind . I ( Kiedis ) took the mic and belted out ' Give it away , give it away , give it away , give it away now . " The philosophy behind the lyrics originated from a conversation Kiedis had with Nina Hagen , regarding selflessness and how insignificant material possessions were in his life . It , thus , gave birth to the song " Give It Away . " He 'd also been reminiscing about late Chili Peppers guitarist Hillel Slovak , composing " My Lovely Man " in his tribute . Kiedis wrote " Sir Psycho Sexy " to be an over @-@ zealous and overly exaggerated version of himself ; a figure that could get any woman , and do anything he pleased to them . " The Power of Equality " confronted topics concerning racial equality , prejudice and sexism . Kiedis wrote " I Could Have Lied " to document the brief relationship he had with Irish singer Sinéad O 'Connor .
= = Artwork = =
All photography , paintings and art direction for Blood Sugar Sex Magik were credited to filmmaker Gus Van Sant , with the exception of the " tongue illustration " , which , according to the album booklet , is credited to Henky Penky ( Henk Schiffmacher ) . The cover of the album features the four band members ' faces positioned around a rose . The lyrics are printed in white lettering across a black background , hand written by Kiedis . The booklet also contains a collage of photos assembled to showcase the band members ' various tattoos , which feature faces of Native American tribal leaders , animals and sea creatures , as well as various symbols and phrases . Photographs of each band member alone , and two photographs of the band as a whole are also included .
Singles released to coincide with the album share little with Blood Sugar 's artwork . The cover of " Give It Away " was a painting of a Chinese infant , surrounded by fish , vegetables , fruits and sushi ; " Under the Bridge " is a photograph of a bridge in the city of Los Angeles ; " Suck My Kiss " had a black and white photograph of the band , with Kiedis and Flea holding a large fish ; " If You Have to Ask " is an illustration of an avocado next to a girl 's large buttocks in a yellow bikini ; and " Breaking the Girl " featured a painting of a human being covered in magma .
= = Promotion and release = =
Blood Sugar Sex Magik was released on September 24 , 1991 , the same day as Nirvana 's breakthrough album Nevermind . It was certified gold just over two months later on November 26 , 1991 , and certified platinum on April 1 , 1992 ; since then it has gone seven times platinum in the United States . The album peaked at number 3 on the Billboard 200 . Originally , " Give it Away " did not fare well in the mainstream ; several of Warner Bros. ' target radio stations refused to air it , telling the band to " come back to us when you have a melody in your song . " KROQ ( of Los Angeles ) , however , began to play the single several times daily , and that , according to Kiedis , " was the beginning of the infusion of ' Give It Away ' into mass consciousness . " The single ultimately peaked at number 9 on the UK Top 40 and number 73 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Blood Sugar Sex Magik has sold over 13 million copies worldwide .
Due to the success of " Give it Away , " the band did not foresee " Under the Bridge " as being equally viable . Warner Bros. sent representatives to a Chili Peppers ' concert in order to figure out what would ultimately be the next single . When Frusciante began playing " Under the Bridge " , Kiedis missed his cue ; the entire audience began singing the song , instead . Kiedis was initially " mortified that I had fucked up in front of Warner 's people ... I apologized for fucking up but they said ' Fucking up ? Are you kidding me ? When every single kid at the show sings a song , that 's our next single . ' " " Under the Bridge " was , therefore , selected as Blood Sugar Sex Magik 's second single . By January 1992 , " Under the Bridge " had exploded , peaking at number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
To promote the album in Europe , Kiedis and Frusciante both agreed they would make the trip . However , it proved difficult for Frusciante to adapt to life outside of the mansion , after being in near @-@ seclusion for almost 30 days . Kiedis recalled of the situation : " He had such an outpouring of creativity while we were making that album that I think he really didn 't know how to live life in tandem with that creativity . " It was also during this period when Frusciante began to experiment with heroin , which further compromised his mental stability . The European promotional trek took its toll on Frusciante , and he decided to return home when he and Kiedis reached London .
= = Critical reception and legacy = =
Blood Sugar Sex Magik was well received by critics , who praised the Chili Peppers for not overpowering the listener with heavy metal guitar riffs as their previous album had . Rolling Stone 's Tom Moon credited Rick Rubin for the change in style ; Rubin " [ gave ] the Chilis ' dynamic . " He went on to praise the overall sound , which " displayed a growing curiosity about studio texture and nuance . " Steve Huey of AllMusic said the album was " The Red Hot Chili Peppers ' best album ... John Frusciante 's guitar is less overpoweringly noisy , leaving room for differing textures and clearer lines , while the band overall is more focused and less indulgent . " He considered Blood Sugar to be " varying ... it expands the group 's musical and emotional range . " Guitar Player magazine credited Frusciante with the Chili Peppers ' drastic change in style : " by blending acid @-@ rock , soul @-@ funk , early art @-@ rock , and blues style with a raw , unprocessed Strat @-@ and @-@ Marshall tone , [ Frusciante ] hit on an explosive formula that has yet to be duplicated . " Devon Powters of PopMatters said that " in one funked @-@ out , fucked up , diabolical swoop , Blood Sugar Sex Magik reconfigured my relationship to music , to myself , to my culture and identity , to my race and class . " In an article published in The Tampa Tribune , editor Philip Booth praised the record as " an ambitious effort that amounts to a culmination and blossoming of the musical forces that have been brewing in the band 's sound since Kiedis and Flea birthed the band in 1983 . " Music critic Robert Christgau gave the album a two star honorable mention . Blood Sugar Sex Magik is considered to be an influential album , throughout the nineties , by establishing itself as a fundamental foundation for alternative rock . It has also been referred to as " the cornerstone album of funk rock " by FasterLouder .
" Under the Bridge , " which became a breakout song for the band , was considered to be a highlight of the album by several critics . Allmusic reviewed the song individually and called it a " ... poignant sentiment ... it is self evident among the simple guitar which cradles the introductory verse , and the sense of fragility that is only doubled by the still down @-@ tempo choral crescendo " , and ultimately " has become an integral part of the 1990s alterna @-@ landscape , and remains one of the purest diamonds that sparkle amongst the rough @-@ hewn and rich funk chasms that dominate the Peppers ' own oeuvre . " However , Entertainment Weekly criticized the seriousness that the Red Hot Chili Peppers explored as being " disapproving of the band 's usual Red Hot antics " , and " Under the Bridge " had " fancy @-@ shmancy touches " . The song ended up peaking at number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 in April 1992 . " Give It Away " was also praised , though as " ... a free @-@ associative mixture of positive vibes , tributes to musical heroes , and free love " , with Frusciante " ... adding the song 's two most unpredictable change @-@ ups : a sudden contrast to Kiedis ' hyperactivity in the form of a languid solo pre @-@ recorded and dubbed backwards over the rhythm track , and a hard @-@ rocking riff which is not introduced until the song 's outro ... " Tracks such as " Sir Psycho Sexy " , however , were criticized for being overly explicit . Devon Powters of Pop Matters said that " Eight minutes of ' Sir Psycho Sexy ' will turn RHCP 's young listeners into quivering masses of hormonal jello . Oversexed lines sneak their way into ' Apache Rose Peacock ' ; ' Blood Sugar Sex Magik ' , simply , sounds like fucking . Even the purest virgin comes away from Blood Sugar Sex Magik with a degree of sexual maturity ; even the slickest playa can learn a couple of new moves . " In contrast , " Suck My Kiss " , according to Amy Hanson of Allmusic , " completely flew in the face of the established pecking order of alternative rock . " With the song , the Chili Peppers " fully allied themselves with the very few genre @-@ bending bands that were able to make a radical impact on the sonic landscape that was dominated , it seemed , from every minute angle by grunge . "
Years later , Blood Sugar was placed atop many " Best Of " lists , especially those pertaining to the ' 90s . Spin magazine charted the album at number 58 on their " Top 90 Albums of the 90s " , and number 11 on a similar list compiled by Pause & Play . The record was placed in slapnpop Magazine " 101 Essential Guitar Albums " ; and included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . Blood Sugar Sex Magik also ranked number 310 on Rolling Stone 's the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " and number 14 on the " 100 Best Albums of the Nineties " .
= = Blood Sugar Sex Magik Tour and John Frusciante 's departure = =
Before the Blood Sugar Sex Magik Tour began , Kiedis saw the music video for The Smashing Pumpkins ' " Rhinoceros " on MTV . He then called the band 's manager and asked him to accommodate The Smashing Pumpkins for the tour . Several days after the Pumpkins confirmed they would accompany the Chili Peppers , former Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons called and asked the band to allow his friend 's new group , Pearl Jam , to open for them on the forthcoming tour . The first show following the release of Blood Sugar Sex Magik was at the Oscar Mayer Theater in Madison , Wisconsin , which was met with positive reactions from the Milwaukee Journal : " the audience was a swirling mass of airborne cups , ice cubes , shoes , shirts , pogo dancers , body @-@ passers and stage divers . And it wasn 't purely a boy 's club in the moshpit — many females bought into the mayhem , stripping down to their bras and flinging themselves about madly as the band tore through ' Higher Ground ' , ' Suck My Kiss ' , and ' Give it Away ' , which was Goth @-@ ed up by Frusciante when he added a riff from Black Sabbath 's ' Sweet Leaf ' . "
Blood Sugar Sex Magik began receiving heavy radio play and massive sales in the middle of their U.S. tour . Frusciante , who preferred the Chili Peppers to remain in the underground music scene , entered a state of denial and depression because of this . According to Kiedis , " He began to lose all of the manic , happy @-@ go @-@ lucky , fun aspects of his personality . Even onstage , there was a much more serious energy around him . " Frusciante was slowly slipping away from the band altogether , and began to form grudges against his band mates . He saw the band 's newfound popularity as shameful .
Onstage tension began to grow between Kiedis and Frusciante . Kiedis recalled an argument after a show in New Orleans : " We had a sold @-@ out house and John just stood in the corner , barely playing his guitar . We came offstage and John and I got into it . " With the Peppers now playing shows at arenas rather than theaters , the promoters of the tour decided that Pearl Jam should be replaced with a more successful act . Kiedis contacted Nirvana drummer Dave Grohl , and asked him if Nirvana would replace Pearl Jam on the tour — an offer Grohl accepted . The Smashing Pumpkins ' Billy Corgan , however , refused to play with Nirvana as he once dated frontman Kurt Cobain 's wife Courtney Love . The Pumpkins were , therefore , taken off the concert bill and replaced with Pearl Jam . Their first show with Nirvana was at the L.A Sports Arena . Kiedis considered their act to be " raw energy ; their musicality , their song selection , they were like a chain saw cutting through the night . " When the Red Hot Chili Peppers finished touring with Nirvana , they traveled to Europe , where Frusciante , in need of someone to connect to , brought along his girlfriend Toni Oswald . Kiedis said that " John had broken our unwritten rule of no spouses or girlfriends on the road . " Briefly interrupting the European @-@ tour , the Chili Peppers flew to New York City and performed on an episode of Saturday Night Live . The band played " Under the Bridge " as the second number ; a performance that Kiedis felt was sabotaged by Frusciante :
[ Frusciante ] was experimenting the way he would have if we 'd been rehearsing the tune . Well we weren 't . We were on live TV in front of millions of people and it was torture . I started singing in what I thought was the key he was playing in . I felt like I was getting stabbed in the back and hung out to dry in front of all of America while this guy was off in a corner in the shadow , playing some dissonant out @-@ of @-@ tune experiment .
The band took a two @-@ week hiatus between the European and Japanese legs of the tour , which began in May 1992 . Minutes before the Chili Peppers were scheduled to perform in Tokyo , Frusciante refused to go on stage , claiming he quit the band . After half an hour of coaxing , Frusciante agreed to play the show , though he asserted it would be his last . Kiedis recalled of the situation : " It was the most horrible show ever . Every single note , every single word , hurt , knowing that we were no longer a band . I kept looking over at John and seeing this dead statue of disdain ... And that night , John disappeared from the topsy @-@ turvy world of the Red Hot Chili Peppers . " The band hired guitarist Arik Marshall to complete the rest of the tour , which included Lollapolooza and several European festivals . Marshall , however , was fired at the end of the tour .
= = Accolades = =
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Red Hot Chili Peppers , except where noted .
= = Album outtakes = =
Around 25 songs were written and recorded during the Blood Sugar Sex Magik sessions . Seventeen of those songs made the album 's final cut . The album 's singles contained four outtakes from the album sessions as b @-@ sides . Among those songs were the instrumental " Fela 's Cock " , a cover of the Stooges ' " Search and Destroy " , " Sikamikanico " ( which would also appear on the Wayne 's World soundtrack " in 1992 ) , and " Soul to Squeeze " , a song that would eventually become a hit single in 1993 when it was released on the Coneheads soundtrack . The song was also included on the band 's 2003 Greatest Hits album . " Little Miss Lover " and " Castles Made of Sand " ( a song the band had been performing live for a few years ) , two Jimi Hendrix cover songs , would eventually be released in 2006 as iTunes bonus tracks . An unknown song appeared in the VH @-@ 1 Blood Sugar Sex Magik documentary , Ultimate Albums . A rough mix of the album surfaced on the Internet and contains some alternate versions of the songs recorded during the album 's sessions .
= = Personnel = =
Red Hot Chili Peppers
Flea – bass , backing vocals , percussion on " Breaking the Girl " , trumpet on " Apache Rose Peacock " , piano on " Mellowship Slinky in B Major "
John Frusciante – electric and acoustic guitars , backing vocals , percussion on " Breaking the Girl "
Anthony Kiedis – lead vocals , percussion on " Breaking the Girl "
Chad Smith – drums , percussion on " Breaking the Girl " and " Give It Away "
Additional musicians
Brendan O 'Brien – mellotron on " Breaking the Girl " and " Sir Psycho Sexy " , B3 Organ on " Suck My Kiss " and " Give It Away " , toy celeste on " Apache Rose Peacock "
Gail Frusciante and her friends – choir vocals on " Under the Bridge "
Pete Weiss – Jew 's harp on " Give It Away "
Recording personnel
Brendan O 'Brien – engineering , mixing ( with Rick Rubin )
Rick Rubin – production
Howie Weinberg – mastering engineering
Additional personnel
Gus Van Sant – art direction
= = Chart positions and sales certifications = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= William Hayden English =
William Hayden English ( August 27 , 1822 – February 7 , 1896 ) was an American congressman from Indiana and the Democratic nominee for vice president in 1880 . English entered politics at a young age , becoming a part of Jesse D. Bright 's conservative faction of the Indiana Democratic Party . After a few years in the federal bureaucracy in Washington beginning in 1845 , he returned to Indiana and participated in the state constitutional convention of 1850 . He was elected to the state house of representatives in 1851 and served as its speaker at the age of twenty @-@ nine . After a two @-@ year term in the state house , English represented Indiana in the federal House of Representatives for four terms from 1853 to 1861 , working most notably to achieve a compromise on the admission of Kansas as a state .
English retired from the House in 1861 , but remained involved in party affairs . In the American Civil War he was a War Democrat , supporting the Union war effort . As well as pursuing a political career , he was an author and businessman , owning an opera house , serving as president of a bank , and developing many residential properties . English 's business career was successful , and he became one of the wealthiest men in Indiana . After nearly two decades in the private sector , English returned to political life as the Democratic nominee for vice president in 1880 . English and his presidential running mate , Winfield Scott Hancock , lost narrowly to their Republican opponents , James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur .
= = Family and early career = =
William Hayden English was born August 27 , 1822 , in Lexington , Indiana , the only son of Elisha Gale English and his wife , Mahala ( Eastin ) English . Both his parents were Kentucky natives from slaveholding families of English and French Huguenot ancestry . They moved to southern Indiana in 1818 . Elisha English quickly became involved in local politics as a Democrat , serving in the state legislature as well as building a prominent business career . William English was educated in the local public schools , later attending Hanover College . He left college after three years and began to read law . In 1840 , English was admitted to the bar at the age of eighteen and soon built a practice in his native Scott County . He started early in politics as well , attending the state Democratic convention that same year and giving speeches on behalf of the Democratic presidential candidate , Martin Van Buren .
By the end of 1842 , English came under the mentorship of Lieutenant Governor Jesse D. Bright , who helped him rise within Bright 's faction of the party . The following year , Indiana House of Representatives selected English as their clerk . In 1844 , he worked the campaign trail , this time in the service of presidential candidate James K. Polk .
= = Politics and marriage = =
As a reward , after Polk took office in 1845 , he granted English a patronage appointment as a clerk in the federal Treasury Department in Washington , D.C. English held this position for four years , during which time he met Emma Mardulia Jackson . They married in November 1847 . They would have two children : William Eastin and Rosalind .
English attended the 1848 Democratic National Convention in Baltimore , where he supported Lewis Cass , the eventual presidential nominee . With the election of the Whig Party 's candidate , Zachary Taylor , to the presidency , a Whig party member replaced English at the Treasury Department . He secured a job as clerk to the United States Senate 's Claims Committee through party connections ; serving until 1850 in Washington , DC .
Later that year , English and his wife returned to Indiana , where he worked as secretary to the Indiana Constitutional Convention . Democrats were in the majority at the convention , and their proposals were included in the new law , including increasing the number of elective offices , guaranteeing a homestead exemption , and restricting voting rights to white men . Free blacks had earlier had formerly had suffrage in the state . The voters approved the new Constitution of 1851 by a large majority .
In August 1851 , English won his first election to the state house of Representatives . As it was the first meeting of the legislature under the 1851 constitution , English 's knowledge of it contributed to his election , at the age of twenty @-@ nine , as speaker of the House . The House had a Democratic majority and at Bright 's direction , English worked for the election of Graham N. Fitch , a member of Bright 's faction of the party , to the federal Senate . The legislature chose a different Democrat , John Pettit , instead . Holding the office of Speaker increased English 's influence throughout the state ; in 1852 , the Democrats chose him as their nominee for the federal House of Representatives from the newly redistricted 2nd district . The Democrats were victorious in the election that October , sweeping all but one House seat . English defeated his Whig opponent 55 % - 45 % and joined the 33rd Congress when it convened in Washington in 1853 .
= = Congress = =
= = = Kansas – Nebraska Act = = =
The House of Representatives convened for the 33rd Congress in December 1853 . At that time , the simmering disagreement between the free and slave states heated up with the introduction of the Kansas – Nebraska Act , proposed by Illinois Democrat Stephen A. Douglas , which would open the Kansas and
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7 Tameside ’ s schools have been transformed as the result of multimillion @-@ pound investment .
Virtually every high school has been replaced or remodelled . Eighteen primary schools have been rebuilt in recent years and another 20 have undergone major remodelling . In addition , the borough has opened the first entirely new schools in its history : Inspire Academy on Mossley Road , Ashton , and Discovery Academy off Porlock Avenue , Hattersley . Both offer 420 places plus a nursery .
In 2015 , GSCE results improved more in Tameside than anywhere else in the North West , and the borough was one of the top 10 nationally for the most improved results .
At Key Stage 4 57 @.@ 3 % of pupils in the borough achieved five or more A * to C grades including English and maths – a 3 @.@ 6 % improvement on the previous year .
In terms of expected progress in English , 73 % of pupils make expected progress in Tameside compared to 71 % nationally . In maths 66 % of pupils make expected progress , in line with the national average of 67 % .
At Key Stage 2 , 80 % of pupils in Tameside achieved level 4 + in reading , writing and maths combined , sustaining the borough ’ s 6 % improvement in results from 2013 to 2014 .
= = Transport = =
Work on an extension of the Manchester Metrolink costing £ 260 million began in 2008 . Trams began to run to Droylsden in February , 2013 , and to Ashton in September , 2013 .
Ashton Bus Station is being converted into a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art transport interchange . A covered concourse will replace the five island platforms , and the site will be linked to the Metrolink terminus . It will have new waiting areas , bicycle parking , and better access to travel information and tickets . Improved pedestrian routes will take people into the town centre . Construction is expected to take two years and the interchange should be open by the end of 2018 .
The new Hyde Bus Station opened on August 23 , 2007 , having cost £ 3 @.@ 7 million .
Tameside Council is responsible for maintaining the public rights of way in the borough , including 145 mi ( 233 km ) of footpaths . In 2014 , the Government finally gave the go @-@ ahead to create a bypass between the M67 and the A628 as part of a £ 15 billion national transport spending plan .
The borough is served by 13 railway stations . Denton railway station is on the Stockport to Stalybridge Line . Fairfield railway station , Guide Bridge railway station , Hyde Central railway station , and Hyde North railway station are all on the Hope Valley Line between Sheffield and Manchester . Broadbottom railway station , Flowery Field railway station , Godley railway station , Guide Bridge railway station , Hattersley railway station , and Newton for Hyde railway station are served by the Glossop Line between Glossop and Manchester . Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne railway station , Mossley railway station , and Stalybridge railway station are on the Huddersfield Line .
= = Twin towns = =
The Metropolitan Borough of Tameside has formal twinning links with places in China , France and Germany . ( The arrangement with Mutare , Zimbabwe has been suspended due to the political unrest in that country . )
Some localities were originally twinned with a place within the Metropolitan Borough prior to its creation in 1974 . In the list below the brackets show where the place was twinned with before 1974 and since when .
Bengbu , China , ( Tameside 1995 )
Colmar , France , ( Municipal Borough of Hyde , 1963 )
Champagnole , France ( Municipal Borough of Dukinfield , 1958 )
Chaumont , France , ( Municipal Borough of Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , 1956 )
Montigny @-@ le @-@ Bretonneux , France , and Kierspe , Germany ( Denton Town Twinning Association , 1992 and 2012 )
Villemomble , France , ( Droylsden Town Twinning Association , 1983 )
Armentières , France , ( Municipal Borough of Stalybridge , 1955 )
Hem , France , ( Municipal Borough of Mossley , 1972 )
Ruppichteroth , Germany , ( Longdendale Urban District , 1974 )
= = = Video clips = = =
Tameside MBC YouTube channel
= Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency =
The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency ( MIGA ) is an international financial institution which offers political risk insurance and credit enhancement guarantees . Such guarantees help investors protect foreign direct investments against political and non @-@ commercial risks in developing countries . MIGA is a member of the World Bank Group and is headquartered in Washington , D.C. , United States . It was established in 1988 as an investment insurance facility to encourage confident investment in developing countries . MIGA 's stated mission is " to promote foreign direct investment into developing countries to support economic growth , reduce poverty , and improve people 's lives " . It targets projects that endeavor to create new jobs , develop infrastructure , generate new tax revenues , and take advantage of natural resources through sustainable policies and programs .
MIGA is owned and governed by its member states , but has its own executive leadership and staff which carry out its daily operations . Its shareholders are member governments which provide paid @-@ in capital and have the right to vote on its matters . It insures long @-@ term debt and equity investments as well as other assets and contracts with long @-@ term periods . The agency is assessed by the World Bank 's Independent Evaluation Group each year .
= = History = =
In September 1985 , the Board of Governors of the World Bank endorsed the Convention establishing the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency . MIGA was established and became operational on April 12 , 1988 under the leadership of then @-@ Executive Vice President Yoshio Terasawa , becoming the fifth member institution of the World Bank Group . MIGA initially had $ 1 billion ( $ 1 @.@ 94 billion in 2012 dollars ) in capital and 29 member states . All members of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD ) were eligible to become members of the agency . MIGA was established as an effort to complement existing sources of non @-@ commercial risk insurance for investments in developing countries , and thereby improve investor confidence . The agency 's mandate to be apolitical has been said to be an advantage over private and national risk insurance markets . By serving as a multilateral guarantor , the agency reduces the likelihood of confrontations among the investor 's country and the host country .
MIGA 's inaugural investment guarantees were issued in 1990 to cover $ 1 @.@ 04 billion ( $ 1 @.@ 83 billion in 2012 dollars ) worth of foreign direct investment ( FDI ) comprising four individual projects . The agency also issued its first reinsurance contracts signed in collaboration with Export Development Canada and the United States ' Overseas Private Investment Corporation ( OPIC ) . That same year , MIGA held a conference in Ghana to promote investment . The agency joined the Berne Union , an international community of export credit and investment insurance providers in 1994 . In 1997 , MIGA issued the inaugural contract under its Cooperative Underwriting Program to support an energy project in Indonesia . In collaboration with the European Union Investment Trust Fund for Bosnia and Herzegovina , the agency set up a fund for investment guarantees amounting to $ 12 million ( $ 17 million in 2012 dollars ) . The agency also established the West Bank and Gaza Investment Guarantee Trust Fund with a capacity of $ 20 million ( $ 29 million in 2012 dollars ) . In 1998 the Council of Governors of MIGA adopted a resolution establishing a general capital increase of $ 850 million ( $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in 2012 dollars ) , and transferring a grant of $ 150 million ( $ 212 million in 2012 dollars ) from the IBRD . MIGA exceeded $ 1 billion ( $ 1 @.@ 4 billion in 2012 dollars ) in investment guarantees within a single year for the first time in 1999 . The agency also approved an Environmental Assessment and Disclosure Policy and began attempting to implement such standards for new projects .
In 2000 MIGA paid its first insurance claim since the agency 's founding . In 2001 MIGA 's issuance of new investment guarantees grew to $ 2 billion . The agency launched its Small Investment Program in 2005 in an effort to promote investment among small and medium enterprises . That same year , MIGA set up its Afghanistan Investment Guarantee Facility in an effort to promote FDI into Afghanistan . In 2007 MIGA issued investment guarantees for a Djibouti port , marking its first support in the form of Islamic finance . The agency also launched PRI @-@ Center.com as a portal for information on political risk management and investment insurance , which also contains its FDI information services . In 2009 , the Board of Directors enacted changes to MIGA 's operating procedures and authorized coverage for default of sovereign financial obligations . The agency also launched an annual publication titled World Investment and Political Risk which reports on trends in worldwide investment and corporate perceptions of prospects and risk , as well as shifts in the political risk insurance industry .
Although once dominated by large public and multilateral underwriters , private insurance firms accounted for approximately half of the political risk insurance market in 2007 . As a result , MIGA has paid closer attention to exceptionally risky countries that have little appeal to foreign investors , and has insured projects among nations in the global south . MIGA conducted a survey in 2010 which showed that political risk is the most important deterrent of long @-@ term foreign direct investment in developing countries , even more than economic uncertainty and poor public infrastructure . MIGA 's Council of Governors amended the agency 's convention in 2010 in an attempt to improve the organization 's effectiveness by expanding the range of investments eligible for political risk insurance .
= = Governance = =
MIGA is governed by its Council of Governors which represents its member countries . The Council of Governors holds corporate authority , but primarily delegates such powers to MIGA 's Board of Directors . The Board of Directors consists of 25 directors and votes on matters brought before MIGA . Each director 's vote is weighted in accordance with the total share capital of the member nations that director represents . MIGA 's board is stationed at its Washington , D.C. headquarters where it meets regularly and oversees the agency 's activities . The agency 's Executive Vice President directs its overall strategy and manages its daily operations . As of 15 July 2013 , Keiko Honda serves as Executive Vice President of MIGA .
= = Membership = =
MIGA is owned by its 181 member governments , consisting of 156 developing and 25 industrialized countries . The members are composed of 180 United Nations member states plus Kosovo . Membership in MIGA is available only to countries who are members of the World Bank , particularly the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development .
As of 2015 , the seven World Bank member states that are not MIGA members are Brunei , Kiribati , Marshall Islands , San Marino , Somalia , Tonga , and Tuvalu . ( The UN states that are non @-@ members of the World Bank , and thus MIGA , are Andorra , Cuba , Liechtenstein , Monaco , Nauru , and North Korea . ) The Holy See and Palestine are also non @-@ MIGA members . Bhutan is the most recent country to have joined MIGA , having done so in December 2014 .
= = Investment guarantees = =
MIGA offers insurance to cover five types of non @-@ commercial risks : currency inconvertibility and transfer restriction ; government expropriation ; war , terrorism , and civil disturbance ; breaches of contract ; and the non @-@ honoring of financial obligations . MIGA will cover investments such as equity , loans , shareholder loans , and shareholder loan guarantees . The agency may also insure investments such as management contracts , asset securitization , bonds , leasing activities , franchise agreements , and license agreements . The agency generally offers insurance coverage lasting up to 15 years with a possible five @-@ year extension depending on a given project 's nature and circumstances . When an event occurs that is protected by the insurance , MIGA can exercise the investor 's rights against the host country through subrogation to recover expenses associated with covering the claim . However , the agency 's convention does not require member governments to treat foreign investments in any special way . As a multilateral institution , MIGA is also in a position to attempt to sort out potential disputes before they ever turn into insurance claims .
The agency 's Small Investment Program aims to promote FDI into specifically small and medium enterprises . The program offers standard MIGA coverage types except it does not cover breaches of contract . Under the program , small and medium enterprises may take advantage of discounted insurance premiums and no application fees , which are not available to larger investors . To qualify an investment for the Small Investment Program , MIGA defines small and medium enterprise projects as having 300 or fewer employees , total assets not to exceed $ 15 million and annual revenues not to exceed $ 15 million . MIGA limits the request amount for the investment guarantee to $ 10 million , and will guarantee only up to 10 years with a possible 5 @-@ year extension .
MIGA 's annual reports offer an overview of the agency 's business .
= = Financial performance = =
MIGA prepares consolidated financial statements in accordance with United States GAAP which are audited by KPMG .
= William Burges =
William Burges ( / ˈbərdʒɛs / ; 2 December 1827 – 20 April 1881 ) was an English architect and designer . Among the greatest of the Victorian art @-@ architects , he sought in his work to escape from both nineteenth @-@ century industrialisation and the Neoclassical architectural style and re @-@ establish the architectural and social values of a utopian medieval England . Burges stands within the tradition of the Gothic Revival , his works echoing those of the Pre @-@ Raphaelites and heralding those of the Arts and Crafts movement .
Burges 's career was short but illustrious ; he won his first major commission for Saint Fin Barre 's Cathedral in Cork in 1863 , when he was 35 , and he died , in 1881 , at his Kensington home , The Tower House , aged only 53 . His architectural output was small but varied . Working with a long @-@ standing team of craftsmen , he built churches , a cathedral , a warehouse , a university , a school , houses and castles . Burges 's most notable works are Cardiff Castle , constructed between 1866 and 1928 , and Castell Coch ( 1872 – 91 ) , both of which were built for John Crichton @-@ Stuart , 3rd Marquess of Bute . Other significant buildings include Gayhurst House , Buckinghamshire ( 1858 – 65 ) , Knightshayes Court ( 1867 – 74 ) , the Church of Christ the Consoler ( 1870 – 76 ) , St Mary 's , Studley Royal ( 1870 – 78 ) in Yorkshire , and Park House , Cardiff ( 1871 – 80 ) .
Many of his designs were never executed or were subsequently demolished or altered . His competition entries for cathedrals at Lille ( 1854 ) , Adelaide ( 1856 ) , Colombo , Brisbane ( 1859 ) , Edinburgh ( 1873 ) , and Truro ( 1878 ) were all unsuccessful . He lost out to George Edmund Street in the competition for the Royal Courts of Justice ( 1866 – 67 ) in The Strand . His plans for the redecoration of the interior of St Paul 's Cathedral ( 1870 – 77 ) were abandoned and he was dismissed from his post . Skilbeck 's Warehouse ( 1865 – 66 ) was demolished in the 1970s , and work at Salisbury Cathedral ( 1855 – 59 ) , at Worcester College , Oxford ( 1873 – 79 ) and at Knightshayes Court had been lost in the decades before .
Beyond architecture , Burges designed metalwork , sculpture , jewellery , furniture and stained glass . Art Applied to Industry , a series of lectures he gave to the Society of Arts in 1864 , illustrates the breadth of his interests ; the topics covered including glass , pottery , brass and iron , gold and silver , furniture , the weaver 's art and external architectural decoration . For most of the century following his death , Victorian architecture was neither the subject of intensive study nor sympathetic attention and Burges 's work was largely ignored . However the revival of interest in Victorian art , architecture , and design in the later twentieth century has led to a renewed appreciation of Burges and his work .
= = Early life and travels = =
Burges was born on 2 December 1827 , the son of Alfred Burges ( 1796 – 1886 ) , a wealthy civil engineer . Alfred made a considerable fortune , some £ 113 @,@ 000 ( £ 11 @,@ 101 @,@ 266 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) at his death , enabling his son to devote his life to the study and practice of architecture without requiring that he actually earn a living .
Burges entered King 's College School , London , in 1839 to study engineering , his contemporaries there including Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William Michael Rossetti . He left in 1844 to join the office of Edward Blore , surveyor to Westminster Abbey . Blore was an established architect , having worked for both William IV and Queen Victoria , and had made his reputation as a proponent of the Gothic Revival . In 1848 or 1849 , Burges moved to the offices of Matthew Digby Wyatt . Wyatt was as prominent an architect as Blore , evidenced by his leading role in the direction of The Great Exhibition in 1851 . Burges 's work with Wyatt , particularly on the Medieval Court for this exhibition , was influential on the subsequent course of his career . During this period , he also worked on drawings of medieval metalwork for Wyatt 's book , Metalwork , published in 1852 , and assisted Henry Clutton with illustrations for his works .
Of equal importance to Burges 's subsequent career was his travelling . Burges believed that all architects should travel , remarking that it was " absolutely necessary to see how various art problems have been resolved in different ages by different men . " Enabled by his private income , Burges moved through England , then France , Belgium , Holland , Switzerland , Germany , Spain , Italy , Greece and finally into Turkey . In total , he spent some 18 months abroad developing his skills and knowledge by sketching and drawing . What he saw and drew provided a repository of influences and ideas that he used and re @-@ used for the whole of his career . Although he never went beyond Turkey , the art and architecture of the East , both Near and Far , had a significant impact on him ; his fascination with Moorish design found ultimate expression in the Arab Room at Cardiff Castle , and his study of Japanese techniques influenced his later metalwork . Burges received his first important commission at the age of 35 , but his subsequent career did not see the development that might have been expected . His style had already been formed over the previous twenty years of study , thinking and travelling . J. Mordaunt Crook , the foremost authority on Burges , writes that , " once established , after twenty years ' preparation , his ' design language ' had merely to be applied , and he applied and re @-@ applied the same vocabulary with increasing subtlety and gusto . "
= = Early works = =
In 1856 Burges established his own architectural practice in London at 15 Buckingham Street , The Strand . Some of his early pieces of furniture were created for this office and were later moved to The Tower House , Melbury Road , Kensington , the home he built for himself towards the end of his life . His early architectural career produced nothing of major note , although he won prestigious commissions for Lille Cathedral , the Crimea Memorial Church and the Bombay School of Art . None were built to Burges 's designs . His failed entry for the Law Courts in the Strand , if successful , would have given London its own Carcassonne , the plans being described by the architectural writers Dixon and Muthesius as " a re @-@ creation of a thirteenth century dream world [ with ] a skyline of great inventiveness . " In 1859 , he submitted a French @-@ inspired design for St John 's Cathedral in Brisbane , Australia , which was rejected . He also provided designs for Colombo Cathedral in Ceylon and St Francis Xavier 's Cathedral , Adelaide , without success . In 1855 , however , he obtained a commission for the reconstruction of the chapter house of Salisbury Cathedral . Henry Clutton was the lead architect but Burges , as assistant , contributed to the restoration of the sculpture and to the general decorative scheme . Much was lost in restorations of the 1960s . More lasting was Burges 's work of 1858 onwards in the substantial remodelling of Gayhurst House , in Buckinghamshire , for Robert Carrington , 2nd Baron Carrington . Rooms there contain some of his large signature fireplaces , with carving by Burges 's long @-@ time collaborator Thomas Nicholls , in particular those in the Drawing Room which include motifs from Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained . He also designed a circular lavatory for the male servants , which Jeremy Cooper describes as being " surmounted by a growling Cerberus , each of his three heads inset with bloodshot glass eyes . "
In 1859 Burges began work with Ambrose Poynter on the Maison Dieu , Dover , which was completed in 1861 . Emulation of the original medieval style can be seen in his renovation of the grotesque animals and in the coats of arms incorporated into his new designs . Burges later designed the Council Chamber , added in 1867 , and in 1881 began work on Connaught Hall in Dover , a town meeting and concert hall . The new building contained meeting rooms and mayoral and official offices . Although Burges designed the project , most of it was completed after his death by his partners , Pullan and Chapple . In 1859 – 60 , Burges took over the restoration of Waltham Abbey from Poynter , working with Poynter 's son Edward Poynter and with furniture makers Harland and Fisher . He commissioned Edward Burne @-@ Jones of James Powell & Sons to make three stained @-@ glass windows for the east end , representing the Tree of Jesse .
In 1861 – 2 , Burges was commissioned by Charles Edward Lefroy , secretary to the Speaker of the House of Commons , to build All Saints Church , Fleet as a memorial to Lefroy 's wife . She was the daughter of James Walker , who established the marine engineering company of Walker and Burges with Burges 's father Alfred , and this family connection brought Burges the commission . Pevsner says of Fleet that " it has no shape , nor character nor notable buildings , except one , " that one being All Saints . The church is of red brick and Pevsner considered it " astonishingly restrained . " The interior too is simply decorated but the massive sculpture , particularly of the tomb of the Lefroys and of the gabled arch below which the tomb originally stood , is quintessentially Burges , Crook describing it as " not so much muscular ( gothic ) as muscle @-@ bound . "
= = Saint Fin Barre 's Cathedral , Cork = =
Despite early competition setbacks , Burges was sustained by his belief that Early French provided the answer to the crisis of architectural style that beset mid @-@ Victorian England , writing " I was brought up in the thirteenth century belief and in that belief I intend to die " ; and in 1863 , at the age of 35 , he finally secured his first major commission , for Saint Fin Barre 's Cathedral , Cork . Burges 's diary records his delight at the result : " Got Cork ! "
The competition for Saint Fin Barre 's occurred as a result of widespread dissatisfaction with the existing church of 1735 which the Dublin Builder described as " a shabby apology for a cathedral which has long disgraced Cork . " It was to be the first new cathedral built in the British Isles since St Paul 's . The proposed budget was low , at £ 15 @,@ 000 , but Burges ignored this constraint , producing a design that he admitted would cost twice as much . Despite the protestations of fellow competitors , it won , though the final cost was to be in excess of £ 100 @,@ 000 .
Burges , who had worked in Ireland before , at the Church of St Peter , Carrigrohane , at the Holy Trinity Church Templebreedy , at Frankfield and at Douglas , enjoyed strong local support , including that of the Bishop , John Gregg . In addition , as the Ireland Handbook notes , Burges " combined his love of medievalism with a conspicuous display of Protestant affluence " which was an important factor at a time when the established Anglican Church in Ireland was seeking to assert its predominance .
For the exterior , Burges re @-@ used some of his earlier unexecuted plans , the overall design from the Crimea Memorial Church and St John 's Cathedral , Brisbane , the elevations from Lille Cathedral . The main problem of the building was its size . Despite the prodigious efforts of its fundraisers , and despite Burges exceeding the original budget , Cork was still unable to afford a really large cathedral . Burges overcame this obstacle by using the grandeur of his three @-@ spired exterior to offset the lesser scale of the remainder of the building .
Although the cathedral is modest in size , it is very richly ornamented . As was his usual practice , from his office in Buckingham Street and in the course of many site visits , Burges oversaw all aspects of the design , including the statuary , the stained glass and the furniture , charging 10 % rather than his usual 5 % , owing to the high level of his personal involvement . He drew designs for every one of the 1 @,@ 260 sculptures that adorn the West Front and decorate the building inside and out . He sketched cartoons for the majority of the 74 stained glass windows . He designed the mosaic pavement , the altar , the pulpit and the bishop 's throne . Lawrence and Wilson consider the result " undoubtedly [ Burges 's ] greatest work in ecclesiastical architecture " with an interior that is " overwhelming and intoxicating . " Through his ability , by the careful leadership of his team , by total artistic control , and by vastly exceeding the intended budget of £ 15 @,@ 000 , Burges produced a building that in size is little more than a large parish church but in impression is described in Lawrence and Wilson 's study as " a cathedral becoming such a city and one which posterity may regard as a monument to the Almighty 's praise . "
= = Architectural team = =
Burges inspired considerable loyalty within his team of assistants , and his partnerships were long @-@ lived . John Starling Chapple was the office manager , joining Burges 's practice in 1859 . It was Chapple , designer of most of the furniture for Castell Coch , who completed its restoration after Burges 's death . Second to Chapple was William Frame , who acted as clerk of works . Horatio Walter Lonsdale was Burges 's chief artist , contributing extensive murals for both Castell Coch and Cardiff Castle . His main sculptor was Thomas Nicholls who started with Burges at Cork , completing hundreds of figures for Saint Fin Barre 's Cathedral , worked with him on his two major churches in Yorkshire , and undertook all of the original carving for the Animal Wall at Cardiff . William Gualbert Saunders joined the Buckingham Street team in 1865 and worked with Burges on the development of the design and techniques of stained glass manufacture , producing much of the best glass for Saint Fin Barre 's . Ceccardo Egidio Fucigna was another long @-@ time collaborator who sculpted the Madonna and Child above the drawbridge at Castell Coch , the figure of St John over the mantelpiece in Lord Bute 's bedroom at Cardiff Castle and the bronze Madonna in the roof garden . Lastly , there was Axel Haig , a Swedish @-@ born illustrator , who prepared many of the watercolour perspectives with which Burges entranced his clients . Crook calls them " a group of talented men , moulded in their master 's image , art @-@ architects and medievalists to a man – jokers and jesters too – devoted above all to art rather than to business . "
= = Partnership with the Marquess of Bute = =
In 1865 , Burges met John Patrick Crichton @-@ Stuart , 3rd Marquess of Bute . This may have resulted from Alfred Burges 's engineering firm , Walker , Burges and Cooper , having undertaken work on the East Bute Docks in Cardiff for the second Marquess . The 3rd Marquess became Burges 's greatest architectural patron ; both were men of their times ; both had fathers whose industrial endeavours provided the means for their sons ' architectural achievements , and both sought to " redeem the evils of industrialism by re @-@ living the art of the Middle Ages " .
On his succession to the Marquessate at the age of one , Bute inherited an income of £ 300 @,@ 000 a year , and , by the time he met Bur
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Chelsea = = =
I 'm signing for the [ this season 's ] Champions League winner .
On 4 June 2012 , Chelsea officially confirmed on its website that the club had agreed terms with Lille for the transfer of Hazard . The midfielder agreed personal terms with the club and passed a medical examination . The transfer fee was reported to be priced at £ 32 million .
Upon signing with Chelsea , Hazard told the club 's official website " I 'm delighted to finally arrive here . It 's a wonderful club and I can 't wait to get started " . Hazard was given the number 17 , which was previously worn by José Bosingwa . On 18 July , Hazard made his Chelsea debut in the club 's first pre @-@ season friendly against the Seattle Sounders and played the majority of the match , opening his Chelsea scoring account .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
On 12 August 2012 , Hazard made his competitive debut for Chelsea in the 2012 FA Community Shield against Manchester City , which ended in a 3 – 2 defeat at Villa Park . A week later , he made his league debut against Wigan Athletic at the DW Stadium . In the contest , Hazard provided the assist for Branislav Ivanović 's opening goal and , minutes later , won a penalty , which Frank Lampard converted , earning his side a 2 – 0 victory . He made his Stamford Bridge debut in the team 's next fixture , against Reading on 22 August , he won another penalty from which Lampard converted . Hazard also assisted on goals by Gary Cahill and Branislav Ivanović as Chelsea won 4 – 2 at Stamford Bridge . Three days later , Hazard scored his first goal as a Chelsea player in the team 's league match against Newcastle United after scoring a penalty . Chelsea won the match 2 – 0 .
Hazard made his Champions League debut for Chelsea in the team 's opening group stage game against Juventus . On 6 October , he scored his second goal for Chelsea in a 4 – 1 win against Norwich City . During December he scored in back @-@ to @-@ back games , in a 5 – 1 win against Leeds United in the League Cup , and an 8 – 0 league win against Aston Villa .
In January 2013 , Hazard scored a goal with his left @-@ foot from 25 yards in Chelsea 's 0 – 4 win over Stoke City , as Chelsea inflicted the first home defeat of the season on Stoke . He scored again in the following game , with an impressive strike from the edge of the area in a 2 – 2 draw at home to Southampton .
On 23 January 2013 , he was sent off in the Football League Cup semi @-@ final second leg game against Swansea City for kicking a ball out from underneath a ball boy who was lying on it in order to waste time . Chelsea went on to lose the tie 2 – 0 . Thereafter , he told Chelsea TV that he " apologised and the boy apologised " to each other . On 9 February , he scored on his return from suspension in a 4 – 1 win at home against Wigan Athletic .
On 21 February 2013 , Hazard came on as a substitute against Sparta Prague and scored an individual goal in stoppage time , to send Chelsea through to the last 16 on a 2 – 1 aggregate score . Again Hazard came off the bench to make an impact for Chelsea , scoring a goal and providing an assist to Ramires , as the Blues came back from 2 – 0 down to salvage a 2 – 2 draw against Manchester United in the quarter @-@ finals of the FA Cup on 10 March , setting up a replay at Stamford Bridge . On 17 March 2013 , Hazard put in a Man of the Match performance at Stamford Bridge in a 2 – 0 victory over West Ham United , assisting on Frank Lampard 's 200th Chelsea goal , then scoring a solo goal . On 11 May 2013 , at Villa Park , Hazard was the provider of Lampard 's brace against Aston Villa , which enabled Lampard to break Bobby Tambling 's all @-@ time goal scoring record for Chelsea . Hazard ended his debut campaign at Chelsea with 13 goals in all competitions .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
One of Chelsea 's first games of the season was against Bayern Munich in the 2013 UEFA Super Cup , where Hazard played a vital role in the buildup to the first goal and scored the second , but went on to an eventual 5 – 4 defeat in the penalty shoot @-@ out . In October 2013 , Hazard , as a substitute , scored the game @-@ clinching goal in a 3 – 1 Premier League clash against Norwich City at Carrow Road , before scoring twice and assisting Samuel Eto 'o's first Chelsea goal in a comprehensive defeat of Cardiff City in the same competition . Hazard netted his fifth goal of the season against Schalke in a crucial 0 – 3 Champions League Group Stage win . In October , Hazard was part of the 23 @-@ man shortlist of players nominated for the prestigious FIFA Ballon d 'Or , awarded to the player who is voted the men 's world footballer of the year .
On 9 November 2013 , Hazard created Chelsea 's first goal against West Bromwich Albion , which was scored by Samuel Eto 'o . Later in the match Chelsea went 2 – 1 down , but Hazard scored a last minute penalty to clinch a point for his team . On 4 December 2013 , Hazard scored a brace in a 4 – 3 away victory over Sunderland , with coach José Mourinho claiming that Hazard delivered his best performance of the season . Sunderland manager Gus Poyet also praised Hazard for his individual impact on the game . Poyet said : " Eden Hazard was outstanding . He was unplayable , as a manager I haven 't come up against anyone like that . "
On 26 December 2013 , Hazard scored the only goal in Chelsea 's 1 – 0 victory over Swansea . In Chelsea 's next league match , Hazard scored a goal from 25 yards during Chelsea 's 2 – 1 victory over Liverpool . The following week , Hazard scored the opening goal in Chelsea 's 2 – 0 victory away to Hull City . After Hazard maintained his excellent form in Chelsea 's 1 – 0 victory over Manchester City at the Etihad Stadium on 3 February 2014 , Mourinho declared Hazard as the best young footballer in the world . Hazard scored his first Premier League hat @-@ trick against Newcastle United at Stamford Bridge on 8 February .
On 27 April 2014 , Hazard won the PFA Young Player of the Year award and finished as the runner @-@ up to Luis Suárez for the PFA Player of the Year award for his fine attacking performances under José Mourinho . After Chelsea 's Champions League exit against Atlético Madrid , Hazard claimed that Chelsea are only set up to counter @-@ attack . Mourinho responded by saying that Hazard " is not so mentally ready " to help his defence , blaming him for the first goal scored by the opponents . In May 2014 , Hazard was voted Chelsea 's Player of the Year in his second season at Stamford Bridge .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Upon Juan Mata 's departure from the club in January 2014 , Hazard was handed the number 10 shirt for Chelsea ahead of the 2014 – 15 season . On 5 October , he won a penalty against Arsenal after being fouled by Laurent Koscielny , and then converted it himself past Wojciech Szczęsny to open a 2 – 0 victory which made Chelsea the last unbeaten team in the league . In doing so , he maintained his 100 % penalty record out of 16 penalties . He also became the only player in Europe who has taken more than 15 penalties and scored all of them .
His first goals of the Champions League campaign came on 21 October , netting from the penalty @-@ spot and from open play in a 6 – 0 home win over Maribor . On 5 November , away to the Slovene team , he earned an 85th @-@ minute penalty but had it saved by Jasmin Handanović in a 1 – 1 draw . Hazard opened the scoring in Chelsea 's 2 – 0 win over Hull on 13 December , with the goal being only the second headed one of his entire career . The header came as a surprised for many , even Mourinho , who stated : " That he scored in the air , I was surprised . He jumps a lot but normally he closes his eyes . So I was surprised , but very good goal . "
On 12 February 2015 , Hazard signed a new five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract with Chelsea . After signing , Hazard said : " I ’ ve signed a new contract and I ’ m very happy because I ’ m playing for one of the best clubs in the world . " He played the full 90 minutes in the club 's victory in the League Cup Final at Wembley Stadium on 1 March , a 2 – 0 win over Tottenham .
On 18 April , Hazard scored the only goal in a home win over Manchester United , after he latched on to Oscar 's backheel pass to score past David de Gea . He was voted Man of the match thereafter for his performance . As a result of Hazard 's impressive performances throughout the 2014 @-@ 15 campaign , his manager declared him " one of the top three players in the world " . On 26 April Hazard was recognised as the best player of the season among his peers , winning the PFA Player of the Year . A week later , he scored the only goal as Chelsea defeated Crystal Palace to win their first Premier League title since 2010 . He won a penalty after being fouled by James McArthur , and took it himself , heading in the rebound after it was saved by Julian Speroni .
On 26 May 2015 , Hazard was voted as Chelsea 's Player of the Year for the second year in a row . There are only four other players that have done it in the past , Juan Mata , Frank Lampard , Ray Wilkins , and John Hollins .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
Hazard endured a difficult start to the 2015 – 16 season , missing a penalty in the Champions League group stage against Maccabi Tel Aviv . On 27 October , in the fourth round of the League Cup away to Stoke , Hazard was the only player to miss in Chelsea 's penalty shootout elimination , his attempt being saved by Jack Butland . Hazard endured a 2 @,@ 358 @-@ minute scoreless run across 30 matches until 31 January 2016 , when he scored from the penalty spot , his 50th goal for Chelsea in all competitions , in a 5 – 1 win over Milton Keynes Dons in the fourth round of the FA Cup .
In February 2016 , Hazard was scrutinised when he said it would " be difficult to say no " to a move to Paris Saint @-@ Germain . He remained scoreless in the league until 23 April , when he recorded two goals in a 4 – 1 victory at Bournemouth ; after the result interim manager Guus Hiddink insisted that Hazard would remain at Chelsea by next season . For the second consecutive season , Hazard scored the goal that decided the Premier League ; he came on as a substitute at home to Tottenham on 2 May , and scored an equaliser as Chelsea came from 0 – 2 down at half time to draw . The result gave the trophy to Leicester at Tottenham 's expense . On May 11 2016 , Hazard scored his fourth and final goal of the season against Liverpool , although Chelsea was unable to hold on to the lead , with fellow countryman Christian Benteke scoring in extra time to end the game in a 1 – 1 draw .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth = = =
Hazard played for various Belgian national youth teams , such as the under @-@ 17 and under @-@ 19 teams . With the under @-@ 17 team , he was a regular in the team making 17 appearances and scoring two goals . He played with the team in the Toto Cup , a yearly international youth tournament held in Austria and , also , played in the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Football Championship , which Belgium hosted . In the tournament , Hazard scored his only goal in the team 's opening match against the Netherlands converting a penalty in a 2 – 2 draw . The match was a homecoming for Hazard , as it was played in Tubize , where he spent part of his youth career . Throughout the tournament , Hazard impressed media and coaches , which led to many in Belgium comparing him to Belgian football legend Enzo Scifo .
Belgium suffered elimination in the semi @-@ finals of the competition , losing to Spain 7 – 6 on penalties . Belgium were minutes away from a victory , courtesy of an own goal from David Rochela , which Hazard was particularly instrumental in , however Barcelona striker Bojan Krkić equalized for his nation to send the match into extra time . Due to finishing in third place at the tournament , Belgium qualified for the 2007 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup , held in South Korea . Hazard was selected to participate and played in all three group stage matches , where Belgium were eliminated .
After playing at the FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup in August and September 2007 , Hazard began earning call @-@ ups to the under @-@ 19 team the following month in October . His first appearance came in a 2008 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship qualification match against Romania coming on as a substitute in a 4 – 0 victory . He subsequently played in the next two group stage matches against Iceland and England . Belgium lost both matches . The negative results eliminated the country from the tournament . Due to being an underage player the previous year , Hazard was eligible for the under @-@ 19 team for the 2008 – 09 season . Due to his growing participation with Lille 's first team , Hazard was only allowed to play in 2009 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship qualification matches by his club and , as a result , missed the 2008 edition of the Milk Cup , which was held during Lille 's preseason .
On 7 October 2008 , Hazard scored his first under @-@ 19 goal in the team 's 5 – 0 victory over Estonia . Three days later , he scored a double in a 2 – 2 draw with Croatia . In the Elite Round , Hazard led the team in goals scoring three . In the opening match against the Republic of Ireland , he scored the lone goal . In the next match , Hazard was influential in the team 's 5 – 0 thrashing of Sweden scoring a goal and assisting on two others . In the team 's final match , they faced Switzerland . Belgium needed an outright victory to progress to the 2009 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship , but were eliminated from qualifying after drawing 1 – 1 with the Swiss , despite Hazard opening the scoring for Belgium in the 21st minute .
= = = Early senior = = =
On 18 November 2008 , Hazard was called up to the Belgium senior team , for the first time , by manager René Vandereycken for the team 's match against Luxembourg . Prior to making his national team debut with Belgium , Hazard was courted by French Football Federation officials who sought the player to play for the France national team as he had become eligible for French citizenship . Hazard did not respond to the courtship and later stated " Because of my presence in France for seven years , I feel 99 % Belgian and 1 % French , but the idea of French citizenship has never crossed my mind " .
Hazard made his highly anticipated debut for Belgium in the match against Luxembourg coming on as a substitute in the 67th minute for Wesley Sonck . On his debut , Hazard became the eighth youngest international player in Belgian football history , at 17 years and 316 days . On 12 August 2009 , after three consecutive substitute appearances with the team , he made his first start under coach Franky Vercauteren in the team 's 3 – 1 friendly loss to the Czech Republic . Following the resignation of Vercauteren , he was replaced with manager Dick Advocaat . Under Advocaat , Hazard became a starter in the team and , on 14 November 2009 , played a full match for the first time in his international career . In the match , which was played against Hungary , Hazard assisted on two goals in a 3 – 0 win .
In May 2010 , Advocaat was replaced as manager by Georges Leekens . After featuring as a starter in Leekens first three matches in charge , Hazard began appearing as a substitute for Belgium during the 2010 – 11 season . Leekens justified his benching of Hazard citing the players ' domestic performance , which had been underwhelming at the time , while also admitting that Hazard displayed a lack of desire in training with the national team and often neglected his defensive duties during international matches . After appearing as a substitute in two straight matches , Hazard returned to the starting lineup for the team 's November 2010 friendly match against Russia . In the match , which Belgium won 2 – 0 , Hazard assisted on the team 's opening goal scored by Romelu Lukaku .
After featuring as a starter in the team 's 1 – 1 draw with Finland in February 2011 , Hazard was relegated back to the substitute 's bench for the team 's important March 2011 UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying matches as Leekens preferred Nacer Chadli and Mousa Dembélé on the wings . In the team 's 29 March qualifier against Azerbaijan , he appeared as a second @-@ half substitute and assisted on the team 's final goal in a 4 – 1 win . Following the matches , French media began questioning why Hazard was struggling to be appreciated in his home country , while , at the same time , was being praised in France . Marc Wilmots , assistant coach of the national team , responded to the media reports stating " Some people only see Eden 's qualities " and " the French press are sometimes blinded by his moments of magic " .
In Belgium 's next competitive match against Turkey on 3 June 2011 , Hazard started the match , but was substituted out after 60 minutes . Disappointed with his performance and substitution , the midfielder retired to the locker room and was later spotted on television outside the stadium with his family eating a hamburger while the match was still ongoing . Following the episode , which has become known as Burgergate in Belgium , Hazard apologized for the defection , while Leekens attributed Hazard 's response to the substitution as " a young player making a mistake " .
On 4 August , Leekens announced that Hazard would be disciplined for his actions during the Turkey match and , as a result , would miss the team 's 10 August friendly match against Slovenia , as well as the team 's Euro qualifying return match against Azerbaijan on 2 September and friendly against the United States four days later . On 9 August , Hazard 's management group issued a press release to the Belgian media . The release detailed Hazard 's actions during the Turkey match , criticized the player 's three @-@ match suspension , as well as questioned Leekens constant criticism of Hazard . On 25 August , it was announced that Leekens had lifted Hazard 's suspension and the midfielder was subsequently named in the team to play the September fixtures . Leekens decided to lift the suspension after having a meeting with Hazard that was organized by the player 's agent .
On 7 October 2011 , nearly three years after his debut , Hazard scored his first international goal against Kazakhstan in a 4 – 1 victory . The victory inserted Belgium into second @-@ place position in its group in qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 with the team needing a victory over Germany on 11 October to secure a place in the qualifying playoffs . In the match against Germany , Hazard played the entire match as Belgium failed to earn a place in the European Championship , losing 3 – 1 in Düsseldorf .
= = = 2014 World Cup and Euro 2016 = = =
Hazard made nine appearances in the Red Devils ' successful 2014 World Cup qualification campaign , scoring twice . The first of these came on 22 March against the Republic of Macedonia at the Philip II Arena , converting a penalty to conclude a 2 – 0 win after being fouled by Aleksandar Lazevski . Three days later in the reverse fixture , he beat two defenders before scoring the only goal of the game .
On 13 May 2014 , Hazard was named in Belgium 's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup . He assisted Dries Mertens ' winning goal in the team 's first game of the tournament , a 2 – 1 win against Algeria in Belo Horizonte . In Belgium 's second match , he assisted Divock Origi 's 88th @-@ minute goal , giving the Red Devils a 1 – 0 win over Russia and qualifying them for the knockout stage , eventually reaching the quarter @-@ finals .
On 7 June 2015 , due to the suspension of regular skipper Vincent Kompany , Hazard captained Belgium for the first time in a friendly against France at the Stade de France , scoring a penalty for Belgium 's final goal in a 4 – 3 victory . He won another penalty in a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying match on 3 September when fouled by Bosnia and Herzegovina 's Ognjen Vranješ , and converted it past his Chelsea clubmate Asmir Begović to conclude Belgium 's 3 – 1 comeback victory . Three days later , he finished Mertens ' cross with four minutes remaining , for the only goal in an away win over Cyprus . On 10 October , Hazard scored a spot @-@ kick again after Óscar Sonejee 's handball , in a 4 – 1 win over Andorra which sealed Belgium 's qualification to the continental championship for the first time since co @-@ hosting UEFA Euro 2000 .
Due to the absence of Kompany , Hazard was named captain of Belgium for the UEFA Euro 2016 finals .
= = Style of play = =
Hazard primarily plays as either an attacking midfielder or a winger and has been credited as being " possibly the outstanding talent in Europe right now " . At Lille under former manager Rudi Garcia , Hazard often played in the latter role in the team 's 4 – 3 – 3 formation and regularly switched flanks because he could use both feet . Following the departures of fellow play @-@ makers Yohan Cabaye and Gervinho in 2011 , during the 2011 – 12 season , Garcia played Hazard as a central attacking midfielder , while also allowing the player to roam back onto the wing if necessary . Two of Hazard 's most common exemplary traits are his pace and technical ability , which have been described as " astonishing " and " mesmerizing " , respectively .
At Chelsea , Hazard matured into a world class player and was primarily utilised as a left midfielder . His development into one of the world 's best players was highlighted in the 2014 – 15 Season ; during this season he won multiple awards and received praise from pundits and manager alike . Manager Jose Mourinho praised Hazard , saying that " He is already a top player and his evolution has been fantastic . He is still very young and he can become the best player in the world . " Hazard 's former teammate and Lille captain Rio Mavuba described Hazard as " a great player , with an immense talent . He ’ s actually not that big , but he ’ s so fast . He ’ s also very difficult to dispossess and his finishing is top notch " .
= = = Reception = = =
Hazard 's pace coupled with his finishing and inability to be dispossessed easily led to his former coach Claude Puel dubbing him " little Messi " , in reference to the Barcelona star . Puel 's sentiments were later echoed by former Marseille manager and media personality Rolland Courbis who commented " At times it looks to me like Lionel Messi on the right @-@ hand side " . Hazard 's " flair and tricky " style of play has been described as being similar to Real Madrid star Cristiano Ronaldo ; a comparison later repeated by former French international Christophe Dugarry . His vision , described as being the trait he has improved on the most , has allowed him to develop into an effective passer .
In Belgium , Hazard 's talent and similar ascension up the country 's football hierarchy has led to comparisons to former Belgian international Enzo Scifo . Both players share the same birthplace and Scifo himself spent time with Hazard while he was in Tubize admitting " Eden , you know , I 've coached in Tubize . During the week , I took care of the young people at least once , and he , in those days ,
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PFA Team of the Year ( 3 ) : 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15
ESM Team of the Year : 2014 – 15
Chelsea Player of the Year ( 2 ) : 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15
Chelsea Players ' Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2014 – 15
Bravo Award ( 1 ) : 2011
= Jetpac Refuelled =
Jetpac Refuelled is a shooter video game developed by Rare and published by Microsoft Studios . It was first released worldwide on the Xbox Live Arcade service on 28 March 2007 . The game is the fourth and final instalment of the Jetman series and a remake of Ultimate Play the Game 's 1983 ZX Spectrum game , Jetpac . The game follows Jetman as he attempts to rebuild his rocket in order to explore different planets , whilst simultaneously defending himself from hostile aliens .
Details of the game were first leaked in February 2007 , shortly before Rare officially announced development later that month . During development process Rare attempted to ensure that the game did not feel too similar to the original Jetpac , whilst keeping the core mechanics . The game received mostly favourable reviews upon release . Critics praised the updated graphics and gameplay , however they criticised the overall repetitiveness of the game and its multiplayer mode . It was later included in Rare 's 2015 Xbox One retrospective compilation , Rare Replay .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a remake of the original Jetpac with overhauled high @-@ definition graphics and 128 levels . It also features competitive gameplay over Xbox Live , leaderboards , and achievements . Similar to the first instalment , the player assumes control of Jetman and is presented in a horizontal wrap around which consists of six platforms on which Jetman can manoeuvre onto . Jetman has to first assemble his rocket , which spawns in separate parts that are scattered around a map , and then fills it with six fuel canisters before taking off to the next planet , where the procedure is repeated . In addition , Jetman has to defend himself from each planet 's hostile aliens , and collect valuable resources such as gold and platinum , which occasionally fall from the atmosphere , for bonus points .
Jetman 's only usable weapon in his laser . Weapon upgrades may also spawn around a map , which once picked up will give Jetman various upgrades to his weapon . Upgrades include as a wider fire spread , faster projectiles or higher damage . The player starts the game with three nuclear devices , which once used will eliminate all enemies from the screen . Jetman also has the ability to boost , which will temporarily make him move at a much faster speed , although boosts will need to recharge once they are depleted .
Jetpac Refuelled features a multiplayer mode that can be played either offline using a split screen or online via Xbox Live . In this mode , the player has to compete one @-@ on @-@ one in a race to build and refuel their craft before their opponent does . Fuel and rocket pickups can be stolen from opponents by shooting them or by using an EMP blast at close range . Lives are unlimited in multiplayer and the winner is determined by the highest score . A version of the original 1983 Jetpac is also included in the game .
= = Development = =
Details of a Jetpac remake were first leaked on a listing on the website of German rating board Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle on 6 February 2007 . Rare officially announced development of Jetpac Refuelled on 22 February 2007 .
In a retrospective interview , Rare designers Jens Restemeier and Nick Burton took interest in the @-@ then upcoming Xbox Live Arcade and offered to develop a new game for the service after the release of Rare 's Xbox 360 launch titles Perfect Dark Zero and Kameo . Rather than simply porting the original ZX Spectrum title to the Xbox 360 , the development team decided to expand Jetpac and experiment with new elements . The team ensured to keep the original core mechanics of the Jetpac whilst designing new features for the game . Restemeier also stated that the development process for an Xbox Live Arcade game differed from a retail title , owing to processing power limitations that had to be constantly synced over Xbox Live . Burton asserted that one of the differences with development on the Xbox Live Service was the way optimisations shifted from graphics and game logic , stating that this was more difficult than it would have been for an Xbox 360 title such as Kameo .
In a separate interview with Next @-@ Gen , Burton stated that during initial development of Jetpac Refuelled , senior management kept away entirely from the project . When Rare 's management allowed themselves to view the game , they offered the developers " a fresh eye and more frank criticism " . Further development took place before management were shown the game again in what was nicknamed a “ clean room ” test . Jetpac Refuelled , along with every title in the Jetman series , appeared in the retrospective August 2015 Xbox One compilation of 30 Ultimate Play The Game and Rare titles , Rare Replay .
= = Reception = =
The game was met with mostly favourable reviews upon release . Reviewers praised the updated graphics and addictive gameplay , however they criticised the overall repetitiveness of the game and its mediocre multiplayer mode . It received an aggregate score of 72 % from GameRankings based on 16 reviews , and an average score of 73 out of 100 on Metacritic , based on 17 reviews . Kristan Reed of Eurogamer praised the visual makeover the new game , calling it " undoubtedly the best addition " to the series . Greg Stewart of GamesRadar labelled the updated graphics as " trippy " , preferring them over the " primitive " original . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot praised the updated graphics as the best addition to the game , heralding them as " crisp , bright and colourful " and far superior to the original 1983 version . Jonathan Miller of IGN similarly thought the graphics were the strongest aspect of the game , praising the effects as " vibrant and colourful " whilst calling the ZX Spectrum version " nostalgically bad " . Miller also added that the updated visuals of the game made the experience feel " almost 10 times the game as the original " .
Reed criticised the repetitiveness of the game , stating that whilst 128 levels was good value for money , the gameplay was " merely a repeat " of what the player has already accomplished and that the multiplayer mode could prove " annoying very quickly " . Stewart also criticised the game 's repetitiveness and stated that he felt general gameplay was " shallow " , despite admitting it was addictive . Gerstmann similarly found the action repetitive and stated that there was " not enough variety " , especially in the multiplayer mode . However , Miller praised the gameplay as " fast , fun and addictive " , as he expected a game on the Xbox Live Arcade to be . Will Freeman of Video Gamer noted that the large number of levels caused the game to feel repetitive , but praised the overall addictiveness and fast pace of the game .
= M @-@ 121 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 121 is a state trunkline highway in West Michigan . The highway follows Chicago Drive , a local roadway , from Zeeland to Grandville . Chicago Drive itself runs past the M @-@ 121 segment on either side from Holland to Wyoming . The roadway passes through rural farmland on a route that runs parallel to Interstate 196 ( I @-@ 196 ) . M @-@ 121 forms the main street through the center of Hudsonville as it runs southwest – northeast . It forms a major street through the unincorporated community of Jenison before M @-@ 121 terminates at I @-@ 196 in Grandville .
The M @-@ 121 designation has been used twice before in the state . The first was for a former routing of US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) , and the second was for a connection between I @-@ 69 , I @-@ 75 / US 23 and the airport in the Flint area . Since 2007 , M @-@ 121 has been used for a portion of the former M @-@ 21 in Ottawa County , which was formerly designated as state @-@ maintained " Old M @-@ 21 " . Future plans will reconfigure a section of the current highway from four lanes divided to four lanes undivided .
= = Route description = =
Chicago Drive , largely signed as M @-@ 121 , is a combination state trunkline highway and municipal street running from 8th Street in Holland to the intersection of Grandville and Clyde Park avenues at the border of Grand Rapids and Wyoming , approximately 23 @.@ 5 miles ( 37 @.@ 8 km ) in length . Running eastward , Chicago Drive picks up the Business Loop I @-@ 196 designation east of US 31 . The highway has the typical mix of industry and commercial properties for the area . At 112th Avenue , it turns northeasterly to run through Zeeland . The roadway changes names when it turns due east again , where it is named Main Avenue and Main Place , comprising the only section of the route not designated Chicago Drive .
Starting at the corner of Main Street and Chicago Drive , M @-@ 121 runs northeasterly out of Zeeland on Chicago Drive roughly parallel to I @-@ 196 . A CSX railroad line also parallels the road to the northwest . The trunkline is a four @-@ lane divided highway bordered by farms . Passing the Hudsonville Fair Grounds , Chicago Drive enters Hudsonville as the main street downtown . The highway continues to the northeast out of town through suburban residential areas to Jenison , where once again Chicago Drive is bordered by commercial properties . Through this area , the roadway is divided , utilizing Michigan lefts . The M @-@ 121 designation ends at the interchange with I @-@ 196 just across the Kent County line in Grandville .
The corridor from I @-@ 196 to its end in Grand Rapids is lined with businesses and few houses . The intersection of Chicago Drive and Wilson Avenue is downtown Grandville . In Wyoming from north of M @-@ 11 ( 28th Street ) to Burlingame Avenue , Chicago Drive run through a mostly industrial area with few commercial properties . Northeast of about Byron Center Avenue , Chicago Drive carries Business Spur I @-@ 196 ( BS I @-@ 196 ) . At the corner with Grandville and Clyde Park avenues , Chicago Drive ends and BS I @-@ 196 continues .
M @-@ 121 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the lowest traffic levels along M @-@ 121 were the 10 @,@ 103 vehicles daily at the western terminus in Zeeland ; the highest counts were the 20 @,@ 140 vehicles per day at the eastern terminus . None of M @-@ 121 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
There have been three roadways to carry the M @-@ 121 designation in Michigan .
= = = Previous routings = = =
M @-@ 121 was also used as the designation along two other roadways . In 1933 , it was used for a former routing of US 2 in the Upper Peninsula . In 1935 , this route was redesignated as a portion of a new M @-@ 5 and the M @-@ 121 designation was transferred to Bristol Road in Flint . This Flint @-@ area trunkline provided access to Bishop International Airport from both of the I @-@ 69 and I @-@ 75 / US 23 freeways until it was retired in 2003 . At that time , Bristol Road was returned to local control .
= = = Current routing = = =
From 1919 to 1926 , the current highway known as M @-@ 121 was designated M @-@ 51 . Then until 1974 , the trunkline was part of M @-@ 21 ; that designation was removed when I @-@ 196 was completed between those Zeeland and Grandville , and much of the route became an unsigned state trunkline designated Old M @-@ 21 , although it is locally referred to by its given name , Chicago Drive . The portion of Chicago Drive now signed as M @-@ 121 is 12 @.@ 763 miles ( 20 @.@ 540 km ) long ; it was given its designation in late 2007 .
= = Future = =
Portions of the four @-@ lane divided surface access highway along M @-@ 121 will become four @-@ lane undivided as the westbound lanes are shifted south away from unstable soil and parallel train tracks .
= = Major intersections = =
= Pennsylvania Route 232 =
Pennsylvania Route 232 ( PA 232 ) is a 25 @.@ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 40 @.@ 6 km ) state highway located in southeastern Pennsylvania . The southern terminus of the route is at U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) and US 13 at the Oxford Circle in Philadelphia . The northern terminus is at PA 32 in the borough of New Hope , Bucks County , on the banks of the Delaware River . The route passes through the urban areas of Northeast Philadelphia as two @-@ lane undivided Oxford Avenue , serving the Lawncrest , Burholme , and Fox Chase neighborhoods . Upon entering Montgomery County , PA 232 becomes a two- to four lane road called Huntingdon Pike that passes through suburban areas , serving the communities of Rockledge , Huntingdon Valley , and Bryn Athyn . The route passes through more suburban development in Bucks County as Second Street Pike , running through Southampton and Richboro . In Wrightstown Township , PA 232 enters rural areas and becomes Windy Bush Road as it heads north to New Hope .
South of
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out of 5 " . Caroline Preece from Den of Geek gave praise in the episode . She claimed that the episode was the " strongest outing " since " Pilot " broadcast on March 1 , 2012 . Preece wrote that the episode " used interesting story ideas , [ meaning ] the writers have bigger plans for the weeks ahead " . HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall gave many notes on the episode . He claimed that NBC 's decision to change the broadcasting order was " probably for the best , in that doing back @-@ to @-@ back episodes where Britten 's son was kidnapped in the first and Britten attracted the personal interest of a serial killer in the second would have felt like too much " . He criticized parts of the episode writing that the episode " seemed too much like a conventional cop show " . Screen Rant 's Kevin Yeoman said that the episode " works best when its procedural elements take on a sort of background essence " . He also wrote that as a series it is " becoming a sustainable program " . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club enjoyed " Oregon " . In his " B " review , he stated that he enjoyed the " impressionistic approach , scenes of emotional connection and growth " .
= The Canine Mutiny =
" The Canine Mutiny " is the twentieth episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 13 , 1997 . It was written by Ron Hauge and directed by Dominic Polcino . Bart applies for a credit card and goes on a spending spree when it arrives , including an expensive trained dog called ' Laddie ' . It guest stars voice actor Frank Welker as Laddie , a parody of Lassie . The episode 's title references the novel The Caine Mutiny .
= = Plot = =
When Bart complains he never gets any mail , Marge gives him the family 's junk mail . One piece contains a credit card application , which Bart fills out under the name of his dog Santa 's Little Helper , whom he claims to have the occupation " butt doctor " . The company misreads the name as " Santos L. Halper " , and the credit card application is approved . Before long , Bart receives a credit card . Bart goes on a shopping spree , buying the family some very expensive gifts from a mail order catalog : Vancouver smoked salmon and a radio @-@ frying pan for Marge , a golf shirt with corporate logo for Homer , " Trucker 's Choice Stay @-@ Alert Capsules " for Lisa and many things for himself . The item that Bart anticipates the most is a finely @-@ bred , pre @-@ trained collie . Not letting its US $ 1 @,@ 200 purchase price stand in the way , Bart promptly orders one . Upon its arrival Bart learns the dog 's name is Laddie , who has been trained to perform a wide variety of tasks . The rest of the family fall in love with the new dog , while Santa 's Little Helper goes unnoticed .
Bart fails to pay off " Santos L. Halper 's " credit card bill , and it is not long before he gets a call from a debt collection agency demanding payment . When the calls and collection letters persist , Bart enlists Laddie to help him bury his ill @-@ gotten credit card . Later , repo men arrive to take back all of the things Bart has purchased . Lisa demands an explanation , and Bart is forced to admit the truth . When a repossessor demands the $ 1 @,@ 200 collie be returned , Bart identifies Santa 's Little Helper as the dog he purchased . The greyhound is herded into the truck and Bart sadly watches as it drives away . Noticing that Santa 's Little Helper is gone , the family begins to bond with Laddie , except for Bart , who fears for Santa 's Little Helper 's fate . When an exhausted Bart gives Laddie yet another walk , the collie saves the life of Baby Gerald . At the ceremony honoring Laddie 's heroism , Chief Wiggum decides that Laddie would make the perfect police dog . Bart gives him to the Springfield police force and is forced to explain why the family now has no dog at all , while sobbing . Homer instructs Bart to do whatever it takes to get Santa 's Little Helper back and he goes hunting around the town , trying to find his old pal . Bart eventually learns from Reverend Lovejoy that the dog was given to a parishioner named Mr. Mitchell .
Bart visits Mr. Mitchell , who is blind and lonely , and asks for his dog back , but when he sees how the man and Santa 's Little Helper have bonded , he grows heartsick and leaves . Still determined to get his dog back , Bart makes a late @-@ night visit to Mr. Mitchell 's home in hopes of retrieving Santa 's Little Helper . The pair are reunited , but Bart traps himself in a closet . Mr. Mitchell calls the police and demands that Bart be charged with burglary , but Bart explains that Santa 's Little Helper was his dog and that he wants him back . To solve the problem , Bart and Mitchell let Santa 's Little Helper decide where he wants to go , with him choosing Bart. Chief Wiggum arrives with Laddie , who immediately sniffs out a bag of marijuana in Mr. Mitchell 's pocket . Bart and Santa 's Little Helper head home , leaving the police to " finish up " with Mitchell , as more officers arrive with women and beer .
= = Production = =
The episode uses the full opening sequence because the story came out short . Despite this , a large sequence was cut from the middle of the episode , with half of the episode having to be re @-@ written after the animatic had been finished . The main plot of the episode came from an original idea that the family would be issued a credit card in the name " Hobart Simpson " and that Bart would use that . An original side @-@ story was that Lisa would become addicted to the " Trucker 's Choice " pep pills . Originally , instead of going to the dog park , the family took Laddie to a waterfall and he performed a series of dives , but it was scrapped as it had already been proven that Laddie was a form of " superdog " . Likewise , Laddie rescuing Baby Gerald was originally a complicated rescue scene , but was cut into showing the aftermath .
Laddie was designed to resemble a real dog . The catalog Bart uses is a combination of the Lillian Vernon catalog and The Sharper Image . The opening stemmed from the fact that the show had not had a sequence where the family received mail , and the writers wanted to create a joke about the different types of mail each of the family get . After Bart 's " dog burning " fantasy , when he hears a ship 's horn in the distance , there was originally going to be a faint cry of " more dogs " , but it was deemed that it took the joke too far . Hank Azaria ad @-@ libbed the entire sequence during the credits in which Chief Wiggum and Lou sing along to " Jammin ' " .
= = Cultural references = =
The title is a reference to the novel and film The Caine Mutiny . The dog " Laddie " is a play on Lassie , in terms of name , appearance and uncanny intelligence . Marge listens to the song " You Really Got Me " by The Kinks played on the frying pan radio . At the end of the episode , the song " Jamming " by Bob Marley is played . The design of the " Repo Depot " is based very loosely on the repossession agency from Repo Man . The address of Mr. Mitchell 's house 57 Mt . Aubum Street is one of addresses of the Harvard Lampoon . Mr. Mitchell having a dead parrot that he believes to still be alive is a reference to the " Dead Parrot " Monty Python sketch .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Canine Mutiny " finished 43rd in ratings for the week of April 7 – 13 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 7 @.@ 9 million viewing households . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , King of the Hill , and Beverly Hills , 90210 .
The episode 's ending with Chief Wiggum and Lou singing along to " Jamming ' " by Bob Marley is often cited as one of the best endings in the history of the show . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " A sweet episode " . Homer 's line " There , there , shut up boy " is one of Josh Weinstein 's favorites .
= SMS Wittelsbach =
SMS Wittelsbach ( " His Majesty 's Ship Wittelsbach " ) was the lead ship of the Wittelsbach class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Kaiserliche Marine . Wittelsbach was built at Wilhelmshaven Navy Dockyard . She was laid down in 1899 and completed in October 1902 , at the cost of 22 @,@ 740 @,@ 000 marks . Wittelsbach was the first capital ship built under the Navy Law of 1898 , brought about by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz .
The ship served in the I Squadron of the German fleet for the majority of her career . Wittelsbach was rapidly superseded by new " all @-@ big @-@ gun " warships , and as a result served for less than eight years before being decommissioned on 20 September 1910 . After the start of World War I in August 1914 , Wittelsbach was brought back to active duty in the IV Battle Squadron . The ship saw limited duty in the Baltic Sea against Russian forces , though the threat from British submarines forced the ship to withdraw by 1916 . The ship then saw service in a number of auxiliary roles , ultimately as a tender for minesweepers after 1919 . In July 1921 , however , the ship was sold and broken up for scrap metal .
= = Description = =
Wittelsbach was 126 @.@ 8 m ( 416 ft 0 in ) long overall and had a beam of 22 @.@ 8 m ( 74 ft 10 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 95 m ( 26 ft 1 in ) forward . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines that drove three screws . Steam was provided by six naval and six cylindrical coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers . Wittelsbach 's powerplant was rated at 14 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 13 @,@ 808 ihp ; 10 @,@ 297 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . She had a crew of 30 officers and 650 enlisted men .
Wittelsbach 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) SK L / 40 guns and twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns . The armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all in above @-@ water swivel mounts . Her armored belt was 225 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) thick in the central portion that protected her magazines and machinery spaces , and the deck was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armor plating .
= = Service history = =
Wittelsbach 's keel was laid in 1899 , at the Kaiserliche Werft in Wilhelmshaven , under construction number 25 . She was ordered under the contract name " C " , as a new unit for the fleet . The vessel was the first battleship built under the direction of State Secretary Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , according to the terms of the Navy Law of 1898 . Wittelsbach was launched on 3 July 1900 and commissioned on 15 October 1902 .
Upon commissioning in 1902 , Wittelsbach was assigned to the I Squadron of the Active Battle Fleet . In 1905 the German fleet was reorganized into two squadrons of battleships . Wittelsbach was assigned to the I Division of I Squadron . The ship was joined by her sisters Wettin and Zähringen . The German fleet consisted of another three @-@ ship division in the I Squadron and 2 three @-@ ship divisions in the II Squadron . This was supported by a cruiser division , composed of two armored cruisers and six protected cruisers . That year , Kapitän zur See Maximilian von Spee , who would go on to command the East Asia Squadron at the outbreak of World War I , took command of the ship .
In 1907 , the newest Deutschland @-@ class battleships were beginning to enter service . This provided the Navy with enough ships to form two full battle squadrons of eight ships each . The fleet was then renamed the Hochseeflotte ( High Seas Fleet ) . Wittelsbach served in the I Division until 20 September 1910 . The ship was then decommissioned and placed in reserve ; her crew was then sent to man the newly commissioned dreadnought Posen .
= = = World War I = = =
At the start of World War I , Wittelsbach was mobilized as part of the IV Battle Squadron , under the command of Vice Admiral Ehrhard Schmidt . Starting on 3 September , the IV Squadron , assisted by the armored cruiser Blücher , conducted a sweep into the Baltic . The operation lasted until 9 September and failed to bring Russian naval units to battle . In May 1915 , Wittelsbach and the rest of IV Squadron was transferred to support the German Army in the Baltic Sea area . Wittelsbach and her sisters were then based in Kiel . On 6 May , the IV Squadron ships were tasked with providing support to the assault on Libau . Wittelsbach and the other ships were stationed off Gotland to intercept any Russian cruisers that might attempt to intervene in the landings ; the Russians , however , did not do so . On 10 May , after the invasion force had entered Libau , the British submarines HMS E1 and HMS E9 spotted the IV Squadron , but were too far away to attack them .
By 1916 , the threat from submarines in the Baltic convinced the German navy to withdraw the elderly Wittelsbach @-@ class ships from active service . Wittelsbach was initially used as a training ship based in Kiel . The ship was then transferred to Wilhelmshaven for use as a fleet tender . Wittelsbach was converted into a depot ship in 1919 for minesweepers in the newly constituted Reichsmarine . She carried 12 of these shallow draft vessels . The ship served in this capacity for little more than a year ; on 8 March 1921 , Wittelsbach was stricken from the Navy List and sold four months later , on 7 July , for 3 @,@ 561 @,@ 000 Marks . The ship was then broken up for scrap in Wilhelmshaven .
= Lana Crawford =
Lana Crawford is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours , played by Bridget Neval . The actress 's casting was announced in June 2004 , and she stated that she was excited to take on the role of Lana , a schoolgirl and the serial 's first lesbian character . Neval explained that Lana 's sexuality did not bother her , but she hoped her story would not be told in a sensationalist or distasteful way . Neval made her first screen appearance as Lana during the episode broadcast on 30 August 2004 .
Lana was a student , who had been closeted due to homophobic bullying at her high school . Upon moving to Erinsborough , Lana befriended Serena Bishop ( Lara Sacher ) and her cousin Sky Mangel ( Stephanie McIntosh ) , who she developed a crush on . The storyline between Lana and Sky was billed as a relationship story between two close female friends , " made compelling by the complexity of the feelings involved . " Lana and Sky 's friendship eventually culminated in Neighbours ' first lesbian kiss .
The episode featuring the kiss was broadcast in the serial 's regular G @-@ rated timselot and gave Neighbours a small increase in ratings . However , it led talkback callers and conservative groups to attack the storyline and the characters . Writers for AfterEllen and the Sydney Star Observer branded the storyline " a real television advance " and praised Lana and her journey . The show 's executive producer , Ric Pellizzeri , believed the storyline reflected reality and some viewers said that it had had a " profound effect " on them .
= = Casting = =
In June 2004 , Pete Tim
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bs of TV Week reported Wicked Science actress Bridget Neval had joined the cast of Neighbours as Lana Crawford . Timbs revealed that Lana was a schoolgirl set to " liven things up among the Ramsay Street teenagers as she comes to terms with her sexuality . " Neval told Timbs ' colleague Helen Vnuk that she was initially taken aback when she learned of the character she might be asked to play . However , she was very excited to take on the role of Lana , calling her " a fantastic character " .
Neval later explained " My initial reaction to the part was surprise as Neighbours have never had a gay character . But the nature of the character never really bothered me . My only real concern was that the story would not be told in a sensationalist or distasteful way . She 's not a stereotypical character and being gay is certainly not the only interesting thing about her . " Neval made her first screen appearance as Lana during the episode broadcast on 30 August 2004 . In April 2005 , Eliza Taylor @-@ Cotter said that she had originally auditioned for the role of Lana , before joining the cast as Janae Timmins .
= = Development = =
Lana was introduced as Neighbours ' first lesbian character . Neval revealed that while Lana would fuel a storyline for established character Sky Mangel ( Stephanie McIntosh ) , she would also go through her own journey . A representative from Grundy Television explained that the storyline would be " a relationship story of a close female friendship , made compelling by the complexity of the feelings involved . " The representative believed the storyline would " strike a chord " with teenage viewers , who could relate to Sky and Lana 's feelings . Scriptwriter Helen MacWhirter also stated that Lana 's story is " multi @-@ faceted " , saying , " On one level it 's about a young girl coming to terms with her sexuality , which on its own might have been a bit boring and gratuitous , but it also brought into play other story strands which added depth and dimension . "
Lana was a " pretty " Canadian high school student . She left her old high school due to homophobic bullying , and as a result she became " very closeted " . Describing the character , Natasha Norton from AfterEllen stated " She comes across at first as a touch flighty , as if she can 't quite make up her mind as to who she wants to be , but it soon becomes abundantly clear that Lana 's carefully constructed façade has a purpose . " Following her arrival in Erinsborough , Lana befriended Serena Bishop ( Lara Sacher ) . They both learned that they had been taken advantage of by " sleazy " photographer Chris Cousens ( Simon Mallory ) . Serena 's cousin , Sky , took an instant dislike to Lana . Sky had learned that Lana had flirted with her boyfriend , leaving her " less than impressed " . During a game of basketball , Sky began feuding with Lana , and they started a brawl on the court . Of filming the fight , Neval stated , " We wanted to make it look spontaneous , and really gritty and brawly . It was a lot of fun learning how to choreograph a fight and how to be aware of the other actor and not actually hurt them . "
After being placed in detention together , Lana and Sky came to know each other better . They gradually formed a bond , and Lana developed feelings for Sky . Lana 's crush on Sky eventually culminated in Neighbours ' first lesbian kiss . The episode featuring the kiss was broadcast in its usual 6.30pm G @-@ rated timeslot . The executive producer of Neighbours , Ric Pellizzeri , said the storyline reflected reality and continued the show 's move toward more contemporary issues . Pellizzeri explained that Neighbours was simply telling " a story about tolerance . " The producer added that the kiss was as far as they would go , but the writers would not be discouraged from telling other stories about homosexuality in the future . On @-@ screen , Sky told Lana that she was only interested in her boyfriend , but they remained friends . With her main storyline completed , Lana was seen attending the prom with a female admirer , before moving to Canada with her family . Script producer Luke Devenish told a reporter for the Sydney Star Observer , " There is that great tradition that the lesbian is always dead in the final scene , and we were very aware of that as we were writing her out . We wanted to avoid that at all costs . "
= = Storylines = =
Lana is Sindi ( Marisa Warrington ) and Penny Watts ' ( Andrea McEwan ) cousin . She was born in Australia , but her family moved to Canada when she was young . They returned to Australia a few years later , and Lana began attending Wattle Heights High School , where she was bullied over her sexuality . This led her to transfer to Erinsborough High . Lana finds employment at the Coffee Shop alongside Serena Bishop , whom she befriends . Lana is convinced that she had seen Serena before , and she realises that Serena had been in some photos taken by dodgy photographer Chris Cousens . Lana admits to Serena that she had also been taken in by Chris and that she was not over it . Lana did not get on with Serena 's cousin , Sky , and one day they fight at school . Susan Kennedy ( Jackie Woodburne ) places them in detention and urges them to work things out .
Sky and Lana start to trust each other a little , and during a sleepover organised by Serena , they discover that they both like black and white films . They bond , and Lana later watches Sky fall asleep . Sky realises that Lana has hidden depths and tells her . Lana gets upset and tells Sky that she is not hiding anything . Sky calls a friend who attended Wattle Heights High with Lana and finds out about the bullying that caused Lana to change schools . During a playfight at a sleepover , Lana suddenly kisses Sky . She runs out of the house and goes to the Coffee Shop , where she finds Sindi . Lana reveals to Sindi that she is gay . Lana admits that she does not want to lose Sky as a friend and tries to pass the kiss off as a joke . Sky tells Boyd Hoyland ( Kyal Marsh ) about the kiss , and Lana is later outed at school .
Lana attempts to convince everyone that it is just a rumour by dating Brendan Bond ( Michael Wahr ) . When Sky finds out that Lana is planning to have sex with Brendan during a party , Sky tries to stop her . Lana tells Sky to leave , but then decides to tell Brendan that she cannot have sex with him because she likes girls . Lana receives anonymous notes in her locker praising her for being brave . However , she is also targeted by a gang of girls who threaten to cut her hair off . Susan decides to get the school involved in a tolerance campaign , but many of the parents protest about it . Sky and Lana begin drawing a cartoon strip together called Freak Girl and The Enigma and Buffy Only ( Laura Gordon ) , the editor of a gay magazine , becomes interested in publishing it . Buffy later asks Lana out on a date , but comes to realise that they are not right for each other .
Sky and Lana decide to plant lavender outside Lassiter 's Hotel , and they stay to watch everyone 's reactions . During her excitement , Sky kisses Lana , who is delighted as she believes Sky has fallen for her . Sky explains to Lana that they can only be friends , and Lana accuses Sky of using her . Lana avoids Sky for several days , but they eventually make up . Lana finds a note in her locker from someone named George , asking her to the end @-@ of @-@ year formal dance . During the formal , " George " introduces herself as Georgina Harris ( Adrienne Smith ) , and she and Lana spend the rest of the night together . Lana decides to return to Canada , and her friends throw her a farewell party . Sky tells Lana that she will miss her and gives her a pen , so she can start writing her own novel . Lana says goodbye to George , and Lana 's friends watch as Lana leaves Ramsay Street in a taxi .
= = Reception = =
Shortly after the episode featuring the kiss was aired , the characters were attacked by talkback callers and conservative groups who thought that they had been " glamorising a high @-@ risk culture " and " making homosexuality look cool " . Chief executive of the Christian group Salt Shakers , Peter Stokes , told The Age 's Kenneth Nguyen , " It just saddens me that we give our young people the message that these relationships are OK . " However , Ray Misson , the head of Melbourne University 's arts education department , described the serial 's depiction of a lesbian as " a real advance . " Neval believed that gay teenagers , who were already feeling insecure about how their sexuality would be accepted , would be devastated by the negative reaction surrounding the storyline .
On the reaction the kiss between Lana and Sky received , Natasha Norton from AfterEllen stated , " From the amount of backlash this kiss generated in Australia , you 'd think that they 'd shown a full blown love scene ; newspapers have been full of angry letters to the editor decrying the gay storyline . The negative reaction by many in the Australia press mirrors Lana 's current storyline on Neighbours , which explores the backlash Lana experiences when her sexuality becomes public knowledge at her high school . " Norton 's colleague , Malinda Lo , later said that many of the website 's readers said Lana 's storyline had a " profound effect " on them when they were teenagers . A writer from GayNZ.com noted that the episode featuring the kiss was broadcast unedited and provided Neighbours with a modest ratings increase .
Bill Muehlenberg from Australian Family Association believed Lana 's introduction and storyline was just an attempt to increase ratings . A Sydney Star Observer reporter praised Lana 's cousin , Sindi , for being sympathetic and reacting in a positive way when Lana came out to her . The reporter also praised Sky 's reaction for being " more let 's talk about it than get away from me , you lezzo freak " , while adding that it seemed Neighbours had wanted Lana to be a " sympathetic gay character " , which must have upset the Christian groups . Of Lana 's storyline , a writer for AfterEllen stated , " The significance of this depiction was that it occurred in a relatively conservative , family @-@ oriented show with a large child viewership , and all the major sympathetic characters were presented as supportive of Lana 's sexuality , with the bullies being depicted as villains . "
In his book Neighbours : 20 years of Ramsay Street , Tony Johnston wrote , " Vilified by ultra @-@ conservative groups and celebrated by the gay press , the kiss helped to redefine Neighbours as it entered its third decade . " In July 2007 , the Herald Sun asked readers to vote for their top ten Neighbours moments . Lana and Sky 's kiss came in at number nine , and a reporter for the paper said " It 's rare that Neighbours attracts the attention of the shock jocks around the country , but that 's what happened when Sky Bishop , played by Stephanie McIntosh , gave Lana , played by Bridget Neval , a kiss . Sky was exploring her sexuality and the scene was one of the most talked about ever in the press . Lana left Erinsborough and Sky has gone on to be an unmarried mum " .
= M @-@ 48 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 48 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) of the US state of Michigan . It connects Rudyard with Pickford and continues to the far eastern end of the UP . The highway runs for 43 @.@ 723 miles ( 70 @.@ 365 km ) through rural parts of Chippewa County , including along the county line with Mackinac County . Between 580 and 1 @,@ 800 vehicles a day use the roadway daily .
The highway was designated by 1919 along a route that ran much farther west in the UP . Within its first decade , M @-@ 48 was extended to end at a point north of Newberry . Since the 1960s , it has had its current configuration . A section of roadway that was previously used as part of the western end of the highway was redesignated as a section H @-@ 40 in the 1970s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 48 currently starts at an interchange with I @-@ 75 in the Rudyard area . The highway runs west from the interchange into Rudyard where it turns south , running concurrently with county road H @-@ 63 . M @-@ 48 turns eastward south of town along 22 Mile Road through fields . At Meridian Road , M @-@ 48 turns south along M @-@ 129 through the community of Pickford . South of town , M @-@ 48 / M @-@ 129 runs long the Chippewa – Mackinac county line and crosses the Munuscong River . M @-@ 48 turns east at 26 Mile Road into Chippewa County . The highway zig @-@ zags through rural areas in the southeast of the county . It follows Hanna and 28 Mile roads to Stalwart . In that community , M @-@ 48 runs south on Reynolds Road to a corner on the Chippewa – Mackinac county line where the highway turns back east toward the Goetzville area running through the Lake Superior State Forest . After one last north – south segment , M @-@ 48 terminates at a junction with M @-@ 134 west of DeTour Village near Albany Harbor .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 48 like all other parts of the state trunkline highway system under its jurisdiction . As a part of these responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic along its roads using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This measurement is a calculation of the average traffic levels for a roadway segment on any average day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT figured that between 580 and 1 @,@ 800 vehicles a day used sections of M @-@ 48 . In addition , the department has added the portion of M @-@ 48 between the northern M @-@ 129 junction and M @-@ 134 to the Lake Huron Circle Tour , a scenic drive that loops around the lake . No part of the highway has been added to the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
On July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 48 ran from Rexton to Trout Lake and eastward on to Rudyard . The highway continued to Goetzville and ran to DeTour Village at the eastern tip of the UP . By 1927 , the western end was moved to a point north of Newberry . M @-@ 48 was extended along US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) to Garnet . From there , M @-@ 48 ran north to M @-@ 28 east of Newberry . It turned west along M @-@ 28 into Newberry and then north to Four Mile Corner . In the mid @-@ 1930s , M @-@ 28 's routing through the Newberry area was shifted . As a result of this shift , the section of M @-@ 28 / M @-@ 48 in downtown was renumbered M @-@ 28A / M @-@ 48 . In the early 1940s , US 2 was moved to a new routing along the Lake Michigan shoreline . In the process , the US 2 / M @-@ 48 concurrency was eliminated . By the same time , M @-@ 48 was truncated when M @-@ 134 was designated east to the DeTour area . By the end of the decade , M @-@ 48 was truncated and rerouted on its western end , replacing the contemporary M @-@ 117 south of Rexton to US 2 in Epoufette . All of M @-@ 48 west of US 2 was turned over to local jurisdiction and removed from the state highway system , save a section made part of M @-@ 123 in late 1960 or early 1961 . A few years later , M @-@ 48 was extended along a former section of US 2 into Rudyard to connect to the newly opened I @-@ 75 / US 2 freeway in 1963 . After October 1970 , the former M @-@ 48 west of the current highway was designated as a part of the County @-@ Designated Highway System .
= = Major intersections = =
= Washington State Route 104 =
State Route 104 ( SR 104 ) is a 31 @.@ 75 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 51 @.@ 10 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , serving four counties : Jefferson on the Olympic Peninsula , Kitsap on the Kitsap Peninsula , and Snohomish and King in the Puget Sound region . It begins south of Discovery Bay at U.S. Route 101 ( US 101 ) south of Discovery Bay and crosses the Hood Canal Bridge over Hood Canal to the terminus of SR 3 near Port Gamble . SR 104 continues southeast onto the Edmonds – Kingston Ferry to cross the Puget Sound and intersects SR 99 and Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) before ending at SR 522 in Lake Forest Park . SR 104 also has a short spur route that connects the highway to SR 99 at an at @-@ grade signal on the Snohomish – King county line .
Established during the 1964 state highway renumbering , SR 104 was formed out of four highways , themselves created in 1937 : Secondary State Highway 9E ( SSH 9E ) from Discovery Bay to Port Gamble , Primary State Highway 21 ( PSH 21 ) from Port Gamble to Kingston , SSH 1W within Edmonds , and SSH 2B from Edmonds to Lake Forest Park . PSH 21 was originally part of State Road 21 , added to the state highway system in 1915 to connect the Port Gamble – Shine ferry to the Kingston ferry landing . The Edmonds – Kingston ferry at the end of State Road 21 has been in operation under various companies since 1923 and was served by the 14 @-@ car City of Edmonds . SSH 9E extended from Discovery Bay to Port Ludlow initially and was moved south and extended to the South Point ferry landing in the late 1940s . The bridge replaced the South Point – Lofall ferry when it opened in 1961 , but the ferry was re @-@ used during the construction of the second Hood Canal Bridge after the first bridge sank in 1979 and before the new bridge opened in 1982 . The Edmonds – Kingston ferry was added to the state ferry system in 1951 before it was incorporated into SR 104 in 1994 .
= = Route description = =
SR 104 begins at an intersection with US 101 , located south of Discovery Bay on the Olympic Peninsula . The highway travels south through rural Jefferson County towards Crocker Lake and turns southeast , intersecting SR 19 south of Port Ludlow . SR 104 continues east along the northern shore of Squamish Harbor , part of the Hood Canal , and crosses into Kitsap County on the 7 @,@ 869 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 2 @,@ 398 m ) Hood Canal Bridge , the third longest floating bridge in the world . The highway serves as the northern terminus of SR 3 east of the bridge and turns northeast towards Port Gamble , located on the Kitsap Peninsula . SR 104 turns south along the western shore of Port Gamble , the bay the community is named after , and turns southeast to intersect SR 307 . The highway continues east from the intersection to Kingston , where it splits into a one @-@ way pair before the designation travels onto the Edmonds – Kingston Ferry .
The ferry , operated by Washington State Ferries ( WSF ) , takes approximately 30 minutes to cross 5 @.@ 95 miles ( 9 @.@ 58 km ) across Puget Sound . It departs from Kingston on Appletree Cove and arrives in Edmonds in Snohomish County . WSF operates thirteen round @-@ trip crossings every day . Westbound passengers must pay a $ 7 @.@ 70 toll or they may alternately pay with a prepaid Wave2Go card .
SR 104 resumes in Edmonds on Main Street and crosses a BNSF rail line south of Edmonds Station . The highway turns south at an intersection with SR 524 onto Sunset Avenue towards Woodway . The roadway travels southeast along Edmonds Way towards the Snohomish – King county line , intersecting SR 524 Spur and 5th Street at a grade @-@ separated interchange . Edmonds Way travels through a partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 99 before SR 104 intersects its spur route , which travels west towards an at @-@ grade signal with SR 99 . The highway continues east along Ballinger Way to a partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 5 southeast of Lake Ballinger . The highway travels southeast into Lake Forest Park , where SR 104 ends at SR 522 on the north shore of Lake Washington .
SR 104 is considered , by the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) , an auxiliary route of US 101 , part of a numbering system established during the 1964 state highway renumbering . Every year , WSDOT conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that between 3 @,@ 800 and 44 @,@ 000 vehicles per day used the highway , mostly in the Shoreline area . The Edmonds – Kingston ferry carried 3 @.@ 808 million passengers and 2 @.@ 025 million vehicles in 2012 , according to WSF statistics . The segments of the highway between Discovery Bay and Kingston and SR 99 and I @-@ 5 in Edmonds and Shoreline are designated as part of the National Highway System , while the whole route is designated by WSDOT as a Highway of Statewide Significance because it connects major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
SR 104 was established during the 1964 state highway renumbering as the successor to several state highways : SSH 9E between Discovery Bay and Port Gamble , PSH 21 between Port Gamble and Kingston , SSH 1W in Edmonds , and SSH 2B between Edmonds and Lake Forest Park . The highway between Port Gamble and Kingston was established in 1915 as part of State Road 21 , which extended south to Bremerton . During the creation of the Primary and secondary state highways in 1937 , State Road 21 was re @-@ designated as PSH 21 and extended south to Gorst . SSH 9E was also established , connecting US 101 and PSH 9 in Discovery Bay to Port Ludlow , along with SSH 1W from US 99 and PSH 1 in Lynnwood through Edmonds to US 99 and PSH 1 in Woodway , following the route of an unpaved road built in the 1890s . SSH 2B was created in 1937 to serve as a connector between US 99 and PSH 1 in Shoreline to a branch of PSH 2 in Lake Forest Park .
SSH 9E was extended southeast to the South Point ferry over Hood Canal in 1947 , as the ferry traveled east to a branch of PSH 21 at Lofall created in 1949 . The highway was moved south from Discovery Bay to intersect US 101 near Crocker Lake in 1957 and was extended across the floating Hood Canal Bridge in 1959 to PSH 21 west of Port Gamble prior to the bridge opening on August 12 , 1961 . SR 104 was designated over the highways in 1964 and was signed into law in 1970 . The Hood Canal Bridge , officially named after William A. Bugge , sank during the February 13 , 1979 windstorm and was replaced by a ferry operating between Lofall and South Point until the west span was re @-@ opened on October 23 , 1982 . The east span of the bridge was replaced between 1997 and 2010 , closing the bridge to traffic in May 2009 and re @-@ opening the South Point – Lofall ferry . The route of the highway has not been revised significantly since the 1994 inclusion of ferry routes .
The Edmonds – Kingston ferry , added to SR 104 in 1994 , was first served by the 14 @-@ car and 76 @-@ passenger City of Edmonds in 1923 . The ferry ran three crossings on weekdays and six on weekends and a toll of $ 1 @.@ 50 for vehicles and $ 0 @.@ 25 for passengers was later charged . After the establishment of Washington State Ferries in 1951 , the 59 @-@ car MV Nisqually was assigned to the Edmonds – Kingston route . Between 1968 and 2005 , the Evergreen State class MV Tillikum and MV Evergreen State were used on the route , while the Steel Electric class MV Illahee and MV Quinault were used on extra summer runs . The Jumbo class MV Spokane and MV Walla Walla began serving the route in 2005 , but sometimes are replaced by other ferries , especially during maintenance .
= = Spur route = =
SR 104 Spur begins its short , 0 @.@ 34 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 55 km ) route as 244th Street at SR 104 on the Snohomish – King county line between Edmonds and Shoreline . 244th Street travels west on the 5 @-@ lane roadway ( including a center turning lane ) north of the Aurora Village shopping center to end at an intersection with Aurora Avenue , signed as SR 99 . The highway was originally part of SSH 2B from 1937 to 1964 and SR 104 after the 1964 highway renumbering and was created in 2009 after SR 104 was realigned onto a new divided highway . WSDOT estimated that between 18 @,@ 000 and 19 @,@ 000 vehicles per day used the spur route , according to AADT data in 2011 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Cheddar Gorge =
Cheddar Gorge is a limestone gorge in the Mendip Hills , near the village of Cheddar , Somerset , England . The gorge is the site of the Cheddar show caves , where Britain 's oldest complete human skeleton , Cheddar Man , estimated to be over 9 @,@ 000 years old , was found in 1903 . Older remains from the Upper Late Palaeolithic era ( 12 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 years ago ) have been found . The caves , produced by the activity of an underground river , contain stalactites and stalagmites . The gorge is part of a Site of Special Scientific Interest called Cheddar Complex .
Cheddar Gorge , including the caves and other attractions , has become a tourist destination . In a 2005 poll of Radio Times readers , following its appearance on the 2005 television programme Seven Natural Wonders , Cheddar Gorge was named as the second greatest natural wonder in Britain , surpassed only by Dan yr Ogof caves . The gorge attracts about 500 @,@ 000 visitors per year .
= = Geology = =
Cheddar is a gorge lying on the southern edge of the Mendip Hills . The maximum depth of the gorge is 137 m ( 449 ft ) , with a near @-@ vertical cliff @-@ face to the south , and steep grassy slopes to the north . The B3135 road runs along the bottom of the gorge .
The area is underlain by Black Rock slate , Burrington Oolite and Clifton Down Limestone of the Carboniferous Limestone Series , which contain ooliths and fossil debris , on top of Old Red Sandstone and by Dolomitic Conglomerate of the Keuper . Evidence for Variscan orogeny is seen in the sheared rock and cleaved shales . In many places weathering of these strata has resulted in the formation of immature calcareous soils .
The gorge was formed by meltwater floods during the cold periglacial periods which have occurred over the last 1 @.@ 2 million years . During the ice ages permafrost blocked the caves with ice and frozen mud and made the limestone impermeable . When this melted during the summers , water was forced to flow on the surface , and carved out the gorge . During warmer periods the water flowed underground through the permeable limestone , creating the caves and leaving the gorge dry , so that today much of the gorge has no river until the underground Cheddar Yeo river emerges in the lower part from Gough 's Cave . The river is used by Bristol Water , who maintain a series of dams and ponds which supply the nearby Cheddar Reservoir , via a 137 @-@ centimetre ( 54 in ) diameter pipe that takes water just upstream of the Rotary Club Sensory Garden , a public park in the gorge opposite Jacob 's Ladder .
The gorge is susceptible to flooding . In the Great Flood of 1968 the flow of water washed large boulders down the gorge , damaging the cafe and entrance to Gough 's Cave and washing away cars . In the cave itself the flooding lasted for three days . In 2012 the B3135 , the road through the gorge , was closed for several weeks following damage to the road surface during extensive flooding .
= = Ownership and commercialisation = =
The south side of the gorge is owned and administered by the Marquess of Bath 's Longleat Estate . The cliffs on the north side of the gorge are owned by The National Trust . Every year both of the gorge 's owners contribute funds towards the clearance of scrub bush and trees from the area .
Most of the commercial visitor activity in the gorge is on the Longleat @-@ owned south side , including access to the two main commercial show caves and the visitor centre , which is operated by Longleat @-@ owned company Cheddar Gorge and Caves Ltd under director Hugh Cornwell . Due to the fact that tourist numbers have dropped through the show caves from 400 @,@ 000 a year in the 1980s to 150 @,@ 000 , in 2013 Ceawlin Thynn , Viscount Weymouth who runs the Longleat estate on behalf of the family trust , proposed installation of a 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) 18 @-@ gondola cable car estimated to cost £ 10M , taking visitors from the entrance area to the caves directly to the top of the southside cliffs . The National Trust have opposed the proposed development , stating that it will spoil the view and cheapen the experience , creating a " fairground ride " that will make the area feel more like an amusement park . If planning permission is gained in Spring 2014 , then operations would start in Spring 2016 .
= = Ecology = =
Notable species at the gorge include dormice , yellow @-@ necked mice , slow worms and adders and the rare large blue butterfly ( Maculinea arion ) , and small pearl @-@ bordered fritillary
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950 and left his mark on the revamped roster ; he led the team to Grey Cup wins in 1950 and 1952 . The first of these was a 13 – 0 victory over Winnipeg in the notorious Mud Bowl . A November snow storm followed by mild conditions turned Varsity Stadium into a bog and the play was a shambles ; one Winnipeg player is reported to have almost drowned in the muck .
At some time during this period , the phrase " Argo Bounce " came to refer to the Argonauts ' propensity to receive a lucky bounce of the football . The phrase may date to the Grey Cups of the 1930s , all of which featured improbable bounces and fumbles favouring the Argos ; the phrase was popularized in print by Annis Stukus in the 1940s . It is still in use today , with a number of fortunate on @-@ field happenings attributed to the " bounce " .
= = = 1953 – 1988 = = =
The three decades after the 1952 Grey Cup victory have been called the Argonauts ' Dark Ages . The team went thirty @-@ one years between championship victories and nineteen without even making an appearance in the final . Part of the reason was a salary cap introduced in 1953 that cost them many talented players . For the first time in decades , they began ranking at the bottom of the Eastern Division . The management style under new owner John Bassett has also been blamed : young talent was traded or allowed to leave and the team could not form a nucleus of championship players ; coaches came and went rapidly . Two notable events occurred off @-@ field at the end of the 1950s : in 1958 the Argonauts became a founding member of the Canadian Football League and a year later found a new home at Exhibition Stadium .
The Argonauts did have some standout players in the 1950s and 1960s . The stalwart of the era was Dick Shatto , an Ohioan who played twelve seasons from 1954 to 1965 . Listed as a running back , Shatto was a dual threat to run and receive and continues to hold the team regular season records for touchdowns ( 91 ) and total yards gained ( 6 @,@ 958 ) . Living in Toronto year round , Shatto set down deep roots in the city and would eventually serve as the Argonauts general manager . Another American , Tobin Rote , set numerous passing marks in three years at quarterback from 1960 to 1962 . Known for his good living off the field , Rote still holds the Argos single game passing record with 524 yards against Montreal on August 19 , 1960 . A pillar on the offensive line was Danny Nykoluk at tackle who appeared in an incredible 17 seasons from 1954 to 1971 , including one stretch of 12 years where he didn 't miss a single game . Despite these veterans , the era was marked by losing seasons and high attrition on the roster . By the 1960s , the annual ( and often desperate ) mid @-@ season addition of American imports had become known as the " Argo airlift " ; American imports often wouldn 't last a game before being cut .
Eventually , the team became competitive again under head coach Leo Cahill in the late 1960s . They scored a coup over the National Football League ( NFL ) with the signing of a young Joe Theismann ( and other American stars ) in 1971 . The team also saw an attendance bounce , consistently selling out Exhibition Stadium . The Boatmen 's best chance to end their Grey Cup drought came that year , when they faced the Calgary Stampeders in the 59th Grey Cup , the first to be played on artificial turf . In a defensive struggle at Vancouver 's soggy Empire Stadium , a now infamous late fumble by Leon " X @-@ Ray " McQuay and a possession changing kick out of bounds by Harry Abofs sealed a 14 – 11 Stampeder victory .
The 1970s were tumultuous for the team , with numerous hirings and firings of head coaches and consistent losing records . There were stellar players over this era , including all @-@ stars on defence such as Jim Stillwagon , Jim Corrigall , and Granville " Granny " Liggins , but the team could not return to winning form . High profile moves such as hiring Canadian football icon Russ Jackson as head coach in 1975 or signing running back superstar Anthony Davis the next year turned into busts . Ironically , the Argos reached historic attendance highs in this losing decade — regular season average per game attendance reached 47 @,@ 356 in 1976 . The enlargement of Exhibition Stadium over 1975 and 1976 in anticipation of the Blue Jays expansion baseball team allowed for these massive crowds .
The Argos reached an all @-@ time low in 1981 when they finished 2 – 14 ; this despite having such talented players as quarterback Condredge Holloway , running back Cedric Minter , and receiver Terry Greer . The team began the year 0 – 10 and there was talk of a " perfect " losing season . The team had been inept so long by this point ( 29 seasons without a Grey Cup win ) that the notion of an " Argo Bounce " had become inverted ; now " it was the unluckiest bounce in the world , the one that usually arose from the Argos ' uncanny ability to lose critical games in the dying minutes by committing an improbable blunder . "
However , with the 1982 season came the hiring of Bob O 'Billovich as head coach and Mouse Davis as offensive co @-@ ordinator . Davis implemented the run and shoot offense , and the Argos enjoyed a turnaround , going 9 – 6 – 1 that year ; Condredge Holloway was the CFL 's most outstanding player . The team ultimately fell short in their quest for a Grey Cup , losing 32 – 16 to the mighty Edmonton Eskimos in the final in front of a disappointed crowd at Exhibition Stadium . The 1983 season finally brought the championship home . The Argos finished 12 – 4 and Terry Greer set a CFL record with 2 @,@ 003 receiving yards . Joe Barnes and Condredge Holloway were a potent duo at quarterback . The Double Blue returned to the Grey Cup , this time facing the BC Lions at BC Place Stadium in Vancouver . Despite the hostile crowd , Toronto defeated BC 18 – 17 to win their first Grey Cup since 1952 . The Argos were generally competitive for the remainder of the 1980s , thanks in large part to talented players such as Gill " The Thrill " Fenerty and Darrell K. Smith , but a return to the glory of 1983 proved elusive .
= = = 1989 – present = = =
The 1989 season saw the Argonauts move into the SkyDome , a multi @-@ purpose downtown stadium with a retractable roof . It marked the beginning of an eventful few years . In 1990 , one of the most beloved figures in Toronto sporting history emerged on the team : Michael " Pinball " Clemons set a CFL record for all purpose yards with 3 @,@ 300 in his first full year , a record he would break in 1997 with 3 @,@ 840 .
In 1991 Hollywood prestige arrived in the form of a new ownership trio . Bruce McNall , owner of the NHL 's Los Angeles Kings , bought the team . One of his players , hockey great Wayne Gretzky , became a minority owner , as did Canadian @-@ born comedian John Candy . The group stunned the league with the signing of Raghib " Rocket " Ismail for an unheard of $ 18 @.@ 2 million over four years . Ismail immediately impressed , particularly on kickoff returns , and was named player of the game in the 1991 Grey Cup , which the Argos won 36 – 21 over the Calgary Stampeders . Clemons and quarterback Matt Dunigan ( who played the final with a broken collarbone ) were the other critical pieces to the championship .
However , the Argos slumped to 6 – 12 only a year later , beginning a slide that only accelerated when Dunigan and Ismail left after the season . The 1992 season was the first of four consecutive losing seasons ; while they made the playoffs in 1994 , they were promptly eliminated by the Baltimore Stallions in the division semifinals . Trouble also struck off the field : McNall was convicted of conspiracy and fraud at the end of 1993 , while Candy died prematurely the next year . Attendance also began to slide in the mid @-@ 1990s , raising questions over the team 's viability that persist to this day . The per game average was just above 16 @,@ 000 in 1994 and 1995 , much less than half the team 's 1970s peak .
Championship material did eventually reemerge in 1996 . Doug Flutie , one of the greatest quarterbacks in CFL history , was signed for the season and surrounded with key personnel . The team included linebacker Mike O 'Shea , veteran wide receiver Paul Masotti , and running back Robert Drummond . Derrell " Mookie " Mitchell was added at receiver in 1997 . The Boatmen took the Grey Cup in both 1996 and 1997 . Flutie would set team records for single season passing yards with more than 5 @,@ 500 in each year and for touchdowns thrown with 47 in 1997 ( one less than his CFL record of 48 ) before crossing the border to join the Buffalo Bills the next year . Massoti retired in 1999 as the team 's all time pass reception yardage leader . Clemons ended his own successful career in 2000 before returning to coach until 2007 .
The years after their back @-@ to @-@ back championships saw a return to mediocrity for the Argos . Ticket sales remained flat , and there were changes in ownership . Gimmicks to attract fans were greeted with criticism . The Argos seemingly bottomed out in July 2003 when the CFL stripped control over the team from owner Sherwood Schwarz . The team had amassed debts of over $ 20 million , including $ 17 @.@ 4 owed to Schwarz himself .
New ownership under David Cynamon and Howard Sokolowski brought immediate dividends with another Grey Cup win in 2004 . Veteran Damon Allen led the team to a team to 27 – 19 victory over the B.C. Lions , with Jon Avery a critical running threat . Allen would continue with the team until 2007 , and retired with professional football 's all @-@ time leading passing yardage ( 72 @,@ 381 ) .
The Argonauts saw winning seasons from 2005 to 2007 before bottoming out the next two years . They finished 2009 with just three wins . Critical players over this half decade included receiver Arland Bruce III , defensive star Byron Parker , and all @-@ star punter Noel Prefontaine . The team generated some controversy in 2006 when they lured running back Ricky Williams from the NFL . Williams had repeatedly violated NFL drug policies and was under suspension for the year ; he played just one season with the Argos .
In 2010 the team again saw an ownership change , with construction magnate David Braley , who also owns the Lions , taking control . After breaking even in 2010 and going 6 – 12 in 2011 , the Argonauts again acquired a championship nucleus in 2012 . Ricky Ray was brilliant at quarterback while Chad Owens emerged as arguably the league 's best special teams player . Owens broke Michael Clemons CFL record for all purpose yards and won the CFL Most Outstanding Player award that year . The 2012 Grey Cup was played in Toronto and the team took their first championship victory in the city since 1952 , a 35 – 22 win over Calgary .
= = Championship summary = =
The Toronto Argonauts currently lead the Canadian Football League in total wins and in winning percentage in the Grey Cup . Early success in the final can partly be attributed to the weakness of western teams : between 1921 and 1952 the Argonauts won in nine straight appearances , including six straight against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers . The team 's success is not merely an historical aberration , however : they have won six of their nine appearances since the formation of the CFL , including their last five straight .
For the entire Grey Cup era there has been some form of playoffs leading up to the Grey Cup game ; the 22 Argonauts teams who have won a spot in the final would , in modern terms , be called " Eastern Division Champions " . It is important to remember , however , that the route to the Grey Cup , participating teams , and playoff format have changed repeatedly over time .
As for the regular season , the CFL records 14 Argonauts teams at the top of the eastern divisional table since its formation in 1958 . Earlier data for the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union provides another 9 years from 1907 to 1957 in which the Argos were the best of the " Big Four , " for a total of 23 divisional wins . The only pre @-@ 1958 year in which the Argos won the IRFU but failed to make a Grey Cup appearance was 1922 , when they lost in semi @-@ final to Queen 's University .
Going back to an even earlier era , the Argonauts won the Ontario Rugby Football Union championship three times between 1883 and 1906 , including the league 's first two seasons , 1883 and 1884 . Their last victory as ORFU members came in 1901 . Given their losses in the Dominion Championship in 1884 and 1901 , the Argonauts would not earn the title " national champion " until their first Grey Cup win in 1914 .
= = Stadiums = =
The Toronto Argonauts ' first home was Rosedale Field at Mount Pleasant Road and MacLennan Avenue near the city centre . The team suggests its capacity was 10 @,@ 000 total with 4 @,@ 000 seated , though O 'Leary and Parrish list smaller numbers , noting that a $ 32 @,@ 000 renovation in 1883 allowed for a capacity of 2 @,@ 000 . The field has historic significance as the site of the first Grey Cup game in 1909 ; the CFL lists the game 's attendance as 3 @,@ 807 . The field still exists as part of Rosedale Park , although there are no grandstands .
Sources again differ on when the team permanently moved to Varsity Stadium on the grounds of the University of Toronto . The team gives dates of 1874 – 1897 and 1908 – 1915 at Rosedale , while other sources suggest the team had moved to Varsity by 1911 . Varsity would become indelibly linked with the Argonauts and the early years of Canadian football ; it was the home field of the great Argo dynasties of the 1930s and 1940s . For most of the Argos time at the stadium , its capacity was about 16 @,@ 000 , but this jumped above 20 @,@ 000 with a renovation in 1950 . Although it has not hosted a professional game since 1958 , it still holds the record for hosting the most Grey Cups with 30 .
Another home beckoned in 1959 with the renovation of the new Exhibition Stadium to accommodate Canadian football . Often remembered ruefully by Torontonians for its exposure to weather and poor sightlines , the stadium was nevertheless the site of the Argos ' greatest attendance in the late 1960s and 1970s . Particularly brutal conditions at the 70th Grey Cup in 1982 paved the way for the construction of a domed stadium in Toronto .
SkyDome ( Rogers Centre since 2004 ) has provided the Argonauts a marquee venue since 1989 , but also been criticized for its football sightlines and atmosphere . Even crowds of about 30 @,@ 000 can look sparse in a stadium that seats up to 50 @,@ 000 people . The domed environment does , at least , remove the elements and is an advantage to passers and comfortable for fans . Two critical opportunities to find a new home were missed in 2004 and 2005 : plans for a revamped Varsity Stadium to accommodate CFL @-@ sized crowds were thwarted by community opposition in 2004 , and the Argonauts withdrew from an alternate plan at York University the following year .
It was announced in 2013 that the Rogers Centre 's artificial turf would be replaced by natural grass within five years to better facilitate Toronto Blue Jays baseball . This will require the stadium 's movable stands to be permanently locked into position for baseball , making it impossible to host CFL games . The stadium issue generated significant press and raised concerns over the team 's long @-@ term viability given that the Argonauts losses have been estimated anywhere from $ 2 to $ 6 million annually . While various stadium rumours swirled over the course of David Braley 's tenure ( including building a new facility ) it became increasingly clear that a move to a renovated BMO Field was the only viable option .
The BMO Field move became finalized on May 20 , 2015 , concurrent with the announcement of the team 's sale to a consortium of MLSE shareholders Larry Tanenbaum and Bell Canada . The team will move following the completion of stadium renovations for the 2016 season . The $ 120 million renovation plan had originally been announced in March 2014 . The upgrades raise the stadium 's seating capacity from 21 @,@ 566 seats to 30 @,@ 000 for soccer , with 25 @,@ 000 seats in CFL configuration , and will be temporarily expandable with additional endzone seating to 40 @,@ 000 for big events such as a Grey Cup . The agreement requires MLSE to reach a " long @-@ term use ( i.e. 20 years ) " lease with the Argos for usage of the stadium . The inclusion of the CFL configuration had partly been at the insistence of the City of Toronto , which owns BMO Field , and had been planned in the original stadium agreement .
Following the demolition and reconstruction of the 5 @,@ 000 seat Varsity Stadium at the University of Toronto , the Argos returned to the stadium , hosting preseason games from 2013 to 2015 . The team also acquired a much @-@ needed training facility in July 2014 when it was announced that MLSE had partnered with the Argonauts to expand KIA Training Ground , Toronto FC 's new state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art academy and training facility .
= = Ownership and management = =
= = = Ownership history = = =
For more than eight decades , the Toronto Argonauts Football Club was the sole property of its namesake rowing club . By the 1950s , the team 's complex management structure made the arrangement increasingly awkward . Facing overdraft and with wealthy suitors knocking , the Argonaut rowers finally sold the team to a consortium led by John Bassett , Eric Cradock , and Charlie Burns in 1957 . Each held about 20 % share in the company , with the balance made up by small investors who had some affinity with the club ; the initial agreement called for a long @-@ term debenture of $ 400 @,@ 000 to be set up that would sustain the rowing club in the absence of its football income . Bassett was the operating head of the franchise and is often given sole credit for the initial purchase of the Argos , but Cradock was also instrumental in spearheading the drive . He would sell his share to Len Lumbers just two years into his tenure in part because of Bassett 's controlling nature . Bassett arranged a complete buyout of the other shareholders for $ 2 @.@ 31 million in 1971 through his holdings in Baton Broadcasting .
The Bassett years of the late @-@ 50s to early @-@ 70s were marked by mediocrity on the field but consistent success at the turnstiles . An issue that has become a perennial concern in the city also emerged at this time : the possibility of a National Football League team in Toronto . Various machinations were entertained by Bassett including moving the Argos to the NFL , bringing an American expansion team to the city ( e.g. the Toronto Northmen of the WFL ) , or expanding the CFL itself in the opposite direction . Other team owners steadfastly opposed Bassett 's moves and almost rescinded his franchise in 1974 ; angered , he sold the team for $ 3 @.@ 3 million to hotel magnate William R. Hodgson in the same year .
Hodgsen sold to Carling O 'Keefe in 1979 , who had been minority owners since 1976 . The brewing company 's total investment in the team was $ 5 @.@ 8 million . At the time it was rapidly ramping up its sports sponsorship ( it also owned the Quebec Nordiques before they moved from the World Hockey Association to the NHL ) and would become a huge benefactor to the CFL itself , inking television rights deals that would reach $ 11 million annually by 1984 . Reports at the time suggest the league became spoiled by the partnership and that when the money dried up in 1987 , the transition was difficult . For the Argos , the Carling O 'Keefe years were marked by their first modern @-@ era Grey Cup in 1983 .
The year 's following the Carling O 'Keefe era were marked by increasingly short ownership stints . Canadian businessman Harry Ornest bought the team off Carling O 'Keefe for $ 5 million at the end of 1988 and then sold to the trio of McNall ( 60 % ) , Candy ( 20 % ) , and Gretzky ( 20 % ) for the same amount in 1991 . Of the three , Candy is best remembered for his emotional investment in the team and a team player award continues in his honour . Given McNall 's indictment and Candy 's early death , the era was tumultuous and the last in which the club regularly made front page headlines . The now money @-@ losing team was sold to the Labatt Brewing Company through its TSN unit in 1994 for $ 4 @.@ 5 million . At the time , Labatt also owned the Toronto Blue Jays . In 1995 , Labatt was acquired by Interbrew ; The Interbrew years saw two championships but also the worst Argo attendance of the modern era . Interbrew soon lost interest in sports ownership and the team was sold again at the end of 1999 to New York businessman Sherwood Schwarz .
After the debacles of the Schwarz era and brief control of the team by the CFL ( see above ) the Argos were rescued by David Cynamon and Howard Sokolowski in 2004 . There was optimism surrounding the duo 's arrival and attendance figures improved in their six years heading the organization . It was also appreciated that the two were Torontonians after a quarter @-@ century of foreign and / or corporate ownership . But by 2010 losses were great enough that the team was again put on the block and eventually sold to David Braley . There was some controversy surrounding Braley 's takeover . He is simultaneously owner of the BC Lions , raising questions of competitive integrity . It was also revealed that Braley had bankrolled half of Cynamon and Sokolowski 's initial $ 2 million buy @-@ in of the Argos in 2004 , and covered half their subsequent losses , in exchange for half of the 2007 Grey Cup profits .
By 2014 Maple Leaf Sports and Entertainment and its chairman and minority owner Larry Tanenbaum had emerged as serious suitors for the team . On May 20 , 2015 , it was announced that an agreement had been reached for Argonauts to be sold to Tanenbaum 's Kilmer Sports and Bell Canada , who both own a stake in MLSE with Rogers Communications . Financial details were not disclosed . Despite its shared stake in MLSE , Rogers was not interested in having an ownership share in the Argonauts because it does not have any media relationships with the CFL ( unlike Bell , whose TSN division holds the broadcast rights to the league ) . Argonauts Holdings Limited Partnership , a holding company which Bell and Kilmer each own 50 % of , formally acquired the franchise on December 31 , 2015 .
= = = Senior executives = = =
Below the ownership level , the two most senior positions within the Toronto Argonauts organization are its president and general manager . The GM role was titled as " managing director " from 1957 to 1971 , while the president role is now included in the title of CEO .
The longest serving executive in the organization is Lew Hayman , who had a five decade career beginning in the 1930s as coach and administrator . A Jewish @-@ American , Hayman served with both the Argos and Montreal Alouettes and has been called " the architect of Canadian football . " He was the team 's first president and managing director at the insistence of Eric Cradock in 1957 , and would continue in the former role until 1981 . Ralph Sazio took over from Hayman and is another hall of fame builder .
After relative stability at the senior executive level for three decades , there has been significant turnover in the positions since the 1990s . The team had eight general managers in eight years , for example , between 1996 and 2003 . The current GM is Jim Barker , who was appointed at the end of 2010 . Chris Rudge , former head of the Canadian Olympic Committee , took over as president and CEO from the beginning of 2012 to the end of 2015 , when Michael Copeland took over .
= = = Head coaches = = =
55 men have served as Toronto Argonauts head coach . The current coach , Scott Milanovich , was appointed in 2011 . He has succeeded in reviving a stalled offence and led the team to a Grey Cup victory in 2012 .
The longest total tenure at head coach belongs to Bob O 'Billovich , who led the team for eleven years over three stints in the 1980s and early 90s . Other notable coaching careers include those of Joe Wright , Sr. at the end of the nineteenth century , Ted Morris and Frank Clair in the post @-@ war years , Leo Cahill in the late 60s and early 70s , and Pinball Clemons after the turn of the millennium .
Since 1961 , the Canadian Football League has awarded the Annis Stukus Trophy annually to the league 's outstanding coach . ( Alongside his playing career , Stukus achieved fame as a coach , promoter , and newspaper columnist . ) Argonauts coaches have been honoured seven times : Cahill ( 1971 ) , O 'Billovich ( 1981 & 1987 ) , Adam Rita ( 1991 ) , Don Matthews ( 1997 ) , Jim Barker ( 2010 ) , and Milanovich ( 2012 ) .
= = Current team = =
= = = Roster = = =
During the season , active roster sizes in the CFL are 46 and game day rosters number 42 , at least 20 of whom must be Canadian in accordance with the league 's " national player " rule ( formerly called the " non @-@ import " rule prior to 2014 ) . Training camp rosters are allowed to swell to 68 .
The current team is led at quarterback by Ricky Ray , who had three statistically brilliant seasons between 2012 and 2014 , earning eastern Most Outstanding Player nominations in the latter two years . Injuries have begun to take a toll on the QB and he enters the 2015 recovering from shoulder surgery ; attention has shifted to backup Trevor Harris who has waited three years for a chance at starting opportunities .
The Argonauts receiving corps , which was decimated by injuries in 2014 , saw significant turnover in the off @-@ season including the loss of standout John Chiles to an opportunity with the Chicago Bears . Chad Owens and Canadian Andre Durie are set to return but the rest of the unit is a bevy of untested imports , many of whom do not have a pro pass reception on their record . One important offensive piece remains in place for the 2015 season with the resigning of running back Curtis Steele .
An off @-@ season move on defense saw the trade for defensive linebacker Shea Emry , who led the team in tackles in 2014 , for defensive end Ricky Foley ; Foley has had previous success with the Toronto squad . Another change on the defensive side was the promotion of Casey Creehan to Defensive Coordinator . The team has been troubled in recent years by turnover in their defensive personnel and coaches . Tristan Okpalaugo , the 2014 sack leader for the team , remained on the roster until the end of the 2015 CFL season .
= = = Front office and coaching = = =
= = Rivalries = =
With few teams , but a long history , it is inevitable that intense rivalries have developed in Canadian football . Far and away the greatest Toronto Argonauts rivalry has been with the Hamilton Tiger @-@ Cats and its precursor teams . Fittingly , the Argonauts first game was against a club from Hamilton , while the raucous Eastern Final of 2013 — featuring a Tiger @-@ Cat win over the Argos in front of 35 @,@ 000 at the Rogers Centre — proved the rivalry is alive and well . The two teams meet in Hamilton every year in the Labour Day Classic , a league wide tradition since the late 1940s in which the game 's greatest rivalries are showcased .
To the east , the Argonauts have also faced off against teams from Montreal and Ottawa since their earliest days . In recent years , the Montreal Alouettes have consistently fielded strong teams and often run up against the Argos in the playoffs ; the teams have faced off eleven times in the Eastern Final , with Montreal taking six .
In 2014 , The Argonauts reignited their historic rivalry with an Ottawa Football Team as the team came back as the Ottawa REDBLACKS ( Other rivalries with Ottawa consisted of rivalries with the Ottawa Renegades and the Ottawa Rough Riders ) . In 5 games against the current Ottawa franchise ; the Argos maintain a winning record of 4 @-@ 1 @-@ 0 . The Argonauts won their last meeting with the Redblacks by a final score of 38 @-@ 35 in front of a crowd of 15 @,@ 001 people at TD Place in Ottawa on October 6th , 2015 .
At the Grey Cup level , the Argonauts have faced an assortment of teams in recent decades rather than any one team regularly . The Edmonton Eskimos , for years a dominant team in the league , became a rival . The two teams ' five Grey Cup match @-@ ups include an epic 38 – 36 Toronto loss in 1987 and most recently , the Snow Bowl victory in 1996 led by the arm of Doug Flutie . In the pre @-@ CFL days , the Argos had a Grey Cup rivalry with the Winnipeg Blue Bombers and a cross @-@ town rivalry with the University of Toronto in the first years of the Grey Cup championship , including the Argonauts ' first win in 1914 .
= = Notable personnel = =
The highest distinction the Toronto Argonauts can accord a player is to retire their number ; just four players have received the honour . Starting in 1996 , the team began another category of distinction with its list of " All @-@ Time Argos . " Twenty @-@ two players have been rewarded so far and a banner in their honour hangs at Rogers Centre .
Players and management personnel may be separately inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame . A total of 56 people who have been part of the team are in the Hall . The All @-@ Time Argos list does not extend back to before the Second War era while the Hall of Fame does . Thus , for instance , Lionel Conacher is in the Hall but not listed as an All @-@ Time Argo .
Finally , players may be honoured on an annual basis through the CFL awards . The most prestigious of these is the Most Outstanding Player Award , awarded since 1953 . Six Argonauts have been recipients : Chad Owens ( 2012 ) , Damon
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002 , Folding @ home used Markov state models to complete approximately a million CPU days of simulations over the span of several months , and in 2011 , MSMs parallelized another simulation that required an aggregate 10 million CPU hours of computing . In January 2010 , Folding @ home used MSMs to simulate the dynamics of the slow @-@ folding 32 @-@ residue NTL9 protein out to 1 @.@ 52 milliseconds , a timescale consistent with experimental folding rate predictions but a thousand times longer than formerly achieved . The model consisted of many individual trajectories , each two orders of magnitude shorter , and provided an unprecedented level of detail into the protein 's energy landscape . In 2010 , Folding @ home researcher Gregory Bowman was awarded the Thomas Kuhn Paradigm Shift Award from the American Chemical Society for the development of the open @-@ source MSMBuilder software and for attaining quantitative agreement between theory and experiment . For his work , Pande was awarded the 2012 Michael and Kate Bárány Award for Young Investigators for " developing field @-@ defining and field @-@ changing computational methods to produce leading theoretical models for protein and RNA folding " as well as the 2006 Irving Sigal Young Investigator Award for his simulation results which " have stimulated a re @-@ examination of the meaning of both ensemble and single @-@ molecule measurements , making Dr. Pande 's efforts pioneering contributions to simulation methodology . "
= = Biomedical research = =
Protein misfolding can result in a variety of diseases including Alzheimer 's disease , cancer , Creutzfeldt – Jakob disease , cystic fibrosis , Huntington 's disease , sickle @-@ cell anemia , and type II diabetes . Cellular infection by viruses such as HIV and influenza also involve folding events on cell membranes . Once protein misfolding is better understood , therapies can be developed that augment cells ' natural ability to regulate protein folding . Such therapies include the use of engineered molecules to alter the production of a certain protein , help destroy a misfolded protein , or assist in the folding process . The combination of computational molecular modeling and experimental analysis has the possibility of fundamentally shaping the future of molecular medicine and the rational design of therapeutics , such as expediting and lowering the costs of drug discovery . The goal of the first five years of Folding @ home was to make advances in understanding folding , while the current goal is to understand misfolding and related disease , especially Alzheimer 's disease .
The simulations run on Folding @ home are used in conjunction with laboratory experiments , but researchers can use them to study how folding in vitro differs from folding in native cellular environments . This is advantageous in studying aspects of folding , misfolding , and their relationships to disease that are difficult to observe experimentally . For example , in 2011 Folding @ home simulated protein folding inside a ribosomal exit tunnel , to help scientists better understand how natural confinement and crowding might influence the folding process . Furthermore , scientists typically employ chemical denaturants to unfold proteins from their stable native state . It is not generally known how the denaturant affects the protein 's refolding , and it is difficult to experimentally determine if these denatured states contain residual structures which may influence folding behavior . In 2010 , Folding @ home used GPUs to simulate the unfolded states of Protein L , and predicted its collapse rate in strong agreement with experimental results .
The Pande Lab is part of Stanford University , a non @-@ profit entity , and does not sell the results generated by Folding @ home . The large data sets from the project are freely available for other researchers to use upon request and some can be accessed from the Folding @ home website . The Pande lab has collaborated with other molecular dynamics systems such as the Blue Gene supercomputer , and they share Folding @ home 's key software with other researchers , so that the algorithms which benefited Folding @ home may aid other scientific areas . In 2011 , they released the open @-@ source Copernicus software , which is based on Folding @ home 's MSM and other parallelization techniques and aims to improve the efficiency and scaling of molecular simulations on large computer clusters or supercomputers . Summaries of all scientific findings from Folding @ home are posted on the Folding @ home website after publication .
= = = Alzheimer 's disease = = =
Alzheimer 's disease is an incurable neurodegenerative disease which most often affects the elderly and accounts for more than half of all cases of dementia . Its exact cause remains unknown , but the disease is identified as a protein misfolding disease . Alzheimer 's is associated with toxic aggregations of the amyloid beta ( Aβ ) peptide , caused by Aβ misfolding and clumping together with other Aβ peptides . These Aβ aggregates then grow into significantly larger senile plaques , a pathological marker of Alzheimer 's disease . Due to the heterogeneous nature of these aggregates , experimental techniques such as X @-@ ray crystallography and NMR have had difficulty characterizing their structures . Moreover , atomic simulations of Aβ aggregation are extremely computationally demanding due to their size and complexity .
Preventing Aβ aggregation is a promising approach to the development of therapeutic drugs for Alzheimer 's disease , according to Drs. Naeem and Fazili in a literature review article . In 2008 , Folding @ home simulated the dynamics of Aβ aggregation in atomic detail over timescales of the order of tens of seconds . Prior studies were only able to simulate about 10 microseconds — Folding @ home was able to simulate Aβ folding for six orders of magnitude longer than formerly possible . Researchers used the results of this study to identify a beta hairpin that was a major source of molecular interactions within the structure . The study helped prepare the Pande lab for future aggregation studies and for further research to find a small peptide which may stabilize the aggregation process .
In December 2008 , Folding @ home found several small drug candidates which appear to inhibit the toxicity of Aβ aggregates . In 2010 , in close cooperation with the Center for Protein Folding Machinery , these drug leads began to be tested on biological tissue . In 2011 , Folding @ home completed simulations of several mutations of Aβ that appear to stabilize the aggregate formation , which could aid in the development of therapeutic drug approaches to the disease and greatly assist with experimental NMR spectroscopy studies of Aβ oligomers . Later that year , Folding @ home began simulations of various Aβ fragments to determine how various natural enzymes affect the structure and folding of Aβ .
= = = Huntington 's disease = = =
Huntington 's disease is a neurodegenerative genetic disorder that is associated with protein misfolding and aggregation . Excessive repeats of the glutamine amino acid at the N @-@ terminus of the Huntingtin protein cause aggregation , and although the behavior of the repeats is not completely understood , it does lead to the cognitive decline associated with the disease . As with other aggregates , there is difficulty in experimentally determining its structure . Scientists are using Folding @ home to study the structure of the Huntingtin protein aggregate and to predict how it forms , assisting with rational drug design approaches to stop the aggregate formation . The N17 fragment of the Huntingtin protein accelerates this aggregation , and while there have been several mechanisms proposed , its exact role in this process remains largely unknown . Folding @ home has simulated this and other fragments to clarify their roles in the disease . Since 2008 , its drug design approaches for Alzheimer 's disease have been applied to Huntington 's .
= = = Cancer = = =
More than half of all known cancers involve mutations of p53 , a tumor suppressor protein present in every cell which regulates the cell cycle and signals for cell death in the event of damage to DNA . Specific mutations in p53 can disrupt these functions , allowing an abnormal cell to continue growing unchecked , resulting in the development of tumors . Analysis of these mutations helps explain the root causes of p53 @-@ related cancers . In 2004 , Folding @ home was used to perform the first molecular dynamics study of the refolding of p53 's protein dimer in an all @-@ atom simulation of water . The simulation 's results agreed with experimental observations and gave insights into the refolding of the dimer that were formerly unobtainable . This was the first peer reviewed publication on cancer from a distributed computing project . The following year , Folding @ home powered a new method to identify the amino acids crucial for the stability of a given protein , which was then used to study mutations of p53 . The method was reasonably successful in identifying cancer @-@ promoting mutations and determined the effects of specific mutations which could not otherwise be measured experimentally .
Folding @ home is also used to study protein chaperones , heat shock proteins which play essential roles in cell survival by assisting with the folding of other proteins in the crowded and chemically stressful environment within a cell . Rapidly growing cancer cells rely on specific chaperones , and some chaperones play key roles in chemotherapy resistance . Inhibitions to these specific chaperones are seen as potential modes of action for efficient chemotherapy drugs or for reducing the spread of cancer . Using Folding @ home and working closely with the Center for Protein Folding Machinery , the Pande lab hopes to find a drug which inhibits those chaperones involved in cancerous cells . Researchers are also using Folding @ home to study other molecules related to cancer , such as the enzyme Src kinase and certain forms of the engrailed homeodomain — a large protein which may be involved in many diseases , including cancer . In 2011 , Folding @ home began simulations of the dynamics of the small knottin protein EETI , which can identify carcinomas in imaging scans by binding to surface receptors of cancer cells .
Interleukin 2 ( IL @-@ 2 ) is a protein that helps T cells of the immune system attack pathogens and tumors . Unfortunately , its use as a cancer treatment is restricted due to serious side effects such as pulmonary edema . IL @-@ 2 binds to these pulmonary cells differently than it does to T cells , so IL @-@ 2 research involves understanding the differences between these binding mechanisms . In 2012 , Folding @ home assisted with the discovery of a form of IL @-@ 2 which is three hundred times more effective in its immune system role but carries fewer side effects . In experiments , this altered form significantly outperformed natural IL @-@ 2 in impeding tumor growth . Pharmaceutical companies have expressed interest in the mutant molecule , and the National Institutes of Health are testing it against a large variety of tumor models in the hopes of accelerating its development as a therapeutic .
= = = Osteogenesis imperfecta = = =
Osteogenesis imperfecta , known as brittle bone disease , is an incurable genetic bone disorder which can be lethal . Those with the disease are unable to make functional connective bone tissue . This is most commonly due to a mutation in Type @-@ I collagen , which fulfills a variety of structural roles and is the most abundant protein in mammals . The mutation causes a deformation in collagen 's triple helix structure , which if not naturally destroyed , leads to abnormal and weakened bone tissue . In 2005 , Folding @ home tested a new quantum mechanical method that improved upon prior simulation methods , and which may be useful for future computational studies of collagen . Although researchers have used Folding @ home to study collagen folding and misfolding , the interest stands as a pilot project compared to Alzheimer 's and Huntington 's research .
= = = Viruses = = =
Folding @ home is assisting in research towards preventing certain viruses such as influenza and HIV from recognizing and entering biological cells . In 2011 , Folding @ home began simulations of the dynamics of the enzyme RNase H , a key component of HIV , in the hopes of designing drugs to deactivate it . Folding @ home has also been used to study membrane fusion , an essential event for viral infection and a wide range of biological functions . This fusion involves conformational changes of viral fusion proteins and protein docking , but the exact molecular mechanisms behind fusion remain largely unknown . Fusion events may consist of over a half million atoms interacting for hundreds of microseconds . This complexity limits typical computer simulations to about ten thousand atoms over tens of nanoseconds : a difference of several orders of magnitude . The development of models to predict the mechanisms of membrane fusion will assist in the scientific understanding of how to target the process with antiviral drugs . In 2006 , scientists applied Markov state models and the Folding @ home network to discover two pathways for fusion and gain other mechanistic insights .
Following detailed simulations from Folding @ home of small cells known as vesicles , in 2007 the Pande lab introduced a new computational technique for measuring the topology of its structural changes during fusion . In 2009 , researchers used Folding @ home to study mutations of influenza hemagglutinin , a protein that attaches a virus to its host cell and assists with viral entry . Mutations to hemagglutinin affect how well the protein binds to a host 's cell surface receptor molecules , which determines how infective the virus strain is to the host organism . Knowledge of the effects of hemagglutinin mutations assists in the development of antiviral drugs . As of 2012 , Folding @ home continues to simulate the folding and interactions of hemagglutinin , complementing experimental studies at the University of Virginia .
= = = Drug design = = =
Drugs function by binding to specific locations on target molecules and causing a certain desired change , such as disabling the target or causing a conformational change . Ideally , a drug should act very specifically and bind only to its target without interfering with other biological functions . However , it is difficult to precisely determine where and how tightly two molecules will bind . Due to limitations in computational power , current in silico approaches usually have to trade speed for accuracy ; e.g. use rapid protein docking methods instead of computationally expensive free energy calculations . Folding @ home 's computational performance allows researchers to use both techniques , and evaluate their efficiency and reliability . Computer @-@ assisted drug design has the potential to expedite and lower the costs of drug discovery . In 2010 , Folding @ home used MSMs and free energy calculations to predict the native state of the villin protein to within 1 @.@ 8 Å RMSD ( root mean square deviation ) from the crystalline structure experimentally determined through X @-@ ray crystallography . This accuracy has implications to future protein structure prediction approaches , including for intrinsically unstructured proteins . Scientists have used Folding @ home to research drug resistance by studying vancomycin , an antibiotic of " last resort " , and beta @-@ lactamase , a protein that can break down antibiotics like penicillin .
Chemical activity occurs along a protein 's active site . Traditional drug design approaches involve tightly binding to this site and blocking its activity , under the assumption that the target protein exists in a single rigid structure . However , this approach only works for approximately 15 % of all proteins . Proteins contain allosteric sites which , when bound to by small molecules , can alter a protein 's conformation and ultimately affect the protein 's activity . These sites are attractive drug targets , but locating them is very computationally expensive . In 2012 , Folding @ home and MSMs were used to identify allosteric sites in three medically relevant proteins : beta @-@ lactamase , interleukin @-@ 2 , and RNase H.
Approximately half of all known antibiotics interfere with the workings of a bacteria 's ribosome , a large and complex biochemical machine that performs protein biosynthesis by translating messenger RNA into proteins . Macrolide antibiotics clog the ribosome 's exit tunnel , preventing synthesis of essential bacterial proteins . In 2007 , the Pande lab received a grant to study and design new antibiotics . In 2008 , they used Folding @ home to study the interior of this tunnel and how specific molecules may affect it . The full structure of the ribosome has only been recently determined , and Folding @ home has also simulated ribosomal proteins , as many of their functions remain largely unknown .
= = Participation = =
In addition to reporting active processors , Folding @ home determines its computing performance as measured in floating point operations per second ( FLOPS ) based on the actual execution time of its calculations . Originally this was reported as native FLOPS : the raw performance from each given type of processing hardware . In March 2009 Folding @ home began reporting the performance in native and x86 FLOPS , the latter being an estimation of how many FLOPS the calculation would take on a standard x86 CPU architecture , which is commonly used as a performance reference . Specialized hardware such as GPUs can efficiently perform certain complex functions in a single floating point operation which would otherwise require multiple operations on the x86 architecture . The x86 measurement attempts to even out these hardware differences . Despite conservative conversions , the GPU clients ' x86 FLOPS are consistently greater than their native FLOPS and comprise a large majority of Folding @ home 's measured computing performance .
In 2007 , Guinness World Records recognized Folding @ home as the most powerful distributed computing network . As of September 30 , 2014 , the project has
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6 , 2012 , Sony concluded support for the Folding @ home PS3 client and other services available under Life with PlayStation . Over its lifetime of five years and 7 months , more than 15 million users contributed over 100 million hours of computation to Folding @ home , greatly assisting the project with disease research . Following discussions with the Pande lab , Sony decided to terminate the application . Pande considers the PlayStation 3 client a " game changer " for the project .
= = = = Multi @-@ core processing client = = = =
Folding @ home can use the parallel computing abilities of modern multi @-@ core processors . The ability to use several CPU cores simultaneously allows completing the full simulation far faster . Working together , these CPU cores complete single work units proportionately faster than the standard uniprocessor client . This approach is scientifically valuable because it enables much longer simulation trajectories to be performed in the same amount of time , and reduces the traditional difficulties of scaling a large simulation to many separate processors . A 2007 publication in the Journal of Molecular Biology relied on multi @-@ core processing to simulate the folding of part of the villin protein approximately 10 times longer than was possible with a single @-@ processor client , in agreement with experimental folding rates .
In November 2006 , first @-@ generation symmetric multiprocessing ( SMP ) clients were publicly released for open beta testing , referred to as SMP1 . These clients used Message Passing Interface ( MPI ) communication protocols for parallel processing , as at that time the GROMACS cores were not designed to be used with multiple threads . This was the first time a distributed computing project had used MPI . Although the clients performed well in Unix @-@ based operating systems such as Linux and OS X , they were troublesome under Windows . On January 24 , 2010 , SMP2 , the second generation of the SMP clients and the successor to SMP1 , was released as an open beta and replaced the complex MPI with a more reliable thread @-@ based implementation .
SMP2 supports a trial of a special category of " bigadv " work units , designed for simulating proteins that are unusually large and computationally intensive and have a great scientific priority . These units originally required a minimum of eight CPU cores , which was later increased on February 7 , 2012 to sixteen CPU cores . In addition to these additional hardware requirements over standard SMP2 work units , they require more system resources such as random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) and Internet bandwidth . In return , users who run these are rewarded with a 20 % increase over SMP2 's bonus point system . The bigadv category allows Folding @ home to run particularly demanding simulations on long timescales that had formerly required the use of supercomputing clusters and could not be performed anywhere else on Folding @ home . Many users with hardware capable of running bigadv units have later had their hardware setup deemed ineligible for bigadv work units when CPU core minimums were increased , leaving them only able to run the normal SMP work units . This frustrated many users who invested significant amounts of money into the program only to have their hardware be obsolete for bigadv purposes shortly after . As a result , Vijay Pande announced in January 2014 that the bigadv program would end on January 31 , 2015 .
= = = = V7 = = = =
The V7 client is the seventh and latest generation of the Folding @ home client software , and is a complete rewrite and unification of the prior clients for Microsoft Windows , OS X and Linux operating systems . It was released on March 22 , 2012 . Like its predecessors , V7 can run Folding @ home in the background at a very low priority , allowing other applications to use CPU resources as they need . It is designed to make the installation , start @-@ up , and operation more user @-@ friendly for novices , as well as offer greater scientific flexibility to researchers than prior clients . V7 uses Trac for managing its bug tickets so that users can see its development process and provide feedback .
V7 consists of four integrated elements . The user typically interacts with V7 's open @-@ source GUI , known as FAHControl . This has Novice , Advanced , and Expert user interface modes , and has the ability to monitor , configure , and control many remote folding clients from a single computer . FAHControl directs FAHClient — a back @-@ end application that in turn manages each FAHSlot ( or " slot " ) . Each slot acts as replacement for the formerly distinct Folding @ home v6 uniprocessor , SMP , or GPU computer clients , as it can download , process , and upload work units independently . The FAHViewer function , modeled after the PS3 's viewer , displays a real @-@ time 3 @-@ D rendering , if available , of the protein currently being processed .
= = = = Google Chrome = = = =
In 2014 , a client for the Google Chrome and Chromium web browsers was released , allowing users to run Folding @ home in their web browser . The client uses Google 's Native Client ( NaCl ) feature on Chromium @-@ based web browsers to run the Folding @ Home code at near @-@ native speed in a sandbox on the user 's machine .
= = = = Android = = = =
In July 2015 , a client for Android mobile phones was introduced , which is available on Google Play .
= = Comparison to other molecular simulators = =
Rosetta @ home is a distributed computing project aimed at protein structure prediction and is one of the most accurate tertiary structure predictors . The conformational states from Rosetta 's software can be used to initialize a Markov state model as starting points for Folding @ home simulations . Conversely , structure prediction algorithms can be improved from thermodynamic and kinetic models and the sampling aspects of protein folding simulations . As Rosetta only tries to predict the final folded state , and not how proteins fold , Rosetta @ home and Folding @ home are complementary and address very different molecular questions .
Anton is a special @-@ purpose supercomputer constructed for molecular dynamics simulations . In October 2011 Anton and Folding @ home were the two most powerful molecular dynamics systems . Anton is unique in its ability to produce single ultra @-@ long computationally expensive molecular trajectories , such as one in 2010 which reached the millisecond range . These long trajectories may be particularly helpful towards certain types of biochemical problems . However , Anton does not use Markov state models for analysis . In 2011 , the Pande lab constructed a MSM from two 100 @-@ µs Anton simulations and found alternative folding pathways that were not visible through Anton 's traditional analysis . They concluded that there was little difference between MSMs constructed from a limited number of long trajectories or one assembled from many shorter trajectories . In June 2011 Folding @ home began additional sampling of an Anton simulation in an effort to better determine how its techniques compare to Anton 's methods . However , unlike Folding @ home 's shorter trajectories , which are more amenable to distributed computing and other parallelization techniques , longer trajectories do not require adaptive sampling to sufficiently sample the protein 's phase space . Due to this , it is possible that a combination of Anton 's and Folding @ home 's simulation methods would provide a more thorough sampling of this space .
= Lure of the Temptress =
Lure of the Temptress is Revolution Software 's debut point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game published by Virgin Interactive Entertainment . It was released in June 1992 for Atari ST , DOS and Amiga home computers . The player assumes the role of a young peasant named Diermot who has to overthrow an evil sorceress . Lure of the Temptress is the first game built with the Virtual Theatre engine , which Revolution used in the subsequent games Beneath a Steel Sky and the first two games in the Broken Sword series . It was received favourably by critics , a commercial success and re @-@ released as freeware on April 1 , 2003 .
= = Gameplay = =
Lure of the Temptress is a 2D adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective . Via a point @-@ and @-@ click interface and a system of drop @-@ down lists , the player guides protagonist Diermot through the game 's world and interacts with the environment by selecting from multiple commands .
The player controls Diermot 's movements and actions with a mouse or a gamepad . Diermot can pick up various objects ; these can then be used with either other collectible objects , parts of the scenery , or with other people in order to solve puzzles and progress in the game . He can also engage in dialogue with other characters through conversation trees to gain hints of what needs to be done to solve the puzzles or progress the plot . A few simple action @-@ oriented battle scenes are also included .
= = Plot = =
A young peasant named Diermot is employed as a beater for the king 's hunting party . One night the king receives a note from a messenger , requesting his services to help quell a rebellion in the remote village of Turnvale . As the king 's party departs , Diermot ’ s pony follows them , unwittingly carrying him to the battle . When the party arrives at Turnvale they are not confronted by a peasant revolt . Instead they find a band of man @-@ eating Skorl , led by an enchantress named Selena , the titular temptress . The king 's men are defeated and the king is killed . In the process , Diermot is thrown from his saddle and is knocked unconscious . The Skorl take Diermot prisoner and imprison him in the local dungeon .
With help from a peasant named Ratpouch , Diermot manages to escape from the dungeon and visits Luthern , the blacksmith . Luthern reveals that a girl named Goewin who runs a herb shop has recently disappeared . Diermot discovers that she had been arrested by the Skorl . With help from Ratpouch , Diermot breaks into the house of Taidgh , the magician , where he creates a potion which disguises him as Selena . He enters the mansion where Goewin is being held and orders the Skorl to free her . Not long after , a man named Mallin gives Diermot a book wrapped in cloth to take to a man named Morkus . In the process of delivering the book , Diermot sees a notice stating that whoever returns the book to its rightful owner will be rewarded . Diermot delivers the book to a man named Toby , who rewards him with a statuette . Toby reveals that the dragon can help Diermot defeat Selena , but that he will need an infusion made of three herbs to wake the dragon up , which Goewin then makes for Diermot .
Diermot enters the dragon 's cave and wakes him up . The dragon agrees to help Diermot , revealing that Turnvale was the domain of a demon long before humans came to the area . This demon should have died along with his breed long ago , but did not perish because it was able to feed on man 's greed and ambition in order to survive . The demon was driven out by the great Gethryn , but the young sorceress Selena 's meddling with evil has reawakened the demon , and it controls her mortal form . The dragon possesses the Eye of Gethryn , an enchanted stone left by Gethryn at the time of his death . The stone contains the power to defeat the demon , and the dragon then gives the stone to Diermot . A Skorl named Wayne , who turns against Selena , sneaks Diermot into Selena 's castle in a barrel . Diermot defeats Selena with the Eye of Gethryn , freeing Turnvale from her tyranny .
= = Development and release = =
Charles Cecil and Tony Warriner had worked together at Artic Computing , an English video game development company . In 1990 , they decided that they would set up their own video game development company , together with David Sykes and Noirin Carmody . The four started up Revolution Software , initially based in Hull , with a 10 thousand pounds loan from Cecil 's mother . Cecil wanted the game to differ from popular Sierra games at the time , saying : " While I enjoyed Sierra games , I felt that there had to be more than yet again saving King Graham of Daventry from a – let ’ s be frank – fairly unlikely series of events . It was all a little bit twee . So we came up with the idea of writing an adventure game that did not take itself too seriously , but did have a serious story – something in @-@ between Lucasarts and Sierra . " The game was published by Virgin Interactive Entertainment .
Lure of the Temptress was the first game built with the Virtual Theatre engine , which allowed in @-@ game characters to wander around the gameworld independently of each other , performing " every day life " actions , which had not previously been featured in a game . It was later used for Beneath a Steel Sky and the first two games in the Broken Sword series . The title cost between 20 and 30 thousand pounds .
On April 1 , 2003 , the game was released as freeware . The data files are available from the Revolution Software website for download and the game 's engine has been added to ScummVM . This version of Lure of the Temptress was released on GOG.com on December 18 , 2008 .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , Lure of the Temptress was received favorably by critics , who praised the game 's innovative controls and graphics , and compared it to Sierra and LucasFilm games . In 1993 , Dragon gave the game 4 out of 5 stars . Computer Gaming World liked the game 's sophisticated NPC interactions and how it prevented unwinnable situations , but criticized its short playing time . The magazine concluded that " Lure of the Temptress is a fine first release from this developer and bodes well for the future " . Amiga Power ranked it at # 47 in 1993 , and at # 66 in 1994 , on their list of Amiga Power All @-@ Time Top 100 . In 2011 , Wirtualna Polska ranked it as the 30th best Amiga game , saying it was " indeed a revolution " in the genre . It was also a commercial success , reaching number one in the British Gallup charts at the beginning of July 1992 and remaining in the Top 20 for most of the rest of the year .
Amiga Format stated that this " fine adventure game well worth investigating " could compete with Sierra and LucasFilm games ; " in any event , Temptress surpasses almost anything Sierra have offered , by being larger , funnier , and a whole lot better drawn ... an innovative system knocks spots of the Sierra @-@ standards and shows LucasFilm a thing or two " and also praised its humour , saying that there 's " a good dose of tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humour and fairy @-@ tale nonsense . " The One praised the game 's controls , saying that " the game 's impressive user @-@ friendliness is undoubtably one of its strong points , " adding that " Lure of the Temptress is every bit as professional and polished as anything the Americans and French have been able to offer us recently " but " Lure is , if anything , a little too serious and sombre " and that " LucasFilm 's games boast the more interesting characters and interaction sequences . " Amiga Power praised its graphics , saying they are " very pretty drawn , with the dark , moody look you 'd expect from a town being oppressed by an evil Temptress , " calling it " one of the best graphic adventures ever " that 's " up there with Monkey Island 1 and Beneath a Steel Sky , " and adding that the " only drawback is that it 's shorter than your average adventure . " Mega Zone praised the game , stating that it is a " Sierra / Lucasfilmish with really , really good playability . We 're talking 32 colours graphics which look really nice , with playability which is really smooth , and simply pure gaming enjoyment here , " adding that " the manual is very well written , the sound the graphics are all there , disc access is very good , and looking at the way the whole game is put together right down to the intro it 's one of the most amazing Amiga Adventures every written ! An Adventure Zone classic ! " Stuart Campbell of Amiga Power opined that Core Design 's rival 1992 fantasy adeventure game Curse of Enchantia ( also published by Virgin ) was " a funny version of Lure of the Temptress with a different plot . "
Adventure Classic Gaming was less positive in its retrospective review , stating " what makes Lure of the Temptress fun — but also annoying — is the game 's unique gameplay engine " and that its graphics " unfortunately do not hold up well over the passage of time , " but that many of the backgrounds are " quite beautiful " and summarizing by stating , " While far from being a dull game , Lure of the Temptress is also full of clichés and stagnant periods of gameplay which ultimately undermine the game 's overall enjoyment . "
= The Economist ( Lost ) =
" The Economist " is the third episode of the fourth season and 75th episode overall of the ABC 's serial drama television series Lost . It was aired on February 14 , 2008 , on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producers Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz and directed by executive producer Jack Bender . In the episode 's narrative , Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) and Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) negotiate for John Locke 's ( Terry O 'Quinn ) hostage Charlotte Lewis ( Rebecca Mader ) , while physicist and Kahana crew member Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) discovers that time on the island runs at an offset from the rest of the world . Another storyline follows Sayid working as an assassin after being rescued from the island .
" The Economist " was watched by 14 million American viewers and received positive reactions from critics .
= = Plot = =
Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) and Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) , calling himself Marvin Candle , argue about what to do about leader of the Others , Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) , and Miles 's colleague Charlotte , both sought after by Miles and his colleagues and taken prisoner by Locke . Sayid pays his respects to Naomi Dorrit , and takes her bracelet . He then offers to retrieve Charlotte without bloodshed , in return gaining a helicopter flight to the freighter anchored offshore . He takes along Miles and Kate . Sayid asks Jack not to come with them as he might be unpredictable around Locke .
While Sayid is gone , Daniel asks Regina ( Zoë Bell ) , a colleague on the freighter to shoot a projectile onto the island . Regina does so , but the projectile does not arrive for thirty minutes . When it lands , Daniel extracts a clock from the payload and finds that the two times , that running on the island and that running outside , are not synchronized .
The survivors led by Locke arrive at the location of Jacob 's cabin , but find the area deserted . Locke changes his course to the barracks , and uses Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) to ambush Sayid , Kate and Miles . Kate is watched by James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) , and they discuss their reasons for wanting or not wanting to go home . Kate , realizing that she would be arrested for her crimes upon rescue , defects to Locke 's group . Sayid negotiates with Locke to exchange Charlotte with Miles , in order to get access to the boat . Locke tells him that wouldn 't be necessary as Ben has a spy on that freighter , to which Sayid responds that he would rather sell his soul than trust Ben .
At the helicopter , Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) confronts pilot Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) about the picture Naomi had of him and his ex @-@ fiancé Penelope Widmore ( Sonya Walger ) . Frank denies any knowledge of her , but Desmond nevertheless demands a place on a helicopter . At the same time , Sayid returns , with only Charlotte . While Frank accuses Sayid of being dishonest , he considered Miles a " pain in the ass " , and agrees to fly him offshore .
The episode 's flashforwards are centered on Sayid in Berlin , who had since become one of the Oceanic Six . He is hired as an assassin , and courts a German woman , Elsa ( Thekla Reuten ) , in order to get closer to her employer ( the eponymous " economist " ) . After several dates , Sayid turns on Elsa , who reveals herself to be a counter @-@ spy by unexpectedly shooting Sayid in the shoulder . Sayid is able to shoot and kill Elsa . As the episode ends , Sayid is treated for his wound by Ben , who gives him another assignment . Sayid is now wary since they now know that he 's after them , to which Ben replies , " Good " .
= = Production = =
The story of Sayid 's future was influenced by spy fiction — in particular , the writing eventually " gravitated " towards a story much like the Jason Bourne franchise . The story was justified by Sayid 's status as part of the " Oceanic Six " , as his celebrity status would provide the perfect cover for his clandestine activities . The episode was written in autumn 2007 . At the end of the first scene in Berlin , the flag shown on the building across the street from where Sayid stands is actually that of the former East German GDR .
An important scene in the episode regarded Faraday 's experiment and the resulting time differential . The scene set up a prominent theme of " time @-@ travel " for later episodes . In the episode 's respective podcast , Lost 's show runners Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof further discussed the time differential as part of an already existing theme regarding transport between the island and the rest of the world . In particular , the theme was alluded to the " Orchid video " , a Dharma Initiative video that premiered at the 2007 Comic @-@ Con.
However , some scenes in the episode gained unintentional significance . The Boston Red Sox won the World Series for the second time in three years after the episode was written , which prompted the question " Is it possible Lapidus is actually from 2008 ? " due to his annoyed reply . Likewise , the only reason that Elsa and Naomi had similar bracelets was that it would serve as an " emotional touchstone " for Sayid . After the episode , the producers received several emails about both issues .
Andrews enjoyed his role in " The Economist " . He appreciated that , unlike the third season , he was able to " push the story forward " , which he thought was " infinitely more interesting and rewarding . " The premise " threw [ him ] for a loop " , and he was pleased with how complex the episode was .
= = Reception = =
" The Economist " was seen by 13 @.@ 76 million American viewers , making Lost the fourth most watched program of the week . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 8 / 15 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic . In Great Britain , Lost brought in 1 @.@ 2 million viewers .
The first four episodes of the fourth season were watched beforehand by TV Guide , who called them " worth the wait " and " emotionally satisfying " . TV Guide also stated that they " provide gaspworthy plot twists that should whip fans into a theory @-@ spinning tizzy . " Sarah Vasques of eFluxMedia thought the scene where Daniel discovers the time discrepancy the most mind @-@ blowing scene of the episode . Entertainment Weekly commented that " for the second straight year , Cupid was kicked in the nuts " , as the episode " Flashes Before Your Eyes " also aired on St. Valentine 's Day . Also discussed in the review was possible Biblical allegory to the Book of Daniel . However , Mark Madley of The National Post thought that this episode , along with the previous two , gave away too much plot detail , and compared the off @-@ island storyline to " that awful Stallone / Banderas movie Assassins " . Don Williams of BuddyTV thought that the scene where Sayid disposes of his cellphone after calling Ben " like an episode of Alias " , and finished his recap by saying " consider my mind blown again " . MaryAnn Johanson of Film.com called the episode " mind @-@ blowing " , and theorized that Sayid had been working for Ben before the crash , and that the crash of Oceanic 815 was deliberate . Chris Carabott of IGN stated that , in the episode " Sayid Jarrah is a badass who could give Jack Bauer , James Bond , and Jason Bourne all a run for their money " , and praised Lost 's nature for being able to have " a lighthearted episode featuring Hurley [ one week ] and the next can be an action spy thriller starring Sayid . " He praised the episode for being a perfect example of serialized television , and thought that Elsa 's double cross to be " very reminiscent of Vesper Lynd and her true employer in Casino Royale " . Overall , he rated the episode 8 @.@ 6 out of 10 .
= Homer and Apu =
" Homer and Apu " is the thirteenth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 10 , 1994 . In the episode , Homer participates in a hidden camera investigation of the expired meat selling at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart . Apu is immediately fired and replaced by actor James Woods , who is doing research for a role in an upcoming film . Apu begins to miss his job at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , so in an attempt to get it back , Apu and Homer travel to India to talk with the head of the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart corporation .
The episode was written by Greg Daniels , and directed by Mark Kirkland . James Woods made a guest appearance as himself . The episode features cultural references to films such as The Hard Way , JFK , and Lawrence of Arabia . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 3 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
At the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , Apu is selling items to customers at outrageous prices , like normal . Apu scribbles out the best before date and then lowers the price on expired ham from 1989 instead of throwing it out . Homer buys the meat , eats it , and contracts food poisoning . After recovering , Homer returns to the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart to complain , and Apu gives him two five @-@ pound buckets of expired shrimp to placate him . Homer eats the shrimp and gets the same symptoms . Whilst recovering at home , Homer sees the investigative news program Bite Back with Kent Brockman , hosted by Channel 6 journalist Kent Brockman . Lisa gives him the idea to get the
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I will make the signal for recall for Nelson 's sake . If he is in a condition to continue the action he will disregard it ; if he is not , it will be an excuse for his retreat and no blame can be attached to him .
Nelson , directing action aboard HMS Elephant , was informed of the signal by the signal lieutenant , Frederick Langford , but angrily responded : ' I told you to look out on the Danish commodore and let me know when he surrendered . Keep your eyes fixed on him . ' He then turned to his flag captain , Thomas Foley , and said ' You know , Foley , I have only one eye . I have a right to be blind sometimes . ' He raised the telescope to his blind eye , and said ' I really do not see the signal . ' The battle lasted three hours , leaving both Danish and British fleets heavily damaged . At length Nelson dispatched a letter to the Danish commander , Crown Prince Frederick , calling for a truce , which the Prince accepted . Parker approved of Nelson 's actions in retrospect , and Nelson was given the honour of going into Copenhagen the next day to open formal negotiations . At a banquet that evening , he told Prince Frederick that the battle had been the most severe he had ever been in . The outcome of the battle and several weeks of ensuing negotiations was a 14 @-@ week armistice , and on Parker 's recall in May , Nelson became commander @-@ in @-@ chief in the Baltic Sea . As a reward for the victory , he was created Viscount Nelson of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk , on 19 May 1801 . In addition , on 4 August 1801 , he was created Baron Nelson , of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk , this time with a special remainder to his father and sisters . Nelson subsequently sailed to the Russian naval base at Reval ( now Tallinn ) in May , and there learned that the pact of armed neutrality was to be disbanded . Satisfied with the outcome of the expedition , he returned to England , arriving on 1 July .
= = = Leave in England = = =
In France , Napoleon was massing forces to invade Great Britain . After a brief spell in London , where he again visited the Hamiltons , Nelson was placed in charge of defending the English Channel to prevent the invasion . He spent the summer reconnoitring the French coast , but apart from a failed attack on Boulogne in August , saw little action . On 22 October 1801 the Peace of Amiens was signed between the British and the French , and Nelson – in poor health again – retired to Britain where he stayed with Sir William and Lady Hamilton . On 30 October Nelson spoke in support of the Addington government in the House of Lords , and afterwards made regular visits to attend sessions . The three embarked on a tour of England and Wales , visiting Birmingham , Warwick , Gloucester , Swansea , Monmouth and numerous other towns and villages . Nelson often found himself received as a hero and was the centre of celebrations and events held in his honour . In 1802 , Nelson bought Merton Place , a country estate in Merton , Surrey ( now south @-@ west London ) where he lived briefly with the Hamiltons until William 's death in April 1803 . The following month , war broke out again and Nelson prepared to return to sea .
= = Return to sea = =
Nelson was appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Mediterranean Fleet and given the first @-@ rate HMS Victory as his flagship . He joined her at Portsmouth , where he received orders to sail to Malta and take command of a squadron there before joining the blockade of Toulon . Nelson arrived off Toulon in July 1803 and spent the next year and a half enforcing the blockade . He was promoted to Vice Admiral of the White while still at sea , on 23 April 1804 . In January 1805 the French fleet , under Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve , escaped Toulon and eluded the blockading British . Nelson set off in pursuit but after searching the eastern Mediterranean he learned that the French had been blown back into Toulon . Villeneuve managed to break out a second time in April , and this time succeeded in passing through the Strait of Gibraltar and into the Atlantic , bound for the West Indies .
Nelson gave chase , but after arriving in the Caribbean , spent June in a fruitless search for the fleet . Villeneuve had briefly cruised around the islands before heading back to Europe , in contravention of Napoleon 's orders . The returning French fleet was intercepted by a British fleet under Sir Robert Calder and engaged in the Battle of Cape Finisterre , but managed to reach Ferrol with only minor losses . Nelson returned to Gibraltar at the end of July , and travelled from there to England , dismayed at his failure to bring the French to battle and expecting to be censured . To his surprise he was given a rapturous reception from crowds who had gathered to view his arrival , while senior British officials congratulated him for sustaining the close pursuit and credited him with saving the West Indies from a French invasion . Nelson stayed briefly in London , where he was cheered wherever he went , before visiting Merton to see Emma , arriving in late August . He entertained a number of his friends and relations there over the coming month , and began plans for a grand engagement with the enemy fleet , one that would surprise his foes by forcing a pell @-@ mell battle on them .
Captain Henry Blackwood arrived at Merton early on 2 September , bringing news that the French and Spanish fleets had combined and were currently at anchor in Cádiz . Nelson hurried to London where he met cabinet ministers and was given command of the fleet blockading Cádiz . It was while attending one of these meetings on 12 September , with Lord Castlereagh , the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies , that Nelson and Major General Arthur Wellesley , the future Duke of Wellington , met briefly in a waiting room . Wellington was waiting to be debriefed on his Indian operations , and Nelson on his chase and future plans . Wellington later recalled , ' He ( Nelson ) entered at once into conversation with me , if I can call it conversation , for it was almost all on his side and all about himself and , in reality , a style so vain and so silly as to surprise and almost disgust me . ' However , after a few minutes Nelson left the room and having been told who his companion was , returned and entered into an earnest and intelligent discussion with the young Wellesley which lasted for a quarter of an hour , on the war , the state of the colonies and the geopolitical situation , that left a marked impression upon Wellesley . This was the only meeting between the two men .
Nelson returned briefly to Merton to set his affairs in order and bid farewell to Emma , before travelling back to London and then on to Portsmouth , arriving there early in the morning of 14 September . He breakfasted at the George Inn with his friends George Rose , the Vice @-@ President of the Board of Trade , and George Canning , the Treasurer of the Navy . During the breakfast word spread of Nelson 's presence at the inn and a large crowd of well wishers gathered . They accompanied Nelson to his barge and cheered him off , which Nelson acknowledged by raising his hat . Nelson was recorded as having turned to his colleague and stated , " I had their huzzas before : I have their hearts now " . Robert Southey reported that of the onlookers for Nelson 's walk to the dock , " Many were in tears and many knelt down before him and blessed him as he passed " .
Victory joined the British fleet off Cádiz on 27 September , Nelson taking over from Rear @-@ Admiral Collingwood . He spent the following weeks preparing and refining his tactics for the anticipated battle and dining with his captains to ensure they understood his intentions . Nelson had devised a plan of attack that anticipated the allied fleet would form up in a traditional line of battle . Drawing on his own experience from the Nile and Copenhagen , and the examples of Duncan at Camperdown and Rodney at the Saintes , Nelson decided to split his fleet into squadrons rather than forming it into a similar line parallel to the enemy . These squadrons would then cut the enemy 's line in a number of places , allowing a pell @-@ mell battle to develop in which the British ships could overwhelm and destroy parts of their opponents ' formation , before the unengaged enemy ships could come to their aid .
= = Battle of Trafalgar = =
= = = Preparation = = =
The combined French and Spanish fleet under Villeneuve 's command numbered 33 ships of the line . Napoleon Bonaparte had intended for Villeneuve to sail into the English Channel and cover the planned invasion of Britain , but the entry of Austria and Russia into the war forced Napoleon to call off the planned invasion and transfer troops to Germany . Villeneuve had been reluctant to risk an engagement with the British , and this reluctance led Napoleon to order Vice @-@ Admiral François Rosily to go to Cádiz and take command of the fleet , sail it into the Mediterranean to land troops at Naples , before making port at Toulon . Villeneuve decided to sail the fleet out before his successor arrived . On 20 October 1805 , the fleet was sighted making its way out of harbour by patrolling British frigates , and Nelson was informed that they appeared to be heading to the west .
At four o 'clock in the morning of 21 October Nelson ordered the Victory to turn towards the approaching enemy fleet , and signalled the rest of his force to battle stations . He then went below and made his will , before returning to the quarterdeck to carry out an inspection . Despite having 27 ships to Villeneuve 's 33 , Nelson was confident of success , declaring that he would not be satisfied with taking fewer than 20 prizes . He returned briefly to his cabin to write a final prayer , after which he joined Victory ’ s signal lieutenant , John Pasco .
Mr Pasco , I wish to say to the fleet " England confides that every man will do his duty " . You must be quick , for I have one more signal to make , which is for close action .
Pasco suggested changing ' confides ' to ' expects ' , which being in the Signal Book , could be signalled by the use of a single flag , whereas ' confides ' would have to be spelt out letter by letter . Nelson agreed , and the signal was hoisted .
As the fleets converged , the Victory ’ s captain , Thomas Hardy , suggested that Nelson remove the decorations on his coat , so that he would not be so easily identified by enemy sharpshooters . Nelson replied that it was too late ' to be shifting a coat ' , adding that they were ' military orders and he did not fear to show them to the enemy ' . Captain Henry Blackwood , of the frigate HMS Euryalus , suggested Nelson come aboard his ship to better observe the battle . Nelson refused , and also turned down Hardy 's suggestion to let Eliab Harvey 's HMS Temeraire come ahead of the Victory and lead the line into battle .
= = = Battle is joined = = =
Victory came under fire , initially passing wide , but then with greater accuracy as the distances decreased . A cannonball struck and killed Nelson 's secretary , John Scott , nearly cutting him in two . Hardy 's clerk took over , but he too was almost immediately killed . Victory ’ s wheel was shot away , and another cannonball cut down eight marines . Hardy , standing next to Nelson on the quarterdeck , had his shoe buckle dented by a splinter . Nelson observed ' this is too warm work to last long ' . The Victory had by now reached the enemy line , and Hardy asked Nelson which ship to engage first . Nelson told him to take his pick , and Hardy moved Victory across the stern of the 80 @-@ gun French flagship Bucentaure . Victory then came under fire from the 74 @-@ gun Redoutable , lying off the Bucentaure ’ s stern , and the 130 @-@ gun Santísima Trinidad . As sharpshooters from the enemy ships fired onto Victory ’ s deck from their rigging , Nelson and Hardy continued to walk about , directing and giving orders .
= = = Wounding and death = = =
Shortly after one o 'clock , Hardy realised that Nelson was not by his side . He turned to see Nelson kneeling on the deck , supporting himself with his hand , before falling onto his side . Hardy rushed to him , at which point Nelson smiled
Hardy , I do believe they have done it at last … my backbone is shot through .
He had been hit by a marksman from the Redoutable , firing at a range of 50 feet ( 15 m ) . The bullet had entered his left shoulder , passed through his spine at the sixth and seventh thoracic vertebrae , and lodged two inches ( 5 cm ) below his right shoulder blade in the muscles of his back . Nelson was carried below by sergeant @-@ major of marines Robert Adair and two seamen . As he was being carried down , he asked them to pause while he gave some advice to a midshipman on the handling of the tiller . He then draped a handkerchief over his face to avoid causing alarm amongst the crew . He was taken to the surgeon William Beatty , telling him
You can do nothing for me . I have but a short time to live . My back is shot through .
Nelson was made comfortable , fanned and brought lemonade and watered wine to drink after he complained of feeling hot and thirsty . He asked several times to see Hardy , who was on deck supervising the battle , and asked Beatty to remember him to Emma , his daughter and his friends .
Hardy came belowdecks to see Nelson just after half @-@ past two , and informed him that a number of enemy ships had surrendered . Nelson told him that he was sure to die , and begged him to pass his possessions to Emma . With Nelson at this point were the chaplain Alexander Scott , the purser Walter Burke , Nelson 's steward , Chevalier , and Beatty . Nelson , fearing that a gale was blowing up , instructed Hardy to be sure to anchor . After reminding him to " take care of poor Lady Hamilton " , Nelson said " Kiss me , Hardy " . Beatty recorded that Hardy knelt and kissed Nelson on the cheek . He then stood for a minute or two before kissing him on the forehead . Nelson asked , " Who is that ? " , and on hearing that it was Hardy , he replied " God bless you , Hardy . " By now very weak , Nelson continued to murmur instructions to Burke and Scott , " fan , fan … rub , rub … drink , drink . " Beatty heard Nelson murmur , " Thank God I have done my duty " , and when he returned , Nelson 's voice had faded and his pulse was very weak . He looked up as Beatty took his pulse , then closed his eyes . Scott , who remained by Nelson as he died , recorded his last words as " God and my country " . Nelson died at half @-@ past four , three hours after he had been shot .
= = Return to England = =
Nelson 's body was placed in a cask of brandy mixed with camphor and myrrh , which was then lashed to the Victory 's mainmast and placed under guard . Victory was towed to Gibraltar after the battle , and on arrival the body was transferred to a lead @-@ lined coffin filled with spirits of wine . Collingwood 's dispatches about the battle were carried to England aboard HMS Pickle , and when the news arrived in London , a messenger was sent to Merton Place to bring the news of Nelson 's death to Emma Hamilton . She later recalled ,
They brought me word , Mr Whitby from the Admiralty . " Show him in directly " , I said . He came in , and with a pale countenance and faint voice , said , " We have gained a great Victory . " – " Never mind your Victory " , I said . " My letters – give me my letters " – Captain Whitby was unable to speak – tears in his eyes and a deathly paleness over his face made me comprehend him . I believe I gave a scream and fell back , and for ten hours I could neither speak nor shed a tear .
King George III , on receiving the news , is alleged to have said , in tears , " We have lost more than we have gained . " The Times reported
We do not know whether we should mourn or rejoice . The country has gained the most splendid and decisive Victory that has ever graced the naval annals of England ; but it has been dearly purchased .
The first tribute to Nelson was fittingly offered at sea by sailors of Vice @-@ Admiral Dmitry Senyavin 's passing Russian squadron , which saluted on learning of the death .
= = Funeral = =
Nelson 's body was unloaded from the Victory at the Nore . It was conveyed upriver in Commander Grey 's yacht Chatham to Greenwich and placed in a lead coffin , and that in another wooden one , made from the mast of L 'Orient which had been salvaged after the Battle of the Nile . He lay in state in the Painted Hall at Greenwich for three days , before being taken upriver aboard a barge , accompanied by Lord Hood , chief mourner Sir Peter Parker , and the Prince of Wales . The Prince of Wales at first announced his intention of attending the funeral as chief mourner , but later attended in a private capacity with his brothers when his father George III reminded him that it was against protocol for the Heir to the Throne to attend the funerals of anyone except members of the Royal Family . The coffin was taken into the Admiralty for the night , attended by Nelson 's chaplain , Alexander Scott . The next day , 9 January , a funeral procession consisting of 32 admirals , over a hundred captains , and an escort of 10 @,@ 000 soldiers took the coffin from the Admiralty to St Paul 's Cathedral . After a four @-@ hour service he was interred within a sarcophagus originally carved for Cardinal Wolsey . The sailors charged with folding the flag draping Nelson 's coffin and placing it in the grave instead tore it into fragments , with each taking a piece as a memento .
= = Assessment = =
Nelson was regarded as a highly effective leader , and someone who was able to sympathise with the needs of his men . He based his command on love rather than authority , inspiring both his superiors and his subordinates with his considerable courage , commitment and charisma , dubbed ' the Nelson touch ' . Nelson combined this talent with an adept grasp of strategy and politics , making him a highly successful naval commander . However , Nelson 's personality was complex , often characterised by a desire to be noticed , both by his superiors , and the public . He was easily flattered by praise , and dismayed when he felt he was not given sufficient credit for his actions . This led him to take risks , and to enthusiastically publicise his resultant successes . Nelson was also highly confident in his abilities , determined and able to make important decisions . His active career meant that he was considerably experienced in combat , and was a shrewd judge of his opponents , able to identify and exploit his enemies ' weaknesses . He was often prone to insecurities however , as well as violent mood swings , and was extremely vain : he loved to receive decorations , tributes and praise . Despite his personality , he remained a highly professional leader and was driven all his life by a strong sense of duty . Nelson 's fame reached new heights after his death , and he came to be regarded as one of Britain 's greatest military heroes , ranked alongside the Duke of Marlborough and the Duke of Wellington . In the BBC 's 100 Greatest Britons programme in 2002 , Nelson was voted the ninth greatest Briton of all time .
Aspects of Nelson 's life and career were controversial , both during his lifetime and after his death . His affair with Emma Hamilton was widely remarked upon and disapproved of , to the extent that Emma was denied permission to attend Nelson 's funeral and was subsequently ignored by the government , which awarded money and titles to Nelson 's legitimate family . Nelson 's actions during the reoccupation of Naples have also been the subject of debate : his approval of the wave of reprisals against the Jacobins who had surrendered under the terms agreed by Cardinal Ruffo , and his personal intervention in securing the execution of Caracciolo , are considered by some biographers , such as Robert Southey , to have been a shameful breach of honour . Prominent contemporary politician Charles James Fox was among those who attacked Nelson for his actions at Naples , declaring in the House of Commons
I wish that the atrocities of which we hear so much and which I abhor as much as any man , were indeed unexampled . I fear that they do not belong exclusively to the French – Naples for instance has been what is called " delivered " , and yet , if I am rightly informed , it has been stained and polluted by murders so ferocious , and by cruelties of every kind so abhorrent , that the heart shudders at the recital … [ The besieged rebels ] demanded that a British officer should be brought forward , and to him they capitulated . They made terms with him under the sanction of the British name . Before they sailed their property was confiscated , numbers were thrown into dungeons , and some of them , I understand , notwithstanding the British guarantee , were actually executed .
Other pro @-@ republican writers produced books and pamphlets decrying the events in Naples as atrocities . Later assessments , including one by Andrew Lambert , have stressed that the armistice had not been authorised by the King of Naples , and that the retribution meted out by the Neapolitans was not unusual for the time . Lambert also suggests that Nelson in fact acted to put an end to the bloodshed , using his ships and men to restore order in the city .
= = = Legacy = = =
Nelson 's influence continued long after his death , and saw periodic revivals of interest , especially during times of crisis in Britain . In the 1860s Poet Laureate Alfred Tennyson appealed to the image and tradition of Nelson , in order to oppose the defence cuts being made by Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone . First Sea Lord Jackie Fisher was a keen exponent of Nelson during the early years of the twentieth century , and often emphasised his legacy during his period of naval reform . Winston Churchill also found Nelson to be a source of inspiration during the Second World War . Nelson has been frequently depicted in art and literature ; he appeared in paintings by Benjamin West and Arthur William Devis , and in books and biographies by John McArthur , James Stanier Clarke and Robert Southey . Nelson is also celebrated and commemorated in numerous songs , written both during his life and following his death . Nelson 's victory in the Battle of the Nile is commemorated in " The Battle of the Nile : a favorite patriotic song . " Thomas Attwood 's " Nelson 's Tomb : a Favourite Song " commemorates Nelson 's death in the Battle of Trafalgar .
A number of monuments and memorials were constructed across the country , and abroad , to honour his memory and achievements , with work beginning on Dublin 's monument to Nelson , Nelson 's Pillar , in 1808 , subsequently destroyed in 1966 . In Montreal , a statue was started in 1808 and completed in 1809 . Others followed around the world , with London 's Trafalgar Square being created in his memory in 1835 and the centrepiece , Nelson 's Column , finished in 1843 . A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque was unveiled in 1876 to commemorate Nelson at 147 New Bond Street .
= = Titles = =
Nelson 's titles , as inscribed on his coffin and read out at the funeral by the Garter King at Arms , Sir Isaac Heard , were :
The Most Noble Lord Horatio Nelson , Viscount and Baron Nelson , of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk , Baron Nelson of the Nile and of Hilborough in the said County , Knight of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath , Vice Admiral of the White Squadron of the Fleet , Commander in Chief of his Majesty 's Ships and Vessels in the Mediterranean , Duke of Bronté in the Kingdom of Sicily , Knight Grand Cross of the Sicilian Order of St Ferdinand and of Merit , Member of the Ottoman Order of the Crescent , Knight Grand Commander of the Order of St Joachim .
He was a Colonel of the Royal Marines and voted a Freeman of Bath , Salisbury , Exeter , Plymouth , Monmouth , Sandwich , Oxford , Hereford , and Worcester . The University of Oxford , in full Congregation , bestowed the honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Law upon Nelson in 1802 .
In July 1799 , Nelson was created Duke of Bronté ( Duca di Bronté ) , of the Kingdom of Sicily ( after 1816 , existing in the nobility of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ) , by King Ferdinand , and after briefly experimenting with the signature " Brontë Nelson of the Nile " signed himself " Nelson & Brontë " for the rest of his life . Nelson had no legitimate children ; his daughter , Horatia , subsequently married the Rev. Philip Ward , with whom she had ten children before her death in 1881 . Because Lord Nelson died without legitimate issue , his viscountcy and his barony created in 1798 , both " of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk " , became extinct upon his death . However , the barony created in 1801 , " of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk " , passed by a special remainder , which included Lord Nelson 's father and sisters and their male issue , to Lord Nelson 's brother , The Reverend William Nelson . William Nelson was created Earl Nelson and Viscount Merton of Trafalgar and Merton in the County of Surrey in recognition of his brother 's services , and also inherited the Dukedom of Bronté .
= = = Armorial bearings = = =
Arms were originally granted and confirmed on 20 October 1797 . The original Nelson family arms were altered to accommodate his naval victories . After the Battle of Cape St Vincent in 1797 , Nelson was dubbed a Knight of the Bath and granted heraldic supporters of a sailor and a lion . In honour of the Battle of the Nile of 1798 , the Crown granted him an augmentation of arms that may be blazoned " on a chief wavy argent a palm tree between a disabled ship and a ruinous battery all issuant from waves of the sea all proper " , the motto , " Palmam qui meruit ferat " ( " let him who has earned it , bear the palm " , Latin ) , and added to his supporters a palm branch in the hand of the sailor and the paw of the lion , and a " tri @-@ colored flag and staff in the mouth of the latter " After his death , his older brother and heir was granted the augmentation " on a fess wavy overall azure the word TRAFALGAR Or " .
= Heuschrecke 10 =
The Heuschrecke 10 ( English : Grasshopper 10 ) was a prototype self @-@ propelled gun and Waffenträger ( English : " Weapon carrier " ) developed by Krupp @-@ Gruson between 1943 and 1944 . The official designation of the vehicle was 105 mm leichte Feldhaubitze 18 / 1 L / 28 auf Waffenträger Geschützwagen IVb and was to be built in Magdeburg , Germany . The Heuschrecke featured a removable turret which could be deployed as a pillbox or towed behind the vehicle as an artillery piece .
Krupp produced only three prototypes from 1942 – 1943 . The Heuschrecke initially made use of a shortened Panzerkampfwagen IV ( Panzer IV ) chassis , but it was later switched to the Geschützwagen IV chassis , developed for the Hummel self @-@ propelled gun . Mass production of the Heuschrecke 10 was scheduled to start in February 1945 , but never occurred .
= = Development = =
= = = Precursor = = =
Towards the end of September 1939 , Krupp designed the " first real self @-@ propelled artillery piece " , the Sonderkraftfahrzeug 165 / 1 ( Special Purpose Vehicle 165 / 1 , abbreviated Sd.Kfz. 165 / 1 ) . The Sd.Kfz. 165 / 1 was similar in design to the Heuschrecke , but did not have the chassis @-@ mounted launching mechanism to remove the turret . After a series of tests , the Sd.Kfz. 165 / 1 was accepted by the Wehr
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the MTA moves 13 million gallons of water when it is not raining . Since 1992 , $ 357 million has been used to improve 269 pump rooms . By August 2007 , $ 115 million was earmarked to upgrade the remaining 18 pump rooms .
Despite these improvements , the transit system continues to experience flooding problems . On August 8 , 2007 , after more than 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of rain fell within an hour , the subway system flooded , causing almost every subway service to either be disabled or seriously disrupted , effectively halting the morning rush . This was the third incident in 2007 in which rain disrupted service . The system was disrupted on this occasion because the pumps and drainage system can handle only a rainfall rate of 1 @.@ 75 inches ( 44 mm ) per hour ; the incident 's severity was aggravated by the scant warning as to the severity of the storm .
In addition , as part of a $ 130 million and an estimated 18 @-@ month project , the MTA began installing new subway grates in September 2008 in an attempt to prevent rain from overflowing into the subway system . The metallic structures , designed with the help of architectural firms and meant as a piece of public art , are placed atop existing grates but with a 3 @-@ to @-@ 4 @-@ inch ( 76 to 102 mm ) sleeve to prevent debris and rain from flooding the subway . The racks will at first be installed in the three most flood @-@ prone areas as determined by hydrologists : Jamaica , Tribeca , and the Upper West Side . Each neighborhood is scheduled to have its own distinct design , some featuring a wave @-@ like deck which increases in height and features seating ( Jamaica ) , others with a flatter deck that includes seating and a bike rack .
In October 2012 , Hurricane Sandy caused a lot of damage to New York City , and many subway tunnels were inundated with floodwater . The subway opened with limited service two days after the storm and was running at 80 percent capacity within five days ; however , some infrastructure needed years to repair . A year after the storm , MTA spokesperson Kevin Ortiz said , " This was unprecedented in terms of the amount of damage that we were seeing throughout the system . " The storm flooded nine of the system 's 14 underwater tunnels , many subway lines , and several subway yards , as well as completely destroying a portion of the IND Rockaway Line and much of the South Ferry terminal station . Reconstruction required many weekend closures on several lines , as well as several long @-@ term closures on the Greenpoint Tunnel , Montague Street Tunnel , Rockaway Line , and the South Ferry station , with a long @-@ term closure planned for the 14th Street Tunnel ; some reconstruction is expected to last until at least 2020 .
= = = Full and partial subway closures = = =
On August 27 , 2011 , due to the approach of Hurricane Irene , the MTA suspended subway service at noon in anticipation of heavy flooding on tracks and in tunnels . It was the first weather @-@ caused shutdown in the history of the system . Service was restored by August 29 .
On October 29 , 2012 , another full closure was ordered before the arrival of Hurricane Sandy . All services on the subway , the Long Island Rail Road and Metro @-@ North were gradually shut down that day at 7 : 00 P.M. , to protect passengers , employees and equipment from the coming storm . The storm caused serious damage to the system , especially the IND Rockaway Line , which had many sections between Howard Beach – JFK Airport and Hammels Wye on the Rockaway Peninsula heavily damaged , leaving it essentially isolated from the rest of the system . This required the NYCTA to truck in 20 R32 subway cars to the line to provide some interim service ( temporarily designated the H ) . Also , several of the system 's tunnels under the East River were flooded by the storm surge . South Ferry suffered serious water damage and did not reopen until April 4 , 2013 by restoring service to the older loop @-@ configured station that had been replaced in 2009 ; the stub @-@ end terminal tracks remain out of service pending extensive repairs and the new island @-@ platformed station is not expected to reopen until 2017 .
On January 26 , 2015 , another full closure was ordered by New York Governor Andrew Cuomo due to the January 2015 nor 'easter , which was originally projected to leave New York City with 20 to 30 inches ( 51 to 76 cm ) of snow . The next day , the subway system was partially reopened . A number of New York City residents criticized Cuomo 's decision to shut down the subway system for the first time ever due to snow . The nor 'easter dropped much less snow in the city than originally expected , totaling only 9 @.@ 8 inches ( 25 cm ) in Central Park .
On January 23 , 2016 , a partial subway closure was ordered due to the January 2016 United States blizzard , wherein all aboveground stations were closed ; the underground lines remained open during the blizzard . Most of the subway resumed service the next day , with some lingering delays due to an average of 26 inches ( 66 cm ) of snow in the area .
= = = Litter and rodents = = =
Litter accumulation is a perennial problem in the subway system . In the 1970s and 1980s , dirty trains and platforms , as well as graffiti were a serious problem . The situation had improved since then , but the 2010 budget crisis , which caused over 100 of the cleaning staff to lose their jobs , threatened to curtail trash removal from the subway system .
The New York City Subway system is infested with rats . Rats are sometimes seen on platforms , and are commonly seen foraging through garbage thrown onto the tracks . They are believed to pose a health hazard , and on rare instances have been known to bite humans . Subway stations notorious for rat infestation include Chambers Street , Jay Street – MetroTech , West Fourth Street , Spring Street and 145th Street .
Decades of efforts to eradicate or simply thin the rat population in the system have been unsuccessful . In March 2009 , the Transit Authority announced a series of changes to its vermin control strategy , including new poison formulas and experimental trap designs . In October 2011 , the MTA announced a new initiative to clean 25 subway stations , along with their garbage rooms , of rat infestations . Also in October 2011 , the MTA announced a pilot program aimed at reducing levels of garbage in the subways by removing all garbage bins from the subway platforms . The initiative is being tested at the Eighth Street – New York University and Flushing – Main Street stations . As of March 2016 , stations along the BMT Jamaica Line , BMT Myrtle Avenue Line , and various other stations had their garbage cans removed due to the success of the program . There are also vacuum trains that are designed to remove trash off of the tracks , but are ineffective and often broken . A 2016 study by Travel Math had the New York City Subway listed as the dirtiest subway system in the country based on the number of viable bacteria cells .
= = = Noise = = =
Rolling stock on the New York City Subway produces high levels of noise that exceed guidelines set by the World Health Organization and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . In 2006 , Columbia University 's Mailman School of Public Health found noise levels averaged 95 decibel ( dB ) inside subway cars and 94 dB on platforms . Daily exposure to noise at such levels for as little as 30 minutes can lead to hearing loss . Noise on one in 10 platforms exceeded 100 dB . Under WHO and EPA guidelines , noise exposure at that level is limited to 1 @.@ 5 minutes . A subsequent study by Columbia and the University of Washington found higher average noise levels in the subway ( 80 @.@ 4 dB ) than on commuter trains including Port Authority Trans @-@ Hudson ( PATH ) ( 79 @.@ 4 dB ) , Metro @-@ North ( 75 @.@ 1 dB ) and Long Island Rail Road ( LIRR ) ( 74 @.@ 9 dB ) . Since the decibel scale is a logarithmic scale , sound at 95 dB is 10 times more intense than at 85 dB and 100 times more intense than at 75 dB , and so forth . In the second study , peak subway noise registered at 102 @.@ 1 dB .
Currently , the MTA , with the engineering firm Arup , is working to reduce the noise levels in stations . In order to reduce noise , the MTA is investing in low @-@ vibration track using ties encased in concrete @-@ covered rubber and neoprene pads . Continuously welded rail , which is also being installed , reduces the noise being made by the wheels of trains . The biggest change that is going to be made is in the design of stations . Current stations were built with tile and stone , which bounce sound everywhere , while newer stations will have the ceilings lined with absorbent fiberglass or mineral wool that will direct sound toward the train and not the platform . With less noise from the trains , platform announcements could be heard more clearly . They will be clearer with speakers spaced periodically on the platform , angled so that announcements could be heard by the riders . Some of these changes will be in place on the soon @-@ opening Second Avenue Subway .
= = Public relations = =
The Board of Transportation , and its successor , MTA New York City Transit , has had numerous events that promote increased ridership of their transit system .
= = = Miss Subways = = =
From 1941 to 1976 , the Board of Transportation / New York City Transit Authority sponsored the " Miss Subways " publicity campaign . In the musical On the Town , the character Miss Turnstiles is based on the Miss Subways campaign . The campaign was resurrected in 2004 , for one year , as " Ms. Subways " . It was part of the 100th anniversary celebrations . Featuring young models , entertainers and others , the monthly campaign , which included the winners ' photos and biographical blurbs on placards in subway cards , featured such winners as Mona Freeman and prominent New York City restaurateur Ellen Goodman . The winner of this contest was Caroline Sanchez @-@ Bernat , an actress from Morningside Heights .
= = = Subway Series = = =
Subway Series is a term applied to any series of baseball games between New York City teams , as opposing teams can travel to compete merely by using the subway system . Subway Series is a term long used in New York , going back to
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ian faunal age was named by Lucas and Sullivan in 2003 , and found by their original study to date from 74 @.@ 9 to 72 million years ago . In 2006 , Sullivan and Lucas refined their estimate , stating that the Kirtlandian ranged from 75 to 72 @.@ 8 million years ago . Later that year , Sullivan changed the time range again , finding that the faunal age lasted only 2 million years , from 74 @.@ 8 to 72 @.@ 8 million years ago . He said that the later part of the Kirtlandian , from the De @-@ na @-@ zin Member of the Kirtland Formation , dated to 73 million years ago , on the basis of ash layers dating to 73 @.@ 04 and 73 @.@ 37 million years ago . This observation was based on findings by Sullivan and Lucas , who dated the two ash layers from 73 @.@ 04 ± 0 @.@ 25 and 73 @.@ 37 ± 0 @.@ 28 million years ago . They also dated the earlier ashes from the Fruitland Formation , which dated to 75 @.@ 56 ± 0 @.@ 41 , 74 @.@ 55 ± 0 @.@ 29 , and 74 @.@ 11 ± 0 @.@ 62 million years ago . The first ash , called by them the Dog Eye Pond , was found slightly higher than the start of the Fruitland Formation , which meant that the start of the Fruitland Formation was older than 75 @.@ 5 million years ago . More precise dating in 2010 by Longrich found that the second youngest ash can actually be dated more precisely than thought by Sullivan ( 2006 ) , only having an error range of 0 @.@ 18 million years . Longrich also dated the two older ashes , finding a date the same as that of Sullivan in 2006 . These ash datings are what Sullivan used to find the precise age of the Kirtlandian age .
= = = Fauna = = =
The Kirtlandian has a distinct fauna , including four species distinguishing it from other ages . The species include the dinosaurians Pentaceratops sternbergii , Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus , and Kritosaurus navajovius , with the only non @-@ dinosaurian being Melvius chauliodous , a fish taxon .
= = = = Fruitland and Kirtland Formations = = = =
The dinosaurian fauna from the Kirtlandian from the Fruitland and Kirtland formations includes the theropods Bistahieversor sealeyi ( previously Daspletosaurus and Albertosaurus sp . ) , Ornithomimus antiquus , and " Saurornitholestes " robustus ( previously Saurornitholestes langstoni ) ; the titanosaur Alamosaurus sanjuanensis ; the hadrosaurids Anasazisaurus horneri , Kritosaurus navajovius , Naashoibitosaurus ostromi , Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus , and Parasaurolophus tubicen ; the ankylosaurians Nodocephalosaurus kirtlandensis , Glyptodontopelta mimus , and Ahshislepelta minor ; and the marginocephalians Sphaerotholus goodwini ( called Prenocephale goodwini ) , Stegoceras novomexicanum ( previously Stegoceras validum ) , Pentaceratops sternbergii , Titanoceratops ouranos , and a new genus and species of centrosaurine .
Fossil turtles were very abundant in the Kirtlandian , and in the Campanian in general . Over 200 specimens and 15 species of turtle have been found from the Fruitland / Kirtland Formations . Among the turtles are the bothremydid Chedighaii hutchisoni ; the pleurosternid Compsemys sp . ; the baenodds Denazinemys nodosa and Scabremys ornata ( previously Denazinemys ornata ) ; the non @-@ baenodd baenids Neurankylus baueri , Thescelus hemispherica , and Thescelus rapiens ; the adocids Adocus bossi and Adocus kirtlandicus ; the nanhsiungchelyids Basilemys gaffneyi and possibly Basilemys nobilis ; the trionychids Aspideretoides austerus , Aspideretoides robustus ; and two indeterminate turtles , one a plastominine , and one assigned to Kinosternoidea .
= = = = Williams Fork Formation = = = =
Kirtlandian fauna are also present in the Williams Fork Formation . The principal index taxon of the Kirtlandian , Pentaceratops sternbergii , in known from the formation , along with the theropods Troodon formosus , Dromaeosaurus albertensis , Saurornitholestes langstoni , Richardoestesia gilmorei , and indeterminate tyrannosaurids ; the ankylosaurians Ankylosaurus magniventris and Nodosauridae indet . ; the ornithopods Thescelosaurus neglectus and an unnamed hadrosaurid . Mammals from the formation include Mesodma thompsoni , Cimolodon nitidus , ? Cimolodon sp . , Cimolomys sp . , cf . Meniscoessus intermedius , Meniscoessus major , Meniscoessus collomensis , ? Paracimexomys sp . , Turgidodon rhaister , Turgidodon russelli , Alphadon marshi , Alphadon wilsoni , Pediomys cooki , Aquiladelphis incus , Eodelphis sp . , and Aenigmadelphys sp. nov . , although many identifications of mammals , as well as dinosaurs are uncertain .
= = = = Fort Crittenden Formation = = = =
The Fort Crittenden Formation is one of many formations dating from inside the Kirtlandian . The formation is characterized by Melvius , a possible index taxon for the Kirtlandian . Species other than Melvius sp. include the fishes Myledaphus bipartitus , cf . Pachyrizodus sp . , lepisosteids , and pycnodontids ; the turtles Brasilemys , " Aspideretes " sp . , and " Plastomenus " , the dinosaurs cf . Saurornitholestes and cf . Richardoestesia ; the amphibians cf . Opisthotriton and cf . Scapherpeton sp . ; the crocodylian Allognathosuchus sp . ; teiid and anguid lizards ; and possibly a pterosaur .
= = = = Ringbone Formation = = = =
Few fossils have been found in the Ringbone Formation , the only significant one being a specimen that is either Albertosaurus sp. or Daspletosaurus sp . , known from a tooth and vertebrae . The only reason the Ringbone Formation is assigned to the Kirtlandian age is because the rocks are the same age as the Fort Crittenden Formation , which contains one of the index taxa of the Kirtlandian .
= = = = Upper Aguja Formation = = = =
The upper region of the Aguja Formation is from the Kirtlandian . Fauna from the section of this formation include the protostegid turtles Terlingualchelys fischbecki and " Aspideretes " ; the crocodylian Deinosuchus riograndensis ( previously Phobosuchus ) ; the dinosaurs Agujaceratops mariscalensis , Kritosaurus navajovius , Kritosaurus sp . , Panoplosaurus sp . , ? Stegoceras sp . , Saurornitholestes langstoni , Richardoestesia isosceles , Richardoestesia cf. gilmorei , an intermediate tyrannosaurid , and an unnamed ornithomimid .
= = = Paleobiogeography = = =
The two main formations of the Kirtlandian , the Fruitland and Kirtland , were originally included in the older Judithian age , an interpretation superseded with the naming of the Kirtlandian . In 1975 , Russell identified five Late Cretaceous land @-@ vertebrate ages , the Paluxian , Aquilan , Judithian , Edmontonian , and Lancian , based on mammal assemblages . Three previously unnamed faunal ages were given names and term " Kirtlandian " was chosen for the gap between the Judithian and Edmontonian . Pentaceratops is distributed throughout all of the San Juan Basin . Outside of the basin , Pentaceratops is well @-@ known , and known with certainty , from the Williams Fork Formation . This means that the formation , along with the Cretaceous formations of the basin , are inside the Kirtlandian .
= = = = Associations = = = =
The Kirtlandian is characterized by a single vertebrate association . The association was identified by Lehman in 2001 and termed the " Kritosaurus - Parasaurolophus association " . This association was found to only be present in the later half of the Kirtlandian faunal age , around 73 @.@ 4 – 73 million years ago . Another association , this one the " Corythosaurus - Centrosaurus association " is found at the very end of the Judithian , right before the Kirtlandian , between 76 @.@ 5 and 74 @.@ 2 million years ago . Another association , the " Pachyrhinosaurus - Edmontosaurus association " , was found to date to 70 @.@ 6 mya , and it used to symbolize the end of the Kirtlandian .
= Maryse Ouellet =
Maryse Mizanin ( / məˈriːs / ; née Ouellet ; born January 21 , 1983 ) is a French Canadian glamour model , businesswoman , actress , professional wrestling manager , and former professional wrestler currently signed to WWE under the ring name Maryse , where she is a former two @-@ time Divas Champion , performing on the on the SmackDown brand as the manager of her real – life husband The Miz .
After spending years modeling , including winning Miss Hawaiian Tropic Canada in 2003 , Ouellet was hired by the professional wrestling promotion WWE in August 2006 , after she participated in the WWE Diva Search competition . She spent time in Ohio Valley Wrestling and Florida Championship Wrestling , WWE 's developmental territories , before being assigned to the SmackDown brand in 2008 . In December 2008 , Maryse won her first WWE Divas Championship and held it for seven months , which is the third longest reign in the championship 's history . In April 2009 , she was drafted to the Raw brand , and won the Divas Championship for the second time in February 2010 , making her the first wrestler to have held the championship on more than one occasion . In 2011 , she became the co @-@ host of NXT and the manager of Ted DiBiase , prior to her release from the company in October 2011 . In April 2016 , she returned to the company , and became the manager of her husband The Miz .
In late 2011 , she announced plans for a clothing and jewelry line called House of Maryse , and later began working as a realtor .
= = Early life and career = =
Ouellet was born in Montreal , Quebec , but grew up in Edmundston , New Brunswick . In high school , Ouellet was the only girl in her class , and ran the school 's fashion show . She also began developing a range of makeup products .
Ouellet began her modelling career as a beauty pageant contestant , winning Miss Hawaiian Tropic Canada 2003 and finishing second at the International Finals of Miss Hawaiian Tropic 2004 . She was also on the cover of Playboy 's 2007 Girls of Canada calendar .
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sensitive to human activity while nesting , and is found most commonly in areas with minimal human disturbance . It chooses sites more than 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) from low @-@ density human disturbance and more than 1 @.@ 8 km ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) from medium- to high @-@ density human disturbance . However , bald eagles will occasionally venture into large estuaries or secluded groves within major cities , such as Hardtack Island on the Willamette River in Portland , Oregon or John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge at Tinicum in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , which are surrounded by a great quantity of human activity . Even more contrary to the usual sensitivity to disturbance , a family of bald eagles moved to the Harlem neighborhood in New York City in 2010 .
While wintering , bald eagles tend to be less habitat and disturbance sensitive . They will commonly congregate at spots with plentiful perches and waters with plentiful prey and ( in Northern climes ) partially unfrozen waters . Alternately , non @-@ breeding or wintering bald eagles , particularly in areas with a lack of human disturbance , spend their time in various upland , terrestrial habitats sometimes quite far away from waterways . In the northern half of North America ( especially the interior portion ) , this terrestrial inhabitance by bald eagles tends to be especially prevalent because unfrozen water may not be accessible . Upland wintering habitats often consist of open habitats with concentrations of medium @-@ sized mammals , such as prairies , meadows or tundra , or open forests with regular carrion access .
= = Behavior = =
The bald eagle is a powerful flier , and soars on thermal convection currents . It reaches speeds of 56 – 70 km / h ( 35 – 43 mph ) when gliding and flapping , and about 48 km / h ( 30 mph ) while carrying fish . Its dive speed is between 120 – 160 km / h ( 75 – 99 mph ) , though it seldom dives vertically . It is partially migratory , depending on location . If its territory has access to open water , it remains there year @-@ round , but if the body of water freezes during the winter , making it impossible to obtain food , it migrates to the south or to the coast . A number of populations are subject to post @-@ breeding dispersal , mainly in juveniles ; Florida eagles , for example , will disperse northwards in the summer . The bald eagle selects migration routes which take advantage of thermals , updrafts , and food resources . During migration , it may ascend in a thermal and then glide down , or may ascend in updrafts created by the wind against a cliff or other terrain . Migration generally takes place during the daytime , usually between the local hours of 8 : 00 a.m. and 6 : 00 p.m. , when thermals are produced by the sun .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
The bald eagle is an opportunistic carnivore with the capacity to consume a great variety of prey . Throughout their range , fish often comprise the majority of the eagle 's diet . In 20 food habit studies across the species ' range , fish comprised 56 % of the diet of nesting eagles , birds 28 % , mammals 14 % and other prey 2 % . In Southeast Alaska , fish comprise approximately 66 % of the year @-@ around diet of bald eagles and 78 % of the prey brought to the nest by the parents . Eagles living in the Columbia River Estuary in Oregon were found to rely on fish for 90 % of their dietary intake . In the Pacific Northwest , spawning trout and salmon provide most of the bald eagles ' diet from late summer throughout fall . Southeast Alaskan eagles largely prey on pink salmon ( Oncorhynchus gorbuscha ) , coho salmon ( O. kisutch ) and , more locally , sockeye salmon ( O. nerka ) , with chinook salmon ( O. tshawytscha ) , due to their large size ( 12 to 18 kg ( 26 to 40 lb ) average adult size ) probably being taken only as carrion . Also important in the estuaries and shallow coastlines of southern Alaska are Pacific herring ( Clupea pallasii ) , Pacific sand lance ( Ammodytes hexapterus ) and eulachon ( Thaleichthys pacificus ) . In Oregon 's Columbia River Estuary , the most significant prey species were largescale suckers ( Catostomus macrocheilus ) ( 17 @.@ 3 % of the prey selected there ) , American shad ( Alosa sapidissima ; 13 % ) and common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ; 10 @.@ 8 % ) . Eagles living in the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland were found to subsist largely on American gizzard shad ( Dorosoma cepedianum ) , threadfin shad ( D. petenense ) and white bass ( Morone chrysops ) . Floridian eagles have been reported to prey on catfish , mostly prevalently the brown bullhead ( Ameiurus nebulosus ) and any species in the Ictalurus genus as well as mullet , trout , needlefish , and eels . Wintering eagles on the Platte River in Nebraska preyed mainly on American gizzard shads and common carp . From observation in the Columbia River , 58 % of the fish were caught live by the eagle , 24 % were scavenged as carcasses and 18 % were pirated away from other animals .
Even eagles living in relatively arid regions still typically rely primarily on fish as prey . In Sonora ( Mexico ) and Arizona , 77 % and over 73 % , respectively , of prey remains at the nests were from fish , largely various catfish and rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) . Prey fish targeted by bald eagles are often quite large . When experimenters offered fish of different sizes in the breeding season around Lake Britton in California , fish measuring 34 to 38 cm ( 13 to 15 in ) were taken 71 @.@ 8 % of the time by parent eagles while fish measuring 23 to 27 @.@ 5 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 to 10 @.@ 8 in ) were chosen only 25 % of the time . At nests around Lake Superior , the remains of fish ( mostly suckers ) were found to average 35 @.@ 4 cm ( 13 @.@ 9 in ) in total length . In the Columbia River estuary , most preyed on by eagles were estimated to measure between 30 and 60 cm ( 12 and 24 in ) in length , and carp flown with ( laboriously ) were up to 86 cm ( 34 in ) in length .
Benthic fishes such as catfish are usually consumed after they die and float to the surface , though while temporarily swimming in the open may be more vulnerable to predation than most fish since their eyes focus downwards . Bald eagles also regularly exploit water turbines which produce battered , stunned or dead fish easily consumed . Predators who leave behind scraps of dead fish that they kill , such as brown bears ( Ursus arctos ) , gray wolves ( Canis lupus ) and red foxes ( Vulpes vulpes ) , may be habitually followed in order to scavenge the kills secondarily . Once North Pacific salmon die off after spawning , usually local bald eagles eat salmon carcasses almost exclusively . Eagles in Washington need to consume 489 g ( 1 @.@ 078 lb ) of fish each day for survival , with adults generally consuming more than juveniles and thus reducing potential energy deficiency and increasing survival during winter .
Behind fish , the next most significant prey base for bald eagles are other waterbirds . The contribution of such birds to the eagle 's diet is variable , depending on the quantity and availability of fish near the water 's surface . Waterbirds can seasonally comprise from 7 % to 80 % of the prey selection for eagles in certain localities . Exceptionally , in the Greater Yellowstone area , birds were eaten as regularly as fish year @-@ around , with both prey groups comprising 43 % of the studied dietary intake . Preferred avian prey includes grebes , alcids , ducks , gulls , coots , herons , egrets , and geese . Bird species most preferred as prey by eagles tend to be medium @-@ sized , such as western grebes ( Aechmophorus occidentalis ) , mallards ( Anas platyrhynchos ) and American coots ( Fulica americana ) as such prey is relatively easy for the much larger eagles to catch and fly with . American herring gull ( Larus smithsonianus ) are the favored avian prey species for eagles living around Lake Superior . Larger waterbirds are occasionally prey as well , with wintering emperor geese ( Chen canagica ) and snow geese ( C. caerulescens ) , which gather in large groups , sometimes becoming regular prey . Other large waterbirds hunted at least occasionally by bald eagles have included common loons ( Gavis immer ) , great black @-@ backed gulls ( Larus marinus ) , sandhill cranes ( Grus canadensis ) , great blue herons ( Ardea herodias ) , Canada geese ( Branta canadensis ) , brown pelicans ( Pelecanus occidentalis ) , and fledging American white pelicans ( P. erythrorhynchos ) . Colony nesting seabirds , such as alcids , storm petrels , cormorants , northern gannets ( Morus bassanus ) , terns and gulls , may be especially vulnerable to predation . Due to easy accessibility and lack of formidable nest defense by such species , bald eagles are capable of preying on such seabirds at all ages , from eggs to mature adults , and can effectively cull large portions of a colony .
Along some portions of the North Pacific coastline , bald eagles which had historically preyed mainly kelp @-@ dwelling fish and supplementally sea otter ( Enhydra lutris ) pups are now preying mainly on seabird colonies since both the fish ( possibly due to overfishing ) and otters ( cause unknown ) have had precipitious population declines , causing concern for seabird conservation . Because of this more extensive predation , some biologist have expressed concern that murres are heading for a " conservation collision " due to heavy eagle predation . Eagles have been confirmed to attack nocturnally active , burrow @-@ nesting seabird species such as storm petrels and shearwaters by digging out their burrows and feeding on all animals they find inside . If a bald eagle flies close by , waterbirds will often fly away en masse , though in other cases they may seemingly ignore a perched eagle . If the said birds are on a colony , this exposed their unprotected eggs and nestlings to scavengers such as gulls . Bird prey may occasionally be attacked in flight , with prey up to the size of Canada geese attacked and killed in mid @-@ air . Unprecedented photographs of a bald eagle unsuccessfully attempting to prey on a much larger adult trumpeter swan ( Cygnus buccinator ) in mid @-@ flight were taken recently . While adults often actively prey on waterbirds , congregated wintering waterfowl are frequently exploited for carcasses to scavenge by immature eagles in harsh winter weather . Bald eagles have been recorded as killing other raptors on occasion . In some cases , these may be attacks of competition or kleptoparasitism on rival species but ended with the consumption of the victim . Raptorial birds reported to be hunted by these eagles have included large adults of species such as red @-@ tailed hawks ( Buteo jamaicensis ) , ospreys ( Pandion haliaetus ) and black ( Coragyps atratus ) and turkey vultures ( Cathartes aura ) .
Mammalian prey includes rabbits , hares , ground squirrels , raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) , muskrats ( Ondatra zibethicus ) , beavers ( Castor canadensis ) , and deer fawns . Newborn , dead , sickly or already injured mammals are often targeted . However , more formidable prey such as adult raccoons and subadult beavers are sometimes attacked . In the Chesapeake Bay area , bald eagles are reportedly the main natural predators of raccoons . Where available , seal colonies can provide much food . On Protection Island , Washington , they commonly feed on harbor seal ( Phoca vitulina ) afterbirths , still @-@ borns and sickly seal pups . On San Juan Island in Washington , introduced European rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) , mainly those killed by auto accidents , comprise nearly 60 % of the dietary intake of eagles . In landlocked areas of North America , wintering bald eagles may become habitual predators of medium @-@ sized mammals that occur in colonies or local concentrations , such as prairie dogs ( Cynomys ) and jackrabbits ( Lepus ) . Together with the golden eagle , bald eagles are occasionally accused of preying on livestock , especially sheep ( Ovis aries ) . There are a handful of proven cases of lamb predation , some of specimens weighing up to 11 kg ( 24 lb ) , by bald eagles but they are much less likely to attack a healthy lamb than a golden eagle and both species prefer native , wild prey and are unlikely to cause any extensive detriment to human livelihoods . There is one case of a bald eagle killing and feeding on an adult , pregnant ewe ( then joined in eating the kill by at least 3 other eagles ) , which , weighing on average over 60 kg ( 130 lb ) , is much larger than any other known prey taken by this species .
Supplemental prey are readily taken given the opportunity . In some areas reptiles may become regular prey , especially warm areas such as Florida where reptile diversity is high . Turtles are perhaps the most regularly hunted type of reptile . In coastal New Jersey , 14 of 20 studied eagle nests included remains of turtles . The main species found were common musk turtles ( Sternotherus odoratus ) , diamondback terrapin ( Malaclemys terrapin ) and juvenile common snapping turtles ( Chelydra serpentina ) . In these New Jersey nests , mainly subadult and small adults were taken , ranging in carapace length from 9 @.@ 2 to 17 @.@ 1 cm ( 3 @.@ 6 to 6 @.@ 7 in ) . Snakes are also taken occasionally , especially partially aquatic ones , as are amphibians and crustaceans ( largely crayfish and crabs ) .
To hunt fish , the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the fish out of the water with its talons . They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other . Eagles have structures on their toes called spicules that allow them to grasp fish . Osprey also have this adaptation . Bald eagles have powerful talons and have been recorded flying with a 6 @.@ 8 kg ( 15 lb ) mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ) fawn . This feat is the record for the heaviest load carrying ever verified for a flying bird . It has been estimated that the gripping power ( pounds by square inch ) of the bald eagle is ten times greater than that of a human . Bald eagles can fly with fish at least equal to their own weight , but if the fish is too heavy to lift , the eagle may be dragged into the water . It may swim to safety , in some cases pulling the catch along to the shore as it swims , but some eagles drown or succumb to hypothermia . Many sources claim that bald eagles , like all large eagles , cannot normally take flight carrying prey more than half of their own weight unless aided by favorable wind conditions . On numerous occasions , when large prey such as mature salmon or geese are attacked , eagles have been seen to make contact and then drag the prey in a strenuously labored , low flight over the water to a bank , where they then finish off and dismember the prey . When food is abundant , an eagle can gorge itself by storing up to 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of food in a pouch in the throat called a crop . Gorging allows the bird to fast for several days if food becomes unavailable . Occasionally , bald eagles may hunt cooperatively when confronting prey , especially relatively large prey such as jackrabbits or herons , with one bird distracting potential prey , while the other comes behind it in order to ambush it . While hunting waterfowl , bald eagles repeatedly fly at a target and cause it to dive repeatedly , hoping to exhaust the victim so it can be caught ( white @-@ tailed eagles have been recorded hunting waterfowl in the same way ) . When hunting concentrated prey , a successful catch which often results in the hunting eagle being pursued by other eagles and needing to find an isolated perch for consumption if it is able to carry it away successfully .
Unlike some other eagle species , bald eagles rarely take on evasive or dangerous prey on their own . The species mainly target prey which is much smaller than themselves , with most live fish caught weighing 1 to 3 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 to 6 @.@ 6 lb ) and most waterbirds preyed weighing 0 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 7 kg ( 0 @.@ 44 to 5 @.@ 95 lb ) . They obtain much of their food as carrion or via a practice known as kleptoparasitism , by which they steal prey away from other predators . Due to their dietary habits , bald eagles are frequently viewed in a negative light by humans . Thanks to their superior foraging ability and experience , adults are generally more likely to hunt live prey than immature eagles , which often obtain their food from scavenging . They are not very selective about the condition or origin , whether provided by humans , other animals , auto accidents or natural causes , of a carcass 's presence , but will avoid eating carrion where disturbances from humans are a regular occurrence . They will scavenge carcasses up to the size of whales , though carcasses of ungulates and large fish are seemingly preferred . Bald eagles also may sometimes feed on material scavenged or stolen from campsites and picnics , as well as garbage dumps ( dump usage is habitual mainly in Alaska ) .
When competing for food , eagles will usually dominate other fish @-@ eaters and scavengers , aggressively displacing mammals such as coyotes ( Canis latrans ) and foxes , and birds such as corvids , gulls , vultures and other raptors . Occasionally , coyotes , bobcats ( Lynx rufus ) and domestic dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris ) can displace eagles from carrion , usually less confident immature birds , as has been recorded in Maine . Bald eagles are less active , bold predators than golden eagles and get relatively more of their food as carrion and from kleptoparasitism ( although it is now generally thought that golden eagles eat more carrion than was previously assumed ) . However , the two species are roughly equal in size , aggressiveness and physical strength and so competitions can go either way . Neither species is known to be dominant , and the outcome depends on the size and disposition of the individual eagles involved . The bald eagle is thought to be much more numerous in North America than the golden eagle , with the bald species estimated to number at least 150 @,@ 000 individuals , about twice as many golden eagles there are estimated to live in North America . Due to this , bald eagles often outnumber golden eagles at attractive food sources . Despite the potential for contention between these animals , in New Jersey during winter , a golden eagle and numerous bald eagles were observed to hunt snow geese alongside each other without conflict . Similarly , both eagle species have been recorded , via video @-@ monitoring , to feed on gut pills and carcasses of white @-@ tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) in remote forest clearings in the eastern Appalachian Mountains without apparent conflict . Many bald eagles are habitual kleptoparasites , especially in winters when fish are harder to come by . They have been recorded stealing fish from other predators such as ospreys , herons and even otters . They have also been recorded opportunistically pirating birds from peregrine falcons ( Falco peregrinus ) , prairie dogs from ferruginous hawks ( Buteo regalis ) and even jackrabbits from golden eagles . When they approach scavengers like dogs , gulls or vultures at carrion sites , they often aggressively attack them and try to force them to disgorge their food . Healthy adult bald eagles are not preyed on in the wild and are thus considered apex predators .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Bald eagles are sexually mature at four or five years of age . When they are old enough to breed , they often return to the area where they were born . It is thought that bald eagles mate for life . However , if one member of a pair dies or disappears , the other will choose a new mate . A pair which has repeatedly failed in breeding attempts may split and look for new mates . Bald eagle courtship involves elaborate , spectacular calls and flight displays . The flight includes swoops , chases , and cartwheels , in which they fly high , lock talons , and free fall , separating just before hitting the ground . Usually , a territory defended by a mature pair will be 1 to 2 km ( 0 @.@ 62 to 1 @.@ 24 mi ) of waterside habitat .
Compared to most other raptors which mostly nest in April or May , bald eagles are early breeders : nest building or reinforcing is often by mid @-@ February , egg laying is often late February ( sometimes during deep snow in the North ) , and incubation is usually mid @-@ March and early May . Eggs hatch from mid April to early May , and the young fledge late June to early July . The nest is the largest of any bird in North America ; it is used repeatedly over many years and with new material added each year may eventually be as large as 4 m ( 13 ft ) deep , 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) across and weigh 1 metric ton ( 1 @.@ 1 short tons ) ; one nest in Florida was found to be 6 @.@ 1 m ( 20 ft ) deep , 2 @.@ 9 meters ( 9 @.@ 5 ft ) across , and to weigh 3 short tons ( 2 @.@ 7 metric tons ) . This nest is on record as the largest tree nest ever recorded for any animal . Usually nests are used for under five years or so , as they either collapse in storms or break the branches supporting them by their sheer weight . However , one nest in the Midwest was occupied continuously for at least 34 years . The nest is built out of branches , usually in large trees found near water . When breeding where there are no trees , the bald eagle will nest on the ground , as has been recorded largely in areas largely isolated from terrestrial predators , such as Amchitka Island in Alaska . In Sonora , Mexico , eagles have been observed nesting on top of Hecho catcuses ( Pachycereus pectinaboriginum ) . Nests located on cliffs and rock pinnacles have been reported historically in California , Kansas , Nevada , New Mexico and Utah , but currently are only verified to occur only in Alaska and Arizona . The eggs average about 73 mm ( 2 @.@ 9 in ) long , ranging from 58 to 85 mm ( 2 @.@ 3 to 3 @.@ 3 in ) , and have a breadth of 54 mm ( 2 @.@ 1 in ) , ranging from 47 to 63 cm ( 19 to 25 in ) . Eggs in Alaska averaged 130 g ( 4 @.@ 6 oz ) in mass , while in Saskatchewan they averaged 114 @.@ 4 g ( 4 @.@ 04 oz ) . As with their ultimate body size , egg size tends to increase further away from the Equator . Eagles produce between one and three eggs per year , two being typical . Rarely , four eggs have been found in nests but these may be exceptional cases of polygyny . Eagles in captivity have been capable of producing up to seven eggs. it is rare for all three chicks to successfully reach the fledging stage . The oldest chick often bears the advantage of larger size and louder voice , which tends to draw the parents attention towards it . Occasionally , as is recorded in many large raptorial birds , the oldest sibling sometimes attacks and kills its younger sibling ( s ) , especially early in the nesting period when their sizes are most different . However , nearly half of known bald eagle produce two fledgings ( more rarely three ) , unlike in some other " eagle " species such as some in the Aquila genus , in which a second fledging is typically observed in less than 20 % of nests , despite two eggs typically being laid . Both the male and female take turns incubating the eggs , but the female does most of the sitting . The parent not incubating will hunt for food or look for nesting material during this stage . For the first two to three weeks of the nestling period , at least one adult is at the nest almost 100 % of the time . After five to six weeks , the attendance of parents usually drops off considerably ( with the parents often perching in trees nearby ) . A young eaglet can gain up to 170 g ( 6 @.@ 0 oz ) a day , the fastest growth rate of any North American bird . The young eaglets pick up and manipulate sticks , play tug of war with each other , practice holding things in their talons , and stretch and flap their wings . By eight weeks , the eaglets are strong enough to flap their wings , lift their feet off the nest platform , and rise up in the air . The young fledge at anywhere from 8 to 14 weeks of age , though will remain close to the nest and attended to by their parents for a further 6 weeks . Juvenile eagles first start dispersing away from their parents about 8 weeks after they fledge . Variability in departure date related to effects of sex and hatching order on growth and development . For the next four years , immature eagles wander widely in search of food until they attain adult plumage and are eligible to reproduce .
= = = Longevity and mortality = = =
The average lifespan of bald eagles in the wild is around 20 years , with the oldest confirmed one having been 38 years of age . In captivity , they often live somewhat longer . In one instance , a captive individual in New York lived for nearly 50 years . As with size , the average lifespan of an eagle population appears to be influenced by its location and access to prey . As they are no longer heavily persecuted , adult mortality is quite low . In one study of Florida eagles , adult bald eagles reportedly had 100 % annual survival rate . In Prince William Sound in Alaska , adults had an annual survival rate of 88 % even after the Exxon Valdez oil spill adversely affected eagles in the area . Of 1 @,@ 428 individuals from across the range necropsied by National Wildlife Health Center from 1963 to 1984 , 329 ( 23 % ) eagles died from trauma , primarily impact with wires and vehicles ; 309 ( 22 % ) died from gunshot ; 158 ( 11 % ) died from poisoning ; 130 ( 9 % ) died from electrocution ; 68 ( 5 % ) died from trapping ; 110 ( 8 % ) from emaciation ; and 31 ( 2 % ) from disease ; cause of death was undetermined in 293 ( 20 % ) of cases . In this study , 68 % of mortality was human @-@ caused . Today eagle @-@ shooting is believed to be considerably reduced due to the species protected status . In one case , an adult eagle investigating a peregrine falcon nest for prey items sustained a concussion from a swooping parent peregrine , and ultimately died days later from it . An early natural history video depicting a cougar ( Puma concolor ) ambushing and killing an immature bald eagle feeding at a rabbit carcass is viewable online although this film may have been staged .
Most non @-@ human @-@ related mortality involves nestlings or eggs . Around 50 % of eagles survive their first year . However , in the Chesapeake Bay area , 100 % of 39 radio @-@ tagged nestlings survived to their first year . Occasionally , nestling or egg fatalities are due to nest collapses , starvation , sibling aggression or inclement weather
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súd ) , and central bank . It is the seat of the Bratislava Region and , since 2002 , also of the Bratislava Self @-@ Governing Region . The city also has many foreign embassies and consulates .
The current local government ( Mestská samospráva ) structure has been in place since 1990 . It is composed of a mayor ( primátor ) , a city board ( Mestská rada ) , a city council ( Mestské zastupiteľstvo ) , city commissions ( Komisie mestského zastupiteľstva ) , and a city magistrate 's office ( Magistrát ) .
The mayor , based at the Primate 's Palace , is the city 's top executive officer and is elected to a four @-@ year term of office . The current mayor of Bratislava is Ivo Nesrovnal , who won the election held on November 15 , 2014 as an independent candidate . The city council is the city 's legislative body , responsible for issues such as budget , local ordinances , city planning , road maintenance , education , and culture . The Council usually convenes once a month and consists of 45 members elected to four @-@ year terms concurrent with the mayor 's . Many of the council 's executive functions are carried out by the city commission at the council 's direction . The city board is a 28 @-@ member body composed of the mayor and his deputies , the borough mayors , and up to ten city council members . The board is an executive and supervisory arm of the city council and also serves in an advisory role to the mayor .
Administratively , Bratislava is divided into five districts : Bratislava I ( the city centre ) , Bratislava II ( eastern parts ) , Bratislava III ( north @-@ eastern parts ) , Bratislava IV ( western and northern parts ) and Bratislava V ( southern parts on the right bank of the Danube , including Petržalka , the most densely populated residential area in Central Europe ) .
For self @-@ governance purposes , the city is divided into 17 boroughs , each of which has its own mayor ( starosta ) and council . The number of councillors in each depends on the size and population of the borough . Each of the boroughs coincides with the city 's 20 cadastral areas , except for two cases : Nové Mesto is further divided into the Nové Mesto and Vinohrady cadastral areas and Ružinov is divided into Ružinov , Nivy and Trnávka . Further unofficial division recognizes additional quarters and localities .
= = Economy = =
The Bratislava Region is the wealthiest and most economically prosperous region in Slovakia , despite being the smallest by area and having the second smallest population of the eight Slovak regions . It accounts for about 26 % of the Slovak GDP . The GDP per capita ( PPP ) , valued at € 41 @,@ 800 ( 2009 ) , is 178 % of the EU average and is the fifth @-@ highest of all regions in the EU member states .
The average gross monthly salary in the Bratislava region in 2011 was € 1220 .
The unemployment rate in Bratislava was 1 @.@ 83 % in December 2007 . Many governmental institutions and private companies have their headquarters in Bratislava . More than 75 % of Bratislava 's population works in the service sector , mainly composed of trade , banking , IT , telecommunications , and tourism . The Bratislava Stock Exchange ( BSSE ) , the organiser of the public securities market , was founded on March 15 , 1991 .
Companies with the highest value added according to TREND TOP 200 ranking ( 2011 ) , operating predominantly in Bratislava , include the Volkswagen Bratislava Plant , Slovnaft refinery ( MOL ) , Eset ( software developer ) , Asseco ( software company ) , PPC Power ( producer of heat and steam ) and Trenkwalder personnel agency .
Volkswagen Group took over and expanded the BAZ communist @-@ built factory in 1991 , and has since considerably expanded production beyond original Skoda Auto models . Currently , 68 % of production is focused on SUVs : Audi Q7 ; VW Touareg ; as well as the body and under @-@ chassis of the Porsche Cayenne . Since 2012 , production has also included Volkswagen up ! and badge @-@ engineered SEAT Mii and Skoda Citigo .
In recent years , service and high @-@ tech @-@ oriented businesses have prospered in Bratislava . Many global companies , including IBM , Dell , Lenovo , AT & T , SAP , and Accenture , have built outsourcing and service centres here or plan to do so soon . Reasons for the influx of multi @-@ national corporations include proximity to Western Europe , skilled labour force and the high density of universities and research facilities .
Other large companies and employers with headquarters in Bratislava include Slovak Telekom , Orange Slovensko , Slovenská sporiteľňa , Tatra banka , Doprastav , Hewlett @-@ Packard Slovakia , Slovnaft , Henkel Slovensko , Slovenský plynárenský priemysel , Kraft Foods Slovakia , Whirlpool Slovakia , Železnice Slovenskej republiky , and Tesco Stores Slovak Republic .
The Slovak economy 's strong growth in the 2000s has led to a boom in the construction industry , and several major projects have been completed or are planned in Bratislava . Areas attracting developers include the Danube riverfront , where two major projects are already finished : River Park in the Old Town , and Eurovea near the Apollo Bridge . Other locations under development include the areas around the main railway and bus stations , around the former industrial zone near the Old Town and in the boroughs of Petržalka , Nové Mesto and Ružinov . It is expected that investors will spend € 1 @.@ 2 billion on new projects by 2010 . The city has a balanced budget of 277 million Euros ( as of 2010 ) , with one fifth used for investment . Bratislava holds shares in 17 companies directly , for example , in the public transport company ( Dopravný podnik Bratislava ) , the waste collection and disposal company , and the water utility . The city also manages municipal organisations such as the City Police ( Mestská polícia ) , Bratislava City Museum and ZOO Bratislava .
= = = Tourism = = =
For the list of sights in the city , see cityscape and architecture above .
In 2006 , Bratislava had 77 commercial accommodation facilities ( of which 45 were hotels ) with a total capacity of 9 @,@ 940 beds . A total of 986 @,@ 201 visitors , 754 @,@ 870 of whom were foreigners , stayed overnight . Altogether , visitors made 1 @,@ 338 @,@ 497 overnight stays . However , a considerable share of visits is made by those who visit Bratislava for a single day , and their exact number is not known . The largest numbers of foreign visitors come from the Czech Republic , Germany , the United Kingdom , Italy , Poland and Austria .
Among other factors , the growth of low @-@ cost airline flights to Bratislava , led by Ryanair , has led to conspicuous stag parties , primarily from the UK . While these are a boon to the city 's tourism industry , cultural differences and vandalism have led to concern by local officials . Reflecting the popularity of rowdy parties in Bratislava in the early to mid @-@ 2000s , the city was a setting in the 2004 comedy film Eurotrip , which was actually filmed in the city and suburbs of Prague , the Czech Republic .
= = Culture = =
Bratislava is the cultural heart of Slovakia . Owing to its historical multi @-@ cultural character , local culture is influenced by various ethnic and religious groups , including Germans , Slovaks , Hungarians , and Jews . Bratislava enjoys numerous theatres , museums , galleries , concert halls , cinemas , film clubs , and foreign cultural institutions .
= = = Performing arts = = =
Bratislava is the seat of the Slovak National Theatre , housed in two buildings . The first is a Neo @-@ Renaissance theatre building situated in the Old Town at the end of Hviezdoslav Square . The new building , opened to the public in 2007 , is on the riverfront . The theatre has three ensembles : opera , ballet and drama . Smaller theatres include the Bratislava Puppet Theatre , the Astorka Korzo ' 90 theatre , the Arena Theatre , L + S Studio , and the Naive Theatre of Radošina .
Music in Bratislava flourished in the 18th century and was closely linked to Viennese musical life . Mozart visited the town at the age of six . Among other notable composers who visited or lived in the town were Haydn , Liszt , Bartók and Beethoven . It is also the birthplace of the composers Johann Nepomuk Hummel Dohnanyi Erno , and Franz Schmidt . Bratislava is home to both the Slovak Philharmonic Orchestra and the chamber orchestra , Capella Istropolitana . The city hosts several annual festivals , such as the Bratislava Music Festival and Bratislava Jazz Days . The Wilsonic Festival , held annually since 2000 , brings dozens of international musical acts to the city each year . During the summer , various musical events take place as part of the Bratislava Cultural Summer at Bratislava Castle . Apart from musical festivals , it is possible to hear music ranging from underground to well known pop stars .
= = = Museums and galleries = = =
The Slovak National Museum ( Slovenské národné múzeum ) , founded in 1961 , has its headquarters in Bratislava on the riverfront in the Old Town , along with the Natural History Museum , which is one of its subdivisions . It is the largest cultural institution in Slovakia , and manages 16 specialised museums in Bratislava and beyond . The Bratislava City Museum ( Múzeum mesta Bratislavy ) , established in 1868 , is the oldest museum in continuous operation in Slovakia . Its primary goal is to chronicle Bratislava 's history in various forms from the earliest periods using historical and archaeological collections . It offers permanent displays in eight specialised museums .
The Slovak National Gallery , founded in 1948 , offers the most extensive network of galleries in Slovakia . Two displays in Bratislava are next to one another at Esterházy Palace ( Esterházyho palác , Eszterházy palota ) and the Water Barracks ( Vodné kasárne , Vizikaszárnya ) on the Danube riverfront in the Old Town . The Bratislava City Gallery , founded in 1961 , is the second @-@ largest Slovak gallery of its kind . The gallery offers permanent displays at Pálffy Palace ( Pálffyho palác , Pálffy palota ) and Mirbach Palace ( Mirbachov palác , Mirbach palota ) , in the Old Town . Danubiana Art Museum , one of the youngest art museums in Europe , is near Čunovo waterworks .
= = = Media = = =
As the national capital , Bratislava is home to national and many local media outlets . Notable TV stations based in the city include Slovak Television ( Slovenská televízia ) , Markíza , JOJ and TA3 . Slovak Radio ( Slovenský rozhlas ) has its seat in the centre , and many Slovak commercial radio stations are based in the city . National newspapers based in Bratislava include SME , Pravda , Nový čas , Hospodárske noviny and the English @-@ language The Slovak Spectator . Two news agencies are headquartered there : the News Agency of the Slovak Republic ( TASR ) and the Slovak News Agency ( SITA ) .
= = Sport = =
Various sports and sports teams have a long tradition in Bratislava , with many teams and individuals competing in Slovak and international leagues and competitions .
Football is currently represented by the only club playing in the top Slovak football league , the Fortuna Liga . ŠK Slovan Bratislava , founded in 1919 , has its home ground at the Pasienky stadium . ŠK Slovan is the most successful football club in Slovak history , being the only club from the former Czechoslovakia to win the European football competition the Cup Winners ' Cup , in 1969 . FC Petržalka akadémia is the oldest of Bratislava 's football clubs , founded in 1898 , and is based at Stadium FC Petržalka 1898 in Petržalka ( formerly at Pasienky in Nové Mesto and Štadión Petržalka in Petržalka ) . They are currently the only Slovak team to win at least one match in the UEFA Champions League group stage , with a 5 – 0 win over Celtic FC in the qualifying round being the most well @-@ known , alongside a 3 – 2 win over FC Porto . Before then FC Košice in the 1997 – 98 season lost all six matches , despite being the first Slovak side since independence to play in the competition . In 2010 Artmedia were relegated from the Corgon Liga under their new name of MFK Petržalka , finishing 12th and bottom . FC Petržalka akadémia currently competes in 5 @.@ liga after bankruptcy in summer 2014 . Another known club from the city is FK Inter Bratislava . Founded in 1945 , they have their home ground at Stadium ŠKP Inter Dúbravka in Dúbravka , ( formerly at Štadión Pasienky ) and currently plays in the 3 @.@ liga . There are many more clubs with long tradition and successful history despite the lack of success in last years , e.g. LP Domino Bratislava currently playing in 4 @.@ liga ; FK Rača Bratislava competing in the 3 @.@ liga as well as Inter ; FK ŠKP Inter Dúbravka Bratislava , following ŠKP Devín ( successful team from 1990s ) and partially following the original Inter ( original Inter bankrupted in 2009 , sold the Corgoň Liga license to FK Senica and legally merged with FC ŠKP Dúbravka ; current Inter has taken over the tradition , name , colours , fans etc . , but legally is no successor of the original Inter ) ; FC Tatran Devín , the club that was successful mostly at youth level and merged with ŠKP Bratislava in 1995 ; MŠK Iskra Petržalka , playing under the name ŠK Iskra Matadorfix Bratislava in the former 1st League ( today 2nd ) in 1997 / 98 .
Bratislava is home to three winter sports arenas : Ondrej Nepela Winter Sports Stadium , V. Dzurilla Winter Sports Stadium , and Dúbravka Winter Sports Stadium . The HC Slovan Bratislava ice hockey team represents Bratislava from 2012 / 2013 season in Kontinental Hockey League . Slovnaft Arena , a part of Ondrej Nepela Winter Sports Stadium , is home to HC Slovan . The Ice Hockey World Championships in 1959 and 1992 were played in Bratislava , and the 2011 Men 's Ice Hockey World Championships were held in Bratislava and Košice , for which a new arena was built .
The Čunovo Water Sports Centre is a whitewater slalom and rafting area , close to the Gabčíkovo dam . It hosts several international and national canoe and kayak competitions annually .
The National Tennis Centre , which includes Aegon Arena , hosts various cultural , sporting and social events . Several Davis Cup matches have been played there , including the 2005 Davis Cup final . The city is represented in the top Slovak leagues in women 's and men 's basketball , women 's handball and volleyball , and men 's water polo . The Devín – Bratislava National run is the oldest athletic event in Slovakia , and the Bratislava City Marathon has been held annually since 2006 . A race track is located in Petržalka , where horse racing and dog racing events and dog shows are held regularly .
Bratislava is also the centre of rugby union in Slovakia .
= = Education and science = =
The first university in Bratislava , in the Kingdom of Hungary ( and also in the territory of present @-@ day Slovakia ) was Universitas Istropolitana , founded in 1465 by King Matthias Corvinus . It was closed in 1490 after his death .
Bratislava is the seat of the largest university ( Comenius University , 27 @,@ 771 students ) , the largest technical university ( Slovak University of Technology , 18 @,@ 473 students ) , and the oldest art schools ( the Academy of Performing Arts and the Academy of Fine Arts and Design ) in Slovakia . Other institutions of tertiary education are the public University of Economics and the first private college in Slovakia , City University of Seattle . In total , about 56 @,@ 000 students attend university in Bratislava .
There are 65 public primary schools , nine private primary schools and ten religious primary schools . Overall , they enroll 25 @,@ 821 pupils . The city 's system of secondary education ( some middle schools and all high schools ) consists of 39 gymnasia with 16 @,@ 048 students , 37 specialized high schools with 10 @,@ 373 students , and 27 vocational schools with 8 @,@ 863 students ( data as of 2007 ) .
The Slovak Academy of Sciences is also based in Bratislava . However , the city is one of the few European capitals to have neither an observatory nor a planetarium . The nearest observatory is in Modra , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) away , and the nearest planetarium is in Hlohovec , 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) away . CEPIT , the Central European Park For Innovative Technologies , is slated for development in Vajnory . This science and technology park will combine public and private research and educational institutions . Construction was expected to begin in 2008 , but has since stalled .
= = Transport = =
The geographical position of Bratislava in Central Europe has long made it a natural crossroads for international trade traffic .
Public transport in Bratislava is managed by Dopravný podnik Bratislava , a
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city @-@ owned company . The transport system is known as Mestská hromadná doprava ( MHD , Municipal Mass Transit ) and employs buses , trams and trolleybuses . An additional service , Bratislavská integrovaná doprava ( Bratislava Integrated Transport ) , links train and bus routes in the city with points beyond .
As a rail hub , the city has direct connections to Austria , Hungary , the Czech Republic , Poland , Germany and the rest of Slovakia . Petržalka and Bratislava hlavná stanica are the main railway stations . Main bus station ( Autobusová stanica Mlynské Nivy or AS Mlynské Nivy ) is located at Mlynské Nivy , east of city centre and offers bus connections to cities in Slovakia and international bus lines .
The motorway system provides direct access to Brno in the Czech Republic , Trnava and other points in Slovakia , and Budapest in Hungary . The A6 motorway between Bratislava and Vienna was opened in November 2007 . The Port of Bratislava provides access to the Black Sea via the Danube and to the North Sea through the Rhine – Main – Danube Canal .
M. R. Štefánik Airport is located 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) north @-@ east of the city centre . It served 2 @,@ 024 @,@ 000 passengers in 2007 . Bratislava is also served by the Vienna International Airport located 49 kilometres ( 30 @.@ 4 mi ) west of the city centre .
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns and sister cities = = =
Bratislava is twinned with :
* Numbers in parentheses list the year of twinning . The first agreement was signed with the city of Perugia , Umbria , in Italy on July 18 , 1962 .
= = = Partnerships = = =
Tehran in Iran
Kraków in Poland
= = Image gallery = =
= = Genealogical resources = =
The records for genealogical research are available at the state archive " Statny Archiv in Bratislava , Slovakia "
Roman Catholic church records ( births / marriages / deaths ) : 1601 – 1897 ( parish A )
Lutheran church records ( births / marriages / deaths ) : 1606 – 1919 ( parish A )
= = = Official sites = = =
Official Tourism and Travel Guide to Bratislava
Official Slovak National Tourism Portal
= = = Tourism and living information = = =
Public urban transport in Bratislava
English @-@ language community events taking place in Bratislava
= = = Images = = =
Virtual Tour of Bratislava
= The Boat Race 1872 =
The 29th Boat Race took place on the 27 March 1872 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd , Cambridge won by two lengths in a time of 21 minutes 15 seconds taking the overall record to 16 – 13 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by one length in the previous year 's race , while Oxford led overall with sixteen wins to Cambridge 's twelve .
During the build @-@ up to the race , Oxford 's boat club president , Robert Lesley of Pembroke College , strained his side and was prohibited from practice . Worse still , four days before the race , the number two rower Armistead " broke down and was replaced by C. C. Knollys , also an untrained man " . Conversely , Cambridge saw John Goldie return as president for the third consecutive year , and while all the previous year 's Blues were available , four were selected for the race .
Oxford were coached by E. G. Banks of Worcester College and Frank Willan who had rowed for the Dark Blues four times between the 1866 and 1869 races . Cambridge 's coaches were John Graham Chambers ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1862 and 1863 races , and was non @-@ rowing boat club president for the 1865 race ) and William Henry Lowe ( who rowed in three times , in the 1868 , 1870 and 1871 races ) .
While sliding seats had started to come to prominence , having been first used by a crew from Pembroke College , Goldie was reluctant to allow them to be tried for the race and disallowed the Light Blue boat manufacturer Harry Clasper from fitting them . The umpire for the race was Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd , the first time since The Boat Race 1856 that the event was not overseen by Joseph William Chitty . Lewis @-@ Lloyd had rowed for Cambridge four times , between the 1856 and the 1859 races inclusively . Edward Searle once again performed the duties of the starter .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 12 @.@ 875 lb ( 75 @.@ 6 kg ) , 2 @.@ 375 pounds ( 1 @.@ 1 kg ) more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained three rowers with Boat Race experience , and saw F. H. Hall return to cox the Dark Blue boat for the third time . Along with stroke and president Goldie , Cambridge 's crew included Edmund Spencer and Edward Randolph ( each rowing their third race ) , and John Brooks Close who had rowed in 1871 .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The race started at 1.35pm " in the teeth of a bitter north @-@ easterly gale and snow @-@ storm " , and proved uneventful with the Light Blues winning by two lengths in a time of 21 minutes 15 seconds . Partway through the race , Goldie had broken a bolt in his rigging ; although he could no longer contribute to the power of the Light Blue boat , he continued to stroke and provide the required rhythm to lead Cambridge to the victory . It was Cambridge 's third consecutive win and took the overall record to 16 – 13 in Oxford 's favour .
= Magdeburg @-@ class cruiser =
The Magdeburg class of light cruisers was a group of four ships built for the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . The class comprised SMS Magdeburg , the lead ship , Breslau , Strassburg , and Stralsund . All four ships were laid down in 1910 and were completed by the end of 1912 . They were armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm guns , though over the course of their careers , Breslau , Strassburg , and Stralsund were rearmed with more powerful 15 cm guns . They displaced 4 @,@ 570 t ( 4 @,@ 500 long tons ) at full load and were rated at a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) , though all four vessels exceeded that figure on trials .
Magdeburg was used as a torpedo test ship before the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , after which she was assigned to the Baltic . She conducted a series of raids on Russian positions culminating in a sweep into the Gulf of Finland that resulted in her grounding off the Estonian coast . Russian cruisers seized the stranded ship and captured code books ; they gave one copy to the British Royal Navy , which used it to great advantage . Breslau was assigned to the Mittelmeerdivision with the battlecruiser Goeben in 1912 and remained in the Mediterranean until the outbreak of war . After evading British warships , the two vessels reached Constantinople , where they were transferred to the Ottoman Navy . She operated primarily in the Black Sea against the Russian Navy , but in January 1918 she ventured into the Mediterranean and was mined and sunk after the Battle of Imbros .
Strassburg and Stralsund served with the High Seas Fleet in the North Sea against the British . They saw action at the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 and served in the reconnaissance screen for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group on several bombardments of the British coast in 1914 – 1915 . Stralsund was also present at the Battle of Dogger Bank , but was not heavily engaged . Strassburg saw action during Operation Albion against the Russians in the Baltic . Both ships were surrendered to the Allies after the end of the war ; Strassburg was ceded to Italy and renamed Taranto ; she served with the Italian Navy until 1943 , when she was scuttled after the Italian surrender . She was raised by the Germans and sunk by Allied bombers twice in 1943 – 1944 , and finally scrapped in 1946 – 1947 . Stralsund was given to France and renamed Mulhouse . She served only until 1925 , when she was placed in reserve . She was ultimately broken up in 1935 .
= = Design = =
The design for the ships of the Magdeburg class was prepared in 1908 – 1909 . The design incorporated a number of innovations , including a new longitudinal frame system in the hull , the development of which delayed construction by three to four years . The hull form was also redesigned to improve efficiency , and a new clipper bow was used instead of the old cruiser ram bow . They were the first German light cruisers to incorporate an armored belt at the waterline ; this increased the strength of the hull and became standard practice in warship construction for decades . The quarterdeck was cut down to provide a location to drop mines . All of these features became standard for subsequent German cruiser designs .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Magdeburg class were 136 meters ( 446 ft ) long at the waterline and 138 @.@ 7 m ( 455 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 4 m ( 14 ft ) forward and 5 @.@ 16 m ( 16 @.@ 9 ft ) aft . They displaced 4 @,@ 535 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 463 long tons ; 4 @,@ 999 short tons ) 4 @,@ 570 t ( 4 @,@ 500 long tons ; 5 @,@ 040 short tons ) at full combat load . The hulls were built with longitudinal steel frames and contained fourteen watertight compartments in Magdeburg , Strassburg , and Stralsund . Breslau 's hull was divided into sixteen watertight compartments . All four vessels had a double bottom that extended for forty @-@ five percent of the length of the hull .
The four vessels each had a crew of 18 officers and 336 enlisted men . They carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies . The German Navy regarded the ships as good sea boats , with slight weather helm and gentle motion in a swell . The cruisers were maneuverable , but were slow going into a turn . Steering was controlled by a single large rudder . They lost speed only slightly in a head sea , but lost up to sixty percent in hard turns . They had a transverse metacentric height of .79 m ( 2 ft 7 in ) .
Their propulsion systems consisted of steam turbines of various types . Each ship had turbines built by different manufacturers to evaluate each design and configuration . Magdeburg had three engines produced by Bergmann , which drove three 2 @.@ 75 @-@ meter ( 9 ft 0 in ) propellers . Breslau was equipped with two pairs of AG Vulcan turbines , which powered four 3 @-@ bladed screws 2 @.@ 47 m ( 8 ft 1 in ) in diameter . Strassburg had a pair of Marine @-@ type turbines with two 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) wide propellers . Stralsund initially had three Bergmann turbines with three 2 @.@ 75 m screws , though by the end of the war the center shaft was removed . All four propulsion systems were rated at 25 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached significantly higher speeds in service .
The ships ' turbines were powered by sixteen coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , although they were later altered to use fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . These were divided into five boiler rooms on the centerline . These gave the ships a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) , though on speed trials all four ships exceeded this by at least half a knot . The ships carried 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 106 tonnes ( 104 long tons ) of oil that gave them a range of approximately 5 @,@ 820 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 780 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . At 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) , the range fell considerably to 900 nmi ( 1 @,@ 700 km ; 1 @,@ 000 mi ) . Magdeburg , Strassburg , and Stralsund each had four turbo generators with a combined output of 320 kilowatts ( 430 hp ) at 220 Volts ; Breslau only had two generators .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The four Magdeburg @-@ class ships were armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . They were also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ships could also carry 120 mines .
Over the course of their careers , the ships all had their armament upgraded , with the exception of Magdeburg . In 1916 , two of Breslau 's 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were replaced with 15 cm SK L / 45 guns , which had a range of 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . The following year , the remaining ten 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were replaced with six 15 cm guns . In 1915 , Strassburg was rearmed with seven 15 cm guns , two 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) SK L / 45 guns , and two deck @-@ mounted 50 cm torpedo tubes . Stralsund was modified similarly , though her submerged torpedo tubes were removed during the refit .
The ships were protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships and 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) thick on the bow . The stern was unarmored . The deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate forward , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick amidships , and 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick aft . Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck and belt armor . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm thick roof . A rangefinder was added with 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick steel plating . The main battery guns had 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thikc gun shields .
= = Construction = =
Magdeburg was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Bussard " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1910 and launched on 13 May 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 August 1912 . Breslau was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Falke " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1910 . At her launching ceremony on 16 May 1911 , she was christened by the mayor of Breslau , the ship 's namesake . After her launching , fitting @-@ out work commenced and lasted until mid @-@ 1912 . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 August 1912 .
Strassburg was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Condor " and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven in 1910 and launched on 24 August 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 9 October 1912 . Stralsund was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Cormoran " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in 1910 and launched on 4 November 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 10 December 1912 .
= = Service history = =
= = = Magdeburg = = =
Magdeburg was used as a torpedo test ship after her commissioning until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , when she was brought to active service and deployed to the Baltic . In the Baltic , Magdeburg fired the first shots of the war against the Russians on 2 August , when she shelled the port of Libau . She participated in a series of bombardments of Russian positions until late August . On the 26th , she participated in a sweep of the entrance to the Gulf of Finland ; while steaming off the Estonian coast , she ran aground off the island of Odensholm and could not be freed . A pair of Russian cruisers appeared and seized the ship . Fifteen crew members were killed in the brief engagement . They recovered three intact German code books , one of which they passed to the British . The ability to decrypt German wireless signals provided the British with the ability to ambush German units on several occasions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland . The Russians partially scrapped Magdeburg while she remained grounded before completely destroying the wreck .
= = = Breslau = = =
Following her commissioning , Breslau and the battlecruiser Goeben were assigned to the Mittelmeerdivision in response to the Balkan Wars . After evading British warships in the Mediterranean to reach Constantinople , Breslau and Goeben were transferred to the Ottoman Empire in August 1914 , to entice the Ottomans to join the Central Powers in World War I. The ships were renamed Midilli and Yavuz Sultan Selim , respectively , and saw extensive service with the Ottoman fleet , primarily in the Black Sea against the Russian Black Sea Fleet . The two ships , along with several other Ottoman vessels , raided Russian ports in October 1914 , prompting a Russian declaration of war .
Midilli was active in laying minefields off the Russian coast , bombarding Russian ports and installations and , because of a shortage of Ottoman merchant ships , transporting troops and supplies to the Black Sea ports supplying Ottoman troops fighting in the Caucasus Campaign . She was lightly damaged several times by Russian ships , but the most serious damage was inflicted by a mine in 1915 , which kept her out of service for half of a year . The ship was mined and sunk in January 1918 during the Battle of Imbros in which Yavuz Sultan Selim was also mined and badly damaged . The majority of her crew were killed in the sinking .
= = = Strassburg = = =
Strassburg spent the first year of her service overseas , after which she was assigned to the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . She saw significant action at the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 and participated in the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby in December 1914 . By 1916 , the ship was transferred to the Baltic to operate against the Russian Navy . She saw action during Operation Albion in the Gulf of Riga in October 1917 , including screening for the battleships König and Markgraf during the Battle of Moon Sound . She returned to the North Sea for the planned
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Novick since The Prestige . Nolan has frequently collaborated with special @-@ effects supervisor Chris Corbould , stunt coordinator Tom Struthers first assistant director Nilo Otero , and visual effects supervisor Paul Franklin . Production designer Nathan Crowley has worked with him since Insomnia ( except for Inception ) . Nolan has called Crowley one of his closest and most inspiring creative collaborators . Casting director John Papsidera has worked on all of Nolan 's films , except Following and Insomnia .
Christian Bale , Michael Caine and Cillian Murphy have been frequent collaborators since Batman Begins . Caine is Nolan 's most prolific collaborator , having appeared in six of his films , and is regarded by Nolan to be his " good luck charm " . In return , Caine has described Nolan as " one of cinema 's greatest directors " , comparing him favorably with the likes of David Lean , John Huston and Joseph L. Mankiewicz . Nolan is also known for casting stars from the 1980s in his films , i.e. Rutger Hauer ( Batman Begins ) , Eric Roberts ( The Dark Knight ) , Tom Berenger ( Inception ) , and Matthew Modine ( The Dark Knight Rises ) . Modine said of working with Nolan : " There are no chairs on a Nolan set , he gets out of his car and goes to the set . And he stands up until lunchtime . And then he stands up until they say ' Wrap ' . He 's fully engaged – in every aspect of the film . "
= = Personal life = =
Nolan is married to Emma Thomas , whom he met at University College London when he was 19 . She has worked as a producer on all of his films , and together they founded the production company Syncopy Inc . The couple have four children and reside in Los Angeles . Protective of his private life , he rarely discusses his personal life in interviews .
Nolan prefers not to use a cell phone or an email address , saying " It 's not that I 'm a Luddite and don 't like technology ; I 've just never been interested [ ... ] When I moved to Los Angeles in 1997 , nobody really had cell phones , and I just never went down that path . " He also prohibits use of phones on set .
= = Recognition = =
Having made some of the most influential and popular films of his time , Nolan 's work has been as " intensely embraced , analyzed and debated by ordinary film fans as by critics and film academics " . According to The Wall Street Journal , his " ability to combine box @-@ office success with artistic ambition has given him an extraordinary amount of clout in the industry . " Geoff Andrew of the British Film Institute ( BFI ) and regular contributor to the Sight & Sound magazine , called Nolan " a persuasively inventive storyteller " , singling him out as one of few contemporary filmmakers producing highly personal films within the Hollywood mainstream . He also pointed out that Nolan 's films are as notable for their " considerable technical virtuosity and visual flair " as for their " brilliant narrative ingenuity and their unusually adult interest in complex philosophical questions . " Scott Foundas of Variety declared him " the premier big @-@ canvas storyteller of his generation . "
The filmmaker has been praised by many of his contemporaries , and some have cited his work as influencing their own . Rupert Wyatt , director of Rise of the Planet of the Apes ( 2011 ) , said in an interview that he thinks of Nolan as a " trailblazer ... he is to be hugely admired as a master filmmaker , but also someone who has given others behind him a stick to beat back the naysayers who never thought a modern mass audience would be willing to embrace story and character as much as spectacle " . Michael Mann complimented Nolan for his " singular vision " and called him " a complete auteur " . Nicolas Roeg said of Nolan , " [ His ] films have a magic to them ... People talk about ' commercial art ' and the term is usually self @-@ negating ; Nolan works in the commercial arena and yet there 's something very poetic about his work . " Discussing the difference between art films and big @-@ studio films , Steven Spielberg referred to Nolan 's Dark Knight series as an example of both ; he has described Memento and Inception as " masterworks " . Nolan has also been commended by James Cameron , Guillermo del Toro , Danny Boyle , Wong Kar @-@ Wai , Steven Soderbergh , Sam Mendes , Martin Scorsese , Werner Herzog , Matthew Vaughn , Paul Thomas Anderson , Paul Greengrass , Rian Johnson , and others . Noted film critic Mark Kermode complimented the director for bringing " the discipline and ethics of art @-@ house independent moviemaking " to Hollywood blockbusters , calling him " [ The ] living proof that you don 't have to appeal to the lowest common denominator to be profitable " .
In 2007 , Total Film named Nolan the 32nd greatest director of all time , and in 2012 , The Guardian ranked him # 14 on their list of " The 23 Best Film Directors in the World " The following year , Entertainment Weekly named him the 12th greatest working director , writing that " Nolan is the rare director determined to make you , the moviegoer , walk out of the theater after his film and gasp , ' I 've never seen anything like that before . ' His movies are full of twists and riddles , and even his popcorn fare is stuffed with enough brain candy to fill up a graduate school syllabus . " He was ranked No. 2 on the same list in 2011 . A survey of 17 academics held in 2013 , regarding which filmmakers had been referenced the most in essays and dissertations marked over the last five years , showed that Nolan was the second @-@ most studied director in the UK after Quentin Tarantino and ahead of Alfred Hitchcock , Martin Scorsese and Steven Spielberg . In 2015 , Time featured him as one of the " 100 Most Influential People in the World " .
Nolan 's work has also been recognised as an influence on video games . In 2013 , the official Xbox magazine named Nolan among the 100 most important people in games , writing that " video games have started to look a bit like his films : gritty and complex " .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
As a writer and director of a number of science fiction and action films , Nolan has been honored with awards and nominations from the World Science Fiction Society ( Hugo Awards ) , the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America ( Nebula Awards ) , and the Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films ( Saturn Awards ) .
Nolan screened Following at the 1999 Slamdance Film Festival , and won the Black & White Award . In 2014 , he received the first @-@ ever Founder 's Award from the Festival . " Throughout his incredible successes , Christopher Nolan has stood firmly behind the Slamdance filmmaking community . We are honored to present him with Slamdance 's inaugural Founder 's Award , " said Slamdance president and co @-@ founder Peter Baxter . At the 2001 Sundance Film Festival , Nolan and his brother Jonathan won the Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award for Memento , and in 2003 , Nolan received the Sonny Bono Visionary Award from the Palm Springs International Film Festival . Festival executive director Mitch Levine said , " Nolan had in his brief time as a feature film director , redefined and advanced the very language of cinema " . He was named an Honorary Fellow of UCL in 2006 ; a title given out to individuals " who have attained distinction in the arts , literature , science , business or public life " .
In 2009 , the director received the Board of the Governors Award from the American Society of Cinematographers . ASC president Daryn Okada said , " Chris Nolan is infused with talent with which he masterfully uses to collaboratively create memorable motion pictures ... his quest for superlative images to tell stories has earned the admiration of our members " . In 2011 , Nolan received the Britannia Award for Artistic Excellence in Directing from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts and the ACE Golden Eddie Filmmaker of the Year Award from American Cinema Editors . That year he also received the Modern Master Award , the highest honor presented by the Santa Barbara International Film Festival . The executive director of the festival Roger Durling stated : " Every one of Nolan 's films has set a new standard for the film community , with Inception being the latest example " . In addition , Nolan was the recipient of the inaugural VES Visionary Award from the Visual Effects Society . In July 2012 he became the youngest director to be honored with a hand @-@ and @-@ footprint ceremony at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles .
The Art Directors Guild ( ADG ) selected Nolan as the recipient of its Cinematic Imagery Award in 2015 , an honor given to those whose body of work has " richly enhanced the visual aspects of the movie @-@ going experience . " He was selected as the 2015 Class Day speaker at Princeton University . " Nolan , more than a film producer , is a thinker and visionary in our age and we are thrilled to have him deliver the keynote address , " said Class Day co @-@ chair Hanna Kim . Nolan was awarded the Empire Inspiration Award at the 20th Empire Awards . The director was also honored with a retrospective at the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Directorial work = = =
^ I Credited as editor . ^ II Credited as cinematographer . ^ III Credited as composer
= = = Other projects = = =
= David Morrow ( sports ) =
David K. Morrow is an entrepreneur , businessman , and former lacrosse defenseman . He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 1990 through 1993 . He was a three @-@ time United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American ( two @-@ time first team ) . He is a co @-@ founder of the Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) and an innovator of the titanium lacrosse stick and hockey stick .
He is the most recent defenseman to earn the NCAA Lacrosse player of the year award and a two @-@ time NCAA Lacrosse defenseman of the year . He was a three @-@ time first team All @-@ Ivy League selection . In his four @-@ year college career , Princeton won the school 's first NCAA tournament Championship , two Ivy League Championships and earned the school 's first four NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament invitations . Following college , he represented Team USA in the 1994 and 1998 World Lacrosse Championships and was named to the 1998 All @-@ World Team .
His equipment company , Warrior Sports , is a leading equipment provider to professional , collegiate and interscholastic teams and players . It provides a variety of equipment and has propagated the interest in titanium material for use in lacrosse and ice hockey equipment . He has expanded professional lacrosse from box lacrosse to field lacrosse by co @-@ founding the MLL .
= = Background = =
Morrow was raised in Troy , Michigan , a suburb of Detroit , where his father operated a tubing shop . He was a defenseman in both lacrosse and hockey . He attended Brother Rice High School in the nearby Bloomfield Township in Oakland County .
= = College career = =
In his first year at Princeton , he nearly quit the lacrosse team when he realized that , because of his background , he was behind the other players in his understanding of the game . He felt he might be better off focusing on ice hockey . Princeton head coach Bill Tierney convinced him to use his speed to run with the offensive players and to keep his stick in front of them , which encouraged him to adapt his natural speed to the sport . He earned his first start as a sophomore in 1991 .
In one season , Morrow broke or bent 25 aluminum lacrosse sticks . After tinkering with the lacrosse stick design at his father 's shop , Morrow introduced a titanium version of the stick in the 1992 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament . Morrow scored two goals in the 16 – 14 semifinals victory over North Carolina in the first game using the titanium stick . Princeton went on to win the tournament , its first NCAA national championship . During the 1993 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament , Morrow shut down Loyola 's Kevin Beach , who had 6 goals in the first round game . He was selected to the All @-@ tournament team that year . During his four years , Princeton earned its first four berths in the NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship . The 1992 and 1993 teams were undefeated 6 – 0 outright Ivy League champions .
Morrow was a first team USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 1992 and 1993 and a third team selection in 1991 . He was a three @-@ time first team All @-@ Ivy League selection ( 1991 , 1992 and 1993 ) . Morrow is one of only two and the most recent defenseman to earn the Lt. Raymond Enners Award as the NCAA Lacrosse player of the year award . He twice earned the Schmeisser Award ( 1992 , 1993 ) as the NCAA Lacrosse defenseman of the year . Morrow was selected to the NCAA Lacrosse Silver Anniversary team in 1995 . Morrow was drafted by the Philadelphia Wings during the 1994 National Lacrosse League Entry Draft . He won gold medals at the
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for UEFA Euro 2012 ended in a similar way ; they lost all ten matches , scoring only one goal and conceding 25 ; their best results were two one @-@ goal losses to Slovakia and a 3 – 1 loss in Ireland . The 2014 World Cup qualifying was even more disastrous , Andorra losing all the matches , conceding 30 goals and not scoring .
At 2016 UEFA Euro qualifying , Andorra lost again all its ten games but scored four goals , its record in a qualifying group for a European Championship .
= = Andorra all @-@ time record against all nations = =
As of 1 June 2016
° FIFA @-@ unofficial match on February 19 , 1998 between Andorra – Czech Republic ( 0 – 1 ) is not included .
= = Stadium = =
From 1996 until 2014 Andorra played their home matches at the Comunal d 'Andorra la Vella , in the capital city of Andorra la Vella . This stadium has a capacity of 1 @,@ 800 and also hosts the matches of club sides FC Andorra and the Andorran Premier League . On 9 September 2014 , the national team began playing at the new Estadi Nacional with a capacity of 3 @,@ 306 .
Andorra have occasionally played " home " matches outside their borders . For example , Andorra hosted France and England in the 2000 European Championship , 2008 European Championship and 2010 World Cup qualifiers in the Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys in Barcelona , which was the home of RCD Espanyol between 1997 and 2009 .
= = Kit suppliers = =
= = Reputation = =
Andorra 's dismal record gives them a lowly reputation in world football . The nation has only won one competitive fixture , a 1 – 0 World Cup qualifying win against Macedonia , and two exhibition games against Belarus ( 2 – 0 ) and Albania ( 2 – 0 ) . All matches were played at home .
With the fourth smallest population of any UEFA country , until the admission of Gibraltar , the talent pool is small . Also Andorra is one of the youngest UEFA member association along with Kazakhastan , both founded in 1994 . Players are predominantly amateurs because the Andorra domestic league is only part @-@ time . Although , since Andorra began playing in 1996 their average FIFA ranking is 163 .
= = Players and managers = =
Ildefons Lima is the only Andorran player to have scored more than three career goals for the team ; he has nine goals . Lima is also the second @-@ most capped player with 96 appearances . Óscar Sonejee 's 105 appearances are the most for the Andorra national team . Koldo has the second @-@ most with 78 caps between 1998 and 2009 .
Manuel Miluir was the first coach of the team and managed their first three matches of European Championship qualifying . He departed in 1999 to make way for David Rodrigo , whose first competitive match was a 2 – 0 European Championship qualifying defeat at home to Iceland on 27 March of that year . Rodrigo had been in charge of the team until February 2010 , when it was announced that Koldo took over this role .
In January 2006 , the Andorran Football Association named Koldo , their goalkeeper from 1998 to 2009 , as their greatest ever player .
= = Manager history = =
Isidre Codina ( 1996 )
Manuel Miluir ( 1997 – 1999 )
David Rodrigo ( 1999 – 2009 )
Koldo Álvarez de Eulate ( 2010 – )
= = Player history = =
= = Recent results and fixtures = =
= = = 2015 = = =
= = = 2016 = = =
= = = 2017 = = =
= = World Cup record = =
= = European Championship record = =
= = Current squad = =
Andorra manager Koldo Álvarez named an 18 @-@ man squad for the Friendly Match against Estonia on June 1 , 2016.Caps and goals correct as of June 1 , 2016 , after the match against Estonia .
= = = Recent call @-@ ups = = =
The following players have been called up to the Andorra squad in the last 12 months .
RET : player retired from international footballINJ : player withdrewed due to injury
= = 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification = =
= = UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying = =
= = International goals = =
Andorra has scored very few goals in competitive internationals ( UEFA European Football Championship or FIFA World Cup matches ) ; the list below is comprehensive .
a ECQ
= UEFA European Football Championship qualification match , WCQ =
FIFA World Cup qualification matchb The Andorra score is always listed first.c The Andorra @-@ Cyprus match in 2000 is the only game Andorra has scored two goals in any competitive match.d The Andorra @-@ Macedonia match in 2004 is the only competitive match Andorra has won .
= 1983 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1983 Atlantic hurricane season was the least active Atlantic hurricane season in 53 years , during which only four tropical storms formed . The season officially began on June 1 , 1983 , and lasted until November 30 , 1983 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most storms form in the Atlantic basin . The season had very little activity , with only seven tropical depressions , four of which reached tropical storm strength or higher . This led to the lowest Accumulated Cyclone Energy count since 1950 , but not since 1900 .
The season began later than normal ; the first tropical depression formed on July 29 and the second on July 31 . Neither tropical depression strengthened and they dissipated soon thereafter . Hurricane Alicia formed as Tropical Depression Three on August 15 , quickly intensified into a hurricane on August 16 and made landfall in Texas on August 18 . Alicia caused over $ 3 billion in damage in Texas . Hurricane Barry formed on August 25 , crossed Florida and strengthened into a hurricane . Barry made landfall near Brownsville , Texas and dissipated over land on August 30 .
Hurricane Chantal , the third of three hurricanes in 1983 , formed on September 10 . It strengthened into a hurricane , but stayed out at sea , and became absorbed by a front on September 15 . Tropical Depression Six formed on September 19 and caused heavy rains in the Caribbean before degenerating into a wave on September 21 . Tropical Storm Dean was the final storm of the season , forming on September 26 . It originally tracked to the north , peaking at 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) winds ( 85 km / h ) , and made landfall in the Delmarva Peninsula on September 29 . It dissipated over the coast of Virginia on September 30 .
= = Seasonal forecasts and activity = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts like Dr. William M. Gray , and his associates at Colorado State University . A normal season , as defined by NOAA , has six to fourteen named storms , with four to eight of those reaching hurricane strength , and one to three major hurricanes . The July 23 , 1983 forecast predicted that after the slow start to the season , that a total of eight storms would form , and five of the storms would reach hurricane status . The forecast did not specify how many of the hurricanes would reach major hurricane status . However , the predictions proved to be too high , with only four named storms forming by the end of the season and three of those reaching hurricane status .
The season , which began on June 1 and ended on November 30 , was very inactive because of strong upper @-@ level wind shear . The wind shear was unusually strong throughout the Caribbean and open Atlantic , and disrupted convection in areas of disturbed weather so they could not develop . Over sixty African systems had formed and made it westward , but when they reached the Lesser Antilles , they were dissolved easily . The only area where the shear was minimal — a region encompassing the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic north of the Bahamas and east of Florida — was where the four named storms developed . This makes the 1983 season the least active season since the 1930 Atlantic hurricane season which had only two storms . 1983 and the prior season became the first example of two consecutive years to have no storms form in the Caribbean Sea since 1871 , when reliable record began . 1983 also proved to be the first season since 1871 that a storm did not form south of 25 ° N latitude .
1983 was the first season for which the National Hurricane Center issued numeric landfall probabilities . Probabilities had been calculated for prior storms for use in the issuing of hurricane watches and warnings , but this was the first time the raw numeric probabilities were released to the public . The probabilities issued were accurate during Alicia , indicating that Galveston and surrounding portions of the upper Texas coast were the most likely area to be struck .
The season 's activity was reflected with a low cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 17 , which is classified as " below normal " . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
Tropical Depression One formed from a tropical disturbance near the Lesser Antilles on July 29 . The National Hurricane Center indicated the possibility of the depression strengthening into a tropical storm in media reports but upper @-@ level wind shear inhibited any development . The depression dissipated the next
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comes to an end at a junction with River Road ( NY 251 , which has its western terminus here ) and Rochester Street near the northern bank of Oatka Creek . Here , NY 383 curves north onto Rochester Street and proceeds through eastern Scottsville . The street name of NY 383 becomes Scottsville Road upon intersecting the western terminus of NY 253 . Past this junction , the surroundings shift from village streets to housing tracts as the route exits Scottsville . North of the village , NY 383 re @-@ enters open fields once again upon crossing the Wheatland – Chili town line .
Within Chili , NY 383 parallels the path of the Genesee River , which Oatka Creek feeds into east of the village of Scottsville . During this stretch , the route passes under the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) and intersects Mile Wood Road , a highway connecting NY 383 to Mile of Woods , a hamlet on the west bank of the Genesee River . From this point , NY 383 heads to the north while the river flows to the northwest toward the route . Upon meeting the waterway , NY 383 begins to run along the Genesee River 's western bank to a junction with NY 252 . It continues along the riverbank as it proceeds northward , passing over Black Creek and crossing the West Shore Subdivision , a rail line owned by CSX Transportation . As NY 383 approaches the Greater Rochester International Airport , it diverges from the river and has a junction with Paul Road ( unsigned County Route 168 and formerly NY 252A ) south of the Airport . NY 383 follows the southern edge of the airport to an interchange with I @-@ 390 at exit 17 . Shortly afterward , NY 383 crosses the Erie Canal and enters the city of Rochester . At this point , maintenance of NY 383 shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation to the city of Rochester .
Scottsville Road continues within the city for four blocks to a three @-@ way junction with Genesee Street and Elmwood Avenue . NY 383 veers north onto Genesee Street for six blocks to Brooks Avenue . Here , the route turns east to access South Plymouth Avenue . NY 383 continues north on Plymouth Avenue through densely populated sections of the city to Ford Street . The route curves east to follow Ford for one block to Exchange Boulevard , where it turns back to the north toward downtown Rochester . NY 383 follows Exchange Boulevard along the Genesee River 's west bank and under the Frederick Douglass – Susan B. Anthony Memorial Bridge , which carries I @-@ 490 over both NY 383 and the river . Past the bridge , the highway enters downtown , where it passes the City of Rochester Public Safety Building and the Blue Cross Arena before terminating at a junction with East Broad Street ( NY 31 ) .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 16 , an unsigned legislative route extending from the village of Cuba to the city of Rochester . Between the hamlet of Mumford and the village of Scottsville , Route 16 followed Scottsville – Mumford Road . By 1919 , Route 15 was extended northeast from Caledonia to meet Route 16 in Scottsville . Within the village , it was routed on River Road and Main Street . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 16 was truncated to end in Le Roy while the portion of its former routing north of Caledonia became part of a realigned and extended Route 15 . None of Route 15 between Mumford and Scottsville was assigned a designation when the first set of routes in the modern state highway system were assigned in 1924 .
The portion of former legislative Route 15 from Mumford to Scottsville and the segment of pre @-@ 1921 legislative Route 15 on Main Street in Scottsville was designated as the westernmost portion of NY 253 , a highway extending from Mumford to Henrietta , as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . In Scottsville , NY 253 was concurrent with NY 35 , a route stretching from Buffalo to Ontario via Canawaugus ( west of Avon ) , Rochester , and Walworth , on Rochester Street . U.S. Route 20 was rerouted to follow NY 35 between Buffalo and Avon c . 1938 . As a result , NY 35 was reconfigured south of Scottsville to follow the routing of NY 253 to Mumford instead , where it ended at NY 36 . NY 253 was then truncated to the former northern terminus of its overlap with NY 35 northeast of Scottsville . The NY 35 designation was split into two designations in the early 1940s , with the portion from Mumford to Ontario Center Road in Walworth becoming NY 383 . The new route also continued southward for another 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to NY 5 in Caledonia by way of an overlap with NY 36 ; however , this extension was eliminated by 1970 .
Within Rochester , NY 383 was initially routed on Scottsville Road , Elmwood and Plymouth avenues , Main Street , and Winton Road . At the junction of Winton and Blossom roads , NY 383 turned east to follow Blossom into Penfield . It veered east upon intersecting Browncroft Boulevard to follow modern NY 286 east to Walworth . The portion of NY 383 east of NY 96 ( East Avenue ) in downtown Rochester became NY 286 on January 1 , 1949 . At the same time , NY 383 was truncated to the junction of Plymouth Avenue and Main Street in Rochester . NY 383 was further truncated to an interchange with the newly constructed Inner Loop in the mid @-@ 1950s .
In the late 1970s , NY 383 was rerouted to follow Ford Street and Exchange Boulevard around the southeastern edge of Rochester 's Corn Hill district to a new terminus at Broad Street ( NY 31 ) in downtown Rochester . The route 's former alignment on Plymouth Avenue was split into two segments in the late 1980s as part of a larger reconfiguration of Corn Hill 's street layout . In the mid @-@ 2000s , NY 383 was rerouted between Elmwood and Brooks Avenues to follow Genesee Street instead . This realignment was made out of necessity as a portion of South Plymouth Avenue immediately south of Brooks Avenue was removed as part of the construction of the Brooks Landing riverside development project . Incidentally , Genesee Street was part of the routing used by NY 35 , NY 383 's predecessor , during the 1930s and 1940s .
= = NY 383B = =
NY 383B was an alternate route of NY 383 between Rochester and Penfield along Browncroft Boulevard . It was renumbered from NY 35B to NY 383B when the portion of NY 35 in the vicinity of Rochester was redesignated as NY 383 in the early 1940s . It was renumbered again to NY 286A in 1949 to match the redesignation of NY 383 east of Rochester to NY 286 . Despite the " B " suffix of the route , it is the only suffixed route in NY 383 's history — there has never been a " NY 383A " .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Monroe County .
= Real Madrid C.F. =
Real Madrid Club de Fútbol ( Spanish pronunciation : [ reˈal maˈðɾið ˈkluβ ðe ˈfuðβol ] ; Royal Madrid Football Club ) , commonly known as Real Madrid , or simply as Real outside Spain frontiers , is a professional football club based in Madrid , Spain .
Founded in 1902 as Madrid Football Club , the team has traditionally worn a white home kit since inception . The word Real is Spanish for Royal and was bestowed to the club by King Alfonso XIII in 1920 together with the royal crown in the emblem . The team has played its home matches in the 85 @,@ 454 @-@ capacity Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in downtown Madrid since 1947 . Unlike most European sporting entities , Real Madrid 's members ( socios ) have owned and operated the club throughout its history .
The club is the most valuable sports team in the world , worth € 2 @.@ 5 billion ( $ 3 @.@ 4 billion ) and the world 's highest @-@ earning football club for 2013 – 14 , with an annual revenue of € 549 @.@ 5 million . The club is one of the most widely supported teams in the world . Real Madrid is one of three founding members of the Primera División that have never been relegated from the top division , along with Athletic Bilbao and Barcelona . The club holds many long @-@ standing rivalries , most notably El Clásico with Barcelona and the El Derbi madrileño with Atlético Madrid .
Real Madrid established itself as a major force in both Spanish and European football during the 1950s . The club won five consecutive European Cups , and reached the final seven times . This success was replicated in the league , where the club won five times in the space of seven years . This team , which consisted of players such as Di Stéfano , Ferenc Puskás , Gento , Raymond Kopa , and Santamaría , is considered by some in the sport to be the greatest team of all time .
In domestic football , the club has won a record 32 La Liga titles , 19 Copa del Rey , 9 Supercopa de España , 1 Copa Eva Duarte , and 1 Copa de la Liga . In international football , the club has won a record 11 European Cup / UEFA Champions League titles and a joint record 3 Intercontinental Cups , as well as 2 UEFA Cups , 2 UEFA Super Cups and a FIFA Club World Cup .
Real Madrid was recognised as the FIFA Club of the 20th Century on 23 December 2000 , and named Best European Club of the 20th Century by the IFFHS on 11 May 2010 . The club received the FIFA Centennial Order of Merit in 2004 . The club is ranked first in the latest IFFHS Club World Ranking , setting a new ranking @-@ points record . The club also leads the current UEFA club rankings .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1897 – 1945 ) = = =
Real Madrid 's origins go back to when football was introduced to Madrid by the academics and students of the Institución Libre de Enseñanza , which included several Cambridge and Oxford University graduates . They founded Football Club Sky in 1897 , playing on Sunday mornings at Moncloa . It split into two clubs in 1900 : New Foot @-@ Ball de Madrid and Madrid Football Club . On 6 March 1902 , after a new Board presided by Juan Padrós had been elected , Madrid Football Club was officially founded . Three years after its foundation , in 1905 , Madrid FC won its first title after defeating Athletic Bilbao in the Spanish Cup final . The club became one of the founding sides of the Royal Spanish Football Federation on 4 January 1909 , when club president Adolfo Meléndez signed the foundation agreement of the Spanish FA . After moving between grounds the team moved to the Campo de O 'Donnell in 1912 . In 1920 , the club 's name was changed to Real Madrid after King Alfonso XIII granted the title of Real ( Royal ) to the club .
In 1929 , the first Spanish football league was founded . Real Madrid led the first league season until the last match , a loss to Athletic Bilbao , meant they finished runners @-@ up to Barcelona . Real Madrid won its first League title in the 1931 – 32 season . Real won the League again the following year , becoming the first team to have won the championship twice .
On 14 April 1931 , the arrival of the Second Spanish Republic caused the club to lose the title Real and went back to being named Madrid Football Club . Football continued during the Second World War , and on 13 June 1943 Madrid beat Barcelona 11 – 1 in the second leg of a semi @-@ final of the Copa del Generalísimo , the Copa del Rey having been renamed in honour of General Franco . It has been suggested that Barcelona players were intimidated by police , including by the director of state security who " allegedly told the team that some of them were only playing because of the regime 's generosity in permitting them to remain in the country . " The Barcelona chairman , Enric Piñeyro , was assaulted by Madrid fans . However , none of these allegations have been proven and FIFA and UEFA still consider the result as legitimate . According to Spanish journalist and writer , Juan Carlos Pasamontes , Barcelona player Josep Valle denied that the Spanish security forces came before the match . Instead , at the end of the first half , Barcelona coach Juan José Nogués and all of his players were angry with the hard @-@ style of play Real Madrid was using and with the aggressiveness of the home crowd . When they refused to take the field , the Superior Chief of Police of Madrid appeared , identified himself , and ordered the team to take the field .
= = = Santiago Bernabéu Yeste and European success ( 1945 – 78 ) = = =
Santiago Bernabéu Yeste became president of Real Madrid in 1945 . Under his presidency , the club , its stadium Santiago Bernabéu and its training facilities Ciudad Deportiva were rebuilt after the Spanish Civil War damages . Additionally , during the 1950s former Real Madrid Amateurs player Miguel Malbo founded Real Madrid 's youth academy , or " cantera , " known today as La Fábrica . Beginning in 1953 , he embarked upon a strategy of signing world @-@ class players from abroad , the most prominent being Alfredo Di Stéfano .
In 1955 , acting upon the idea proposed by the French sports journalist and editor of L 'Équipe Gabriel Hanot , Bernabéu , Bedrignan and Gusztáv Sebes created an exhibition tournament of invited teams from around Europe that would eventually become what today is known as the UEFA Champions League . It was under Bernabéu 's guidance that Real Madrid established itself as a major force in both Spanish and European football . The club won the European Cup five times in a row between 1956 and 1960 , which included the 7 – 3 Hampden Park final against Eintracht Frankfurt in 1960 . After these five consecutive successes , Real was permanently awarded the original cup and earning the right to wear the UEFA badge of honour .
The club won the European Cup for a sixth time in 1966 defeating Partizan Belgrade 2 – 1 in the final with a team composed entirely of same nationality players , a first in the competition . This team became known as the Yé @-@ yé . The name " Ye @-@ yé " came from the " Yeah , yeah , yeah " chorus in The Beatles ' song " She Loves You " after four members of the team posed for Marca and impersonated the Beatles . The Ye @-@ yé generation was also European Cup runner @-@ up in 1962 and 1964 . In the 1970s , Real Madrid won five league championships and three Spanish Cups . The club played its first UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup final in 1971 and lost to English side Chelsea 2 – 1 . On 2 July 1978 , club president Santiago Bernabéu died while the World Cup was being played in Argentina . FIFA decreed three days of mourning to honour him during the tournament . The following year , the club organized the first edition of the Trofeo Santiago Bernabéu in the memory of its former president .
= = = Quinta del Buitre and seventh European Cup ( 1980 – 2000 ) = = =
By the early 1980s , Real Madrid had lost its grasp on the Liga title until a new cohort of home @-@ grown stars brought domestic success back to the club . Spanish sport journalist Julio César Iglesias gave to this generation the name La Quinta del Buitre ( " Vulture 's Cohort " ) , which was derived from the nickname given to one of its members , Emilio Butragueño . The other four members were Manuel Sanchís , Martín Vázquez , Míchel and Miguel Pardeza ; all five footballers were graduates of Real Madrid 's youth academy . With La Quinta del Buitre ( reduced to four members when Pardeza left for Zaragoza in 1986 ) and notable players like goalkeeper Francisco Buyo , right @-@ back Miguel Porlán Chendo and Mexican striker Hugo Sánchez , Real Madrid had one of the best teams in Spain and Europe during the second half of the 1980s , winning two UEFA Cups , five Spanish championships in a row , one Spanish cup and three Spanish Super Cups . In the early 1990s , La Quinta del Buitre split up after Martín Vázquez , Emilio Butragueño and Míchel left the club .
In 1996 , President Lorenzo Sanz appointed Fabio Capello as coach . Although his tenure lasted only one season , Real Madrid was proclaimed league champion and players like Roberto Carlos , Predrag Mijatović , Davor Šuker and Clarence Seedorf arrived at the club to strengthen a squad that already boasted the likes of Raúl , Fernando Hierro , Iván Zamorano , and Fernando Redondo . As a result , Real Madrid ( with the addition of Fernando Morientes in 1997 ) finally ended its 32 @-@ year wait for its seventh European Cup : in 1998 , under manager Jupp Heynckes , they defeated Juventus 1 – 0 in the final with a goal from Predrag Mijatović .
= = = Los Galácticos ( 2000 – 2006 ) = = =
In July 2000 , Florentino Pérez was elected club president . He vowed in his campaign to erase the club 's € 270 million debt and modernize the club 's facilities . However , the primary electoral promise that propelled Pérez to victory was the signing of Luís Figo from arch @-@ rivals Barcelona . The following year , the club had its training ground rezoned and used the money to begin assembling the Galácticos team by signing a global star every summer , which included Zinedine Zidane , Ronaldo , Luís Figo , Roberto Carlos , Raúl , David Beckham and Fabio Cannavaro . It is debatable whether the gamble paid off , as despite winning the UEFA Champions League and an Intercontinental Cup in 2002 , followed by La Liga in 2003 , the club failed to win a major trophy for the next three seasons .
The few days after the capturing of the 2003 Liga title were surrounded with controversy . The first controversial decision came when Pérez sacked winning coach Vicente del Bosque . Over a dozen players left the club , including Madrid captain Fernando Hierro , while defensive midfielder Claude Makélélé refused to take part in training in protest at being one of the lowest @-@ paid players at the club and subsequently moved to Chelsea . " That 's a lot [ of players leaving ] when the normal rule is : never change a winning team , " stated Zidane . Real Madrid , with newly appointed coach Carlos Queiroz , started their domestic league slowly after a hard win over Real Betis .
The 2005 – 06 season began with the promise of several new signings : Júlio Baptista ( € 24 million ) , Robinho ( € 30 million ) and Sergio Ramos ( € 27 million ) . However , Real Madrid suffered from some poor results , including a 0 – 3 loss at the hands of Barcelona at the Santiago Bernabéu in November 2005 . Madrid 's coach Wanderley Luxemburgo was sacked the following month and his replacement was Juan Ramón López Caro . A brief return to form came to an abrupt halt after losing the first leg of the Copa del Rey quarterfinal , 6 – 1 to Real Zaragoza . Shortly after , Real Madrid were eliminated from the Champions League for a fourth successive year , this time at the hands of Arsenal . On 27 February 2006 , Florentino Pérez resigned .
= = = New president Ramón Calderón ( 2006 – 09 ) = = =
Ramón Calderón was elected as club president on 2 July 2006 and subsequently appointed Fabio Capello as the new coach and Predrag Mijatović as the new sporting director . Real Madrid won the Liga title in 2007 for the first time in four years , but Capello was nonetheless sacked at the end of the campaign . On 9 June 2007 , Real played against Zaragoza at La Romareda . Zaragoza led Real 2 – 1 near the end of the match while Barcelona were also winning against Espanyol 2 – 1 . A late Ruud van Nistelrooy equalizer followed by a last @-@ minute Raúl Tamudo goal sprang Real Madrid 's title hopes back into their favour .
The title was won on 17 June , where Real faced Mallorca at the Bernabéu while Barcelona and Sevilla , the other title challengers , faced Gimnàstic de Tarragona and Villarreal , respectively . At half @-@ time , Real were 0 – 1 down , while Barcelona had surged ahead into a 0 – 3 lead in Tarragona ; however , three goals in the last half @-@ hour secured Madrid a 3 – 1 win and their first league title since 2003 . The first goal came from José Antonio Reyes , who scored after a good work from Gonzalo Higuaín . An own goal followed by another goal from Reyes allowed Real to begin celebrating the title . Thousands of Real Madrid fans began going to Plaza de Cibeles to celebrate the title .
= = = Second Pérez term , and arrival of Cristiano Ronaldo ( 2009 – 13 ) = = =
On 1 June 2009 , Florentino Pérez regained Real Madrid 's presidency . Pérez continued with the Galácticos policy pursued in his first term , buying Kaká from Milan for a record @-@ breaking sum of £ 56 million , and then breaking the record again by purchasing Cristiano Ronaldo from Manchester United for £ 80 million .
José Mourinho took over as manager in May 2010 . In April 2011 , a strange occurrence happened when , for the first time ever , four Clásicos were to be played in a span of just 18 days . The first fixture was for the Liga campaign on 17 April ( which ended 1 – 1 with penalty goals for both sides ) , the Copa del Rey final ( which ended 1 – 0 to Madrid ) and the controversial two @-@ legged Champions League semifinal on 27 April and 2 May ( 3 – 1 loss on aggregate ) to Barcelona .
In the 2011 – 12 La Liga season , Real Madrid won La Liga for a record 32nd time in the league 's history , also finishing the season with numerous club @-@ level records set , including 100 points reached in a single season , a total of 121 goals scored , a goal difference of + 89 and 16 away wins , with 32 wins overall . In the same season , Cristiano Ronaldo become the fastest player to reach 100 goals scored in Spanish league history . In reaching 101 goals in 92 games , Ronaldo surpassed Real Madrid legend Ferenc Puskás , who scored 100 goals in 105 games . Ronaldo set a new club mark for individual goals scored in one year ( 60 ) , and became the first player ever to score against all 19 opposition teams in a single season .
Real Madrid began the 2012 – 13 season winning the Supercopa de España , defeating Barcelona on away goals , but finished as second in the league competition . A major transfer of the season was signing from Tottenham Hotspur of Luka Modrić for a fee in the region of £ 33 million . In the Champions League , they were drawn in the " group of death " alongside Borussia Dortmund , Manchester City and Ajax , finishing second with three points behind Dortmund . In the round of 16 , they defeated Manchester United , Galatasaray in the quarter @-@ finals , and reached their third @-@ straight semi @-@ final finish in the Champions League , when they were again stopped by Dortmund . After a disappointing extra time loss to Atlético Madrid in the 2013 Copa del Rey Final , Pérez announced the departure of José Mourinho at the end of the season by " mutual agreement . "
= = = Ancelotti and La Décima ( 2013 – 15 ) = = =
On 25 June 2013 , Carlo Ancelotti succeeded Mourinho to become the manager of Real Madrid on a three @-@ year deal . A day later , he was introduced at his first press conference for Madrid where it was announced that both Zinedine Zidane and Paul Clement will be his assistants . On 1 September 2013 , the long @-@ awaited transfer from Tottenham of Gareth Bale was announced . The transfer of the Welshman was reportedly the new world record signing , with the transfer price approximated at € 100 million . In Ancelotti 's first season at the club , Real Madrid won the Copa del Rey , with Bale scoring the winner in the final against Barcelona . On 24 May , Real Madrid defeated city rivals Atlético Madrid in the 2014 Champions League Final , winning their first European title since 2002 , and becoming the first team to win ten European Cups / Champions League titles , an achievement known as " La Décima . "
After winning the 2014 Champions League , Real Madrid signed goalkeeper Keylor Navas , midfielder Toni Kroos and attacking midfielder James Rodríguez . The club won the 2014 UEFA Super Cup against Sevilla , with two goals by Cristiano Ronaldo , the club 's 79th official trophy . During the last week of the 2014 summer transfer window , Real Madrid sold two players key in the previous season 's successes — Xabi Alonso to Bayern Munich and Ángel Di María to Manchester United , the latter for an English record fee of € 75 million . This decision from the club was surrounded by controversy , however , with Ronaldo stating , " If I was in charge , maybe I would have done things differently , " while Carlo Ancelotti admitted , " We must start again from zero . "
After a slow start to the 2014 – 15 La Liga season , which included defeats to Atlético Madrid and Real Sociedad , Real Madrid went on a record @-@ breaking winning streak , which included wins against Barcelona and Liverpool , surpassing the previous Spanish record of 18 successive wins set by Frank Rijkaard 's Barça in the 2005 – 06 season . In December 2014 , the club extended their winning streak to 22 games with a 2 – 0 win over San Lorenzo in the 2014 FIFA Club World Cup Final , thus ending the calendar year with four trophies . Their 22 @-@ game winning streak ended in their opening game of 2015 with a loss to Valencia , leaving the club two short of equalling the world record of 24 consecutive wins . The club failed to retain the Champions League ( losing 3 – 2 on aggregate against Juventus in the semi @-@ finals ) , the Copa del Rey ( 4 – 2 aggregate loss to Atlético ) , and failed to land the league title ( finishing two points and a place behind champions Barcelona ) , shortcomings that all preceded Ancelotti 's sacking on 25 May 2015 .
= = = Zidane arrival and La Undécima ( 2015 – present ) = = =
On 3 June 2015 , Rafael Benítez was confirmed as the new Real Madrid manager , signing a three @-@ year contract . Real Madrid remained unbeaten in the league until a 3 – 2 loss at Sevilla in the eleventh matchday . This was followed by a 0 – 4 home loss in the first El Clásico of the season against Barcelona . Real played Cádiz CF in the Copa del Rey Round of 32 , winning away 1 – 3 in the first leg . However , they fielded an ineligible player in Denis Cheryshev as he was suspended for that match , resulting in the second leg being cancelled and Real being disqualified . Meanwhile , Real topped their UEFA Champions League group with 16 points . He was sacked on 4 January 2016 , following allegations of unpopularity with supporters , displeasure with players and a failure to get good results against top sides . At the time of sacking , Real were third in La Liga , four points behind leaders Atlético Madrid and two points behind arch @-@ rivals Barcelona ( with a game in hand ) .
On 4 January 2016 , Benítez 's departure was announced along with the promotion of Zinedine Zidane to his first head coaching role . Zidane previously worked as assistant to Benítez 's predecessor Carlo Ancelotti and , since 2014 , had occupied the helm of reserve team Real Madrid Castilla . Zidane 's coaching debut for Madrid was marked by a 5 – 0 home victory over Deportivo in La Liga on 9 January 2016 with Gareth Bale scoring a hat @-@ trick . On 28 May , Real Madrid won their eleventh UEFA Champions League title , extending their record for most successes in the competition , with Cristiano Ronaldo scoring the decisive penalty in a shoot out win over Atl
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to raise water for irrigation of farmland .
The water wheel was about 30 chi in diameter , with ten bamboo watering tubes fastened at its perimeter . Some farmers even used three stage watering wheels to lift water to a height of over 30 chi .
High yield Champa paddy seeds , Korean yellow paddy , Indian green pea , and Middle East watermelon were introduced into China during this period , greatly enhancing the variety of farm produce . Song farmers emphasized the importance of night soil as fertilizer . They understood that using night soil could transform barren wasteland into fertile farmland . Chen Pu wrote in his Book of Agriculture of 1149 : " The common saying that farmland becomes exhausted after seeding three to five years is not right , if frequently top up with new soil and cure with night soil , then the land becomes more fertile " .
= = = Economic Crops = = =
Cotton was introduced from Hainan Island into central China . Cotton flowers were collected , pits removed , beaten loose with bamboo bows , and drawn but tinto yarns and weaved into cloth called " jibei " . " The cotton jibei made in Hainan has great variety , the cloth has great width , often dyed into brilliant colors , stitching up two pieces make a bedspread , stitching four pieces make a curtain Hemp was also widely planted and made into linen . Independent mulberry farms flourished in the Mount Dongting region in Suzhou . The mulberry farmers did not make a living on farmland , but instead they grew mulberry trees and bred silkworm to harvest silk .
Sugarcane first appeared in China during the Warring States period . During the Song dynasty , Lake Tai valley was famous for the sugarcane cultivated . Song writer Wang Zhuo described in great detail the method of cultivating sugarcane and how to make cane sugar flour from sugarcane in his monography " Classic of Sugar " in 1154 , the first book about sugar technology in China .
Tea plantation in the Song dynasty was three times the size that it during the Tang dynasty . According to a survey in 1162 , tea plantations were spread across 66 prefectures in 244 counties . The Beiyuan Plantation ( North Park Plantation ) was an imperial tea plantation in Fujian prefecture . It produced more than forty varieties of tribute tea for the imperial court . Only the very tip of tender tea leaves were picked , processed and pressed into tea cakes , embossed with dragon pattern , known as " dragon tea cakes " .
With the growth of cities , high value vegetable farms sprung up in the suburbs . In southern China , on average one mu of paddy farm land supported one man , while in the north about three mu for one man , while one mu of vegetable farm supported three men .
Flower nurseries also flourished . Peony was the favorite of the rich and powerful . Up to ninety varieties of peony were cultivated . Jasmine and crabapple from Persia were also cultivated .
= = Organization , investment , and trade = =
During the Song dynasty , the merchant class became more sophisticated , well @-@ respected and organized than in earlier periods of China . Their accumulated wealth often rivaled that of the scholar @-@ officials who administered the affairs of government . For their organizational skills , Ebrey , Walthall , and Palais state that Song merchants :
... set up partnerships and joint stock companies , with a separation of owners ( shareholders ) and managers . In the large cities , merchants were organized into guilds according to the type of product sold ; they periodically set prices and arranged sales from wholesalers to shop owners . When the government requisitioned goods or assessed taxes , it dealt with the guild heads .
Although large government @-@ run industries and large privately owned enterprises dominated the market system of urban China during the Song period , there was a plethora of small private businesses and entrepreneurs throughout the large suburbs and rural areas that thrived off the economic boom of the period . There was even a large black market in China during the Song period , which was actually enhanced once the Jurchens conquered northern China and established the Jin dynasty . For example , around 1160 AD there was an annual black market smuggling of some 70 to 80 thousand cattle . There were multitudes of successful small kilns and pottery shops owned by local families , along with oil presses , wine @-@ making shops , small local paper @-@ making businesses , etc . There was also room for small economic success with the " inn keeper , the petty diviner , the drug seller , the cloth trader , " and many others .
Rural families that sold a large agricultural surplus to the market not only could afford to buy more charcoal , tea , oil , and wine , but they could also amass enough funds to establish secondary means of production for generating more wealth . Besides necessary agricultural foodstuffs , farming families could often produce wine , charcoal , paper , textiles , and other goods they sold through brokers . Farmers in Suzhou often specialized in raising bombyx mori to produce silk wares , while in Fujian , Sichuan , and Guangdong farmers often grew sugarcane . In order to ensure the prosperity of rural areas , technical applications for public works projects and improved agricultural techniques were essential . The vast irrigation system of China had to be furnished with multitudes of wheelwrights mass @-@ producing standardized waterwheels and square @-@ pallet chain pumps that could lift water from lower planes to higher irrigation planes .
For clothing , silken robes were worn by the wealthy and elite while hemp and ramie was worn by the poor ; by the late Song period cotton clothes were also in use . Shipment of all these materials and goods was aided by the 10th century innovation of the canal pound lock in China ; the Song scientist and statesman Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) wrote that the building of pound lock gates at Zhenzhou ( presumably Kuozhou along the Yangtze ) during the 1020s and 1030s freed up the use of five hundred working laborers at the canal each year , amounting to the saving of up to 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 strings of cash annually . He wrote that the old method of hauling boats over limited the size of the cargo to 300 tan of rice per vessel ( roughly 17 t / 17 @,@ 000 kg ) , but after the pound locks were introduced , boats carrying 400 tan ( roughly 22 t / 22 @,@ 000 kg ) could then be used . Shen wrote that by his time ( c . 1080 ) government boats could carry cargo weights of up to 700 tan ( 39 t / 39 @,@ 000 kg ) , while private boats could hold as much as 800 bags , each weighing 2 tan ( i.e. a total of 88 t / 88 @,@ 000 kg ) .
= = = Foreign trade = = =
Sea trade abroad to the South East Pacific , the Hindu world , the Islamic world , and the East African world brought merchants great fortune . Although the massive amount of indigenous trade along the Grand Canal , the Yangtze River , its tributaries and lakes , and other canal systems trumped the commercial gains of overseas trade , there were still many large seaports during the Song period that bolstered the economy , such as Quanzhou , Fuzhou , Guangzhou , and Xiamen . These seaports , now heavily connected to the hinterland via canal , lake , and river traffic , acted as a long string of large market centers for the sale of cash crops produced in the interior . The high demand in China for foreign luxury goods and spices coming from the East Indies facilitated the growth of Chinese maritime trade abroad during the Song period . Along with the mining industry , the shipbuilding industry of Fujian province during the Song period increased its production exponentially as maritime trade was given more importance and as the province 's population growth began to increase dramatically . The Song capital at Hangzhou had a large canal that connected its waterways directly to the seaport at Mingzhou ( modern Ningbo ) , the center where many of the foreign imported goods were shipped out to the rest of the country . Despite the installation of fire stations and a large fire fighting force , fires continued to threaten the city of Hangzhou and the various businesses within it . In safeguarding stored supplies and providing rented space for merchants and shopkeepers to keep their surplus goods safe from city fires , the rich families of Hangzhou , palace eunuchs , and empresses had large warehouses built near the northeast walls ; these warehouses were surrounded by channels of water on all sides and were heavily guarded by hired night watchmen . Shipbuilders generated means of employment for many skilled craftsmen , while sailors for ship crews found many opportunities of employment as more families had enough capital to purchase boats and invest in commercial trading abroad . Foreigners and merchants from abroad had an impact on the economy from within China as well . For example , many Muslims went to Song China not only to trade , but dominated the import and export industry and in some cases became officials of economic regulations . For Chinese maritime merchants , however , there was risk involved in such long overseas ventures to foreign trade posts and seaports as far away as Egypt . In order to reduce the risk of losing money instead of gaining it on maritime trade missions abroad :
[ Song era ] investors usually divided their investment among many ships , and each ship had many investors behind it . One observer thought eagerness to invest in overseas trade was leading to an outflow of copper cash . He wrote , " People along the coast are on intimate terms with the merchants who engage in overseas trade , either because they are fellow @-@ countrymen or personal acquaintances ... [ They give the merchants ] money to take with them on their ships for purchase and return conveyance of foreign goods . They invest from ten to a hundred strings of cash , and regularly make profits of several hundred percent . "
The author Zhu Yu wrote in his Pingzhou Ketan ( 萍洲可談 ; Pingzhou Table Talks ) of 1119 AD about the organization , maritime practices , and government standards of seagoing vessels , their merchants , and sailing crews . His book stated :
According to government regulations concerning seagoing ships , the larger ones can carry several hundred men , and the smaller ones may have more than a hundred men on board . One of the most important merchants is chosen to be Leader ( Gang Shou ) , another is Deputy Leader ( Fu Gang Shou ) , and a third is Business Manager ( Za Shi ) . The Superintendent of Merchant Shipping gives them an unofficially sealed red certificate permitting them to use the light bamboo for punishing their company when necessary . Should anyone die at sea , his property becomes forfeit to the government ... The ship 's pilots are acquainted with the configuration of the coasts ; at night they steer by the stars , and in the day @-@ time by the sun . In dark weather they look at the south @-@ pointing needle ( i.e. the magnetic compass ) . They also use a line a hundred feet long with a hook at the end which they let down to take samples of mud from the sea @-@ bottom ; by its ( appearance and ) smell they can determine their whereabouts .
Foreign travelers to China often made remarks on the economic strength of the country . The later Muslim Moroccan Berber traveler Ibn Batutta ( 1304 – 1377 ) wrote about many of his travel experiences in places across the Eurasian world , including China at the farthest eastern extremity . After describing lavish Chinese ships holding palatial cabins and saloons , along with the life of Chinese ship crews and captains , Batutta wrote : " Among the inhabitants of China there are those who own numerous ships , on which they send their agents to foreign places . For nowhere in the world are there to be found people richer than the Chinese " .
= = = Salaries and Income = = =
Wealthy landholders were still typically those who were able to educate their sons to the highest degree . Hence small groups of prominent families in any given local county would gain national spotlight for having sons travel far off to be educated and appointed as ministers of the state . Yet downward social mobility was always an issue with the matter of divided inheritance . Suggesting ways to increase a family 's property , Yuan Cai ( 1140 – 1190 ) wrote in the late 12th century that those who obtained office with decent salaries should not convert it to gold and silver , but instead could watch their values grow with investment :
For instance , if he had 100 @,@ 000 strings worth of gold and silver and used this money to buy productive property , in a year he would gain 10 @,@ 000 strings ; after ten years or so , he would have regained the 100 @,@ 000 strings and what would be divided among the family would be interest . If it were invested in a pawn broking business , in three years the interest would equal the capital . He would still have the 100 @,@ 000 strings , and the rest , being interest , could be divided . Moreover , it could be doubled again in another three years , ad infinitum .
Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) , a minister of finance , was of the same opinion ; in his understanding of the velocity of circulation , he stated in 1077 :
The utility of money derives from circulation and loan @-@ making . A village of ten households may have 100 @,@ 000 coins . If the cash is stored in the household of one individual , even after a century , the sum remains 100 @,@ 000 . If the coins are circulated through business transactions so that every individual of the ten households can enjoy the utility of the 100 @,@ 000 coins , then the utility will amount to that of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cash . If circulation continues without stop , the utility of the cash will be beyond enumeration .
Considerable scholarship has been concentrated on researching the level of living standards during the Song dynasty . A recent study by economic historian Cheng Minsheng estimated the average income for lower @-@
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win the Ashes . Late in the season , Hobbs made the highest score of his career , 316 not out for Surrey against Middlesex at Lord 's , establishing a record individual innings for Lord 's which survived until 1990 . In total , Hobbs scored 2 @,@ 949 runs at 77 @.@ 60 , including 12 centuries , to be placed first in the national batting averages .
Hobbs missed a large part of the 1927 season with a combination of illness and injury . In between his absences , he performed well , although he was left out of the Gentlemen v Players match . He scored 1 @,@ 641 runs at 52 @.@ 93 , including seven centuries . He began the 1928 season with four centuries in the first month , but another leg injury kept him out of cricket for six weeks . When he recovered , he was selected in the last two of the three Tests against the West Indies , playing their first Test series . In his first game , he and Sutcliffe shared a century partnership ; in the third , Hobbs scored 159 , having opened with a 155 @-@ run partnership with Sutcliffe . England won the series 3 – 0 . Hobbs maintained his batting form until the end of the season ; he finished second in the batting averages , scoring 2 @,@ 542 runs at an average of 82 @.@ 00 and hitting 12 centuries . Critics believed he remained unsurpassed among English batsmen .
= = = Final Tests = = =
Hobbs toured Australia for a final time as a player in 1928 – 29 as part of a strong MCC team , and despite substantial scores in early games , did not bat well . He made little contribution to England 's victories in the first two Tests , and some critics noticed a decline in his batting , a judgement reinforced when he was out to a poorly @-@ chosen shot in the first innings of the third Test for 20 . Australia were able to build up a substantial lead , and overnight rain before the sixth day of the match made them likely winners . England needed 332 to win , but on a pitch growing more difficult as it dried , a total of 100 was considered unlikely . Hobbs and Sutcliffe survived to add 105 for the first wicket ; observers praised their technique against the turning ball , although the Australian bowlers were criticised for ineffective tactics . Hobbs was out for 49 ; at his suggestion , Douglas Jardine came in to bat next , and England reached the end of the day having lost just one wicket for a score of 199 . Next day , the team won the game to take a 3 – 0 lead in the series with two to play and ensure they retained the Ashes . In the fourth Test , Hobbs scored 74 and shared a partnership of 143 with Sutcliffe as England won by 12 runs ; in the final game , won by Australia , he scored 142 on the first day , his final Test century and 12th against Australia . Scoring his hundred at the age of 46 years 82 days , he remained as of 2016 the oldest player to score a Test century . In first @-@ class games on the tour , Hobbs scored 962 runs at 56 @.@ 58 @.@ and 451 runs at 50 @.@ 11 in the Tests .
Hobbs missed more cricket with injuries and illnesses in 1929 ; between 1926 and 1930 , he missed more than a third of Surrey 's matches . However , he scored heavily and compiled 2 @,@ 263 runs at an average of 66 @.@ 55 to lead the first @-@ class averages . Unfit for the first two Tests against South Africa , he chose to miss the next two , and played in the final game , scoring 10 and 52 . Critics observed a general slowing in Hobbs ' scoring throughout the season , and he scored more often in singles than in his earlier years .
Hobbs began 1930 in good form , and , with Rhodes , was added to the selection panel again for the Ashes series that season . In the first Test , Hobbs scored 78 and 74 ; he top @-@ scored in both innings , but failed in the next two Tests . Before the third and fourth Tests , feeling tired and concerned by his form , he offered to stand down but the other selectors declined his suggestion . When he batted in the fourth Test , he shared an opening partnership of 108 with Sutcliffe , their 11th century stand against Australia . After two hours batting , he was out for 31 . With the series level at 1 – 1 , the final Test was to be played to a finish , but before it began , Hobbs announced that it would be his last . Shortly after making the decision , he returned to form , scoring a century and passing , in his next game , W. G. Grace 's record career @-@ aggregate of 54 @,@ 896 first @-@ class runs . Before the deciding Test , the selectors sacked Percy Chapman as captain . The press speculated that Hobbs would replace him , but Bob Wyatt was chosen ; Hobbs may have turned down an offer of the captaincy at the meeting of selectors . In the match , Hobbs scored 47 in the first innings . When he came out to bat in the second , in the face of a large Australian first @-@ innings lead , Hobbs was given an ovation by the crowd and the Australian fielders gave him three cheers . Hobbs was moved by his reception but scored only nine runs before he was dismissed , and Australia won the match and series . In his final series , he scored 301 runs at 33 @.@ 44 . In 61 Tests , he had scored 5 @,@ 410 runs at an average of 56 @.@ 94 . He retired as the leading run @-@ scorer in Test matches , a record he held until it was passed by Wally Hammond in 1937 . Maintaining his form for the rest of the season , Hobbs scored 2 @,@ 103 first @-@ class runs in 1930 at 51 @.@ 29 .
= = = End of career = = =
During the winter of 1930 – 31 , Hobbs and Sutcliffe joined a private team run by the Maharajkumar of Vizianagram which toured India and Ceylon . Hobbs was very popular with the crowds , and scored 593 runs . These runs , and in particular the two centuries he scored , were to prove controversial . Hobbs never believed that the matches were , or should have been , of first @-@ class status , but statisticians later judged them to be first @-@ class . Wisden never recognised the centuries and so records his century total as 197 . Other authorities give 199 centuries . Despite using a more limited batting technique , Hobbs remained successful in 1931 . He played several representative matches and took part in the 150th century opening partnership of his career . In total , he scored 2 @,@ 418 first @-@ class runs in the season at 56 @.@ 23 . In 1932 , despite missing several matches owing to injuries and fatigue , he scored 1 @,@ 764 runs at 56 @.@ 90 , including centuries in each innings against Essex . According to Mason , this latter performance prompted Douglas Jardine to nickname Hobbs " The Master " . Hobbs scored 161 not out for the Players against the Gentlemen , his 16th century in the fixture , to pass the record total of Grace for the Gentlemen .
Hobbs was partially involved in the Bodyline controversy in Australia in 1932 – 33 . Late in the 1932 season , Bill Bowes consistently bowled short @-@ pitched deliveries against him in a match between Surrey and Yorkshire . Bowes was criticised in the press and particularly by Pelham Warner , who was to manage the MCC team in Australia . Hobbs accompanied the team to Australia as a journalist , writing for the News Chronicle and The Star , accompanied by his ghostwriter Jack Ingham . During the tour , Hobbs neither condemned Bodyline nor fully described the English tactics . Other journalists admired Hobbs but dismissed his writing as " bland " . When he returned to England , Hobbs openly criticised the English tactics in newspaper columns and in a book he wrote about the tour . In 1933 , playing less frequently , he scored 1 @,@ 105 runs at 61 @.@ 38 , aged 50 . After missing the first games with illness , he scored 221 against the touring West Indian team , to the acclaim of the press . He did not play every game , and the Surrey committee allowed him to choose which matches to play . More centuries followed later that season , which took him to 196 in his career , fuelling anticipation that he would reach 200 centuries . That winter he accompanied the MCC team in India as a journalist . Before the next season , Surrey constructed a new entrance to the Oval which was named after Hobbs . In 1934 , he scored 624 runs at 36 @.@ 70 . After a solid start , he scored his final first @-@ class century against Lancashire . After this he played irregularly , and his batting began to appear uncomfortable . Hobbs realised his career was over : in February 1935 , he announced his retirement . There were many tributes and a public dinner was held in his honour which was attended by many leading figures in cricket . In all first @-@ class cricket , Hobbs scored 61 @,@ 760 runs at an average of 50 @.@ 70 according to ESPNcricinfo . Later in 1935 , Hobbs was made an honorary life member of Surrey .
= = Style and technique = =
For much of Hobbs ' career , critics judged him to be the best batsman in the world . E. W. Swanton described him in 1963 as " a supreme master of his craft , and the undisputed head of his profession " . Neville Cardus said that Hobbs was the first batsman to develop a technique to succeed consistently against googly bowlers , and that he mastered all types of bowling , all over the world and in a variety of conditions . Other critics have suggested that Hobbs moved the focus of batting from aesthetic off side shots to leg side play more suited to swing and googly bowling . Swanton wrote that Hobbs combined classical play with effective defence — including protecting the wickets using his pads — against the ball unexpectedly moving towards the stumps . His pad @-@ play was controversial : it removed any possibility of dismissal but was regarded by some cricket authorities as negative and unsporting .
Many of his English contemporaries rated Hobbs superior to Donald Bradman , often regarded as the greatest batsman in the history of cricket , on difficult pitches . In difficult batting conditions Hobbs batted with great success , and several of his most highly regarded innings came in such circumstances . Murphy suggests : " Before Bradman , he was the most consistent run @-@ getter of all time , yet no one worried less about the sheer slog of carving out big scores . " Hobbs frequently was out deliberately soon after reaching a century — roughly a quarter of his centuries were scores less than 110 — and was not particularly interested in most statistics . An article in Wisden in 2000 stated : " He was never as dominant as Bradman ; he never wanted to be . But his contemporaries were in awe of his ability to play supremely and at whim , whatever the conditions . "
Hobbs ' technique was based on strong forearms and good foot movement . R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow suggested that " his footwork was , as near as is humanly possible , perfect . In every stroke , he moved into line with the ball with so little effort that he could bat for hours without over @-@ taxing energy of mind or body . " He played every type of shot — he did not have a " signature " shot like other batsmen , but selected his strokes effectively ; according to Alec Kennedy , who bowled to Hobbs , it seemed that he could predict what the bowler would do . In contrast to many leading batsmen from his time , Hobbs preferred to play off the back foot as he believed it gave him more time to see the ball and adapt his shot . Capable of playing all the strokes , he hit the ball precisely between fielders and sometimes delayed his shot to make the ball travel more slowly and allow more time to run ; he also ran well between the wickets . He liked to score his first run quickly when he came into bat , and he often looked to score quickly at the start of an innings , before the bowlers had settled ; on occasion , Hobbs targeted the main bowling threats from the opposition in an attempt to neutralise them . Early in his career , mainly before the First World War , Hobbs was an aggressive , fast @-@ scoring batsman who played many shots . After the war , he was more circumspect and adapted his technique to account for both his increased age , and the increased pressure and expectation from the public and teammates . He concentrated to a greater extent on batting for longer periods ; many critics , including Hobbs himself , recognised the change and suggested that he was a better batsman before 1914 . However , commentators also noted that he displayed greater certainty and control in this later period ; Cardus wrote that " he scored his centuries effortlessly now ; we hardly noted the making of them . " This was the period in which he became known as " The Master " , and he was more consistent than before the war . This was the time when the public regarded him with the most respect and affection ; 98 of his centuries and 26 @,@ 411 of his runs ( at an average of 58 @.@ 62 ) in first @-@ class cricket were scored after he reached the age of 40 .
Hobbs was an occasional medium @-@ paced bowler who bowled a good length and made the ball swing . Some critics judged him to be a potentially good bowler , but both Surrey and England were reluctant for him to bowl regularly , fearing it would affect his batting . As a fielder , Hobbs improved greatly from his early days . He fielded in the covers and was expert in cutting off potential runs and returning the ball quickly to the wicket @-@ keeper . Contemporaries believed him to be one of the best cover fielders there had been , and remarked on his powers of anticipation in getting to the ball . They also noted he sometimes deceived batsmen with his casual attitude and occasional deliberate mis @-@ fields ; these would be followed by very sharp fielding which often produced a run out .
Although a professional — captains at the time were almost exclusively amateurs — the respect in which Hobbs was held meant that he was accepted as a captain . Many , but not all , critics considered him a competent tactician and leader . He regularly led the Players team against the Gentlemen and sometimes at Surrey in the absence of Percy Fender , but he was a reluctant captain . He disliked the responsibility and decision @-@ making of leadership , and rarely even offered tactical advice .
= = Reputation and legacy = =
Hobbs was twice selected as Wisden 's Cricketer of the Year , in 1909 and 1926 ; only he and Pelham Warner have received this award twice . In 1963 , Neville Cardus chose him as one of the best six cricketers of the previous 100 years , to mark Wisden 's centenary . More recently , Hobbs was selected by a panel of experts in 2000 as one of five Wisden cricketers of the 20th century . In 2009 , he was selected by cricket historians and writers as a member of England 's all @-@ time best team , and included in a similar team to represent the best players worldwide in the history of cricket . Hobbs ' Test batting average of 56 @.@ 94 remained as of 2016 the sixth best among batsmen to have passed 5 @,@ 000 runs , despite a rise in the number of batsmen who average more than 50 since 2000 . Among openers who have scored 5 @,@ 000 Test runs , he has the third best average behind Sutcliffe and Len Hutton . He was comfortably the leading Test run @-@ scorer during his career , and had the highest number of Test runs at the time of his retirement . Between 1910 and 1929 , he averaged 65 @.@ 55 in Test cricket .
Gideon Haigh suggests that Hobbs was a " spontaneous and original " , trend @-@ setting batsman who was not afraid to depart from orthodoxy . Gerald Howat notes that , aside from his batting achievements , " Hobbs 's biographers and obituarists could strike no discordant note . He was a man of moral probity , religious conviction , and personal commitment . And he was humble enough to see himself as an ordinary person blessed with one extraordinary talent , which he put into its proper perspective . It was an attitude of mind which tempered the sternness of his approach with an engaging humour and a delight in playing practical jokes . " Among his contemporaries , Hobbs was regarded as modest and kind , and never criticised other players . He avoided confrontation , although he was " quietly determined " , according to Wisden , and tried to avoid publicity . According to Fender , Hobbs " gave stature " to the profession of cricket . Modern critics have expressed some reservations : some have pointed out that his batting average , although high , has been surpassed by others , and that among his many centuries , few were as large as other players managed . However , others contend that his impact on the game , his achievement in showing that professionals could bat as freely and stylishly as amateurs , and his kindness place him among the top cricketers of all time . Wisden described him in 2000 : " More than anyone else , he lifted the status and dignity of the English professional cricketer . " In summing up his place in history , it said : " He was not an artist , like some of his predecessors , nor yet a scientist , like some of the moderns ; he was perhaps the supreme craftsman . "
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family life = = =
In 1900 , Hobbs met Ada Ellen Gates , a cobbler 's daughter , at an evening church service held in St Matthew 's , Cambridge . The progress of their relationship was slowed by Hobbs ' shyness and devotion to cricket , but the pair eventually married on 26 September 1906 at the church in which they met . They planned to keep the event quiet , but it was reported in the press and the couple received gifts and messages from Hobbs ' Surrey team @-@ mates . Hobbs so disliked being separated from his wife during cricket tours that in later years she often accompanied the team overseas . They had four children : Jack , born in 1907 , Leonard in 1909 , Vera in 1913 and Ivor in 1914 .
Hobbs and his wife lived in rented property for the first years of their marriage . His earnings placed them roughly in the bracket of lower middle class according to McKinstry : although more prosperous than he had been during his childhood , the family were not initially financially comfortable . Hobbs ' wages increased with his reputation so that by 1913 , he was earning £ 375 each year , placing his family within the bracket of the London middle class . After several years of moving from one property to another , he was able to buy his own house in 1913 , in Clapham Common , a prosperous area of London . By the middle of the 1920s , cricket in England was extremely popular and the players were famous . Hobbs was the biggest attraction and a combination of his cricket earnings ( estimated to be around £ 780 each year ) , the income from his business , product endorsement — he was one of the first cricketers to benefit from lending his name to commercial products — and ghostwritten books and articles made him relatively wealthy . According to McKinstry , his annual earnings probably reached £ 1 @,@ 500 a year by 1925 , more than a family doctor at the time . Consequently , in 1928 the family moved to a large house in private grounds and Hobbs was able to send his children to private schools . He had greater financial independence than most contemporary cricketers , but was always first concerned to give his family the security lacking from his childhood .
= = = Retirement and final years = = =
Following his retirement from cricket in 1934 , Hobbs continued to work as a journalist , first with Jack Ingham then with Jimmy Bolton as his ghostwriters . He accompanied the MCC team to Australia in 1936 – 37 and published four books which sold well in the 1930s . In addition , he produced two ghostwritten autobiographies , but generally avoided self @-@ publicity or controversy . He continued to work at his sports shop and he and Ada moved home several times . By the mid @-@ 1930s , his wife was becoming mentally and physically frail . Hobbs supported several charities in his spare time and continued to play cricket at club and charity level .
During the Second World War , Hobbs served in the Home Guard at New Malden . In 1946 , Hobbs became the first professional to be elected to the Surrey committee . The same year , he and his wife moved to Hove , following several years of health concerns and worries over his business and children . Ada 's health continued to deteriorate , and the couple spent some time in South Africa in an attempt to aid her recuperation .
In 1953 , Hobbs was knighted , the first professional cricketer to be so honoured . He was reluctant to accept and only did so when convinced that it was an honour to all professional cricketers , not just himself . In the same year , John
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. At Springmount , the route encounters Highway 6 , which joins Highway 21 to form Ontario 's only wrong @-@ way concurrency east to Owen Sound .
= = History = =
Highway 21 was the first King 's Highway in Lambton County when it was assumed in 1927 between Highway 3 at Morpeth and Highway 7 at Reece 's Corners . This original section of highway changed from a mudhole to a plank road circa 1860 . When James Miller Williams , a Hamilton businessman , set out one day from during a drought to dig a well , he chose a spot downhill from an existing oil seep in the village of Black Creek . Instead of encountering water , Williams hit a shallow oil deposit . As a result of the ensuing oil @-@ boom , which would begin the petroleum industry in North America , Williams laid out the village and changed its name to Oil Springs . Two competing plank road companies were formed , the Black Creek Plank Road Company ( of which Williams was a principal investor ) and the Sarnia to Florence Plank Road Company , both of which aimed their roads through Oil Springs . Although both roads were constructed , the former company was more prosperous in its endeavours ; in 1886 , a significant portion of the Sarnia to Florence Plank Road was closed up and turned over to local property owners . The Black Creek Plank Road Company meanwhile had transformed the muddy quagmire of a path into a well @-@ maintained road . By 1863 , three miles of road south of Wyoming had been paved , and the remainder south to Oil Springs planked ( the Sarnia Road followed two years later ) . However , as the oil boom faded , so too did improvement to the road .
On May 23 , 1927 , the Department of Highways assumed the unpaved road between Highway 7 at Reece 's Corner and Highway 3 at Morpeth , via Dresden , Thamesville and Ridgetown as Provincial Highway 21 ; this was changed to the current King 's Highway 21 in 1930 . That year , the department set out to improve the new highway . Concrete slabs were laid between Petrolia and Highway 7 , as well as along a 7 @.@ 25 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 50 mi ) section between Thamesville and Dresden . The following year , the route was paved between Dresden and Edys Mills before the effects of the Great Depression forced the department to concentrate on paving Highway 22 . The election of a new government in mid @-@ 1934 led to the resumption of work in June as a depression relief project . New equipment ( namely a Caterpillar Excavator ) , as well as the expertise of Andy Newman , an engineer who was hired when he demonstrated his abilities with the machinery upon passing a construction site on his drive home . Newman , who helped design the machine that nobody else could operate , allowed work to proceed at a much faster rate than before . The machinery could dig quicker than 50 men , and this effort showed when the gap between Petrolia and Edys Mills and the remaining gaps between Dresden and Thamesville were graded and paved by the end of the summer . On October 19 , 1934 , Highway 21 was officially opened by Robert Mellville Smith , deputy minister of the Department of Highways .
On April 4 , 1934 , Highway 21 was assumed through Huron County as far north as Goderich . This was followed by the assumption of a section through Bosanquet Township on April 18 , creating a 40 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 25 @.@ 2 mi ) concurrency with Highway 7 from Reece 's Corners to Thedford . From there , the route travelled through Thedford to Port Franks , where it merged into the present highway . A final 137 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre ( 85 @.@ 4 mi ) extension to Owen Sound was assumed on May 15 , 1935 , bringing the highway to its greatest length of 333 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 207 @.@ 0 mi ) .
Meanwhile , on April 11 , 1934 , the department assumed control of a road connecting Highway 7 with Forest as Highway 21A . It was later extended to connect with Highway 21 at Port Franks on August 19 , 1936 . By 1938 , Highway 21A had been renumbered as Highway 21 , and Highway 21 through Thedford renumbered as Highway 82 .
Beginning in 1960 , a small bypass of Highway 21 was constructed on the north side of Goderich , avoiding a nearby hairpin turn . The 160 m ( 520 ft ) curving structure over the Maitland River was completed in mid @-@ 1961 at a cost of C $ 1 @.@ 39 million and opened ceremoniously on July 17 , 1962 .
During the early 1980s , the construction of Highway 402 east from Sarnia resulted in a shift in the route of the highway . The route was extended north from Reece 's Corners to Exit 25 , while the section from Highway 7 north to Exit 34 was " downloaded " , or transferred to the local municipality in which it resided . Further transfers were performed in 1997 and 1998 . On April 1 , 1997 , the section of Highway 21 from Highway 401 south to Morpeth was transferred to Kent County . On January 1 , 1998 , the section between Highway 401 and Highway 402 was transferred to Kent and Lambton counties .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 21 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= Cushing House =
Cushing House ( formerly called Cushing Hall ) is a four @-@ story co @-@ ed dormitory on Vassar College 's campus in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . A response to freshmen overcrowding , the college 's Board of Trustees hurried the Allen & Collens @-@ designed building , named for college librarian and alumna trustee Florence M. Cushing , to construction and completion in 1927 . Cushing was originally designed as eight smaller houses with euthenic principles in mind , but ended up as a single U @-@ shaped dormitory in the Old English manor house style with Jacobean interior furnishings . Students of all grades may live in the house which houses up to 202 in single , double , and triple rooms and are referred to as " Cushlings " . Throughout Cushing 's history , various proposals and plans have incited controversy among the building 's residents , including designating one of its wings as all @-@ black housing and converting one of its common areas into eight single rooms . Contemporary reviewers have looked favorably upon Cushing 's aesthetic qualities , declaring it to be one of Vassar 's most beautiful buildings .
= = History = =
Before Cushing House 's construction , Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York , faced a surplus of students and too few available rooms , a situation deemed an " emergency " by the Board of Trustees . For the first quarter of the twentieth century , one third of the college 's freshmen were housed off campus due to rising enrollment over that period . The Board voted in 1925 to move all students to on @-@ campus housing , acknowledging the lack of adequate space for the move but pledging that they would swiftly build more . The following year , the Board voted to begin construction on the new hall without first securing funding for the building , trusting that the " friends of the College " would meet the financial demands of the project . In the meantime , the house was built using loaned funds , with the total project cost coming to $ 400 @,@ 000 .
Original plans for Cushing House , then called Cushing Hall , saw the building as a model of Vassar 's euthenics program . The term euthenics was first defined by Ellen Swallow Richards of Vassar 's class of 1870 as " [ t ] he betterment of living conditions , though conspicuous endeavor for the purpose of securing more efficient human beings " . In accordance with these principles , initial schematics saw the dormitory divided into eight separate houses all surrounded by a brick wall . Cushing was ultimately designed by architectural firm Allen & Collens which was also responsible for several other buildings on Vassar 's campus including the Thompson Memorial Library and its wings before Cushing 's completion , Wimpfheimer Nursery School concurrently , and Skinner Hall of Music afterwards in 1932 . The Cushing project was completed in 1927 and the dormitory was named for the college 's first alumnae trustee , Florence M. Cushing , who was a member of the Vassar class of 1874 and the college 's librarian from the year of her graduation until 1876 . On account of her death in September 1927 , Cushing Hall was not dedicated in time for the incoming class of freshman for the 1927 – 28 school year ; instead , the dedication which was marked by an informal reception was put off until October 29 of the same year .
In 1954 , Cushing residents were " perturbed " by the possibility of a new language hall being built within the dormitory 's sightlines , citing the concern that any artificial construction would ruin their views . Another controversy arose in April 1970 after students from Cushing objected to a plan put forth by a contingent of black students and approved by the Board of Trustees that would designate one wing of Cushing as a co @-@ ed housing space for black students of all grades . Prior to the plan 's formulation , upperclassmen black students could opt to live in a student community in Kendrick House while underclassmen could live in an analogous community in Main Building . Cushing residents were not notified of the plan until after its approval and a public meeting was held at which objections were raised by both Cushing residents and black students that one wing of the dorm might not be enough space to foster a black community and that Kendrick House should instead be repurposed as elective all @-@ black housing . After the college 's administration expressed the possibility that this plan might be in violation of U.S. Department of Health , Education , and Welfare standards on segregation , all but four black students walked out of the meeting and the assembly decided that the Board of Trustees needed to be better informed of the racial climate on campus . In 1974 , Vassar 's Master Planning Committee voted to convert one of Cushing 's common areas , then a dining room , to eight single dorms . An emergency meeting was held and students organized a Save Cushing Dining Room movement which collected 800 signatures against the plan in 24 hours . Other instances have seen one of Cushing 's parlors converted to a quad dorm used to house students temporarily when no other housing could be found for them , first in 1989 then again during the first semester of the 1998 – 99 school year .
= = Architecture and features = =
Cushing House was built on the north side of campus and sits apart from most of the school 's other dorms , with the exception of Noyes House to its west . Cushing stands four stories tall and is configured in a U shape with two wings of student rooms connected by center common areas on the ground floor and more halls of student housing on the upper " trans " ( inter @-@ wing ) levels . Between the wings is a courtyard covered by a lawn and trees . Two articles published in Vassar 's weekly Miscellany News in 1975 identified some of the species present at the time : Cryptomeria japonica , Ilex opaca ( American holly ) , several crab apple trees , and a Fagus sylvatica ( European beech ) . The exterior of the house is built in an Old English manor house style designed to mimic the nearby Pratt House which was designed by architects York and Sawyer and completed in 1916 . The roof of the hall is made of slate , with walls of patterned brickwork covered with half @-@ timbered decorations as well as leaded windows and towers . A smaller wing , sometimes referred to as the " maid 's wing " , abuts the center common area and includes a pantry and kitchen on its ground floor and smaller dorm rooms that originally housed servants on the floors above .
Inside the dorm , common area furnishings are Jacobean in style and architectural features include plaster ceilings , windows with tracery , and wood paneling . Within rooms , closets and windows are also notably large and soft light is present throughout the hall . The building was designed to house 130 students split between two double rooms and 126 singles , but now fits up to 202 students , demonymously referred to as " Cushlings " . The house presently includes single dorms , one @-@ room doubles , and two @-@ room doubles and triples . Upon opening in 1927 ( prior to Vassar 's 1969 transition from being an all @-@ female to co @-@ ed college ) , the dormitory was limited to housing freshmen . It is now co @-@ ed and acts as home to students from all grades including , as of 1999 , the highest proportion of upperclassmen of any dorm at the school . Bathrooms are shared by all members of a hall . A minor renovation in summer 1995 and funded by the Estée Lauder Companies included more efficient lighting , rewiring , and new furniture for the house . Like all other Vassar dorms , Cushing houses a game room , a laundry room , and a Steinway grand piano .
In 1928 , a year after Cushing opened , Keene Richards , Vassar College 's general manager , wrote to college president Henry Noble MacCracken that Cushing was " neither luxurious nor extravagant . " Authors Karen Van Lengen and Lisa Reilly countered this sentiment in their 2004 architectural guide to the campus , noting that " Cushing 's cozy domesticity is a far cry from the institutional nature of collegiate residential architecture found on other college campuses " and concluding that the dorm was one of the most beautiful buildings on campus . Another guide , compiled in 2003 by the staff of the Yale Daily News , identified the dorm as one of the two most popular at the college , along with Jewett House . Cushing has drawn comparisons to the fictitious Hogwarts School for Witchcraft and Wizardry according to The Miscellany News . The building 's parlor was singled out in College Prowler 's 2012 guide to the college as the most beautiful at Vassar .
= The Coon =
" The Coon " is the second episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 183rd episode of the series , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 18 , 2009 . In the episode , Cartman poses as a superhero vigilante named " The Coon " , who grows increasingly jealous of the popularity and success of a rival superhero named " Mysterion " .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . It was originally conceived as an episode about the economic recession , but those elements were later adapted into the future episode , " Margaritaville " . " The Coon " generated a great deal of speculation about the true identity of Mysterion . Parker and Stone originally said there was no specific answer to the question . However , his identity is finally revealed in the fourteenth season episode " Mysterion Rises " .
The episode parodied several dark @-@ toned comic book films that had been recently released at the time , including The Spirit , Watchmen and The Dark Knight . It received generally positive reviews and , according to Nielsen Media Research , was seen by 3 @.@ 27 million households the week it aired . Comedian Bruce Vilanch , who is mocked in the episode , sent a thank you card to Parker and Stone after the episode aired . " The Coon " was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray along with the rest of the thirteenth season on March 16 , 2010 . " The Coon " was also released on DVD in The Little Box of Butters on September 28 , 2010 . " The Coon " was re @-@ released once more on DVD and Blu @-@ ray as a " bonus episode " with the complete fourteenth season .
= = Plot = =
Donning a disguise modeled after a raccoon , Cartman becomes a vigilante dubbed " The Coon " , who attempts to wipe out crime in South Park . Though Cartman tries to raise awareness about The Coon through word of mouth , nobody pays much attention to the Coon 's efforts . When he reports " crimes " ( such as mistaking a man innocently trying to kiss his date for a rapist ) to the police department , he is threatened with jail time and snubbed off . During class , Cartman tries to hype up an appearance from the Coon , saying he will be on roof of a Walgreens later that evening . Cartman ( as the Coon ) shows up to the spot to find another child superhero named " Mysterion " , who is far more successful in garnering appreciation as a crime stopping icon from the police and South Park citizens who want to know just " Who is Mysterion ? " Cartman is angered by his lack of popularity and the attention Mysterion is receiving .
Coon decides to rid the town of Mysterion , enlisting the help of Professor Chaos ( Butters ) and his sidekick General Disarray ( Dougie ) . Unlike the Coon , Professor Chaos and General Disarray have become as familiar to the residents of South Park as Mysterion . Butters also wants to know the identity of Mysterion but can only narrow the list of suspects to the boys from Mr. Garrison 's 4th grade class whose shapes do not differ greatly from that of others . In contrast , he has nearly pinned down Coon 's identity to a few fat celebrities , and Cartman . In a scheme to uncover Mysterion 's identity , the Coon convinces Professor Chaos to threaten the destruction of a hospital unless Mysterion reveals his identity . After the Coon plants the TNT and leaves to buy detonators , Mysterion unexpectedly arrives . He points out that this is not Professor Chaos ' usual style , and fights Professor Chaos and General Disarray on top of the building . A crowd forms below and cheers on Mysterion as the police take no actions , believing that their bullets are no match for Professor Chaos ' aluminum foil armor . Dramatically , the Coon appears to fight on the side of Mysterion , with the hopes that he too will be hailed as a hero . At that point , Professor Chaos and General Disarray run off in defeat . After their victory , the Coon convinces Mysterion to unmask himself by claiming such threats to public safety will continue until Mysterion 's secret is revealed .
Despite the threat of imprisonment , Mysterion unmasks himself , showing the television viewers only the portion of his face that looks similar to almost all of Mr. Garrison 's 4th grade class . The crowd , however , is shocked to learn Mysterion 's identity and , much to the regret of all except Coon , who says that he knew who Mysterion was , even calling him out on it at one point ( though this helps the audience little as Cartman claimed that practically everyone in his class was Mysterion at times ) , Mysterion is hauled to prison . With Professor Chaos , General Disarray and Mysterion defeated , Cartman now perceives that he is the superhero in South Park and that every town should have a Coon like him .
= = Production = =
" The Coon " was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker . It first aired on March 18 , 2009 in the United States on Comedy Central . Like most South Park episodes , " The Coon " was first conceived by Parker and fellow co @-@ founder Matt Stone within a week of the episode 's broadcast date . Kenny , Kyle and Stan were originally planned to be made superheroes as well as Cartman , and for the episode to revolve around a group of superheroes in the style of Watchmen , a graphic @-@ novel @-@ based film that had been released earlier that month . They started working on sketches of the other superhero costumes , but Cartman and his alter @-@ ego , the Coon , were finished first . From the start , Parker and Stone wrote Cartman as caring more about his superhero image than fighting crime , but as they worked further on the episode , it began to take up more and more of the story until they decided to make Cartman the only superhero of the four boys .
Parker and Stone long planned to create an episode about the economic recession , and originally planned for Cartman to dress as a superhero named " The Coon " and fight the economy . This is why the opening scene of " The Coon " involves Cartman discussing the poor economic state of the nation and the election of U.S. President Barack Obama . Eventually , Cartman would discover the recession stemmed from the sale of Jimmy Buffett 's Margaritaville blenders , and he would have to battle singer Jimmy Buffett and investor Warren Buffett , who would be portrayed as Jimmy 's brother . Eventually , the idea was scrapped , and " The Coon " turned into an episode revolving entirely around a comic book film parody . Elements of the economic recession and the Margaritaville blenders were eventually incorporated into future episode " Margaritaville " .
The identity of Mysterion is never revealed in " The Coon " . After the episode aired , the question " Who is Mysterion ? " became a frequently asked question at the FAQ for the official South Park website , South Park Studios . The answer posted at that site was that " there is no answer
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challenging scenes as Shosanna . "
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Laurent should have received the nomination at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards saying , " In drawing attention to one performer , in particular , whom they left out of the Best Supporting Actress category , [ ... ] I flat @-@ out adore this performance and I suspect that many others do too , " and further lauding Laurent 's performance added , " [ Laurent ] is radiant and , in a unique Tarantino way , heartbreaking . Sexy and luminous in the heat of her valor . Putting out fire – and setting it . It becomes an anthem of noirish dread and excitement , a sign that Laurent , as Shosanna , has found her destiny . "
In an interview , Laurent said that she went into Inglourious Basterds with an adoration for Quentin Tarantino . " [ The French ] don 't see him like an independent director ; we just see him as the best director , ever , [ from the United States ] . " About the process of auditioning , Laurent said that she knew right from the start that this was a film she had to be in as she felt a connection to her role in the film , because the history of her Jewish family .
In addition , Laurent won a number of accolades for her portrayal of Shosana including Austin Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress and Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Actress , and nominations at the Detroit Film Critics Society Awards , Empire Award for Best Actress , and Saturn Award for Best Actress among others . The highly anticipated film , which had been in development since 1998 , marked Laurent 's first major role in an American film and Laurent found herself pushed into mainstream success in North America .
Laurnet 's partner Julien Boisselier , as well as Marie Denarnaud , Mélanie Doutey , and Louise Monot were to act in the production while short film clips were to be projected on stage , some of them shot at the nightclub Le Baron , which Laurent used to frequent during the writing period .
In 2010 , Laurent starred in The Round Up , a French film directed by Roselyne Bosch , and produced by Alain Goldman , alongside Jean Reno , Sylvie Testud , and Gad Elmaleh . Based on the true story of a young Jewish boy , the film depicts the Vel ' d 'Hiv Roundup , the mass arrest of Jews by French police who were Nazi accomplices in Paris in July 1942 . The film and the Laurent 's performance was well received by the critics , with Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian deeming it " well acted " . John Anderson of Newsday lauded Laurent saying that she gave an " inspiring performance as a gentile nurse " .
= = = Continued success ( 2011 – present ) = = =
Laurent had also planned another feature film , Putain de pluie ! , produced by Alain Attal 's Productions du Trésor , whose script she co @-@ wrote with Morgan Perez and which she intended to direct . Originally set for filming in the spring of 2009 , it was postponed because of her work on Inglourious Basterds . Knowing that she could speak French , and had already acted in French in one of the short films in Paris , je t 'aime , she offered the first role to Natalie Portman , who declined because of the script 's language .
Laurent played the part of the violinist in Radu Mihăileanu 's Le Concert — she called it " a smart movie and a popular movie " , and added that she was , " glad because French people wanted to watch a movie with classical music . " Mick LaSalle of San Francisco Chronicle called it a " role with great technical demands " and praising Laurent wrote , " she 's extremely subtle and reserved [ ... ] " The Concert " constitutes a breakthrough for her , in that it unlocks her emotional floodgates " .
Laurent hosted both the opening and closing ceremonies of the 64th Cannes Film Festival . In 2011 , she teamed with Mike Mills , appearing opposite Ewan McGregor and Christopher Plummer in Beginners , a comedy drama that marked Laurent 's second English @-@ speaking role in Hollywood . Laurent plays Anna , an irreverent French actress . Loosely based on Mills ’ own life , the film depicts the story of a father coming out of the closet at the age of 75 after the death of his wife of 45 years . The film opened to critical acclaim and Laurent 's performance was well received , with Calvin Wilson of St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch remarking that Laurent imbued a " soulful charisma " into the role .
Laurent made her singing debut in May 2011 with a studio album En t 'attendant , under the label of Atmosphériques . Produced by Joel Shearer , the album contains twelve songs , five of which are co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Irish folk musician Damien Rice . The album peaked at number 22 and number 35 on the Belgian Albums Charts and French Albums Charts respectively . She recorded the album with Rice , living between Woodstock , New York and his home in Ireland . In an interview , Laurent revealed that spending time at Rice 's home in Ireland inspired her to maintain a compost heap and eat organic food .
Laurent then starred opposite Jeremy Irons in Night Train to Lisbon , a 2013 drama film based on the novel of the same name directed by Bille August . Jessica Kiang of Indie Wire noted that Laurent was " given less to do " but lauded her performance writing that she , " makes the most of her truncated screen time " .
Laurent appeared in the Louis Leterrier 's 2013 caper film Now You See Me as a French Interpol agent who investigates the bank theft alongside Mark Ruffalo and an ensemble cast . The film was a major commercial success grossing over 351 @.@ 7 million dollars , receiving mixed reviews but praise for the performances of the entire cast . Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave Laurent the highest praise and wrote , " [ Laurent ] is responsible for the only measurable amount of warmth the film exudes . "
Laurent 's next release , the Canadian @-@ Spanish psychological thriller film Enemy , directed by Denis Villeneuve , was screened at the Special Presentation section at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival . Loosely adapted by Javier Gullón from José Saramago 's 2002 novel The Double , the film opened to critical acclaim . The film starred Jake Gyllenhaal as two men who are physically identical , but different in terms of personality . Laurent and Sarah Gadon co @-@ star as the romantic partners of the men .
In 2014 , Laurent appeared in Aloft , a 2014 drama film written and directed by Claudia Llosa , alongside Jennifer Connelly and Cillian Murphy . The film premiered in competition at the 64th Berlin International Film Festival . Laurent voiced Mary Katherine in Blue Sky Studios ' Epic , and Disgust in Pixar 's Inside Out in the French dubs of the animated films .
In 2015 , Laurent starred alongside Laurent Lafitte , in François Favrat 's French drama film Booemerang adapted from the bestseller entitled A Secret Kept by Tatiana De Rosnay . The film released on 23 September 2013 to positive critical reviews . The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " Boomerang is a solid if somewhat conventionally made whodunit that benefits from a strong cast and a plot that hooks you for most of the running time . " Laurent then starred as Léa in Angelina Jolie 's By the Sea , an American drama film , written and directed by Jolie . The film also stars Jolie and Brad Pitt , and was released on 13 November 2015 , by Universal Pictures .
= = Personal life and off @-@ screen work = =
Laurent was in a long @-@ term relationship with fellow French actor Julien Boisselier which ended in 2009 . In March 2013 , she revealed that she had married but refused to name her spouse . She told The Independent , " he was a crew member and I was an actress . " Her first child with her husband , a son named Léo , was born in September 2013 . Laurent described recording artist Damien Rice and filmographer Quentin Tarantino as two " masters " in terms of their art .
The men 's web portal AskMen ascribed Laurent 's sex appeal to her " pixie @-@ like charm and big , expressive eyes " and added that she " radiates a natural , understated magnetism on screen " . She has established herself as a major young talent in French cinema . In a 2009 interview , Laurent explained that she does not have ambitions to be a crossover actress . She stated that she loved France , her street , her café , and not having to use a car . Rather than go on to work on a big budget American film after Inglourious Basterds , her next role was in a small theater piece in France .
Laurent has written and directed several French films and in an interview with Indiewire admitted she loves writing : " [ Writing is ] especially super exciting because you have everything to do and most of your ideas come from that first part … you just imagine things , and you imagine actors . " She described the shooting process as " the fun part " because of : " working with people I love — it ’ s always a great human moment because we ’ re sharing things and it ’ s good to see people who are here for you and your story , to tell your story . It ’ s really beautiful , it ’ s why I love making movies . "
Laurent has visited a Climate Defenders Camp in the peatlands of the Indonesian Rainforest with Greenpeace activists . She is one of the Climate Ambassadors for Kofi Annan 's Global Humanitarian Forum " Tck Tck Tck " Campaign . Laurent has also joined the campaign against overfishing at the invitation of the Blue Marine Foundation , and was cast for the voice @-@ over of the documentary The End of the Line . She was one of the leading celebrities in the successful campaign Fish Fight France , which asked for a new European law lowering the level of fish discards in European seas .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Selected filmography = = =
= = = Accolades = = =
For her role in Don 't Worry , I 'm Fine Laurent won the César Award and Lumières Award in the Most Promising Actress category . She received numerous accolades for her role in Inglorious Bastards including Best Actress Award at the Austin Film Critics Association Awards and Online Film Critics Society Awards among others . Laurent 's film Demain won the César Award for Best Documentary Film .
= = Discography = =
= Mark Oliphant =
Sir Marcus " Mark " Laurence Elwin Oliphant , AC , KBE , FRS , FAA ( 8 October 1901 – 14 July 2000 ) was an Australian physicist and humanitarian who played an important role in the first experimental demonstration of nuclear fusion and also the development of nuclear weapons .
Born and raised in Adelaide , South Australia , Oliphant graduated from the University of Adelaide in 1922 . He was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship in 1927 on the strength of the research he had done on mercury , and went to England , where he studied under Sir Ernest Rutherford at the University of Cambridge 's Cavendish Laboratory . There , he used a particle accelerator to fire heavy hydrogen nuclei ( deuterons ) at various targets . He discovered the nuclei of helium @-@ 3 ( helions ) and tritium ( tritons ) . He also discovered that when they reacted with each other , the particles that were released had far more energy than they started with . Energy had been liberated from inside the nucleus , and he realised that this was a result of nuclear fusion .
Oliphant left the Cavendish Laboratory in 1937 to become the Poynting Professor of Physics at the University of Birmingham . He attempted to build a 60 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) cyclotron at the university , but its completion was postponed by the outbreak of the Second World War in Europe in 1939 . He became involved with the development of radar , heading a group at the University of Birmingham that included John Randall and Harry Boot . They created a radical new design , the cavity magnetron , that made microwave radar possible . Oliphant also formed part of the MAUD Committee , which reported in July 1941 , that an atomic bomb was not only feasible , but might be produced as early as 1943 . Oliphant was instrumental in spreading the word of this finding in the United States , thereby starting what became the Manhattan Project . Later in the war , he worked on it with his friend Ernest Lawrence at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , California , developing electromagnetic isotope separation .
After the war , Oliphant returned to Australia as the first Director of the Research School of Physical Sciences and Engineering at the new Australian National University , where he initiated the design and construction of the world 's largest ( 500 megajoule ) homopolar generator . He retired in 1976 , but was appointed Governor of South Australia on the advice of Premier , Don Dunstan . He assisted in the founding of the Australian Democrats political party , and he was the chairman of the meeting in Melbourne in 1977 at which the party was launched . Late in life he watched his wife , Rosa , suffer before her death in 1987 , and he became an advocate for voluntary euthanasia . He died in Canberra in 2000 .
= = Early life = =
Marcus " Mark " Laurence Elwin Oliphant was born on 8 October 1901 in Kent Town , a suburb of Adelaide . His father was Harold George " Baron " Oliphant , a civil servant with the South Australian Engineering and Water Supply Department and part @-@ time lecturer in Economics with the Workers ' Educational Association . His mother was Beatrice Edith Fanny Oliphant , née Tucker , an artist . He was named after Marcus Clarke , the Australian author , and Laurence Oliphant , the British traveller and mystic . Most people called him Mark ; this became official when he was knighted in 1959 . He had four younger brothers , Roland , Keith , Nigel and Donald . His parents were theosophists , and as such were opposed to eating meat . Marcus became a lifelong vegetarian while a boy , after witnessing the slaughter of pigs on a farm . He was found to be completely deaf in one ear and he needed glasses for severe astigmatism and short @-@ sightedness .
Oliphant was first educated at primary schools in Goodwood and Mylor , after the family moved there in 1910 . He attended Unley High School in Adelaide , and , for his final year in 1918 , Adelaide High School . After graduation he failed to obtain a bursary to attend university , and so got a job cleaning floors for a jewellery manufacturer . He then got a cadetship with the State Library of South Australia , which allowed him to take courses at the University of Adelaide at night .
In 1919 , Oliphant began studying at the University of Adelaide . At first he was interested in a career in medicine , but later in the year Kerr Grant , the physics professor , offered him a cadetship in the Physics Department . It paid 10 shillings a week ( equivalent to AUD $ 34 in 2010 ) , the same amount that Oliphant received for working at the State Library , but it allowed him to take any university course that did not conflict with his work for the department . He received his Bachelor of Science ( BSc ) degree in 1921 and then did honours the following year , supervised by Kerr Grant . Roy Burdon , who acted as head of the department when Kerr went on sabbatical in 1925 , worked with Oliphant to produce two papers in 1927 on the properties of mercury , " The Problem of the Surface Tension of Mercury and the Action of Aqueous Solutions on a Mercury Surface " and " Absorption of Gases on the Surface of Mercury " . Oliphant later recalled that Burdon taught him " the extraordinary exhilaration there was in even minor discoveries in the field of physics " .
Oliphant married Rosa Louise Wilbraham , who was also from Adelaide , on 23 May 1925 . The two had known each other since they were teenagers . He made Rosa 's wedding ring in the laboratory from a gold nugget ( from the Coolgardie Goldfields ) that his father had given him .
= = Cavendish Laboratory = =
In 1925 , Oliphant heard a speech given by the New Zealand physicist , Sir Ernest Rutherford , and he decided he wanted to work for him – an ambition that he fulfilled by earning a position at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1927 . He applied for an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship on the strength of the research he had done on mercury with Burdon . It came with a living allowance of £ 250 per annum ( equivalent to AUD $ 17 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) . When word came through that he had been awarded a fellowship , he wired Rutherford and Trinity College , Cambridge . Both accepted him .
Rutherford 's Cavendish Laboratory was carrying out some of the most advanced research into nuclear physics in the world at the time . Oliphant was invited to afternoon tea by Rutherford and Lady Rutherford . He soon got to meet other researchers at the Cavendish Laboratory , including Patrick Blackett , Edward Bullard , James Chadwick , John Cockcroft , Charles Ellis , Peter Kapitza , Philip Moon and Ernest Walton . There were two fellow Australians : Harrie Massey and John Keith Roberts . Oliphant would become especially close friends with Cockcroft . The laboratory had considerable talent but not a lot of money to spare , and tended to use a " string and sealing wax " approach to experimental equipment . Oliphant had to buy his own equipment , at one point spending £ 24 ( equivalent to AUD $ 800 in 2010 ) of his allowance on a vacuum pump .
Oliphant submitted his PhD thesis on " The Neutralization of Positive Ions at Metal Surfaces , and the Emission of Secondary Electrons " in December 1929 . For his viva , he was examined by Rutherford and Ellis . Receiving his degree was the attainment of a major life goal , but it also meant the end of his 1851 Exhibition Scholarship . Oliphant secured an 1851 Senior Studentship , of which there were five awarded each year . It came with a living allowance of £ 450 per annum ( equivalent to A $ 30 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) for two years , with the possibility of a one @-@ year extension in exceptional circumstances , which Oliphant was also awarded .
A son , Geoffrey Bruce Oliphant , was born 6 October 1930 , but he died of meningitis on 5 September 1933 , and was interred in an unmarked grave in the Ascension Parish Burial Ground in Cambridge alongside Timothy Cockcroft , the infant son of Sir John and Lady Elizabeth Cockcroft , who had died the year before . Unable to have more children , the Oliphants adopted a four @-@ month @-@ old boy , Michael John , in 1936
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to bring it back to life .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
In addition to the campaign mode , Perfect Dark Zero features a multiplayer where a maximum of 32 players may compete in numerous types of deathmatch and objective @-@ based games via split @-@ screen , system link , or Xbox Live . The multiplayer offers two main modes with their own customisable options : DeathMatch and DarkOps . DeathMatch is a standard gametype where players spawn in rooms , collect weapons that are available on the map itself , and continue to the actual map . The overall objective of the game is determined by the scenario being played . Scenarios range from Killcount or Team Killcount , where the goal is to kill as many opposing players as possible , to objective @-@ based games such as Capture the Flag and Territorial Gains . DarkOps , on the other hand , is a slower @-@ paced and team @-@ only gametype where weapons must be purchased from a player 's stock of credits and credits are earned by killing enemies and completing objectives . Scenarios in this mode include Eradication , where the last team with any members left alive wins ; Infection , where players score points by either infecting others or surviving infection ; Sabotage , where the team that causes the most damage to the other team 's property wins ; and Onslaught , where one team must defend a base while the other has to attack it .
Players can either choose to play a ranked Deathmatch or DarkOps , where they will be matched with other players using a system called TrueSkill Matchmaking , or they may choose a player match where they can choose their game from a list of player hosted games . Like the original Perfect Dark , these games can be highly customized and can also include computer game bots . Features such as their difficulty and behavior can be changed to match player preference . For example , the Judge bot always attacks leading players with the highest kills score . Players can also issue commands to them as long as they are on their respective team , such as follow or hold position , and set waypoints for them to walk to . The game includes by default six different maps and each has two variants ; the only change is the placement of the bases . Most of the maps are large ones , ideal for 32 players at once , with small variants for 4 @-@ 16 player games .
= = Plot = =
Perfect Dark Zero is set in 2020 where a large percentage of the world is controlled by corporations . The most notable of these corporations are dataDyne , headed by Zhang Li , and the Carrington Institute , headed by Daniel Carrington . The player is cast as Joanna Dark , a bounty hunter working with her father Jack Dark and computer hacker Chandra Sekhar . The team is after Nathan Zeigler , an independent researcher who has been captured by a Hong Kong triad gang led by a man named Killian . Joanna and her father successfully rescue Zeigler , but Killian manages to escape . Zeigler explains that Killian was trying to obtain his research , which contains information about a dangerous weapon . As Zeigler refuses to go anywhere without his research , Joanna is sent to retrieve it while her father stays with Zeigler . After Joanna retrieved a case with Zeigler 's research from a nearby safe house , Zeigler takes a device called neurodrive from the case and uses it to implant his research data into Jack 's mind . Afterwards , Zeigler succumbs to his injuries sustained by Killian and dies . Before dying , Zeigler says that they must find a scientist named Dr. Eustace Caroll .
While escaping , Jack and Joanna are attacked by a dataDyne assault team assisted by Killian in a dropship . Joanna manages to kill Killian and escape with Sekhar , but Jack is captured by dataDyne . With the help of Sekhar , Joanna learns that her father has been taken to a mansion where Zhang Li lives . Joanna infiltrates the mansion and finds her father in a cell . He has been tortured , and begins speaking gibberish to her , an after effect of the neurodrive . The pair fights their way out of the complex , but their extraction is interrupted by Zhang Li 's daughter , Mai Hem , who kills Jack before Joanna escapes in a hovercraft . Joanna and Sekhar decide to pursue Zeigler 's lead and seek out Dr. Caroll , who works aboard a research platform on the Pacific Ocean . Upon meeting with Joanna , Dr. Caroll uses a neurodrive to extract Zeigler 's data from Joanna 's memory , which she gained when she rescued her father . Soon after , Sekhar betrays Joanna and shoots Dr. Caroll , stating that she decided to join dataDyne because Zhang Li had made her a large offer . A team of Carrington Institute agents arrives and saves Joanna , but Sekhar eventually escapes with the data . Joanna agrees to join the Carrington Institute to stop dataDyne .
Daniel Carrington informs Joanna that Zeigler had been working on an algorithm capable of decoding extraterrestrial glyphs at a dig site in South America . Traveling to Peru , Joanna learns that the glyphs are leading dataDyne to search for an ancient artefact which acts as a power @-@ source for the Graal , a device which endows individuals with superhuman powers . Joanna plants a tracking device onto the artefact before sneaking aboard a dataDyne dropship . The dropship takes her to Africa , where Zhang Li has located the Graal buried under the African sands . The Carrington Institute plans an offensive on dataDyne forces with the battle taking place on a large bridge . Joanna rescues several Carrington Institute agents before avenging her father 's death by killing Mei Hem . Joanna infiltrates an arena and faces off against Zhang Li , who dispatches Sekhar after using the Graal . Despite the advantage , Joanna defeats Zhang Li in a final battle .
= = Development = =
Development of Perfect Dark Zero began on the Nintendo GameCube with a very small team of roughly ten people . At the time , Nintendo had a 49 % stake in Rare , making Rare a Nintendo second @-@ party developer . According to lead designer Chris Tilston , " It was basically prototyping , finding out where we could go and how we could get there . " The multiplayer mode was initially designed to be played offline because the team was told the GameCube would not support online play , even though some modem adapters were produced by Conexant later . In 2002 , Rare was fully purchased by Microsoft . As a result , the project was transferred to the Xbox and the multiplayer was redesigned to support the Xbox Live online gaming service . Tilston revealed that at one point they got to 50 players online simultaneously , but the graphics " just couldn 't handle it . "
When the Xbox 360 was conceived , it gave the developers more possibilities to include what they always wanted , since the initial version of the game pushed the original Xbox hardware very hard . Tilston credited the new hardware for allowing them to create the game 's co @-@ operative mode , which was one of the first that could be played via Xbox Live . Designing the co @-@ operative mode over Xbox Live was very challenging for the developers . According to Duncan Botwood , who was responsible for most of the multiplayer , " It was quite an effort to put it in , to be honest . You have to cater for a number of eventualities you just don 't get normally . We think we pulled it off , and because we pulled it off , other people might feel inspired to put the effort in , and we think that 's a good thing . The co @-@ op over Live , yeah , we 're very proud of that ... we 're proud indeed . "
Perfect Dark Zero is also one of the first games to use the Havok 's HydraCore physics engine , which was specifically designed for multi @-@ core video game systems such as the Xbox 360 . The game 's renderer engine employs more advanced graphic technologies than was possible in the sixth generation of video game consoles , including parallax mapping , ambient occlusion , subsurface scattering , and high dynamic range . Initially , the game had a heavy anime style and Joanna Dark received several alterations throughout the development process . Lead Art Director Wil Overton explained , " We kind of wanted to bring her back in line with the way Rare do things . [ ... ] We sorta wanted to stylize her up a bit and make her more iconic . " However , the designers ultimately decided to tone down the styling of the game a bit . According to Overton , " I think it 's now sort of a hybrid . It 's sort of a hybrid of Japanese and Western comic book look . "
The cover mode was designed to enhance the stealth aspect of the game , and the third @-@ person perspective was needed to get into and get out of quickly . It also allowed players to see the character they were playing . The idea of bringing the game into a total third @-@ person perspective was rejected as the shooting " works better " in first @-@ person view , explained Tilston . Like Rare 's earlier first @-@ person shooters GoldenEye 007 and Perfect Dark , developers decided not to include a jumping function since they felt it goes against the nature of the genre . Botwood pointed out that it can " look damn stupid when you see other players doing it " . For this reason , the team implemmented moves such as climbing obstacles or , more specifically , the combat roll , which makes players harder to hit since it breaks the game 's auto @-@ aim lock . The transition between first and third @-@ person view with some moves took a lot of work so that they did not become disorientating . A first @-@ person roll was implemented at one time , but it was ultimately dropped .
The game was intended to be a launch title for the Xbox 360 . As a result , the last stage of development was very challenging and several intended features were canceled so that the game could meet the launch deadline . The number of players in multiplayer matches had to be reduced from 50 to 32 , which was still twice the standard , and a " dataDyne TV " mode that would have allowed players to upload and watch multiplayer matches over Xbox Live was eventually rejected . Final development for the Xbox 360 was very rushed . The order was given to produce the discs five days before the Microsoft certification was complete . Rare later stated they felt very confident they would pass , but it was a significant risk producing 700 @,@ 000 disks if a bug turned up . According to Botwood , " very few people believed we could make launch , but everything came together in time and it was out there for day one . "
The actual development of the game took overall five years to complete and spanned three platforms : the Nintendo GameCube , the Microsoft Xbox and the Xbox 360 . Tilston remarked that , throughout the course of development , the team noticed how the video game industry had evolved as computing and graphics power increased , and how earlier games like GoldenEye 007 and Donkey Kong Country where their development costs were minimal could easily be profitable with a few programmers . Tilston also revealed that the team behind Perfect Dark Zero was composed of roughly 25 people for most of the project , which was " ridiculously " small compared to the seventh generation 's standards where there are 100 or 200 people working on a team . Despite this , Perfect Dark Zero , from a development cost , made four times its money back .
= = Marketing and release = =
Perfect Dark Zero made its first appearance at Spaceworld 2000 , an annual video game trade show hosted by Nintendo in Tokyo . The demo briefly showed a 3D real @-@ time render of Joanna Dark . Some reports further suggested the development of the game with Rare applying to trademark the names " After Dark " , " Perfect Dark Evolution " and the phrase " Shot in the Dark " . The next year , at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in June 2001 , Nintendo advertised the title " Perfect Dark Zero " on a list of upcoming GameCube releases , but it was quickly removed . In January 2002 , it was allegedly announced that its release was pushed back to 2004 due to internal team problems at Rare .
When Rare was purchased by Microsoft in September 2002 , several cartoony images of Joanna Dark were released , but few other official announcements were made in the following years . On May 10 , 2005 , one of the rewards in the OurColony viral marketing campaign for Microsoft 's Xbox 360 console was a new image of Joanna Dark . At the official unveiling of the Xbox 360 , it was revealed that Perfect Dark Zero would be a launch title for the new system in the fall of 2005 . A demo was shown during the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2005 shortly afterwards . Prior to its release , Microsoft arranged several deals with different publishers to promote interest in the game . Two novels , Perfect Dark : Initial Vector and Perfect Dark : Second Front , which were written by Greg Rucka , and a comic book , Perfect Dark : Janus ' Tears , which was written by Eric Trautmann and illustrated by Cold FuZion Studios , were released before and after the game . Around the same time , Joanna Dark made an appearance on the cover of FHM magazine . An official soundtrack produced by Nile Rodgers , Perfect Dark Zero Original Soundtrack , was also made available on November 8 , 2005 .
The first release of the game came on November 17 , 2005 in North America . The game was subsequently playable at the Xbox 360 Zero Hour Launch event , along with other Xbox 360 launch titles such as Rare 's Kameo : Elements of Power and Activision 's Call of Duty 2 . Other releases followed on December 2 in Europe and on December 10 in Japan . In Europe , Microsoft organized a party by simulating an apartment as Joanna Dark 's home , where several journalists could try out the Xbox 360 and the game . During the Japanese launch weekend , Perfect Dark Zero became the second best @-@ selling 360 game with roughly 15 @,@ 000 units sold , behind Namco 's Ridge Racer 6 .
Perfect Dark Zero was released in two forms : the standard version and a " Limited Collector 's Edition " . The collector 's edition features a second disc of content , a black metal game case , images of the staff and most of the in @-@ house testers which gave a glimpse behind the scenes at Rare , a special @-@ edition comic booklet which sets the scene for the game , titled Hong Kong Sunrise , and one of nine holographic collectible cards . The game has reportedly sold in excess of one million units worldwide . As a result , it was one of the first games to be re @-@ released under the " Platinum Hits " list . In 2015 , it was announced that Perfect Dark Zero could be played on the Xbox One via emulation . The game is also included in the Rare Replay video game compilation .
= = Additional content = =
Shortly after the game 's release , new multiplayer scenarios and a counter @-@ operative mode like the one found in the original Perfect Dark were said to eventually become freely available as downloadable content . Senior game designer Duncan Botwood later clarified that it was unlikely to happen due to technical issues . According to him , " It would have required much groundwork to be laid in the core AI code , which meant that it was unlikely to be available as downloadable content post @-@ release . " He also remarked that the counter @-@ operative mode was planned during the development of the game , but was eventually rejected due to the pressure to cut planned content .
In May 2006 , an auto @-@ update was made available on Xbox Live , responsible for fixing some bugs and adding additional multiplayer options to the game . The bug fixes included code to prevent an ongoing problem where players could walk through the air , an issue where some weapons could make use of rapid fire , and a map @-@ exiting glitch , among others . The new multiplayer options provide seven additional new bot types and the ability to use bots in DarkOps matches , since bots had only one AI variant and were only available in DeathMatch scenarios when the game was released . Additionally , a playable demo of the game was made freely available on the Xbox Live Marketplace shortly afterwards . The demo includes one campaign mission that can be played in solo mode or co @-@ operatively , and a new multiplayer map .
Rare released a multiplayer map pack , called Perfect Dark Zero Map Pack One , to the Xbox Live Marketplace on June 7 , 2006 . It contains the demo 's new multiplayer map as well as three other new maps to add to the game 's original six . Unlike the game 's default maps , the new maps only have one variant instead of two . On October 31 , 2006 , Rare announced that a special platinum edition of Perfect Dark Zero would be released , and would include the first map pack and two additional maps . The two new maps were later released for free in a pack called Perfect Dark Zero Map Pack Two . These maps are updated versions of two maps from the original Perfect Dark : Felicity and Ruins . The pack was released on November 1 , 2006 for Gold Members and on November 8 , 2006 for Silver Members .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception for Perfect Dark Zero was divided but generally positive , garnering a Metacritic aggregated review score of 81 out of 100 respectively . GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin awarded the game a rating of 9 @.@ 0 out of 10 and an Editors Choice , stating that Perfect Dark Zero " champions the Xbox 360 with its excellent assortment of single and multiplayer game types , as well as its incredible good looks and dynamic , intense action . " He also concluded that the game " delivers just about everything you could hope for from a first @-@ person shooter . " Charles Onyett of IGN praised the game 's replay value , but also criticized single @-@ player aspects such as the weak artificial intelligence of enemies , commenting that " they never display any advanced assault tactics . "
The graphics were highlighted positively . Kasavin was impressed with the amount of lighting and motion blur effects , and noted that the " excellent character animation helps make the guns feel as powerful as they look . " Bryn Williams of GameSpy considered the graphics as a " stunning look at what the 360 hardware is capable of " , but also admitted that the animation " is a little too slow and sometimes creates an unwelcome sense of cartoonishness " . IGN credited the attractive gun models , explosions , and sprawling vistas , but also felt that some areas such as the South American Ruins can unnecessarily look too shiny . The game 's audio was said to feature " heavy @-@ hitting weapon effects [ and ] fantastic , moody soundtrack that gives each mission its own pulsing rhythms " .
The game 's weapons were very well received . Reviewers praised the gun management and the implementation of the guns . GameSpot commented , " It doesn 't stray too far from convention , but it features some interesting twists in weapon and enemy design , making for a much more entertaining experience than the average shooter . " Critics generally agreed that the roll and cover system worked well and that they did not feel overpowered , but some criticized the fact that players need to be in a specific spot to use the cover mode . Reviewers considered the story and voice acting to be weak . IGN said that it is almost impossible not to notice how " laughably bad it is " , and that many plot twists are presented then never resolved , but also admitted that it does not really factor into the gameplay . GameCritics reviewer Mike Bracken commented , " It 's always sad when there 's voice acting in a game and I find myself being embarrassed for the voice actors . " Nevertheless , GameSpot added that the game 's weapon fire and musical score " easily drown this out . "
Publications judged the co @-@ op aspect of the game well . Kristan Reed of Eurogamer praised the fact that the missions were " designed with co @-@ op in mind . " He noted that , for example , the third level " has Joanna providing cover fire for her father Jack as he hops from one point of the level to the next . In the single player campaign Jack 's AI controlled , but co @-@ op lets you take direct control of his actions , making the experience a much more engaging affair all @-@ round . " Multiplayer matches of Perfect Dark Zero were widely well received . GameSpot stated that " the excellent weapon selection , flexibility of options , high @-@ quality maps , and smooth online performance ... make for a rock @-@ solid competitive shooter . " IGN stated similar pros , calling it " enormous " . 1UP.com reviewer Che Chou also praised the multiplayer , but observed that " constantly roll @-@ dodging to avoid enemy fire at close range [ ... ] combined with the exceptionally slow movement speed of your character ... can occasionally be highly frustrating for beginners . "
Despite solid reviews , numerous publications remarked that Perfect Dark Zero did not meet the expectations . According to GameCritics , " It took Rare a whole console generation to do it ... and the wait wasn 't really worth it " . Game Informer found it to be quite disappointing and gave the game a 7 out of 10 , reviewing it under the tagline " Don 't believe the hype " . In a positive review , GameSpy observed that " Perfect Dark Zero is a lot of fun and does a lot of things very well , but it 's just not the killer @-@ app that we 'd all hoped for " . In 2010 , GameTrailers placed the game 6th in their list of the " Top 10 Disappointments of the Decade " and 10th in their " Top 10 Worst Sequels " list .
= = = Accolades = = =
= Mountain Railways of India =
Mountain railways of India are the six or seven odd " chhotey " ( Hindi for small ) lines , out of around 20 similar such narrow or metre gauge remaining in operation around the world . Built during the nineteenth and early twentieth century of British colonial rule ( the Raj ) , these lines have been running since then . Today the Indian Railways runs them , along with the Kashmir Railway , operational since 2005 . While four of these seven : the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway ( 1881 ) , the Kalka – Shimla Railway ( 1898 ) , the Kangra Valley Railway Pathankot ( 1924 ) , and the Kashmir Railway ( 2005 ) , are in the rugged hill regions of the Himalayas of Northern India , two are further down south in the Western Ghats : the Nilgiri Mountain Railway in Tamil Nadu , and the Matheran Hill Railway in Maharashtra ; while the Lumding – Silchar line , built at the turn of the 20th century , lies deep inside Assam , in the Barak river valley of the Cachar Hills . The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway , the Nilgiri Mountain Railway and the Kalka – Shimla Railway have collectively been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
These lines connect important hill resorts with the foot hills , winding their way up through rugged yet scenic mountainous landscape . Given the terrain they were constructed on during the British colonial period , they were considered " outstanding examples of the interchange of values on developments in technology " and engineering marvels .
= = History = =
The mountain railways in the hills emerged as a result of the delayed interest evinced during the British Raj for establishing control over the Himalayas and other mountain ranges of India . It was in 1844 that Sir John Lawrence , the then Viceroy of India , had mooted the idea of a phased colonization of the hills , particularly as military garrisons . The British , in a proposal termed simply as ‘ Hill Railway ’ , considered establishing geographically and culturally rich , stations across the country . The hill stations chosen for this purpose were Shimla , the then ' summer capital ' of British India ; Darjeeling , known for its tea gardens and scenic views of the eastern Himalayas in the state of West Bengal , the Kangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh , Ootacamund in the Nilgiri mountains of Tamil Nadu and the Matheran hill station in the Western Ghats near Mumbai were considered .
The pioneering effort to link the mountainous terrain of enchanting beauty with a hill passenger railway commenced in 1878 with the building of the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway line , when Franklin Prestage of the then Eastern Bengal Railway initiated plans for the building of a hill tramway along the alignment of the Hill Cart Road from Siliguri to Darjeeling . Construction subsequently began , and in 1881 the line was commissioned up to Darjeeling .
The next project launched was of the Nilgiri Mountain Railway in Tamil Nadu , initially proposed in 1854 . Work started in 1894 , but the railway was not completed until 1908 , as the terrain was very difficult , given the big difference in altitude ranging between 326 meters ( 1 @,@ 070 ft ) and 2 @,@ 203 meters ( 7 @,@ 228 ft ) over a distance of 46 kilometers ( 29 mi ) . The building of the 96 kilometers ( 60 mi ) Kalka – Shimla railway link commenced in 1898 to open up the remote hill regions to the rest of the country and was inaugurated by the then Viceroy , Lord Curzon , in November 1903 . The Matheran – Neral ' toy train ' was commissioned in 1907 ; Matheran is a hill station 108 kilometers ( 67 mi ) away from Mumbai . The Kangra line was built in 1929 in the picturesque Kangra valley .
The UNESCO 's ' World Heritage site ' recognition to three of the mountain railways of India has been for " outstanding examples of bold , ingenious engineering solutions for the problem of establishing an effective rail link through a rugged , mountainous terrain . " The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway got it first in 1999 , the Nilgiri Mountain Railway followed suit in 2005 , and the Kalka – Shimla Railway , in 2008 ; the three together have been titled as ' Mountain Railways of India ' under Criteria : ii , iv under the region in the Asia @-@ Pacific . The claims of the Matheran Railway , the fourth hill line , is pending acceptance by the international body .
The mountain railway systems in India include :
= = Darjeeling Himalayan Railway = =
The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway ( DHR ) , given the epithet , the " Toy Train " , is a 610 mm ( 2 ft ) narrow – gauge railway that runs for 88 kilometers ( 55 mi ) from Siliguri to Darjeeling in the Indian state of West Bengal , operated by the Indian Railways . Highly regarded in India to this day , the railway line was built by the British Government . Darjeeling was a major summer hill station and the centre of a flourishing tea @-@ growing district . The elevation level along this line starting with about 100 meters ( 330 ft ) at Siliguri rose to about 2 @,@ 200 meters ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) at Darjeeling but attained highest elevation at Ghoom station of 2 @,@ 300 meters ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) .
The Siliguri town was connected with Calcutta ( now called Kolkata ) in 1878 while an alternative journey to Darjeeling used to be performed by tongas ( horse @-@ driven carts ) along a dust track . On the recommendations of a Committee appointed by Sir Ashley Eden , the then Lt. Governor of the Government of West Bengal , and the request of Franklyn Prestage , the Agent of the Eastern Bengal Railway Company , work on the railway commenced in 1879 and was completed by July 1881 . The railway line underwent several improvements over the years to ease the gradient of the line for convenience of manoeuvrability . By 1909 – 1910 , Darjeeling Himalayan Railway was carrying 174 @,@ 000 passengers and 47 @,@ 000 tonnnes of goods annually .
Important features incorporated in the line consisted of four loops ( spirals ) and four ‘ Z ’ reverses ( zigzags ) . The introduction of the first bogie carriages service replaced the very basic four wheel carriages and extensive improvements were made to the track and stations after the earthquake of 1897 and underwent further modernization under the Northeast Frontier Railway Zone of Indian Railway . It is still powered by a steam engine , although a modern diesel engine is used for the Darjeeling Mail train .
In 1999 , this mountain line in India was the first to be recognized by the UNESCO and inscribed on the World Heritage List . An assurance recorded was that apart that from creating a buffer zone under the declared heritage site , the steam trains would be retained within the site .
Another feature along this line is the pithy signages located at key vantage points along the route which proclaim to the passengers travelling by the train , and creates excitement to explore the locations , such as the ‘ Agony Point ’ , the ' Sensation Corner ' and so forth . The loop points or spirals constructed on precipitous hills are also view points , which provide spectacular views of the valley down below .
= = Nilgiri Mountain Railway = =
The Nilgiri Mountain Railway is a single track , 46 kilometers ( 29 mi ) long metre gauge single line . Coonoor was initially the final hill station on the line in June 1899 but this was extended up to Fernhill in September 1908 and up to Udagmandalam by October 15 , 1908 . It now connects the town of Mettupalayam with the hill station of Udagamandalam ( Ootacamund ) , in the Nilgiri hills , popularly known as the ' Blue Mountains ' of Southern India . Both towns are in the state of Tamil Nadu . The only rack railway in India , it uses the alternate biting system ( Abt ) commonly termed as ' rack and pinion ' rail system and is operated with special steam locomotives . This system is described in Sir Gulford L. Molesworth ’ s report of 1886 , which says :
Two distinct functions – 1st that of traction by adhesion as in an ordinary loco ; 2nd that of traction by pinions acting on the track bars . The brakes are four in number – two handbrakes , acting by friction ; and two acting by preventing the free escape of air from cylinder and thus using compressed air in retarding the progress of the engine . The former are used for shunting whilst the later for descending steep gradients . One of the handbrakes acts on the tyres of the wheels in the ordinary manner and the second acts on grooved surfaces of the pinion axle , but can be used in those places where the rack is laid .
The trains that run on this line cover a distance of 46 kilometers ( 29 mi ) , travel through 208 curves , 16 tunnels , and 250 bridges . The uphill journey takes around 290 minutes ( 4 @.@ 8 hours ) , and the downhill journey takes 215 minutes ( 3 @.@ 6 hours ) .
The Nilgiri Mountain Railway was inscribed as
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World Heritage Site by UNESCO in July 2005 . The unique feature of this line , which is still fully operational , is its oldest and the steepest ‘ rack and pinion technology ’ . As it now operates , the line has a metre gauge section for 7 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 5 mi ) up to the foothill station of Kallar from where the rack rail system begins and runs hugging the hills , passing through tunnels , 12 in number with the longest tunnel measuring 97 meters ( 318 ft ) , for 7 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 5 mi ) up the hills at a gradient of 1 : 12 @.@ 5 up to Coonoor.Steam locomotives are used in this section . Beyond Coonoor , up to the last station at Ooty or Oottacamund , the track has a ruling gradient of 1 : 23 .
= = Kalka – Shimla Railway = =
Shimla , the modern capital city of Himachal Pradesh , is located at 7 @,@ 234 feet ( 2 @,@ 205 m ) , in the foothills of the Himalayas . It was the summer capital of British India in 1864 and it was also the headquarters of the British Army in India . Kalka is a town in the Panchkula district of Haryana .
Prior to construction of the railway communication , connection with the outside world was via a village cartway . The railway line was constructed by the Delhi – Ambala – Kalka Railway Company commencing in 1898 in the Siwalik Hills ranges . However , several plans with alternative routes were surveyed between 1884 and 1898 , and the contract to build this line was finally awarded to Delhi – Ambala – Kalka Railway Company . The 95 @.@ 66 kilometers ( 59 @.@ 44 mi ) long , 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) narrow gauge line was opened for traffic on November 9 , 1903 .
The line has 103 tunnels and 864 bridges ( multi @-@ arched gallery type , like the Roman aqueducts ) , except for one bridge of 18 @.@ 29 meters ( 60 @.@ 0 ft ) length with plate girder span and steel truss . The ruling gradient is 1 : 33 or 3 % , with 919 curves , the sharpest being 48 degrees ( a radius of 37 @.@ 47 meters ( 122 @.@ 9 ft ) and climbs from 656 meters ( 2 @,@ 152 ft ) and terminates at an elevation of 2 @,@ 076 meters ( 6 @,@ 811 ft ) at Shimla . The Barog Tunnel ( No. 33 ) is the longest tunnel on the line at 1 @,@ 144 meters ( 3 @,@ 753 ft ) in length between Dagshai and Solan ( 270 meters ( 890 ft ) below the road ) and is named after the engineer who had commenced digging the tunnel from both sides of the mountain but could not complete it and hence committed suicide ( he was buried near the site of the tunnel ) . His Indian counterpart , known by the name Bhalku , who helped H. S. Harrington to build another tunnel about 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) away from the abandoned tunnel , was honoured with a medal and turban as an appreciation for his contribution to building tunnels , by the then Viceroy of India .
The route from Kalka to Shimla involves journey through the Koti tunnel 3 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) long , the Dharampur main station , 32 kilometers ( 20 mi ) from Kalka , three loops at Taksal , Gumman and Dharampur to attain flatter gradients , Taradevi , Prospect Hill to Jatogh , Inverarm to the terminus at old Dovedell chambers at Shimla . Other important stations on this route , distance wise from Kalka include Dagshai – 38 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 23 @.@ 9 mi ) , at an elevation of 1 @,@ 600 meters ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) – and Solan . Special luxury trains called the Shivalik Express and Shivalik Palace Saloon operate during the summer months to cater for heavy traffic from tourism , apart from several passenger and cargo ( potato , in particular ) trains , in addition to catering to the requirements of the armed services .
This line was added to the list of World Heritage Sites in 2008 , joining the Nilgiri and Darjeeling lines .
= = Matheran Hill Railway = =
Matheran Hill Railway , a heritage railway in Maharashtra , was built between 1901 and 1907 by Abdul Hussein Adamjee Peerbhoy and was financed by his father , Sir Adamjee Peerbhoy of the Adamjee Group . The railway line , a 610mm ( 2 ft ) gauge line , covers a distance of 20 kilometers ( 12 mi ) , over large swathes of forest territory connecting Neral to Matheran in the Western Ghats hills near Karjat and Mumbai . The plan , formulated in 1900 , began construction in 1904 and the line was opened to traffic by 1907 . Originally , the tracks were laid with 30 lb / yard rails but now use heavier 42 lb / yard rails . Ruling gradient is 1 : 20 ( 5 % ) with tight curves and speeds are limited to 20 kilometres per hour ( 12 mph ) . The line , which generally used to be closed during the monsoons because of the danger of landslides , has , since the 1980s , been kept operational throughout the year . This railway line is administered by the Central Railways .
The unique feature of this line is the horseshoe embankment , which was built to avoid a reversion station , seen when the train curves markedly . Important stations and special features include this , the initial Neral Station , the Herdal Hill section , the Bhekra Khud steep gradient , the only tunnel on the route , popularly known as the " One Kiss Tunnel " ( time to pass through this is just sufficient to exchange a kiss with one 's partner ) , a " Water Pipe " station ( no longer in use due to change over to diesel locos ) , Mountain Berry with two sharp ' Zig Zags ' , Panorama Point and finally terminating at Matheran Bazaar . The Broad gauge line between Mumbai and Pune runs close to this line and the road also crosses the railway line at two locations .
= = Kangra Valley Railway = =
The Kangra Valley Railway lies in the sub @-@ Himalayan region and covers a distance of 163 kilometers ( 101 mi ) between Pathankot and Joginder Nagar , a valley known for its natural beauty and ancient Hindu shrines . The line , which is part of the Northern Railway and is made with a 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gauge , was planned in May 1926 and commissioned in 1929 and is popularly known as the “ Kangra Toy Train ” . The highest point on this line is at Ahju station at an elevation of 1 @,@ 291 meters ( 4 @,@ 236 ft ) and the terminus at Joginder Nagar is at 1 @,@ 189 meters ( 3 @,@ 901 ft ) . The line has 971 uniquely designed bridges and two tunnels . Two particularly important bridge structures are the steel arch bridge over the Reond nalah and the girder bridge over the Banganga River . Though the gradient of the line is generally gentle , the critical reach with steep slopes is at the 142 kilometers ( 88 mi ) stretch , which is of 210 meters ( 690 ft ) width with 1 : 19 slope with approach slopes of 1 : 31 and 1 : 25 . The terminus stretch between Baijnath and Jogindernagar is 1 : 25 . The train journey on this line provides beautiful views of peaks of the Dhauladhar mountain range , particularly in the stretch between Kangra and Mangwal , and also the ruins of the Kangra Fort .
= = Lumding – Haflong – Badarpur hill section ( Assam ) = =
The Northeast Frontier Railway plans to preserve the 120 km @-@ long Mahur – Harangajao hill section while the metre @-@ gauge track on the Lumding – Silchar line gets converted into broad gauge . It has 37 tunnels , 586 bridges and 24 stations on the way with the steepest gradient of 1 in 37 on the Harangajao – Jatinga section .
= = Kashmir Railway = =
The Kashmir Railway is a railway line being built in India to connect the state of Jammu and Kashmir with the rest of the country . Officially termed the ' Jammu Udhampur Srinagar Baramulla Railway Link ' ( JUSBRL ) , the railway starts from Jammu and , when completed , will travel for 345 kilometres ( 214 mi ) to the city of Baramulla on the northwestern edge of the Kashmir Valley . The route crosses major earthquake zones , and is subjected to extreme temperatures of cold and heat , as well as inhospitable terrain , making it an extremely challenging engineering project . The project has had a long and chequered history but serious progress was made only after it was declared a National Project in 2002 . The scheduled date of completion was August 15 , 2007 . However , several unforeseen complications have pushed back the final completion deadline to 2017 at the earliest so a through service from central India to Kashmir will not be possible till then .
= = Other proposed projects = =
Bilaspur @-@ Mandi @-@ Leh Railway is expected to become the highest railway track in the world by its completion overtaking the current record of China 's Qinghai @-@ Tibet Railway .
= School Reunion ( Doctor Who ) =
" School Reunion " is the third episode in the second series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It first aired on 29 April 2006 . The episode 's narrative takes place some time after the events of " The Christmas Invasion " . In the episode 's TARDISODE , Mickey Smith alerts the Doctor and Rose Tyler to a comprehensive school where strange things are happening , such as UFO sightings . At the school , the Doctor encounters his former companion Sarah Jane Smith and the robotic dog , K9 Mark III , he sent her , who likewise were interested by the current events . Together , they discover the force behind the events , a race known as the Krillitanes , and work to prevent them gaining control of the universe .
The use of the Doctor 's previous companions , in particular Sarah Jane and K9 , was first proposed in 2003 to the BBC . After the episode was produced , Elisabeth Sladen was approached by the BBC to star in a spin @-@ off , The Sarah Jane Adventures , which also included K9 in several stories . The episode was positively reviewed , with an Appreciation Index of 85 % ( " Excellent " ) .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Finch , the headmaster of Deffry Vale School , has been changing the school to improve the students ' performance ; his changes include free lunches with special chips . The Doctor , under the alias " John Smith " , is undercover as a science teacher in the school , and his companion , Rose Tyler , is working undercover in the school 's cafeteria . The Doctor is surprised by the good behavior of the students and intrigued by the uncommon intelligence of one of his physics students . Both the Doctor and Rose relate the mysterious events around the school to the chips : Rose observes that the chip oil has an adverse effect on the other kitchen staff , who must use hazmat suits to handle the oil , while the Doctor notes that the chips themselves are making children more intelligent .
Mr. Finch 's successes have aroused media attention — in particular , the attention of investigative journalist Sarah Jane Smith . While at first the Doctor feigns ignorance ( but is barely able to restrain his pleasure at seeing her again ) , when Sarah Jane discovers the TARDIS during the night , he reveals his identity to her . Sarah Jane meets Rose and Mickey , with an immediate rivalry sparking between the two women . As the group searches the school , they find thirteen bat @-@ like creatures asleep in Finch 's office . Returning to Sarah Jane 's car , the journalist reveals a battered , inactive K9 Mark III , who — once repaired — identifies the chip oil as Krillitane oil . Rose , unaware that the Doctor had even had past companions , confronts him ; he replies sadly that , while she can spend the rest of her life with him , he cannot spend the rest of his life with her , so he must remain aloof .
The following day , the group returns to the school to investigate further . The Doctor confronts Mr. Finch , who confirms that he and the others are Krillitanes — a composite species that takes desirable attributes of the species they conquer . He attempts to subvert the Doctor , without success . Meanwhile , Sarah Jane and Rose , now getting on better than at their first meeting , try to unlock the programming on the school 's computers ; Mickey and K9 remain in Sarah Jane 's car for surveillance . With the Doctor 's help , they discover that the computers — bolstered by the students ' enhanced intelligence — are part of a Krillitane effort to solve the " Skasis Paradigm " , a theory of everything . As the paradigm is nearly solved , which would allow the Krillitanes full control over time and space , they seal the school . Mr. Finch propositions the Doctor a second time , tempting him with the ability to save the Time Lords and override human mortality . With Sarah Jane 's counseling , the Doctor refuses , and they run from Mr. Finch . After Kenny ( a student who had not eaten the chips ) alerts Mickey to the students ' plight , Mickey crashes Sarah Jane 's car through the school 's doors and unplugs the computers , allowing the children to flee . The Doctor leads the Krillitanes to the kitchen . Upon their arrival , K9 detonates the chip oil container , saturating the Krillitanes . The Krillitanes suddenly explode , destroying the school and K9 .
At episode 's end , Rose , Sarah Jane , Mickey , and the Doctor are standing in the TARDIS . Sarah Jane declines a second chance of travelling in the TARDIS , having finally decided to move on with her life and stop waiting for the Doctor . Mickey says he would like to join the TARDIS crew , a suggestion of which Sarah Jane approves . She then asks Rose to stay with the Doctor , and to find her one @-@ day if she needs to . Sarah Jane then gets a chance to part properly with the Doctor , who leaves her with a brand new K9 as a parting gift .
= = = Continuity = = =
" School Reunion " is the first appearance of Sarah Jane Smith and K9 since The Five Doctors . It answers the question of where Sarah was left at the end of The Hand of Fear : Aberdeen . Rose mentions visiting " the year 5 billion " , a reference to her first trip with the Ninth Doctor in The End of the World . The bragging match between Sarah and Rose also references other stories : Sarah has met the Daleks , " lots of robots " , anti @-@ matter monsters , mummies , dinosaurs , and the Loch Ness Monster , whereas Rose has met ghosts , " Slitheen in Downing Street " , the Dalek Emperor , gas @-@ masked zombies , and a werewolf .
= = Production = =
The concept of Sarah @-@ Jane and K9 returning to Doctor Who was an idea of Russell T Davies from pitching the show in 2003 . Such a use would show what would happen after a companion left the Doctor , without dwelling too much on the classic series . It was Davies ' full intention for Sarah Jane to be used for this , and while Sladen originally declined a request , thinking her role would not be important , she changed her mind when she realised she would be the focal point of the adventure . After production of the episode was finished , Sladen was approached about a full spin @-@ off series , The Sarah Jane Adventures , which was formally announced on 14 September 2006 .
The episode went through several changes in production : working titles included " Old Friends " and " Black Ops " , the latter being set in an army base . Davies requested that Whithouse set it in a school instead , mainly for simplicity , but also for a desire for the Doctor to masquerade as a school teacher . Additionally , the Krillitanes were to be named " Krillians " until the BBC found the name was trademarked , and Finch 's forename was originally Hector , until the BBC found a real teacher by the same name , and renamed him Lucas . K9 's eye grill was initially filmed flashing in sync with his lines , not unlike the Daleks , until Phil Collinson saw the footage and nixed the practice ( which was inconsistent with the robot dog 's past appearances ) . A scene that was cut was of Milo 's brain being " shorted out " by the Doctor 's rapid @-@ fire questions at the beginning of the episode , which was later alluded to in the episode .
The episode , originally in the second production block , was produced in the first block along with " The Christmas Invasion " and " New Earth " . Two high schools in Wales were used for filming : Fitzalan High School in Leckwith was used on 23 August and 24 August 2005 , for filming the first conversation between the Doctor and Finch , and for the playground , kitchen , and cafeteria scenes , and Duffryn High School in Newport , which was used between 25 August and 6 September for the remainder of the episode , with filming delayed due to asbestos being discovered in Duffryn High School 's structure . The scenes in the schools utilised dozens of children as extras . Pick @-@ up shots were later completed on 7 September and 8 September , with filming of the cafe scene delayed due to drunk and disorderly conduct from members of the public .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 3 million viewers , the twelfth most @-@ watched programme of the week , with an Appreciation Index score of 85 % . Jacob Clifton of Television Without Pity gave the episode an A + rating , and jokingly stated that he " didn 't know why the Doctor was fucking around [ during the Physics lesson ] : he taught Physics at Coal Hill School way back in ' 63 " . Ahsan Haque of IGN gave the episode an 8 @.@ 7 out of 10 ( " Great " ) and commented that the episode had " fantastic character moments " and " brilliant CGI effects " , and that " if you 're willing to accept the Scooby @-@ Doo storyline , then the strong nostalgic vibes present in this episode should be enough to carry this episode into a must @-@ see category . " , and K9 and Sarah @-@ Jane alone made the episode worth watching for fans of the classic series . The episode was subsequently nominated for the 2007 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , an award that was won by the following episode " The Girl in the Fireplace " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" School Reunion " reviews at Outpost Gallifrey
" School Reunion " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= The Roof ( Back in Time ) =
" The Roof " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey , taken from her sixth studio album , Butterfly ( 1997 ) . It was released as the third single from the album in Europe , on March 20 , 1998 by Columbia Records . Similar to the treatments of " Butterfly " and " Breakdown " , " The Roof " received a limited worldwide release due to Carey 's conflict at the time with Sony . The song was written and produced by Carey and Trackmasters , and is built around a sample from " Shook Ones part II " by Mobb Deep . The song 's lyrics recount an intimate roof @-@ top encounter between lovers , and how the memory affects the protagonist . The extended remix features a rap verse by Mobb Deep ; both versions were well received by contemporary music critics .
In the music video , Carey is seen in a limousine recounting an encounter she shared on a rainy night . Additionally , past scenes of the event are shown , with Carey caressing her lover at a roof @-@ top party . During the videos climax , Carey open the limousines sun @-@ roof and stands in the rain , trying to recapture the moments she shared in the rain . Aside from the Japanese concerts , Carey performed the song live during her Butterfly World Tour in 1998 . Due to the song 's limited release , " The Roof " did not chart in most major music markets , with the exception of The Netherlands and the United Kingdom , where it peaked at numbers 63 and 96 , respectively .
In addition , " The Roof " was added to Carey 's compilation album The Ballads ( 2009 ) .
= = Composition = =
" The Roof " was released on July 28 , 1998 by Columbia Records . The song is a slow and sultry song , which blends hip @-@ hop and contemporary R & B genres . It incorporates drum notes , including heavy beats and grooves . The song 's second version features a rap version from Trackmasters . The song samples the melody from " Shook Ones Part II " by Mobb Deep , incorporating it into chorus and bridge . As part of " layering the song , " background vocals are featured throughout the chorus and sections of the bridge . It is set in the signature common time , and is written in the key of E ♭ major . It features a basic chord progression of A ♭ -F ♭ 1 . Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of E ♭ 3 to the high note of F ♭ 5 ; the piano and guitar pieces range from F ♭ 3 to G ♭ 5 as well . The song contains choral lyrics written by Carey , who produced the song 's melody and chorus as well . Aside from assisting with its chord progression , Cory Rooney co @-@ arranged and produced the track as well . Author Chris Nickson felt the song was extremely important for Carey 's musical transition , writing " Lyrically , this was some of her best work ever , the melody slinky and overtly sexy , confirmation – as if any was needed at this point ! – that this was the new Mariah . "
= = Critical reception = =
" The Roof " was commended by contemporary music critics for its choice of vocal work , instrumentation and lyrics . David Browne from Entertainment Weekly praised the song as well as Carey 's choice of vocals , writing " Carey is still a vocal grandstander capable of turning all into a six @-@ syllable word . Yet for most of the album she keeps her notorious octave @-@ climbing chops at bay . Showing some admirable restraint , she nestles herself into the downy @-@ soft beats of ' The Roof ' . " Rich Juzwiak from Slant wrote " Little more than yearning , kissing , and remembering happens during the course of ' The Roof , ' a rough @-@ enough R & B revision of Mobb Deep 's ' The Shook Ones . ' But lyrically Mariah the writer is vivid , sometimes shockingly clever ( rhyming ' liberated ' with ' Moet ' is a stroke of genius ) . "
= = Chart performance = =
" The Roof " was chosen as the third single from Butterfly , receiving an airplay @-@ only release . Because of conflict between Carey and her record label at the time , Sony Music Entertainment , it was only given a commercial release in Europe , while " Breakdown " was released throughout Oceania . In the UK , the song peaked at number 87 during the week of May 9 , 1998 . " The Roof " stayed in the UK Singles Chart for one week before falling outside the top 100 . In the Netherlands , it performed weakly as well , peaking at number 63 while spending five weeks fluctuating in the Single Top 100 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " The Roof " garnered critical acclaim , and was ranked 18th on Slant 's " 100 Greatest Music Videos " . Sal Ciquemani , from Slant , gave the video a positive review , complimenting Carey 's choice to pair the sultry song with a " sophisticated tale of a sexy rooftop encounter " . The video re @-@ tells a story of Carey reminiscing a past love and a night they shared together on a rainy roof @-@ top . The video 's setting revolves around a dark limousine , a decrepit NYC apartment , and a rainy roof @-@ top , where " Carey is featured at her most vulnerable , with runny mascara and drenched in the cold rainy night . " In the conclusion of his review of the video , Ciquemani wrote : " When Carey rises through the limo 's sunroof and relishes the warm November rain , she 's not drunk on the bubbly but on the memory of past delights . "
The video was directed by Carey and Diane Martel during the spring of 1998 . The music video begins with Carey sitting alone in a limousine , recalling a night she shared some time previous . As scenes of Carey reminiscing in the limo are shown , clips of her dressing in an old apartment are presented . Eventually , Carey joins a roof @-@ top party one night , where she begins dancing and caressing her lover . As the passion between them grown , rain begins to fall , showering everyone atop the edifice . As these scenes end , Carey in the present opens the sun @-@ roof of the limo and stands into the rainy night , trying to recapture those magical moments she shared on that rainy roof @-@ top encounter . The video ends with a wet Carey lying in the back of the limousine , sad and lonely .
= = Live performances = =
" The Roof " was performed few times throughout Carey 's career . The song was performed during her Butterfly World Tour in 1998 . During the performances , live male and female dancers were present on stage , grooving and performing classic routines . Carey wore a short beige ensemble and performed light classical dances , alongside a male partner . The song was performed on select dates of Carey 's 2014 The Elusive Chanteuse Show tour .
= = Tracks listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Butterfly liner notes .
Mariah Carey – co @-@ production , songwriting , vocals
Jean Claude Oliver – songwriting , vocals
Samuel Barnes – songwriting , vocals
Cory Rooney – mixing , special effects
Albert Johnson – songwriting
Kejuan Waliek Muchita – songwriting
= = Charts = =
= Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track =
Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track ( Norwegian : Lillehammer Olympiske Bob- og Akebane ) is a bobsleigh , luge and skeleton track located at Hunderfossen in Lillehammer , Norway , 15 kilometers ( 9 mi ) north of the town center of Lillehammer . It was completed in 1992 for the 1994 Winter Olympics , where it hosted the bobsleigh events and luge events . It has since also hosted the FIBT World Championships 1995 in skeleton and the FIL World Luge Championships 1995 , and is scheduled to host the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics .
Original plans called for the track to be located at Fåberg . Later it was proposed moved to Kanthaugen in the town center and then Holmenkollen in Oslo , before Hunderfossen was decided upon . The track is 1 @,@ 710 meters ( 5 @,@ 610 ft ) , giving a competition length of 1 @,@ 365 meters ( 4 @,@ 478 ft ) for bobsleigh and men 's singles luge , and 1 @,@ 185 meters ( 3 @,@ 888 ft ) for other luge competitions . The bobsleigh course has a vertical drop of 114 meters ( 374 ft ) , giving an 8 @.@ 5 percent average grade . The track has been part of the proposed Oslo 2018 and 2022 Winter Olympics bids .
= = History = =
Prior to the Lillehammer Olympics , there was no bobsleigh and luge track in Norway . During the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo , Korketrekkeren had been built as a temporary venue , but it was made of snow and was not reused after the Olympics . In its bid for the 1994 Winter Olympics , Lillehammer had proposed placing the bobsleigh and luge track next to Balbergbakken in Fåberg . By May 1989 , plans for most of the venues were being reshuffled and the track was then proposed located at Kanthaugen as part of an Olympic Park at Stampesletta . The Kanthaugen proposal was estimated to cost NOK 231 million .
Lillehammer Municipal Council , Oppland County Council and the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage rejected the location because of the environmental impact . These institutions instead proposed that the track be built at Huseskogen at Hunderfossen . The Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee initially disapproved of the location and in 1990 started looking at the possibility of constructing the track at Holmenkollen in Oslo . Two routes were considered , one in the same route as Korketrekkeren and one which would run from Gratishaugen at Holmenkollbakken to Midtstuen . Internationally there was support from the International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation and the International Luge Federation to build Norway 's track in the capital . Concerns about the environmental impact of a Hunderfossen location were raised , particularly regarding visual pollution . However , Hunderfossen was confirmed along with a grant issued by the Parliament of Norway on 24 August 1990 .
The designers of the tracks at Altenberg and Oberhof , East Germany , the Olympic tracks in La Plagne , France , and Calgary , Canada , were consulted during planning . Five companies bid for the concrete construction work , which was awarded to a joint venture between Aker Entreprenør and Veidekke for NOK 45 million . Also the construction of the buildings was awarded to the same group . The track was the first of the Olympic venues for the 1994 games for which construction started . After construction started , Minister of Culture Åse Kleveland ( Labour Party ) suggested in March 1991 , in an attempt to reduce costs , that the 1994 Olympic bobsleigh and luge events be held at La Plagne , the site of the events for the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville . The French authorities were positive , given that Norway pay for part of the construction costs , but the idea was rejected by LOOC @-@ president Gerhard Heiberg . Also fellow party members reacted , who emphasized that NOK 30 million had already been used on blasting the track route .
Construction was undertaken by spraying 1 @,@ 300 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 300 long tons ; 1 @,@ 400 short tons ) of shotcrete intertwined with 180 tonnes ( 180 long tons ; 200 short tons ) of reinforcement bars . It is the first track in the world to build the cooling pipes into an underground culvert . It consists of 31 reinforced concrete sections . The concrete work was completed on 31 October 1991 . Representatives for the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature stated that they were satisfied with the end result . It is the only artificially frozen bobsleigh and luge track in the Nordic Countries . The venue was completed on 1 October 1992 and cost NOK 201 million . After the Olympics , the ownership of the venue was transferred to Lillehammer Olympiapark , owned by Lillehammer Municipality .
= = Specifications = =
The track is 1 @,@ 710 meters ( 5 @,@ 610 ft ) long , including braking distance . The competitive length — excluding braking distance — for bobsleigh , skeleton and luge men 's singles it is 1 @,@ 365 meters ( 4 @,@ 478 ft ) long and for luge men 's doubles and women 's singles it is
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to intricately imitate real @-@ life people " significantly aided the presentation of the Vortigaunts . In addition , IGN praised the visual and character overhaul given to the Vortigaunt in Episode Two .
= Brazza 's martin =
Brazza 's martin ( Phedina brazzae ) is a passerine bird in the swallow family , Hirundinidae . It is 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 25 in ) long with grey @-@ brown upperparts , heavily black @-@ streaked white underparts , and a brownish tint to the breast plumage . The sexes are similar , but juvenile birds have more diffuse breast streaking and reddish @-@ brown edges to the feathers of the back and wings . The song consists of a series of short notes of increasing frequency , followed by a complex buzz that is sometimes completed by a number of clicks .
The range of this species falls within the African countries of Angola , the Republic of the Congo , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Nesting in burrows in river banks , it lays a clutch of three white eggs . This bird feeds on flying insects , including termites , and may hunt over rivers or open savanna . It forms mixed flocks with other swallows , but is readily identified by its combination of brown upperparts , streaked underparts and a square tail .
Although this little @-@ known bird had been classified as Data Deficient by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , it actually appears to be common and widespread , and it has been listed as a species of Least Concern since 2008 . There may be some hunting of this martin for food , but the species does not appear to be facing any serious short @-@ term threats .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Brazza 's martin was first described in 1886 under its current binomial name by French zoologist Émile Oustalet from a specimen obtained at Nganchu in the Ngabé District of what is now the Republic of Congo . The genus name , Phedina , is derived from the Greek phaios ( φαιός ) " brown " and the Italian rondine " swallow " . The species name commemorates Italian @-@ born French explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza , later to become governor @-@ general of the French Congo , who collected the type specimen . This species was often called the " Congo martin " , but this invites confusion with the Congo sand martin or Congo martin , Riparia congica .
The Phedina species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are classed as members of the Hirundininae subfamily , which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA sequence studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . These groups are the " core martins " , including burrowing species like the sand martin ; the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities ; and the " mud nest builders " , such as the barn swallow , which build a nest from mud . The Phedina species nest in burrows and therefore belong to the " core martins " group .
The genus Phedina is thought to be an early offshoot from the main swallow lineage , although the striped plumage of its two species suggests a distant relationship with several streaked African Hirundo species . The only other member of the genus is the Mascarene martin P. borbonica , although in the past it has sometimes been suggested that Brazza 's martin should be moved to its own genus Phedinopsis due to the significant differences in vocalisations and nest type from its relative . The nearest relative of the Phedina martins is the banded martin , Riparia cincta , which appears not to be closely related to the other members of its current genus and resembles Brazza 's martin in nesting habits and vocalisations . The current Association of European Rarities Committees ( AERC ) -recommended practice is to move the banded martin to its own genus as Neophedina cincta , rather than to merge it into Phedina , since the banded martin 's larger size , different bill and nostril shape and non @-@ colonial nesting are differences from the other Phedina species .
= = Description = =
The Brazza 's martin is 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 25 in ) long with wings averaging 100 @.@ 5 mm ( 4 @.@ 4 in ) . This small hirundine has grey @-@ brown upperparts with a somewhat darker brown head and white underparts heavily streaked with blackish @-@ brown from the throat to vent . There is a brownish tint to the breast plumage . The square tail averages 46 @.@ 8 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) long and has white edges to the brown undertail coverts . The flight feathers are blackish @-@ brown and the bill and legs are black . The eyes are dark brown and the black bill averages 8 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 33 in ) long . The sexes are similar , but juvenile birds have more diffuse breast streaking and reddish @-@ brown or buff edges to the feathers of the back and wings . This bird has no subspecies .
The song consists of a series of short notes increasing in frequency which are followed by a complex buzz and sometimes completed by a number of clicks . The song becomes increasingly loud , although the final clicks are quite soft . The song is similar to that of the banded martin , and does not resemble the Mascarene martin , suggesting unresolved taxonomic problems . The flight is variously described as heavy , or like that of a sand martin .
Brazza 's martin can be distinguished from most other swallows within its range by the heavy streaking on the underparts . Although the lesser striped swallow also has white underparts with dark streaking , it is larger , has a deeply forked tail and a very different plumage , with dark blue upperparts , a red rump and a chestnut head . Compared to the Mascarene martin , this species is smaller , has a plainer back and finer dashing on the throat and chest , but there is no range overlap .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The distribution of the Brazza 's martin was initially poorly known , and until 1922 the type specimen in the Paris Museum was the only recorded example of this species . A Father Callewaert then collected 20 martins near Luluabourg ( now Kananga ) , and this bird is now known to breed in the south of the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) , the Republic of the Congo , and in northern Angola . There is one probable sighting from southeast Gabon .
In the breeding season this martin is found near rivers with the steep banks that are needed for the nest burrows . Suitable habitat occurs along lowland tropical rivers like the Congo or rivers with sandbanks in the highlands of Angola . The highland locations have wide grassy riverways running through miombo woodlands , whereas the Congo Basin is tropical forest with over 200 cm ( 80 in ) of rain a year . The lowland habitats are a patchwork of dry , seasonally flooded and permanently wet woodland , and seasonally flooded savanna , and the swamp forests contain trees such as Symphonia globulifera , raffia palms and Mitragyna species , and the riverbanks are often lined with arrowroot . This martin seems to be able to adapt to open savanna habitats containing Hymenocardia acida , in which it will roost overnight when not breeding , and is therefore not heavily dependent on the neighbouring forests as long as the riverine breeding sites survive .
= = Behaviour = =
In a presumed example of courtship behaviour , a male Brazza 's martin perched about 30 cm ( 1 ft ) away from a female and sang for about ten minutes . As it sang , the male leant towards the female , which caused the still @-@ folded wings and tail to rise relative to the body . The Brazza 's martin nests in the vertical banks of forested rivers from July to October , at the end of the dry season but before the river levels are high enough to cause flooding . A small colony of four pairs was recorded breeding near a rocky outcrop on the side of a valley .
The Brazza 's martin nests singly or in loose colonies with sometimes widely separated burrows . The nest is a small heap of soft material such as feathers or dry grass at the end of a typically 50 @-@ cm ( 20 @-@ in ) tunnel . The normal clutch is three white eggs . The eggs measure 18 @.@ 5 x 112 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 73 x 0 @.@ 49 in ) and weigh 1 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 05 oz ) . The incubation and fledging times are unknown , although as with all hirundines the chicks are altricial , hatching naked and blind .
As with other swallows , Brazza 's martin feeds on flying insects , including termites , and may hunt over rivers or open savanna . It can occur in single @-@ species flocks or with other swallows including barn swallows , lesser striped swallows , or rock martins .
= = Status = =
There has been little ornithological research in this part of Africa , and until 2008 the Brazza 's martin was classified as Data Deficient . It was thought to have a much more restricted distribution range , but a 2007 paper presented evidence that extended its known range by 500 km ( 300 mi ) to the north and 175 km ( 90 mi ) southwards , a quadrupling of the area . It has a large range of 402 @,@ 000 km2 ( 155 @,@ 000 sq mi ) although the total population is unknown . Its extensive range and apparently stable population means this bird is classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
It is likely that this species is dug out for food by humans , but its small , dispersed colonies in firm soil suggests that it is a less rewarding target than the densely packed sandbank nests of species such as the African river martin and rosy bee @-@ eater . Breeding colonies in river sandbars are liable to flooding , but neither natural causes nor hunting appear to be having a serious impact , and this species seems under no immediate threat . Its ability to use degraded habitats also aids its survival . The Brazza 's martin is not a protected species in Angola , the DRC , or the Republic of Congo .
= Sibling Rivalry ( Family Guy ) =
" Sibling Rivalry " is the 22nd episode of the fourth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on March 26 , 2006 . The episode follows Stewie as he battles with his half @-@ brother , Bertram ( voiced by Wallace Shawn ) , who is born to two lesbians after Peter donates sperm . Meanwhile , Lois begins excessive eating after Peter undergoes a vasectomy and loses his interest in sex .
The episode was written by Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and directed by Dan Povenmire . The episode received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 95 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Randy Crenshaw , Gavin Dunne , Bob Joyce , John Joyce , Phil LaMarr , Rick Logan , Wallace Shawn , Tara Strong , Nicole Sullivan and Wally Wingert , as well as several recurring voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
After a pregnancy scare , Peter reluctantly agrees to get a vasectomy to prevent further repeats . Before the surgery , he agrees to donate sperm , should he and Lois ever decide to have another baby . While in the sperm bank , Peter accidentally destroys all the existing samples , and decides to replace them with his own to prevent himself from getting into trouble . Nine months later , a lesbian couple , who took away some of Peter 's sperm in order to conceive a child , gives birth to Bertram , Stewie 's half @-@ brother who first appeared in the episode " Emission Impossible " .
After the vasectomy , Peter loses his sex drive , much to the frustration of Lois , who embraces overeating as a substitute . Peter begins to ridicule Lois due to her weight , but stops shortly after they have sex and discovers they prefer " fat sex " , opposed to their regular sex . Peter attempts to make Lois fatter to feed his sexual urges . After becoming even more enormous , Lois suffers a heart attack during sex ; doctors remove all of the fat from her body , and she returns to her normal weight .
Shortly after birth , Bertram declares war with Stewie for control over the playground . They confront each other in the playground with F @-@ 117 Nighthawks and AH @-@ 1 Cobras , firing numerous bullets at each other . After the air battle ends with no winners , Bertram resorts to biological warfare , and infects Stewie with chickenpox . After recovering , Stewie confronts Bertram , and they engage in a sword fight in the play area . Stewie eventually wins by disarming Bertram , and later that night , is seen suspiciously digging a hole with Christopher Moltisanti , but the hole is actually for a young tree . Stewie explains to Christopher that Bertram admitted defeat to Stewie and ran away .
= = Production = =
The song performed after Lois ' pregnancy test comes back negative was written by Alec Sulkin and Alex Borstein , and sung by professional Hollywood studio singers . Orchestrations in this song were performed by Walter Murphy , and described by show producer Seth MacFarlane to be " wonderful " . The sketch of Peter challenging Lois to a race to Boston was removed from television broadcasting in order to save time . As Lois is slowly racing Peter to Boston , a Shania Twain song can be heard on the radio ; Dan Povenmire states on the DVD commentary that he often gets into trouble for adding pieces of music into an episode when they 're so short , yet cost so much . The producers of both Family Guy and the Ice Age series agreed to collaborate in the episode during its reference to Scrat from the Ice Age series .
There was discussion among the producers of the series regarding whether Bertram should be included in the storyline , as he had not appeared in any episodes for several years . An un @-@ used scene was intended for broadcasting which showed Stewie , while trying to find Waldo in an Abercrombie & Fitch catalog , saying to Brian " Oh , turn to the next page . I bet they put him in someone 's utility pocket " , but it was never used as it was not deemed funny enough for the episode . Originally , Peter singing " Milkshake " to inmates at a prison was going to be naked and push his nipples from underneath , but broadcasting standards objected ; as a result , the show broadcasting Peter wearing underpants and pushing his nipples from the side . When Peter and Lois are in the restaurant and Peter leaves to " warn the chef of Lois ' arrival " , Lois was intended to say " If he won 't put something in me , I will " , but the gag was never broadcast .
The unsafe homeless man with whom Peter was seen leaving a youth @-@ baseball team in Stewie 's flashback was originally based on John Wayne Gacy , but people claimed he didn 't look scary enough , so Povenmire changed the character completely to that of a homeless man . The idea of Stewie and Bertram laughing as they go down the slide during their sword fight was pitched by Povenmire 's wife and , although negative about the idea at first , Povenmire included it in the episode because the original sketch not going so well . During Peter and Lois ' " fat sex " , Peter repeatedly states " almost , almost " ; originally , there was going to be approximately twice as many of these , but they were never included in the episode . The DVD version of the episode shows Peter arriving at the sperm bank and saying to the receptionist : " I have an appointment to banish a White Russian from my Kremlin " , to which she replies with " This is a sperm bank , you don 't have to use innuendo " , and Peter concludes the conversation with " Where do I splooge ? " .
In addition to the regular cast , actor Randy Crenshaw , actor Gavin Dunne , actor Bob Joyce , actor John Joyce , voice actor Phil LaMarr , actor Rick Logan , actor Wallace Shawn , voice actress Tara Strong , voice actress Nicole Sullivan , and voice actor Wally Wingert guest starred in the episode . Recurring voice actors Ralph Garman , writer Mike Henry , writer Chris Sheridan , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener made minor appearances . Actor Patrick Warburton appeared in the episode as well .
= = Cultural references = =
When in the children 's park , Stewie quotes " Did ya get me my Cheez Whiz , boy " and a man throws one to him , this is a reference to The Blues Brothers . Stewie and Brian attempting to find diversity in an Abercrombie and Fitch catalogue is a reference to the children 's books series Where 's Wally ? , as well as to a lawsuit alleging a lack of diversity in Abercrombie and Fitch 's hiring practices . Before the battle between Stewie and Bertram , Stewie says " On my signal , unleash hell . " This is a reference to the opening scene of Gladiator . An Ice Age reference is made when Scrat , a character from the films attempts to steal Peter 's nuts . When Stewie invades Bertram 's camp at the end of the episode Bertram quotes Star Wars Episode IV : A New Hope repeating the line Darth Vader says when he senses Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi on the Death Star . When Peter names his kids , Peter mentions the kids from various shows that are currently airing at Nick at Nite . When Brian mentions this , Peter begins naming Street Fighter characters . Brian again points out this fact , after which Peter names various colors . Sauron , the villain from the Lord of the Rings is shown as the Eye of Sauron in a scene where he is trying to find his lost contact lens . A cutaway scene features Peter in a jail surrounded by inmates who force him to strip , squeeze his boobs together , and sing the chorus from Kelis 's 2003 hit “ Milkshake . ” This is possibly an homage to the scene after the credits in the movie Dodgeball : A True Underdog Story in which Ben Stiller does the same thing in his fatsuit .
After Bertram 's defeat , the scene cuts away to Stewie and Christopher Moltisanti from The Sopranos digging a hole . The viewer is led to assume that the hole is for Bertram but really it is for a tree Stewie and Christopher are planting . Then Stewie states that Bertram admitted to defeat and ran off after which Christopher calls Bertram a " mook . "
= = Reception = =
" Sibling Rivalry " was watched by 7 @.@ 95 million viewers , making it the 77th most @-@ watched program of the week . In a review of the episode , Bob Sassone of TV Squad noted " If there 's one reason I 'm glad I watched tonight 's episode it 's because I learned exactly how a vasectomy is done , " adding that " Peter is going to have a vasectomy , so he decides to freeze his sperm before he does it . This leads to a hysterical , yet truly gross , scene where Peter knocks over an entire shelf of sperm samples , and has to refill them , um , himself . " Geoffrey D. Roberts of Real Talk Reviews reviewed the episode negatively , writing " many viewers will probably be disappointed with an episode about sibling rivalry between Stewie and newfound half @-@ brother Bertram . Both share the same goal – to rule the Universe . With Bertram nothing more than a whinier version of his half @-@ brother , it turns out one Stewie Griffin is more than enough . "
= Oliver Valentine =
Oliver " Ollie " Valentine is a fictional character from the BBC medical drama Holby City , played by actor James Anderson . He first appeared in the eleventh series episode " Proceed With Caution " , broadcast on 9 June 2009 . Oliver was introduced alongside his older sister , Penny ( Emma Catherwood ) , as a Foundation House Officer 1 ( F1 ) on rotation at Holby City Hospital . Series producer Diana Kyle intended their inclusion to have an " instant impact on the wards . " Anderson was selected to play Oliver ; he spent time with a real F1 doctor and trained with the programme 's medical advisors to prepare for the part . It took him around six months to ease into the role , and a further six to feel comfortable in it .
Oliver was initially portrayed as " the golden boy " compared to his sister . Boyishly charming and medically talented , he nonetheless lacked confidence in his ability . When Oliver reached his F2 training , the series formed an on @-@ screen duo by pairing him with registrar Greg Douglas ( Edward MacLiam ) . Oliver 's lack of competency was highlighted – he endangered patients and landed his colleagues in trouble . In a prominent storyline , Oliver made a series of medical errors , which forced him to admit that he cheated on an exam at medical school . He began a downward spiral , and reached " rock bottom " when Penny was killed off . He was then central to a special flashback episode , which depicted his battle to cope with her death . Though he confessed to Director of Surgery Henrik Hanssen ( Guy Henry ) that he was not truly qualified , Hanssen allowed Oliver to continue practising medicine .
Branded a Lothario @-@ type character , Oliver has been involved in several romantic storylines during his tenure ; Anderson has called him " the hospital bike " . In a toy boy storyline with ward sister Chrissie Williams ( Tina Hobley ) , Oliver was seen to compromise his career . He went on to date ward sister Daisha Anderson ( Rebecca Grant ) , kiss registrar Jac Naylor ( Rosie Marcel ) , and earn the unreciprocated affection of ward sister Frieda Petrenko ( Olga Fedori ) , and marry F1 doctor Tara Lo ( Jing Lusi ) . Anderson decided to leave the series in 2012 and filmed his final scenes in March 2013 . Oliver departed in the episode " Mens Sana In Corpore Sano " , dated 9 July 2013 . He returned on 23 December 2014 , for one episode , before making a full time return on 5 May 2015 .
Responses to the character have generally been negative , with particular criticism for his poor treatment of Penny . Bree Treacy of RTÉ Ten disliked both Valentines , and Jim Shelley of the Daily Mail described him as a " weasel " . Many have questioned Oliver 's medical skills and labelled him an incompetent doctor – as Daniel Maier of The Guardian put it , he is " a doctor with the blue eyes of Fonda and the medical competence of fondue " .
= = Storylines = =
Oliver arrives at Holby City Hospital as an F1 doctor , alongside his sister Penny ( Emma Catherwood ) . He acquires Penny 's preferred rotation on the Acute Assessment Unit ( AAU ) , where he develops a flirtatious relationship with ward sister Chrissie Williams ( Tina Hobley ) . Within weeks , their relationship becomes sexual . Chrissie becomes pregnant , but later miscarries . They break up , and Oliver moves on to date ward sister Daisha Anderson ( Rebecca Grant ) . A transfer to the cardiothoracic surgery ward has him working under registrar Jac Naylor ( Rosie Marcel ) . While Daisha spends Christmas with her family in the Philippines , Oliver kisses Jac . Upon her return , Daisha learns of the tryst . Soon thereafter , she is shot during a hostage situation and Oliver struggles to cope . Although she recovers , she opts to leave Holby and move back to the Philippines .
Oliver discovers that Penny has been having a relationship with a patient , Scott ( Joshua Bowman ) , endangering her career . She plans to move to Spain with him and abandon her training , but Oliver convinces Scott to leave without her . Keen to earn praise from his consultants , Connie Beauchamp ( Amanda Mealing ) and Elliot Hope ( Paul Bradley ) , Oliver claims Penny 's research as his own , and is awarded her place in an operation . He is promoted to F2 level , and betrays Penny further by revealing her affair with Scott , which results in her failing her cardiothoracic rotation and being moved to the AAU . A rivalry develops between them , but they are forced to call a truce when a series of pranks endanger a patient .
Registrar Greg Douglas ( Edward MacLiam ) shirks his responsibilities by excessively delegating to Oliver ; to his dismay , Connie appoints him as Oliver 's mentor . Oliver pushes himself too far in an attempt to impress Greg , which earns the senior doctor a reprimand for leaving him unsupervised . Oliver tries to earn back Greg 's respect , but panics while attempting to insert a chest drain , and has to be rescued by ward sister Frieda Petrenko ( Olga Fedori ) . He invites her for a drink as thanks , but when Penny discovers that Frieda has romantic feelings for him , Oliver cancels as he does not reciprocate them . Oliver 's confidence is further damaged when he mishandles a case , which results in a mother leaving her son to die alone . He moves back to the AAU , where he is shaken by an encounter with the boy 's mother , which causes him to panic and embarrass himself in theatre . Penny 's career begins to improve , and Oliver resents her when she is given registrar duties for a shift . Having realised that he is close to failing his F2 year , Oliver implicates Penny in a serious surgical error of his own doing , but is caught by registrar Antoine Malick ( Jimmy Akingbola ) .
When a patient unexpectedly dies in his care , Oliver breaks down . He confesses to Penny that he cheated in medical school by swapping one of their exam papers , so he passed on her merit while she was forced to repeat a year . Furious , Penny tells Oliver that he must confess to Director of Surgery Henrik Hanssen ( Guy Henry ) . He writes a letter of resignation , but deletes it after a positive day working alongside Frieda , who encourages him to repeat his F2 year . After giving Oliver a final chance to confess , Penny is called away to the site of a train crash . Oliver is left alone on AAU , where he successfully performs a difficult procedure . Hopeful that Penny will forgive him , Oliver is devastated to learn that she has been killed in an accident at the crash site . Unable to cope in the aftermath of her death , Oliver turns to drugs and alcohol . He sends Hanssen a letter of resignation , which includes a full confession . His father Tony ( Simon Shepherd ) offers him money to choose a new career , and claims that Oliver always had more potential than Penny . This angers Oliver , who endangers his own life to save a patient and feels reinvigorated . Hanssen is impressed by Oliver 's patient treatment , and overlooks his cheating to allow him a fresh start .
Oliver continues and succeeds in his second F2 year under Elliot , who is his mentor . He begins a relationship with F1 Tara Lo ( Jing Lusi ) . He learns she has a brain tumor and becomes fixated on finding a cure . She learns to accept it . Oliver begins spending more time at Tara 's flat and later moves in . Oliver and Tara marry the day before she has a major operation . Oliver and Tara prepare for her operation , but there are complications in surgery and she dies .
= = Development = =
= = = Creation and characterisation = = =
The impending arrival of sibling trainee doctors Oliver and Penny was announced in May 2009 , by executive producer Tony McHale and series producer Diana Kyle . The latter described them both as " full of energy and enthusiasm " , and asserted that they would have an " instant impact on the wards at every level . " They were deemed talented physicians with the desire to achieve by McHale , who noted that " one is more naturally gifted than the other " , and suggested that their personal lives would cause conflict with their professional ones , as they attempted to progress at work .
Actor James Anderson was cast as Oliver . Before assuming the role , he shadowed a real F1 doctor on ward rounds – an experience he found difficult . " We were approaching beds in which people were waking up from heart attacks and coming around quite distressed sometimes . It was really difficult to be there with a patient . It 's harder than you think and I got quite emotional . " Anderson underwent such extensive training with the programme 's medical advisors that he jested in June 2009 , " If I started medical training now , I could probably graduate as a doctor coming out of the show ! " The actor experienced " an extended period of anxiety " upon joining the series , and recalls : " It took me about six months to have any sense of what was going on and then the second six months to feel comfortable [ ... ] but only because it 's such a well @-@ oiled machine . You 're coming in as a little cog , so you have to discover how to work in that and that takes a while . "
BBC Online described Oliver 's positive qualities as being his " boyishly charming " manner and his general determination . Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror deemed him a " soft touch " when he went to great lengths to help a young patient , and a Daily Mail review suggested that Oliver was " really quite sweet " , despite his apparent smugness . Oliver is flawed by a lack of confidence and his deceptive nature . He has a tendency to land his work colleagues in trouble , which has been conveyed through storylines with Daisha and Greg . What 's on TV highlighted Oliver 's " lack of competence " and called him petulant for betraying Penny after his promotion to F2 level . When his career began to deteriorate , the publication deemed him reckless , then found him hapless in the aftermath of her death , in reference to the way he " [ sank ] into despair , finding comfort in drink , drugs and his dead sister 's flatmate . " The Sunday Mirror 's Kevin O 'Sullivan reflected on Oliver 's development since his arrival , with the observation , " Once he was the strutting ladies ' man of the wards , a veritable medical Casanova who exuded confidence and charm . But time has taken its toll on Oliver Valentine – and now he is just a shadow of his former self " – a devastated and broken man , " tormented by the memory of his sibling and his guilty conscience . "
= = = Relationships = = =
Introduced as a Lothario @-@ type character , according to Anderson , Oliver " had a reputation
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. Traditional music Seisiúns are still common place both in pubs and in houses . The Donegal fiddle music has been influenced by recorded music , but this is claimed to have had a positive impact on the tradition . Modern Donegal fiddle music is often played in concerts and recorded on albums .
= 1903 Tour de France =
The 1903 Tour de France was the first cycling race set up and sponsored by the newspaper L 'Auto , ancestor of the current daily , L 'Équipe . It ran from 1 to 19 July in six stages over 2 @,@ 428 km ( 1 @,@ 509 mi ) , and was won by Maurice Garin .
The race was invented to boost the circulation of L 'Auto , after its circulation started to plummet from competition with the long @-@ standing Le Vélo . Originally scheduled to start in June , the race was postponed one month , and the prize money was increased , after a disappointing level of applications from competitors . The 1903 Tour de France was the first stage road race , and compared to modern Grand Tours , it had relatively few stages , but each was much longer than those raced today . The cyclists did not have to compete in all six stages , although this was necessary to qualify for the general classification .
The pre @-@ race favourite , Maurice Garin , won the first stage , and retained the lead throughout . He also won the last two stages , and had a margin of almost three hours over the next cyclist . The circulation of L 'Auto increased more than sixfold during and after the race , so the race was considered successful enough to be rerun in 1904 , by which time Le Vélo had been forced out of business .
= = Origin = =
After the Dreyfus affair separated advertisers from the newspaper Le Vélo , a new newspaper L 'Auto @-@ Vélo was founded in 1900 , with former cyclist Henri Desgrange as editor . After being forced to change the name of the newspaper to L 'Auto in 1903 , Desgrange needed something to keep the cycling fans ; with circulation at 20 @,@ 000 , he could not afford to lose them .
When Desgrange and young employee Géo Lefèvre were returning from the Marseille – Paris cycling race , Lefèvre suggested holding a race around France , similar to the popular six @-@ day races on the track . Desgrange proposed the idea to the financial controller Victor Goddet , who gave his approval , and on 19 January 1903 , the Tour de France was announced in L 'Auto .
It was to have been a five @-@ week race , from 1 June to 5 July , with an entry fee of 20 francs . These conditions attracted very few cyclists : one week before the race was due to start , only 15 competitors had signed up . Desgrange then rescheduled the race from 1 to 19 July , increased the total prize money to 20 @,@ 000 francs , reduced the entry fee to 10 francs and guaranteed at least five francs a day to the first 50 cyclists in the classification . After that , 79 cyclists signed up for the race , of whom 60 actually started the race .
Géo Lefévre became the director , judge and time @-@ keeper ; Henri Desgrange was the directeur @-@ général , although he did not follow the race .
= = Rules and course = =
The 1903 Tour de France was run in six stages . Compared to modern stage races , the stages were extraordinarily long , with an average distance of over 400 km ( 250 mi ) , compared to the 171 km ( 106 mi ) average stage length in the 2004 Tour de France ; cyclists had one to three rest days between each stage , and the route was largely flat , with only one stage featuring a significant mountain . The cyclists were not grouped in teams but raced as individuals , and paid a fee of ten francs ( € 87 @.@ 50 at 2003 prices ) to compete in the race for general classification , or five francs to enter a single stage . Because the stages were so long , all but the first started before dawn : the last stage started at 21 : 00 the night before .
The first Tour de France crossed no mountain passes , but several lesser cols . The first was the col des Echarmeaux ( 712 m ( 2 @,@ 336 ft ) ) , on the opening stage from Paris to Lyon , on what is now the old road from Autun to Lyon . The stage from Lyon to Marseille included the col de la République ( 1 @,@ 161 m ( 3 @,@ 809 ft ) ) , also known as the col du Grand Bois , at the edge of St @-@ Etienne .
In 1903 , it was normal for a professional cyclist to hire pacers , who would lead them during the race . Desgrange forbade this : it was originally intended that in the final , longest , stage pacers would be allowed , but this was rescinded after the fifth stage .
To ensure that the cyclists rode the entire route , stewards were stationed at various points around the course . The yellow jersey for the leader in the general classification had not yet been introduced , but the leader was identified by a green armband .
The fastest eight cyclists on each stage received a prize between 50 francs and 1 @,@ 500 francs , varying per stage . The fourteen best cyclists in the general classification received a prize from 3 @,@ 000 francs for the winner to 25 francs for fourteenth place . The remaining seven cyclists to finish in the general classification each received 95 francs , 5 francs for each of the 19 days that the race took , provided that they had not won more than 200 francs in prize money and did not have an average speed below 20 km / h ( 12 mph ) on any stage .
= = Participants = =
In contrast to modern stage races , a cyclist who gave up during a stage was allowed to start again the next stage , although he would no longer be in contention for the general classification . Thus Hippolyte Aucouturier , who gave up during the first stage , was able to return , and won the second and third stages . Charles Laeser , winner of the fourth stage , had not completed the third stage .
Sixty cyclists , all professionals or semi @-@ professionals , started the race , of whom 49 were French , 4 Belgian , 4 Swiss , 2 German , and one Italian ; 21 of them were sponsored by bicycle manufacturers , while 39 entered without commercial support . 24 other cyclists took advantage of the opportunity to enter specific stages : one rode in both the second and fourth stages , and additionally three cyclists took part in the second stage , one in the third stage , fifteen in the fourth stage only , and a further four only competed in the fifth stage .
= = Race details = =
The pre @-@ race favourites for the victory were Maurice Garin and Hippolyte Aucouturier . Garin dominated the race from the start by winning the first stage , a 471 km ( 293 mi ) parcours from Paris to Lyon . The stage started at 15 : 16 , and the cyclists initially rode with a speed of 35 km / h . The first cyclists abandoned after around 50 km ( 31 mi ) . At 23 : 00 , Garin and Emile Pagie , leading the race , reached the control point in Nevers . Garin expected at that point that they would finish at 8 : 00 the next morning . During the night , Garin 's main rival , Aucouturier , had stomach cramps , and was unable to finish the stage . Also during that first stage , the first breach of the rules occurred : Jean Fischer had used a car as pacer , which was illegal . Pagie fell down , but got up again ; he and Garin kept leading the race during the night . Around 9 : 00 in the morning , both reached Lyon . Garin got away from Pagie , and finished one minute ahead .
Although Aucouturier had abandoned in the first stage , and so was not eligible for the general classification , he could still start the rest of the stages . In the second stage , Aucouturier was able to win the sprint . In the third stage , the cyclists who were competing for the general classification started one hour earlier than the other cyclists , including Aucouturier . At the end of that stage , a group of four cyclists had broken away , and Eugène Brange won the sprint . Aucouturier finished 27 minutes later , but this meant that he had run the course 33 minutes faster , so he was declared the winner of the stage . Garin retained the lead , helped by a crash of second @-@ placed Pagie in the second stage , which eliminated him from the race . In the fourth stage , Aucouturier had a clear lead and seemed set to win a third successive stage , but was caught using the slipstream of a car , and was removed from the race . Swiss Charles Laeser ( who had abandoned in the 3rd stage ) took the victory , becoming the first non @-@ French winner . As in the third stage , the cyclists departed in two groups , and Laeser was in the second group because he was no longer contending for the general classification . Laeser finished more than 50 minutes after a group of six cyclists , but he had travelled the distance 4 minutes faster than them , so he was declared the winner .
At that point , Garin was leading , with Émile Georget almost two hours behind . In the fifth stage , Georget had two flat tires , and fell asleep when he stopped at the side of the road to rest ; he failed to finish . Thus Garin extended his lead by winning this stage , carrying nearly three hours ' advantage into the final day 's racing . Garin had requested other cyclists in the leading group to let him win the stage , but Fernand Augereau refused to do this . Garin then had Lucien Pothier throw down his bicycle in front of Augereau , who fell , and Garin then bent Augereau 's rear wheel . Augereau quickly obtained a spare bike and continued to the finish , however Garin easily won the sprint . Augereau still received a prize of 100 francs from Velo @-@ Sport Nantes for the fastest final kilometer of the stage in the Nantes velodrome . The last stage was the longest , at 471 km ( 293 mi ) , and ran from Nantes to the small town of Ville @-@ d 'Avray , which lies between Versailles and Paris , instead of at the Parc des Princes velodrome . This was because of a bylaw forbidding road races to end on cycling tracks ( a bylaw subsequently repealed in light of the race 's success ) . Garin took his third stage win , and sealed overall victory by 2 hours 59 minutes 31 seconds : this remains the greatest margin of victory in the Tour de France . After celebrating with champagne , the riders cycled to Parc des Princes , where they made several laps of honour before an adoring crowd , to the sound of a bugle .
= = Results = =
= = = Stage results = = =
In 1903 , there was no distinction in the rules between plain stages and mountain stages ; the icons shown here indicate whether the stage included mountains .
= = = General classification = = =
There were 21 cyclists who had completed all six stages . For these cyclists , the times taken for each stage were added up for the general classification . The cyclist with the least accumulated time was the winner . The cyclists officially were not grouped in teams ; some cyclists had the same sponsor , even though they were not allowed to work together .
= = Aftermath = =
The circulation of L 'Auto increased significantly due to this event ; a special edition of 130 @,@ 000 copies was made after the race was over , and normal circulation increased from 25 @,@ 000 to 65 @,@ 000 . The big success made sure that the Tour de France was scheduled again for 1904 . The cyclists had also become national heroes . Maurice Garin returned for the 1904 Tour de France but his title defence failed when he was disqualified . With the prize money that he won in 1903 , which totalled 6 @,@ 075 francs , ( approximately US $ 40 @,@ 000 and GBP £ 23 @,@ 000 in 2006 values ) Garin later bought a gas station , where he worked for the rest of his life .
= Switzerland =
Switzerland ( / ˈswɪtsərlənd / ) , officially the Swiss Confederation ( Latin : Confoederatio Helvetica , hence its abbreviation CH ) , is a federal republic in Europe . While still named the " Swiss Confederation " for historical reasons , modern Switzerland is a federal directorial republic consisting of 26 cantons , with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities , called ' " federal city " ( German : Bundesstadt , French : Ville féderale , Italian : Capitale federale ) . The country is situated in Western and Central Europe , and is bordered by Italy to the south , France to the west , Germany to the north , and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east . Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps , the Swiss Plateau and the Jura , spanning an area of 41 @,@ 285 km2 ( 15 @,@ 940 sq mi ) . While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory , the Swiss population of approximately eight million people is concentrated mostly on the plateau , where the largest cities are to be found : among them are the two global and economic centers Zürich and Geneva .
The establishment of the Swiss Confederation is traditionally dated to 1 August 1291 , which is celebrated annually as the Swiss National Day . The country has a long history of armed neutrality — it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815 — and did not join the United Nations until 2002 . Nevertheless , it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace @-@ building processes around the world . In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross , Switzerland is home to numerous international organizations , including the second largest UN office . On the European level , it is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association , but notably it is not part of the European Union , nor the European Economic Area . However , the country does participate in the Schengen Area and the EU 's single market through a number of bilateral treaties .
Spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe , Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions : German , French , Italian and Romansh . Although the majority of the population are German speaking , Swiss national identity is rooted in a common historical background , shared values such as federalism and direct democracy , and Alpine symbolism . Due to its linguistic diversity , Switzerland is known by a variety of native names : Schweiz [ ˈʃvaɪts ] ( German ) ; Suisse [ sɥis ( ə ) ] ( French ) ; Svizzera [ ˈzvittsera ] ( Italian ) ; and Svizra [ ˈʒviːtsrɐ ]
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or [ ˈʒviːtsʁːɐ ] ( Romansh ) .
Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world , with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth @-@ highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF . Switzerland ranks at or near the top globally in several metrics of national performance , including government transparency , civil liberties , quality of life , economic competitiveness , and human development . Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life , with the former ranked second globally , according to Mercer .
= = Etymology = =
The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer , an obsolete term for the Swiss , which was in use during the 16th to 19th centuries . The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse , also in use since the 16th century . The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer , in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory , one of the Waldstätten cantons which formed the nucleus of the Old Swiss Confederacy . The name originates as an exonym , applied pars pro toto to the troops of the Confederacy . The Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499 , used alongside the term for " Confederates " , Eidgenossen ( literally : comrades by oath ) , used since the 14th century .
The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972 , as Old High German Suittes , ultimately perhaps related to suedan " to burn " , referring to the area of forest that was burned and cleared to build . The name was extended to the area dominated by the canton , and after the Swabian War of 1499 gradually came to be used for the entire Confederation . The Swiss German name of the country , Schwiiz , is homophonous to that of the canton and the settlement , but distinguished by the use of the definite article ( d 'Schwiiz for the Confederation , but simply Schwyz for the canton and the town ) .
The Latin name Confoederatio Helvetica was neologized and introduced gradually after the formation of the federal state in 1848 , harking back to the Napoleonic Helvetic Republic , appearing on coins from 1879 , inscribed on the Federal Palace in 1902 and after 1948 used in the official seal . ( The ISO banking code , " CHF " for the Swiss franc , is taken from the state 's Latin name ) . Helvetica is derived from the Helvetii , a Gaulish tribe living on the Swiss plateau before the Roman era .
Helvetia appears as a national personification of the Swiss confederacy in the 17th century with a 1672 play by Johann Caspar Weissenbach .
= = History = =
Switzerland has existed as a state in its present form since the adoption of the Swiss Federal Constitution in 1848 . The precursors of Switzerland established a protective alliance at the end of the 13th century ( 1291 ) , forming a loose confederation of states which persisted for centuries .
= = = Early history = = =
The oldest traces of hominid existence in Switzerland date back about 150 @,@ 000 years . The oldest known farming settlements in Switzerland , which were found at Gächlingen , have been dated to around 5300 BC .
The earliest known cultural tribes of the area were members of the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures , named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel . La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450 BC , possibly under some influence from the Greek and Etruscan civilisations . One of the most important tribal groups in the Swiss region was the Helvetii . Steadily harassed by the Germans , in 58 BC the Helvetii decided to abandon the Swiss plateau and migrate to western Gallia , but Julius Caesar 's armies pursued and defeated them at the Battle of Bibracte , in today 's eastern France , forcing the tribe to move back to its original homeland . In 15 BC , Tiberius , who was destined to be the second Roman emperor and his brother , Drusus , conquered the Alps , integrating them into the Roman Empire . The area occupied by the Helvetii — the namesakes of the later Confoederatio Helvetica — first became part of Rome 's Gallia Belgica province and then of its Germania Superior province , while the eastern portion of modern Switzerland was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia . Sometime around the start of the Common Era , the Romans maintained a large legionary camp called Vindonissa , now a ruin at the confluence of the Aare and Reuss rivers , near the town of Windisch , an outskirt of Brugg .
The first and second century AD were an age of prosperity for the population living on the Swiss plateau . Several towns , like Aventicum , Iulia Equestris and Augusta Raurica , reached a remarkable size , while hundreds of agricultural estates ( Villae rusticae ) were founded in the countryside .
In about 260 AD , the fall of the Agri Decumates territory north of the Rhine transformed today 's Switzerland into a frontier land of the Empire . Repeated raids by the Alamanni tribes provoked the ruin of the Roman towns and economy , forcing the population to find shelter near Roman fortresses , like the Castrum Rauracense near Augusta Raurica . The Empire built another line of defense at the north border ( the so @-@ called Donau @-@ Iller @-@ Rhine @-@ Limes ) , but at the end of the fourth century the increased Germanic pressure forced the Romans to abandon the linear defence concept , and the Swiss plateau was finally open to the settlement of German tribes .
In the Early Middle Ages , from the end of the 4th century , the western extent of modern @-@ day Switzerland was part of the territory of the Kings of the Burgundians . The Alemanni settled the Swiss plateau in the 5th century and the valleys of the Alps in the 8th century , forming Alemannia . Modern @-@ day Switzerland was therefore then divided between the kingdoms of Alemannia and Burgundy . The entire region became part of the expanding Frankish Empire in the 6th century , following Clovis I 's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504 AD , and later Frankish domination of the Burgundians .
Throughout the rest of the 6th , 7th and 8th centuries the Swiss regions continued under Frankish hegemony ( Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties ) . But after its extension under Charlemagne , the Frankish empire was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843 . The territories of present @-@ day Switzerland became divided into Middle Francia and East Francia until they were reunified under the Holy Roman Empire around 1000 AD .
By 1200 , the Swiss plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of Savoy , Zähringer , Habsburg , and Kyburg . Some regions ( Uri , Schwyz , Unterwalden , later known as Waldstätten ) were accorded the Imperial immediacy to grant the empire direct control over the mountain passes . With the extinction of its male line in 1263 the Kyburg dynasty fell in AD 1264 ; then the Habsburgs under King Rudolph I ( Holy Roman Emperor in 1273 ) laid claim to the Kyburg lands and annexed them extending their territory to the eastern Swiss plateau .
= = = Old Swiss Confederacy = = =
The Old Swiss Confederacy was an alliance among the valley communities of the central Alps . The Confederacy facilitated management of common interests and ensured peace on the important mountain trade routes . The Federal Charter of 1291 agreed between the rural communes of Uri , Schwyz , and Unterwalden is considered the confederacy 's founding document , even though similar alliances are likely to have existed decades earlier .
By 1353 , the three original cantons had joined with the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the Lucerne , Zürich and Bern city states to form the " Old Confederacy " of eight states that existed until the end of the 15th century . The expansion led to increased power and wealth for the confederation . By 1460 , the confederates controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura mountains , particularly after victories against the Habsburgs ( Battle of Sempach , Battle of Näfels ) , over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s , and the success of the Swiss mercenaries . The Swiss victory in the Swabian War against the Swabian League of Emperor Maximilian I in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire .
The Old Swiss Confederacy had acquired a reputation of invincibility during these earlier wars , but expansion of the confederation suffered a setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano . This ended the so @-@ called " heroic " epoch of Swiss history . The success of Zwingli 's Reformation in some cantons led to inter @-@ cantonal religious conflicts in 1529 and 1531 ( Wars of Kappel ) . It was not until more than one hundred years after these internal wars that , in 1648 , under the Peace of Westphalia , European countries recognized Switzerland 's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality .
During the Early Modern period of Swiss history , the growing authoritarianism of the patriciate families combined with a financial crisis in the wake of the Thirty Years ' War led to the Swiss peasant war of 1653 . In the background to this struggle , the conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons persisted , erupting in further violence at the First War of Villmergen , in 1656 , and the Toggenburg War ( or Second War of Villmergen ) , in 1712 .
= = = Napoleonic era = = =
In 1798 , the revolutionary French government conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution . This centralised the government of the country , effectively abolishing the cantons : moreover , Mülhausen joined France and Valtellina valley , the Cisalpine Republic , separating from Switzerland . The new regime , known as the Helvetic Republic , was highly unpopular . It had been imposed by a foreign invading army and destroyed centuries of tradition , making Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state . The fierce French suppression of the Nidwalden Revolt in September 1798 was an example of the oppressive presence of the French Army and the local population 's resistance to the occupation .
When war broke out between France and its rivals , Russian and Austrian forces invaded Switzerland . The Swiss refused to fight alongside the French in the name of the Helvetic Republic . In 1803 Napoleon organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides in Paris . The result was the Act of Mediation which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 cantons . Henceforth , much of Swiss politics would concern balancing the cantons ' tradition of self @-@ rule with the need for a central government .
In 1815 the Congress of Vienna fully re @-@ established Swiss independence and the European powers agreed to permanently recognise Swiss neutrality . Swiss troops still served foreign governments until 1860 when they fought in the Siege of Gaeta . The treaty also allowed Switzerland to increase its territory , with the admission of the cantons of Valais , Neuchâtel and Geneva . Switzerland 's borders have not changed since , except for some minor adjustments .
= = = Federal state = = =
The restoration of power to the patriciate was only temporary . After a period of unrest with repeated violent clashes such as the Züriputsch of 1839 , civil war ( the Sonderbundskrieg ) broke out in 1847 when some Catholic cantons tried to set up a separate alliance ( the Sonderbund ) . The war lasted for less than a month , causing fewer than 100 casualties , most of which were through friendly fire . Yet however minor the Sonderbundskrieg appears compared with other European riots and wars in the 19th century , it nevertheless had a major impact on both the psychology and the society of the Swiss and of Switzerland .
The war convinced most Swiss of the need for unity and strength towards its European neighbours . Swiss people from all strata of society , whether Catholic or Protestant , from the liberal or conservative current , realised that the cantons would profit more if their economic and religious interests were merged .
Thus , while the rest of Europe saw revolutionary uprisings , the Swiss drew up a constitution which provided for a federal layout , much of it inspired by the American example . This constitution provided for a central authority while leaving the cantons the right to self @-@ government on local issues . Giving credit to those who favoured the power of the cantons ( the Sonderbund Kantone ) , the national assembly was divided between an upper house ( the Council of States , two representatives per canton ) and a lower house ( the National Council , with representatives elected from across the country ) . Referenda were made mandatory for any amendment of this constitution .
A system of single weights and measures was introduced and in 1850 the Swiss franc became the Swiss single currency . Article 11 of the constitution forbade sending troops to serve abroad , though the Swiss were still obliged to serve Francis II of the Two Sicilies with Swiss Guards present at the Siege of Gaeta in 1860 , marking the end of foreign service .
An important clause of the constitution was that it could be re @-@ written completely if this was deemed necessary , thus enabling it to evolve as a whole rather than being modified one amendment at a time .
This need soon proved itself when the rise in population and the Industrial Revolution that followed led to calls to modify the constitution accordingly . An early draft was rejected by the population in 1872 but modifications led to its acceptance in 1874 . It introduced the facultative referendum for laws at the federal level . It also established federal responsibility for defense , trade , and legal matters .
In 1891 , the constitution was revised with unusually strong elements of direct democracy , which remain unique even today .
= = = Modern history = = =
Switzerland was not invaded during either of the world wars . During World War I , Switzerland was home to Vladimir Illych Ulyanov ( Vladimir Lenin ) and he remained there until 1917 . Swiss neutrality was seriously questioned by the Grimm – Hoffmann Affair in 1917 , but it was short @-@ lived . In 1920 , Switzerland joined the League of Nations , which was based in Geneva , on condition that it was exempt from any military requirements .
During World War II , detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the Germans , but Switzerland was never attacked . Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence , concessions to Germany , and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion . Under General Henri Guisan central command , a general mobilisation of the armed forces was ordered . The Swiss military strategy was changed from one of static defence at the borders to protect the economic heartland , to one of organised long @-@ term attrition and withdrawal to strong , well @-@ stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the Reduit . Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the Axis and Allied powers .
Switzerland 's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and by the Axis . Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion and the availability of other trading partners . Concessions reached a peak after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942 , leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis . Over the course of the war , Switzerland interned over 300 @,@ 000 refugees and the International Red Cross , based in Geneva , played an important part during the conflict . Strict immigration and asylum policies as well as the financial relationships with Nazi Germany raised controversy , but not until the end of the 20th century .
During the war , the Swiss Air Force engaged aircraft of both sides , shooting down 11 intruding Luftwaffe planes in May and June 1940 , then forcing down other intruders after a change of policy following threats from Germany . Over 100 Allied bombers and their crews were interned during the war . During 1944 – 45 , Allied bombers mistakenly bombed a few places in Switzerland , among which were the cities of Schaffhausen , Basel and Zürich .
After the war , the Swiss government exported credits through the charitable fund known as the Schweizerspende and also donated to the Marshall Plan to help Europe 's recovery , efforts that ultimately benefited the Swiss economy .
During the Cold War , Swiss authorities considered the construction of a Swiss nuclear bomb . Leading nuclear physicists at the Federal Institute of Technology Zürich such as Paul Scherrer made this a realistic possibility . However , financial problems with the defense budget prevented the substantial funds from being allocated , and the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty of 1968 was seen as a valid alternative . All remaining plans for building nuclear weapons were dropped by 1988 .
Switzerland was the last Western republic to grant women the right to vote . Some Swiss cantons approved this in 1959 , while at the federal level it was achieved in 1971 and , after resistance , in the last canton Appenzell Innerrhoden ( one of only two remaining Landsgemeinde ) in 1990 . After obtaining suffrage at the federal level , women quickly rose in political significance , with the first woman on the seven member Federal Council executive being Elisabeth Kopp , who served from 1984 – 1989 , and the first female president being Ruth Dreifuss in 1999 .
Switzerland joined the Council of Europe in 1963 . In 1979 areas from the canton of Bern attained independence from the Bernese , forming the new canton of Jura . On 18 April 1999 the Swiss population and the cantons voted in favour of a completely revised federal constitution .
In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations , leaving the Vatican City as the last widely recognised state without full UN membership . Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA , but is not a member of the European Economic Area . An application for membership in the European Union was sent in May 1992 , but not advanced since the EEA was rejected in December 1992 when Switzerland was the only country to launch a referendum on the EEA . There have since been several referenda on the EU issue ; due to a mixed reaction from the population the membership application has been frozen . Nonetheless , Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to conform with that of the EU , and the government has signed a number of bilateral agreements with the European Union . Switzerland , together with Liechtenstein , has been completely surrounded by the EU since Austria 's entry in 1995 . On 5 June 2005 , Swiss voters agreed by a 55 % majority to join the Schengen treaty , a result that was regarded by EU commentators as a sign of support by Switzerland , a country that is traditionally perceived as independent and reluctant to enter supranational bodies .
= = Geography = =
Extending across the north and south side of the Alps in west @-@ central Europe , Switzerland encompasses a great diversity of landscapes and climates on a limited area of 41 @,@ 285 square kilometres ( 15 @,@ 940 sq mi ) . The population is about 8 million , resulting in an average population density of around 195 people per square kilometre ( 500 / sq mi ) . The more mountainous southern half of the country is far more sparsely populated than the northern half . In the largest Canton of Graubünden , lying entirely in the Alps , population density falls to 27 / km ² ( 70 / sq mi ) .
Switzerland lies between latitudes 45 ° and 48 ° N , and longitudes 5 ° and 11 ° E. It contains three basic topographical areas : the Swiss Alps to the south , the Swiss Plateau or Central Plateau , and the Jura mountains on the west . The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central @-@ south of the country , comprising about 60 % of the country 's total area . The majority of the Swiss population live in the Swiss Plateau . Among the high valleys of the Swiss Alps many glaciers are found , totalling an area of 1 @,@ 063 square kilometres ( 410 sq mi ) . From these originate the headwaters of several major rivers , such as the Rhine , Inn , Ticino and Rhône , which flow in the four cardinal directions into the whole of Europe . The hydrographic network includes several of the largest bodies of freshwater in Central and Western Europe , among which are included Lake Geneva ( also called le Lac Léman in French ) , Lake Constance ( known as Bodensee in German ) and Lake Maggiore . Switzerland has more than 1500 lakes , and contains 6 % of Europe 's stock of fresh water . Lakes and glaciers cover about 6 % of the national territory . The largest lake is Lake Geneva , in western Switzerland shared with France . The Rhône is both the main source and outflow of Lake Geneva . Lake Constance is the second largest Swiss lake and , like the Lake Geneva , an intermediate step by the Rhine at the border to Austria and Germany . While the Rhône flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the French Camargue region and the Rhine flows into the North Sea at Rotterdam in the Netherlands , about 1000 km apart , both springs are only about 22 km apart from each other in the Swiss Alps .
48 of Switzerland 's mountains are 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea in altitude or higher . At 4 @,@ 634 m ( 15 @,@ 203 ft ) , Monte Rosa is the highest , although the Matterhorn ( 4 @,@ 478 m or 14 @,@ 692 ft ) is often regarded as the most famous . Both are located within the Pennine Alps in the canton of Valais , on the border with Italy . The section of the Bernese Alps above the deep glacial Lauterbrunnen valley , containing 72 waterfalls , is well known for the Jungfrau ( 4 @,@ 158 m or 13 @,@ 642 ft ) Eiger and Mönch , and the many picturesque valleys in the region . In the southeast the long Engadin Valley , encompassing the St. Moritz area in canton of Graubünden , is also well known ; the highest peak in the neighbouring Bernina Alps is Piz Bernina ( 4 @,@ 049 m or 13 @,@ 284 ft ) .
The more populous northern part of the country , comprising about 30 % of the country 's total area , is called the Swiss Plateau . It has greater open and hilly landscapes , partly forested , partly open pastures , usually with grazing herds , or vegetables and fruit fields , but it is still hilly . There are large lakes found here and the biggest Swiss cities are in this area of the country .
= = = Climate = = =
The Swiss climate is generally temperate , but can vary greatly between the localities , from glacial conditions on the mountaintops to the often pleasant near Mediterranean climate at Switzerland 's southern tip . There are some valley areas in the southern part of Switzerland where some cold @-@ hardy palm trees are found . Summers tend to be warm and humid at times with periodic rainfall so they are ideal for pastures and grazing . The less humid winters in the mountains may see long intervals of stable conditions for weeks , while the lower lands tend to suffer from inversion , during these periods , thus seeing no sun for weeks .
A weather phenomenon known as the föhn ( with an identical effect to the chinook wind ) can occur at all times of the year and is characterised by an unexpectedly warm wind , bringing air of very low relative humidity to the north of the Alps during rainfall periods on the southern face of the Alps . This works both ways across the alps but is more efficient if blowing from the south due to the steeper step for oncoming wind from the south . Valleys running south to north trigger the best effect . The driest conditions persist in all inner alpine valleys that receive less rain because arriving clouds lose a lot of their content while crossing the mountains before reaching these areas . Large alpine areas such as Graubünden remain drier than pre @-@ alpine areas and as in the main valley of the Valais wine grapes are grown there .
The wettest conditions persist in the high Alps and in the Ticino canton which has much sun yet heavy bursts of rain from time to time . Precipitation tends to be spread moderately throughout the year with a peak in summer . Autumn is the driest season , winter receives less precipitation than summer , yet the weather patterns in Switzerland are not in a stable climate system and can be variable from year to year with no strict and predictable periods .
= = = Environment = = =
Switzerland 's ecosystems can be particularly fragile , because the many delicate valleys separated by high mountains often form unique ecologies . The mountainous regions themselves are also vulnerable , with a rich range of plants not found at other altitudes , and experience some pressure from visitors and grazing . The climatic , geological and topographical conditions of the alpine region make for a very fragile ecosystem that is particularly sensitive to climate change . Nevertheless , according to the 2014 Environmental Performance Index , Switzerland ranks first among 132 nations in safeguarding the environment , due to its high scores on environmental public health , its heavy reliance on renewable sources of energy ( hydropower and geothermal energy ) , and its control of greenhouse gas emissions .
= = Politics = =
The Federal Constitution adopted in 1848 is the legal foundation of the modern federal state . It is among the oldest constitutions in the world . A new Constitution was adopted in 1999 , but did not introduce notable changes to the federal structure . It outlines basic and political rights of individuals and citizen participation in public affairs , divides the powers between the Confederation and the cantons and defines federal jurisdiction and authority . There are three main governing bodies on the federal level : the bicameral parliament ( legislative ) , the Federal Council ( executive ) and the Federal Court ( judicial ) .
The Swiss Parliament consists of two houses : the Council of States which has 46 representatives ( two from each canton and one from each half @-@ canton ) who are elected under a system determined by each canton , and the National Council , which consists of 200 members who are elected under a system of proportional representation , depending on the population of each canton . Members of both houses serve for 4 years . When both houses are in joint session , they are known collectively as the Federal Assembly . Through referendums , citizens may challenge any law passed by parliament and through initiatives , introduce amendments to the federal constitution , thus making Switzerland a direct democracy .
The Federal Council constitutes the federal government , directs the federal administration and serves as collective Head of State . It is a collegial body of seven members , elected for a four @-@ year mandate by the Federal Assembly which also exercises oversight over the Council . The President of the Confederation is elected by the Assembly from among the seven members , traditionally in rotation and for a one @-@ year term ; the President chairs the government and assumes representative functions . However , the president is a primus inter pares with no additional powers , and remains the head of a department within the administration .
The Swiss government has been a coalition of the four major political parties since 1959 , each party having a number of seats that roughly reflects its share of electorate and representation in the federal parliament . The classic distribution of 2 CVP / PDC , 2 SPS / PSS , 2 FDP / PRD and 1 SVP / UDC as it stood from 1959 to 2003 was known as the " magic formula " . Following the 2015 Federal Council elections , the seven seats in the Federal Council were distributed as follows :
1 seat for the Christian Democratic People 's Party ( CVP / PDC ) ,
2 seats for the Free Democratic Party ( FDP / PRD ) ,
2 seats for the Social Democratic Party ( SPS / PSS ) ,
2 seats for the Swiss People 's Party ( SVP / UDC ) .
The function of the Federal Supreme Court is to hear appeals against rulings of cantonal or federal courts . The judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for six @-@ year terms .
= = = Direct democracy = = =
Direct democracy and federalism are hallmarks of the Swiss political system . Swiss citizens are subject to three legal jurisdictions : the municipality , canton and federal levels . The 1848 / 1999 federal constitution defines a system of direct democracy ( sometimes called half @-@ direct or representative direct democracy because it is aided by the more commonplace institutions of a representative democracy ) . The instruments of this system at the federal level , known as popular rights ( German : Volksrechte , French : droits populaires , Italian : Diritti popolari ) , include the right to submit a federal initiative and a referendum , both of which may overturn parliamentary decisions .
By calling a federal referendum , a group of citizens may challenge a law passed by parliament , if they gather 50 @,@ 000 signatures against the law within 100 days . If so , a national vote is scheduled where voters decide by a simple majority whether to accept or reject the law . Any 8 cantons together can also call a constitutional referendum on a federal law .
Similarly , the federal constitutional initiative allows citizens to put a constitutional amendment to a national vote , if 100 @,@ 000 voters sign the proposed amendment within 18 months . The Federal Council and the Federal Assembly can supplement the proposed amendment with
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a counter @-@ proposal , and then voters must indicate a preference on the ballot in case both proposals are accepted . Constitutional amendments , whether introduced by initiative or in parliament , must be accepted by a double majority of the national popular vote and the cantonal popular votes .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
The Swiss Confederation consists of 20 cantons and 6 half cantons :
* These cantons are known as half @-@ cantons and are thus represented by only one councillor ( instead of two ) in the Council of States .
The cantons have a permanent constitutional status and , in comparison with the situation in other countries , a high degree of independence . Under the Federal Constitution , all 26 cantons are equal in status . Each canton has its own constitution , and its own parliament , government and courts . However , there are considerable differences between the individual cantons , most particularly in terms of population and geographical area . Their populations vary between 15 @,@ 000 ( Appenzell Innerrhoden ) and 1 @,@ 253 @,@ 500 ( Zürich ) , and their area between 37 km2 ( 14 sq mi ) ( Basel @-@ Stadt ) and 7 @,@ 105 km2 ( 2 @,@ 743 sq mi ) ( Graubünden ) . The Cantons comprise a total of 2 @,@ 485 municipalities . Within Switzerland there are two enclaves : Büsingen belongs to Germany , Campione d 'Italia belongs to Italy .
= = = Foreign relations and international institutions = = =
Traditionally , Switzerland avoids alliances that might entail military , political , or direct economic action and has been neutral since the end of its expansion in 1515 . Its policy of neutrality was internationally recognised at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 . Only in 2002 did Switzerland become a full member of the United Nations and it was the first state to join it by referendum . Switzerland maintains diplomatic relations with almost all countries and historically has served as an intermediary between other states . Switzerland is not a member of the European Union ; the Swiss people have consistently rejected membership since the early 1990s . However , Switzerland does participate in the Schengen Area .
A large number of international institutions have their seats in Switzerland , in part because of its policy of neutrality . Geneva is the birthplace of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and the Geneva Conventions and , since 2006 , hosts the United Nations Human Rights Council . Even though Switzerland is one of the most recent countries to have joined the United Nations , the Palace of Nations in Geneva is the second biggest centre for the United Nations after New York , and Switzerland was a founding member and home to the League of Nations .
Apart from the United Nations headquarters , the Swiss Confederation is host to many UN agencies , like the World Health Organization ( WHO ) , the International Labour Organization ( ILO ) , the International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) , the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) and about 200 other international organisations , including the World Trade Organization and the World Intellectual Property Organization . The annual meetings of the World Economic Forum in Davos bring together top international business and political leaders from Switzerland and foreign countries to discuss important issues facing the world , including health and the environment . Additionally the headquarters of the Bank for International Settlements ( BIS ) are located in Basel since 1930 .
Furthermore , many sport federations and organisations are located throughout the country , such as the International Basketball Federation in Geneva , the Union of European Football Associations ( UEFA ) in Nyon , the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ) and the International Ice Hockey Federation both in Zürich , the International Cycling Union in Aigle , and the International Olympic Committee in Lausanne .
= = = Military = = =
The Swiss Armed Forces , including the Land Forces and the Air Force , are composed mostly of conscripts , male citizens aged from 20 to 34 ( in special cases up to 50 ) years . Being a landlocked country , Switzerland has no navy ; however , on lakes bordering neighbouring countries , armed military patrol boats are used . Swiss citizens are prohibited from serving in foreign armies , except for the Swiss Guards of the Vatican , or if they are dual citizens of a foreign country and reside there .
The structure of the Swiss militia system stipulates that the soldiers keep their Army issued equipment , including all personal weapons , at home . Some organizations and political parties find this practice controversial but mainstream Swiss opinion is in favour of the system . Compulsory military service concerns all male Swiss citizens ; women can serve voluntarily . Men usually receive military conscription orders for training at the age of 18 . About two thirds of the young Swiss are found suited for service ; for those found unsuited , various forms of alternative service exist . Annually , approximately 20 @,@ 000 persons are trained in recruit centres for a duration from 18 to 21 weeks . The reform " Army XXI " was adopted by popular vote in 2003 , it replaced the previous model " Army 95 " , reducing the effectives from 400 @,@ 000 to about 200 @,@ 000 . Of those , 120 @,@ 000 are active in periodic Army training and 80 @,@ 000 are non @-@ training reserves .
Overall , three general mobilisations have been declared to ensure the integrity and neutrality of Switzerland . The first one was held on the occasion of the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 . The second was in response to the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 . The third mobilisation of the army took place in September 1939 in response to the German attack on Poland ; Henri Guisan was elected as the General @-@ in @-@ Chief .
Because of its neutrality policy , the Swiss army does not currently take part in armed conflicts in other countries , but is part of some peacekeeping missions around the world . Since 2000 the armed force department has also maintained the Onyx intelligence gathering system to monitor satellite communications .
Following the end of the Cold War there have been a number of attempts to curb military activity or even abolish the armed forces altogether . A notable referendum on the subject , launched by an anti @-@ militarist group , was held on 26 November 1989 . It was defeated with about two thirds of the voters against the proposal . A similar referendum , called for before , but held shortly after the 11 September attacks in the US , was defeated by over 78 % of voters .
Gun politics in Switzerland are unique in Europe in that a relatively high percentage ( 29 % ) of citizens are legally armed . The large majority of firearms kept at home are militia @-@ issued weapons , but ammunition is not issued .
= = Economy and labour law = =
Switzerland has a stable , prosperous and high @-@ tech economy and enjoys great wealth , being ranked as the wealthiest country in the world per capita in multiple rankings . In 2011 it was ranked as the wealthiest country in the world in per capita terms ( with " wealth " being defined to include both financial and non @-@ financial assets ) , while the 2013 Credit Suisse Global Wealth Report showed that Switzerland was the country with the highest average wealth per adult in 2013 . It has the world 's nineteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and the thirty @-@ sixth largest by purchasing power parity . It is the twentieth largest exporter , despite its small size . Switzerland has the highest European rating in the Index of Economic Freedom 2010 , while also providing large coverage through public services . The nominal per capita GDP is higher than those of the larger Western and Central European economies and Japan . If adjusted for purchasing power parity , Switzerland ranks 8th in the world in terms of GDP per capita , according to the World Bank and IMF ( ranked 15th according to the CIA Worldfactbook ) .
The World Economic Forum 's Global Competitiveness Report currently ranks Switzerland 's economy as the most competitive in the world , while ranked by the European Union as Europe 's most innovative country . For much of the 20th century , Switzerland was the wealthiest country in Europe by a considerable margin ( by GDP – per capita ) . In 2007 the gross median household income in Switzerland was an estimated 137 @,@ 094 USD at Purchasing power parity while the median income was 95 @,@ 824 USD . Switzerland also has one of the world 's largest account balances as a percentage of GDP .
Switzerland is home to several large multinational corporations . The largest Swiss companies by revenue are Glencore , Gunvor , Nestlé , Novartis , Hoffmann @-@ La Roche , ABB , Mercuria Energy Group and Adecco . Also , notable are UBS AG , Zurich Financial Services , Credit Suisse , Barry Callebaut , Swiss Re , Tetra Pak , The Swatch Group and Swiss International Air Lines . Switzerland is ranked as having one of the most powerful economies in the world .
Switzerland 's most important economic sector is manufacturing . Manufacturing consists largely of the production of specialist chemicals , health and pharmaceutical goods , scientific and precision measuring instruments and musical instruments . The largest exported goods are chemicals ( 34 % of exported goods ) , machines / electronics ( 20 @.@ 9 % ) , and precision instruments / watches ( 16 @.@ 9 % ) . Exported services amount to a third of exports . The service sector – especially banking and insurance , tourism , and international organisations – is another important industry for Switzerland .
Around 3 @.@ 8 million people work in Switzerland ; about 25 % of employees belonged to a trade union in 2004 . Switzerland has a more flexible job market than neighbouring countries and the unemployment rate is very low . The unemployment rate increased from a low of 1 @.@ 7 % in June 2000 to a peak of 4 @.@ 4 % in December 2009 . The unemployment rate is 3 @.@ 2 % in 2014 . Population growth from net immigration is quite high , at 0 @.@ 52 % of population in 2004 . The foreign citizen population was 21 @.@ 8 % in 2004 , about the same as in Australia . GDP per hour worked is the world 's 16th highest , at 49 @.@ 46 international dollars in 2012 .
Switzerland has an overwhelmingly private sector economy and low tax rates by Western World standards ; overall taxation is one of the smallest of developed countries . Switzerland is a relatively easy place to do business , currently ranking 20th of 189 countries in the Ease of Doing Business Index . The slow growth Switzerland experienced in the 1990s and the early 2000s has brought greater support for economic reforms and harmonization with the European Union . According to Credit Suisse , only about 37 % of residents own their own homes , one of the lowest rates of home ownership in Europe . Housing and food price levels were 171 % and 145 % of the EU @-@ 25 index in 2007 , compared to 113 % and 104 % in Germany .
The Swiss Federal budget had a size of 62 @.@ 8 billion Swiss francs in 2010 , which is an equivalent 11 @.@ 35 % of the country 's GDP in that year ; however , the regional ( canton ) budgets and the budgets of the municipalities are not counted as part of the federal budget and the total rate of government spending is closer to 33 @.@ 8 % of GDP . The main sources of income for the federal government are the value @-@ added tax ( 33 % ) and the direct federal tax ( 29 % ) and the main expenditure is located in the areas of social welfare and finance & tax . The expenditures of the Swiss Confederation have been growing from 7 % of GDP in 1960 to 9 @.@ 7 % in 1990 and to 10 @.@ 7 % in 2010 . While the sectors social welfare and finance & tax have been growing from 35 % in 1990 to 48 @.@ 2 % in 2010 , a significant reduction of expenditures has been occurring in the sectors of agriculture and national defense ; from 26 @.@ 5 % in to 12 @.@ 4 % ( estimation for the year 2015 ) .
Agricultural protectionism — a rare exception to Switzerland 's free trade policies — has contributed to high food prices . Product market liberalisation is lagging behind many EU countries according to the OECD . Nevertheless , domestic purchasing power is one of the best in the world . Apart from agriculture , economic and trade barriers between the European Union and Switzerland are minimal and Switzerland has free trade agreements worldwide . Switzerland is a member of the European Free Trade Association ( EFTA ) .
= = = Education and science = = =
Education in Switzerland is very diverse because the constitution of Switzerland delegates the authority for the school system to the cantons . There are both public and private schools , including many private international schools . The minimum age for primary school is about six years in all cantons , but most cantons provide a free " children 's school " starting at four or five years old . Primary school continues until grade four , five or six , depending on the school . Traditionally , the first foreign language in school was always one of the other national languages , although recently ( 2000 ) English was introduced first in a few cantons .
At the end of primary school ( or at the beginning of secondary school ) , pupils are separated according to their capacities in several ( often three ) sections . The fastest learners are taught advanced classes to be prepared for further studies and the matura , while students who assimilate a little more slowly receive an education more adapted to their needs .
There are 12 universities in Switzerland , ten of which are maintained at cantonal level and usually offer a range of non @-@ technical subjects . The first university in Switzerland was founded in 1460 in Basel ( with a faculty of medicine ) and has a tradition of chemical and medical research in Switzerland . The largest university in Switzerland is the University of Zurich with nearly 25 @,@ 000 students.The Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich ( ETHZ ) and the University of Zurich are listed 20th and 54th respectively , on the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities . In addition , ETHZ " consistently ranks the top university in continental Europe " and University of Zurich ( UZH ) is ranked among the world ’ s top universities .
The two institutes sponsored by the federal government are the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich ( ETHZ ) in Zürich , founded 1855 and the EPFL in Lausanne , founded 1969 as such , which was formerly an institute associated with the University of Lausanne .
In addition , there are various Universities of Applied Sciences . In business and management studies , the University of St. Gallen , ( HSG ) is ranked 329th in the world according to QS World University Rankings and the International Institute for Management Development ( IMD ) , was ranked first in open programs worldwide by the Financial Times . Switzerland has the second highest rate ( almost 18 % in 2003 ) of foreign students in tertiary education , after Australia ( slightly over 18 % ) .
As might befit a country that plays home to innumerable international organizations , the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies , located in Geneva , is not only continental Europe 's oldest graduate school of international and development studies , but also widely believed to be one of its most prestigious .
Many Nobel Prize laureates have been Swiss scientists . They include the world @-@ famous physicist Albert Einstein in the field of physics , who developed his Special relativity while working in Bern . More recently Vladimir Prelog , Heinrich Rohrer , Richard Ernst , Edmond Fischer , Rolf Zinkernagel and Kurt Wüthrich received Nobel Prizes in the sciences . In total , 113 Nobel Prize winners in all fields stand in relation to Switzerland and the Nobel Peace Prize has been awarded nine times to organisations residing in Switzerland .
Geneva and the nearby French department of Ain co @-@ host the world 's largest laboratory , CERN , dedicated to particle physics research . Another important research center is the Paul Scherrer Institute . Notable inventions include lysergic acid diethylamide ( LSD ) , the scanning tunneling microscope ( Nobel prize ) and Velcro . Some technologies enabled the exploration of new worlds such as the pressurized balloon of Auguste Piccard and the Bathyscaphe which permitted Jacques Piccard to reach the deepest point of the world 's oceans .
Switzerland Space Agency , the Swiss Space Office , has been involved in various space technologies and programs . In addition it was one of the 10 founders of the European Space Agency in 1975 and is the seventh largest contributor to the ESA budget . In the private sector , several companies are implicated in the space industry such as Oerlikon Space or Maxon Motors who provide spacecraft structures .
= = = Switzerland and the European Union = = =
Switzerland voted against membership in
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the European Economic Area in a referendum in December 1992 and has since maintained and developed its relationships with the European Union ( EU ) and European countries through bilateral agreements . In March 2001 , the Swiss people refused in a popular vote to start accession negotiations with the EU . In recent years , the Swiss have brought their economic practices largely into conformity with those of the EU in many ways , in an effort to enhance their international competitiveness . The economy grew at 3 % in 2010 , 1 @.@ 9 % in 2011 , and 1 % in 2012 . Full EU membership is a long @-@ term objective of some in the Swiss government , but there is considerable popular sentiment against this supported by the conservative SVP party . The western French @-@ speaking areas and the urban regions of the rest of the country tend to be more pro @-@ EU , however with far from any significant share of the population .
The government has established an Integration Office under the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Department of Economic Affairs . To minimise the negative consequences of Switzerland 's isolation from the rest of Europe , Bern and Brussels signed seven bilateral agreements to further liberalise trade ties . These agreements were signed in 1999 and took effect in 2001 . This first series of bilateral agreements included the free movement of persons . A second series covering nine areas was signed in 2004 and has since been ratified , which includes the Schengen Treaty and the Dublin Convention besides others . They continue to discuss further areas for cooperation .
In 2006 , Switzerland approved 1 billion francs of supportive investment in the poorer Southern and Central European countries in support of cooperation and positive ties to the EU as a whole . A further referendum will be needed to approve 300 million francs to support Romania and Bulgaria and their recent admission . The Swiss have also been under EU and sometimes international pressure to reduce banking secrecy and to raise tax rates to parity with the EU . Preparatory discussions are being opened in four new areas : opening up the electricity market , participation in the European GNSS project Galileo , cooperating with the European centre for disease prevention and recognising certificates of origin for food products .
On 27 November 2008 , the interior and justice ministers of European Union in Brussels announced Switzerland 's accession to the Schengen passport @-@ free zone from 12 December 2008 . The land border checkpoints will remain in place only for goods movements , but should not run controls on people , though people entering the country had their passports checked until 29 March 2009 if they originated from a Schengen nation .
On 9 February 2014 , Swiss voters narrowly approved by 50 @.@ 3 % a ballot initiative launched by the national conservative Swiss People 's Party ( SVP / UDC ) to restrict immigration , and thus reintroducing a quota system on the influx of foreigners . This initiative was mostly backed by rural ( 57 @.@ 6 % approvals ) , suburban ( 51 @.@ 2 % approvals ) , and isolated cities ( 51 @.@ 3 % approvals ) of Switzerland as well as by a strong majority ( 69 @.@ 2 % approval ) in the canton of Ticino , while metropolitan centres ( 58 @.@ 5 % rejection ) and the French @-@ speaking part ( 58 @.@ 5 % rejection ) of Switzerland rather rejected it . Some news commentators claim that this proposal de facto contradicts the bilateral agreements on the free movement of persons from these respective countries .
= = = Energy , infrastructure and environment = = =
Electricity generated in Switzerland is 56 % from hydroelectricity and 39 % from nuclear power , resulting in a nearly CO2 @-@ free electricity @-@ generating network . On 18 May 2003 , two anti @-@ nuclear initiatives were turned down : Moratorium Plus , aimed at forbidding the building of new nuclear power plants ( 41 @.@ 6 % supported and 58 @.@ 4 % opposed ) , and Electricity Without Nuclear ( 33 @.@ 7 % supported and 66 @.@ 3 % opposed ) .
The former ten @-@ year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants was the result of a citizens ' initiative voted on in 1990 which had passed with 54 @.@ 5 % Yes vs. 45 @.@ 5 % No votes . Plans for a new nuclear plant in the Canton of Bern have been put on hold after the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi power plant in 2011 . The Swiss Federal Office of Energy ( SFOE ) is the office responsible for all questions relating to energy supply and energy use within the Federal Department of Environment , Transport , Energy and Communications ( DETEC ) . The agency is supporting the 2000 @-@ watt society initiative to cut the nation 's energy use by more than half by the year 2050 .
On 25 May 2011 the Swiss government announced that it plans to end its use of nuclear energy in the next 2 or 3 decades . " The government has voted for a phaseout because we want to ensure a secure and autonomous supply of energy " , Energy Minister Doris Leuthard said that day at a press conference in Bern . " Fukushima showed that the risk of nuclear power is too high , which in turn has also increased the costs of this energy form . " The first reactor would reportedly be taken offline in 2019 and the last one in 2034 . Parliament will discuss the plan in June 2011 , and there could be a referendum as well .
The most dense rail network in Europe of 5 @,@ 063 km ( 3 @,@ 146 mi ) carries over 350 million passengers annually . In 2007 , each Swiss citizen travelled on average 2 @,@ 258 km ( 1 @,@ 403 mi ) by rail , which makes them the keenest rail users . The network is administered mainly by the Federal Railways , except in Graubünden , where the 366 km ( 227 mi ) narrow gauge railway is operated by the Rhaetian Railways and includes some World Heritage lines . The building of new railway base tunnels through the Alps is under way to reduce the time of travel between north and south through the AlpTransit project .
Swiss private @-@ public managed road network is funded by road tolls and vehicle taxes . The Swiss autobahn / autoroute system requires the purchase of a vignette ( toll sticker ) — which costs 40 Swiss francs — for one calendar year in order to use its roadways , for both passenger cars and trucks . The Swiss autobahn / autoroute network has a total length of 1 @,@ 638 km ( 1 @,@ 018 mi ) ( as of 2000 ) and has , by an area of 41 @,@ 290 km2 ( 15 @,@ 940 sq mi ) , also one of the highest motorway densities in the world . Zürich Airport is Switzerland 's largest international flight gateway , which handled 22 @.@ 8 million passengers in 2012 . The other international airports are Geneva Airport ( 13 @.@ 9 million passengers in 2012 ) , EuroAirport Basel @-@ Mulhouse @-@ Freiburg which is located in France , Bern Airport , Lugano Airport , St. Gallen @-@ Altenrhein Airport and Sion Airport . Swiss International Air Lines is the flag carrier of Switzerland . Its main hub is Zürich .
Switzerland has one of the best environmental records among nations in the developed world ; it was one of the countries to sign the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 and ratified it in 2003 . With Mexico and the Republic of Korea it forms the Environmental Integrity Group ( EIG ) . The country is heavily active in recycling and anti @-@ littering regulations and is one of the top recyclers in the world , with 66 % to 96 % of recyclable materials being recycled , depending on the area of the country . The 2014 Global Green Economy Index ranked Switzerland among the top 10 green economies in the world .
In many places in Switzerland , household rubbish disposal is charged for . Rubbish ( except dangerous items , batteries etc . ) is only collected if it is in bags which either have a payment sticker attached , or in official bags with the surcharge paid at the time of purchase . This gives a financial incentive to recycle as much as possible , since recycling is free . Illegal disposal of garbage is not tolerated but usually the enforcement of such laws is limited to violations that involve the unlawful disposal of larger volumes at traffic intersections and public areas . Fines for not paying the disposal fee range from CHF 200 – 500 .
Switzerland also has internationally the most efficient system to recycle old newspapers and cardboard materials . Publicly organised collection by volunteers and economical railway transport logistics started as early as 1865 under the leadership of the notable industrialist Hans Caspar Escher ( Escher Wyss AG ) when the first modern Swiss paper manufacturing plant was built in Biberist .
= = Demographics = =
In 2012 , Switzerland 's population slightly exceeded eight million . In common with other developed countries , the Swiss population increased rapidly during the industrial era , quadrupling between 1800 and 1990 . Growth has since stabilized , and like most of Europe , Switzerland faces an aging population , albeit with consistent annual growth projected into 2035 , due mostly to immigration and a fertility rate close to replacement level .
As of 2012 , resident foreigners made up 23 @.@ 3 % of the population , one of the largest proportions in the developed world . Most of these ( 64 % ) were from European Union or EFTA countries . Italians were the largest single group of foreigners , with 15 @.@ 6 % of total foreign population , followed closely by Germans ( 15 @.@ 2 % ) , immigrants from Portugal ( 12 @.@ 7 % ) , France ( 5 @.@ 6 % ) , Serbia ( 5 @.@ 3 % ) , Turkey ( 3 @.@ 8 % ) , Spain ( 3 @.@ 7 % ) , and Austria ( 2 % ) . Immigrants from Sri Lanka , most of them former Tamil refugees , were the largest group among people of Asian origin ( 6 @.@ 3 % ) .
Additionally , the figures from 2012 show that 34 @.@ 7 % of the permanent resident population aged 15 or over in Switzerland ( around 2 @.@ 33 million ) , had an immigrant background . A third of this population ( 853 @,@ 000 ) held Swiss citizenship . Four fifths of persons with an immigration background were themselves immigrants ( first generation foreigners and native @-@ born and naturalised Swiss citizens ) , whereas one fifth were born in Switzerland ( second generation foreigners and native @-@ born and naturalised Swiss citizens ) .
In the 2000s , domestic and international institutions expressed concern about what was perceived as an increase in xenophobia , particularly in some political campaigns . In reply to one critical report , the Federal Council noted that " racism unfortunately is present in Switzerland " , but stated that the high proportion of foreign citizens in the country , as well as the generally unproblematic integration of foreigners " , underlined Switzerland 's openness .
= = = Languages = = =
Switzerland has four official languages : principally German ( spoken by 63 @.@ 5 % of the population in 2013 ) ; French ( 22 @.@ 5 % ) in the west ; and Italian ( 8 @.@ 1 % ) in the south . The fourth official language , Romansh ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) , is a Romance language spoken locally in the southeastern trilingual canton of Graubünden , and is designated by Article 4 of the Federal Constitution as a national language along with German , French , and Italian , and in Article 70 as an official language if the authorities communicate with persons who speak Romansh . However , federal laws and other official acts do not need to be decreed in Romansh .
In 2013 , the languages most spoken at home among permanent residents aged 15 and older were Swiss German ( 60 @.@ 1 % ) , French ( 23 @.@ 4 % ) , Standard German ( 10 @.@ 1 % ) , and Italian ( 8 @.@ 4 % ) . More than two @-@ fifths ( 42 @.@ 6 % ) of the permanent resident population indicated speaking more than one language regularly . Other languages spoken at home included English ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) , Portuguese ( 3 @.@ 5 % ) , Albanian ( 2 @.@ 6 % ) , Serbian and Croatian ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) , Spanish ( 2 @.@ 2 % ) , and Turkish ( 1 @.@ 3 % ) .
The federal government is obliged to communicate in the official languages , and in the federal parliament simultaneous translation is provided from and into German , French and Italian .
Aside from the official forms of their respective languages , the four linguistic regions of Switzerland also have their local dialectal forms . The role played by dialects in each linguistic region varies dramatically : in the German @-@ speaking regions , Swiss German dialects have become ever more prevalent since the second half of the 20th century , especially in the media , such as radio and television , and are used as an everyday language , while the Swiss variety of Standard German is almost always used instead of dialect for written communication ( c.f. diglossic usage of a language ) . Conversely , in the French @-@ speaking regions the local dialects have almost disappeared ( only 6 @.@ 3 % of the population of Valais , 3 @.@ 9 % of Fribourg , and 3 @.@ 1 % of Jura still spoke dialects at the end of the 20th century ) , while in the Italian @-@ speaking regions dialects are mostly limited to family settings and casual conversation .
The principal official languages ( German , French , and Italian ) have terms , not used outside of Switzerland , known as Helvetisms . German Helvetisms are , roughly speaking , a large group of words typical of Swiss Standard German , which do not appear either in Standard German , nor in other German dialects . These include terms from Switzerland 's surrounding language cultures ( German Billette from French ) , from similar term in another language ( Italian azione used not only as act but also as discount from German Aktion ) . The French spoken in Switzerland has similar terms , which are equally known as Helvetisms . The most frequent characteristics of Helvetisms are in vocabulary , phrases , and pronunciation , but certain Helvetisms denote themselves as special in syntax and orthography likewise . Duden , one of the prescriptive sources for Standard German , is aware of about 3000 Helvetisms . Current French dictionaries , such as the Petit Larousse , include several hundred Helvetisms .
Learning one of the other national languages at school is compulsory for all Swiss pupils , so many Swiss are supposed to be at least bilingual , especially those belonging to linguistic minority groups .
= = = Health = = =
Swiss citizens are universally required to buy health insurance from private insurance companies , which in turn are required to accept every applicant . While the cost of the system is among the highest it compares well with other European countries in terms of health outcomes ; patients who are citizens have been reported as being , in general , highly satisfied with it . In 2012 , life expectancy at birth was 80 @.@ 4 years for men and 84 @.@ 7 years for women — the highest in the world . However , spending on health is particularly high at 11 @.@ 4 % of GDP ( 2010 ) , on par with Germany and France ( 11 @.@ 6 % ) and other European countries , and notably less than spending in the USA ( 17 @.@ 6 % ) . From 1990 , a steady increase can be observed , reflecting the high costs of the services provided . With an ageing population and new healthcare technologies , health spending will likely continue to rise .
= = = Urbanization = = =
Between two thirds and three quarters of the population live in urban areas . Switzerland has gone from a largely rural country to an urban one in just 70 years . Since 1935 urban development has claimed as much of the Swiss landscape as it did during the previous 2 @,@ 000 years . This urban sprawl does not only affect the plateau but also the Jura and the Alpine foothills and there are growing concerns about land use . However , from the beginning of the 21st century , the population growth in urban areas is higher than in the countryside .
Switzerland has a dense network of cities , where large , medium and small cities are complementary . The plateau is very densely populated with about 450 people per km2 and the landscape continually shows signs of human presence . The weight of the largest metropolitan areas , which are Zürich , Geneva – Lausanne , Basel and Bern tend to increase . In international comparison the importance of these urban areas is stronger than their number of inhabitants suggests . In addition the two main centers of Zürich and Geneva are recognized for their particularly great quality of life .
= = = Religion = = =
Switzerland has no official state religion , though most of the cantons ( except Geneva and Neuchâtel ) recognize official churches , which are either the Catholic Church or the ( Protestant ) Swiss Reformed Church . These churches , and in some cantons also the Old Catholic Church and Jewish congregations , are financed by official taxation of adherents .
Christianity is the predominant religion of Switzerland ( about 71 % of resident population and 75 % of Swiss citizens ) , divided between the Catholic Church ( 38 @.@ 21 % of the population ) , the Swiss Reformed Church ( 26 @.@ 93 % ) , further Protestant churches ( 2 @.@ 89 % ) and other Christian denominations ( 2 @.@ 79 % ) . There has been a recent rise in Evangelicalism . Immigration has established Islam ( 4 @.@ 95 % ) and Eastern Orthodoxy ( around 2 % ) as sizeable minority religions . According to a 2015 poll by Gallup International , 12 % of Swiss people self @-@ identified as " convinced atheists . "
As of the 2000 census other Christian minority communities included Neo @-@ Pietism ( 0 @.@ 44 % ) , Pentecostalism ( 0 @.@ 28 % , mostly incorporated in the Schweizer Pfingstmission ) , Methodism ( 0 @.@ 13 % ) , the New Apostolic Church ( 0 @.@ 45 % ) , Jehovah 's Witnesses ( 0 @.@ 28 % ) , other Protestant denominations ( 0 @.@ 20 % ) , the Old Catholic Church ( 0 @.@ 18 % ) , other Christian denominations ( 0 @.@ 20 % ) . Non @-@ Christian religions are Hinduism ( 0 @.@ 38 % ) , Buddhism ( 0 @.@ 29 % ) , Judaism ( 0 @.@ 25 % ) and others ( 0 @.@ 11 % ) ; 4 @.@ 3 % did not make a statement . 21 @.@ 4 % in 2012 declared themselves as unchurched i.e. not affiliated with any church or other religious body ( Agnostic , Atheist , or just not related to any official religion ) .
The country was historically about evenly balanced between Catholic and Protestant , with a complex patchwork of majorities over most of the country . Geneva converted to Protestantism in 1536 , just before John Calvin arrived there . One canton , Appenzell , was officially divided into Catholic and Protestant sections in 1597 . The larger cities and their cantons ( Bern , Geneva , Lausanne , Zürich and Basel ) used to be predominantly Protestant . Central Switzerland , the Valais , the Ticino , Appenzell Innerrhodes , the Jura , and Fribourg are traditionally Catholic . The Swiss Constitution of 1848 , under the recent impression of the clashes of Catholic vs. Protestant cantons that culminated in the Sonderbundskrieg , consciously defines a consociational state , allowing the peaceful co @-@ existence of Catholics and Protestants . A 1980 initiative calling for the complete separation of church and state was rejected by 78 @.@ 9 % of the voters . Some traditionally Protestant cantons and cities nowadays have a slight Catholic majority , not because they were growing in members , quite the contrary , but only because since about 1970 a steadily growing minority became not affiliated with any church or other religious body ( 21 @.@ 4 % in Switzerland , 2012 ) especially in traditionally Protestant regions , such as Basel @-@ City ( 42 % ) , canton of Neuchâtel ( 38 % ) , canton of Geneva ( 35 % ) , canton of Vaud ( 26 % ) , or Zürich city ( city : > 25 % ; canton : 23 % ) .
= = Culture = =
Three of Europe 's major languages are official in Switzerland . Swiss culture is characterised by diversity , which is reflected in a wide range of traditional customs . A region may be in some ways strongly culturally connected to the neighbouring country that shares its language , the country itself being rooted in western European culture . The linguistically isolated Romansh culture in Graubünden in eastern Switzerland constitutes an exception , it survives only in the upper valleys of the Rhine and the Inn and strives to maintain its rare linguistic tradition .
Switzerland is home to many notable contributors to literature , art , architecture , music and sciences . In addition the country attracted a number of creative persons during time of unrest or war in Europe . Some 1000 museums are distributed through the country ; the number has more than tripled since 1950 . Among the most important cultural performances held annually are the Paléo Festival , Lucerne Festival , the Montreux Jazz Festival , the Locarno International Film Festival and the Art Basel .
Alpine symbolism has played an essential role in shaping the history of the country and the Swiss national identity . Nowadays some concentrated mountain areas have a strong highly energetic ski resort culture in winter , and a hiking ( ger : das Wandern ) or Mountain biking culture in summer . Other areas throughout the year have a recreational culture that caters to tourism , yet the quieter seasons are spring and autumn when there are fewer visitors . A traditional farmer and herder culture also predominates in many areas and small farms are omnipresent outside the cities . Folk art is kept alive in organisations all over the country . In Switzerland it is mostly expressed in music , dance , poetry , wood carving and embroidery . The alphorn , a trumpet @-@ like musical instrument made of wood , has become alongside yodeling and the accordion an epitome of traditional Swiss music .
= = = Literature = = =
As the Confederation , from its foundation in 1291 , was almost exclusively composed of German @-@ speaking regions , the earliest forms of literature are in German . In the 18th century , French became the fashionable language in Bern and elsewhere , while the influence of the French @-@ speaking allies and subject lands was more marked than before .
Among the classics of Swiss German literature are Jeremias Gotthelf ( 1797 – 1854 ) and Gottfried Keller ( 1819 – 1890 ) . The undisputed giants of 20th century Swiss literature are Max Frisch ( 1911 – 91 ) and Friedrich Dürrenmatt ( 1921 – 90 ) , whose repertoire includes Die Physiker ( The Physicists ) and Das Versprechen ( The Pledge ) , released in 2001 as a Hollywood film .
Prominent French @-@ speaking writers were Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau ( 1712 – 1778 ) and Germaine de Staël ( 1766 – 1817 ) . More recent authors include Charles Ferdinand Ramuz ( 1878 – 1947 ) , whose novels describe the lives of peasants and mountain dwellers , set in a harsh environment and Blaise Cendrars ( born Frédéric Sauser , 1887 – 1961 ) . Also Italian and Romansh @-@ speaking authors contributed but in more modest way given their small number .
Probably the most famous Swiss literary creation , Heidi , the story of an orphan girl who lives with her grandfather in the Alps , is one of the most popular children 's books ever and has come to be a symbol of Switzerland . Her creator , Johanna Spyri ( 1827 – 1901 ) , wrote a number of other books on similar themes .
= = = Media = = =
The freedom of the press and the right to free expression is guaranteed in the federal constitution of Switzerland . The Swiss News Agency ( SNA ) broadcasts information around @-@ the @-@ clock in three of the four national languages — on politics , economics , society and culture . The SNA supplies almost all Swiss media and a couple dozen foreign media services with its news .
Switzerland has historically boasted the greatest number of newspaper titles published in proportion to its population and size . The most influential newspapers are the German @-@ language Tages @-@ Anzeiger and Neue Zürcher Zeitung NZZ , and the French @-@ language Le Temps , but almost every city has at least one local newspaper . The cultural diversity accounts for a large number of newspapers .
The government exerts greater control over broadcast media than print media , especially due to finance and licensing . The Swiss Broadcasting Corporation , whose name was recently changed to SRG SSR , is charged with the production and broadcast of radio and television programs . SRG SSR studios are distributed throughout the various language regions . Radio content is produced in six central and four regional studios while the television programs are produced in Geneva , Zürich and Lugano . An extensive cable network also allows most Swiss to access the programs from neighboring countries .
= = = Sports = = =
Skiing , snowboarding and mountaineering are among the most popular sports in Switzerland , the nature of the country being particularly suited for such activities . Winter sports are practiced by the natives and tourists since the second half of the 19th century with the invention of bobsleigh in St. Moritz . The first world ski championships were held in Mürren ( 1931 ) and St. Moritz ( 1934 ) . The latter town hosted the second Winter Olympic Games in 1928 and the fifth edition in 1948 . Among the most successful skiers and world champions are Pirmin Zurbriggen and Didier Cuche .
Most prominently watched sport events in Switzerland are football , ice hockey , Alpin skiing , " Schwingen " , and tennis .
The headquarters of the international football 's and ice hockey 's governing bodies , the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ) and International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) , are located in Zürich . Actually many other headquarters of international sports federatios are to be found in Switzerland . For example , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) , IOC 's Olympic Museum and the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) are located in Lausanne .
Switzerland hosted the 1954 FIFA World Cup , and was the joint host , with Austria , of the Euro 2008 tournament . The Swiss Super League is the nation 's professional football club league . Europe 's highest football pitch , at 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) above sea level , is located in Switzerland and is named the Ottmar Hitzfeld Stadium .
Many Swiss also follow ice hockey and support one of the 12 clubs in the League A , which is the most attended league in Europe . In 2009 , Switzerland hosted the IIHF World Championship for the 10th time . It also became World Vice @-@ Champion in 2013 . The numerous lakes make Switzerland an attractive place for sailing . The largest , Lake Geneva , is the home of the sailing team Alinghi which was the first European team to win the America 's Cup in 2003 and which successfully defended the title in 2007 . Tennis has become an increasingly popular sport , and Swiss players such as Martina Hingis , Roger Federer , and most recently , Stanislas Wawrinka have won multiple Grand Slams . Swiss professional wrestler Claudio Castagnoli is currently signed with WWE , and is a former United States champion .
Motorsport racecourses and events were banned in Switzerland following the 1955 Le Mans disaster with exception to events such as Hillclimbing . During this period , the country still produced successful racing drivers such as Clay Regazzoni , Sébastien Buemi , Jo Siffert , Dominique Aegerter , successful World Touring Car Championship driver Alain Menu , 2014 24 Hours of Le Mans winner Marcel Fässler and 201
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5 24 Hours Nürburgring winner Nico Müller . Switzerland also won the A1GP World Cup of Motorsport in 2007 – 08 with driver Neel Jani . Swiss motorcycle racer Thomas Lüthi won the 2005 MotoGP World Championship in the 125cc category . In June 2007 the Swiss National Council , one house of the Federal Assembly of Switzerland , voted to overturn the ban , however the other house , the Swiss Council of States rejected the change and the ban remains in place .
Traditional sports include Swiss wrestling or " Schwingen " . It is an old tradition from the rural central cantons and considered the national sport by some . Hornussen is another indigenous Swiss sport , which is like a cross between baseball and golf . Steinstossen is the Swiss variant of stone put , a competition in throwing a heavy stone . Practiced only among the alpine population since prehistoric times , it is recorded to have taken place in Basel in the 13th century . It is also central to the Unspunnenfest , first held in 1805 , with its symbol the 83 @.@ 5 kg stone named Unspunnenstein .
= = = Cuisine = = =
The cuisine of Switzerland is multifaceted . While some dishes such as fondue , raclette or rösti are omnipresent through the country , each region developed its own gastronomy according to the differences of climate and languages . Traditional Swiss cuisine uses ingredients similar to those in other European countries , as well as unique dairy products and cheeses such as Gruyère or Emmental , produced in the valleys of Gruyères and Emmental . The number of fine @-@ dining establishments is high , particularly in western Switzerland .
Chocolate has been made in Switzerland since the 18th century but it gained its reputation at the end of the 19th century with the invention of modern techniques such as conching and tempering which enabled its production on a high quality level . Also a breakthrough was the invention of solid milk chocolate in 1875 by Daniel Peter . The Swiss are the world 's largest consumers of chocolate .
Due to the popularization of processed foods at the end of the 19th century , Swiss health food pioneer Maximilian Bircher @-@ Benner created the first nutrition @-@ based therapy in form of the well @-@ known rolled oats cereal dish , called Birchermüesli .
The most popular alcoholic drink in Switzerland is wine . Switzerland is notable for the variety of grapes grown because of the large variations in terroirs , with their specific mixes of soil , air , altitude and light . Swiss wine is produced mainly in Valais , Vaud ( Lavaux ) , Geneva and Ticino , with a small majority of white wines . Vineyards have been cultivated in Switzerland since the Roman era , even though certain traces can be found of a more ancient origin . The most widespread varieties are the Chasselas ( called Fendant in Valais ) and Pinot noir . The Merlot is the main variety produced in Ticino .
= North Shore Towers =
The North Shore Towers and Country Club is a three @-@ building residential cooperative located in the Floral Park neighborhood in the New York City borough of Queens , near the city 's border with Nassau County . The complex is located next to the Long Island Jewish Medical Center .
The three constituent residential buildings — Amherst , Beaumont , and Coleridge Towers — which sit on a 110 @-@ acre ( 45 ha ) property , are some of the tallest structures in Queens with 34 floors each . The towers are constructed on the highest point of land in Queens , a hill located 258 feet ( 79 m ) above sea level . This hill is part of the terminal moraine of the last glacial period . The North Shore Towers complex contains 1 @,@ 844 apartments ranging from studios to three @-@ bedroom apartments .
The North Shore Towers complex has an 18 @-@ hole golf course and its own power plant that produces electricity independent of local power companies . The community also has an indoor shopping concourse that connects the three residential buildings with 22 retail units , as well as fitness centers that include five swimming pools and five tennis courts . The North Shore Towers is the only gated residential community in New York with its own United States Postal Service zip code , 11005 .
= = History = =
The neighborhood where the North Shore Towers were built was a rural , unnamed section of Flushing , part of a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 8 @,@ 100 ha ) land grant to Massachusetts settlers . In 1923 , the Glen Oaks Golf Club was built , created on 167 acres ( 68 ha ) purchased from William K. Vanderbilt II 's country estate . By 1971 , the golf course was replaced by the North Shore Towers . The North Shore Towers were constructed in Glen Oaks because of Queens 's lax zoning rules , which are less restrictive than those in Nassau and Suffolk Counties in Long Island . Some Glen Oaks residents , mostly single @-@ home dwellers , protested the construction of the North Shore Towers because they were afraid it would dominate the horizon . However , it was a highly anticipated " big Queens project " for most New Yorkers .
The North Shore Towers were originally built as rentals , but in 1985 a filing with the New York State Attorney General 's office sought to convert the complex into cooperative apartments . At the time , this was touted as the most expensive conversion in New York City ’ s history . In 1987 , all but 150 units of the North Shore Towers complex were successfully converted to a co @-@ op under a noneviction plan .
The buildings are considered fireproof by the New York City Fire Department because partitions between individual units are designed to stop the spread of flames , also known as compartmentalization . This is evidenced by a 2004 fire caused by a cigarette , where no one was seriously injured because the fire was self @-@ contained .
In 2000 , a North Shore Towers resident noticed a zip code error when making an online purchase . After further investigation in 2001 , it was determined that the North Shore Towers was one of four zip codes that were mistakenly charged a Nassau County sales tax of 8 @.@ 5 % instead of the New York City sales tax of 8 @.@ 25 % because the zip codes cross the city line . Residents argued that New York City should receive their tax dollars and not Nassau County . This error was corrected by late 2001 .
= = = Energy independence = = =
The North Shore Towers complex has a self @-@ generating power plant that produces electricity independent of local power companies , which as of December 31 , 1996 had a 8 @.@ 9 megawatt capacity . This was noted during the New York City Blackout of 1977 when the entire city was without power but lights were still visible in the North Shore Towers . During the Northeast Blackout of 2003 , the North Shore Towers continued to produce electricity unaffected . This resulted in extensive media coverage on the co @-@ op 's self @-@ sufficiency with regard to energy . After seeing this news coverage of North Shore Towers ' ability to produce power during the blackout , city tax collectors sent energy tax bills to North Shore Towers and the Penn South co @-@ op in Chelsea , Manhattan . The tax bills were for $ 1 million each , representing unpaid fuel taxes going back 20 years . This was extremely controversial because both co @-@ ops produce their own power . Mayor Michael Bloomberg , Councilman David Weprin ( D @-@ Queens ) , then Councilwoman Christine Quinn ( D @-@ Manhattan ) , and other city officials worked towards settling the tax bills and removing future energy taxes for the co @-@ ops . Then Council Speaker Gifford Miller ( D @-@ Manhattan ) commented that such co @-@ ops " should be rewarded , not punished for providing their own energy . "
= = Description = =
= = = Amenities = = =
As a gated community and private country club , the North Shore Towers offers a variety of amenities for residents and guests . The on @-@ premises security is always present at the front gate guard booth and in the dispatch office . There are also security patrols 24 @-@ hours a day . The on @-@ site management company is Charles H. Greenthal Management Corp. , which also manages upscale residential buildings in Manhattan . Superintendents , maintenance staff , doormen , and concierge are staffed in each building 24 / 7 . The North Shore Towers has been described as " where the city meets the suburbs " , given its location at the eastern edge of Queens and its suburban feel . As of February 2011 , the average unit in the Towers sells for $ 381 @,@ 099 .
The North Shore Towers Country Club offers several areas dedicated to recreational sport , including an 18 @-@ hole , par 70 private golf course , 5 tennis courts , basketball court , shuffleboard court , ping pong tables , billiards room , card rooms , and a clubhouse . The health club includes 5 indoor and outdoor pools , a 20 @-@ person jacuzzi , fully equipped gym with personal trainers , aerobics classes , saunas , steam rooms , lockers , and showers .
The three buildings that compose the North Shore Towers are connected by an indoor , underground arcade with 9 residential units and 7 staff residential rooms . This 27 @,@ 831 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 585 @.@ 6 m2 ) mall includes a 460 @-@ seat movie theater , restaurant , bank branch , supermarket , dry cleaner , laundromat , fruit and flower shop , pharmacy , boutique , spa , beauty salon , golf pro shop , convention center with catering hall , videographer , library , art gallery , public lounge rooms , courtyard garden with snack bar , children ’ s playground , dentist , and notary . North Shore Towers has three in @-@ house television channels and two monthly newspapers , the independently published Tower Times , and the North Shore Towers Courier . Complementary flu shots are given to residents each fall . Leisure and hobbies at the North Shore Towers also include " day and evening trips , cultural events , book clubs , walking clubs , photography clubs , gardening clubs , concerts , guest speaking events , and holiday dinner dances " , according to The New York Times . Many of the clubs are developed not by the board on the North Shore Towers , but by the residents themselves .
There is above ground parking and three levels of underground parking available , able to accommodate 2 @,@ 363 cars in a subterranean garage and 126 more spots above ground . A car wash , detail , and repair service is available to residents in the underground parking lot . The concierge service offers courtesy bus rides to local shopping destinations . Express buses to Manhattan leave regularly from the front of each of the three buildings .
= = = Board of Directors = = =
The North Shore Towers Board of Directors consists of nine directors , each elected for 2 @-@ year terms . Each of the three buildings at North Shore Towers has its own on @-@ site election district . Voting for both United States government elections and in @-@ house board elections are done on the premises . North Shore Towers regularly contracts an outside election company for such occasions . The North Shore Towers has an annual budget of $ 43 million . Their General Manager is Glen Kotowski and their Controller is Robert Serikstad , CPA . Those looking to live at the North Shore must be interviewed by the co @-@ op 's Board of Directors through a serious screening process .
= = = Notable visitors = = =
The North Shore Towers Political Action Committee frequently organizes events to show support for lawmakers and to raise awareness on a number of important issues . Politicians running for office often visit the North Shore Towers during their campaigns in an attempt to win the Jewish vote . Politicians who have campaigned and spoke at the North Shore Towers include U.S. Congressman Gary Ackerman , U.S. Senator Joe Lieberman , New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani , U.S. Senator Hillary Clinton , New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , U.S. Senator Chuck Schumer , U.S. Congressman Anthony Weiner , State Comptroller Thomas DiNapoli , State Senator Frank Padavan , State Assemblywoman Ann @-@ Margaret Carrozza , New York City Councilman Mark Weprin , Speaker of the City Council Christine Quinn , New York City Comptroller William Thompson , New York City Finance Chairman Councilman David Weprin , New York City Commissioner of Finance Martha Stark , New York City Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly , and Nassau County Executive Thomas Suozzi .
= Gene Derricotte =
Eugene " Gene " Derricotte ( born June 14 , 1926 ) is a former American football player who played with the University of Michigan Wolverines from 1944 to 1948 . He was one of the University 's first African American athletes in the era when NCAA Division I college football was beginning to integrate . Derricotte established school records that still stand as a punt returner for the Michigan Wolverines football team . He also established several short @-@ lived school interceptions records . Derricotte also served as a Tuskegee Airman and later had a successful career in dentistry while continuing to serve in the military .
= = Early years and college = =
Derricotte was born in Fostoria , Ohio on June 14 , 1926 , and he grew up in Defiance , Ohio , where his father Clarence Cobb Derricotte ran a shoe repair business . In addition to Eugene , Bessie M. Anderson and Clarence Derricotte had two other sons , Bruce ( b . June 22 , 1928 ) and Raymond . Gene married Jeanne E. Hagans and had a son Robert . Years later , Gene Derricotte would tell a reporter friend of his that he always wondered about his ancestry . He knew his name was French , but he was not able to find out much more about his roots . One thing he must have known was that despite living under segregation , other members of the Derricotte family had distinguished themselves as educated professionals . A black newspaper , the Philadelphia Tribune , did a tribute to the family in November 1944 , mentioning that Eugene 's father was a veteran of World War I where he fought in France before returning to Defiance to open his business , marry and raise a family . Eugene had an uncle ( J. Flipper Derricotte ) who was an attorney in Washington DC , and an aunt Juliette who had been a dean at Fisk College in Nashville TN before dying tragically after an automobile accident , when the nearby white hospital refused to admit her . ( Jason , 1944 )
While Eugene ( or Gene , as he was often called ) would become known for his athletic ability , he was also an excellent student , graduating from Defiance High School as the class valedictorian . ( Jason , 1944 ) Because he was a star athlete , he was awarded a scholarship to attend the University of Michigan . He enrolled in 1944 , majoring in chemistry . While there , he became the first African @-@ American to play in the offensive backfield for the Michigan Wolverines football program . Derricotte was an immediate contributor as the team 's leading ground gainer in 1944 . Press reports in 1944 typically referred to his race , identifying him as " freshman negro halfback , " the " Negro speedster , " the " speedy negro freshman , " or the " lithe Negro star . "
In December 1944 , Derricotte was drafted into the United States Army . He was initially assigned as an artillery cannoneer with the 16th Separate Training Battalion in Fort Bragg , North Carolina . He later transferred to the Tuskegee Airmen pilot training program in Tuskegee , Alabama . Derricotte graduated from the program in May 1946 . With the war over , he was discharged , and he returned to the University of Michigan to continue his education .
When he returned from the war in 1946 and resumed his education , he continued to excel in academics as well as sports . He maintained a " B " average and majored in pharmacy . In football , he shared the starting duties at the left halfback position with Bob Chappuis , who went on to All @-@ Big Ten Conference honors in 1946 . After starting nine games at left halfback for Fritz Crisler in 1944 , Derricotte started five games to Chappuis ' four in 1946 . In the first game of the 1946 season , Derricotte threw a touchdown pass to Paul White and was described as the " sparkplug of the Michigan running game . " Derricotte broke his nose in a scrimmage after the first game and saw limited playing time , which gave Chappuis an opportunity to shine .
Derricotte , who wore # 41 while a Michigan Wolverine , had an unusual college football career because he began by starting many games , but gradually became more of a return specialist . In 1946 , Derricotte also set the school 's single @-@ season interceptions record . By 1947 , Chappuis had become an All @-@ American halfback and Derricotte 's only start was one game at quarterback . In 1947 , Derricotte averaged 24 @.@ 8 yards on punt returns , which still stands as a Michigan school record ( min 1 @.@ 2 returns / game ) . In fact , Derricotte still ranks fifth in NCAA Division I @-@ A history in average yards per punt return . Oddly , the NCAA recognizes that he had 347 return yards on 14 returns that season ( 24 @.@ 8 ) . The University of Michigan claims he had 396 punt return yards that season ( which would be 24 @.@ 8 with 16 returns ) , but did not average at least 12 @.@ 3 with a minimum of 15 returns to rank in the top ten in school history . The Big Ten record book claims he did not have at least a 17 @.@ 4 return average with a minimum of 10 returns to place in the top ten in conference history . The 396 was a Michigan record from 1947 until 1990 when Tripp Welborne totaled 455 in 1990 . In 1948 , he again only had one start , but this time back at halfback under new coach , Bennie Oosterbaan . Both the 1947 Michigan Wolverines football team , Fritz Crisler 's last team , and the 1948 Michigan Wolverines football team were undefeated and finished the season ranked number 1 in the Associated Press polls . The 1947 team referred to as " Michigan 's Mad Magicians " is considered to be the greatest University of Michigan football team of all time .
During his Michigan career , Derricotte returned four punts for touchdowns , which set a school record that has since been tied ( but not exceeded ) by Steve Breaston and Derrick Alexander . He also returned three punts for touchdowns in one season , which was a Big Ten Conference record for more than 50 years until Ted Ginn , Jr. returned four punts for touchdowns in 2004 . The record had been tied by both Ira Matthews of the Wisconsin Badgers ( 1976 ) and Tim Dwight of the Iowa Hawkeyes ( 1997 ) .
In the Associated Press poll at the end of the 1947 season , the Notre Dame Fighting Irish were ranked ahead of the University of Michigan , though both teams were undefeated . Some noted that every Southern AP voter had voted for Notre Dame , which had yet to integrate , whereas three of Michigan 's star players ( Derricotte , Bob Mann and Len Ford ) were African @-@ American . The Southern schools refused even to schedule games against schools that played African @-@ American players .
Michigan beat USC , 49 – 0 , in the 1948 Rose Bowl game . Derricotte scored a touchdown on a 45 @-@ yard reception from Henry Fonde in the game . Derricotte also completed a ten @-@ yard pass during the game .
Over the course of his Michigan career , he set the career interceptions record . Neither Derricotte 's career nor single @-@ season interceptions records lasted very long . The career interception record lasted one season and the single @-@ season record lasted three . He was also involved in only the third time Michigan had two 100 @-@ yard rushers in the same game .
= = Professional career = =
Derricotte was selected in the first round of the All @-@ America Football Conference draft in 1949 by the undefeated league defending champion , Cleveland Browns . Unfortunately , he was injured during training camp with the Browns at the end of July 1949 while standing along the sidelines playing catch with a teammate . Coach Paul Brown said Derricotte had a chronic knee injury that only rest could cure . Accordingly , Brown placed Derricotte on waivers , but said hoped he could return for another tryout in 1950 .
Derricotte was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1987 . Derricotte also had a successful career in dentistry . In 1950 , Derricotte earned a degree in pharmacy , and in 1958 , he earned a further degree in dentistry . After receiving the second degree , Derricotte returned to the military , serving in Vietnam , as well as South Dakota , Massachusetts , Texas , Hawaii , Virginia , Illinois and at the United States Air Force Academy before his retirement in 1985 . Derricotte then relocated to San Antonio , Texas , where he started another career at the University of Texas Health Science Center . He married , and he and his wife Jeanne had a son , Rob . The family continued to reside in the San Antonio area . Derricotte retired from dentistry in 2000 .
In March 2007 , he was one of six surviving Tuskegee Airmen honored at a ceremony held in Washington , D.C. , where they were awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in recognition of their service to the United States . They were also honored at another ceremony in mid @-@ June 2007 at Randolph Air Force Base in Universal City , Texas , near San Antonio .
= William S. Hamilton =
William Stephen Hamilton ( August 4 , 1797 – October 9 , 1850 ) , a son of Alexander Hamilton and Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton , was a politician and miner who lived much of his life in the U.S. state of Illinois and territorial Wisconsin . Hamilton was born in New York , where he attended the United States Military Academy before he resigned and moved to Illinois in 1817 . In Illinois he lived in Springfield and Peoria and eventually migrated to the lead @-@ mining region of southern Wisconsin and established Hamilton 's Diggings at present @-@ day Wiota . Hamilton served in various political offices and as a commander in two Midwest Indian Wars . In 1849 he moved to California on the heels of the California Gold Rush . He died in Sacramento , most likely of cholera , in October 1850 .
= = Early life = =
William Stephen Hamilton was born August 4 , 1797 in New York , third @-@ youngest child and second @-@ youngest son of Alexander Hamilton . William was a month shy of his seventh birthday in 1804 when his father was infamously killed in a duel with Vice President Aaron Burr . In 1814 he was admitted to the United States Military Academy , from which he had resigned by 1817 . Following his resignation from West Point , Hamilton migrated to Sangamon County , Illinois . He lived in Springfield and Peoria , Illinois until 1827 when he moved to the lead mining region around the Fever River .
= = Political and militia service = =
Hamilton first held elected office in 1824 as a member of the Illinois House of Representatives from Sangamon County in 1824 . While working in the legislature Hamilton sponsored a bill that imposed a statewide tax intended to fund road repair and maintenance . The tax was proportional to property value , to be paid in labor or money , and replaced an older system which required every able
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Elizabeth Schuyler ( daughter of General Philip Schuyler ) visited Hamilton at Hamilton 's Diggings during the winter of 1837 – 38 . During the same period , Hamilton briefly owned the Mineral Point Miners ' Free Press ; he sold it to a group from Galena and the paper became known as the Galena Democrat .
When gold was discovered in California , in 1848 , gold fever spread into the Midwest lead @-@ mining region . Hamilton set out for California , arriving in 1849 , with high hopes , and new equipment . His life in the west would prove to be a disappointment and he later regretted moving there . Hamilton told a friend in California that he would " rather have been hung in the ' Lead Mines ' than to have lived in this miserable hole ( California ) . "
= = Death = =
Before his death Hamilton fell ill for two weeks . He suffered multiple symptoms , including dysentery , and , according to his doctor , died from " malarial fever resulting in spinal exhaustion terminating in paralysis superinduced by great bodily and mental strain . " William S. Hamilton died in Sacramento , California on October 9 , 1850 at age 53 . He was interred in the Sacramento Historic City Cemetery . The section of the cemetery where he is buried was named Hamilton Square in his honor . Hamilton had been in California about one year when he died from what he called " mountain fever " , most likely cholera during an 1850 epidemic .
= Maximum Homerdrive =
" Maximum Homerdrive " is the seventeenth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 28 , 1999 . In the episode , Homer challenges trucker Red Barclay to a meat eating contest , which Barclay is the long @-@ standing champion of . Barclay wins , but quickly dies of " beef poisoning " , making it the first time Barclay will miss a shipment . Feeling bad for him , Homer takes on the duty of transporting Barclay 's cargo to Atlanta , with his son Bart by his side .
" Maximum Homerdrive " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Swinton O. Scott III . Although the episode 's first draft was written by Swartzwelder , the writing staff was split into two groups in order to focus on both the A @-@ story and the B @-@ story . The episode features references to comedian Tony Randall , model Bettie Page , and science fiction film 2001 : A Space Odyssey , among other things .
In its original broadcast , " Maximum Homerdrive " received a 7 @.@ 8 Nielsen rating among adults between ages 18 and 49 , the highest such rating for the series since " Wild Barts Can 't Be Broken " . Variety credited the boost in ratings to the premiere of Futurama , which aired after " Maximum Homerdrive " . Following the tenth season 's home video release , the episode received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Lisa announces that she is going to protest a new steakhouse which allows its customers to kill their own steak , which is called " The Slaughterhouse " ( it is also decorated with hanging steer carcasses and a fountain of blood , and everything on the menu is meat - even the menu itself ) . Homer hears the name of the steakhouse and is astonished that nobody told him about what he thinks is an amazing place , and takes the rest of his family to eat there , where he enters a challenge with a friendly truck driver named Red Barclay . The challenge Homer and Red enter revolves around who will finish off a " Sir Loins @-@ A @-@ Lot " first , a 16 lb ( 256 ounce or 7 @.@ 26 kg ) steak that only two people in the history of The Slaughter House have finished ( Red being one and Tony Randall being the other ) . The gargantuan steak is more than a match for Homer , as for once in his life he is unable to finish his food and breaks down crying . Red does , but dies seconds later of what Dr. Hibbert called " beef poisoning " . This shocks the diners , before he reassures them that it was " probably from some other steakhouse " ( Coincidently informing the Simpsons beforehand that he owns a fair percentage of the steakhouse ) . Homer then decides to finish Red 's last delivery and brings Bart along with him , leaving the rest of the family behind .
Lamenting that Homer and Bart always get to go on exciting adventures , Marge says " Maybe it 's time we took a walk on the wild side . " However , she , Lisa , and Maggie end up going to a doorbell store to buy a doorbell that they install themselves , which plays The Carpenters ' song " ( They Long to Be ) Close to You " . Lisa wants to press the doorbell , but Marge insists that they should let visitors do the ringing first . Unfortunately , they barely get any visitors and they never get to ring for various reasons ( Milhouse is trying to sell birdseeds , but is attacked by birds , some Jehovah 's Witnesses were about to ring the doorbell when they reconsider their careers ) . Marge desperately tries to order garlic bread from Luigi 's to get someone to ring the doorbell , but unfortunately the delivery man , who is Wiseguy , prefers to knock on the door and leaves when he hears that Marge is not interested in the garlic bread . Finally , Lisa gets fed up and rings the doorbell herself . However , the new doorbell starts to malfunction , playing the song over and over without stopping .
Meanwhile , Homer goes to get some pills that will keep him awake overnight . He takes an entire bottle of pep pills , followed by a bottle of sleeping pills to balance it out . In the truck , he alternates between being hyper to being drowsy until he finally falls asleep at the wheel , almost heading off a cliff . The next morning , he awakes to discover a secret : the truck drove by itself with its Navitron Autodrive system . He talks it over with other drivers , who inform him that he should not mention anything about the truck driving by itself . The truck 's Autodrive system also helps keep itself safe . To demonstrate the system , Homer and Bart sit on the hood . A passing bus notices this , and Homer outright tells them about the autodrive system and its nature as a secret scam . Another truck driver notices this and informs the other truckers about the situation .
Back in Springfield , Marge tries to cut the wires to the doorbell , but discovers that Homer has stolen her tools , so she decides to just pull the wires out , but makes it worse by making the doorbell to speed up and amplify itself , disturbing the whole neighborhood .
Homer and Bart are enjoying themselves until an angry mob of truckers get in a showdown with Homer , and he survives without the help of the Autodrive system , which had ejected itself from the truck by managing to get the truck to jump over the others . The truckers briefly consider giving up scamming before deciding just to bootleg Beanie Babies . Homer and Bart finish the shipment of Artichokes and migrant workers by taking it to Atlanta , but they still need transport home . The Lord provides one , as a freight train full of napalm headed back to Springfield needs a driver ( as the original driver had quit because he didn 't want to deliver a train full of napalm to Springfield ) .
Back at the Simpson house , the doorbell 's tune grows so annoying that an angry crowd has gathered . Chief Wiggum is about to shoot it until the doorbell store 's mascot , Señor Ding Dong , uses his whip to silence the noise from the doorbell . Everyone in Springfield is thankful for him , and Señor Ding @-@ Dong attempts to make a dramatic exit , but his Chevrolet van is malfunctioning and he is instead forced to ask for jumper cables .
= = Production = =
" Maximum Homerdrive " , originally called " Homer the Trucker " , was written by staff writer John Swartzwelder and directed by Simpsons director Swinton O. Scott III . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 28 , 1999 . The meat @-@ eating contest seen in the beginning of the episode was conceived by Simpsons writer Donick Cary during a story pitch @-@ out , according to writer and executive producer Matt Selman . When rewriting the episode , the writing staff was divided into two groups , so that one group wrote the A @-@ story , while the other wrote the B @-@ story . After the second act , the writers were " stuck " , as executive producer and former showrunner Mike Scully recalled in the DVD commentary for the episode . Eventually , staff writer and co @-@ executive producer George Meyer pitched the idea that the truckers would have " a secret device , that actually did all the driving for them " , called the Navitron Autodrive System .
In the season 10 deleted scenes where Homer turns on the radio listening to a song about a trucker who crashed his truck out on I @-@ 95 , and one more where some of the truckers try to flatten Homer 's truck . In order to animate Barclay 's truck in " Maximum Homerdrive " , Scott bought a model truck , which he also based the design of Barclay 's truck on . According to storyboard consultant Mike B. Anderson , the trucks in the episode were very difficult to animate , as the Simpsons animators were still working with traditional cel animation at the time and did not have access to computer tools . In a scene in The Slaughterhouse , an employee is shown killing a number of cows with a captive bolt pistol , however the death of the cows are not shown . Originally , the writers wanted to show the cows being killed , however when Scott saw the scene in the storyboards , the Simpsons staff instead decided to make the deaths " indirect " . During the meat eating contest , Homer becomes exhausted and sees two wine glass holding cows , who appear as " wavy " figures . In order to achieve the " wavy " effect , the Simpsons animators put a ripple glass on the cels and moved it around while shooting the scene . After the contest , Barclay dies of " beef poisoning " . The Fox censors were uneasy with including any mention of " beef poisoning " in the episode , as talk show host Oprah Winfrey had recently been sued by " some Texas ranchers " for defaming the beef industry . In a scene in the episode , Homer buys a jar of " Stimu @-@ Crank " pills in order to stay alert while driving during the night . He swallows all the pills at once , to the clerk 's dismay . Homer replies , " No problem , I 'll balance it out with a bottle of sleeping pills " , and proceeds to swallow an entire jar 's worth of sleeping pills . According to Scully , the censors had " a lot of trouble " with the scene , but it was included anyhow .
When Homer turns on the truck radio , the song " Wannabe " by the Spice Girls can be heard . Originally , a " trucker song " about " a horrible wreck out on old 95 " would be heard . The song was a reference to the " Wreck of the Old 97 " , a famous locomotive that crashed in 1903 and inspired the country ballad of the same name . It was sung by main cast member Dan Castellaneta , included mentions of " scraping blood and guts off the road " and was eventually dropped because it was considered too gruesome by the staff . The song was later included as a deleted scene on The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . While eating dinner at Joe 's Diner , " 12 Bar Blues " by NRBQ ( a band that Mike Scully was fond of ) can be heard playing from a jukebox . According to producer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , the doorbell tune in the episode " has a history with The Simpsons " , as it is also Homer and Marge 's wedding song . " Maximum Homerdrive " features the first appearance of Señor Ding @-@ Dong , who is a recurring character in the series . He is portrayed by Castellaneta , the voice behind many characters . Red Barclay , the trucker who dies of " beef poisoning " in The Slaughterhouse , was portrayed by regular cast member Hank Azaria , who voices many characters in the series . Barclay 's voice is slightly based on that of American actor Gary Busey . The two Jehovah 's witnesses were portrayed by Pamela Hayden and Karl Wiedergott .
= = Themes and cultural references = =
In Voyages of Discovery : A Manly Adventure in the Lands Down Under , a book about adventuring and masculinity , Ken Ewell described " Maximum Homerdrive " as a " fine example " of " the poor man 's lack of travel acumen " . He wrote " Homer 's usual ineptitude at first spells disaster for the duo , at least until they find out about the truck 's auto @-@ drive system . And though he promises to keep the device a secret , Homer can 't keep his mouth shut , and so shamefully exposes to the world his un @-@ manful behavior concerning the mates . So given that Homer once again learns absolutely nothing from his traveling experience , he can only take to heart the thoughts of the British writer Stephen Fry . ' At my age travel broadens the behind . ' "
The decal on Homer 's truck reads " Rex Rascal " , a reference to American animator Tex Avery . In the steak restaurant , a photo of actor and comedian Tony Randall can be seen next to Barclay 's photo . Homer 's postcard , which reads " Wish you were her " , shows a picture of American model Bettie Page . In the scene where Homer drives Barclay 's truck into the convoy , Navitron Autodrive System says " I 'm afraid I can 't let you do this , Red . The risk is unacceptable . " The line , as well as the Navitron Autodrive System 's , is a reference to HAL 9000 , the antagonist in the 1968 science fiction film 2001 : A Space Odyssey . The episode also references media mogul Ted Turner , with a sign that reads " Atlanta : the home of Ted Turner 's mood swings " . The title of the episode references the infamous 1986 Stephen King movie Maximum Overdrive , which was one of Simpsons cast member Yeardley Smith 's first credited screen roles .
= = Release and reception = =
In its original American broadcast on March 28 , 1999 , " Maximum Homerdrive " received a 9 @.@ 4 rating / 15 percent share , according to Nielsen Media Research , meaning it was seen by 9 @.@ 4 percent of the population and 15 percent of the people watching television at the time of its broadcast . Among adults between ages 18 and 49 , the episode received a 7 @.@ 8 rating / 20 percent share , the strongest rating The Simpsons had in the demographic since " Wild Barts Can 't Be Broken " , which aired on January 17 the same year . Tom Bierbaum of Variety credited the boost in ratings to the premiere of Futurama , which aired after " Maximum Homerdrive " , writing that " Sunday 's Futurama preview energized Fox 's entire lineup " that night . On August 7 , 2007 , " Maximum Homerdrive " was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Ron Hauge , Matt Selman , Swinton O. Scott III and Mike B. Anderson participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " Maximum Homerdrive " received mixed reviews from critics . James Plath of DVD Town described it as " funny , " and Brian Tallerico of UGO Networks considered it to be one of the season 's best episodes , describing it as having " some awesome road comedy . " Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide gave the episode a positive review as well , writing " The life of the trucker , as made popular in C. W. McCall 's 1976 hit single " Convoy " , is brought to life here in all its glory . For once , Homer is in the right and you cannot help but cheer as the truckers spectacularly fail to stop him getting to Atlanta . " They concluded by writing " A nice , bonding story for Homer and Bart which is diametrically opposed to the one featuring Marge and Lisa . " On the other hand , giving the episode a more mixed review , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide wrote " If nothing else , ' Homerdrive ' takes unanticipated paths . The eating contest leads to a long truck drives leads to that ' shocking secret ' . All of this means the show manages to become pretty unpredictable . " However , he maintained that the episode is only " sporadically " funny , and that it " doesn ’ t ever excel in that department – at least not in terms of the trucker story . " He enjoyed the episode 's B @-@ story more , because of its " absurdity " , however he criticized the inclusion of Gil in the episode , calling the character " increasingly overused " . Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News gave the episode a mixed review as well , writing that it " may have been a fairly decent episode but for the fact that something similar was done ( and done better ) on King of the Hill . "
= Clinton Engineer Works =
The Clinton Engineer Works ( CEW ) was the name of the Manhattan Project 's production installation during World War II that produced the enriched uranium used in the bombing of Hiroshima in August 1945 , as well as the first examples of reactor produced plutonium . It consisted of production facilities arranged at three major sites , various utilities including a power plant , and the town of Oak Ridge . It was in the eastern part of the state of Tennessee , about 18 miles ( 29 km ) west of Knoxville , and was named after the town of Clinton , Tennessee , eight miles ( 13 km ) to the north . The production facilities were mainly in Roane County although the northern part of the site was in Anderson County . The Manhattan District Engineer , Kenneth Nichols , moved the Manhattan District headquarters from Manhattan to Oak Ridge in August 1943 .
Construction workers were housed in a community known as Happy Valley . Built by the Army in 1943 , this temporary community housed 15 @,@ 000 people . The township of Oak Ridge was established to house the production staff . The operating force peaked at 50 @,@ 000 workers just after the end of the war . The construction labor force peaked at 75 @,@ 000 and the combined employment peak was 80 @,@ 000 . The town was developed by the federal government as a segregated community ; black residents lived only in an area known as Gamble Valley , in government @-@ built " hutments " ( one @-@ room shacks ) on the south side of what is now Tuskegee Drive .
= = Site selection = =
In 1942 , the Manhattan Project was attempting to construct the first atomic bombs . This would require production facilities , and by June 1942 the project had reached the stage where their construction could be contemplated . On 25 June 1942 , the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) S @-@ 1 Executive Committee deliberated on where they should be located . Brigadier General Wilhelm D. Styer recommended that the different manufacturing facilities be built at the same site in order to simplify security and construction . Such a site would require a substantial tract of land to accommodate both the facilities and housing for the thousands of workers . The plutonium processing plant needed to be two to four miles ( 3 @.@ 2 to 6 @.@ 4 km ) from the site boundary and any other installation in case radioactive fission products escaped . While security and safety concerns suggested a remote site , it still needed to be near sources of labor , and accessible by road and rail transportation . A mild climate that allowed construction to proceed throughout the year was desirable . Terrain separated by ridges would reduce the impact of accidental explosions , but they could not be so steep as to complicate construction . The substratum needed to be firm enough to provide good foundations , but not so rocky that it would hinder excavation work . It was estimated that the proposed plants would need access to 150 @,@ 000 KW of electricity and 370 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 l ; 310 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water per minute . A War Department policy held that as a rule munitions facilities should not be located west of the Sierra or Cascade Ranges , east of the Appalachian Mountains , or within 200 miles ( 320 km ) of the Canadian or Mexican borders .
Several sites were considered in the Tennessee Valley , two in the Chicago area , one near the Shasta Dam in California , and some in Washington , where the Hanford site was eventually established . An OSRD team had selected the Knoxville , Tennessee , area in April 1942 , and in May Arthur Compton , the director of the Metallurgical Laboratory had met with Gordon R. Clapp , the General Manager of the Tennessee Valley Authority ( TVA ) . The Chief Engineer of the Manhattan District ( MED ) , Colonel James C. Marshall , asked Colonel Leslie R. Groves , Jr. to undertake a study within the Army 's Office of the Chief of Engineers . After receiving assurances that the TVA could supply the required quantity of electric power if given priority for procuring some needed equipment , Groves also concluded that the Knoxville area was suitable . The only voice of dissent at the 25 June meeting was Ernest O. Lawrence , who wanted the electromagnetic separation plant located much nearer to his Radiation Laboratory in California . The Shasta Dam area remained under consideration for the electromagnetic plant until September , by which time Lawrence had dropped his objection .
On 1 July , Marshall and his deputy , Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth Nichols , surveyed sites in the Knoxville area with representatives of the TVA and Stone & Webster , the designated
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construction contractor . No perfectly suitable site was found , and Marshall even ordered another survey of the Spokane , Washington , area . At the time , the proposed nuclear reactor , gas centrifuge and gaseous diffusion technologies were still in the research stage , and the design of the plant was a long way off . The schedules , which called for construction work on the nuclear reactor to commence by 1 October 1942 , the electromagnetic plant by 1 November , the centrifugal plant by 1 January 1943 and the gaseous diffusion plant by 1 March 1943 , were quite unrealistic . While work could not commence on the plants , a start could be made on the housing and administrative buildings . Stone & Webster therefore drew up a detailed report on the most promising site , about 12 miles ( 19 km ) west of Knoxville . Stephane Groueff later wrote that :
This portion of the quiet rural area was called Black Oak Ridge and was the northernmost of five principal oak- and pine @-@ covered ridges around the meandering Clinch River . It was a verdant , beautiful countryside with rolling hills covered with dogwood and full of partridge and deer . To the east were the Great Smoky Mountains , to the west the peaks of the Cumberland Mountains .
The site was located in Roane County and Anderson County , and lay roughly halfway between the two county seats of Kingston and Clinton . Its greatest drawback was that a major road , Tennessee State Route 61 , ran through it . Stone & Webster considered the possibility of re @-@ routing the road . The Ohio River Division ( ORD ) of the Corps of Engineers estimated that it would cost $ 4 @.@ 25 million to purchase the entire 83 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 34 @,@ 000 ha ) site .
Groves became the director of the Manhattan Project on 23 September , with the rank of brigadier general . That afternoon , he took a train to Knoxville , where he met with Marshall . After touring the site , Groves concluded that the site " was an even better choice than I had anticipated . " He called Colonel John J. O 'Brien of the Corps of Engineers ' Real Estate Branch , and told him to proceed with acquiring the land . The site was initially known as the Kingston Demolition Range . It officially became the Clinton Engineer Works ( CEW ) in January 1943 . It was given the codename of Site X. After the township was established in mid @-@ 1943 , the name Oak Ridge was chosen from employee suggestions . It met with the Manhattan District 's approval because " its rural connotation held outside curiosity to a minimum . " Oak Ridge then became the site 's postal address , but the site itself was not officially renamed Oak Ridge until 1947 .
= = Land acquisition = =
Although War Department policy maintained that land should be acquired by direct purchase , as time was short , it was decided to proceed immediately with condemnation . This allowed access to the site for construction crews , provided faster compensation to the owners , and expedited the handling of property with defective titles . On 28 September 1942 , the ORD Real Estate Branch opened a project office in Harriman with a staff of 54 surveyors , appraisers , lawyers and office workers . The ORD Real Estate Branch was quite busy at this time , as it was also acquiring land for the Dale Hollow Reservoir , so some staff were borrowed from the Federal Land Bank and the TVA . The next day , Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson authorized the acquisition of 56 @,@ 000 acres ( 23 @,@ 000 ha ) at an estimated cost of $ 3 @.@ 5 million . At the request of the ORD Real Estate Branch attorneys , the District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee issued an order of possession on 6 October , effective the next day . Recognizing the hardship that it would cause to the landowners , it restricted immediate exclusive possession to properties " essential to full and complete development of the project " .
Over 1 @,@ 000 families lived on the site on farms or in the hamlets of Elza , Robertsville , and Scarboro . The first that most heard about the acquisition was when a representative from the ORD showed up to inform them that their land was being acquired . Some returned home from work one day to find an eviction notice nailed to their door or to a tree in the yard . Most were given six weeks to leave , but some were given just two . The government took possession of 13 tracts for immediate construction work on 20 November 1942 . By May 1943 , 742 declarations had been filed covering 53 @,@ 334 acres ( 21 @,@ 584 ha ) . Most residents were told to prepare to leave between 1 December 1942 and 15 January 1943 . In cases where this would cause undue hardship , the MED allowed residents to stay beyond this date . For some it was the third time that they had been evicted by the government , having previously been evicted for the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the 1920s and the TVA 's Norris Dam in the 1930s . Many expected that , like the TVA , the Army would provide assistance to help them relocate ; but unlike the TVA , the Army had no mission to improve the area or the lot of the local people , and no funds for the purpose . Tires were in short supply in wartime America , and moving vehicles were hard to find . Some residents had to leave behind possessions that they were unable to take with them .
A delegation of landowners presented the ORD Real Estate Branch with a petition protesting the acquisition of their property on 23 November 1942 , and that night over 200 landowners held a meeting where they agreed to hire lawyers and appraisers to challenge the Federal government . Local newspapers and politicians were sympathetic to their cause . By the end of May 1943 , agreements were reached covering 416 tracts totaling 21 @,@ 742 acres ( 8 @,@ 799 ha ) , but some landowners rejected the government 's offers . The ORD Real Estate Branch invoked a procedure under Tennessee law that allowed for a jury of five citizens appointed by the Federal District Court to review the compensation offered . They handled five cases in which they proposed higher values than those of the ORD appraisers , but the landowners rejected them as well , so the Army discontinued the use of this method . In response to rising public criticism , O 'Brien commissioned a review by the Department of Agriculture . It found that the appraisals had been fair and just , and that farmers had overestimated the size and productivity of their land .
The landowners turned to their local Congressman , John Jennings , Jr . On 1 February 1943 , Jennings introduced a resolution in the House of Representatives calling for a committee to investigate the values offered to the landowners . He also complained to Patterson about how buildings and facilities were being demolished by the MED . On 9 July 1943 , Andrew J. May , the chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs , appointed an investigating subcommittee chaired by Clifford Davis , who selected Dewey Short and John Sparkman as its other members . Public hearings were held in Clinton on 11 August 1943 , and in Kingston the following day . The Committee report , presented in December 1943 , made a number of specific recommendations concerning the Corps of Engineers ' land acquisition process , but neither Congress nor the War Department moved to provide any additional compensation for the landowners .
In July 1943 , Groves prepared to issue Public Proclamation No. 2 , declaring the site a military exclusion area . He asked Marshall to present it to the Governor of Tennessee , Prentice Cooper . Marshall , in turn , delegated the task to the area engineer , Major Thomas T. Crenshaw , who sent a junior officer , Captain George B. Leonard . Cooper was unimpressed . He told Leonard that he had not been informed about the purpose of the CEW , and that the Army had kicked the farmers off their land and had not compensated the counties for the roads and bridges , which would now be closed . In his opinion it was " an experiment in socialism " , a New Deal project being undertaken in the name of the war effort . Instead of reading the proclamation , he tore it up and threw it in the waste paper basket . Marshall went to Nashville to apologize to Cooper , who refused to talk to him . Nichols , who succeeded Marshall as chief engineer of the Manhattan District , met Cooper on 31 July 1943 , and offered compensation in the form of Federal financing for road improvements . Cooper accepted an offer from Nichols to visit the CEW , which he did on 3 November 1943 .
Nichols and Cooper came to an agreement about the Solway Bridge . Although it was in Knox County , Anderson County had contributed $ 27 @,@ 000 towards its construction . It was still paying off the bonds , but now the bridge was usable only by CEW workers . Nichols negotiated a deal in which Knox County was paid $ 25 @,@ 000 annually for the bridge , of which $ 6 @,@ 000 was to be used to maintain the access road . Judge Thomas L. Seeber then threatened to close the Edgemoor Bridge unless Anderson County was similarly compensated . An agreement was reached under which Anderson County received $ 10 @,@ 000 for the bridge and $ 200 per month . Knox County did not keep its side of the bargain to maintain the road , which was torn up by heavy traffic and became impassable after torrential rains in 1944 . The Army was forced to spend $ 5 @,@ 000 per month on road works in Knox County .
Additional parcels of land were acquired during 1943 and 1944 for access roads , a railway spur , and for security purposes , bringing the total to about 58 @,@ 900 acres ( 23 @,@ 800 ha ) . The Harriman office closed on 10 June 1944 , but reopened on 1 September 1944 to deal with the additional parcels . The last acquisition was not complete until 1 March 1945 . The final cost of the land acquired was around $ 2 @.@ 6 million , about $ 47 an acre .
= = Facilities = =
= = = X @-@ 10 graphite reactor = = =
On 2 February 1943 , DuPont began construction of the plutonium semiworks , on an isolated 112 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) site in the Bethel Valley about 10 miles ( 16 km ) southwest of Oak Ridge . Intended as a pilot plant for the larger production facilities at the Hanford Site , it included the air @-@ cooled graphite @-@ moderated X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor . There was also a chemical separation plant , research laboratories , waste storage area , training facility for Hanford staff , and administrative and support facilities that included a laundry , cafeteria , first aid center and fire station . Because of the subsequent decision to construct water @-@ cooled reactors at Hanford , only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot . The facility was known as the Clinton Laboratories , and was operated by the University of Chicago as part of the Metallurgical Laboratory project .
The X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor was the world 's second artificial nuclear reactor after Enrico Fermi 's Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation . It consisted of a huge block , 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long on each side , of nuclear graphite cubes , weighing around 1 @,@ 500 short tons ( 1 @,@ 400 t ) , surrounded by seven feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of high @-@ density concrete as a radiation shield . There were 36 horizontal rows of 35 holes . Behind each was a metal channel into which uranium fuel slugs could be inserted . The cooling system was driven by three large electric fans .
Construction work on the reactor had to wait until DuPont had completed the design . Excavation commenced on 27 April 1943 . A large pocket of soft clay was soon discovered , necessitating additional foundations . Further delays occurred due to wartime difficulties in procuring building materials . There was also an acute shortage of common and skilled labor : the contractor had only three @-@ quarters of the required workforce , and less after high turnover and absenteeism , mainly the result of poor accommodations and difficulties in commuting . The township of Oak Ridge was still under construction , and barracks were built to house workers . Special arrangements with individual workers increased their morale and reduced turnover . Finally , there was unusually heavy rainfall , with 9 @.@ 3 inches ( 240 mm ) falling in July 1943 , more than twice the average of 4 @.@ 3 inches ( 110 mm ) .
Some 700 short tons ( 640 t ) of graphite blocks were purchased from National Carbon . The construction crews began stacking it in September 1943 . Cast uranium billets came from Metal Hydrides , Mallinckrodt and other suppliers . These were extruded into cylindrical slugs , and canned by Alcoa , which started production on 14 June 1943 . General Electric and the Metallurgical Laboratory developed a new welding technique . The new equipment was installed in the production line at Alcoa in October 1943 . Supervised by Compton , Martin D. Whitaker and Fermi , the reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about 30 short tons ( 27 t ) of uranium . A week later the load was increased to 36 short tons ( 33 t ) , raising its power generation to 500 kW , and by the end of the month the first 500 mg of plutonium was created . Modifications over time raised the power to 4 @,@ 000 kW in July 1944 .
Construction commenced on the pilot separation plant before a chemical process for separating plutonium from uranium had been selected . Not until May 1943 would DuPont managers decide to use the Bismuth @-@ phosphate process . The plant consisted of six cells , separated from each other and the control room by thick concrete walls . The equipment was operated from the control room by remote control . Construction work was completed on 26 November 1943 , but the plant could not operate until the reactor started producing irradiated uranium slugs . The first batch was received on 20 December 1943 , allowing the first plutonium to be produced in early 1944 . By February , the reactor was irradiating a ton of uranium every three days . Over the next five months , the efficiency of the separation process was improved , with the percentage of plutonium recovered increasing from 40 to 90 percent . X @-@ 10 operated as a plutonium production plant until January 1945 , when it was turned over to research activities . By this time , 299 batches of irradiated slugs had been processed .
In September 1942 , Compton asked Whitaker to form a skeleton operating staff for X @-@ 10 . Whitaker became director of the Clinton Laboratories . The first permanent operating staff arrived at X @-@ 10 from the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago in April 1944 , by which time DuPont began transferring its technicians to the site . They were augmented by one hundred technicians in uniform from the Army 's Special Engineer Detachment . By March 1944 , there were some 1 @,@ 500 people working at X @-@ 10 .
A radioisotope building , a steam plant , and other structures were added in April 1946 to support the laboratory 's peacetime educational and research missions . All work was completed by December 1946 , adding another $ 1 @,@ 009 @,@ 000 to the cost of construction at X @-@ 10 , and bringing the total cost to $ 13 @,@ 041 @,@ 000 . Operational costs added another $ 22 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 .
= = = Y @-@ 12 electromagnetic separation plant = = =
Electromagnetic isotope separation was developed by Lawrence at the University of California Radiation Laboratory . This method employed devices known as calutrons , a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer and cyclotron . The name was derived from the words " California " , " university " and " cyclotron " . In the electromagnetic separation process , a magnetic field deflected charged uranium particles according to mass . The process was neither scientifically elegant nor industrially efficient . Compared with a gaseous diffusion plant or a nuclear reactor , an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials , require more manpower to operate , and cost more to build . Nonetheless , the process was approved because it was based on proven technology and therefore represented less risk . Moreover , it could be built in stages , and rapidly reach industrial capacity .
Responsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant , which came to be called Y @-@ 12 , was assigned to Stone & Webster by the S @-@ 1 Committee in June 1942 . The design called for five first @-@ stage processing units , known as Alpha racetracks , and two units for final processing , known as Beta racetracks . In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks , known as Alpha II . Construction began in February 1943 .
When the plant was started up for testing on schedule in November , the 14 @-@ ton vacuum tanks crept out of alignment because of the power of the magnets and had to be fastened more securely . A more serious problem arose when the magnetic coils started shorting out . In December Groves ordered a magnet broken open , and handfuls of rust were found inside . Groves then ordered the racetracks to be torn down and the magnets sent back to the factory to be cleaned . A pickling plant was established on @-@ site to clean the pipes and fittings . The second Alpha I was not operational until the end of January 1944 , the first Beta and first and third Alpha I 's came online in March , and the fourth Alpha I became operational in April . The four Alpha II racetracks were completed between July and October 1944 .
Tennessee Eastman was hired to manage Y @-@ 12 on the usual cost plus fixed fee basis , with a fee of $ 22 @,@ 500 per month plus $ 7 @,@ 500 per racetrack for the first seven racetracks and $ 4 @,@ 000 per additional racetrack . The calutrons were initially operated by scientists from Berkeley to remove bugs and achieve a reasonable operating rate . They were then turned over to trained Tennessee Eastman operators who had only a high school education . Nichols compared unit production data , and pointed out to Lawrence that the young " hillbilly " girl operators were outperforming his PhDs . They agreed to a production race and Lawrence lost , a morale boost for the Tennessee Eastman workers and supervisors . The girls were " trained like soldiers not to reason why " , while " the scientists could not refrain from time @-@ consuming investigation of the cause of even minor fluctuations of the dials . "
Y @-@ 12 initially enriched the uranium @-@ 235 content to between 13 and 15 percent , and shipped the first few hundred grams of this to the Manhattan Project 's weapons design laboratory , the Los Alamos Laboratory , in March 1944 . Only 1 part in 5 @,@ 825 of the uranium feed emerged as final product . Much of the rest was splattered over equipment in the process . Strenuous recovery efforts helped raise production to 10 percent of the uranium @-@ 235 feed by January 1945 . In February the Alpha racetracks began receiving slightly enriched ( 1 @.@ 4 percent ) feed from the new S @-@ 50 thermal diffusion plant . The next month it received enhanced ( 5 percent ) feed from the K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion plant . By August K @-@ 25 was producing uranium sufficiently enriched to feed directly into the Beta tracks .
The Alpha tracks began to suspend operations on 4 September 1945 , and ceased operation completely on 22 September . The last two Beta tracks went into full operation in November and December 1945 , processing feed from K @-@ 25 and the new K @-@ 27 . By May 1946 , studies suggested that the gaseous plants could fully enrich the uranium by themselves without accidentally creating a critical mass . After a trial showed this was the case , Groves ordered all but one Beta track at Y @-@ 12 shut down in December 1946 . Y @-@ 12 remained in use for nuclear weapons processing and materials storage . A production facility for the hydrogen bomb used in Operation Castle in 1954 was hastily installed in 1952 .
= = = K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion plant = = =
The most promising but also the most challenging method of isotope separation was gaseous diffusion . Graham 's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular mass , so in a box containing a semi @-@ permeable membrane and a mixture of two gases , the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules . The gas leaving the container is somewhat enriched in the lighter molecules , while the residual gas is somewhat depleted . The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes , with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture . Research into the process was carried out at Columbia University by a group that included Harold Urey , Karl P. Cohen and John R. Dunning .
In November 1942 the Military Policy Committee approved the construction of a 600 @-@ stage gaseous diffusion plant . On 14 December , M. W. Kellogg accepted an offer to construct the plant , which was codenamed K @-@ 25 . A cost plus fixed fee contract was negotiated , eventually totaling $ 2 @.@ 5 million . A separate corporate entity called Kellex was created for the project , headed by Percival C. Keith , one of Kellogg 's vice presidents . The process faced formidable technical difficulties . The highly corrosive gas uranium hexafluoride had to be used , as no substitute could be found , and the motors and pumps would have to be vacuum tight and enclosed in inert gas . The biggest problem was the design of the barrier , which would have to be strong , porous and resistant to corrosion by uranium hexafluoride . The best choice for this seemed to be nickel . Edward Adler and Edward Norris created a mesh barrier from electroplated nickel . A six @-@ stage pilot plant was built at Columbia to test the process , but the Norris @-@ Adler prototype proved to be too brittle . A rival barrier was developed from powdered nickel by Kellex , the Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Bakelite Corporation . In January 1944 , Groves ordered the Kellex barrier into production .
Kellex 's design for K @-@ 25 called for a four @-@ story U @-@ shaped structure 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) long containing 54 contiguous buildings . These were divided into nine sections . Within these were cells of six stages . The cells could be operated independently , or consecutively within a section . Similarly , the sections could be operated separately or as part of a single cascade . A survey party began construction by marking out the 500 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 0 km2 ) site in May 1943 . Work on the main building began in October 1943 , and the six @-@ stage pilot plant was ready for operation on 17 April 1944 . In 1945 Groves canceled the upper stages of the plant , directing Kellex to instead design and build a 540 @-@ stage side feed unit , which became known as K @-@ 27 . Kellex transferred the last unit to the operating contractor , Union Carbide and Carbon , on 11 September 1945 . The total cost , including the K @-@ 27 plant completed after the war , came to $ 480 million .
The production plant commenced operation in February 1945 , and as cascade after cascade came online , the quality of the product increased . By April 1945 , K @-@ 25 had attained a 1 @.@ 1 percent enrichment and the output of the S @-@ 50 thermal diffusion plant began being used as feed . Some product produced the next month reached nearly 7 percent enrichment . In August , the last of the 2 @,@ 892 stages commenced operation . K @-@ 25 and K @-@ 27 achieved their full potential in the early postwar period , when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants . Uranium was enriched by the K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion process until 1985 ; the plants were then decommissioned and decontaminated . A 235 MW coal @-@ fired power station was included for reliability and to provide variable frequency , although most electric power came from the TVA .
= = = S @-@ 50 liquid thermal diffusion plant = = =
The thermal diffusion process was based on Sydney Chapman and David Enskog 's theory , which explained that when a mixed gas passes through a temperature gradient , the heavier one tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter one at the warm end . Since hot gases tend to rise and cool ones tend to fall , this can be used as a means of isotope separation . This process was first demonstrated by H. Clusius and G. Dickel in Germany in 1938 . It was developed by US Navy scientists , but was not one of the enrichment technologies initially selected for use in the Manhattan Project . This was primarily due to doubts about its technical feasibility , but the inter @-@ service rivalry between the Army and Navy also played a part .
The Naval Research Laboratory continued the research under Philip Abelson 's direction , but there was little contact with the Manhattan Project until April 1944 , when Captain William S. Parsons , the naval officer who was in charge of ordnance development at Los Alamos , brought Robert Oppenheimer , the director there , news of encouraging progress in the Navy 's experiments on thermal diffusion . Oppenheimer wrote to Groves suggesting that the output of a thermal diffusion plant could be fed into Y @-@ 12 . Groves set up a committee consisting of Warren K. Lewis , Eger Murphree and Richard Tolman to investigate the idea , and they estimated that a thermal diffusion plant costing $ 3 @.@ 5 million could enrich 110 pounds ( 50 kg ) of uranium per week to nearly 0 @.@ 9 percent uranium @-@ 235 . Groves approved its construction on 24 June 1944 .
Groves contracted with the H. K. Ferguson Company of Cleveland , Ohio , to build the thermal diffusion plant , which was designated S @-@ 50 . Groves ' advisers , Karl Cohen and W. I. Thompson from Standard Oil , estimated that it would take six months to build . Groves gave Ferguson just four . Plans called for the installation of 2 @,@ 142 forty @-@ eight @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 15 m ) diffusion columns arranged in 21 racks . Inside each column were three concentric tubes . Steam , obtained from the nearby K @-@ 25 powerhouse at a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch ( 690 kPa ) and temperature of 545 ° F ( 285 ° C ) , flowed downward through the innermost 1 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 32 mm ) nickel pipe , while water at 155 ° F ( 68 ° C ) flowed upward through the outermost iron pipe . Isotope separation occurred in the uranium hexafluoride gas between the nickel and copper pipes .
Work commenced on 9 July 1944 , and S @-@ 50 began partial operation in September . Ferguson operated the plant through a subsidiary known as Fercleve . The plant produced just 10 @.@ 5 pounds ( 4 @.@ 8 kg ) of 0 @.@ 852 percent uranium @-@ 235 in October . Leaks limited production and forced shutdowns over the next few months , but in June 1945 it produced 12 @,@ 730 pounds ( 5 @,@ 770 kg ) . By March 1945 , all 21 production racks were operating . Initially the output of S @-@ 50 was fed into Y @-@ 12 , but starting in March 1945 all three enrichment processes were run in series . S @-@ 50 became the first stage , enriching from 0 @.@ 71 percent to 0 @.@ 89 percent . This material was fed into the gaseous diffusion process in the K @-@ 25 plant , which produced a product enriched to about 23 percent . This was , in turn , fed into Y @-@ 12 .
In early September Nichols appointed a production control committee , headed by Major A. V. ( Pete ) Peterson . Peterson 's staff tried various combinations , using mechanical calculating machines , and decided that the S @-@ 50 production should be fed to K @-@ 25 rather than Y @-@ 12 , which was done in April 1945 . The charts also showed that the proposed top stages for K @-@ 25 should be abandoned , as should Lawrence 's recommendation to add more alpha stages to the Y @-@ 12 plant . Groves accepted their proposal to add more base units to the K @-@ 27 gaseous @-@ diffusion plant and one more beta stage track for Y @-@ 12 . These additions were estimated to cost $ 100 million , with completion in February 1946 . Soon after Japan surrendered in August 1945 , Peterson recommended that S @-@ 50 be shut down . The Manhattan District ordered this on 4 September 1945 . The last uranium hexafluoride was sent to K @-@ 25 , and the plant had ceased operation by 9 September 1945 . S @-@ 50 was completely demolished in 1946 .
= = = Electric power = = =
Despite protests from TVA that it was unnecessary , the Manhattan District built a coal @-@ fired power plant at K @-@ 25 with eight 25 @,@ 000 KW generators . Steam generated from the K @-@ 25 power plant was subsequently used by S @-@ 50 . Additional power lines were laid from the TVA hydroelectric plants at Norris Dam and Watts Bar Dam , and the Clinton Engineer Works was given its own electrical substations at K @-@ 25 and K @-@ 27 . By 1945 , power sources were capable of supplying Oak Ridge with up to 310 @,@ 000 KW , of which 200 @,@ 000 KW was earmarked for Y @-@ 12 , 80 @,@ 000 KW for K @-@ 25 , 23 @,@ 000 KW for the township , 6 @,@ 000 KW for S @-@ 50 and 1 @,@ 000 KW for X @-@ 10 . Peak demand occurred in August 1945 , when all the facilities were running . The peak load was 298 @,@ 800 KW on 1 September 1945 .
= = Township = =
Planning for a " Government village " to house the workers at the Clinton Engineer Works began in June 1942 . Because the site was remote , it was believed more convenient and secure for the workers to live on the site . The gentle slopes of Black Oak Ridge , from which the new town of Oak Ridge got its name , were selected as a suitable location . Brigadier General Lucius D. Clay , the deputy chief of staff of the United States Army Services of Supply , reminded Marshall of a wartime limit of $ 7 @,@ 500 per capita for individual quarters , but Groves , Nichols and Marshall saw no prospect that the kind of workers they needed would be willing to live in substandard accommodations . The first plan , submitted by Stone & Webster on 26 October 1942 , was for a residential community of 13 @,@ 000 people .
As Stone & Webster began work on the production facilities , it became clear that building the township as well would be beyond its capacity . The Army therefore engaged the architectural and engineering firm Skidmore , Owings & Merrill to design and build the township . The John B. Pierce Foundation were brought in as a consultant . In turn , Skidmore , Owings & Merrill brought in numerous subcontractors . This first phase of construction became known as the East Town . It included some 3 @,@ 000 family dwellings , an administrative center , three shopping centers , three grade schools for 500 children each and a high school for 500 , recreation buildings , men 's and women 's dormitories , cafeterias , a medical services building and a 50 @-@ bed hospital . The emphasis was on speed of construction and getting around wartime shortages of materials . Where possible , fiberboard and gypsum board were used instead of wood , and foundations were made from concrete blocks rather than poured concrete . The work was completed in early 1944 .
In addition to the East Town , a self @-@ contained community known as the East Village , with 50 family units , its own church , dormitories and a cafeteria , was built near the Elza gate . This was intended as a segregated community for Black people , but by the time it was completed , it was required by white people . Black people were instead housed in " hutments " ( one @-@ room shacks ) in segregated areas , some in " family hutments " created by joining two regular hutments together .
The Army presence at Oak Ridge increased in August 1943 when Nichols replaced Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District . One of his first tasks was to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge although the name of the district did not change . In September 1943 the administration of community facilities was outsourced to Turner Construction Company through a subsidiary , the Roane @-@ Anderson Company . The company was paid a fee of $ 25 @,@ 000 per month on a cost @-@ plus contract , about 1 percent of the $ 2 @.@ 8 million monthly cost of running the town facilities . Roane @-@ Anderson did not take over everything at once . A phased takeover started with Laundry No. 1 on 17 October 1943 . Transportation and garbage collection soon followed . It assumed responsibility for water and sewage in November , and electricity in January 1944 . The number of Roane @-@ Anderson workers peaked at around 10 @,@ 500 in February 1945 , including concessionaires and subcontractors . Thereafter , numbers declined to 2 @,@ 905 direct employees and 3 @,@ 663 concessionaires and subcontractors when the Manhattan Project ended on 31 December 1946 .
By mid @-@ 1943 , it had become clear that the initial estimates of the size of the town had been too low , and a second phase of construction was required . Plans now called for a town of 42 @,@ 000 people . Work began in the fall of 1943 , and continued into the late summer of 1944 . Hospitals were expanded , as were the police and fire services , and the telephone system . Only 4 @,@ 793 of a planned total of 6 @,@ 000 family houses were built , mostly on the East Town area and the undeveloped stretch along Tennessee State Route 61 . They were supplemented by 55 new dormitories , 2 @,@ 089 trailers , 391 hutments , a cantonment area of 84 hutments and 42 barracks . Some 2 @,@ 823 of the family units were prefabricated off @-@ site . The high school was expanded to cater for 1 @,@ 000 students . Two additional primary schools were built , and existing ones were expanded so that they could cater for 7 @,@ 000 students .
Although expected to accommodate the needs of the
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entire workforce , by late 1944 expansion of both the electromagnetic and gaseous diffusion plants led to forecasts of a population of 62 @,@ 000 . This prompted another round of construction that saw an additional 1 @,@ 300 family units and 20 dormitories built . More shopping and recreational facilities were added , the schools were expanded to cater for 9 @,@ 000 students , and a 50 @-@ bed annex was added to the hospital . The number of school children reached 8 @,@ 223 in 1945 . Few issues resonated more with the scientists and highly skilled workers than the quality of the education system . Although school staff were nominally employees of the Anderson County Education Board , the school system was run autonomously , with federal funding under the supervision of administrators appointed by the Army . Teachers enjoyed salaries that were considerably higher than those of Anderson County . The population of Oak Ridge peaked at 75 @,@ 000 in May 1945 , by which time 82 @,@ 000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works , and 10 @,@ 000 by Roane @-@ Anderson .
In addition to the township , there were a number of temporary camps established for construction workers . It was initially intended that the construction workers should live off @-@ site , but the poor condition of the roads and a shortage of accommodations in the area made commuting long and difficult , and in turn made it difficult to find and retain workers . Construction workers therefore came to be housed in large hutment and trailer camps . The largest , the trailer camp at Gamble Valley , had four thousand units . Another , at Happy Valley , held 15 @,@ 000 people . The population of the construction camps declined as the construction effort tapered off , but they continued to be occupied in 1946 .
The main shopping area was Jackson Square , with about 20 shops . The Army attempted to keep prices down by encouraging competition , but this met with limited success due to the captive nature of the population , and the requirements of security , which meant that firms and goods could not freely move in and out . The Army could give prospective concessionaires only vague information about how many people were in or would be in the town , and concessions were only for the duration of the war . Concessions were therefore charged a percentage of their profits in rental rather than a fixed fee . The Army avoided imposing draconian price controls , but limited prices to those of similar goods in Knoxville . By 1945 , community amenities included 6 recreation halls , 36 bowling alleys , 23 tennis courts , 18 ball parks , 12 playgrounds , a swimming pool , a 9 @,@ 400 @-@ volume library , and a newspaper .
= = Personnel = =
From 1 April 1943 , access to the Clinton Engineer Works was strictly controlled , with wire fences , guarded gates , and guards patrolling the perimeter . All employees had to sign a security declaration , the purpose of which was to make them aware of possible penalties under the Espionage Act of 1917 . Noting the distillation facilities and their high energy consumption , " I thought they were making sour mash to drop on the Germans , get them all drunk , " engineer Benjamin Bederson recalled , before realizing the facilities were enriching nuclear isotopes . Mail was censored , and lie detectors were employed in security checks . Everyone was issued with a color @-@ coded badge that restricted where they could go . Despite the security , the Clinton Engineer Works was penetrated by atomic spies George Koval and David Greenglass , who passed secrets to the Soviet Union .
Occupational health and safety presented a challenge , because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals , using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures , and working with high voltages , not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials . Accidents represented unacceptable numbers of work days lost , and a vigorous safety program was instituted . Since it did not matter where accidents occurred , this included safety off the job , in homes and in the schools . Safety indoctrination was included in job training , and safety training courses were held . Safety posters , manuals and films were distributed . In December 1945 , the National Safety Council presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record . The Clinton Engineer Works also received an award of merit in the National Traffic Safety Contest . Many workers had to drive long distances over poorly built and inadequately maintained roads . There were 21 deaths from motor vehicles at the Clinton Engineer Works : two in 1943 , nine in 1944 , eight in 1945 and two in 1946 . This represented a better road safety record than other towns of comparable size .
The citizens of Oak Ridge were not allowed to have any form of local government ; but the state of Tennessee , concerned over the potential loss of tax revenue , did not cede sovereignty over the land . The residents of Oak Ridge therefore did not live on a federal reservation , and were entitled to vote in state and county elections . However , notice of the Clinton City elections was withheld by local authorities until a week after the deadline to pay the poll tax . On the day of a 1945 referendum on whether Anderson should remain a dry county , the Edgemoor Bridge was suddenly closed for repairs , and the dry vote carried . A subsequent vote in 1947 reversed this result , with 4 @,@ 653 dry votes compared to 5 @,@ 888 wet ; 5 @,@ 369 of the wet votes came from Oak Ridge .
This was but one point of difference between Oak Ridge residents and the rest of Anderson County . While most Oak Ridge residents had high school diplomas , and many had college degrees , the average education level of adults in Anderson County was only 6 @.@ 8 years . Oak Ridge residents demanded , and Groves insisted on , schools with fine teachers and first @-@ rate facilities . To achieve this , the Manhattan District paid teachers nearly twice as much as Anderson County . The consequent drain of qualified teachers from surrounding areas aroused considerable resentment .
The Manhattan District accepted that wages and salaries had to be high enough to allow contractors to hire and retain good workers . It generally allowed wages and salaries to be paid by contractors as they saw fit , subject to limits imposed by wartime national wage and price controls intended to limit inflation . Salaries above $ 9 @,@ 000 had to be approved by Patterson and Groves .
The War Production Board was asked to keep stores in Oak Ridge well @-@ stocked in order to reduce absenteeism among the workers . When shortages did occur , the relatively well @-@ paid Oak Ridge residents bought up scarce goods in surrounding areas . In both cases , they attracted the ire of their residents . Personnel employed by the Manhattan District were not exempted from being drafted under the Selective Service System . Efforts were made to employ draft @-@ exempt personnel , and deferments were requested only for critical personnel , mainly young scientists and technicians .
= = The war ends = =
On 10 May 1945 , Women 's Army Corps typists at Manhattan District headquarters began preparing press kits on the Manhattan Project for use after an atomic bomb had been dropped . Fourteen press releases were prepared , and thousands of copies made by mimeograph . The final wartime shipment of uranium @-@ 235 left the Clinton Engineer Works on 25 July 1945 . Shipments reached Tinian on C @-@ 54 aircraft on 28 and 29 July . They were incorporated into the Little Boy bomb dropped on Hiroshima on 6 August . The news was greeted with wild celebration in Oak Ridge . Patterson issued a letter to the men and women of the Clinton Engineer Works :
Today the whole world knows the secret which you have helped us keep for many months . I am pleased to be able to add that the warlords of Japan now know its effects better , even than we ourselves . The atomic bomb which you have helped to develop with high devotion to patriotic duty is the most devastating military weapon that any country has ever been able to tum against its enemy . No one of you has worked on the entire project or knows the whole story , Each of you has done his own job and kept his own secret , and so today I speak for a grateful nation when I say congratulations , and thank you all . I hope you will continue to keep the secrets you have kept so well . The need for security and for continued effort is fully as great now as it ever was . We are proud of every one of you .
= = Postwar years = =
By 1945 , Roane @-@ Anderson was divesting itself of many of its tasks . American Industrial Transit took over the transport system , and Southern Bell the telephone system . Tri @-@ State Homes began managing housing . In 1946 , tenants were permitted to paint their houses in different colors from the wartime olive drab . Comprehensive medical insurance , originally instituted for security reasons , was replaced with policies from the Provident Life and Accident Insurance Company . Health care had been provided by the Army . As Army doctors were separated from the service they were replaced with civilian doctors employed by Roane @-@ Anderson . The dental service was transferred to civilians in February 1946 , and private medical practices were permitted at Oak Ridge from 1 March 1946 on .
The hospital remained an Army hospital until 1 March 1949 , when it was transferred to Roanne @-@ Anderson . Monsanto took over the operation of the Clinton Laboratories on 1 July 1945 . Control of the entire site passed to the Atomic Energy Commission on 1 January 1947 . The Clinton Laboratories became the Clinton National Laboratory in late 1947 , and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in January 1948 . Union Carbide took over its management in December 1947 , bringing all of Oak Ridge 's operations under its control .
While the war was in progress , the Manhattan District resisted allowing labor unions access to its facilities . In 1946 , they were permitted to operate at the Clinton Engineer Works . Elections were held at K @-@ 25 , Y @-@ 12 and X @-@ 10 in August and September 1946 and the United Chemical Workers became their representative . A contract was negotiated with Union Carbide on 10 December . The Atomic Trades and Labor Council became the representative of the Clinton Laboratories , signing a contract with Monsanto on 18 December .
At its peak in May 1945 , 82 @,@ 000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works , and 75 @,@ 000 people lived in the township . By January 1946 , these figures had fallen to 43 @,@ 000 and 48 @,@ 000 respectively . By the time the Manhattan Project concluded at the end of 1946 , the corresponding figures were 34 @,@ 000 and 43 @,@ 000 . The departure of large numbers of construction workers meant that 47 percent of those remaining were family members of workers . Eight dormitories were closed in October 1945 . Most of those who remained in dorms now had their own rooms . The white hutments began to be removed . Trailers were returned to the Federal Public Housing Authority .
The end of the war brought national attention to Oak Ridge , and there was bad publicity about the conditions that the Black residents were living in . Roane @-@ Anderson dusted off plans for a village for them . The new village , called Scarboro , was built where the Gamble Valley Trailer Camp had once stood . Construction commenced in 1948 , and the first residents moved in two years later . It would house the entire Black community of Oak Ridge until the early 1960s .
In 1947 , Oak Ridge was still part of " an island of socialism in the midst of a free enterprise economy . " The AEC pressed forward with plans to withdraw from running the community , but it could never be too fast for some members of Congress . AEC officials patiently explained over and over how Roane @-@ Anderson provided far more than regular municipal services . For the residents , the benefits of a free enterprise economy were slight . They enjoyed low rents and no property taxes , but high standards of services and an excellent school system . Oak Ridge City Historian William J. Wilcox , Jr . , noted that the townspeople " thoroughly enjoyed their much protected existence and the benevolence the Army had provided " . A straw poll of the residents on opening the gates showed them opposed , 10 to 1 .
Nonetheless , on 19 March 1949 the residential and commercial portion of Oak Ridge was ceremoniously opened to public access . Vice President Alben W. Barkley , Governor Gordon Browning , Atomic Energy Commission Chairman David E. Lilienthal , and movie star Marie McDonald were on hand to watch the guards take down the barriers . Access to the nuclear facilities was controlled by three Oak Ridge gatehouses . On 6 June 1951 , the Senate Appropriations Committee called on the Atomic Energy Commission to discontinue " the present undemocratic method " of operating the community , and it initiated steps to coerce Oak Ridge residents to establish democratic institutions and adopt a free enterprise system .
= Jack Harkness =
Captain Jack Harkness is a fictional character played by John Barrowman in Doctor Who and its spin @-@ off series , Torchwood . The character first appears in the 2005 Doctor Who episode " The Empty Child " and subsequently features in the remaining episodes of the 2005 series as a companion to the series ' protagonist , the Doctor . Subsequent to this , Jack became the central character in the adult @-@ themed Torchwood , which aired from 2006 to 2011 . Barrowman also reprised the role for guest appearances in Doctor Who in its 2007 series and 2008 series , as well as the two part special The End of Time .
In contrast to the Doctor , Jack is more of a conventional action hero , as well as outwardly flirtatious and capable of acts which the Doctor would view as less than noble . In the programme 's narrative , Jack begins as a time traveller and former con man from the 51st century , who comes to travel with the Ninth Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) and his companion Rose ( Billie Piper ) . As a consequence of his death and resurrection in the 2005 Doctor Who finale , Jack becomes immortal and is stranded on 19th century Earth . There he becomes a member of Torchwood , a British organization dedicated to combating alien threats . He spends over a century waiting to reunite with the Doctor , over which time he becomes Torchwood 's leader . Eventually , he reunites with the Tenth Doctor ( David Tennant ) for several appearances in Doctor Who . Aspects of the character 's backstory — both prior to meeting the Doctor , and during his many decades living on Earth — are gradually revealed over Torchwood ( and to a lesser extent , Doctor Who ) through the use of flashback scenes and expository dialogue .
Jack is the first openly non @-@ heterosexual character in the history of televised Doctor Who . The popularity of the character amongst multiple audiences directly influenced the development of the spin @-@ off series Torchwood . The character became a figure of the British public consciousness , rapidly gaining fame for portrayer John Barrowman . As an ongoing depiction of bisexuality in mainstream British television , the character became a role model for young gay and bisexual people in the UK . Jack is featured in various Doctor Who and Torchwood books and has action figures created in his likeness .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Television = = =
Jack Harkness first appeared in the 2005 Doctor Who episode " The Empty Child " and its continuation " The Doctor Dances " , when Rose ( Billie Piper ) , a companion of the Ninth Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) , meets him during the Blitz . Although posing as an American volunteering in the Royal Air Force , Jack is actually a former " Time Agent " from the 51st century who left the agency after inexplicably losing two years of his memory . Now working as a con man , Jack is responsible for unwittingly releasing a plague in London in 1941 . After the Doctor cures the plague , Jack redeems himself by taking an unexploded bomb into his ship ; the Doctor and Rose rescue him moments before it explodes . He subsequently travels with the Doctor and Rose in the Doctor 's time traveling spacecraft , the TARDIS . During his time with the Doctor , Jack matures into a hero , and in his final 2005 appearance , he sacrifices himself fighting the evil alien Daleks . Rose brings him back to life while suffused with the power of the time vortex , but when the power leaves her she doesn 't remember doing it . She and the Doctor subsequently leave Jack behind on Satellite 5 .
Harkness returned in 2006 as a character of the spin @-@ off series Torchwood , in which he is a member of the Cardiff @-@ based Torchwood Three in combating alien threats and monitoring a spacetime rift which runs through Cardiff . Jack is re @-@ introduced as a changed man , reluctantly immortal , having spent years on Earth waiting to reunite with the Doctor . Jack recruits policewoman Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) to the team of experts after she discovers them ; there are hints of romantic feelings between the two , but Gwen has a boyfriend and Jack enters a sexual relationship with the team 's general factotum Ianto Jones ( Gareth David @-@ Lloyd ) . Despite having worked with him for some time , his present @-@ day colleagues know very little about him ; over the course of the series they discover that he cannot die . Jack was once a prisoner of war , and was an interrogator who used torture . In the Torchwood Series One finale " End of Days " , Jack returns to the TARDIS . This immediately leads into the 2007 Doctor Who episode " Utopia " , where he joins the Tenth Doctor ( David Tennant ) and his companion Martha ( Freema Agyeman ) . Jack explains he returned from Satellite 5 to the present day by traveling to 1869 via vortex manipulator , and lived through the 20th century waiting for the Doctor . By the series finale , having spent a year in an alternate timeline enslaved by the Master ( John Simm ) , Jack opts
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analysts predicted that Japan would eventually accede to superpower status , due to its large population , huge gross domestic product and high economic growth at that time . Though still the world 's tenth @-@ largest population and third @-@ largest economy as of 2016 in terms of nominal GDP , Japan has faced an ongoing period of weak growth since the Lost Decade of the 1990s , and has been suffering from an aging population since the early 2000s , eroding its potential as a superpower .
= = Brazil = =
The Federative Republic of Brazil has seen limited discussion among authorities regarding its potential as a superpower .
= = = Contrary views = = =
Writing for the The Diplomatic Courier , former British Ambassador to Brazil , Peter Collecott , identifies that Brazil 's recognition as a potential superpower largely stems from its own national identity and ambition . Collecott points out that for the past two hundred years Brazil has sought to emerge as a serious global economic and political power , a position " that [ Brazil ] instinctively feels is her due . " However , Collecott also argues that while Brazil has certainly fulfilled some of its aspirations and finally started to gain the international recognition it deserves , it perhaps won 't quite emerge as a superpower ; instead , its current position as an emerging power will allow Brazil to shape the future with more realistic aspirations .
In his 2014 publication , The BRICs Superpower Challenge : Foreign and Security Policy Analysis , professor Kwang Ho Chun carefully assesses the likelihood of the BRICs countries attaining the status of superpowers . Regarding Brazil , Kwang Ho Chun highlights that the country possesses enormous and almost untouched " strategic " natural resources , including valuable minerals , a tenth of the world 's fresh water and the Earth 's largest remaining rainforest . Because of this , Kwang Ho Chun feels it is likely that Brazil could gain a dominant role in international relations , especially when it comes to environmental issues . This soft power influence is further enhanced by Brazil 's policy makers seeking to engage in as many international organizations as possible and forming alliances , most notably on social , diplomatic and economic issues . Despite its economic potential and Brazil 's " self @-@ image as a country with a great destiny , " Kwang Ho Chun believes that the country " falls far short of the levels required for a superpower . " Supporting his belief , he emphasizes Brazil 's apparent lack of " traditional hard power " ( i.e. military power and global security influence ) as a major obstacle . Kwang Ho Chun writes that Brazil has " little incentive to invest in its military " as " the country developed in an environment with hardly any inter @-@ state security threats " , therefore Brazil " may never be in a position to accumulate enough influence on global security matters to meet the criteria of being a superpower . " Instead , Ho Chun feels that Brazil will emerge as a great power with an important position in some spheres of influence but limited in others such as international security .
= = China = =
The People 's Republic of China receives continual coverage in the popular press of its emerging superpower status , and has been identified as a rising or emerging economic growth and military superpower by academics and other experts . In fact , the " rise of China " has been named the top news story of the 21st century by the Global Language Monitor , as measured by number of appearances in the global print and electronic media , on the Internet and blogosphere , and in social media . The term " Second Superpower " has been applied by scholars to the possibility that the People 's Republic of China could emerge with global power and influence on par with the United States . The potential for the two countries to form stronger relations to address global issues is sometimes referred to as the Group of Two .
Barry Buzan asserted in 2004 that " China certainly presents the most promising all @-@ round profile " of a potential superpower . Buzan claimed that " China is currently the most fashionable potential superpower and the one whose degree of alienation from the dominant international society makes it the most obvious political challenger . " However , he noted this challenge is constrained by the major challenges of development and by the fact that its rise could trigger a counter coalition of states in Asia .
Parag Khanna stated in 2008 that by making massive trade and investment deals with Latin America and Africa , China had established its presence as a superpower along with the European Union and the United States . China 's rise is demonstrated by its ballooning share of trade in its gross domestic product . He believed that China 's " consultative style " had allowed it to develop political and economic ties with many countries including those viewed as rogue states by the United States . He stated that the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation founded with Russia and the Central Asian countries may eventually be the " NATO of the East " .
Economist and author of Eclipse : Living in the Shadow of China 's Economic Dominance Arvind Subramanian argued in 2012 that China will direct the world 's financial system by 2020 and that the Chinese renminbi will replace the dollar as the world 's reserve currency in 10 to 15 years . The United States ' soft power will remain longer . He stated that " China was a top dog economically for thousands of years prior to the Ming dynasty . In some ways , the past few hundred years have been an aberration . "
Lawrence Saez at the School of Oriental and African Studies , London , argued in 2011 that the United States will be surpassed by China as military superpower within twenty years . Regarding economic power , the Director of the China Center for Economic Reform at Peking University Yao Yang stated that " Assuming that the Chinese and U.S. economies grow , respectively , by 8 % and 3 % in real terms , that China 's inflation rate is 3 @.@ 6 % and America 's is 2 % ( the averages of the last decade ) , and that the renminbi appreciates against the dollar by 3 % per year ( the average of the last six years ) , China will become the world 's largest economy by 2021 . By that time , both countries ' GDP will be about $ 24 trillion . "
Historian Timothy Garton Ash argued in 2011 , pointing to factors such as the International Monetary Fund predicting that China 's GDP ( purchasing power parity adjusted ) will overtake that of the United States in 2016 , that a power shift to a world with several superpowers was happening " Now " . However , China was still lacking in soft power and power projection abilities and had a low GDP / person . The article also stated that the Pew Research Center in a 2009 survey found that people in 15 out of 22 countries believed that China had or would overtake the US as the world 's leading superpower .
In an interview given in 2011 , Singapore 's first premier , Lee Kuan Yew , stated that while China supplanting the United States is not a foregone conclusion , Chinese leaders are nonetheless serious about displacing the United States as the most powerful country in Asia . " They have transformed a poor society by an economic miracle to become now the second @-@ largest economy in the world . How could they not aspire to be number 1 in Asia , and in time the world ? " The Chinese strategy , Lee maintains , will revolve around their " huge and increasingly highly skilled and educated workers to out @-@ sell and out @-@ build all others . " Nevertheless , relations with the United States , at least in the medium term , will not take a turn for the worse because China will " avoid any action that will sour up relations with the U.S. To challenge a stronger and technologically superior power like the U.S. will abort their ' peaceful rise . ' " Though Lee believes China is genuinely interested in growing within the global framework the United States has created , it is biding its time until it becomes strong enough to successfully redefine the prevailing political and economic order .
Chinese foreign policy adviser Wang Jisi in 2012 stated that many Chinese officials see China as a first @-@ class power which should be treated as such . China is argued to soon become the world 's largest economy and to be making rapid progress in many areas . The United States is seen as a declining superpower as indicated by factors such as poor economic recovery , financial disorder , high deficits gaining close to GDP levels and unemployment , increasing political polarization , and overregulation forcing jobs overseas in China .
= = = Contrary views = = =
Timothy Beardson , founder of Crosby International Holdings , stated in 2013 that he doesn 't see " China becoming a superpower " . He writes that China has basically worked as a manufacturing location for foreign companies , as 83 % of all high @-@ tech products made in China were produced for foreign companies . He added that China has problems regarding wages , an aging and declining population , and gender imbalance ( with China 's 6 : 5 gender ratio , 1 in 6 males will be unable to find a female partner ) , and he suggested that such problems would lead to crime . He also pointed out that China continually polluted its environment during its 30 years of economic growth ( of the 20 most polluted cities in the world , 16 cities are in China ) .
James Fallows writes that too many people in China live without indoor plumbing , and that no mainland Chinese scientist has yet won a Nobel Prize , so it is unlikely able to become an " economic Superpower " .
Geoffrey Murray 's China : The Next Superpower ( 1998 ) argued that while the potential for China is high , this is fairly perceived only by looking at the risks and obstacles China faces in managing its population and resources . The political situation in China may become too fragile to survive into superpower status , according to Susan Shirk in China : Fragile Superpower ( 2008 ) . Other factors that could constrain China 's ability to become a superpower in the future include limited supplies of energy and raw materials , questions over its innovation capability , inequality and corruption , and risks to social stability and the environment .
Minxin Pei argued in 2010 that China is not a superpower and it will not be one anytime soon and argued that China faces daunting political and economic challenges . In 2012 he argued that China , despite using its economic power to influence some nations , has few real friends or allies and is surrounded by potentially hostile nations . This situation could improve if regional territorial disputes were resolved and China participated in an effective regional defense system that would reduce the fears of its neighbors . Alternatively , a democratization of China would dramatically improve foreign relations with many nations .
Amy Chua stated in 2007 that whether a country is attractive to immigrants is an important quality for a superpower . She also wrote that China lacks the pull to bring scientists , thinkers , and innovators from other countries as immigrants . However , she believed that China made up for this with its own diaspora , and said that size and resources for them are unparalleled .
= = European Union = =
The European Union ( EU ) has been called an emerging superpower by academics . Many scholars and academics like T. R. Reid , Andrew Reding , Andrew Moravcsik , Mark Leonard , Jeremy Rifkin , John McCormick , and some politicians like Romano Prodi and Tony Blair , believe that the EU either is , or will become , a superpower in the 21st century .
Mark Leonard cites several factors : the EU 's large population , large economy ( the EU has the largest economy in the world ) , low inflation rates , the unpopularity and perceived failure of US foreign policy
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to prevent immortals like the God King from resurrecting after death . The player is then given the option of either starting the next bloodline as they do when defeated , or resetting the game and starting New Game + mode , which resets all gold and item progression but maintains the character 's experience level , letting the player remaster the items and level up even further .
= = = Expansions = = =
Chair Entertainment released four expansions as free updates to the game . The first , released December 20 , 2010 , added a new enemy , equipment , and microtransactions . It also removed an experience level cap . The second update , titled Infinity Blade : The Deathless Kings , was released on March 2 , 2011 and added the dungeons as a second branch to the game 's path . This expansion also added new equipment , enemies , and the second ending where the player @-@ character defeats his ancestor . The third update , Infinity Blade : Arena , was released on May 19 , 2011 . It added the player vs. player " Arena Mode " , a tiered combat game progression where one player fights as the hero and the other as an enemy from the game . The update also included new equipment and a single @-@ player version of Arena Mode called " Survival Mode " . On October 4 , 2011 , a fourth update added a new enemy and new equipment to coincide with the announcement of the forthcoming sequel Infinity Blade II .
= = Development = =
Infinity Blade was created by Chair Entertainment , a subsidiary company of Epic Games . In July 2010 , Chair had both recently finished the Xbox Live Arcade game Shadow Complex and been acquired by Epic . Chair was brainstorming Kinect and Wii games , including an idea similar to Infinity Blade , and Epic was nearing completion of an iOS version of the Unreal Engine 3 graphics engine and in need of a " killer game " to show it off . Epic had previously licensed the engine for use in numerous console and personal computer games . They asked Chair to develop a game for the engine in five months , with a playable demo for the Apple Special Event conference in two months . The team decided within a few days to work on the Infinity Blade concept , codenamed " Project Sword " . In lieu of the normal initial game development where working prototypes test gameplay ideas , Chair spent the first week of development refining the gameplay concept on paper before beginning to code . Many of the core gameplay ideas were developed in their first few hours . Geremy Mustard , Chair 's co @-@ founder and technical director , estimates that the team cut two @-@ third of that initial design due to lack of time . Refining the complex touch @-@ based interface was complicated due to the Unreal Engine 's incomplete status and the native iOS code library 's lack of support for fast touch @-@ based gameplay . The five @-@ month development was completed by a team of twelve people from Chair , with assistance from Epic . In addition to Geremy Mustard , the team was composed of Chair co @-@ founder and creative director Donald Mustard ; Simon Hurley as producer ; Joshua Andersen and Scott K. Bowen as programmers ; Adam Ford as art director ; Orlando Barrowes , Bert Lewis , Mike Low , Scott Stoddard , and Nathan Trewartha as artists and animators ; and Brandon Raul Campos as lead tester .
The game 's swipe @-@ based swordplay was based on Donald Mustard 's desire for an uncommon gameplay based on nuanced sword fighting and parrying . He described the game 's influences as the combat of Karateka and Prince of Persia combined with the " lonely epicness " of Shadow of the Colossus . Chair sought to develop an experience that could be picked up and played for a minute ( a single battle ) or for half an hour ( a bloodline ) . They felt that many other developers accustomed to consoles were wrong to make iOS games that required long playing experiences to feel meaningful , and so Chair developed the bloodline concept as a natural breakpoint . They also felt that mobile games like Infinity Blade with constant action elements went too long without giving the player time to relax and resulted in player exhaustion , and so Chair kept their individual battles short with brief cinematic pauses in longer battles . Chair showed their playable demo at the Apple conference on September 1 , 2010 , after weeks of rehearsal , and attracted a lot of attention to the game . It was released on December 9 , 2010 . While Chair itself spent little on marketing , Apple used the game extensively in advertisements for its devices .
The music for the game was composed by Josh Aker , who had written the music for previous Chair games . The soundtrack was intended by Aker to be " intense " during combat , but to vary between " serene " and " otherworldly " outside battle . It is a mixture of live and synthetic instrument performances . Cello and nyckelharpa were the primary instruments used . Aker wanted to have " avant @-@ garde performances " for the recordings . The soundtrack was sold as a digital album , Infinity Blade : Original Soundtrack , through several online music retailers . Chair began to develop the game 's first update before the initial game was released . They intended only to add new monsters and features , but added the ability to purchase gold due to customer requests . Chair did not rebalance the game to incentivize in @-@ app purchases . Work on The Deathless Kings update began immediately afterwards . Chair felt that releasing several large , free updates to the game would increase their overall user base and result in more total sales due to word of mouth .
= = Reception = =
Infinity Blade was noted for its sales at launch , selling more than 270 @,@ 000 copies and making over US $ 1 @.@ 6 million in its first four days — the " fastest @-@ grossing app " ever released for iOS at the time . By the end of 2011 , it had made at least US $ 23 million in revenue . Around fourteen months after the initial release , Chair noted that half of the game 's sales were for the iPhone and half were for the iPad and iPod . After releasing the sequel , Epic Games noted in 2012 that the series was Epic 's most profitable by measure of revenue against person @-@ hours spent in development .
Infinity Blade was reviewed by several major gaming sites in addition to mobile game @-@ focused sites . Critics praised the game 's graphics heavily . IGN reviewer Hilary Goldstein said that it was " an absolute stunner for any handheld device and ushers in a new era of possibility for high @-@ end graphics . " GamePro 's Ryan Rigney called the game " downright gorgeous " and said that the graphics were almost at the level of a Xbox 360 game , which was echoed by John Meyer of Wired , who claimed that it had the best graphics of any iPad game . The reviewer for Edge further praised the art direction , especially with regards to the enemy and armor designs .
The gameplay was generally praised by reviewers , who typically found the combat engaging but were split on the repetitive aspects of the game . 1UP.com 's Matt Clark said that the sword gameplay " just feels right " , while Mark Brown of Eurogamer said that the combat had an excitement factor that pushed players to keep on going for one more battle . Tracy Erickson of Pocket Gamer described the swipe @-@ based combat system as " easy to understand , though tough to master " , and Nick Chester of Destructoid said that although the combat was not very complicated , it was fun to play . The role @-@ playing game elements were praised — Destructoid 's Chester called them " satisfying " and IGN 's Goldstein said that they added to the game 's difficulty . Brown 's review for Eurogamer , however , said that while good they were not as engaging as the combat , and the Edge review dismissed them as minimal . Reviewers had mixed opinions on the effectiveness of the bloodline system 's repetition : Destructoid 's Chester described it as addictive and IGN 's Goldstein agreed , but Erickson 's review for Pocket Gamer said that the game had problems with repetition and Wired 's Meyer dismissed it as " repetitive ... as the title suggests " . J. Nicholas Geist , writing for Kill Screen , focused his entire review on the cyclical nature of the game , treating its nature of repetition with small changes between each bloodline as a metaphor for life . Most reviewers found themselves between the two extremes , with Brown of Eurogamer simultaneously describing it as " alarmingly repetitious " but still addictive and 1UP.com 's Clark saying that enjoying the game required getting past the repetition , despite being " stellar " .
= = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = =
On October 28 , 2011 , Epic Games and Adrenaline Amusements released an arcade version of the game , Infinity Blade FX . The game is played on a 46 @-@ inch screen rigged with optical sensors so as to mimic a large iPhone or iPad screen . Each arcade stand contains up to three screens , and players can play against each other or in the single @-@ player game . A sequel to the iOS game , Infinity Blade II , was announced on October 4 , 2011 , during the Apple iPhone 4S keynote presentation . It was released on December 1 , 2011 , and features enhanced graphics , a new storyline , and new fighting styles . A spinoff game , Infinity Blade : Dungeons , was in development for iOS by Epic Games subsidiary Impossible Games , but was cancelled in February 2013 when Impossible Games was shut down . A final game in the trilogy , Infinity Blade III , was released on September 18 , 2013 .
A novella by author Brandon Sanderson was released prior to both Infinity Blade II and III to serve as a story bridge between the games . Infinity Blade : Awakening was released as an e @-@ book on October 4 , 2011 to correspond with the announcement of Infinity Blade II . The story gives the protagonist of the first game a name , Siris , introduces the idea that the God King was one of multiple Deathless in the world , as is Siris , and has Siris and the assassin Isa journey to find the Worker of Secrets in order to kill the resurrected God King and the other Deathless . The second e @-@ book novella , Infinity Blade : Redemption , was released on September 9 , 2013 just prior to the third game . In it , Siris and the God King escape from their imprisonment by the Worker of Secrets , while extensive flashbacks show the rise of the Deathless in a future @-@ Earth analogue . While Siris disrupts the Worker of Secret 's plans , the God King confronts and is killed by the Worker .
A Chinese version of the game for Xbox One and Android will be published by Tencent Games on November 28 , 2015 .
= Stronger ( What Doesn 't Kill You ) =
" Stronger ( What Doesn 't Kill You ) " is a song by American recording artist Kelly Clarkson and the titular song from her fifth studio album , Stronger ( 2011 ) . Originally titled as " What Doesn 't Kill You ( Stronger ) " , the song served as the album 's second single on January 17 , 2012 through RCA Records . Written by Jörgen Elofsson , Ali Tamposi , and David Gamson , with additional writing and production by Greg Kurstin , " Stronger " is an uptempo song which draws from the genres of pop rock , dance @-@ pop and electropop . Its lyrical content mainly explores themes of empowerment and recovery following a heartbreak , with the chorus inspired by a Friedrich Nietzsche quotation : " That which does not kill us makes us stronger . "
In the United States , " Stronger " became her third song to top the Billboard Hot 100 chart for three non @-@ consecutive weeks , surpassing " A Moment Like This " ( 2002 ) and " My Life Would Suck Without You " ( 2009 ) as her longest @-@ running number one single on the chart . It also topped fifteen other Billboard charts , including Adult Pop Songs , Adult Contemporary , Hot Dance Club Songs , and Pop Songs charts , more than any other song Clarkson has ever released . Internationally , " Stronger " topped the national charts of Poland and Slovakia and attained a top @-@ ten position in over fifteen countries around the world , eventually selling over five million copies worldwide , becoming one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time . Its success helped its parent album to sustain commercial longevity for over a year . " Stronger " merited consideration for several industry awards — including three Grammy Award nominations , and a World Music Award nomination .
The song 's accompanying music video was filmed by Shane Drake , which incorporates the theme of a global flash mob dance , featuring submitted videos of people dancing to the song . The music video garnered positive reception from critics who felt that its overall impact was exuberant . It earned Clarkson a nomination for a MuchMusic Video Award . With its continued success , she performed " Stronger " on several live award shows and television appearances around the world , debuting it during the first season of the The X Factor ( U.S. ) and performing it on the 37th season of Saturday Night Live , the 2012 MuchMusic Video Awards , and the 2012 American Music Awards . Clarkson also included the song in the set list of her Stronger Tour and on the encore set of her 2012 Summer Tour with The Fray .
= = Writing and production = =
Originally titled as " What Doesn 't Kill You " , " Stronger " was written by Jörgen Elofsson , Ali Tamposi , David Gamson , and Greg Kurstin in September 2010 . In an interview with American Songwriter , Tamposi revealed that the song was inspired by the Friedrich Nietzsche adage ( " That which does not kill us makes us stronger " ) that her mother told her as advice . Although Tamposi found the phrase as saccharine , she submitted it as an idea to Elofsson and Gamson during their writing sessions . Elofsson originally intended " Stronger " for Leona Lewis , who turned it down in the process . Tamposi 's manager , Tom Maffei , then had one of his producers , Matty Trump , to produce a demo track later to be pitched to RCA A & R executive Jeff Aldrich , who later gave the song to Clarkson . Tamposi revealed that Clarkson had also altered a lyric from the track . Aldrich had then commissioned Greg Kurstin , whom Clarkson wanted to collaborate with , to produce and add additional writing to the final version . Kurstin recalled , " I rethought the music part of it , I guess . It had a different tempo , beat , chords , and I kinda just came up with that guitar riff that goes into the verse , and that was the first thing that I kinda contributed just changed the feel of the song . " The song 's uplifting theme of empowerment led Clarkson to name her fifth studio album Stronger. saying that it is one of her favorite songs in the album , she said , " Everybody loves the message ' What doesn 't kill you makes you stronger . ' It 's a perfect representation of my life . "
= = Composition = =
" Stronger " is a pop rock song with a length of three minutes and 41 seconds . According to the sheet music published by Hal Leonard Corporation , it is set in a common time and has a moderately fast tempo of 116 beats per minute . Written in the key of A minor , it follows the chord progression Am – F – C @-@ G / B. Clarkson 's vocals span two octaves , from G3 to G5 . The song begins with a " rumbling guitar " and a " shimmering synth " riff as Clarkson sings the opening line " You know the bed feels warmer / Sleeping here alone . " Jason Lipshutz of Billboard noted that the guitar riff in the verses is reminiscent of Clarkson 's " Since U Been Gone " which narrates an anthem of personal reinvention , and dancing . The bridges contain pulsating beats with synth and electric guitar that display some elements of electronic sound . During chorus , the song explodes into an upbeat dance @-@ pop number , complete with guitars and electronic drums as Clarkson sings " What doesn 't kill you makes you stronger / Stand a little taller / Doesn 't mean I 'm lonely when I 'm alone . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant felt nobody else could sell the song 's " ginormous chorus " better than Clarkson . Lyrically , " Stronger " explores the theme of moving on from an inimical relationship . In an interview , Clarkson remarked that the song doesn 't refer to a specific person , stating " I didn 't have a bad breakup or anything , I just think life is about relationships so I always write all about these different ones going on in my life . And I don 't have a filter , so it 's pretty verbatim . " Jason Scott of Blogcritics felt that out of all tracks in Stronger , Clarkson 's vocals are best and trendiest in " What Doesn 't Kill You ( Stronger ) " .
In an interview with MTV News prior to the song 's release , Clarkson compared " Stronger " as similar to " Since U Been Gone " ( 2004 ) . She commented , " We 've already rehearsed it , and it 's so much fun . It 's like this big dance anthem . That 'll be the one [ that 's ] kinda like " Since U Been Gone " , [ with ] people jumping up and down to [ it ] , and it 's just kind of really inspiring , so I can 't wait to perform that one . "
= = Release and reception = =
After returning from a vacation on Tahiti , Clarkson found out over 50 of her newly recorded demo material were leaked online , including " Stronger " . She commented that the leak felt worse than being physically robbed . In an attempt to counter @-@ attack the leakage , RCA finally debuted the song online on October 5 , 2011 , three weeks ahead of the album 's release . An acoustic version of the song appears in Clarkson 's second extended play , iTunes Session . " Stronger " was officially released as the album 's second single to mainstream radio on January 17 , 2012 . A dance remixes of the song were made available on February 3 , 2012 . On February 17 , 2012 , it was released as a CD single .
= = = Critical response = = =
Jenna Hally Rubenstein of MTV Buzzworthy compared it to " Since U Been Gone , " which has " a super radio @-@ friendly hook . " Elizabeth Lancaster of MTV Newsroom listed it as one of five key tracks in Stronger , writing " Upbeat yet soulful , the chorus will drag you up and onto the floor to dance the heartache away alongside her . " Grady Smith of Entertainment Weekly thought that the song 's " belty pop / rock wheelhouse " should please fans of the sound . He later added that " Clarkson might have been better off releasing " What Doesn ’ t Kill You " as the first track from Stronger . " Another positive reception came from Glenn Gamboa of Newsday , who praised Clarkson for " infusing her tales of empowerment after a breakup with her unique combo of vulnerability and sass . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant thought that the song is " tailor @-@ made for radio play " and that " the chilly electro @-@ pop that Greg Kurstin brings to the verses , suggests a top forty version of Robyn 's " Call Your Girlfriend " ( 2010 ) . On March 5 , 2013 Billboard ranked the song number 2 in its list of " Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time " .
Chris Willman of Reuters criticized the lyrics , commenting that " Never mind how tired that tune 's titular phrase is . For a laugh , look up the YouTube video in which some wag mashed together a medley of 30 different songs that already borrowed " That which does not kill me makes me stronger " as a lyrical hook . " Kevin Ritchie from Now Magazine emphasized that the lyrics are " about as clichéd as a mission statement can get , but it also makes for a solid pop song . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the song four stars out of five , writing " The message behind her song may already be a well @-@ worn , almost cliched lesson , but as she continues to prove , there 's little shame in coming out with the expected . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
In the United States , " Stronger " topped sixteen Billboard charts , marking career highs for Clarkson . Boosted by digital sales following the release of Stronger , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart as an album cut at number 64 on the week ending October 30 , 2011 . It dropped out following week before returning at number 99 on week ending November 20 , 2011 . Following its release as a single , " Stronger " re @-@ entered Billboard Hot 100 at number 58 after Clarkson performed it on Saturday Night Live on the week ending January 21 , 2012 . On the week ending January 28 , 2012 , the song climbed to number 21 , as well as debuting at number 38 on Adult Pop Songs . The following week , it became her tenth top ten song on the Hot 100 chart as it advanced to number 8 due to the strength of a number 11 to number 3 jump on Hot Digital Songs and vault on Hot 100 Airplay from number 71 to number 44 . With " Mr. Know It All " ( 2011 ) having peaked at number 10 on the Hot 100 , " Stronger " ' s ascent to number 8 marked the first time Clarkson has had a string of consecutive top ten hits since 2004 – 2005 , when she had four consecutive top @-@ ten hits from her second studio album , Breakaway ( 2004 ) . That same week , it debuted at number 30 on Pop Songs and at number 40 on Hot Dance Club Songs . On the week ending February 11 , " Stronger " bounded from number 8 to number 2 on the Hot 100 as it topped the Hot Digital Songs chart fueled by 225 @,@ 000 downloads , becoming her second song to top the Hot Digital Songs after " My Life Would Suck Without You " ( 2009 ) . The following week , it ascended to the top of the Hot 100 , becoming her third number 1 single in the country after " A Moment Like This " and " My Life Would Suck Without You " . It held the top spot for another week , before descending to number 4 on the week ending March 3 , 2012 . That same week , it became her first song to top the Hot Dance Club Songs , making Clarkson only first artist ever to have topped the Hot 100 and each of the Hot Dance Club Songs , Hot Country Songs , Adult Contemporary , and Adult Pop Songs charts . The week after , It returned to number 1 on the Hot 100 for the third time , thus becoming her longest @-@ reigning number 1 single in the United States . On the week ending March 24 , 2012 , " Stronger " became Clarkson 's fourth song to top the Pop Songs chart and her first in six years . It also became her first song to top the Hot 100 Airplay on the week ending April 7 , 2012 , her fourth song to top the Adult Pop Songs on the week ending March 10 , 2012 , and her second song to top the Adult Contemporary chart on the week ending June 16 , 2012 . In its 2012 Year @-@ End issue , Billboard ranked " Stronger " number 7 on the Year @-@ End Hot 100 , marking the first time Clarkson has had a Year @-@ End top ten single on the chart in seven years since " Since U Been Gone " and " Behind These Hazel Eyes " ( 2005 ) . Billboard also ranked it as number 1 on Year @-@ End Adult Contemporary , number 2 on the Year @-@ End Adult Pop Songs , number 11 on the Year @-@ End Pop Songs , and number 35 on the Year @-@ End Hot Dance Club Songs charts .
" Stronger " also outpaced its predecessor " Mr. Know It All " in the international charts except in Australia , Germany , Japan , Scotland , and South Korea . It topped the national charts of Poland and Slovakia and became her biggest hit in over 18 other countries , including Austria , Denmark , Hungary , Luxembourg , Portugal , New Zealand , Spain , Sweden , and the United Kingdom . " Stronger " is also her first single to enter the national charts of Finland , Brazil , Iceland , Lebanon , Mexico , Portugal , and Romania . In Canada , it debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 chart at number 64 on the week ending November 12 , 2011 , eventually peaking at number 3 . In the United Kingdom , debuted on the Official UK Charts at number 21 on the week ending January 14 , 2012 , eventually peaking at number 8 for three non @-@ consecutive weeks as her eighth career top ten single . The song performed better in Scotland , where it attained a peak of number 5 . In Ireland , the song debuted at 40 on January 19 , 2012 and ascended to number four . In Denmark , after debuting at number 11 on the Danish Singles Chart on the week ending January 20 , 2012 , it attained a top ten position at number 8 after two weeks . In France , the song debuted at number 187 and peaked at number 26 , becoming her first song to chart in six years since " Because of You " ( 2006 ) . In the Netherlands , the song debuted on the Single Top 100 at number 96 on the week ending January 7 , 2012 , and peaked at number 59 . In Austria , it entered the Ö3 Austria Top 40 at number 27 and peaked at number 6 . In Belgium , it attained a position on Ultratop 50 in Flanders at number 25 , but failed to enter the Ultratop 50 in Wallonia by reaching only the top of the Walloon Ultratip chart . Elsewhere in Europe , it attained a top ten position in Czech Republic , Hungary , Luxembourg , and Finland ; and a top forty position in Norway , Switzerland , Germany , and Sweden . In Australia , it peaked in the Australian Singles Chart at number 18 . In New Zealand , it peaked on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 4 .
" Stronger " also marked career @-@ highs in Clarkson 's commercial performance . It became her first song to cross the 3 and 4 million marks in digital downloads , becoming her best @-@ selling single in the United States and the United Kingdom . As of March 3 , 2013 , " Stronger " had sold over 4 @,@ 533 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , . In the United Kingdom is sold over 546 @,@ 000 copies as of April 24 , 2016 . The song sold over 5 million copies worldwide , becoming one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time .
= = = Award nominations = = =
" Stronger " has been recognized with accolades from the music press . Entertainment Weekly ranked the song as the tenth best single of 2011 . In December 2012 , Popjustice ranked " Stronger " at number 1 on their " Top 45 Singles of 2012 " list , stating that " this song is timeless in its amazingness " and claiming that no one " but Kelly Clarkson who could have pulled off this tune . " The song 's music video was nominated for Best International Artist Video at the 2012 MuchMusic Video Awards . At the 2012 Teen Choice Awards , the song received two nominations , Choice Single by a Female Artist and Choice Break @-@ Up Song . " Stronger " received three Grammy Award nominations for Record of the Year , Song of the Year , and Best Pop Solo Performance at the 55th ceremony .
= = Music video = =
= = = Concept and synopsis = = =
On November 21 , 2011 , Clarkson announced on her website that she wanted to incorporate a global flash mob into the accompanying music video of " Stronger " . She posted ,
I 'm shooting my video for " What Doesn 't Kill You " and I 'd like everyone to join me in my global flash mob ! Check out the routine in the video below . Learn it with me and get your cameras ready to record you and your friends rocking these moves in a unique location that shows where you are in the world . Submit your clip using the form below and maybe you 'll see it in my music video ! ! I can 't wait to see your submissions . Remember to be creative , but keep it safe and legal ! Thanks for participating !
The music video premiered on VEVO on December 14 , 2011 . Directed by Shane Drake , the video begins with Clarkson in a video control room , watching select flash mob videos submitted by various participants in different monitors . Throughout the video , scenes of Clarkson performing the song in three different settings ( alone in a stage , with her band in a garden square , and in the control room ) alternate with various flash mob videos . Towards the end of the video , Clarkson , along with the people in the garden square , forms a flash mob featuring a same choreography .
= = = Reception = = =
Critical reception towards the accompanying music video was positive . Prior to its release , Jenna Halley Rubenstein of MTV Buzzworthy predicted that the video would depict women who triumphed over broken relationships as a homage to self @-@ sufficiency . However , she praised the different treatment of the video , complimenting the synchronized dancing and thought that Clarkson kept it classy . Leah Collins of The Vancouver Sun interpreted that the video depicts Clarkson developing a sense of strength and endurance as well as an ability to lead a large @-@ scale dance routine after surviving a trauma . Erin Strecker of Entertainment Weekly enjoyed Clarkson 's goofy expressions and perceived the video as " Since U Been Gone " round two . Rand Duren of The Dallas Morning News also reiterated that the music video is a reminiscent of " Since U Been Gone " and that it was great seeing more dancing and movement from Clarkson . Contessa Gayles of AOL.com described the song as " powerful " and " uplifting " and she believed that the music video did the song justice . Trent Maynard of 4Music had a positive response towards the video and deemed Clarkson 's look as properly fit in the video . He concluded his review writing , " Nobody has a sense of humor quite like the original American Idol . Oh Kelly , you 're the best . " The same opinion was echoed by Robbie Daw of Idolator who thought the video was fun especially " when Kelly herself joins the giant mob at the very end . " He also stated that his personal favorite clip in the video was " the girls who do the moves underwater with fish swimming all around them . " The video placed fourth for VH1 's Top 20 Videos of the Year for 2012 .
= = Live performances = =
Clarkson first performed " Stronger " in live concerts , she
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first performed it in a Sony @-@ sponsored concert held at The Troubador in Los Angeles on October 19 , 2011 . On November 9 , 2011 , she performed the song at Z100 's annual Jingle Ball concert at Madison Square Garden . She also performed an acoustic version the song on the VH1 Unplugged : Kelly Clarkson special which premiered on VH1 on November 18 , 2011 . " Stronger " has been performed prominently in her fourth headlining tour , the Stronger Tour .
Clarkson also promoted " Stronger " in live television events , the first live televised performance of the song was on November 23 , 2011 , during The X Factor ( U.S. ) results show . On December 18 , 2011 , she performed the song on VH1 Divas Celebrates Soul television special . On January 7 , 2012 , she performed it along with " Mr. Know It All " on the 37th season of Saturday Night Live . On June 6 , 2012 , Clarkson performed it on the British television series This Morning . Clarkson also performed a medley of the " Stronger " with the succeeding single " Dark Side " on various television events , such as at the season finale of the fourteenth season of Dancing with the Stars on May 22 , 2012 , and at the 2012 MuchMusic Video Awards on June 17 , 2012 .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Usage in media = = =
" Stronger " was also used in various forms of media . It was used in a 2011 Toyota Camry advertisement which stars Clarkson singing the song with her co @-@ stars Chris Berman , Andrew Zimmern , and James Lipton . Amber Riley , Naya Rivera , and Heather Morris performed the song on the season three episode of Glee titled " On My Way " , which aired on February 21 , 2012 . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal described the trio 's performance as " fine , fierce and fabulous . " Their version of " Stronger " debuted on the Hot 100 at number 66 on the week ending March 3 , 2012 as " What Doesn 't Kill You ( Stronger ) " . The song was featured in Suburgatory and was used in advertisements promoting the second season of the USA Network series Fairly Legal . It was also featured in a playable piece in the Harmonix video game Rock Band Blitz , Rock Band 3 and Dance Central 3 . On May 6 , 2012 , a video of some of the patients and hospital staff of Seattle Children 's hematology oncology unit dancing to the song were uploaded in YouTube to represent their fight against cancer . The video became a viral hit and has been featured by Time and CBS News . On February 26 , 2012 , Chemmy Alcott and Sean Rice skated to the song on Dancing on Ice . [ 116 ] Maria Menounos and Derek Hough danced to the song in the fourteenth season of Dancing with the Stars . [ 117 ] . The instrumental version has been used as background music to the promotion and the opening theme to the 2013 MDA Show of Strength telethon .
= = = Cover versions = = =
" Stronger " has also been performed by contestants of various televised competition programs . On February 21 , 2012 , It was covered on Glee by Amber Riley and Naya Rivera for the Regionals episode titled " On My Way " . On March 22 , 2012 , it was first performed by Diandra Flores on the sixth season of the Finnish television series Idols . On April 11 , 2012 , it was covered by Hollie Cavanagh , Joshua Ledet and Jessica Sanchez in the eleventh season of American Idol . On May 12 , 2012 , it was performed by Joelle Moses after will.i.am 's recommendation on the first series of The Voice UK .
Clarkson also performed the song with Jordan Meredith on the television series Duets , where she is also a mentor . On March 16 , 2012 , the song was performed by various participants during the season finale of the fifth season of the Danish television series X Factor . On November 8 , 2012 , the song was performed by Team Adam and Team Blake on the third season of The Voice . On November 28 , 2012 , the girl @-@ group Fifth Harmony performed the song on the second season of The X Factor . On October 28 , 2013 , Tessanne Chin covered the song on Season 5 of NBC 's singing competition , The Voice for her performance in the Knockout round vs. Ashley DuBose ( who performed " Hey , Soul Sister " by Train ) .
= = = Involvement in Kanye West 's copyright lawsuit = = =
In 2010 , musician Vincent Peters filed a copyright infringement suit against recording artist Kanye West over the similarities between West 's song " Stronger " ( 2007 ) , Peter 's demo song " Stronger " ( 2006 ) which he sent to John Monopoly , West 's associate . The 7th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the case in West 's favor , citing both the epigram by Nietzsche from his book Twilight of the Idols ( 1889 ) and Clarkson 's song " Stronger ( What Doesn 't Kill You ) " .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Stronger liner notes .
Recording
Recorded at Echo Recording Studio , Los Angeles , California
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Release and radio history = =
= Sable Island horse =
The Sable Island Horse , sometimes Sable Island Pony , is a type of small feral horse found on Sable Island , an island off the coast of Nova Scotia , Canada . It is a small type , often pony sized , but with a horse phenotype and horse ancestors , and usually dark in color . The first horses were released on the island in the late eighteenth century , and soon became feral . Additional horses were later transported to improve the herd 's breeding stock . They were rounded up for private use and sale for slaughter , which by the 1950s had placed them in danger of extinction .
In 1960 , the Canadian government protected the horses by law in their feral state . From the 1980s on , long @-@ term , noninvasive herd studies have been performed , and in 2007 a genetic analysis was conducted that concluded the herd was genetically unique enough to interest conservationists . In 2008 , the horses were declared the official horse of Nova Scotia , and in 2011 , the island was declared the Sable Island National Park Reserve . The herd is unmanaged , and legally protected from interference by humans . The horses live only at Sable Island and at the Shubenacadie Wildlife Park on the mainland of Nova Scotia , with the latter herd descended from horses removed from Sable Island in the 1950s .
= = Characteristics = =
The horses that remain on Sable Island are feral . They generally stand between 13 and 14 hands ( 52 and 56 inches , 132 and 142 cm ) . Males from the island average about 360 kilograms ( 790 lb ) and females about 300 kilograms ( 660 lb ) . The available food on the island limits their size , and the offspring of horses removed from the island and fed more nutritious diets are generally larger . Physically , the horses resemble Spanish horses , with arched necks and sloping croups . Overall , they are stocky and short , with short pasterns that allow them to move easily on sandy or rough ground . Sable Island horses have very shaggy coats , manes and tails , especially during the winter . The tail is full and low @-@ set . Their coats are mostly dark colours , but some do have white markings . About half are bays , with the rest distributed among chestnut , palomino and black . Many Sable Island Horses have a natural ambling gait . Prior to their protection , when they could be kept for the use of humans , the horses were known for their sure @-@ footedness and gaits .
The Sable Island horses are a feral horse population that is entirely unmanaged : they are not subject to any kind of interference . Observational research , which is considered noninvasive to the herd , is sometimes conducted . Herd numbers fluctuate between 160 and 360 animals , with numbers changing based on weather severity . The population is split into numerous smaller herds , ranging from 40 to 50 in number , each ranging over approximately 3 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 sq mi ) . Due to the lack of predators , older horses often die of starvation after their teeth are worn down by a lifetime of exposure to sand and marram , a tough grass . A lack of nutritional food on the island limits the horses ' size , and the offspring of those removed from the island and raised on better diets are significantly larger .
= = History = =
Sable Island is a narrow , crescent @-@ shaped island located approximately 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) southeast of Nova Scotia . It is 42 kilometres ( 26 mi ) long and covered in sand dunes and grasses . Over 350 bird species and 190 plant species are found on the island , in addition to the herd of feral horses , which are the most well @-@ known inhabitants .
Although popular legends claim that Sable Island horses swam ashore from the island 's many shipwrecks , or were introduced by 16th @-@ century Portuguese explorers , this is not supported by historical or genetic evidence . In reality , the horses were deliberately introduced to the island during the 18th century . The first recorded horses were brought by a Boston clergyman , the Reverend Andrew Le Mercier , in 1737 but most were stolen by passing mariners . The present @-@ day horses are thought by most historians and scientists to have descended mostly from horses seized by the British from the Acadians during the Expulsion of the Acadians . The Acadian horses were descendents of several shipments of French horses , including members of the Breton , Andalusian and Norman breeds , later crossed with horses from New England , including Spanish Barbs . The Boston merchant and shipowner Thomas Hancock purchased some Acadian horses and transported them to Sable Island in 1760 , where they grazed the island as pasture . Although often referred to as ponies due to their small size , they have a horse phenotype and an ancestry composed solely of horses .
After the government of Nova Scotia established a lifesaving station on Sable Island in 1801 , workers trained some of the horses to haul supplies and rescue equipment . Lifesaving staff recorded the importation of a stallion , Jolly , taken there in 1801 , who was probably similar in type to the original Acadian horses released on the island . Although Jolly was not the first horse on the island , he was the first to be identified by name in historic records , and is known to have survived on the island until at least 1812 . Other breeding stock , probably including horses of Thoroughbred , Morgan and Clydesdale breeding , were sent to the island during the first half of the 19th century , in the hopes of improving the type of horses found on the island and raising the price for which they could be sold on the mainland .
During the 19th and early 20th centuries , the horses on Sable Island were periodically rounded up and either kept by islanders or transported to the mainland , where they were sold , frequently for slaughter . The meat was primarily used for dog food by the late 1950s , and the island horses were in danger of extinction . A public campaign was begun by school children to save the horses . In 1960 , as part of the Canadian Shipping Act , the Canadian government declared the horses fully protected and no longer able to be rounded up and sold . The law requires that people receive written permission before " feeding , interfering with , or otherwise having anything to do with the horses on the island . "
= = = Study and preservation = = =
Beginning in the mid @-@ 1980s , long term studies were begun of the Sable Island herds , and by the mid @-@ 2000s , most horses living on the island had documented histories . In 2007 , a genetic analysis of the Sable Island herd was performed . It was concluded that these horses were genetically similar to multipurpose and light draft breeds found in eastern mainland Canada , with differences probably created by natural selection and genetic drift . However , the researchers also stated that Sable Island horses had genetically " diverged enough from other breeds to deserve special attention by conservation interest groups , " and that the loss of the Sable Island horses would be more damaging to the genetic diversity of the Canadian horse population than the loss of any other breed . Genetic erosion is a
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the Minister of Finance ( one of Nine Ministers of the central government ) by the beginning of Eastern Han , the central government 's monopoly over the issue of coinage persisted .
Gary Lee Todd ( Ph.D. in History from University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign and Professor of History at Sias International University in Xinzheng , Henan , China ) provides the following images of coins issued during the Western Han and Xin periods on his website :
= = = Circulation and salaries = = =
Merchants and peasant farmers paid property and poll taxes in coin cash and land taxes with a portion of their crop yield . Peasants obtained coinage by working as hired laborers for rich landowners , in businesses like breweries or by selling agricultural goods and homemade wares at urban markets . The Han government may have found collecting taxes in coin the easiest method because the transportation of taxed goods would have been unnecessary .
From 118 BC to 5 AD , the government minted over 28 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coins , with an annual average of 220 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coins minted ( or 220 @,@ 000 strings of 1 @,@ 000 coins ) . In comparison , the Tianbao period ( 天寶 ) ( 742 – 755 AD ) of the Tang dynasty produced 327 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coins every year while 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coins in 1045 AD and 5 @,@ 860 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coins in 1080 AD were made in the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 AD ) . Coin cash became the common measure of wealth during Eastern Han , as many wages were paid solely in cash . Diwu Lun ( 第五倫 ) ( fl . 40 – 85 AD ) , Governor of Shu Province ( modern Sichuan ) , described his subordinate officials ' wealth not in terms of landholdings , but in the form of aggregate properties worth approximately 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coin cash . Commercial transactions involving hundreds of thousands of coins were commonplace .
Angus Maddison estimates that the country 's gross domestic product was equivalent to $ 450 per head in 1990 United States dollars — a sum that was above subsistence level , and which did not significantly change until the beginning of the Song dynasty in the late 10th century . Sinologist Joseph Needham has disputed this and claimed that China 's GDP per capita exceeded Europe by substantial margins from the 5th century BCE onwards , holding that Han China was much wealthier than the contemporary Roman Empire . The widespread circulation of coin cash enriched many merchants , who invested their money in land and became wealthy landowners . The government 's efforts to circulate cash had empowered the very social class which it actively tried to suppress through heavy taxes , fines , confiscations , and price regulation schemes .
= = Taxation , property , and social class = =
= = = Landowners and peasants = = =
After Shang Yang ( d . 338 BC ) of the State of Qin abolished the communal and aristocratic well @-@ field system in an effort to curb the power of nobles , land in China could be bought and sold . Historical scholars of the Han dynasty like Dong Zhongshu ( 179 – 104 BC ) attributed the rise of the wealthy landowning class to this reform . The Han Feizi describes these landowners ' use of hired labor in agriculture , a practice dating back to the 3rd century BC , possibly earlier . Some landowners owned small numbers of slaves , but many relied on peasant tenant farmers who paid rent with a portion of their agricultural produce . More numerous than tenants , small landowner @-@ cultivators lived and worked independently , but often fell into debt and sold their land to the wealthy . The court official Chao Cuo ( d . 154 BC ) argued that if the average independent landowning family of five could cultivate no more than 4 @.@ 57 hectares ( 11 @.@ 3 acres ) of land and produce no more than 2 @,@ 000 litres ( 530 US gal ) of grain annually , then natural disasters and high taxation rates would force many into debt , to sell their land , homes , and even children , and to become dependent upon work as tenant farmers for the wealthy .
Officials at the court of Emperor Ai of Han ( r . 7 – 1 BC ) attempted to implement reforms limiting the amount of land nobles and wealthy landowners could own legally , but were unsuccessful . When Wang Mang took control of the government in 9 AD , he abolished the purchase and sale of land in a system called King 's Fields ( 王田 ) . This was a variation of the well @-@ field system , where the government owned the land and assured every peasant an equal share to cultivate . Within three years , complaints from wealthy landowners and nobles forced Wang Mang to repeal the reform . After Gengshi ( r . 23 – 25 AD ) and Guangwu ( r . 25 – 57 AD ) restored the Han dynasty , they relied on the service of great landholding families to secure their position in society . Many of their government officials also became wealthy landowners .
By the late Eastern Han period , the peasantry had become largely landless and served wealthy landowners . This cost the government significant tax revenue . Although the central government under Emperor He of Han ( r . 88 – 105 AD ) reduced taxes in times of natural disaster and distress without much effect upon the treasury , successive rulers became less able to cope with major crises . The government soon relied upon local administrations to conduct relief efforts . After the central government failed to provide local governments with provisions during both a locust swarm and the flooding of the Yellow River in 153 AD , many landless peasants became retainers of large landowners in exchange for aid . Patricia Ebrey writes that the Eastern Han was the " transitional period " between the Western Han — when small independent farmers were the vast majority — and the Three Kingdoms ( 220 – 265 AD ) and later Sixteen Kingdoms ( 304 – 439 AD ) , when large family estates used unfree labor .
The Yellow Turban Rebellion of 184 AD , the slaughter of the eunuchs in 189 AD , and the campaign against Dong Zhuo in 190 AD destabilized the central government , and Luoyang was burnt to the ground . At this point , " ... private and local power came to replace public authority . "
The Han Chancellor and King of Wei Cao Cao ( 155 – 220 AD ) made the final significant attempt to limit the power of wealthy landowners . Cao Cao established government @-@ managed agricultural colonies for landless commoners ; in exchange for land and cheap equipment , the farmers paid a portion of their crop yield . In the 120s BC , Emperor Wu had attempted to establish agricultural colonies in the northwestern frontier of the newly conquered Hexi Corridor ( in modern Gansu ) . 600 @,@ 000 new settlers farmed on these state lands using seeds , draft animals and equipment loaned by the government . An imperial edict in 85 AD ordered the local governments of commanderies and subordinate kingdoms to resettle landless peasants onto state @-@ owned lands , where they would be paid wages , provided with crop seeds , loaned farming tools and exempted from rent payments for five years and poll taxes for three years . The edict also allowed peasants to return to their native counties at any time . Subsequent governments of the Three Kingdoms established agricultural colonies on these models .
= = = Tax reforms = = =
Because small landowning families represented the mainstay of the Han tax base , the Han government attempted to aid and protect small landowners and to limit the power of wealthy landlords and merchants . The government reduced taxes in times of poor harvest and provided relief after disasters . Tax remissions and crop seed loans encouraged displaced peasants to return to their land . An edict in 94 AD excused displaced peasants from paying land and labor service taxes for a year upon returning to their own farms . The land tax on agricultural production was reduced in 168 BC from a rate of one @-@ fifteenth of crop yield to one @-@ thirtieth , and abolished in 167 BC . However , the tax was reinstated in 156 BC at a rate of one @-@ thirtieth . At the beginning of the Eastern Han , the land tax rate was one @-@ tenth of the crop yield , but following the stabilization following Wang Mang 's death , the rate was reduced to the original one @-@ thirtieth in 30 AD .
Towards the end of the Han dynasty , the land tax rate was reduced to one @-@ hundredth , with lost revenue recouped by increasing the poll and property tax rates . The poll tax for most adults was 120 coins annually , 240 coins for merchants , and 20 coins for minors aged between three and fourteen years . The lower taxable threshold age for minors increased to seven years during the reign of Emperor Yuan of Han ( r . 48 – 33 BC ) and onwards . Historian Charles Hucker writes that underreporting of the population by local authorities was deliberate and widespread , since this reduced their tax and labor service obligations rendered to the central government .
Though requiring additional revenue to fund the Han – Xiongnu War , the government during Emperor Wu of Han 's reign ( 141 – 87 BC ) sought to avoid heavy taxation of small landowners . To increase revenue , the government imposed heavier taxes on merchants , confiscated land from nobles , sold offices and titles , and established government monopolies over the minting of coins , iron manufacture and salt mining . New taxes were imposed on the ownership of boats , carts , carriages , wheelbarrows , shops and other properties . The overall property tax for merchants was raised in 119 BC from 120 coins for every 10 @,@ 000 coins @-@ worth of property owned to 120 coins for every 2 @,@ 000 coins @-@ worth of property owned . Tax rates for almost all commodities are unknown , except for that of liquor . After the government monopoly on liquor was abolished in 81 BC , a property tax of 2 coins for every 0 @.@ 2 litres ( 0 @.@ 05 US gal ) was levied on liquor merchants .
The sale of certain offices and titles was reintroduced in Eastern Han by Empress Dowager Deng Sui — who reigned as regent from 105 – 121 AD — to raise government revenues in times of severe natural disasters and the widespread rebellion of the Qiang people in western China . The sale of offices became extremely corrupt under the eunuch @-@ dominated government of Emperor Ling of Han ( r . 168 – 189 AD ) , when many top official posts were sold at the highest bidder instead of being filled by vetted candidates who had taken Imperial examinations or attended the Imperial University .
= = = Conscription = = =
Two forms of mass conscription existed during the Han period . These were civilian conscription ( gengzu 更卒 ) and military conscription ( zhengzu 正卒 ) . In addition to paying their monetary and crop taxes , all peasants of the Western Han period aged between fifteen and fifty @-@ six were required to undertake mandatory conscription duties for one month of each year . These duties were usually fulfilled by work on construction projects .
At the age of twenty @-@ three years male peasants were drafted to serve in the military , where they were assigned to infantry , cavalry , or navy service . After one year of training , they went on to perform a year of actual military service in frontier garrisons or as guards in the capital city . They remained liable to perform this year of service until the age of fifty @-@ six . This was also the age when they were dismissed from their local militias , which they could join once they had finished their year of conscripted service . These non @-@ professional conscripted soldiers comprised the Southern Army ( Nanjun 南軍 ) , while the Northern Army ( Beijun 北軍 ) was a standing army composed of paid career soldiers .
During the Eastern Han , peasants could avoid the month of annual conscripted labor by paying a tax in commutation ( gengfu 更賦 ) . This development went hand in hand with the increasing use of hired labor by the government . In a similar manner , because the Eastern @-@ Han government favored the military recruitment of volunteers , the mandatory military draft for peasants aged twenty @-@ three could be avoided by paying a tax in substitution .
= = = Merchants = = =
There were two categories of Han merchants : those who sold goods at shops in urban markets , and the larger @-@ scale itinerant traders who traveled between cities and to foreign countries . The small @-@ scale urban shopkeepers were enrolled on an official register and had to pay heavy commercial taxes . Although these registered merchants were taxed , an edict of 94 AD ordered that land
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0 and beyond = = =
In the 1999 – 2000 season , despite severe financial constraints , victories over a succession of Premiership sides led not only to a place in the sixth round of the FA Cup but a place in the 2000 Football League Cup Final against Leicester City – the first time Rovers had ever reached a major final . Matt Elliott scored Leicester 's opening goal , before Tranmere 's Clint Hill was sent off for a second bookable offence . Despite being reduced to ten men , David Kelly equalised ; but Elliot soon netted Leicester 's second goal and Tranmere lost the match 2 – 1 . It was the last League Cup game to be played at the original Wembley stadium .
In 2000 , the all @-@ white kit was reintroduced and is still used in 2014 . That season they enjoyed yet another run in Cup competitions beating local Premier League rivals Everton 3 – 0 at Goodison Park , then Southampton 4 – 3 ( after being 0 – 3 down ) , before finally bowing out to Liverpool . They nevertheless struggled in League matches ; Aldridge quit before Tranmere 's relegation to Division Two ended a spell of ten years in Division One .
Brian Little was appointed as manager in 2003 . He took Rovers to a play @-@ off semi final in 2004 – 05 and a best ever 6th round replay in the 2004 FA Cup where they lost to eventual finalists , Millwall . At the end of the 2005 – 06 season , Little left the club and was replaced by former player Ronnie Moore . In Moore 's three seasons in charge , the club finished 9th , 11th and 7th , just missing out the play @-@ offs in the final season . Despite this , he was sacked in 2009 and replaced by former England winger John Barnes , whose only previous domestic managerial experience was with Celtic 10 years earlier . It was whilst Barnes was manager that long serving Kitman , Mark Trevor , ended his 12 @-@ year ' Labour of Love ' washing the kit of his local team . Having been at the club since 1997 , he washed his last kit in August 2009 ready for the home game with Charlton Athletic . Barnes ' reign lasted considerably less , it was a mere five months before long @-@ serving club physiotherapist Les Parry was given temporary charge . Rovers finished the season in 19th place in League One , avoiding relegation on the final day of the season with a 3 – 0 victory at Stockport County . In June 2010 , Parry was given the manager 's job on a permanent basis . He was sacked on 4 March 2012 , after a 1 – 0 defeat by Chesterfield left them only one point above the relegation zone , and replaced by Ronnie Moore for the remainder of the season . Moore won six of his thirteen games in charge at the end of the season , guiding Tranmere to a comfortable mid @-@ table position , as they finished the season in the top half for the first time in several years . Moore then signed a new one @-@ year deal with Tranmere , keeping him at the club until the end of the 2012 – 13 season .
Towards the end of the 2013 – 14 season , Moore admitted breaking the Football Association 's betting rules , and was sacked by Tranmere when the club were just outside the relegation zone . Assistant John McMahon took over as caretaker manager , but Tranmere were relegated to League Two on the final game of the season . Rob Edwards was subsequently appointed as new manager .
On 11 August 2014 , it was announced that former player and Football Association chief executive Mark Palios and his wife Nicola were taking a controlling interest in the club from outgoing chairman Peter Johnson . Mark Palios would become Executive Chairman of the club , with Johnson becoming Honorary President .
After a poor start to the season , the home loss to Plymouth Argyle on 11 October 2014 saw Tranmere in last place in the Football League for the first time since 27 August 1987 after they had lost their first two matches of that season . Edwards was sacked as manager on 13 October . Mickey Adams took over a week later , with the aim of saving the club from relegation to the Conference . However , on 25 April 2015 Tranmere were relegated from the Football League after another defeat to Plymouth Argyle in the reverse fixture , ending their 94 @-@ year stay in the leagues . Gary Brabin was appointed as manager on 5 May 2015 .
= = Colours and crest = =
Belmont F.C. , the forerunners of today 's Rovers , wore blue shirts and white shorts , as did the early Rovers , until a radical change in 1889 , when a combination of maroon and orange shirts and navy blue shorts was introduced to " dazzle " their opponents in the West Lancashire League . These were abandoned in 1904 in favour of the earlier blue and white colours which have , in some form or other , remained until the present day . In 1962 , Dave Russell introduced a white strip with blue trim , saying " Tranmere Rovers should have a specific identity of its own , so on Merseyside there 's now Liverpool 's Red , Everton 's blue and Tranmere 's white " . Since then , the team have worn varying combinations of blue and white , moving back towards a more predominantly white kit in 2000 . The team 's colours are reflected in their nickname of the " Superwhites " .
Tranmere first introduced a badge on their shirt in 1962 , wearing the coat of arms of the borough of Birkenhead , along with adopting their motto " Ubi fides ibi lux et robur " , meaning " Where there is faith there is light and strength " . The crest was replaced in 1972 by a monogram , and in 1981 by a simple blue and white shield . In 1987 , a complicated and confusing crest was introduced , adapting the Birkenhead crest through the inclusion of a football and a TRFC logo . Today 's simpler badge was adopted in 1997 , and modified slightly in 2009 to mark the club 's 125 @-@ year anniversary .
= = Stadium = =
Rovers played their first matches at Steeles Field in Birkenhead but , in 1887 , they bought a new site from Tranmere Rugby Club . The ground was variously referred to as the " Borough Road Enclosure " , " Ravenshaw 's Field " and " South Road " . The name " Prenton Park " was adopted in 1895 as a result of a suggestion in the letters page of the Football Echo . Because the land was required for housing and a school , Tranmere were forced to move and the name went with them . The present Prenton Park was opened on 9 March 1912 . There were stands ( also known as bleachers ) on both sides of the pitch , a paddock and three open terraces , the general format which remained until 1994 .
Many improvements to the ground were driven by changes in legislation . The biggest change of all took place during 1994 and 1995 . The Taylor Report suggested that all stadia in the top two divisions of English football should no longer permit standing . The club 's response was to redevelop three sides of the ground with entirely new all @-@ seater stands created – the Borough Road Stand ( now the Johnny King Stand ) , the Cowshed and the new Kop , in addition to the existing Main Stand . Capacity in the ground thus increased from 14 @,@ 200 to the 16 @,@ 567 of today . On 11 March 1995 , the new ground was officially opened at a cost of £ 3 @.@ 1 million .
Attendances at the ground have fluctuated over its hundred @-@ year history . Around 8 @,@ 000 visitors watched the first game at the stadium , as Tranmere beat Lancaster Town 8 – 0 . Prenton Park 's largest @-@ ever crowd was 24 @,@ 424 for a 1972 FA Cup match between Tranmere and Stoke City . In 2010 , an average of 5 @,@ 000 fans attended each home game .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
Tranmere Rovers had an average home attendance of 5 @,@ 467 during the 2010 – 11 season , making them the twelfth best supported club in League One and 61st in The Football League as a whole . The club has a number of supporters ' groups , including the Tranmere Rovers Supporters Trust ; in 2010 , the trust raised £ 12 @,@ 500 for the club to sign Andy Robinson on loan . In 2011 , they raised £ 200 @,@ 000 and plan to purchase a controlling interest in Tranmere . TSB ( Tranmere Stanley Boys ) is the hooligan firm associated with the club . The club has been the subject of an independent supporters ' fanzine Give Us an R since the 1990s .
Despite being geographically closest to Everton and Liverpool , Tranmere 's time in the lower leagues has meant that they have formed rivalries with other clubs against whom they regularly compete . According to the Football Fans Census of 2003 , Tranmere fans listed Bolton Wanderers as their main rivals , followed by Chester City and Everton . In a more recent census , Oldham Athletic overtook Bolton as their main rivals , with Everton and Liverpool in joint third , although the census is debatable as it does not contain non @-@ league clubs , of whom Chester and Wrexham would likely feature . As of the end of the 2011 – 12 season , Tranmere had met the following teams most times in the Football League :
= = Tranmere Rovers Ladies = =
Tranmere Rovers Ladies Football Club were founded in 1990 . Based in the Wirral , they are affiliated with the men 's team , and play home games at Villa Park , the home of Ashville F.C. in Wallasey . Between 1996 and 2004 they competed in the FA Premier League National Division , then the top tier of the English women 's football pyramid . Since 2011 , they have played in the North West Regional League , Premier Division . As of the start of the 2011 – 12 season , they have won the Cheshire Cup a record 11 times .
= = Players = =
= = = First team squad = = =
Where a player has not declared an international allegiance , nation is determined by place of birth . Squad correct as of 6 May 2016 .
= = = Former players = = =
As part of the club 's 125 @-@ year anniversary celebrations in 2010 , a hall of fame was announced , initially honouring seven former players and managers : Ian Muir , John Aldridge , John King , Ray Mathias , Steve Mungall , John Morrissey and Pat Nevin . Harold Bell holds the record for the most consecutive league appearances for a British team . He was picked for the first game after the Second World War in the 1946 – 47 season and did not miss a match until 30 August 1955 , a total of 401 consecutive matches in the Third Division North .
= = Officials = =
= = = Current coaching staff = = =
= = = Managers = = =
As of the start of the 2011 – 12 season , the club has had 24 managers . The first man to hold this position was Bert Cooke , appointed in 1912 . He oversaw the club 's entry into the Football League and remained in charge for 23 years , the longest spell of any manager at the club . Major changes were not seen until businessman Dave Russell took over in 1961 . His introductions included the team 's current all @-@ white kit and regularly arranged floodlit home fixtures on Friday evenings rather than the usual Saturday afternoon . Rock band and Tranmere fans Half Man Half Biscuit described the practice in their song " Friday Night And The Gates Are Low " .
Tranmere 's most successful period came at the end of the twentieth century . John King returned for his third spell at the club in 1987 , having previously both played and managed the team . He led them to a victory in the League Trophy , and from the bottom of the Fourth Division to reach the play @-@ offs for promotion to the Premier League on three occasions . Success continued under King 's replacement , John Aldridge , including an appearance in the 2000 Football League Cup Final . From 2009 , they were managed by former club physiotherapist , Les Parry , until he was sacked on 4 March 2012 , and replaced by Ronnie Moore . In February 2014 it was reported that Moore was under investigation by The Football Association , for breaching its rules against betting on competitions in which his club were involved . Three days later , he was suspended , and after admitting the FA 's charges he was sacked on 9 April 2014 .
On 27 May 2014 , the club announced that Rob Edwards had been appointed as their new manager . He was sacked on 13 October 2014 .
Moving quickly to arrest the decline which had seen Tranmere slump to the bottom of League Two , former Port Vale manager Micky Adams ' appointment was announced on 16 October 2014 He left the club by mutual consent on 19 April 2015 , when the club were bottom of the league with two matches remaining .
Recent managers have had varied levels of success :
= = Honours = =
= = = League = = =
First Division ( tier 2 )
4th in 1992 – 93 ( highest league position )
Play @-@ offs : 1992 – 93 , 1993 – 94 , 1994 – 95
Third Division / Second Division / League One ( tier 3 )
Promotion : 1990 – 91
Play @-@ offs : 1989 – 90 , 2004 – 05
Third Division North ( tier 3 )
Winner : 1937 – 38
Fourth Division ( tier 4 )
Promotion : 1966 – 67 , 1975 – 76 , 1988 – 89
Lancashire Combination
Winner : 1913 – 14 , 1918 – 19
The Combination
Winner : 1907 – 08
= = = Cup = = =
FA Cup
Quarter @-@ final : 1999 – 2000 , 2000 – 01 , 2003 – 04
Welsh Cup
Winner : 1934 – 35
Runner @-@ up : 1933 – 34
Football League Cup
Runner @-@ up : 1999 – 2000
Semi @-@ final : 1993 – 94
League Trophy
Winner : 1989 – 90
Runner @-@ up : 1990 – 91
= = Records = =
Scoreline : 13 – 4 , against Oldham Athletic , on 26 December 1935 . The aggregate of 17 goals in one game remains a league record .
Attendance : 74 @,@ 313 , against Leicester City on 27 February 2000 , in the League Cup final at Wembley Stadium .
Home attendance : 24 @,@ 424 , for an FA Cup tie against Stoke City on 5 February 1972 .
Goals ( total ) : 180 , by Ian Muir .
Goals ( season ) : 40 , by both Bunny Bell ( 1934 – 35 ) and John Aldridge ( 1991 – 92 ) .
Appearances : 637 , by Ray Mathias .
= Nels Nelsen Hill =
Nels Nelsen Hill , originally Big Hill , is an abandoned ski jumping hill located in Mount Revelstoke National Park near the town of Revelstoke , British Columbia , Canada . The original hill , Big Hill , was built in 1916 and was the first permanent ski jump in Canada . By 1933 , four world length records had been set on the Big Hill . It fell out of use in 1939 , with Revelstoke instead using the Big Bend Ski Jump .
Big Hill was rebuilt to a K @-@ 80 hill in 1948 and was named in honor of Nels Nelsen , a local ski jumper who had set two world records on the hill . Among the events hosted there were the annual Tournament of Champions and the 1949 edition of the Western Canada Ski Championships . In the vicinity was a K @-@ 60 hill and other smaller hills . The hill record of 94 @.@ 5 meters ( 310 ft ) was set by Kjell Sjöberg in 1967 . The last major tournament was held in 1974 . The venue has not been used since 1975 and has fallen into disrepair .
= = First hill = =
Skiing in Revelstoke started in 1890 with the influx of Norwegian immigrants who brought with them their tradition of home @-@ made skies . By the early 1910s , ski jumping was a major pastime during winter , with small ski jumps being built all around the town . Revelstoke Ski Club was founded in 1914 and reached 102 members within a year . Starting in 1915 , the club 's annual high point was the Winter Carnival Tournament . The first tournament was held in 1915 , and featured competitions in cross @-@ country skiing and ski jumping for boys under 16 , and awarded the title of Champion of British Columbia . The inaugurate tournament was won by Nels Nelson .
One of the jury members for the jumping competition , Ambassador Iverson of Norway , helped find a suitable location for a new , permanent ski jumping hill . The hill selected was located in Mount Revelstoke National Park near Revelstoke , British Columbia . It would allow for world @-@ record jumps , and the natural inclination of the hill allowed this to be done without an artificial tower . As the site was located within the national park , a lease was obtained , which was financed through a $ 1 @,@ 200 grant from the chamber of commerce and the municipality . Revelstoke was the largest town in the British Columbia Interior at the time , and easily accessible due to its location on the Canadian Pacific Railway mainline .
Big Hill was first used for the 1916 Winter Carnival , in which Nelsen set a hill record at 56 meters ( 183 ft ) . He beat his own record several times and kept the hill record until 1921 . The tournament was gradually expanded , and by 1921 it cost $ 5 @,@ 800 to arrange . That year , Henry Hall set a world length record in the hill , jumping 70 meters ( 229 ft ) . Three thousand spectators watched the games , in which many of the world 's elite skiers competed . To accommodate the extra spectators , Canadian Pacific Railway stationed sleeping cars at Revelstoke to supplement the hotels . In 1922 , Isabel Coursier debuted as Big Hill 's first women jumper . In 1923 , the tournament climaxed with 99 participating ski jumpers . In 1925 , while sick with the flu , Nelsen beat Hall 's world record by jumping 73 meters ( 240 ft ) . The record would remain until 1930 .
In 1928 , the hill was expanded to allow for jumps to 79 meters ( 260 ft ) . A car was offered to anyone able to beat Nelsen 's record jump at the Big Hill , provided that at least three outside jumpers participated in the competition . The prize was offered by local fur dealer J. H. Munro , who hoped to attract the world 's elite ski jumpers to Revelstoke . Many of the world 's best ski jumpers attended that year 's tournament , such as Henry Hall , Henry Lien , Ivan Knudsen and Alf Engen . Nelsen won the race , but failed to break his own record . The record was eventually broken by Adolph Badrut at Tremplin de Bretaye in Swtizerland in 1930 , who jumped 75 meters ( 246 ft ) . However , Bob Lymburne was able to again claim the world record for the Big Hill , when he jumped 82 meters ( 269 ft ) in 1932 . He lost the record to Sigmund Ruud the following year , but by the end of the season , Lymburne reclaimed the title with a jump of 87 @.@ 5 meters ( 287 ft ) . Birger Ruud exceeded Lymbourne 's record in 1934 and no further world records were set in Revelstoke . Big Hill is the only ski jumping venue in Canada to have set world records .
= = Hill replaced = =
On 15 January 1939 , the Big Bend Ski Jump replaced Big Hill . It was located just north of town , allowing for a short walk to the venue and easier maintenance . It had been built to allow Revelstoke to host the Western Canada Ski Championships . It was a success for Revelstoke , with " ski trains " being set up from Vancouver to bring people in from the city to watch the events . The championships were broadcast on radio and received unprecedented newspaper attention for a Revelstoke skiing event . During the Second World War , only junior tournaments were contested . In 1946 , the Big Bend was renamed Hans Gunnarsen Ski Jump in honor of local jumper Hans Gunnarsen who had died in action . In 1947 , Revelstoke again hosted the Western Canadian Ski Championships .
= = Last hill = =
In April 1948 , the Big Hill was rebuilt and renamed Nels Nelsen Hill . With grants from the National Parks Department , Revelstoke Ski Club rebuilt the hill to meet the profile criteria set by the International Ski Federation , giving the hill a construction point of 80 meters ( 260 ft ) . The first tournament was the International Invitational Ski Jumping Tournament held in March 1949 , and attended by 2 @,@ 500 people . It was inaugurated by local ski jumper Art Johnson and the tournament was won by Petter Hugsted of Norway , who jumped 75 meters ( 247 ft ) . In 1950 , the first Tournament of Champions was held to which seven Norwegian jumpers were invited . Art Johnson re @-@ mortgaged his home for $ 8000 to pay for the expenses of the Norwegians . The event was won by Arnfinn Bergmann . The tournament was held throughout the 1950s and started attracting jumpers from Sweden , Finland , Germany and Japan . The 1958 edition was the first to be televised , although this resulted in fewer spectators . That year 's event saw a new hill record of 82 meters ( 270 ft ) be set by Norway 's Odd Brevik . The following year , Finland 's Kalevi Kärkinen broke the record , reaching 85 meters ( 278 ft ) .
In 1961 , the wooden judge 's tower was replaced by a new one in steel . Tournaments were held every year except in 1963 , when it was canceled because of lack of snow . The 1960s also saw the construction of a smaller hill with a construction point of 60 meters ( 200 ft ) which was used for Olympic trials . The town even considered placing a bid for the 1968 Winter Olympics . However , throughout the 1960s , the interest in ski jumping was declining , resulting in lower attendance . The North American Nordic Championship was held in 1962 , and two years later Nels Nelsen Hill hosted the Canadian Nordic Championships , attracting crowds of up to 3 @,@ 000 spectators . In 1967 , Kjell Sjöberg set a Canadian jumping record of 94 @.@ 5 meters ( 310 ft ) . The Tournament of Champions , which had with a few interruptions been running since the inauguration , continued into the early 1970s .
The hill required a lot of volunteer work to maintain and run during the season and particularly for the tournament . It also lacked a ski lift . Combined , this made it increasingly difficult to recruit new ski jumpers during the 1960s , particularly after a lift was installed on Mount Revelstoke in 1961 . Skiing activities moved to Mount Mackenzie during the 1960s and in 1973 , the ski club also relocated to there . The Tournament of Champions during 1971 and 1972 incurred a heavy loss . The last major tournaments in Nels Nelson Hill were the Western Canadian Ski Jumping Tournament , the Canadian Junior and Senior Ski Jumping Championship and the International Cross Country Championship , held in February and March 1974 . The last tournament was a junior event held in 1975 . The venue has since fallen into disrepair .
= Rough Landing , Holly =
" Rough Landing , Holly " is a song by the American pop punk band Yellowcard . The song was written collaboratively by all the band members for their fifth album , Lights and Sounds ( 2006 ) . The track is built around an introductory guitar sound , followed by a soaring chorus , and heavy beating drums . " Rough Landing , Holly " is one of the songs from the album that is based on a character , Holly Wood , that Yellowcard had developed while working on Lights and Sounds .
The song was released on May 6 , 2006 , as the second single from Lights and Sounds and reached number 27 on Billboard 's Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart . Internationally , the track appeared for one week in the Australian and New Zealand charts at number 49 . " Rough Landing , Holly " was well received by music critics , who noted the track 's general sound . After its release , it was featured in the soundtrack of the 2006 video game , FlatOut 2 .
The music video was directed by Marc Webb , who had previously collaborated with the band on their previous music videos . In an interview , Webb revealed the video was the sequel to the band 's 2004 video " Ocean Avenue " . Webb also revealed that unlike " Ocean Avenue " , in which Key is running away from bad guys , this video shows Key running away from his " own personal demons " .
= = Background = =
While Yellowcard was working on their upcoming album , Lights and Sounds , they developed a character , Holly Wood , who served as a narrator and protagonist for the album 's storyline . The character also came about when the band began writing about their hatred for life in Los Angeles . Vocalist Ryan Key , in discussion of the character , said , " Holly became this person on the record who appears in a lot of the songs , and at times you love her and at times you hate her . At times she 's good to you and sometimes she 's bad . " Violinist Sean Mackin , also in discussion of the character , said : " ... Ryan didn ’ t have a romantic interest in his life and he didn ’ t want to write ' Only One ' again , and he wanted to create something new . A lot of songwriters narrate and create fictional characters ... and Holly was a character where sometimes you love her and sometimes you hate her , and she was someone he could get all his emotions out through . " Key revealed that the song " Rough Landing , Holly " , which features the Holly character , was his " favorite song " from Lights and Sounds .
Written in the key of E major , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 175 beats per minute . The song 's musical structure features an introductory guitar sound , followed by a soaring chorus , and heavy beating drums . Sean Mackin plays the violin in " Rough Landing , Holly " . During discussion of the track listing in Lights and Sounds , Yellowcard revealed that " Rough Landing , Holly " spoke about the " difficulty of giving up its allure " . The band explained the lyrics , " And I still can 't get out / She 's all I think about / Can 't let her go / ... She moves fast , takes control / And like a heart attack I know I can 't turn back " , were written because of that particular reason .
= = Release and promotion = =
Yellowcard released " Rough Landing , Holly " in the United States on May 6 , 2006 , as the second single from Lights and Sounds . The song peaked at number 27 on Billboard 's Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart . Internationally , the track appeared on both the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and New Zealand charts at the number 49 position , and individually spent one week on the charts . " Rough Landing , Holly " was featured in the soundtrack of the 2006 video game , FlatOut 2 .
The song received positive reception from critics . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone wrote that " Rough Landing , Holly " and " Lights and Sounds " , the latter being the title track , " boast seismic alt @-@ rock riffs and mosh @-@ worthy refrains . " Tom Beaujor of Entertainment Weekly reported that the song was a " blustery tale of puppy love gone to the dogs that will surely make for a great ringtone . " Sputnikmusic wrote : " So how typical to have the next song , ' Rough Landing , Holly ' , slap you right on the mouth with a face @-@ melting violin solo . Yeah , a violin solo . And its pretty damn good . The beat follows right along with impossible @-@ sounding drum rolls while the guitar distortion is the backbone of the song . " In the Allmusic review , critic Heather Phares wrote , " ... Yellowcard expands on its expected sound . Songs like the title track , ' Rough Landing , Holly , ' and ' Down on My Head ' are tightly crafted , state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art examples of shiny , earnest punk @-@ pop that sounds sunny even when it 's sad " . Tony Pascarella of AbsolutePunk.net noted that " we see flashes of the ' old ' band on ' Rough Landing , Holly ' , but it ’ s not nearly widespread enough for my liking ( although the song is possibly the best one on the new album ) . " Bart Gottula of The Clarion commented that the song " is probably one of the best songs " off Lights and Sounds and concluded that it was because of its " effective use of every instrument , a soulful blend of guitar , and excellent lyrics . "
= = Music video = =
The video for " Rough Landing , Holly " was shot in Los Angeles in February 2006 . The music video was directed by Marc Webb , who had previously worked with Yellowcard on their earlier videos , " Ocean Avenue " ( 2004 ) and " Lights and Sounds " ( 2005 ) . The video took three days to film in and around Los Angeles County .
In an interview with MTV News , Webb revealed that the video was a sequel of the music video " Ocean Avenue " ; " The ' Holly ' video expands on some of the elements of the ' Ocean Avenue ' clip . There are references to it , particularly some scenes involving a suitcase . It refers to that world , and I liked the idea of paralleling the band 's experiences over the past two years with some of the things [ frontman ] Ryan [ Key ] is going through in this video . " Webb went on to add that the reason Key is sprinting through Los Angeles , once again , is not bad guys that are after him , it is his " own personal demons " . Webb concluded that before filming began for the video , he had wanted to learn the experience that Key and bassist Peter Mosely were going through in New York , as they moved there to begin working on Lights and Sounds , and about the things they saw while they were there .
The video begins with Ryan Key lying on his bed in an apartment . Suddenly , he gets swallowed by the bedsheets ( this is where the track starts to play ) . The scene then shifts to Key in another dimension , ending up next to the wife of another man . The man notices Key , and he runs away from the man . Hiding in the bathroom , Key escapes through a window , where he ends up on a neighborhood street . Someone dressed in dark clothing gestures to offer him a drink , when Key notices he is in a bar filled with Asian people . During part of the video , it features the band performing in front of a crowd wearing suits . The chase continues through a hallway , underwater , to a hospital bed , and back . The video is based in a scene of the 1999 film Being John Malkovich , where Cameron Diaz chases Catherine Keener within the subconscious of Malkovich .
= = Track listing = =
AU Single :
" Rough Landing , Holly " – 3 : 33
" Holly Wood Died " ( live ) – 3 : 55
" Cigarette " ( live ) – 4 : 56
= = Chart positions = =
= Citizen 's Briefing Book =
Citizen 's Briefing Book is a compilation book of recommendations made to President Barack Obama by visitors to the Change.gov website , given to the President after his January 20 , 2009 inauguration . Internet users were able to post recommendations of changes they would like to see made in the United States , and they were also able to vote on other users ' recommendations , as well as participate in a comment process .
The Minnesota @-@ based company called Reside helped develop the functionality , using technology from Salesforce.com. Co @-@ chair of the Obama @-@ Biden Transition Team , Valerie Jarrett , stated that the Citizen 's Briefing Book was a way for the Obama transition process to remain open and transparent . Popular recommendations included ending the prohibition on marijuana use in the United States and the legalization of online poker . Citizen 's Briefing Book received positive comments from writers for the Christian Science Monitor and Business Week , and criticism from writers for Chicago Tribune and Indianapolis Business Journal .
= = Comment process = =
Citizen 's Briefing Book is a work of suggestions by individuals compiled into a book format and submitted to President Barack Obama after his inauguration on January 20 , 2009 . Internet users originally posted their suggestions at Change.gov , with the plan that after Barack Obama was sworn in as President the website hosting the recommendations would direct users to Whitehouse.gov. The option to participate in the request for comment format was open until January 20 , 2009 , where users were able to post suggestions to the President , read others ' recommendations , and comment on each other 's ideas . Users voted on individual recommendations with an up or down vote for each suggestion .
The web function was developed for the Obama transition team by the Minnesota @-@ based company called Reside , and utilizes technology from Salesforce.com. Co @-@ chair of the Obama @-@ Biden Transition Team , Valerie Jarret , stated : " The Citizen 's Briefing Book will come directly from the American people . It is yet another way that we will ensure that this transition is the most open and transparent one in history . " Members of Obama 's transition team interacted with users and responded to the voting . Beth Noveck , a law professor at NYU Law School and a member of the Obama Administration 's " Technology , Innovation and Government Reform Team " , stated that the book would help the government " get the best ideas for the beginning of the administration " .
= = Top recommendations = =
According to the Change.gov
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site the best @-@ rated ideas would " rise to the top " of the list , to later be given to the President . As of January 17 , 2009 the most popular suggestion , with 70 @,@ 520 points , advocated ending the prohibition on marijuana use in the United States . By January 19 , 2009 , over 500 @,@ 000 people had voted on thousands of suggestions posted by 70 @,@ 000 individuals . In total over 44 @,@ 000 suggestions were submitted , with over 1 @.@ 4 million votes cast for the various recommendations .
Other popular ideas included legalizing online poker in the United States , and focusing on green initiatives . One post suggested the administration investigate UFOs , and another suggested Obama hire entertainment personalities including Michael Moore , Jon Stewart , Bill Maher , and Stephen Colbert . After voting had closed , the most popular suggestion with 92 @,@ 000 votes was " Ending marijuana prohibition " , and the third most popular : " Stop using federal resources to undermine states ' medicinal marijuana laws . " A representative for President Obama , Jen Psaki , told Reuters : " President Obama does not support the legalization of marijuana . "
= = Release = =
The Obama Administration released the Citizen 's Briefing Book to the public on May 11 , 2009 , the same day that President Obama announced the renaming of the White House Office of Public Liaison to the Office of Public Engagement . " Many of the ideas you offer , from improving light rail transit to modernizing our energy grid to creating a new service corps , have been embraced by my administration , " said President Obama in a video released along with the briefing book .
= = Reception = =
Writing for the Christian Science Monitor , David Peck described the initiative as part of " a good foundation " of reaching out to individuals . Douglas MacMillan of Business Week noted that the Obama transition site Change.gov " won praise for its clean look and Citizen 's Briefing Book feature " . Joel Hood of the Chicago Tribune highlighted some of the more eccentric suggestions posted , commenting : " As if President Barack Obama doesn 't have enough on his plate , he 's about to hear the voice of the people , in all its eccentric glory . "
Morton Marcus commented in the Indianapolis Business Journal : " I see the virtue of being open to the public ’ s concern . I cannot imagine that the president will give attention to issues based on their popularity . " In noting that the first and third @-@ most popular items voted upon involved the legalization of marijuana , Andy Sullivan of Reuters commented on President Obama 's efforts to solicit opinions from citizens on legislation : " That approach can deliver unexpected results . "
= Duchess Violante Beatrice of Bavaria =
Violante Beatrice of Bavaria ( Violante Beatrix ; 23 January 1673 – 30 May 1731 ) was Grand Princess of Tuscany as the wife of Grand Prince Ferdinando of Tuscany and Governor of Siena from 1717 until her death . Born a Duchess of Bavaria , the youngest child of Elector Ferdinand Maria , she married the heir to the Tuscan throne , Ferdinando de ' Medici , in 1689 . Violante Beatrice loved him but Ferdinando did not return her affection , declaring her too ugly and too dull . Her brother @-@ in @-@ law , Prince Gian Gastone , befriended her out of sympathy , a friendship that lasted until Violante Beatrice 's demise .
Grand Prince Ferdinando expired from syphilis in 1713 , leaving his childless widow without purpose at the Tuscan court . Upon the return of the Electress Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici , daughter of the then reigning , Cosimo III , thus Violante Beatrice 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , the Dowager Grand Princess contemplated retiring to her brother 's court at Munich ; however , Gian Gastone convinced her to stay , and Cosimo III appointed her Governor of Siena , where she then resided . As Governor , she formally defined the boundaries , names and number of Sienese Contrade — akin to administrative divisions — in 1729 . During Grand Duke Gian Gastone 's rule , the Governor was responsible for formal court audiences . Violante Beatrice , in collaboration with the Electress Anna Maria Luisa , attempted to withdraw Gian Gastone from the Ruspanti , his salacious entourage , by arranging banquets and public appearances . Gian Gastone , however , was immune to these approaches and spent the last eight years of his reign confined to bed , entertained by the myriad Ruspanti .
= = Childhood and marriage = =
Violante Beatrice , the youngest child of the Elector of Bavaria , Ferdinand Maria , and Henriette Adelaide of Savoy , was born on 23 January 1673 in Munich , the capital of Bavaria . Her siblings were Maria Anna Victoria , Dauphine of France , Elector Maximilian II and Joseph Clemens , Archbishop of Cologne .
Grand Duke Cosimo III of Tuscany in 1688 sought Violante Beatrice as a prestigious bride — Bavaria was one of the most powerful states of the Holy Roman Empire — for his elder son and heir , Ferdinando , Grand Prince of Tuscany . As Cosimo 's father , Ferdinando II , had embroiled Elector Ferdinand Maria in an abortive financial venture costing him 450 @,@ 000 ungheri worth of gold , relations between Munich and Florence were sour .
In order to acquire Violante Beatrice 's hand for the Grand Prince , Cosimo was obliged to reimburse Ferdinand Maria 's son Maximilian II . With this obstacle surmounted , the marriage contract was signed on 24 May 1688 , granting Violante Beatrice a dowry of 400 @,@ 000 thalers in cash and the same amount in jewellery . She married the Grand Prince by proxy in Munich on 21 November 1688 and was married in person on 9 January 1689 . The wedding reception was held at the Palazzo Medici Riccardi in Florence . The new Grand Princess was instantly enamoured with the bridegroom , in spite of the fact he loathed her . Cosimo III , however , could not find fault in his daughter @-@ in @-@ law , saying , " I have never known , nor do I think the world can produce , a disposition so perfect " .
= = Grand Princess = =
The grand princely couple 's lack of offspring after six years of marriage perturbed the Grand Duke . Consequently , much to the Grand Princess 's mortification , he commissioned three days ' religious observance to remedy their lack of children in April 1694 . Any hopes of an heir were dashed when Ferdinando contracted , in 1696 , syphilis during the Carnival of Venice , a disease to which he succumbed seventeen years later . The Grand Princess , meanwhile , fell victim to a state of melancholy , which did not escape the notice of her brother @-@ in @-@ law , Prince Gian Gastone , who befriended her as a result . Violante Beatrice rarely alluded to her emotional pain in conversation , but , on one documented occasion , in the presence of her ladies , branded Ferdinando 's lover Cecchino de Castris the focus of her woes . That Ferdinando often openly declared his wife " too dull and too ugly " only worsened matters .
The Grand Princess found herself , in 1702 , in the middle of a protocolary spat between Tuscany and Spain . The Grand Duke sent an agent to the court of Philip V of Spain with the objective of procuring a license for the Grand Prince and Princess — who , hypothetically , acquired royal dignity with Cosimo III on 5 February 1691 from the Holy Roman Emperor , Leopold I 's , diploma — to use the style Royal Highness in correspondence with Spain . Philip V initially deigned only to sanction his aunt Violante Beatrice 's use ; however , the agent , Pucci , eventually requisitioned full recognition .
King Philip V and Frederick IV of Denmark paid Violante Beatrice visits in 1703 and 1709 , respectively . The former chose to ignore the other members of the Tuscan Royal Family and reluctantly deigned only speak to her . The latter , on the other hand , was taken with Violante , going as far as to refuse to leave the room while she was changing clothes .
The Grand Prince , after much suffering , died from syphilis on 31 October 1713 , sparking a succession crisis and leaving his wife a childless and therefore purposeless widow . The Dowager was so distraught that she had to be bled by doctors in order to calm her down . Cosimo III gave her a set of blue sapphires as a token of mourning . Violante Beatrice considered returning to her homeland when she caught wind of the Electress Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici 's , born a Tuscan princess , impending return ; the two did not get along . Violante Beatrice , additionally , would be usurped as first @-@ lady of Tuscany . To quell any future tiffs regarding precedence , Cosimo III appointed Violante Beatrice Governor of Siena , whose duties as such kept her away from the Tuscan court , and gave her possession of the Villa di Lappeggi , which became , in the words of historian Harold Acton , " a sort of literary academy " . Here , she feted poets Lucchesi , Ghivanizzi and Morandi . Although precedence was laid out cognisant of Violante Beatrice 's dignity , the Electress on several occasions disregarded it . Thus , Violante Beatrice refused to appear with her in public .
= = Governor of Siena = =
The Governor entered her domain in April 1717 , taking up residence in the city @-@ centre . Violante Beatrice 's most memorable act as Governor was the reorganisation of the Sienese Contrade — akin to administrative divisions — whose names , number and boundaries she formally defined which remain there to this day . The Grand Duke Cosimo III died on 31 October 1723 ; Gian Gastone ascended to the throne . He immediately recalled Violante Beatrice to Florence and banished his sister to the Villa La Quiete . Violante Beatrice dominated the royal court as Gian Gastone resigned his public duties to her , and literally chose to spend most of his time in bed . The " religious gloom " of Cosimo III gave way to a period of rejuvenation : Violante Beatrice instituted French fashions at court , compelled myriad Ecclesiastes to retire and patronised Siense poets Perfetti and Ballati . Violante Beatrice brought Perfetti to Rome in 1725 and stayed at the Palazzo Madama . During her time in the Papal States , she met Pope Benedict XIII , who found her so agreeable that he bestowed upon her the golden rose , a great mark of Papal favour .
Upon her return from Rome , Violante Beatrice and the Electress Anna Maria Luisa decided to do something about Gian Gastone 's public image and the Ruspanti , his entourage . In order to distract him from the Ruspanti , Violante Beatrice threw banquets , to which she invited the foremost members of Tuscan society . The Grand Duke 's behaviour , vomiting , belching and cracking rude jokes , literally sent the guests scrambling to leave . The Electress was more fortunate for her part . She succeeded in making Gian Gastone appear on Saint John the Baptist 's day , 1729 . However , during the ceremony , the Grand Duke became so intoxicated that he had to be dragged back to his palace , the Pitti , on a litter .
Just five months before the arrival of troops on behalf of Gian Gastone 's Spanish heir , Violante Beatrice of Bavaria , Dowager Grand Princess of Tuscany , Governor of Siena , died . During the funeral procession , her hearse briefly paused before the Pitti , an action that incensed the Grand Duke , who ordered the hearse to move along in words a contemporary dubbed " unfit for the lowest of harlots , let alone for a gentle high @-@ born princess " . The bulk of Violante Beatrice 's remains were interred in the Convent of Saint Teresa , Florence ; her heart was placed in her husband 's coffin in the Medicean necropolis , San Lorenzo . When in 1857 her sarcophagus was re @-@ discovered , it bore the imperial stamp of Napoleon I of France , who had had it moved from the convent to San Lorenzo . On 26 February 1858 , she was restored to the convent , brought there in the royal hearse .
= = Ancestors = =
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
23 January 1673 – 9 January 1689 : Her Serene Highness Princess Violante Beatrice of Bavaria , Duchess of Bavaria
9 January 1689 – 5 February 1691 : Her Highness The Grand Princess of Tuscany
5 February 1691 – 31 October 1713 : Her Royal Highness The Grand Princess of Tuscany
31 October 1713 – 12 April 1717 : Her Royal Highness The Dowager Grand Princess of Tuscany
12 April 1717 – 30 May 1731 : Her Royal Highness The Governor of Siena
= = = Honours = = =
Dame of the Golden Rose ( 1725 )
= Leslie Grinsell =
Leslie Valentine Grinsell ( 14 February 1907 – 28 February 1995 ) was an English archaeologist . He became noted within the discipline for his studies of the prehistoric barrows found across southern England , and published widely on archaeological subjects during his lifetime .
Born in London and raised largely in Brighton , Grinsell developed an early interest in archaeology through visits to Brighton Museum . Later working as a bank clerk in London , he embarked on archaeological research in an amateur capacity , visiting prehistoric barrows during his weekends and holidays in order to record their shape , dimensions , and location . On the basis of his research , he published a range of academic articles and books on the subject of barrows during the 1930s , gaining recognition as Britain 's foremost expert on the subject . In 1933 , he carried out his only archaeological excavation , at the Devil 's Humps in Sussex .
During the Second World War he joined the Royal Air Force and served in Egypt , where he acquainted himself with the archaeological remains of Ancient Egyptian society ; after the war he published a book on the Egyptian pyramids . On his return to Britain , Grinsell became the treasurer of the Prehistoric Society , a position that he held from 1947 till 1970 . Moving to Devizes , in 1949 he entered the archaeological profession as an assistant to Christopher Hawkes and Stuart Piggott at the Victoria County History project . From 1952 to 1972 , Grinsell worked as Keeper of Anthropology and Archaeology at Bristol City Museum , during which time he continued his examination of barrows , focusing on those in south @-@ west England . On retirement , he was appointed to the Order of the British Empire and a festschrift was published in his honour .
Over the course of his lifetime , Grinsell examined and catalogued around 10 @,@ 000 barrows and advanced the archaeological understanding of such monuments . His use of non @-@ excavatory fieldwork influenced much British archaeology in the latter part of his 20th century , while his willingness to pay attention to other sources of information , such as folklore and place @-@ names , has been deemed to be ahead of his time .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early Life : 1907 – 45 = = =
Grinsell was born in London on 14 February 1907 . With his family , he moved to Brighton shortly after the First World War . There , his interest in archaeology was encouraged by H. S. Toms , the curator of Brighton Museum who had formerly been an assistant to the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers . Moving back to London , in 1925 Grinsell became a clerk for Barclays Bank . Although he had developed his interest in prehistory through an examination of stone tools , he came to focuse his attention on barrows , recognising that these were among the least well understood prehistoric monuments in the British landscape and one of the few that could be studied from the position of an amateur . At the time , a number of antiquarians were still active in southern England , with Grinsell being encouraged in his interests by prominent figures in this milieu such as Eliot Curwen and Hadrian Allcroft .
Grinsell 's techniques of conducting archaeological fieldwork were entirely self @-@ taught , and from the start of his investigations he was very interested in understanding both the distribution and the chronology of the barrows . During the 1930s , Grinsell personally visited and catalogued all of the extant barrows in the counties of Surrey , Sussex , Berkshire , Hampshire , and the Isle of Wight , establishing himself as the " pre @-@ eminent " figure in the study of British barrows . The archaeologist Nicholas Thomas later noted that despite Grinsell 's status as an amateur , by 1932 he had established himself as being " without parallel " in British archaeology , with his accomplishments surpassing even the work of professionals like O. G. S. Crawford . Never having learned to drive , Grinsell conducted all his visits through the use of buses , trains , and on foot .
In 1932 Grinsell attended the First International Prehistoric Congress , held in London ; it was here that he was introduced to Crawford , with the two becoming close acquaintances , both sharing an interest in the use of maps as part of their archaeological fieldwork . It was also here that he met the Dutch archaeologist Albert Egges van Giffen ; they discussed whether the bell barrows of Sussex were related to the palisade barrows of the Netherlands which van Giffen had been investigating . Seeking an answer to this question , Grinsell conducted his only excavation , an examination of one of several bell barrows – collectively known as the known as the Devil 's Humps – atop Bow Hill in Sussex . Conducted in April 1933 with the help of two members of the Brighton and Hove Archaeological Society , publication of the results was delayed until 1942 . In 1936 he published The Ancient Burial Mounds of England , and then followed this with The Bronze Age Round Barrows of Wessex in 1941 .
Around 1937 he met the painter and amateur archaeologist Heywood Sumner while conducting an exploration of the barrows of Hampshire , with his own hand @-@ drawn plans of barrows becoming influenced by Sumner 's illustrative style . With the archaeologist R. F. Jessup he began conducting a survey of the barrows in Kent , although their notes for this were later destroyed in an air raid during the Second World War before they could be published . With the archaeologist R. Rainbird Clarke he then conducted a survey of the barrows of Norfolk ; their findings were stored in an archive although never published .
After the outbreak of the Second World War , Grinsell became a Pilot Officer in the Air Photographic Branch of the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in 1941 . During he conflict , he was stationed in Egypt , where he spent time studying the archaeological remains of Ancient Egypt and visiting al of the pyramids near to Cairo . Based on these experiences , at his own expense he published Egyptian Pyramids in 1947 . Designed as a guide to the sites , it was ( as Grinsell acknowledged ) heavily reliant on the earlier plans of Egyptologists but with additional aerial photographs that Grinsell had obtained through his involvement with the RAF . The book was largely ignored by Britain 's Egyptological establishment .
= = = Life as a Professional Archaeologist : 1945 – 95 = = =
On returning to Britain , Grinsell went back to his job at Barclays Bank . In 1947 he became the treasurer of the Prehistoric Society , a position that he retained until 1970 , during which he helped to secure the organisation 's post @-@ war reconstruction . In 1949 the archaeologist Christopher Hawkes invited Grinsell to join him and Stuart Piggott as a project assistant at Victoria County History in order to compile the Victoria County History of Wiltshire . Grinsell accepted , leaving his bank job and moving to the Wiltshire town of Devizes , thus becoming a professional archaeologist . Thomas later stated that the Victoria County History of Wiltshire " represents the high point in [ Grinsell 's ] combined powers of fieldwork , grasp of secondary sources and handling of a great deal of detailed information . " Grinsell later published the book The Archaeology of Wessex , which was based on his experience during this period .
Leaving Devizes , in 1952 Grinsell became Keeper of Anthropology and Archaeology at Bristol City Museum , remaining there until his retirement in 1972 . He also published a number of academic articles and book reviews . During his holidays he often visited the Mediterranean , where he examined various prehistoric tombs . He also continued pursuing his interest in barrows , and by the 1970s had also catalogued those examples in Dorset , Gloucestershire , Somerset , and Devon .
Bristol University awarded him an honourary degree on the basis of his work , while he was appointed to the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in 1972 . That same year a festschrift was issued in his honour , edited by Nichols Fowler . In 1989 , Grinsell published an autobiography ; reviewing it for the Folklore journal , the historian Hilda Ellis Davidson praised it but noted that it does not " tell us very much about the inner life of the author " . According to the archaeologist Paul Ashbee , Grinsell 's " directness , whimsical humour and sound common sense were legendary , as were his walking , youth @-@ hostelling and penchant for traditional afternoon teas of the cream variety . " A bachelor , he never married .
= = Legacy = =
Over the course of his career , Grinsell had examined and recorded around 10 @,@ 000 barrows . Thomas stated that Grinsell 's " astonishing volume of published fieldwork ... assured for him a place without equal in the history of British archaeological studies " . This recording was particularly valuable for archaeologists because it occurred before large numbers of British barrows were heavily damaged as a result of deep ploughing and land development . It also demonstrated the spread of barrows within particular regions and confirmed the older assumption that these barrows were heavily concentrated on areas of chalk geology . Many of the barrows that Grinsell discovered – such as Lambourn long barrow in Berkshire – were previously unrecorded , while he was also responsible for the discovery of rock art on the face of an Early Bronze Age grave slab at Pool Farm in West Harptree , Somerset .
According to Thomas , Grinsell 's career illustrated the validity of amateur archaeologists , the importance of publishing one 's research , and the significance of archaeological fieldwork other than excavation . The archaeologist Paul Ashbee expressed the view that " to a great extent [ he ] determined the direction of field archaeology in the second half " of the 20th century .
Interested in using sources other than archaeology , Grinsell made use of documents , place @-@ names , folklore , and the accounts of antiquarians as part of his research . According to later archaeologists Amy Gazin @-@ Schwartz and Cornelius Holtfdorf , Grinsell was one of the few archaeologists of his generation who was interested in the relationship between folklore and archaeology , comparing him in this way to continental European scholars Paul Saintyves , Horst Ohlhaver , and Karel C. Peeters .
= Knitta Please =
Knitta Please , also known as simply Knitta , is the group of artists who began the " knit graffiti " movement in Houston , Texas in 2005 . They are known for wrapping public architecture — e.g. lampposts , parking meters , telephone poles , and signage — with knitted or crocheted material . It has been called " knit graffiti " , " yarn storming " and " yarnbombing " . The mission is to make street art " a little more warm and fuzzy . "
Knitta grew to eleven members by the end of 2007 , but eventually dwindled down to its founder , who continues to travel and knit graffiti . Internationally , as many as a dozen groups have followed Knitta 's lead . Sayeg and the group have shown their art across the United States and around the world .
= = History = =
The group began with a self @-@ taught knitter known as PolyCotN . She founded the group with anonymous member AKrylik in October 2005 as a way to deal with frustration over their own unfinished knitting projects . It started with a doorknob cosy for the front door of Sayeg 's Houston boutique . She loved it and , unexpectedly , so did the passersby . That inspired them to make more . "
The name of the group and the nicknames of the members were inspired by a desire to " resemble graffiti , but with knitted items " . The group mixed crafting terminology with a hip @-@ hop style , then changed the spelling " to represent traditional street art monikers " . PolyCotN and AKrylik came up with their own names , then invented names for other members . Some former member names include Knotorious N.I.T. , SonOfaStitch and P @-@ Knitty .
By 2007 , Knitta 's membership had grown twelve members and there were an estimated five to twelve copycat groups internationally . By 2009 , there was a groundswell , according to Sydney , Australia author and academic Emily Howes , who identified groups in Scandinavia , Japan , South Africa , and the United States . However , membership in Knitta eventually dwindled , leaving only the founder .
= = Art = =
Usually tagging on Friday nights and Sunday mornings , Knitta taggers would leave a paper tag on each work , bearing the slogan " knitta please " or " whaddup knitta ? " . They tagged trees , lamp posts , railings , fire hydrants , monuments and other urban targets , Another popular piece involved hanging knitted @-@ bagged sneakers over aerial telephone cable . The crew would mark holidays by doing themed work , using , for example , pink yarn for Valentine 's Day pieces and sparkly yarn for New Years . When Knitta was not working with a theme , they would work on projects , tagging specific targets or specific areas . The group and their followers consider their graffiti " a method of beautifying public space " . However , such work is considered vandalism in some U.S. States .
In 2006 the group decided to visit New York City , where they did their first large scale piece . Using more than 50 feet ( 15 m ) of knitted material donated by volunteers of the crew 's mailing list , they wrapped the top half of a monorail column . Knitta also called on others across the U.S. to get tagging and send in their images .
For another large project , the group tagged all 25 trees in the median of Allen Parkway in Houston for the annual Art Car parade in May 2006 , wrapping them in blankets measuring two feet tall by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half feet long . A year later , they were invited to the Standard Hotel in Los Angeles , which caters to an edgy clientele , to tag a glass box featuring trendsetters ' designs and concepts .
To celebrate the 60th anniversary of Bergère de France , the first manufacturer of French yarn , the company invited Knitta to Paris to " revitalize urban landscapes with knitted pieces " . While there , they also tagged the Notre Dame de Paris . Knitta 's work has also been seen in London , Sydney , Rome , Milan , Prague , Sweden , Montreal , Mexico City , El Salvador , Netherlands , Germany , Luxembourg and atop the Great Wall of China .
= Loud ( Rihanna album ) =
Loud is the fifth studio album by Barbadian singer Rihanna . It was released on November 12 , 2010 , by Def Jam Recordings and SRP Records . It was recorded between February and August 2010 , during the singer 's Last Girl on Earth Tour and the filming of her first feature film Battleship . Rihanna was the executive producer of Loud and worked with various record producers , including StarGate , Sandy Vee , The Runners , Tricky Stewart and Alex da Kid . The record features several guest vocalists , including rappers Drake , Nicki Minaj and Eminem , who is featured on the sequel to " Love the Way You Lie " , titled " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " .
The album differs from Rihanna 's 2009 album , Rated R , which incorporates a prominently foreboding and angry tone and dark themes . Loud features up @-@ tempo and pop genres , ranging from R & B and dance @-@ pop to electro music , and marks the return to dancehall ; a genre prominent on Rihanna 's first two albums Music of the Sun ( 2005 ) and A Girl like Me ( 2006 ) . It also incorporates rock in " California King Bed " and reggae in the Caribbean inspired " Man Down " .
Loud received generally positive reviews from music critics , who complimented its upbeat material and Rihanna 's vocal performances , while others stated that although the songs were solid , they were unfocused to each other . The album was a commercial success internationally ; it debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first week sales of 207 @,@ 000 copies , the highest first week sales of her career at the time . The album entered the Canadian , Swiss and UK album charts at number one . As of November 2011 , it had sold over 8 million copies worldwide .
The album produced seven singles , including the international hits " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " What 's My Name ? " , and " S & M " . All three singles reached number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 . " S & M " was Rihanna 's tenth number one song in the US , making Rihanna the youngest recording artist to accumulate the plateau in the shortest time , surpassing Mariah Carey . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " won the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording in February 2011 ; additionally , the album was nominated for three more Grammy Awards , including for Album of the Year . To support the album , Rihanna embarked on her third worldwide concert tour , entitled the Loud Tour .
= = Background = =
Following a domestic violence case between Rihanna and her boyfriend American entertainer Chris Brown , media speculated as to whether any song featured on her fourth studio album would be about him . The album was released in November 2009 , under the title Rated R. Primarily a pop and R & B album , it also incorporates musical elements of hip hop , rock , and dancehall . Rated R was commercially successful and spawned five singles , including the international hit , " Rude Boy " . Six months after releasing the record , Rihanna began planning a fifth studio album , promising that her new material would be " more energetic " than her previous works .
StarGate 's Tor Erik Hermansen , said " Rihanna came to us before we started recording " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and said ‘ I feel great about myself . I want to go back to having fun , I want to make happy and up @-@ tempo records ' . " Sean Garrett compared the sound of the new tracks with her previous hit singles " Umbrella " and " Rude Boy " . In an interview for MTV UK , the vice president of Def Jam Recordings compared the upcoming Rihanna album with Michael Jackson 's Thriller saying , " Rihanna is coming along incredibly . I ’ m trying to push her to where every song will be a hit from one to 12 . I ’ m talking about NO album fillers . Our bar for this album is Michael Jackson 's ‘ Thriller ’ . "
= = Recording and title = =
Rihanna and Antonio " L.A. " Reid assembled a group of songwriters and record producers at several recording studios in Los Angeles for two weeks to write songs for Rihanna ; they wrote approximately 200 songs , eleven of which were included on the album . Def Jam rented out nearly every recording studio in Los Angeles in order to create as many songs as possible . Ray Daniels , the manager of musical duo Rock City ( brothers Theron and Timothy Thomas ) , was present during the sessions , and stated that a writing camp typically involves the label hiring ten recording studios for two weeks at the cost of $ 25 @,@ 000 per day . Daniels revealed that it is where songwriters have lyrics but no music , and where producers have music but no lyrics .
Singer @-@ songwriters and producers Taio Cruz , Alex da Kid , Sean Garrett , Ne @-@ Yo , Rico Love , Timbaland , Shontelle , David Guetta , and Drake contributed to the album . " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " was written for Rihanna , but the song was rejected and was subsequently sent to Usher . With regard to " What 's My Name ? " , Rihanna thought Drake could understand the melody of the song and invited him to work on the track when she played him the finishbozed recording . The collaboration was originally planned to be a remix , but later it was decided that the version featuring Drake would be used as the original .
Loud was recorded in various recording studios worldwide including the Larrabee Sound Studios , The Village and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , Platinum Sound Recording Studios , and Roc the Mic Studios in New York City and The Bunker Studios in Paris . In September 2010 , during a webchat with her fansite Rihannadaily.com , Rihanna announced that the album would be called Loud , saying " get Loud everybody , get crazy , get excited , because I 'm pumped . I 'm just gonna be me , because that 's what you guys love the most , and that 's what makes me feel best . Just being normal , normal for me is Loud ! Sassy , fun , flirty , energetic . " While Rihanna was filming Battleship , she explained in an interview with Entertainment Tonight , " Loud is , the word , the name of the album definitely reflects the attitude of it , it 's really sassy and flirty and it grabs your attention and that 's why I enjoy it . It takes you through a really really interesting ride . So colorful the album . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Influence and sound = = =
Loud is a departure from the personal , melodramatic themes of Rated R. Stylistically , it is a return to the Caribbean @-@ inspired dance @-@ pop of Rihanna 's earlier work . Ryan Burleson of Consequence of Sound described the album as " a dynamic R & B and dance @-@ pop record " . In an interview with MTV , Rihanna said " I wanted songs that were all Rihanna songs , that nobody else could do . I didn 't want the generic pop record that Ke $ ha or Lady Gaga or Katy Perry could just do and it 'll work . I wanted a song , or songs ,
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In late October 1991 , a tropical disturbance developed near the Caroline Islands . Tracking generally west @-@ northwestward , the system gradually became more defined . On October 31 , convection associated with the system quickly increased , prompting the issuance of a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert from the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . Early on November 1 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring the system as a tropical depression , at which time the system was situated roughly 415 km ( 260 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Palau . Following a satellite @-@ derived surface wind estimate of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) later that day , the JTWC also began monitoring the low as a tropical depression . Initially , forecast models showed the system continuing on an arcing path out to sea ; however , the system turned westward on November 2 and threatened the Philippines . Due to the cyclone 's proximity to the country , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Uring . Late on November 3 , the depression turned west @-@ southwestward towards the Visayas in response to an approaching cold front , an event typical of late @-@ season cyclones in the basin . On November 4 , both the JTWC and JMA upgraded the system to a tropical storm , with the latter assigning it the name Thelma .
Hours before striking the Philippines on November 4 , both agencies reported Thelma to have reached its peak intensity . The JTWC estimated the storm to have attained one @-@ minute sustained winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) while the JMA estimated ten @-@ minute sustained winds at 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Additionally , its barometric pressure reached 992 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 29 inHg ) . Thelma soon made landfall in Samar before weakening to a minimal tropical storm . Maintaining gale @-@ force winds , the system eventually passed over Palawan Island on November 6 before moving over the South China Sea . Despite being back over water , strong wind shear prevented re @-@ intensification and caused Thelma to weaken to a tropical depression by November 7 . Now moving westward , the depression eventually made its final landfall over the Mekong River Delta in Southern Vietnam on November 8 . Over the next couple of days the system weakened into an area of low pressure as it moved westwards , before it moved into the Andaman Sea during November 10 . Once in the Andaman Sea , the systems remnants contributed to the formation of the Karaikal tropical cyclone during the next day .
= = Impact = =
Tropical Storm Thelma struck the Philippines just five months after the Ultra @-@ Plinian eruption of Mount Pinatubo . The eruption resulted in the deaths of roughly 800 people and left nearly 1 million homeless . The country 's government was reportedly struggling to deal with the scope of the disaster and the addition of Thelma worsened the situation .
Striking the nation as a weak tropical storm , winds from Thelma gusted up to 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) in Tacloban ; these winds caused no known damage . The main destructive force associated with the cyclone was the tremendous rainfall it produced . More than 150 mm ( 6 in ) of rain across much of the Visayas , resulting in widespread flooding . In Tacloban , 140 @.@ 2 mm ( 5 @.@ 52 in ) fell over a 24 ‑ hour span . The heaviest rain occurred on Leyte Island due to orographic lift , which brought large quantities of moisture into the atmosphere over a relatively small area . Additionally , monsoonal winds to the southwest of Thelma converged over the island , further enhancing the precipitation . Near the city of Ormoc , a Philippine National Oil Company rain gauge measured 580 @.@ 5 mm ( 22 @.@ 85 in ) of precipitation , the highest in relation to the storm . Of this , approximately 500 mm ( 20 in ) fell during a three @-@ hour span around noon local time on November 5 . Initially , residents believed that waterspouts transported tremendous amounts of water to the island , triggering the floods . This notion was quickly dismissed as improbable , however .
The hardest hit region was Leyte , where more than 4 @,@ 000 people lost their lives . A total of 4 @,@ 446 homes were destroyed while another 22 @,@ 229 were damaged . The majority of casualties and damage took place in Ormoc when a flash flood devastated the city . At least 81 people were killed outside Ormoc and another 14 went missing ; 42 lost their lives in Burauen . The entire island of Leyte was left without power and many areas were isolated as roads were washed away . Another 78 people perished and 70 others were left missing in Negros Occidental . Losses from the storm amounted to $ 27 @.@ 67 million ; $ 18 @.@ 94 million in Leyte and $ 8 @.@ 73 million in Negros Occidental . A total of 598 @,@ 454 people were affected while an estimated 43 @,@ 000 people were left homeless by the storm across the Philippines .
= = = Ormoc City tragedy = = =
The greatest tragedy during Tropical Storm Thelma took place in the city of Ormoc after torrential rains overwhelmed the Anilao – Malbasag watershed , sending flood waters rushing down the deforested mountainside . This water flowed into the Anilao and Malbasag rivers , located north of Ormoc . The watershed , covering an area of 4 @,@ 567 hectares ( 11 @,@ 285 acres ) , is only 3 @.@ 3 percent forested , with the remainder being used for agricultural and private purposes . According to a study in 1990 , roughly 90 percent of the watershed had been converted into coconut and sugarcane plantations . The majority of this land was improperly cultivated since the 1970s , making conditions worse than they normally would have been . The natural structure of the mountains further contributed to the floods , with slopes as steep as 60 percent grade in some areas . In heavy rain events , this feature leaves the upper two @-@ thirds of the mountain range unstable . In the two hours prior to the heaviest rains , the soil in the watershed became saturated , greatly lessening its effectiveness at absorbing further rains . As a result , the tremendous rains that occurred just prior to the flood , during which rainfall rates reached 167 mm ( 6 @.@ 6 in ) per hour , the land was unable to absorb a majority of the rain . Many landslides ranging from 1 to 3 m ( 3 @.@ 3 to 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep and 50 to 100 m ( 160 to 330 ft ) wide occurred across the region . Altogether , rains were twice as heavy as the land could handle and the many landslips doubled the volume of fluids . At various points along rivers , temporary dams created by debris , namely trees , allowed a build up of water upstream . In some instances , waters reached a depth of 10 m ( 33 ft ) before the dams collapsed . Normally , it takes water in the Anilao and Malbasag rivers roughly 3 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 6 days , respectively , to reach Ormoc City ; however , it only took one hour during the flood .
Ormoc City itself is located in a flood @-@ prone area , with the Anilao and Malbasag rivers converging just north of the city and taking a 90 degree turn towards the bay . In addition to the natural dangers of the river , poorly designed structures on the river made conditions worse . The majority of construction along the river did not take flooding threats into account , and actually increased the threat of these events . Concrete walls and levees were built into the river rather than on the banks , leading to faster debris damming . Lastly , just after the turn was the Cogon Bridge . This structure constricted the river by as much as 50 percent , enhancing the build up of water . The turn became the final trigger in the disaster as it created an " instantaneous backwater effect , " causing massive volumes of water to over @-@ top the riverbank . Around 11 : 00 a.m. local time on November 5 , approximately 22 @,@ 835 km3 ( 5 @,@ 480 mi3 ) of water inundated 25 km2 ( 15 @.@ 5 mi2 ) of the city . In just 15 minutes , the water rose by 2 @.@ 1 m ( 7 ft ) and further rose to 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft ) within an hour . The flooding lasted for roughly three hours , leaving up to 0 @.@ 6 m ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) of sediment behind .
The flood struck the city with little to no warning , catching all those in its path off @-@ guard . Numerous low @-@ income families lived along the banks of the river , despite being such a high @-@ risk area . Residential and commercial areas were also set up along reclaimed embankments that restricted river flow . Additionally , squatters were allowed to live along the banks of the Anilao river in an area called Isle Verde . Roughly 2 @,@ 500 people lived on this reclaimed land prior to the flood . The majority of fatalities took place along the banks of the river , with most drowning or being buried in mud or debris . A survivor described the initial event as a gigantic wave crashing over the banks and flooding the city . Isle Verde was virtually wiped out and out of the original 2 @,@ 500 people that lived there , only 200 survived . It became known as the " Isle of Death " to survivors . Residents reported hundreds of bodies floating down rivers in the area . The force of the water and mud was enough to crack the walls of city hall . Nearly 3 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and more than 11 @,@ 000 others were damaged . In the city alone , officials confirmed that 4 @,@ 922 people were killed and another 1 @,@ 857 – 3 @,@ 000 were left missing . Additionally , 3 @,@ 020 people were injured . The majority of those missing were likely swept out to sea by the flood and presumed dead . Two days after the storm , several bodies of those swept out to sea washed back ashore . Officials stated that the death toll could have been in the tens of thousands had the flood occurred at night rather than in the middle of the day .
= = Aftermath = =
Initially , it took more than 24 hours for word of the level of devastation to reach officials in Manila as communications across Leyte were largely destroyed . By November 7 , search and rescue operations were underway across Leyte and Negros Occidental . The first shipment of relief supplies , consisting of food rations , rice , sardines , and used clothing , was to be shipped from Cebu later that day . On November 8 , Philippine President Corazon Aquino declared all of Leyte a disaster area . A Philippine Navy vessel set out with heavy earth @-@ moving machinery and the Philippine Air Force deployed aircraft to assist in rescue efforts . Relief efforts in Ormoc City were hampered by a lack of clear roads and fuel . Amateur radio reports stated that an AC @-@ 130 was able to land at a local airport but materials had to be moved by helicopter from there since roads were blocked . Relief efforts were also hampered by continuing rains and the rough terrain of the affected region . By November 11 , approximately 8 @,@ 300 families had been rescued and another 7 @,@ 521 were evacuated from affected regions .
Supply distribution centers were established in Ormoc , providing residents with food , water , and materials , by November 11 . People were given a can of sardines and 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of rice at these centers . These centers were only able to operate in daylight though due to a lack of fuel and transportation . Water was supplied in limited quantities from Cebu . Medical and sanitation teams were deployed throughout the province , with many coming from surrounding areas . Residents searched through debris for lumber to construct makeshift coffins while others stacked bodies to be picked up by wheelbarrows or trucks . Officials had difficulty determining how to best deal with mass casualties as bodies lay across the Ormoc region . Many were found in the coastal barangays of Linao , Camp Downes , and Bantigue as well as the Ormoc pier . In order to prevent the spread of disease , mass graves were dug , with 700 bodies buried on November 8 . Dump trucks were used to transport the dead to these sites as quickly as possible . As decomposition set in , residents stated that " [ the ] putrid smell was unbearable . " Even months after the storm , bodies were occasionally discovered , some found in drainage systems . By November 10 , four navy vessels were searching debris in the waters near Ormoc for bodies ; 16 were recovered that day with more believed to be submerged in the bay . Roads surrounding the city were finally cleared by November 12 ; however , electricity remained out . With the deployment of medical teams from Japan , hospitals in the region returned to full capacity . By November 22 , electricity and water had been 70 percent and 60 percent restored , respectively . The emergency phase of assistance ended on November 29 and coordination of disaster relief was returned to the Philippines . By that time , national aid to Ormoc reached $ 1 @.@ 1 million , with more than half coming from a presidential grant .
On November 7 , despite no official appeal for international aid , the governments of France and the United States provided $ 34 @,@ 783 and $ 25 @,@ 000 in funds . The request for assistance came the following day , with the Philippines requesting food , water , medicine , emergency supplies , and heavy machinery . A team from the United Nations Disaster Relief Organization , specializing with relief coordination and flood management , was also sent . The Red Cross appealed for $ 418 @,@ 000 to support 15 @,@ 000 families for one month . A cash grant of $ 17 @,@ 300 from the United Kingdom was received on November 8 . Two United States Air Force AC @-@ 130s from Subic bay naval base flew to Cebu carrying ready @-@ to @-@ eat meals . International funding reached $ 2 @.@ 5 million on November 12 , with grants of $ 1 @.@ 05 million , $ 1 million , $ 188 @,@ 000 from the Netherlands , Japan , and Australia respectively . Additionally , the United States provided 55 @,@ 000 packages of food rations . This total nearly doubled two days later with grants from the United Nations Development Programme , World Food Programme , World Vision International , Médecins Sans Frontières , Caritas , various branches of the Red Cross , and the governments of Canada and New Zealand . Ultimately , approximately $ 5 @.@ 8 million was provided in international assistance from 13 nations , the United Nations , the Red Cross , and various non @-@ governmental organizations .
Isle Verde , where approximately 2 @,@ 300 people were killed , was declared uninhabitable by officials ; however , residents still returned to the area due to a need for land . Eventually , signs that used to warn people not to stay on the islet were eventually taken down and people were no longer warned not to live there . A resettlement community was constructed months later , with plans to house 912 of the 2 @,@ 668 families that needed to be moved from the area . Those that were not moved were left on Isle Verde despite orders not to stay there . Another resettlement project for 700 families was planned at the cost of $ 1 million .
The sheer magnitude of the flood event in the Anilao – Malbasag watershed made the region more vulnerable to future flood events . Hillsides became more unstable and the rivers themselves were clogged with debris , raising their water levels and widening their banks . In a post @-@ disaster assessment in October 1992 , it was stated that swift cooperation of all agencies from local to governmental was necessary to prevent tragedies of similar caliber in the future . It was urged that residents still living along the river banks be relocated to safer areas ; however , by the time of the report , people had already begun repopulating the area . As a way of avoiding similar breaching of the riverbank , it was suggested that the two rivers be dredged and possibly re @-@ channeled . Several points were also brought up about rehabilitating the landscape of the watershed : reforestation , contoured farming , and redesigning of plantations to better retain rainwater . Long @-@ term rehabilitation of the watershed was deemed necessary in addition to repairing infrastructure in Ormoc .
In 1993 , following a request by the Philippine Government , the Japan International Cooperation Agency conducted as study on flood control for Ormoc and other cities across the country . In 1998 , a ₱ 800 million ( $ 20 @.@ 6 million USD ) construction project for flood mitigation was approved and later completed in 2001 . That year , Tropical Depression Auring caused flooding of similar magnitude to Thelma ; however , the waters were properly diverted to the sea . A sculpture and monument to the victims , designed by architect Maribeth Ebcas and artist Florence Cinco respectively , called " Gift of Life " was constructed on a 1 @.@ 3 km2 ( 0 @.@ 8 mi2 ) plot of land . It was designed to also depict a need to respect nature and be a message of hope for residents in Ormoc .
Due to the catastrophic loss of life caused by the storm , the name Thelma was retired and replaced with Teresa .
= Ouvrage La Ferté =
Ouvrage La Ferté , also known as Ouvrage Villy @-@ La Ferté , is a petit ouvrage of the Maginot Line , located in the Fortified Sector of Montmédy , facing Belgium . The ouvrage lies between the towns of Villy and La Ferté @-@ sur @-@ Chiers . It possesses two combat blocks linked by an underground gallery . The westernmost position in its sector , it was a comparatively weakly armed fortification in an exposed position that left it vulnerable to isolation and attack . After a sustained attack during the Battle of France the position was overwhelmed by German forces and was destroyed with its entire garrison killed . The fighting at La Ferté was the heaviest of any position in the Maginot Line . It is preserved as a war memorial .
= = Design and construction = =
La Ferté is one of four positions in the so @-@ called Tête du Pont de Montmédy ( " Montmédy Bridgehead " ) , a salient in the French defensive lines along the Belgian border . The isolated area was one of the " New Fronts " to the west of the main Maginot Line , created to defend against the increased threat of a German advance through Belgium . The New Front positions suffered from restricted funding , as well as discontinuity in the fortification lines . Large distances between fortifications compared to earlier portions of the Line made mutual support between ouvrages difficult .
The site was approved in 1934 , under the supervision of CORF ( Commission d 'Organisation des Régions Fortifiées ) , the Maginot Line 's design and construction agency . Work by the contractor Chanel of Antibes began in 1935 at a cost of 14 @.@ 5 million francs . A second phase was planned to add an artillery block . This was scaled back to a pair of separate artillery casemates . A separate entrance block was proposed in April 1940 , linking to the casemates . As the initial confrontation with Germany was already underway , it was too late to be built , with a projected construction time of 18 months .
Compared to earlier Maginot positions , the La Ferté site suffered from a number of design and construction deficiencies . The site contours around Block 2 required a great deal of rubble fill to cover the sides of the block . This rubble had not yet stabilized by the spring of 1940 and could be dislodged by artillery fire . Block 2 suffered from restricted fields of fire to the west and southwest , which were covered only by an automatic rifle cloche . The nearby road ran in a cutting that could not be swept by direct fire . Since La Ferté lacked mortars , the road was dead ground .
The separate artillery casemates were not habitable for any extended period and lacked close @-@ in defenses . With unusually large gun embrasures measuring 1 @.@ 3 meters ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) by 1 @.@ 7 meters ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) , they afforded little protection to their crews against accurate fire , while coverage from the main ouvrage was poor .
= = Description = =
La Ferté is a petit ouvrage . It is located immediately to the west of the Chiers river , with two semi @-@ buried reinforced concrete combat blocks containing the position 's armament and observation posts , linked by a deep underground gallery .
Block 1 : infantry / entry block with one automatic rifle cloche ( GFM @-@ B ) , one observation cloche ( VDP ) , two mixed @-@ arms cloches ( AM ) , one twin machine gun embrasure and one machine gun / 47mm anti @-@ tank gun ( JM / AC47 ) embrasure .
Block 2 : infantry block with one retractable mixed @-@ arms turret , one AM cloche , one GFM @-@ B cloche and one GFM @-@ B observation cloche . Block 2 was the principal focus of the German assault .
A separate entry block was planned , adjacent to the Villy Est casemate . The underground gallery system at La Ferté is simple , limited to a gallery linking the two blocks , which were initially designed to function as separate units with separate generating plants and ventilation facilities in each block . The 275 @-@ meter ( 902 ft ) gallery contained some shared facilities , such as a kitchen , a laundry and an infirmary , at an average depth of 24 meters ( 79 ft ) below the surface . The gallery 's small size made it most useful as a link , rather than as the garrison , magazine , command post and long @-@ term shelter afforded by the gallery systems of most Maginot ouvrages . Unlike most ouvrages , La Ferté 's living spaces were near the surface in the two combat blocks . A more typical Maginot position would have such spaces under 30 meters ( 98 ft ) of earth or rock cover . Unlike many Maginot positions , the main drain at La Ferté was not configured as an emergency exit . The mixed @-@ arms turret used on Block 2 was known to be mechanically trouble @-@ prone , and La Ferté 's turret particularly so .
= = = Casemates = = =
A number of small blockhouses are associated with La Ferté , as well as unconnected casemates :
Casemate de Margut : Double block with one JM / AC47 embrasure , one JM embrasure , two AM cloches and one GFM @-@ B cloche , about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) to the east @-@ southeast on the far side of the Chiers .
Casemate de Villy Ouest : Artillery block with one 75mm gun .
Casemate de Villy Est : Artillery block with one 75mm gun .
The Villy gun casemates are close to Block 2 , directly adjacent to the 1940 road . They replaced the planned 75mm gun turret block . The casemates are not connected to each other or to the main ouvrage , a weakness that influenced the 1940 combat action .
= = = Villy = = =
The village of Villy lies about one kilometer to the northwest of ouvrage La Ferté . Villy itself was fortified with more than a dozen blockhouses , along with networks of barbed wire and tank obstacles . The blockhouses were primarily prepared , reinforced firing positions and did not necessarily possess fixed armament .
= = Manning = =
The 1940 manning of the ouvrage under the command of Lieutenant Bourguignon comprised 97 men and 3 officers of the 155th Fortress Infantry Regiment ( 155th RIF ) and the 169th Position Artillery Regiment ( 169th RAP ) . The units were under the umbrella of the Second Army , Army Group 1 . The Casernement de Montmédy provided peacetime above @-@ ground barracks and support services to La Ferté and other fortifications in the area .
Lieutenant Bourguignon had exchanged commands with Lieutenant Guiard on 20 March 1940 , Guiard taking Bourguignon 's former position at the casemate of Thonne @-@ le @-@ Thil . Bourguignon was assisted by Sub @-@ Lieutenant Thouémont , who commanded Block 2 . Thouémont , who had been previously posted to a machine gun battalion in the 149th and 132nd RIF , lacked specific training on Maginot systems . He replaced Captain André , a reservist and mayor of Villy , who had been promoted . Bourguignon was responsible for command of Block 1 , as well as for overall command . Compared to similar positions , La Ferté was understaffed with officers .
= = Strategic situation = =
The Second Army was commanded by General Charles Huntziger , who was responsible for the defense of the Ardennes region of the frontier , including the Fortified Sector of Montmédy . The sector was composed of two parts . The eastern portion was defended by the Maginot positions of La Ferté , Chesnois , Thonnelle and Vélosnes , widely spaced and small , compared to the massive fortifications of other sectors like Thionville . The western portion of the Montmédy sector was even more lightly defended , with several lines of fortifications ranging from fortified houses near the border to small blockhouses farther back . None of the western defenses were of a scale sufficient to support La Ferté or to act as a significant block to an invading force without the organized support of mobile army formations . The relatively weak La Ferté position effectively acted as the western end of fixed fortifications .
On 13 – 14 May , German forces crossed the Meuse near Sedan using integrated land and air tactics that broke the morale of the French 55th Infantry Division , driving them out of the blockhouse line and allowing the Germans to gain a strong position from which to exploit the breakthrough . A progressive collapse of the French Second and Ninth Armies from 14 May to 17 May allowed German forces to move to the west of La Ferté , cutting La Ferté off from much of its mobile support .
= = 1940 = =
See Fortified Sector of Montmédy for a broader discussion of the events of 1940 in the Montmédy sector of the Maginot Line .
On 13 May advance elements of the German 71st Infantry Division approached La Ferté ( which the Germans called Panzerwerke 505 ) and occupied the surrounding area , out of range of fire from the ouvrage . The 71st ID had trained specifically for an assault on the Maginot Line , and were provided with shaped charge explosives of the type used in the assault on the Belgian Fort Eben @-@ Emael a few days before . The night of the 13th and 14th La Ferté installed a periscope in its machine gun turret , which had been just been delivered on the 11th . On 15 May the Villy Est casemate opened fire on German troops advancing on a nearby farm . On the 16th the Germans took nearby Hill 226 , which overlooked La Ferté from the west and attacked the higher Hill 311 ( overlooking La Ferté from the southwest ) despite fire from the Villy Ouest casemate . That evening , German reconnaissance around La Ferté and the Moiry and Sainte Marie casemates drew supporting fire from Ouvrage Chesnois 's 75mm guns . Chesnois fired 1200 rounds in seven hours . On 17 May , German forces made a series of determined attacks on Hill 311 , and German artillery began bombardment of La Ferté with 21 cm mortars and 88mm high @-@ velocity anti @-@ tank guns . About midday on the 17th , La Ferté 's telephone communications were cut , forcing
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842 . The holotype specimen is a queen collected from Tasmania , which is now housed in the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin . Formica consobrina was later moved to the genus Camponotus as Camponotus consobrinus , by entomologist Julius Roger in 1863 . In 1933 , American entomologist William Morton Wheeler described some subspecies and variants of the banded sugar ant . These subspecies were C. consobrinus lividipes and C. consobrinus nigriceps , while the variants were C. consobrinus var. obniger and C. consobrinus var. perthianus . Some of these classifications were short @-@ lived ; C. consobrinus nigriceps was later revived as a full species in 1934 as C. nigriceps , while C. consobrinus lividipes was synonymised with C. consobrinus . C. consobrinus lividipes was treated as a subspecies for C. nigriceps in 1985 , now known as C. nigriceps lividipes . In 1996 C. consobrinus perthianus was synonymised with C. nigriceps , and C. consobrinus var. obniger was synonymised with C. consobrinus .
The specific name is derived from the Latin word consobrina , meaning " cousin " . This is in reference to its similar appearance with the species C. herculeanus .
The ant is a member of the Camponotus nigriceps species group , which also includes C. clarior , C. dryandrae , C. eastwoodi , C. loweryi , C. longideclivis , C. nigriceps , C. pallidiceps and C. prostans . The species is commonly known as the banded sugar ant or sugar ant due to its attraction to sweet food and the orange @-@ brown band that is present on its gaster .
= = Description = =
Banded sugar ants appear in different forms , varying from 5 to 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) in length , making them a large species . Banded sugar ants are polymorphic , and colonies have two types of workers : minor workers and major workers that have different size ranges . The two castes can be identified easily , due to the workers being smaller and more slender , while the soldiers are larger and more robust . Both castes carry a set of powerful mandibles . Queen ants are the largest ants in the colony . Banded sugar ants come in a variety of colours , possibly due to ecological rather than genetic influences . For example , humidity , insolation and temperature may all affect the colour of an individual .
Female banded sugar ants are easily recognised by their black head , orange thorax and the orange @-@ brown band that wraps around their gaster . Males of the species are completely black . The dark sides of the thorax and legs are ferruginous ( rusty in colour ) . The scape ( the base of the antenna ) and mandibles are black , and the head is wider than the thorax . The thorax is longer than its total width and slightly compressed , and the gaster is covered with tiny black dots . Erect setae are golden in colour and absent under the head but present on the mesosoma . The setae on the tibia and scape are shorter than those on the mesosoma . The anterior of the gaster is lighter in colour compared to the posterior , and the dorsum of the mesosoma is outlined and curved . A worker 's metanotum is absent and the eyes are bulging , while a soldier 's metanotum is noticeable and the eyes are flat . The wings on the queen are dark , and the stigmata and nerves are yellow . While many ant species have a metapleural gland , the gland is not present in the banded sugar ant ; the number of malpighian tubules in workers is 21 .
The related black @-@ headed sugar ant ( Camponotus nigriceps ) has a similar appearance and may be mistaken for a banded sugar ant . Black @-@ headed sugar ants are lighter in colour than banded sugar ants and the orange @-@ brown band is absent from their gaster .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The banded sugar ant is one of the most widely distributed ants in Australia , but is most commonly found in south @-@ east Australia . It occurs along the north @-@ east coast of Queensland , from Charters Towers in the north to Brisbane in the south . The ant is widespread in New South Wales , the Australian Capital Territory , Victoria and Tasmania . In South Australia , it is a common household pest in Adelaide , and populations are mostly found in the south @-@ east of the state while the species is absent in the north @-@ west . The banded sugar ant 's presence in Western Australia has yet to be verified . These ants are found in urban areas , eucalypt forests , dry sclerophyll woodland , grasslands and heaths , preferring a mesic habitat . In the drier regions of Australia , the banded sugar ant is absent and is usually replaced by Camponotus nigriceps . Banded sugar ants have been recorded from elevations ranging from 170 to 853 metres ( 558 to 2 @,@ 800 ft ) .
Nests are found in a variety of sites , including holes in wood , roots of plants , twigs of trees and shrubs , between rocks , in the soil , and under paving stones . Sometimes , banded sugar ant colonies form small mounds , which are less than 20 cm ( 8 in ) in diameter and usually funnel @-@ shaped and ephemeral . Mounds are not constructed in undisturbed regions where land degradation has not occurred . Instead , the entrance of a nest consists of a smooth @-@ walled vertical shaft that is 15 to 17 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 to 0 @.@ 67 in ) in diameter . Chambers in the nest have a similar appearance to the nest entrance ( shaft @-@ like walls ) , and the floors within the chambers are typically 20 to 30 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) in length with an arched roof that is 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in height . Excavated meat ant nests show that banded sugar ants will also inhabit them .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Banded sugar ants are the dominant group of nocturnal ants in their range . Workers are mostly encountered at dusk when they are foraging for food on marked trails or on Casuarina and Eucalyptus trees . These ants also forage during the day , but they are more frequently seen at night . They are also more active during the warmer seasons , especially summer . Banded sugar ants use multiple social techniques to make other ants follow them to a food source ; this includes a worker carrying another worker , tandem running , or simply leaving a pheromone trail to the source . Around 2 – 35 % of foraging workers engage in tandem running .
Banded sugar ants will often attack the nests of other ant species at random , while ignoring other ants nearby . They use their mandibles to hold opponents , and use formic acid to kill them . Foraging workers use visual cues to help them find their way around , or to let them determine that they are lost ; workers will identify landmarks they are familiar with to orientate themselves . When provoked , an individual banded sugar ant will lift up its abdomen and use its large mandibles to fend off an attacker . If further provoked , it can defend itself by spraying formic acid from its abdomen to deter predators .
Meat ants have been observed blocking banded sugar ant nesting holes with pebbles and soil to prevent them from leaving their nest during the early hours of the day . The ants counter this by preventing meat ants from leaving their nest by blocking their nesting holes with debris , a behaviour known as nest @-@ plugging . If meat ant nests are encroached by trees or other shade , banded sugar ants may invade and take over the nest , since the health of the colony may deteriorate from overshadowing . Members of an affected meat ant colony later move to a nearby satellite nest that is placed in a suitable area , while invading banded sugar ants fill nest galleries up with a black resinous material . In a 1999 study , Pogonoscopus myrmex leafhoppers were placed in a banded sugar ant colony to test the reaction of non @-@ host ants . These leafhoppers were attacked , suggesting no symbiotic relationship between the two .
Starlings have been observed to rub banded sugar ants on their feathers and skin , a behaviour known as anting .
= = = Diet and predators = = =
Banded sugar ants are omnivores and feed on sweet substances . They tend plant @-@ eating insects such as aphids , and feed on the fluids they secrete . Honeydew secretions are produced from the anus of the aphid , which is later provided to the ants . This behaviour is mutually beneficial to both organisms , as the ants protect the aphids from predation and the aphids provides a nutritious liquid to the ants . Banded sugar ants also tend the larvae of the southern purple azure butterfly ( Ogyris genoveva ) . They are visitors to flowers of Eucalyptus globulus trees , where they can act as pollinators . They may be seen at night foraging under lights in urban areas for arthropod prey , such as termites and the southern cattle tick ( Rhipicephalus microplus ) . During the night , banded sugar ants are known to " rob " food sources excreted by Hemiptera insects that are fed on by meat ants during the day . Banded sugar ants and meat ants tend to nest near one another , and areas where the two ants forage have shorter foraging periods due to interference between the species . However , banded sugar ants are nocturnal while meat ants are not , so foraging periods are extended by one or two hours if no interference occurs .
Banded sugar ants have been found in the feces of the short @-@ beaked echidna ( Tachyglossus aculeatus ) , and non @-@ passerine birds are known to predate them . The blackish blindsnake ( Ramphotyphlops nigrescens ) follows trails laid by banded sugar ants , possibly to locate them as potential prey . Blindsnakes are also known to consume the brood of this species . Nematodes are a parasite to banded sugar ant larvae , as several mermithergate larvae were described . Infected individuals are recognisable by their swollen gasters ; for example , uninfected ants measuring 13 to 14 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 51 to 0 @.@ 55 in ) in length have a gaster length of 4 to 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 16 to 0 @.@ 20 in ) while the gaster of infected individuals who are similar in size is 6 to 7 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 24 to 0 @.@ 28 in ) . Some specimens collected had gasters so swollen that the intersegmental @-@ membrane was exposed .
= = = Life cycle and reproduction = = =
Like all ants , banded sugar ants begin life as eggs . If the egg is fertilised , the ant becomes a female ; if not , it will become a male . They develop through complete metamorphosis , meaning that they pass through a larval and pupal stage before emerging as adults .
Although most banded sugar ant colonies are monogynous ( a nest that contains a single queen ) , some have been found to be polygynous , where a colony will have multiple queens ; this is the fourth Camponotus species that is recognized as exhibiting polygyny . In polygynous colonies , queens are not territorial and free @-@ mixing of offspring is observed . Despite the homogeneous environmental factors , however , different family lineages are strongly correlated with ant caste , suggesting caste is largely genetically determined . Nests containing a single queen are monandrous , where a queen will only mate once with a male . Not much is known about their nuptial flight , although virgin queens and males ( alates ) were observed mating in South Australia in January . This hints that banded sugar ants will mate during mid @-@ summer , and colony foundation occurs at this time . Ideal conditions for nuptial flight is on warm days during the afternoon at temperatures of 20 – 25 ° C ( 68 – 77 ° F ) , which is when the alates begin to swarm . A colony can be long @-@ lived , with queens living for seven years or more . The black carpenter ant ( Camponotus pennsylvanicus ) is known to adopt larvae and pupae from banded sugar ant colonies .
Workers that belong to different matrilines ( female ancestry ) appear significantly different from each other in size . Matrilines are also said to influence caste determination within the species .
= = Interaction with humans = =
The banded sugar ant is considered a household pest and is occasionally seen in houses at night , capable of damaging furniture and fittings by chewing the wood ; carbon disulphide is used to treat and remove a banded sugar ant nest . These ants do not pose any threat to humans , as they are incapable of stinging and can only spray formic acid , however , the larger soldiers are capable of inflicting a painful bite with their powerful jaws , and the formic acid they spray is corrosive to human skin . The eggs of this species were consumed by the Australian Aborigines .
= Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia =
Stephen Tomašević ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Stjepan / Stefan Tomašević , Стјепан / Стефан Томашевић ; died on 25 May 1463 ) was the last sovereign from the Bosnian Kotromanić dynasty . His father , King Stephen Thomas , arranged for him to marry Maria of Serbia and become Despot of Serbia in April 1459 . The marriage was meant to unite Bosnia and Serbia in their fight against the expanding Ottoman Empire , but failed in that regard . After ruling Serbia for merely two months , Stephen Tomašević surrendered it to the Ottomans and fled back to his father 's court .
Upon his father 's death in 1461 , Stephen Tomašević ascended as King of Bosnia , a kingdom whose existence was being increasingly threatened by the Ottomans . He desperately tried to secure help from Pope Pius II , King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary and monarchs of other neighbouring countries . Confident that they would come to his aid , Stephen Tomašević refused to deliver the customary tribute to Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and thus provoked the invasion that cost him his life . In 1463 , Mehmed marched into Bosnia , meeting little effective resistance , and captured Stephen Tomašević , who was then beheaded . The execution marks the fall of the Kingdom of Bosnia to the Ottoman Empire .
= = Name = =
Like all Bosnian kings before him , Stephen Tomašević bore the name Stephen . His predecessors , with the exception of his uncle Stephen Ostojić , took the name Stephen upon accession as an honorific that signified their claim to the throne of Serbia , whose Nemanjić rulers had first adopted it . Stephen Tomašević , on the other hand , appears to have been baptized as Stephen ( Stipan ) , the last part of his name being a patronymic . On occasions when his predecessors referred to themselves by their Christian names only , omitting the honorific Stephen , Stephen Tomašević called himself simply Stipan – suggesting that the name was in his case more than an honorific . The same is true for his uncle , Stephen Ostojić . For this reason , Stephen Tomašević has been listed as Stephen II – his uncle being Stephen I – albeit very rarely .
= = Family = =
Stephen Tomašević was born into the House of Kotromanić , as one of the two known sons of Stephen Thomas and a commoner named Vojača . The other son died as an adolescent . Stephen Tomašević 's father was an adulterine son of King Stephen Ostoja and a younger brother of Radivoj , who contested the rule of
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times " . The parsnip was much esteemed , and the Emperor Tiberius accepted part of the tribute payable to Rome by Germany in the form of parsnips . In Europe , the vegetable was used as a source of sugar before cane and beet sugars were available . As pastinache comuni , the " common " pastinaca figures in the long list of comestibles enjoyed by the Milanese given by Bonvesin da la Riva in his " Marvels of Milan " ( 1288 ) .
This plant was introduced to North America simultaneously by the French colonists in Canada and the British in the Thirteen Colonies for use as a root vegetable , but in the mid @-@ 19th century , it was replaced as the main source of starch by the potato and consequently was less widely cultivated .
In 1859 , a new cultivar called ' Student ' was developed by James Buckman at the Royal Agricultural College in England . He back @-@ crossed cultivated plants to wild stock , aiming to demonstrate how native plants could be improved by selective breeding . This experiment was so successful , ' Student ' became the major variety in cultivation in the late 19th century .
= = Taxonomy = =
The parsnip was first officially described by Carolus Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum . It has acquired several synonyms in its taxonomic history :
Pastinaca fleischmannii Hladnik , ex D.Dietr.
Pastinaca opaca Bernh. ex Hornem .
Pastinaca pratensis ( Pers . ) H.Mart.
Pastinaca sylvestris Mill .
Pastinaca teretiuscula Boiss .
Pastinaca umbrosa Steven , ex DC .
Pastinaca urens Req. ex Godr .
Like most plants of agricultural importance , several subspecies and varieties of P. sativa have been described , but these are mostly no longer recognized as independent taxa , but rather , morphological variations of the same taxon .
P. s. subsp. divaricata ( Desf . ) Rouy & Camus
P. s. subsp. pratensis ( Pers . ) Čelak .
P. s. subsp. sylvestris ( Mill . ) Rouy & Camus
P. s. subsp. umbrosa ( Steven , ex DC . ) Bondar. ex O.N.Korovina
P. s. subsp. urens ( Req. ex Godr . ) Čelak .
P. s. var. brevis Alef .
P. s. var. edulis DC .
P. s. var. hortensis Ehrh. ex Hoffm .
P. s. var. longa Alef .
P. s. var. pratensis Pers .
P. s. var. siamensis Roem . & Schult. ex Alef .
In Eurasia , some authorities distinguish between cultivated and wild versions of parsnips by using subspecies P. s. sylvestris for the latter , or even elevating it to species status as Pastinaca sylvestris . In Europe , various subspecies have been named based on characteristics such as the hairiness of the leaves , the extent to which the stems are angled or rounded , and the size and shape of the terminal umbel .
The etymology of the generic name Pastinaca is not known with certainty , but is probably derived from either the Latin word pastino , meaning " to prepare the ground for planting of the vine " or pastus , meaning " food " . The specific epithet sativa means " sown " .
= = Uses = =
Parsnips resemble carrots and can be used in similar ways , but they have a sweeter taste , especially when cooked . They can be baked , boiled , pureed , roasted , fried , or steamed . When used in stews , soups , and casseroles , they give a rich flavor . In some cases , parsnips are boiled and the solid portions are removed from the soup or stew , leaving behind a more subtle flavor than the whole root , and starch to thicken the dish . Roast parsnip is considered an essential part of Christmas dinner in some parts of the English @-@ speaking world and frequently features in the traditional Sunday roast . Parsnips can also be fried or thinly sliced and made into crisps . They can be made into a wine with a taste similar to Madeira .
In Roman times , parsnips were believed to be an aphrodisiac . However , parsnips do not typically feature in modern Italian cooking . Instead , they are fed to pigs , particularly those bred to make Parma ham . In traditional Chinese medicine , the root of Chinese parsnip is used as a herbal medicine ingredient .
= = Nutritients = =
A typical 100 @-@ g parsnip contains 75 Calories ( 230 kJ ) of energy . Most parsnip cultivars consist of about 80 % water , 5 % sugar , 1 % protein , 0 @.@ 3 % fat , and 5 % dietary fiber . The parsnip is rich in vitamins and minerals , and is particularly rich in potassium with 375 mg per 100 g . Several of the B @-@ group vitamins are present , but levels of vitamin C are reduced in cooking . Since most of the vitamins and minerals are found close to the skin , many will be lost unless the root is finely peeled or cooked whole . During frosty weather , part of the starch is converted to sugar and the root tastes sweeter .
The consumption of parsnips has potential health benefits . They contain antioxidants such as falcarinol , falcarindiol , panaxydiol , and methyl @-@ falcarindiol , which may potentially have anticancer , anti @-@ inflammatory and antifungal properties . The dietary fiber in parsnips is partly of the soluble and partly the insoluble type and comprises cellulose , hemicellulose , and lignin . The high fiber content of parsnips may help prevent constipation and reduce blood cholesterol levels .
= = Etymology = =
While folk etymology sometimes assumes the name is a portmanteau of parsley and turnip , it actually comes from Middle English pasnepe , alteration ( influenced by nep , turnip ) of Old French pasnaie ( now panais ) from Latin pastinum , a kind of fork . The word 's ending was changed to -nip by analogy with turnip because it was mistakenly assumed to be a kind of turnip .
= = Cultivation = =
The wild parsnip from which the modern cultivated varieties were derived is a plant of dry rough grassland and waste places , particularly on chalk and limestone soils . Parsnips are biennials , but are normally grown as annuals . Sandy and loamy soils are preferable to silt , clay , and stony ground ; the latter produces short , forked roots . Parsnip seed significantly deteriorates in viability if stored for long . Seeds are usually planted in early spring , as soon as the ground can be worked to a fine tilth , in the position where the plants are to grow . The growing plants are thinned and kept weed @-@ free . Harvesting begins in late fall after the first frost , and continues through winter . The rows can be covered with straw to enable the crop to be lifted during frosty weather . Low soil temperatures cause some of the starches stored in the roots to be converted into sugars , giving them a sweeter taste .
= = = Cultivation problems = = =
Parsnip leaves are sometimes tunnelled by the larvae of the celery fly ( Euleia heraclei ) . Irregular , pale brown passages can be seen between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves . The effects are most serious on young plants , as whole leaves may shrivel and die . Treatment is by removing affected leaflets or whole leaves , or by chemical means .
The crop can be attacked by larvae of the carrot fly ( Chamaepsila rosae ) . This pest feeds on the outer layers of the root , burrowing its way inside later in the season . Seedlings may be killed while larger roots are spoiled . The damage done provides a point of entry for fungal rots and canker . The fly is attracted by the smell of bruised tissue .
Parsnip is used as a food plant by the larvae of some lepidopteran species , including the parsnip swallowtail ( Papilio polyxenes ) , the common swift moth ( Korscheltellus lupulina ) , the garden dart moth ( Euxoa nigricans ) , and the ghost moth ( Hepialus humuli ) . The larvae of the parsnip moth ( Depressaria radiella ) , native to Europe and accidentally introduced to North America in the mid @-@ 1800s , construct their webs on the umbels , feeding on flowers and partially developed seeds .
Parsnip canker is a serious disease of this crop . Black or orange @-@ brown patches occur around the crown and shoulders of the root accompanied by cracking and hardening of the flesh . It is more likely to occur when seed is sown into cold , wet soil , the pH of the soil is too low , or the roots have already been damaged by carrot fly larvae . Several fungi are associated with canker , including Phoma complanata , Ilyonectria radicicola , Itersonilia pastinaceae , and I. perplexans . In Europe , Mycocentrospora acerina has been found to cause a black rot that kills the plant early . Watery soft rot , caused by Sclerotinia minor and S. sclerotiorum , causes the taproot to become soft and watery . A white or buff @-@ colored mold grows on the surface . The pathogen is most common in temperate and subtropical regions that have a cool wet season .
Violet root rot caused by the fungus Helicobasidium purpureum sometimes affects the roots , covering them with a purplish mat to which soil particles adhere . The leaves become distorted and discolored and the mycelium can spread through the soil between plants . Some weeds can harbour this fungus and it is more prevalent in wet , acid conditions . Erysiphe heraclei causes a powdery mildew that can cause significant crop loss . Infestation by this causes results in yellowing of the leaf and loss of foliage . Moderate temperatures and high humidity favor the development of the disease .
Several viruses are known to infect the plant , including seed @-@ borne strawberry latent ringspot virus , parsnip yellow fleck virus , parsnip leafcurl virus , parsnip mosaic potyvirus , and potyvirus celery mosaic virus . The latter causes clearing or yellowing of the areas of the leaf immediately beside the veins , the appearance of ochre mosaic spots , and crinkling of the leaves in infected plants .
= = Toxicity = =
While the root of the parsnip is edible , handling the shoots and leaves of the plant requires caution as the sap is toxic . Like many other members of the family Apiaceae , the parsnip contains furanocoumarins as a defense against herbivory , photosensitive chemicals that causes a condition known as phytophotodermatitis . The condition is a type of chemical burn rather than an allergic reaction , and is similar to the rash caused by poison ivy ( Toxicodendron radicans ) . Symptoms include redness , burning , and blisters ; afflicted areas can remain discolored for up to two years . Although some reports of gardeners experiencing toxic symptoms after coming into contact with foliage have been made , these have been small in number compared to the number of people who grow the crop . The problem is most likely to occur on a sunny day when gathering foliage or pulling up old plants that have gone to seed . The symptoms have mostly been mild to moderate .
The toxic properties of parsnip extracts are resistant to heating , or a storage period of several months . Toxic symptoms can also affect livestock and poultry in parts of their bodies where their skin is exposed . Polyynes can be found in Apiaceae vegetables such as parsnip , and they show cytotoxic activities .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Cain , Nancy ; Darbyshire , Stephen J. ; Francis , Ardath ; Nurse , Robert E. ; Simard , Marie @-@ Josée ( 2010 ) . " The biology of Canadian weeds . 144 . Pastinaca sativa L. " ( PDF ) . Canadian Journal of Plant Science 90 ( 2 ) : 217 – 240 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 4141 / CJPS09110 .
Rubatsky , V.E. ; Quiros , C.F. ; Siman , P.W. ( 1999 ) . Carrots and Related Vegetable Umbelliferae . CABI Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85199 @-@ 129 @-@ 0 .
= = = General = = =
Pastinaca sativa profile on the USDA plants database Retrieved 2015 @-@ 10 @-@ 25 .
Pastinaca sativa profile on missouriplants.com Retrieved 2015 @-@ 10 @-@ 25 .
Pastinaca sativa List of Chemicals ( Dr. Duke 's ) Retrieved 2015 @-@ 10 @-@ 25 .
= Serjeant @-@ at @-@ law =
A Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law ( SL ) , commonly known simply as a Serjeant , was a member of an order of barristers at the English bar . The position of Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law ( servientes ad legem ) , or Sergeant @-@ Counter , was centuries old ; there are writs dating to 1300 which identify them as descended from figures in France prior to the Norman Conquest . The Serjeants were the oldest formally created order in England , having been brought into existence as a body by Henry II . The order rose during the 16th century as a small , elite group of lawyers who took much of the work in the central common law courts . With the creation of Queen 's Counsel ( or " Queen 's Counsel Extraordinary " ) during the reign of Elizabeth I , the order gradually began to decline , with each monarch opting to create more King 's or Queen 's Counsel . The Serjeants ' exclusive jurisdictions were ended during the 19th century , and with the Judicature Act 1873 coming into force in 1875 , it was felt that there was no need to have such figures , and no more were created . The last Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law was Serjeant Sullivan ( d . 1959 ) . The last purely English Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law was Lord Lindley ( d . 1921 ) .
The Serjeants had for many centuries exclusive jurisdiction over the Court of Common Pleas , being the only lawyers allowed to argue a case there . At the same time they had rights of audience in the other central common law courts ( the Court of King 's Bench and Exchequer of Pleas ) and precedence over all other lawyers . Only Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law could become judges of these courts right up into the 19th century , and socially the Serjeants ranked above Knights Bachelor and Companions of the Bath . Within the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law were more distinct orders ; the King 's Serjeants , particularly favoured Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law , and within that the King 's Premier Serjeant , the Monarch 's most favoured Serjeant , and the King 's Ancient Serjeant , the oldest . Serjeants ( except King 's Serjeants ) were created by Writ of Summons under the Great Seal of the Realm and wore a special and distinctive dress , the chief feature of which was the coif , a white lawn or silk skullcap , afterwards represented by a round piece of white lace at the top of the wig .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The history of Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law goes back to within a century of the Norman Conquest ; Alexander Pulling argues that Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law existed " before any large portion of our law was formed " , and Edward Warren agrees , supporting him with a Norman writ from approximately 1300 which identifies Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law as directly descending from Norman conteurs ; indeed , they were sometimes known as Serjeant @-@ Conteurs . The members of the Order initially used St Paul 's Cathedral as their meeting place , standing near the " parvis " where they would give counsel to those who sought advice . Geoffrey Chaucer makes reference to the Serjeants in the Canterbury Tales , writing :
A serjeant of the law , ware and wise ,
That often hadde ben at the parvis ,
Ther was also , full rich of excellence .
Discreet he was and of great reverence ,
He sened swiche ; his wordes were so wise ,
Justice he was ful often in assise ,
By patent , and by pleine commissiun ;
For his science , and for his high renoun ,
Of fees and robes had he many on .
The Order certainly existed during the reign of Henry II from 1154 – 1189 , who created a dozen Serjeants and thus moved the order 's existence " out of the realm of conjecture " and into recorded fact . As such it is the oldest royally created order ; the next is the Order of the Garter , created in 1330 . Serjeants at Law existed in Ireland from at least 1302 , and were appointed by letters patent in a similar way to English Serjeants . Henry de Bracton claimed that , for the trial of Hubert de Burgh in 1239 the king was assisted by " all the serjeants of the bench " , although it is not known who they were . By the 1270s there were approximately 20 recorded Serjeants ; by 1290 , 36 . This period also saw the first regulation of Serjeants , with a statutory power from 1275 to suspend from practise any Serjeant who misbehaved ( enacted as chapter 29 of the Statute of Westminster 1275 ) . The exclusive jurisdiction Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law held over the Court of Common Pleas slowly came about during the 1320s , squeezing the size of the bar until only a consistent group reappeared . From this period , Serjeants also began to be called in regular groups , rather than individually on whatever date was felt appropriate .
= = = Rise = = =
During the 16th century the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law were a small , though highly respected and powerful , elite . There were never more than ten alive , and on several occasions the number dwindled to one ; William Blendlowes bragged that he had been " the only Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law in England " in 1559 . Over these 100 years , only 89 Serjeants were created . At the time they were the only clearly distinguishable branch of the legal profession , and it is thought that their work may have actually created barristers as a separate group ; although Serjeants were the only lawyers who normally argued in court , they occasionally allowed other lawyers to help them in special cases . These lawyers became known as outer or " utter " barristers ( because they were confined to the outer bar of the court ) ; if they were allowed to act they had " passed the bar " towards becoming a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law .
Despite holding a monopoly on cases in the Court of Common Pleas , Serjeants also took most of the business in the Court of King 's Bench . Although required to make the Common Pleas their principal place of work , there is evidence of Serjeants who did not ; one , Robert Mennell , worked entirely in the North of England after his creation in 1547 and was not known in Westminster , where the Common Pleas was located . This was also a time of great judicial success for the Serjeants ; since only Serjeants could be appointed to the common law courts , many also sat in the Exchequer of Pleas , a court of equity . This period was not a time of success for the profession overall , however , despite the brisk business being done . The rise of central courts other than the Common Pleas allowed other lawyers to gain advocacy experience and work , drawing it away from the Serjeants , and at the same time the few Serjeants could not handle all the business in the Common Pleas , allowing the rise of barristers as dedicated advocates .
= = = Decline and abolition = = =
The decline of the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law started in 1596 , when Francis Bacon persuaded Elizabeth I to appoint him " Queen 's Counsel Extraordinary " ( QC ) , a new creation which gave him precedence over the Serjeants . This was not a formal creation , in that he was not granted a patent of appointment , but in 1604 James I saw fit to finally award this . The creation of Queen 's ( or King 's ) Counsel was initially small ; James I created at least one other , and Charles I four . Following the English Restoration this increased , with a few appointed each year . The largest change came about with William IV , who appointed an average of nine a year , and following him approximately 12 were created a year , with an average of 245 at any one time .
Every new Queen 's Counsel created reduced the Serjeants in importance , since even the most junior QC took precedence over the most senior Serjeant . Although appointments were still made to the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law , the King 's Serjeant and the King 's Ancient Serjeant , and several Serjeants were granted patents of precedence which gave them superiority over QCs , the Victorian era saw a decline in appointments . The rule that all common law judges must be Serjeants was circumvented : anyone chosen to be a judge would be appointed a Serjeant , and immediately thereafter a judge . In 1834 Lord Brougham issued a mandate which opened up pleading in the Court of Common Pleas to every barrister , Serjeant or not , and this was followed for six years until the Serjeants successfully petitioned the Queen to overturn it as invalid .
The Serjeants only enjoyed their returned status for another six years , however , before Parliament intervened . The Practitioners in Common Pleas Act 1846 , from 18 August 1846 , allowed all barristers to practice in the Court of Common Pleas . The next and final blow was the Judicature Act 1873 , which came into force on 1 November 1875 . Section 8 provided that common law judges need no longer be appointed from the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law , removing the need to appoint judicial Serjeants . With this Act and the rise of the Queen 's Counsel , there was no longer any need to appoint Serjeants , and the practice ended .
The equivalent Irish rank of Serjeant @-@ at @-@ law ( Ireland ) survived until 1919 . Alexander Sullivan , the last Irish serjeant , spent the second half of his career at the English Bar , and as a matter of courtesy was always addressed as Serjeant .
= = Organisation = =
= = = Serjeant 's Inn = = =
Serjeant 's Inn was an Inn of Court restricted to Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law . It operated from three locations , one in Holborn , known as Scroope 's Inn , which was abandoned by 1498 for the one in Fleet Street , which was pulled down during the 18th century , and one on Chancery Lane , pulled down in 1877 . The Inn was a voluntary association , and although most Serjeants joined upon being appointed they were not required to . There were rarely more than 40 Serjeants , even including members of the judiciary , and the Inns were noticeably smaller than the Inns of Court . Unlike the Inns of Court , Serjeant 's Inn was a private establishment similar to a gentlemen 's club .
The Inn on Fleet Street existed from at least 1443 , when it was rented from the Dean of York . By the 16th century it had become the main Inn , before being burnt down during the Great Fire of London . It was rebuilt by 1670 , but the end finally came in 1733 . The Fleet Street Inn had fallen into a " ruinous state " , and the Serjeants had been unable to obtain a renewal of their lease . They abandoned the property , and it returned to the Dean .
The property on Chancery Lane consisted of a Hall , dining room , a library , kitchens and offices for the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law . This Inn was originally known as " Skarle 's Inn " from about 1390 , named after John Scarle , who became Master of the Rolls in 1394 . By 1404 it was known as " Farringdon 's Inn " , but although the Serjeants were in full possession by 1416 it was not until 1484 that the property became known as Serjeant 's Inn . Newly promoted Serjeants had to pay £ 350 in the 19th century , while those promoted solely to take up judicial office had to pay £ 500 . The Hall was a large room hung with portraits of various famous judges and Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law , with three windows on one side each containing the coat of arms of a distinguished judge . Around the room were the coats of arms of various Serjeants , which were given to their descendants when the Inn was finally sold . When the Fleet Street Inn was abandoned , this location became the sole residence of the Serjeants . With the demise of the order after the Judicature Act 1873 , there was no way to support the Inn , and it was sold in 1877 for £ 57 @,@ 100 . The remaining Serjeants were accepted into their former Inns of Court , where judicial Serjeants were made Benchers and normal Serjeants barristers .
= = = Call to the Coif = = =
The process of being called to the order of Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law stayed fairly constant . The traditional method was that the Serjeants would discuss among themselves prospective candidates , and then make recommendations to the Chief Justice of the Common Pleas . He would pass these names on to the Lord Chancellor , who would appoint the new Serjeants . This was intended to provide a way to select possible judges in a period where political favouritism was rampant – since only Serjeants could become judges , making sure that Serjeants were not political appointees was seen to provide for a neutral judiciary . Serjeants were traditionally appointed by a writ directly from the King . The writ was issued under the Great Seal of the Realm and required " the elected and qualified apprentices of the law to take the state and degree of a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law " . The newly created Serjeants would then assemble in one of the Inns of Court , where they would hear a speech from the Lord Chancellor or Lord Chief Justice and be given a purse of gold . The Coif was then placed on the Serjeant 's head . The Serjeants were required to swear an oath , which was that they would :
" serve the King 's people as one of the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ law , and you shall truly counsel them that you be retained with after your cunning ; and you shall not defer or delay their causes willingly , for covetness of money , or other thing that may turn you to profit ; and you shall give due attendance accordingly . So help you God . "
The new Serjeants would give a feast to celebrate , and gave out rings to their close friends and family to mark the occasion . The King , the Lord Chancellor and other figures also received rings . The major courts would be suspended for the day , and the other Serjeants , judges , leaders of the Inns of Court and occasionally the King would attend . Serjeant 's Inn and the Inns of Court were not big enough for such an occasion , and Ely Place or Lambeth Palace would instead be used . The feasts gradually declined in importance , and by the 17th century they were small enough to be held in the Inns . The last recorded feast was in 1736 in Middle Temple , when fourteen new Serjeants were raised to the Coif .
= = = Robes = = =
The traditional clothing of a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law consisted of a Coif , a robe and a furred cloak . The robe and cloak were later adapted into the robe worn by judges . The cut and colour of this robe varied – records from the King 's Privy Wardrobe show judges being instructed to wear robes of scarlet , green , purple and miniver , and Serjeants being ordered to wear the same . In 1555 new Serjeants were required to have robes of scar
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let , brown , blue , mustard and murrey . By the time the order came to an end the formal robes were red , but Mr. Serjeant Robinson recalled that , towards the end days of the order , black silk gowns were the everyday court garb and the red gown was worn only on certain formal occasions . The cape was originally a cloak worn separately from the robe , but gradually made its way into the uniform as a whole . John Fortescue described the cape as the " main ornament of the order " , distinguished only from the cape worn by judges because it was furred with lambskin rather than miniver . The capes were not worn into court by the advocates , only by the serjeants .
The Coif was the main symbol of the Order of Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law , and is where their most recognisable name ( the Order of the Coif ) comes from . The Coif was white and made of either silk or lawn . A Serjeant was never obliged to take off or cover his Coif , not even in the presence of the King , except as a judge when passing a death sentence . In that situation he would wear a Black cap intended to cover the Coif , although it is often confused with the coif itself . When wigs were first introduced for barristers and judges it caused some difficulty for Serjeants , who were not allowed to cover the Coif . Wigmakers got around this by adding a small white cloth to the top of the wig , representing the Coif .
= = = King 's or Queen 's Serjeants = = =
A King 's or Queen 's Serjeant was a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law appointed to serve the Crown as a legal adviser to the monarch and their government in the same way as the Attorney @-@ General for England and Wales . The King 's Serjeant ( who had the postnominal KS , or QS during the reign of a female monarch ) would represent the Crown in court , acting as prosecutors in criminal cases and representatives in civil ones , and would have higher powers and ranking in the lower courts than the Attorney- or Solicitor General . King 's Serjeants also worked as legal advisers in the House of Lords , and were not allowed to act in cases against the Crown or do anything that would harm it ; in 1540 Serjeant Browne was heavily punished for creating a tax avoidance scheme . The King 's Serjeants would wear a black Coif with a narrow strip of white , unlike the all @-@ white Coif of a normal Serjeant . The King 's Serjeants were required to swear a second oath to serve " The King and his people " , rather than " The King 's people " as a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law would swear . The King 's favoured Serjeant would become the King 's Premier Serjeant , while the oldest one was known as the King 's Ancient Serjeant .
= = = Precedence , status and rights of audience = = =
For almost all of their history , Serjeants at Law and King 's Serjeants were the only advocates given rights of audience in the Court of Common Pleas . Until the 17th century they were also first in the order of precedence in the Court of King 's Bench and Court of Chancery , which gave them priority in motions before the court . Serjeants also had the privilege of being immune from most normal forms of lawsuit – they could only be sued by a writ from the Court of Chancery . It was held as an extension of this that servants of Serjeants could only be sued in the Common Pleas . As part of the Court of Common Pleas the Serjeants also performed some judicial duties , such as levying fines . In exchange for these privileges , Serjeants were expected to fulfil certain duties ; firstly , that they represent anybody who asked regardless of their ability to pay , and secondly that , due to the small number of judges , they serve as deputy judges to hear cases when there was no judge available .
Only Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law could become judges of the common law courts ; this rule came into being in the 14th century for the Courts of Common Pleas and King 's Bench , and was extended to the Exchequer of Pleas in the 16th century ; it did not apply to the Court of Chancery , a court of equity , or the Ecclesiastical Courts . The Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law also had social privileges ; they ranked above Knights Bachelor and Companions of the Bath , and their wives had the right to be addressed as " Lady - " , in the same way as the wives of Knights or Baronets . A Serjeant made a King 's Counsel or judge would still retain these social privileges . As the cream of the legal profession , Serjeants earned higher fees than normal barristers .
In the order of precedence King 's Serjeants came before all other barristers , even the Attorney @-@ General , until the introduction of King 's Counsel . This state of affairs came to an end as a result of two changes – firstly , during the reign of James I , when a royal patent gave the Attorney General precedence over all King 's Serjeants " except the two ancientiest " , and secondly in 1814 when the Attorney General of the time was a barrister and the Solicitor General ( politically junior to the Attorney General ) a King 's Serjeant . To reflect the political reality , the Attorney General was made superior to any King 's Serjeant , and this remained until the order of Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law finally died out .
= = In Literature = =
The main character in C.J. Sansom 's ' Shardlake ' novels , hunchback lawyer Matthew Shardlake , is a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law during the reign of King Henry VIII of England .
= Jack Thompson ( activist ) =
John Bruce " Jack " Thompson ( born July 25 , 1951 ) is an American activist and disbarred attorney , based in Coral Gables , Florida . Thompson is known for his role as an anti @-@ video @-@ game activist , particularly against violence and sex in video games . During his time as an attorney , Thompson focused his legal efforts against what he perceives as obscenity in modern culture . This included rap music , broadcasts by shock jock Howard Stern , the content of computer and video games and their alleged effects on children .
He is also known for his unusual filings to the Florida Bar , including challenging the constitutionality of the Florida Bar itself in 1993 . Later the Florida Supreme Court described his filings as " repetitive , frivolous and insulting to the integrity of the court " . On March 20 , 2008 , the Florida Supreme Court imposed sanctions on Thompson , requiring that any of his future filings in the court be signed by a member of the Florida Bar other than himself . In July 2008 , Thompson was permanently disbarred by the Supreme Court of Florida for inappropriate conduct , including making false statements to tribunals and disparaging and humiliating litigants .
= = Background = =
Thompson grew up in Cleveland , Ohio , attended Cuyahoga Falls H.S. and attended Denison University . He received media attention when he hosted his own political talk show on the college radio station . He then attended Vanderbilt University Law School , where he met his wife , Patricia . In 1976 , they moved to Florida , where Thompson , working as a lawyer and then a fund @-@ raiser for a Christian ministry , began attending the Key Biscayne Presbyterian Church and became a born @-@ again Christian . Thompson admits to having a " colorful disciplinary history " as an attorney .
= = The Neil Rogers Show = =
In 1988 , Thompson became involved in a feud with WIOD Radio host Neil Rogers , after Thompson was instrumental in persuading the FCC to fine WIOD $ 10 @,@ 000 for airing such parody songs as " Boys Want Sex in the Morning " on Rogers ' show . Thompson also sued the station for violating a December 1987 agreement to end on @-@ air harassment against him . For the next eight months , Thompson recorded all of Rogers ' broadcasts and documented 40 @,@ 000 mentionings of his name . Thompson claimed that one of the terms of his agreement with the station was that the station would pay him $ 5 @,@ 000 each time his name was mentioned , totaling $ 200 million in the suit .
= = Janet Reno = =
Thompson first met Janet Reno in November 1975 , when he applied for a job as an assistant State 's Attorney in Dade County , but was not hired . In 1988 , he ran for prosecutor against then incumbent Dade County State Attorney Janet Reno , after she had declined his request to prosecute Neil Rogers . Thompson gave Reno a letter at a campaign event requesting that she check a box to indicate whether she was homosexual , bisexual , or heterosexual . Thompson said that Reno then put her hand on his shoulder and responded , " I 'm only interested in virile men . That ’ s why I 'm not attracted to you . " He filed a police report accusing her of battery for touching him . In response , Reno asked Florida governor Bob Martinez to appoint a special prosecutor to investigate . The special prosecutor rejected the charge , concluding that it was " a political ploy " . Reno was ultimately re @-@ elected with 69 % of the vote . Thompson repeated allegations that Reno was a lesbian when she was nominated as U.S. Attorney General , leading one of her supporters , lieutenant governor Buddy MacKay , to dismiss him as a " kook " .
In 1990 , after his election loss , Thompson began a campaign against the efforts of Switchboard of Miami , a social services group of which Reno was a board member . Thompson charged that the group placed " homosexual @-@ education tapes " in public schools . Switchboard responded by getting the Florida Supreme Court to order that he submit to a psychiatric examination . Thompson did so and passed . Thompson has since stated on more than one occasion that he is " the only officially certified sane lawyer in the entire state of Florida " .
= = Rap music = =
Thompson came to national prominence in the controversy over 2 Live Crew 's As Nasty As They Wanna Be album . ( Luke Skyywalker Records , the company of 2 Live Crew 's Luther Campbell , had previously released a record supporting Reno in her race against Thompson . ) On January 1 , 1990 , he wrote to Martinez and Reno asking them to investigate whether the album violated Florida obscenity laws . Although the state prosecutor declined to proceed with an investigation , Thompson pushed local officials in various parts of the state to block sales of the album , along with N.W.A ’ s Straight Outta Compton . In sending documents to opponents , Thompson would frequently attach a photocopy of his driver 's license , with a photo of Batman pasted over his own . Thompson said , " I have sent my opponents pictures of Batman to remind them I 'm playing the role of Batman . Just like Bruce Wayne helped the police in the movie , I have had to assist the sheriff of Broward County . " He also wore a Batman wristwatch . Thompson compared Campbell to the Joker . Thompson also said , " I understand as well as anybody that the First Amendment is a cornerstone of a free society — but there is a responsibility to people who can be harmed by words and thoughts , one of which is the message from Campbell that women can be sexually abused . "
Thompson also took issue with another 2 Live Crew song , " Banned in the U.S.A. " . He sent a letter to Jon Landau , manager of Bruce Springsteen , whose song " Born in the U.S.A. " was to be sampled by the group . Thompson suggested that Landau " protect ' Born in the U.S.A. ' from its apparent theft by a bunch of clowns who traffic toxic waste to kids , " or else Thompson would " be telling the nation about Mr. Springsteen 's tacit approval " of the song , which , according to Campbell , " expresses anger about the failure of the First Amendment to protect 2 Live Crew from prosecution " . Thompson also said , " the ' social commentary ' on this album is akin to a sociopath 's discharging his AK @-@ 47 into a crowded schoolyard , with the machine gun bursts interrupted by Pee @-@ wee Herman 's views on politics " .
The members of 2 Live Crew responded to these efforts by suing the Broward County sheriff in federal district court . The sheriff had previously told local retailers that selling the album could result in a prosecution for obscenity violations . While they were granted an injunction because law enforcement actions were an unconstitutional prior restraint on free speech , the court ruled that the album was in fact obscene . However , an appellate court reversed the obscenity ruling , because simply playing the tape was insufficient evidence of the constitutional requirement that it had no artistic value .
As the debate continued , Thompson wrote , " An industry that says a line cannot be drawn will be drawn and quartered . " He said of his campaign , " I won 't stop till I get the head of a record company or record chain in jail . Only then will they stop trafficking in obscenity " . Bob Guccione , Jr . , founder of Spin magazine , responded by calling Thompson " a sort of latter @-@ day Don Quixote , as equally at odds with his times as that mythical character was , " and argued that his campaign was achieving " two things ... : pissing everybody off and compounding his own celebrity " . Thompson responded by noting , " Law enforcement and I put 2 Live Crew 's career back into the toilet where it began . "
Thompson wrote another letter in 1991 , this time to the Minnesota attorney general Skip Humphrey , complaining about the N.W.A album Niggaz4Life . Humphrey warned locally @-@ based Musicland that sales of the album might violate state law against distribution of sexually explicit material harmful to minors . Humphrey also referred the matter to the Minneapolis city attorney , who concluded that some of the songs might fit the legal definition if issued as singles , but that sales of the album as a whole were not prosecutable . Thompson also initiated a similar campaign in Boston . Later , Thompson would criticize the Republican Party for inviting N.W.A member and party donor Eric " Eazy @-@ E " Wright to an exclusive function .
In 1992 , Thompson was hired by the Freedom Alliance , a self @-@ described patriot group founded by Oliver North , described as " far @-@ right " by The Washington Post . By this time , Thompson was looking to have Time Warner , then being criticized for promoting the Ice @-@ T song " Cop Killer " , prosecuted for federal and state crimes such as sedition , incitement to riot , and " advocating overthrow of government " by distributing material that , in Thompson 's view , advocated the killing of police officers . Time Warner eventually released Ice @-@ T and his band from their contract , and voluntarily suspended distribution of the album on which " Cop Killer " was featured .
Thompson ’ s push to label various musical performances obscene was not entirely limited to rap . In addition to taking on 2 Live Crew , Thompson campaigned against sales of the racy music video for Madonna 's " Justify My Love " . Then in 1996 , he took on MTV broadcasts for " objectification of women " by writing to the station 's corporate parent , Viacom , demanding a stop to what he called " corporate pollution " . He also went after MTV 's advertisers and urged the United States Army to pull recruiting commercials , citing the Army ’ s recruitment of women and problems with sexual harassment scandals .
= = Video games = =
Thompson has heavily criticized a number of video games and campaigned against their producers and distributors . His basic argument is that violent video games have repeatedly been used by teenagers as " murder simulators " to rehearse violent plans . He has pointed to alleged connections between such games and a number of school massacres . According to Thompson , " In every school shooting , we find that kids who pull the trigger are video gamers . " Also , he claims that scientific studies show teenagers process the game environment differently from adults , leading to increased violence and copycat behavior . According to Thompson , " If some wacked @-@ out adult wants to spend his time playing Grand Theft Auto : Vice City , one has to wonder why he doesn 't get a life , but when it comes to kids , it has a demonstrable impact on their behavior and the development of the frontal lobes of their brain . " Thompson has described the proliferation of games by Sony , a Japanese company , as " Pearl Harbor 2 " . According to Thompson , " Many parents think that stores won ’ t sell an M @-@ rated game to someone under 17 . We know that 's not true , and , in fact , kids roughly 50 percent of that time , all the studies show , are able to walk into any store and get any game regardless of the rating , no questions asked . "
Thompson has rejected arguments that such video games are protected by freedom of expression , saying , " Murder simulators are not constitutionally protected speech . They ’ re not even speech . They ’ re dangerous physical appliances that teach a kid how to kill efficiently and to love it , " as well as simply calling video games " mental masturbation " . In addition , he has attributed part of the impetus for violent games to the military , saying that it was looking " for a way to disconnect in the soldier 's mind the physical act of pulling the trigger from the awful reality that a life may end " . Thompson further claims that some of these games are based on military training and simulation technologies , such as those being developed at the Institute for Creative Technologies , which , he suggests , were created by the Department of Defense to help overcome soldiers ' inhibition to kill . He also claims that the PlayStation 2 's DualShock controller " gives you a pleasurable buzz back into your hands with each kill . This is operant conditioning , behavior modification right out of B. F. Skinner 's laboratory . "
Although his
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Paxil , and my son 's no murderer . "
Thompson returned to file a lawsuit in Tennessee state court in October 2003 on behalf of the victims of two teenage stepbrothers who had pleaded guilty to reckless homicide , endangerment , and assault . Since the boys told investigators they were inspired by Grand Theft Auto III , Thompson sought $ 246 million in damages from the publisher , Take @-@ Two Interactive , along with PlayStation 2 maker Sony Computer Entertainment America and retailer Wal @-@ Mart . The suit charged that the defendants knew or should have known that the game would cause copycat violence . On October 22 , 2003 , the case was removed to the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee . Two days later , the plaintiffs filed a Notice of Voluntary Dismissal , and the case was closed .
Thompson was involved in another similar suit in Alabama in 2005 on behalf of the families of police personnel killed by Devin Moore , a teenager who was reportedly a compulsive Grand Theft Auto player . However , his participation in the case ran into a dispute over his pro hac vice admission to practice law in that state . The opposing attorneys sought removal of this privilege by arguing that his conduct was unethical and claiming he had threatened and harassed them in letters and emails . The judge added that Thompson had violated his gag order during Moore ’ s criminal trial . Thompson tried to withdraw from the case , but his request was denied by the judge , who went ahead and revoked Thompson 's temporary admission to the state bar . For his part , Thompson said he thought the judge was trying to protect Moore 's criminal conviction at any cost . He also complained about the judge 's ethics , saying a local attorney who claimed to have influence on the judge had assured him the case would be dismissed unless the attorney was on Thompson 's team , and also claimed that Rockstar Entertainment and Take Two Interactive posted slanderous comments about him on their website .
In the aftermath of this lawsuit , Thompson lobbied Alabama attorney general Troy King to file a civil suit and call on retailers not to sell " cop @-@ killing games " . After the slaying of another police officer in Gassville , Arkansas by Jacob D. Robida , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old fugitive , Thompson again raised the possibility of a connection to Grand Theft Auto , but investigators found no evidence that video games were involved .
Thompson once reported that he had videotaped a Miami Best Buy selling a copy of Grand Theft Auto : Vice City to his son who was 10 at the time . In a letter to Best Buy , he wrote , " Prosecutions and public relations consequences should fall on your Minneapolis headquarters like snowflakes . " He eventually sued the company in Florida , arguing that it had violated a law against sale of sexual materials deemed harmful to minors . In January 2005 , Best Buy agreed that it would enforce an existing policy to check the identification of anyone who appeared to be 17 or under and tried to purchase games rated " M " ( for mature audiences ) . No law in effect at the time prohibited selling " M " rated video games to juveniles .
In September 2006 , Thompson filed a suit in Albuquerque , New Mexico against Sony , Take @-@ Two , Rockstar Games , and Cody Posey , for the wrongful death of three members of Posey 's family . The 69 @-@ page complaint filed by Thompson and Albuquerque attorney Steven Sanders argued that " obsessively " playing Grand Theft Auto : Vice City made violence " pleasurable and attractive , " disconnected violence from consequences , and caused Posey to " act out , copycat , replicate and emulate the violence " when he shot and killed his father , stepmother , and stepsister , and then buried them under a manure pile at a ranch owned by former ABC News reporter Sam Donaldson in July , 2004 . Thompson and Sanders filed the lawsuit on behalf of the surviving family members of Posey 's father . According to Thompson , " Posey essentially practiced how to kill on this game . If it wasn 't for Grand Theft Auto , three people might not now be dead . " The lawsuit claims that Thompson was told by a sheriff 's deputy that the game and a Sony PlayStation 2 were found at the ranch . The suit also claims that the game taught Posey " how to point and shoot a gun in a fashion making him an extraordinarily effective killer without teaching him any of the constraints or responsibilities needed to inhibit such a killing capacity " . Gary Mitchell , Posey 's criminal defense attorney , said Thompson contacted him " numerous times " before the trial , urging Mitchell to highlight the game in Posey 's defense , but Mitchell said he " just didn 't find it had any merit whatsoever " .
On March 14 , 2007 , Take @-@ Two filed a lawsuit to prevent Thompson from preventing the sale of Grand Theft Auto IV and Manhunt 2 to minors , claiming that Thompson 's effort to block sales of its games through lawsuits violates the company 's First Amendment rights . Responding , Thompson said , " I have been praying , literally , that Take @-@ Two and its lawyers would do something so stupid , so arrogant , so dumb , even dumber than what they have to date done , that such a misstep would enable me to destroy Take @-@ Two . " On April 19 , 2007 , Thompson and Take @-@ Two settled their suit , with Thompson agreeing not to restrict sales through any court worldwide of Take @-@ Two 's games , threaten to sue the company , or accuse Take @-@ Two of any wrongdoing based on the sale of any of its games . One analyst said that the settlement was likely to mute his public pronouncements and lawsuits against the company . However , upon the game 's 2008 release , Thompson called Grand Theft Auto IV " the gravest assault upon children in this country since polio , " and asked Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty to " pursue and file criminal charges against [ Minnesota @-@ based retailers ] Target and Best Buy " . He also sent a letter to Take @-@ Two chairman Strauss Zelnick 's attorney , addressed to Zelnick 's mother , in which Thompson accused her son of " doing everything he possibly can to sell as many copies of GTA : IV to teen boys in the United States , a country in which your son claims you raised him to be a ' a Boy Scout ' . ... More like the Hitler Youth , I would say . " On May 1 , 2008 Thompson appeared on the CNN Headline News program Glenn Beck , asserting that the game 's sexual content made its sale to minors illegal , and that he was working with law enforcement to have criminal prosecutions brought . Thompson also filed a complaint with the Chicago Transit Authority about poster ads for the game at Chicago , Illinois bus stops .
In September 2013 , Thompson expressed his hatred of Grand Theft Auto V during a series of e @-@ mails exchange with GameZone writer Lance Liebl during its launch week . The game happened to launch around the same time as the Washington Navy Yard shooting . Traditional media outlets such as FOX News sought out to find proof that violent video games , such as Grand Theft Auto V , had a role in the brutal killings . Gamezone responded by writing an article that disagrees with this . These caught Thompson 's attention , who then sent an e @-@ mail to the site . " Look , Lance , " he wrote in an email , " The American Psychological Association has established a causal link between these games and increased aggression . The Dept. of Defense uses them for that purpose . " Lance responded by offering Thompson a chance to come on the site and explain his stance , which he refused , describing gamers as " too brain @-@ impaired to get it . "
= = = Bully = = =
Beginning in 2005 , Thompson supported a campaign to discourage Take @-@ Two ’ s subsidiary , Rockstar Games , from releasing a game called Bully , in which , according to Thompson , " what you are in effect doing is rehearsing your physical revenge and violence against those whom you have been victimized by . And then you , like Klebold and Harris in Columbine , become the ultimate bully . " According to Thompson , the game " shows you how to — by bullying — take over your school . You punch people ; you hit them with sling shots ; you dunk their heads in dirty toilets . There 's white @-@ on @-@ black crime in the game . You bludgeon teachers and classmates with bats . It 's absolutely nuts . " Thompson sued Wal @-@ Mart , Best Buy , Target , Circuit City , GameStop , and Toys ' R ' Us , seeking an order to bar the game ’ s release . He also participated in a protest at Rockstar 's office that also included students from Peaceaholics , a Washington , D.C. mentoring organization . Thompson said he hoped that the pressure would get retailers to refuse to carry the game . In March 2006 , a Florida school board he had lobbied passed a resolution criticizing the game , but only urged retailers not to sell the game to minors .
Thompson also criticized Bill Gates and Microsoft for contracting with Rockstar Games to release the game on the Xbox . The Xbox version has since been canceled for undisclosed reasons , but a version was released years later on the Xbox 360 . In August 2006 , Thompson requested a congressional subpoena for an early copy , threatening to file suit in Miami if he did not gain help from U.S. Rep. Cliff Stearns . Once the game is out , according to Thompson , " the horse will be out of the barn and it will be too late to do anything about it " . Thompson argued that it violated Florida 's public nuisance laws , which prohibit activities that can injure the health of the community .
Rockstar Games co @-@ founder Terry Donovan responded , saying " I would prefer it if we could simply make great games and not have to deal with misunderstanding and misperception of what we do . " After receiving no response from Rockstar regarding an advance copy , Thompson filed the public nuisance complaint against Wal @-@ Mart , Take @-@ Two Interactive , and GameStop , demanding that he be allowed to preview the game before its October 17 release date . Take @-@ Two offered to bring in a copy and let both Judge Ronald Friedman and Thompson view the game in the judge 's chambers on October 12 , 2006 . The judge ultimately saw no reason to restrict sales and dismissed the complaint the next day .
Thompson was critical of the judge 's decision , telling the judge " You did not see the game ... You don 't even know what it was you saw , " as well as accusing the Take @-@ Two employee who demonstrated the game of avoiding the most violent parts . Blank Rome subsequently filed a motion to have Thompson 's behavior declared " contempt for the court " . Judge Friedman then recused himself from ruling , and instead filed a complaint against Thompson with the Florida Bar , calling Thompson 's behavior " inappropriate by a member of the bar , unprofessional and contemptible " .
Thompson later drew attention to the game 's main character , a 15 @-@ year old male , being able to kiss other boys . Thompson wrote to ESRB president Patricia Vance , " We just found gay sexual content in Bully as Jimmy Hopkins makes out with another male student . Good luck with your Teen rating now . " The ESRB responded by saying they were already aware that the content was in the game when they rated it .
= = = Manhunt = = =
During the aftermath of the murder of Stefan Pakeerah , by his friend Warren Leblanc in Leicestershire , England , the game Manhunt was linked after the media wrongfully claimed police has found a copy in Leblanc 's room . Although the police officially denied any link , citing drug @-@ related robbery as the motive and revealing that the game had been found in Pakeerah 's bedroom , not Leblanc 's , Thompson , who had heard of the murder , claimed that he had written to Rockstar after the game was released , warning them that the nature of the game could inspire copycat killings ; " I wrote warning them that somebody was going to copycat the Manhunt game and kill somebody . We have had dozens of killings in the U.S. by children who had played these types of games . This is not an isolated incident . These types of games are basically murder simulators . There are people being killed over here almost on a daily basis . " Soon thereafter , the Pakeerah family hired Thompson with the aim of suing Sony and Rockstar for £ 50 million in a wrongful death claim .
Jack Thompson would later vow to permanently ban the game during the release of the sequel Manhunt 2 . Thompson said he planned to sue Take @-@ Two / Rockstar in an effort to have both Manhunt 2 and Grand Theft Auto IV banned as " public nuisances " , saying " Killings have been specifically linked to Take @-@ Two 's Manhunt and Grand Theft Auto games . [ I have ] asked Take @-@ Two and retailers to stop selling Take @-@ Two 's " Mature " murder simulation games to kids . They all refuse . They are about to be told by a court of law that they must adhere to the logic of their own " Mature " labels .
The suits were eradicated when Take @-@ Two petitioned U.S. District Court , SD FL to block the impending lawsuit , on the grounds that video games purchased for private entertainment could not be considered public nuisances . The following day , Thompson wrote on his website ; " I have been praying , literally , that Take @-@ Two and its lawyers would do something so stupid , that such a misstep would enable me to destroy Take @-@ Two . The pit Take @-@ Two has dug for itself will be patently clear next week when I strike back . "
= = = Mortal Kombat = = =
In October 2006 , Thompson sent a letter to Midway Games , demanding they cease and desist selling the latest game in the Mortal Kombat series , Mortal Kombat : Armageddon , claiming that the game was illegally profiting on his likeness , because gamers could use the Kreate a Fighter option to make a character who looked like Thompson . Midway did not respond to his letter .
= = = Activism and lobbying = = =
In addition to filing lawsuits , Thompson has pushed for measures against similar games in a variety of public settings . He wrote a joint article in the Christian Science Monitor with Eugene F. Provenzo , a University of Miami professor who studies the effects of video games on children . Originally brought together to provide opposing viewpoints on 60 Minutes in the aftermath of the Columbine High School massacre , they said they had become friends and were collaborating on a book . They described themselves as having " a shared belief that first @-@ person shooter video games are bad for our children , teaching them to act aggressively and providing them with efficient killing skills and romanticized and trivialized scenarios for killing in the real world " .
Thompson has supported legislation in a number of states that would ban sales of violent and sexually explicit video games to minors . In response to First Amendment concerns , he argued that the games were a " public safety hazard . " However , he rejected as " completely unconstitutional " Hillary Clinton 's proposed legislation to ban sales to minors of games rated " M " for Mature by the Entertainment Software Rating Board . Thompson contended that the government could not enforce a private @-@ sector standard but had to depend on a Miller obscenity test . He charged that Clinton was simply positioning herself politically , with the support of the gaming industry , by proposing a bill which he felt she knew would be unconstitutional .
In July 2005 , Thompson sent a letter to several politicians urging them to investigate The Sims 2 , alleging that the game contained nudity accessible by entering special codes . Thompson called the nudity inappropriate for a game rated " T " for Teen , a rating which indicates suitability for anyone 13 and older . Manufacturer Electronic Arts dismissed the allegations , with vice president Jeff Brown explaining that game characters have " no anatomical detail " under their clothes , effectively resembling Barbie dolls . Although the game does display blurred @-@ out patches over body regions when characters are naked , such as when taking a shower , Brown said that was for " humorous effect " and denied there was anything improper about the game . Nevertheless , a command that could be entered into the in @-@ game console in order to disable the blur effect was removed from the game in an expansion . No official reason was given for the change .
In Louisiana , Thompson helped draft a 2006 bill sponsored by state representative Roy Burrell to ban the sale of violent video games to buyers under 18 ( HB1381 ) . In an effort to avoid constitutional problems , it avoided trying to define " violent " and instead adopted a variation of the Miller obscenity test : sales to minors would be illegal based on community standards if the game appealed to " the minor 's morbid interest in violence " , was patently offensive based on adult standards of suitability for minors , and lacked serious literary , artistic , political , or scientific value for minors . The bill was passed unanimously by the state House and approved by the Senate Judiciary A Committee , despite industry opposition and predictions that it too would be unconstitutional . The Shreveport Times editorialized that Thompson 's support of the bill " should immediately set off alarms " and described Thompson as someone who " thrives on chasing cultural ambulances " . In defense of the bill , Thompson said that it was needed for public safety , and that it was a " miracle " that a Columbine @-@ type event hadn 't happened yet in Louisiana . However , the ESA filed suit under Entertainment Software Association v. Foti , and U.S. District Judge James Brady issued a preliminary injunction , temporarily blocking the law from taking effect until full judicial review can be done . The law was permanently enjoined in late November 2006 , and the state was ordered to pay the legal fees of the plaintiffs . Judge Brady was " dumbfounded " that state legislators and Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco wasted taxpayer money by trying to enact the law .
At one point , Thompson was asked by the National Institute on Media and the Family to stop invoking the organization 's name in his campaigns . NIMF president David Walsh felt Thompson cast the organization in a bad light whenever he brought up their name . " Your commentary has included extreme hyperbole and your tactics have included personally attacking individuals for whom I have a great deal of respect , " Walsh said in an open letter to Thompson .
Thompson has additionally worked to influence police investigations concerning violent acts which he views as being connected to violence in video games media . On June 2 , 2006 , Thompson suggested that West Feliciana Parish , Louisiana police detectives , investigating the murder of 55 @-@ year @-@ old Michael Gore by 17 @-@ year @-@ old Kurt Edward Neher , should look into the video games played by Neher . According to Sheriff J. Austin Daniel , an autopsy showed Gore was beaten to death as well as shot in the face . Concerning this , Thompson stated that " nobody shoots anybody in the face unless you 're a hit man or a video gamer . "
= = = Other public commentary = = =
Thompson predicted that the perpetrator of the Beltway sniper attacks would be " a teenaged boy , who plays video games " and speculated incorrectly that he " may indeed ride a bicycle to and from his shooting locations , his gun broken down and placed in a backpack while he pedals . " Saying that the shooter , Lee Boyd Malvo , had " trained " on Halo , Thompson later claimed credit for this on The Today Show : " I predicted that the beltway sniper would be a teen @-@ aged boy that trained on a game switched to sniper mode . And three months later , NBC reported that that 's exactly what Malvo did . And Muhammed had him train on the game to suppress his inhibition to kill . " John Muhammad was a Gulf War veteran and earned an expert marksmanship badge in the U.S. Army .
Thompson has also criticized a Christian video game based on the Left Behind series . In Left Behind : Eternal Forces , players participate in " battles raging in the streets of New York , " according to the game 's fact sheet . They engage in " physical and spiritual warfare : using the power of prayer to strengthen your troops in combat and wield modern military weaponry throughout the game world . " Thompson claims that the makers of the game are sacrificing their values . He said , " Because of the Christian context , somehow it 's OK ? It 's not OK . The context is irrelevant . It 's a mass @-@ killing game . " Left Behind author Tim LaHaye disagrees , saying " Rather than forbid young people from viewing their favorite pastime , I prefer to give them something that 's positive . " The dispute over the game has caused Thompson to sever ties with Tyndale House , which publishes both the Left Behind books and Thompson 's book , Out of Harm 's Way . Thompson has not seen the game , which he says has " personally broken my heart , " but claims , " I don 't have to meet Abraham Lincoln to know that he was the 16th president of the United States . "
In April 2007 , only hours after the Virginia Tech shooting ( and before Seung @-@ Hui Cho was actually identified ) , Thompson predicted that the shooter had trained on the game Counter @-@ Strike . According to Thompson , the game " drills you and gives you scenarios on how to kill them [ and ] gets you to kill them with your heart rate lower . " He says that Seung @-@ Hui " was in a hyper @-@ reality situation in virtual reality . " Though Seung @-@ Hui had last been known to have played Counter @-@ Strike in high school , four years prior to the shooting , Thompson asserts that " you don 't drop it when you go to college , typically . " Thompson disputed Seung @-@ Hui 's roommate 's claim that Seung @-@ Hui only used his computer to write fiction , on the grounds that " Cho was able to go room to room calmly , efficiently , coolly killing people . " Prior to being identified , Thompson attributed the " flat effect [ sic ] on [ Seung @-@ Hui 's ] face " and the efficiency of his attack to video game rehearsals of the shooting . However , a search warrant released , listing the items found in Cho 's dorm room , did not contain any video games , and a Washington Post story cited by Thompson later removed a paragraph stating that Seung @-@ Hui enjoyed violent video games in high school . Despite all evidence indicating that Seung @-@ Hui had not played Counter @-@ Strike in years , Thompson continued to insist that " this is not rocket science . When a kid who has never killed anyone in his life goes on a rampage and looks like the Terminator , he 's a video gamer . " Thompson also sent a letter to Bill Gates , saying , " Mr. Gates , your company is potentially legally liable ( for ) the harm done at Virginia Tech . Your game , a killing simulator , according to the news that used to be in the Post , trained him to enjoy killing and how to kill . " However , Microsoft did not create Counter @-@ Strike - they only published the Xbox version of the game . The official Virginia state panel commissioned to investigate the shooting determined that Seung @-@ Hui " played video games like Sonic the Hedgehog , " and that " none of the video games [ he had played ] were war games or had violent themes . "
In December 2007 , Thompson filed suit against Omaha , Nebraska Police Chief Thomas Warren , asking him to produce information on all " violent entertainment material " belonging to Robert Hawkins , who killed nine people , including himself , in a shooting at the Westroads Mall earlier that month . According to Omaha police , such information is not a matter of public record , as it is part of an ongoing criminal investigation .
On February 15 , 2008 , Jack Thompson claimed that the actions of Steven Kazmierczak , who the previous day killed five people at Northern Illinois University before committing suicide , were influenced by the game Counter @-@ Strike . In a subsequent news release , Thompson claimed that " We have a nation of Manchurian Candidate video gamers out there who are ready , willing , and able to massacre , and some of them will . " Thompson also threatened the university with a lawsuit if the school did not provide copies of " all documents that reveal [ Kazmierczak 's ] play of violent videogames . "
= = = Relationship with the gaming industry and gamers = = =
Thompson 's " high @-@ profile crusades " have made him an enemy of video game aficionados . On occasion , Thompson has sparred directly with the gaming industry and its fans . In 2005 , he wrote an open letter to Entertainment Software Association president Doug Lowenstein , making what he described as " a modest video game proposal " ( an allusion to the title of Jonathan Swift 's satirical essay , A Modest Proposal ) to the video game industry : Thompson said he would donate $ 10 @,@ 000 to a charity designated by Take @-@ Two CEO Paul Eibeler if any video game company would create a game including the scenario he described in the letter . The scenario called for the main character , whose son was killed by a boy who played violent video games , to murder a number of industry executives ( including one modeled on Eibeler ) and go on a killing spree at the Electronic Entertainment Expo . Video game fans promptly began working to take Thompson up on his offer , resulting in the game I 'm O.K – A Murder Simulator , among others . Afterwards , he claimed that his proposal was satire , and refused to make the promised donation .
In response , Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik , the creators of gaming webcomic Penny Arcade and of the children 's charity Child 's Play , stepped in to make the $ 10 @,@ 000 donation instead , writing in the memo field of their cheque , " For Jack Thompson , Because Jack Thompson Won 't . " Afterwards , Thompson tried unsuccessfully to get Seattle police and the FBI to investigate Holkins and Krahulik for orchestrating " criminal harassment " of him through articles on their site . Other webcomics have regularly incorporated references to Thompson , alluding to this incident as well as others .
In 2006 , two Michigan gamers began a project dubbed " Flowers for Jack " , soliciting donations to deliver a massive floral arrangement to Thompson ’ s office . The flowers were delivered in February along with a letter aimed at opening a dialogue between Thompson and the video gaming community . Thompson rejected this overture and forwarded the flowers to some of his industry foes , with such comments as " Discard them along with the decency you discarded long ago . I really don 't care . Grind them up and smoke them if you like . "
Gamers have responded to Thompson 's attempt to link the Virginia Tech massacre to the game Counter @-@ Strike . Video game Web sites and young gamers on Internet message boards " teemed with anger " at what San Francisco Chronicle reporter Peter Hartlaub called " his serial misstatements , " in some cases linking to YouTube videos of Thompson and dissecting his claims point by point . Jason Della Rocca , executive director of the International Game Developers Association , said , " It 's so sad . These massacre chasers — they 're worse than ambulance chasers — they 're waiting for these things to happen so they can jump on their soapbox . " In response , Thompson referred to Della Rocca as an " idiot " and a " jackass [ ... ] paid not to connect the dots [ connecting shootings to video games ] , "
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nesting birds and pomegranates , images taken from 15th @-@ century manuscripts . Lord Bute thought the monkeys inappropriately " lascivious " . Above the fireplace is a winged statue of Psyche , the Greek goddess of the soul , carrying a heart @-@ shaped shield which displays the arms of the Bute family . The washbasin , designed by John Chapple , has cisterns for hot and cold water , covered with crenellated towers . The Marchioness 's scarlet and gold bed is the most notable piece of furniture in the room , modelled on a medieval original drawn by Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc . Crook described the bed as being " medieval to the point of acute discomfort " .
The bedroom is Moorish in style , a popular inspiration in mid @-@ Victorian interior design , and echoes earlier work by Burges in the Arab Room at Cardiff Castle and in the chancel at St Mary 's Church at Studley Royal in Yorkshire . Lilwall @-@ Smith likened the chamber , with its " Moorish @-@ looking dome , maroon @-@ and @-@ gold painted furniture and large , low bed decorated with glass crystal orbs " , to a scene from the Arabian Nights . Peter Floud criticised the eclectic nature of this Moorish theme and contrasted it unfavourably with the more consistent style Burges applied to the Arab Room , suggesting that it gave the bedroom an overly theatrical , even pantomime @-@ like , character . The historian Matthew Williams considered that Lonsdale 's efforts lack the imagination and flair that Burges himself might have brought to the room .
= = = = Other rooms = = = =
The Windlass Room , or Winch Room , is in the Gatehouse , entered from the Drawing Room . It contains a working mechanism for operating the drawbridge and the portcullis . The equipment was originally intended for the second floor , which Burges considered the most historically authentic location . When later design modifications led him to move Lord Bute 's Bedroom into that space , the equipment was simplified and placed on the first floor . The Windlass Room includes murder holes , which Burges thought would have enabled medieval inhabitants of the castle to pour boiling water and oil on attackers .
An oratory , originally fitted to the roof of the Well Tower but removed before 1891 , was decorated with twenty stained glass windows . Ten of these windows are displayed at Cardiff Castle , while the other ten are displayed on site ; two missing windows having been returned to the castle in 2011 . Other rooms in the castle include Lady Margaret Bute 's Bedroom , the servants ' hall and the kitchen .
= = = Interior design details = = =
Interior design details at Castell Coch
= = Landscape – Site of Special Scientific Interest = =
The woods surrounding the castle , known as the Taff Gorge complex , are among the most westerly natural beech woodlands in the British Isles . They contain dog 's mercury , ransoms , sanicles , bird 's @-@ nest orchid , greater butterfly @-@ orchid and yellow bird 's nest plants . The area has unusual rock outcrops , which show the point where Devonian Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone beds meet ; the Castell Coch Quarry is in the vicinity . To the southeast of the castle , a nine @-@ hole golf course occupies the site of the former vineyard . The area is protected as the Castell Coch Woodlands and Road Section Site of Special Scientific Interest .
= Jenna Haze =
Jenna Haze ( born February 22 , 1982 ) is an American director , model and former pornographic actress . Haze has won numerous adult industry awards , including the 2003 AVN Award for Best New Starlet and the 2009 AVN Award for Female Performer of the Year , making her the second performer in history to ever win both awards in the course of her career , after Missy . In 2012 , she was inducted into both the AVN and XRCO Halls of Fame .
= = Career = =
Haze entered the adult film industry on July 18 , 2001 . Between 2002 and 2005 , she was a contract girl for the film company Jill Kelly Productions . During most of her time at the company , she performed exclusively with women , out of loyalty to her then boyfriend , an industry cameraman . She returned to working with men in the 2006 multi @-@ award winning release Jenna Haze Darkside , produced by Jules Jordan .
Her first scene was for The Oral Adventures of Craven Moorehead 8 with her agent Slim Shady ( Dez ) and his best friend , Moorehead . It was intended to only be an oral scene , but in the heat of the moment she had intercourse with both . The next day she shot a scene with Miles Long in Joey Silvera 's Service Animals 4 . A few months later , she realized that she did not need an agent and started to represent herself .
In February 2002 , Haze appeared in a scene for Jill Kelly Productions ( JKP ) , directed by Jill Kelly herself . Kelly was impressed by her performance and JKP offered Haze an exclusive performing contract . This was soon followed by offers from other companies , but in April 2002 Haze decided to sign with JKP , as they offered the extra flexibility she needed to make money and build her career . The company to her was more than just a business , but a family too . She also enjoyed the idea of having a group of girls around her and working for a company run by a woman . Soon after signing with JKP , she formed a serious relationship with an industry cameraman and began a three @-@ year period of performing exclusively with women . At the 2003 AVN Awards ceremony , Haze was named Best New Starlet and her masturbation scene in Big Bottom Sadie was awarded Best Solo Sex Scene . In 2004 , she appeared on the HBO show Pornucopia , a six @-@ part documentary on the pornography industry in California .
Haze became a free agent in April 2005 , after deciding not to renew her contract with JKP , partly because Jill Kelly had recently left the company . After leaving JKP and splitting with her boyfriend , Haze returned to working with male performers . The April 2006 release Jenna Haze Darkside featured her first boy @-@ girl scenes in over three years . The film was produced and directed by her new boyfriend Jules Jordan . Later in the year , she began writing a sex advice column for the pornographic magazine , Fox .
In 2006 she also started feature dancing , represented by the agency Lee Network . The first achievement in her feature dancing career was a nomination for Best Feature Entertainer at the 2007 Night Moves Awards . Her film work was also rewarded in 2007 , with AVN Awards for Best Oral Sex Scene ( Video ) and Best Group Sex Scene ( Video ) , as well as a nomination for Female Performer of the Year .
In April 2007 , Jenna Haze Oil Orgy became the first adult movie to be released on Blu @-@ ray format . Meanwhile , in the same month , her official website was launched by Premium Multimedia .
In January 2008 , her scene with Manuel Ferrara in Evil Anal 2 won the AVN Award for Best Couples Sex Scene ( Video ) . In August 2008 , Haze achieved the first feature dancing award of her career winning Adult Movie Entertainer of the Year in the 11th annual Adult Nightclub and Exotic Dancer Awards . On January 10 , 2009 , Haze and Belladonna hosted the 2009 AVN Awards , and Haze won Female Performer of the Year .
In 2010 , Complex ranked Haze sixteenth on their list of " The 50 Prettiest Porn Stars of All Time " and fifth on their list of " The 10 Hottest Orange County Women . " Complex also ranked her twentieth on their list of " The Top 100 Hottest Porn Stars ( Right Now ) " in 2011 . She was also placed on CNBC 's yearly list of " The Dirty Dozen : Porn 's Most Popular Stars " in 2011 and 2012 .
On February 7 , 2012 , Haze announced her retirement from performing via a homemade YouTube video , followed by a press release . She revealed that she hadn 't shot a scene since April 2011 but would possibly continue to direct and produce .
= = = Jennaration X Studios = = =
In 2009 Jenna Haze launched her own production company , Jennaration X Studios , headed by Haze and distributed through Jules Jordan Video . Haze is directing and performing in her production films .
Jennaration X debut film , Cum @-@ Spoiled Sluts , ( featuring scenes with Haze , Johnny Sins , Nikki Rhodes and James Deen ) was released March 23 , 2009 , followed by Anal Academics which was released July 6 , 2009 .
= = = Appearances = = =
In the 2007 mainstream comedy film , Superbad , Haze made a short appearance in the role of Vagtastic Voyage Girl # 2 . Haze made a short appearance in the 2009 action / thriller film Crank : High Voltage as a porn star on strike .
Published in 2007 , Haze was among the adult stars featured in the erotic photography book Naked Ambition : An R @-@ Rated Look at an X @-@ Rated Industry . The special edition of the book included a fine art photograph of Haze signed by the photographer Michael Grecco .
Shortly after retiring 2012 , Haze appeared in the March edition of the men 's magazine FHM in a layout with former Gossip Girl star Taylor Momsen , and shortly thereafter had a cameo in Momsen 's band The Pretty Reckless ' music video for the song " My Medicine " . She then appeared onstage with the band at their March 13 Los Angeles House Of Blues performance and gave Momsen an impromptu lapdance .
= = Awards = =
= = Personal life = =
Haze was born in Fullerton , California and grew up mainly in La Habra , California , but also spent time in Lancaster , California and Inver Grove Heights , Minnesota . Haze grew up as the youngest of four children whose parents were divorced . She is of Spanish , German and Irish descent .
She received good grades in school , until about junior high school when she " discovered boys and sex " . By age 15 she had dropped out of high school , had to receive homeschooling and found her first job . She had a series of low wage jobs such as a fast food manager , oil change girl and a Christmas job stocking shelves at a toy store .
When Haze turned 18 , she tried stripping for a day , but did not enjoy being a house girl , giving lap dances to men she had to pretend to like for low wages . At age 19 , while at her favorite nightclub in Anaheim , California , her boyfriend introduced her to a friend who knew the adult actor Peter North and the actor / director Craven Moorehead . She gladly accepted an offer from Moorehead to participate in a film and two days later she shot her first scene .
Haze is bisexual .
= Chuck Versus Agent X =
" Chuck Versus Agent X " is the 22nd episode of the fourth season of the American action @-@ comedy television series Chuck , and the 76th overall episode of the series . The episode was written by Phil Klemmer and Craig DiGregorio and directed by Robert Duncan McNeill . It originally aired on May 2 , 2011 .
In the episode , Chuck Bartowski 's ( Zachary Levi ) bachelor party turns up some uninvited guests . Meanwhile , Ellie Bartowski @-@ Woodcomb ( Sarah Lancaster ) discovers the true identity of Agent X while investigating her father Stephen 's computer .
" Chuck Versus Agent X " received generally positive reviews from critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it drew 4 @.@ 097 million viewers , the second @-@ lowest number in Chuck 's history , after " Chuck Versus the Family Volkoff " . It had a 2 @.@ 5 / 4 share among all households and 1 @.@ 4 / 4 share among those aged 18 – 49 .
= = Plot = =
As Chuck Bartowski ( Zachary Levi ) contemplates confronting his sister Ellie ( Sarah Lancaster ) about her secret research into their late father Stephen 's laptop , Chuck and his fiancée Sarah Walker ( Yvonne Strahovski ) prepare for their bachelor and bachelorette parties .
At her bachelorette party , hosted by Ellie , Sarah is notified by General Diane Beckman that Stephen 's laptop is being tracked by Volkoff Industries agents Riley ( Ray Wise ) and Jasmine ( India de Beaufort ) , who , due to the imprisonment of international arms dealer Alexei Volkoff , are now under the leadership of Volkoff 's daughter Vivian . Thinking that Riley and Jasmine are going to arrive at Ellie 's apartment , Sarah tells Ellie that Chuck knows Ellie lied to him and still has the laptop . However , Ellie and Sarah then realize that the laptop has been mistakenly taken by Ellie 's husband Devon Woodcomb ( Ryan McPartlin ) to Chuck 's bachelor party .
Meanwhile , despite Chuck and his guests ' belief that Devon was hosting Chuck 's bachelor party in Las Vegas , Nevada , they are taken to Las Vecas National Park . As some of the guests attempt to escape the camping trip , they are ambushed by Riley 's mercenaries , who are tracking the laptop Devon unknowingly brought with him . Chuck and his friends escape , but the laptop is stabbed by Jasmine in the process .
When Chuck returns , he and Ellie tell each other the truth , with Ellie revealing that she is still investigating her father 's research , and Chuck revealing that he is still a CIA agent . Chuck then brings Ellie to Castle and demonstrates martial arts skills from the Intersect . When Chuck claims to be Agent X , the first human Intersect , Ellie informs him that , according to the laptop , someone had originally uploaded the Intersect to their brain before Chuck 's birth . After Chuck repairs the computer , they find a redacted file on British scientist Hartley Winterbottom .
Chuck , Sarah , and John Casey ( Adam Baldwin ) travel to Winterbottom 's home in Somerset , UK , and confront Winterbottom 's mother ( Millicent Martin ) , who blames the CIA for corrupting her son . However , Chuck is revealed to be Stephen Bartowski 's son , earning her trust , as Hartley and Stephen were once colleagues and close friends . When Riley and Jasmine arrive with an assault team , Mrs. Winterbottom sends Chuck and Sarah to retrieve Hartley 's " spy will " while she and Casey fight back the assault team . When they run out of ammunition , Mrs. Winterbottom sets a trap that explodes and kills Jasmine and the assault team . When Ellie , Chuck , Sarah , Casey , and Morgan Grimes ( Joshua Gomez ) return to the Castle , open Hartley 's spy will , they discover a photograph of Volkoff , realizing that Volkoff is actually Agent X - Hartley .
Startled , The team reads the files on his last mission ; which was to assist on a complicated cover @-@ up black operation posing as an international arms dealer ; Alexei Volkoff . Stephen Bartowski created the original Intersect prototype and first used it on Hartley , which was updated with the personality , knowledge and identity of Volkoff , a manufactured identity . However , the Intersect was so unstable that it plagued Hartley 's mind and deleting his personality as Hartley Winterbottom , instead he started to believe that he was Alexei Volkoff , an international arms dealer , and as such he established the Volkoff Industries and became an international terrorist and gun manucafturer .
With the realization , Casey closes the spy will and orders everyone to keep quiet about this , since the information about CIA creating its " own worst enemy " was simply hidden and buried to ensure secrecy , and that they will be most likely eliminated if anything is told . However , Ellie objects and dedicates herself to help Volkoff restore his identity , to which Chuck agrees . Casey grudgingly and reluctantly supports them , before sealing the will in a secret safe deep in the Castle .
= = Production = =
" Chuck Versus Agent X " was one of many episodes to be directed by producer Robert Duncan McNeill , and was written by Phil Klemmer and Craig DiGregorio . It originally aired in the United States on May 2 , 2011 , on NBC as the 22nd episode of Chuck 's fourth season and the 76th episode overall .
Chuck cast members revealed at the 2011 Chicago Comic & Entertainment Expo that the season would include a " funny , camping @-@ themed " bachelor party episode featuring Casey , Big Mike , and the fictional band Jeffster ! . The cast also confirmed that Ray Wise would reprise his role of Alexei Volkoff 's lawyer , Riley . India de Beaufort guest starred as Jasmine , and Millicent Martin as Hartley Winterbottom 's mother . Sarah Lancaster revealed to IGN that the Snakes of Toluca Lake , the strippers which Ellie hires for Sarah , were played by the real @-@ life Hollywood Men . Lancaster enjoyed filming the scene , which took hours to perform , solely due to Yvonne Strahovski 's discomfort . Strahovski stated that the men became " bolder " with each take , gradually moving closer to her . Principal photography for " Chuck Versus Agent X " ended on April 10 .
Series co @-@ creator Chris Fedak stated in a later interview that the inspiration for Volkoff 's true identity being a gun @-@ shy British scientist was Timothy Dalton 's portrayal of Gregory Tuttle , Volkoff 's guise as Mary Elizabeth Bartowski 's MI6 handler , in his first appearance on the series . A photograph of Dalton before his portrayal of James Bond is used to represent a young Hartley Winterbottom .
= = Cultural references = =
Osama bin Laden 's image is featured on a target for Casey 's shooting range . Coincidentally , bin Laden was killed in a raid on May 1 , 2011 , around 16 : 00 Eastern Daylight Time , one day before the episode was aired .
In the Somerset home of Agent X , Casey briefly wields an M60 machine gun during the shoot @-@ out . In the film Full Metal Jacket , Adam Baldwin 's character Animal Mother wields an identical weapon during the Vietnam War .
The scene of Winterbottom 's mother wielding the machine gun is an homage to the machine gun @-@ toting senior citizen in Goldfinger .
= = Reception = =
" Chuck Versus Agent X " drew 4 @.@ 097 million viewers , the second @-@ lowest number in Chuck 's history , after " Chuck Versus the Family Volkoff " . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it had a 2 @.@ 5 / 4 share among all households and 1 @.@ 4 / 4 share among those aged 18 – 49 .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . Ryan McGee of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A- on an A + to F scale . He found the episode 's " reconfiguration of previous mythology " successful , and , though he found it obvious that Volkoff was Agent X , McGee wrote that " seeing a pre @-@ Bond Dalton inside that spy will was great payoff all the same . " However , McGee continued , " Much less successful was anything involving Chuck 's bachelor party and Big Mike / Jeffster 's subsequent desire to save their manly weekend . " Eric Goldman of IGN gave this episode a score of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , writing that " the best element in all of this was the introduction of Volkoff , or make that Hartley Winterbottom 's , mother and the bonding that occurred between her and John Casey . " HitFix Senior Editor Alan Sepinwall , however , wrote that the episode " was kind of a hodge podge . It 's a transitional episode setting up the end game with Volkoff that the season 's final two episodes will focus on , but it also felt like an hour comprised of two or three different ideas that nobody could quite flesh out to fill up an entire episode , and so were compressed together . " Like McGee , Sepinwall enjoyed Wise 's return , though he felt that the actor was given little to do .
= Henry P. Caulfield , Jr . =
Henry P. Caulfield , Jr . ( November 25 , 1915 – June 11 , 2002 ) was an American political scientist who had a long and distinguished career in public service with the U.S. Department of the Interior , culminating as the first Director of its U.S. Water Resources Council , before becoming Professor of Political Science at Colorado State University . He served on many boards and advisory committees and as a consultant to water resources agencies worldwide , and received awards for his service . Caulfield was born in New York City , and died in Fort Collins , Colorado where he retired in 1986 .
= = Early life = =
Caulfield grew up with his parents , Henry P. Caulfield and Grace Nelson Caulfield , along with his brother Edward Nelson Caulfield , in Hollywood , California , graduating from Hollywood High School in 1931 . He attended the California Institute of Technology , Lingnan University , Canton , China , and Oxford University , England before earning his undergraduate degree at Harvard College in Government and Economics in 1940 , an MPA degree from Harvard University 's Littauer School of Public Administration ( now the John F. Kennedy School of Government ) in 1949 and completing his comprehensive examination for the Ph.D. in Political Economy and Government there in 1950 . He began his public service career as an economist with the Works Projects Administration ( 1940 – 41 ) before serving in the U.S. Navy , where he was assigned to the Office of the Secretary ( 1942 – 45 ) and received a Commendation Award from the Secretary of the Navy , eventually retiring as Lieutenant Commander . He served briefly as Executive Assistant to the Director , White House Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion in 1946 , before being named Assistant for International Affairs to the Assistant Director for Statistical Standards of the U.S. Bureau of the Budget ( 1946 – 48 ) , predecessor of the current Office of Management and Budget . Caulfield married Violet M. Green in April 1956 , with whom he had four children .
= = Public service = =
Best known for his work on water resources policy , Caulfield was a member of the Program Staff , Office of the Secretary , U.S. Department of the Interior ( 1951 – 55 ) , and Research Associate on Energy Policy at Resources for the Future , Inc . ( 1955 – 61 ) . He returned to the Department of the Interior in February 1961 as Assistant Director and then Director of the Resources Program Staff , Office of the Secretary , and served as first Director of the U.S. Water Resources Council from April 1966 to August 1969 .
Caulfield was chairman of the committee that drafted the policies , standards and procedures for water resources planning that became known as Senate Document 97 , subjecting new federal water projects to benefit / cost analysis for the first time . He was the staff leader in drafting the Water Resources Planning Act of 1965 and was instrumental in its passage through the U.S. Congress ; becoming the first Director of the Water Resources Council , a cabinet @-@ level interagency advisory committee created by that Act . From October 1961 to August 1969 he was the leading professional official within the United States government developing and implementing policies for comprehensive river basin planning . In 1968 he drafted and gained political acceptance of a Water Resources Councils ' regulation changing the discount rate used in planning water projects from a formula based on the coupon rate of government bonds to one based on the yield rate — a substantial and important policy change . He also had a leading role in early development of the Water Resources Council 's Principles and Standards for water project planning promulgated in September 1973 .
Caulfield participated in drafting and securing passage by the U.S. Congress of important environmental legislation : the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1964 , the Federal Water Research Act of 1964 , the Federal Water Projects Recreation Act of 1965 , the Delaware Watergap National Recreation Act of 1966 , the Clean Rivers Restoration Act of 1966 , and the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 . Observing a time @-@ honored tradition among top Washington bureaucrats , Caulfield is widely recognized as the anonymous author of an article published during his employment in the U.S. Department of the Interior and attributed to " Mr. Z , " which proposed consolidation of natural resources and conservation functions of the national government ( e.g. , U.S. Forest Service , National Park Service , Corps of Engineers , and others ) into a single cabinet @-@ level Department of Natural Resources . He was one of a few political appointees who , at the end of the Johnson Administration , declined to automatically submit his resignation , apparently feeling it was a mark of distinction to be fired by President Nixon .
Caulfield was a member of the Water Board of the City of Fort Collins , Colorado ( 1974 – 88 ) , and its Vice President ( 1984 – 88 ) . In this capacity he played a leading role in development of the city 's policies with respect to water rights , treatment capacity , water meters and rates , wastewater treatment , environmental impacts and drought .
= = Professor = =
From 1969 to 1986 Caulfield was Professor of Political Science at Colorado State University , where with Phillip O. Foss and Norman I. Wengert he helped establish its doctoral program in Environmental Politics and Policy , and on his retirement , was Emeritus Professor . One of his principal graduate courses was the Politics of Water Resources Planning and Management . During his career , Caufield was invited to lecture during visiting academic appointments on the faculties of many universities , including :
University of Washington
University of Massachusetts
University of California , Davis
Duke University
Virginia Polytechnic and State University
University of North Carolina
University of Wisconsin
University of Georgia
Caulfield also lecture during shorter appointments at some 30 institutions within the U.S. and overseas , including :
Institute of Water Resources , Army Corps of Engineers , Fort Belvoir , Virginia
University of Sarajevo , Yugoslavia
University of Alberta , Canada
Western Executive Training Center , U.S. Office of Personnel Management
Zhongshan University , Peoples Republic of China
East China Technical University of Water Resources
Yangtze River Planning Office , Ministry of Water Conservancy and Electric Power
Water Conservancy and Hydroelectric Power Research Institute , Academy of Sciences
Japan Institute of Energy Law
Yamanashi University , Japan
Economic Research Institute , Kyoto University , Japan
= = Advisory committees and consultancies = =
Indicative of the extent of his national and international reputation , Caulfield served on many advisory committees including those of the National Academy of Science and the National Science Foundation . For many years he was a delegate to the Universities Council on Water Resources ; a member of its Executive Board ( 1978 – 81 ) ; and its President ( 1979 – 80 ) . Caulfield served as a consultant to many organizations , including the United Nations Panel of Experts on Water Resources Development Policies , ( 1970 – 73 ) ; the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( 1973 ) ; Colorado Department of Natural Resources ( 1976 – 78 ) ; U.S. Water Resources Council ( 1976 , 1978 , 1979 , 1980 ) ; U.S. Agency for International Development , African Bureau , Department of State ( 1978 ) ; The Conservation Foundation ( 1978 ) ; International Training Center for Water Resources , Sofia Antipolis , Valbonne , France ( 1978 ) ; Upper Mississippi River Basin Commission ( 1979 ) ; Great Lakes Basin Commission ( 1981 ) ; Western Governor 's Policy Office ( 1982 , 1987 ) ; U.S. Council on Environmental Quality , ( 1984 ) ; U.S. Geological Survey ( 1986 ) ; and the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources ( 1987 ) .
= = Awards = =
Caulfield received a Citation for Distinguished Service from Secretary of the Interior Stuart Udall in 1968 during the administration of President John F. Kennedy which said in part :
Since the start of his Government service in 1940 , Mr. Caulfield has steadily demonstrated qualities of the exceptionally able public servant . He is a person of unfailing high standards of integrity , loyalty and devotion to public service . His quiet but persistent powers of persuasion and his ability to resolve complex resources problems have characterized his career as an effective advisor .
He also received the Iban Award in 1975 from the American Water Resources Association ( AWRA ) , a national organization of over 2800 members , for promotion of multidisciplinary approaches to water resource problems .
= = Henry P. Caulfield Medal = =
Annually since 1988 AWRA has awarded its Henry P. Caulfield , Jr . Medal for Contributions to National Water Policy to an individual who has achieved a status of eminence in shaping national water policy . On presentation of the first medal to Caulfield in 1988 , AWRA President Raymond Herrmann stated that " this medal was established to honor an individual whose record of
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achievements and contributions in setting , designing , and implementing water resources policies at the national level have been extraordinary . "
Recipients of the Medal are :
Henry P. Caulfield , Jr . - 1988
Gilbert E. White - 1989
Theodore M. Schad - 1990
Luna B. Leopold - 1991
R. Frank Gregg - 1992
Leonard B. Dworsky - 1994
Warren " Bud " Viessman , Jr . - 1996
Leo M. Eisel - 2004
Richard A. Engberg - 2007
= = Scholarly and professional writing = =
Caulfield was the author or coauthor of over 60 scholarly journal articles , chapters in books , and papers published in proceedings , in addition to numerous other papers , addresses , testimony before Congressional Committees , U.S. government publications , and anonymous articles related to policy matters .
= = = Selected publications = = =
" Welfare , economics , and resources development . " In Land , Water Planning for Economic Growth . Boulder : University of Colorado Press , 1961 .
" Municipal water in federal programs . " In Water : Development , Utilization , Conservation . Boulder : University of Colorado Press , 1963 .
" Urban waterfront redevelopment . " In Beauty for America . Proceedings of the White House Conference on Natural Beauty . Washington , D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office 1965 .
" Partnership in comprehensive river basin planning . " Journal of the American Water Works Association 59 ( October ) : Part I , 1967 .
" Environmental management : Water and related land . Public Administration Review 28 ( July – August ) , 1968 .
" Planning the earth ’ s surface . " In No Deposit @-@ No Return , Huey D. Johnson , ed . Reading , MA : Addison @-@ Wesley , 1970 .
" The concilar approach to organization for water resources planning and action within a federal system of government . In Proceedings of the interregional seminar on water resources administration , New Delhi , India , 22 January @-@ 2 February 1973 , 113 – 119 . New York : United Nations , 1975 .
" Policy goals and values in historical perspective . " In Values and choices in the development of the Colorado River basin , Dean F. Peterson and A. Barry Crawford , eds . Tucson : University of Arizona Press , 1976 .
" Water resources management in river basin planning and development in the United States . In Towards a rational policy in river basin development in the Sahel . Washington , D.C. : U.S Agency for International Development , 1976 .
" Establishing federal @-@ state @-@ local goals for water resource programs and projects . " In Financing water resources : Cost allocation , cost sharing and incentives , R.M. North and S.H. Hanke , eds . Atlanta : University of Georgia , 1982 .
" U.S. water resources development policy and intergovernmental relations . " In Western public lands : The management of natural resources in a time of declining federalism , John G. Francis and Richard Ganzel , eds . Totowa , NJ : Rowman & Allenheld , 1984 .
" Strategies for maintaining agricultural viability with limited water supplies . " In Water scarcity : Impacts on western agriculture , Ernest A. Engelbert and Ann F. Scheuring , eds . Berkeley : University of California Press , 1984 .
" Comments from a political science perspective . " In Social and environmental objectives in water resources planning and management , 137 @-@ 41 . W. Wiessman and K.E. Schilling , eds . New York : American Society of Civil Engineers , 1986 .
" The conservation and environmental movements : An historical analysis . " In Environmental politics and policy : Theories and evidence , 2d ed . , James Lester , ed . Durham , NC : Duke University Press , 1989 .
= History of the Houston Rockets =
The Houston Rockets are an American professional basketball team based in Houston , Texas . The team plays in the Southwest Division of the Western Conference in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . The team was established in 1967 , and played in San Diego , California for four years , before moving to Houston , Texas .
In the Rockets ' debut season , they won 15 games . After drafting Elvin Hayes first overall in the 1968 NBA Draft , they made their first appearance in the playoffs in 1969 . After Hayes was traded , Moses Malone replaced him . Malone won two Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) awards during his time in Houston , and he led the Rockets to the 1978 conference finals in his first year with the Rockets . He also took the Rockets to the NBA Finals in 1981 , but they were defeated in six games by the Boston Celtics .
Two years after advancing to the finals , the Rockets traded Malone and had two losing seasons , with the first having a franchise @-@ low 14 victories . This gave Houston two straight first overall picks , used to bring future Hall of Famers Ralph Sampson and Hakeem Olajuwon , who eventually got the Rockets all the way to the 1986 Finals , where they lost again to Boston . In the next seven seasons , they lost in the first round of the playoffs five times . They did not win their first championship until 1994 , when Olajuwon led them to a franchise @-@ best 58 wins , and the championship . The Rockets repeated the feat in 1995 , but in the following seasons , they did not advance to the finals again . They missed the playoffs from 1999 to 2003 , and did not reach the playoffs again until they drafted Yao Ming in 2003 . However , they would not advance past the first round of the playoffs for 13 years . In the 2007 – 08 NBA season , the Rockets had their most successful campaign in the 2000s , winning 55 games , with 22 of those victories in a row , but still lost in the first round . The following season , the team managed to win a playoff series for the first time since 1997 , defeating the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round of the 2009 NBA Playoffs and pushed the eventual champion Los Angeles Lakers to seven games in the 2009 Western Conference Semifinals .
During the next decade , the Rockets rehauled their roster and were again contenders for the NBA title . In the 2014 – 15 NBA season , led by head coach Kevin McHale and guard James Harden , the Rockets won their first division title in 21 years , and reached the Western Conference Finals for the first time since 1997 .
= = San Diego Rockets ( 1967 – 1971 ) = =
Once National Basketball Association commissioner J. Walter Kennedy visited San Diego in 1966 and saw the passionate support for the Western Hockey League 's San Diego Gulls , he invited Robert Breitbard , owner of the Gulls and their arena , the San Diego International Sports Center , to the next NBA owners ' meeting . The league wanted to add other franchises in the Western United States , by then only represented through the Los Angeles Lakers and the San Francisco Warriors , and the owners liked Breitbard 's input during the meeting . Combining the city economic and population growths with the Gulls ' success , San Diego was chosen to receive an expansion team in 1967 . Breitbard paid an 1 @.@ 75 million dollars entry fee to join the NBA as an expansion team for the 1967 – 68 NBA season , along with the Seattle SuperSonics . The resulting contest to name the franchise chose the name " Rockets " , homaging San Diego 's theme of " a city in motion " and the local arm of General Dynamics developing the Atlas missile and booster rocket program . Breitbard brought in Jack McMahon , then coach of the Cincinnati Royals , to serve as the Rockets ' coach and general manager . The team then built its roster with both veteran players at an expansion draft , and college players in the 1967 NBA draft , where San Diego 's first ever draft pick was Pat Riley . The Rockets ' inaugural game was held on October 14 , 1967 at the International Sports Center , with 8000 fans seeing the Rockets lose closely to the St. Louis Hawks by 99 @-@ 98 . The Rockets lost 70 games in their inaugural season , which was then an NBA record for losses in a season . Attendance ranked as eighth among the league 's twelve teams , leading to financial losses . The sole bright spot of the inaugural season was forward Don Kojis , whose good numbers earned him a spot at the 1968 NBA All @-@ Star Game .
In 1968 , after the Rockets won a coin toss against the Baltimore Bullets to determine who would have the first overall pick in the 1968 NBA Draft , they selected Elvin Hayes from the University of Houston . Hayes led the team to the franchise 's first ever playoff appearance in 1969 , but the Rockets lost in the semi @-@ finals of the Western Division to the Atlanta Hawks , four games to two . In 1970 NBA Draft , the Rockets drafted Calvin Murphy and Rudy Tomjanovich , who would both spend their whole careers with the Rockets .
Despite being coached by Hall of Fame coach Alex Hannum , the Rockets only tallied a 57 – 97 record and did not make the playoffs in the next two seasons . Because of poor performance and attendance , Breitbard sold the team in 1971 to Texas Sports Investments , which was led by real estate broker Wayne Duddleston and banker Billy Goldberg . The group bought the franchise for $ 5 @.@ 6 million , and immediately moved the team to Houston . The franchise became the first NBA team in Texas , and the team 's nickname of " Rockets " took on even greater relevance after the move since Houston is home to NASA 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center .
= = Improving in Houston with Murphy & Rudy @-@ T ( 1971 – 1976 ) = =
Upon their arrival , many were in disbelief that the Rockets could thrive in Houston . They were coming to a city that did not have a suitable arena , and had not shown much interest in professional basketball . Houston was previously home to the Houston Mavericks of the American Basketball Association for only two seasons between 1967 and 1969 , where the average attendance was only 200 . The city 's largest indoor arena was 34 @-@ year @-@ old Sam Houston Coliseum , but the Rockets quickly ruled out playing there even on a temporary basis . As the team owners planned out on building a proper arena , the Rockets were forced to play most of their games at the University of Houston 's Hofheinz Pavilion , while playing occasional games at the Astrodome and San Antonio 's HemisFair Arena .
Before the start of the 1971 – 72 NBA season , Hannum left for the Denver Rockets ( later renamed Denver Nuggets ) of the American Basketball Association , and Tex Winter was hired in his place . However , Winter , who said that Hayes had " the worst fundamentals of any player " he had ever coached , applied a system that contrasted with the offensive style to which Hayes was accustomed . Because of the differences between Winter and Hayes , Houston traded Hayes , who had led the Rockets in scoring for four straight years , to the Baltimore Bullets for Jack Marin at the end of the 1971 – 72 season . Winter left soon after , being fired in January 1973 following a ten @-@ game losing streak and with the Rockets as the second worst team of the league , and was replaced by Johnny Egan .
With a 41 @-@ 41 record , the Rockets would earn their first NBA Playoff berth in the 1975 NBA Playoffs since moving from San Diego as well as winning their first playoff series in franchise history by defeating the New York Knicks led by Walt Frazier and Earl Monroe in a 3 @-@ game mini series , but would ultimately bow to the upcoming champions Boston Celtics in 5 games in the semi @-@ finals . The Rockets would move into their own arena , The Summit , the following season . The arena was located near Greenway Plaza , whose developer Kenneth Schnitzer became the Rockets ' primary owner
= = 1976 – 1982 : The Moses Malone era = =
Due to Egan 's failure to qualify for the playoffs , as soon as the season ended he was replaced by coach Tom Nissalke . Nissalke knew the Rockets had firepower but needed a rebounding center and a play @-@ making guard , and he pressed the Rockets management to acquire college standout John Lucas – drafted first overall in the 1976 NBA draft , a pick Houston acquired by sending Gus Bailey , Joe Meriweather and the ninth pick to the Atlanta Hawks – and his former player at the ABA 's Utah Stars Moses Malone – while Malone started the 1976 – 77 season with the Buffalo Braves , Houston acquired him by sending Buffalo first @-@ round picks in the next two drafts . After Malone led the Rockets in rebounding for the first of six straight times , and established a then @-@ NBA record for offensive rebounds in a season , the Rockets posted a franchise @-@ best 49 @-@ wins and won the franchise 's first Division Title finishing on top of the Central Division . After a first round bye in the playoffs , Houston defeated the Washington Bullets led by former Rocket Elvin Hayes as well as Wes Unseld in seven games in the Eastern Conference semi @-@ finals , and advanced to the conference finals for the first time in their history , but they lost to the top @-@ seeded Philadelphia 76ers led by former ABA superstar Julius Erving . 4 – 2 .
Early into 1977 – 78 season , at a game on December 9 , 1977 , Kevin Kunnert got into a fight with Kermit Washington of the Los Angeles Lakers . As Tomjanovich approached the altercation , Washington turned and punched Tomjanovich squarely in the face , causing numerous fractures in his face . Tomjanovich spent the next five months in rehabilitation and returned to appear in the 1978 All @-@ Star Game , but his averages significantly declined after the injury , and Houston finished with just 28 wins in the season .
In the following season , Malone , Murphy , and Tomjanovich all played in the 1979 NBA All @-@ Star Game , and Malone received the 1979 MVP Award . The Rockets also sent John Lucas II to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for Rick Barry , who went on to set the NBA record at the time for free throw percentage in a season by shooting 94 @.@ 7 % . The Rockets went 47 – 35 in Nissalke 's last season as coach , and finished second in the Central Division , but they lost to Atlanta in a best @-@ of @-@ three first round series .
In 1979 George Maloof , a businessperson from Albuquerque , New Mexico , bought the Rockets for $ 9 million . He died the following year , and while the Maloof family expressed interest in selling the team , George 's 24 @-@ year @-@ old son Gavin took over the Rockets . A buyer was eventually found in 1982 as businessman Charlie Thomas purchased the franchise for $ 11 million . The Maloof period of ownership marked the first dominant period of the Rockets , led by new coach Del Harris . In Houston 's 1979 – 80 campaign , the team finished with a 41 – 41 record , tying the San Antonio Spurs for second place in the Central Division . The Rockets defeated the Spurs two games to one in their first round playoff series , they were swept by the Boston Celtics in the Eastern Conference semi @-@ finals .
In the 1980 – 81 season , after the newly established Dallas Mavericks became the third NBA team in Texas , the NBA restructured the conferences and sent the Rockets , who had previously played in the Eastern Conference , to the Midwest Division of the Western Conference . In Harris 's second season , Houston tied with Kansas City for second place in the Midwest Division behind San Antonio with a 40 – 42 record , and qualified for the playoffs with just one game left . During the season , Murphy set two NBA records , by sinking 78 consecutive free throws to break Rick Barry 's mark of 60 set in 1976 , and achieving a free @-@ throw percentage of .958 , breaking Barry 's record set with the Rockets in 1979 . In the playoffs , Houston began a run that began when they upset Los Angeles two games to one , and then defeated George Gervin 's Spurs four games to three in the Western Conference semifinals . This resulted in a conference finals matchup with the Kansas City Kings , who were led by Otis Birdsong , Scott Wedman , and Phil Ford . When the Kings fell to the Rockets in five games , the Rockets became the only team in NBA history to advanced to the Finals after having a losing record in the regular season . However , after splitting the first four games of the series with Boston , Houston eventually lost in six games . The following season , the Rockets improved their regular season mark to 46 – 36 but were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs . Although Malone won the MVP in that season , and new owner Charlie Thomas expressed interest in renewing his contract , in the following offseason , the Rockets traded him to the Philadelphia 76ers for Caldwell Jones , to avoid paying his salary . When the Rockets finished a league worst 14 – 68 , Celtics coach Bill Fitch was hired to replace outgoing Del Harris , and after winning a coin flip with the Indiana Pacers to obtain the first pick of the 1983 NBA Draft , the Rockets selected Ralph Sampson from the University of Virginia . Sampson had good numbers as the Rockets finished only 29 – 53 in the 1983 – 1984 season , averaging 21 points and 11 rebounds per game and earning the NBA Rookie of the Year award .
= = The Hakeem Olajuwon era : 1984 – 2001 = =
= = = The Twin Towers era : 1984 – 1987 = = =
Houston was again given the first pick of the 1984 NBA Draft , and they used it to select Hakeem Olajuwon from the University of Houston . In his first season , Olajuwon finished second to Michael Jordan in NBA Rookie of the Year balloting , and the Rockets record improved by 19 games , although they were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs .
In the following season , both Olajuwon and Sampson were named to the Western Conference All @-@ Stars in that year 's all @-@ star game , and the duo was nicknamed the " Twin Towers " . Houston won the Midwest Division title with a 51 – 31 record . In contrast to the other guard @-@ oriented teams of the Western Conference , the Rockets had a high rotation on the position – John Lucas left the team 65 games into the season , Allen Leavell replaced him for twelve games before breaking his wrist , and Robert Reid took over as the starter from the final game of the regular season on . During the playoffs , the Rockets swept the Sacramento Kings before a hard @-@ fought series with Alex English 's Denver Nuggets , including one game going to double overtime in the exhausting altitude of the Mile @-@ High City . The young squad grinded it out and eventually pulled away with the victory over the Nuggets 4 – 2 . When faced with defending champion Lakers in the Conference Finals , the Rockets were ready to knock off their rivals who had the best of them during the regular season . The Rockets , however , were blown out of Game 1 with Olajuwon 's spinning reverse dunks and Sampson 's alley @-@ oops notwithstanding . Embarrassed by the loss , Olajuwon and the Rockets stormed back to shock the star @-@ studded defending champions with 4 straight wins in an impressive four games to one series victory , a feat that no other Western Conference team had come close to doing against the Showtime Lakers . Sampson 's buzzer beater that won Game 5 was described by him as " the greatest moment of my basketball career " . The Rockets competed in the finals for only the second time in team history , once again facing the Celtics . Boston sportswriters were not happy about not getting a shot at revenge against the Lakers who had beaten the Celtics in the Finals the year before , yet the matchup was interesting with the young front court challenging the playoff @-@ hardened Celtics front court of Bird , McHale and Parish . The Celtics won the first two games at the Boston Garden , only for the Rockets to win two games once the series went back to Houston – a close game 3 under Sampson 's leadership , and a 15 point @-@ leading game 5 without him as he got ejected – while also losing game 4 due to late Larry Bird 3 pointers and untimely turnovers by Rockets guard Mitch Wiggins . Game 6 went back to Boston with Sampson finding himself again in foul trouble and of little effect against the older and wiser Celtics . After the series , Boston coach KC Jones called the Rockets , " the new monsters on the block " with the future looking very bright for the Rockets . During the six @-@ game championship series loss against the Celtics , Sampson averaged 14 @.@ 8 points on .438 shooting , 9 @.@ 5 rebounds and 3 @.@ 3 assists per game .
In the next year , the Rockets started poorly , winning only 15 of the first 33 games amidst injuries among the star players and off @-@ court controversies for the rest of the roster , such as Lewis Lloyd and Mitchell Wiggins getting suspended for cocaine use . The team still made the playoffs , and advanced to the second round past favored Clyde Drexler and his Portland Trail Blazers ( eventually proving to be their last playoff victory until 1993 ) , before being eliminated by the Seattle SuperSonics in Game 6 , a double @-@ overtime classic in which Olajuwon scored 49 points in the losing cause .
While Sampson signed a new deal prior to the 1987 – 88 NBA season , he was traded early in the season to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for Joe Barry Carroll and Sleepy Floyd . Sampson only learned of the trade once he arrived in Houston after a road game . The Twin Towers were split just 18 months after their finals appearance .
= = = 1987 – 1992 : Lean Years = = =
During the next three seasons , the Rockets were eliminated three straight times in the first round of the playoffs , with the first of those in 1988 leading to Fitch 's dismissal . Don Chaney was hired to replace him .
Chaney was named the Coach of the Year for the 1990 – 91 season , after leading the Rockets to a 52 @-@ 30 record despite Olajuwon 's absence due to injury for 25 games . The Rockets were once again eliminated in the first round of the playoffs , 3 – 0 to the Lakers . Midway through the next season , with the Rockets ' record only 26 – 26 , Chaney was fired and replaced by one of his assistants , former Houston player Tomjanovich . Although the Rockets did not make the playoffs , in the next year , the Rockets won @-@ loss record improved by 13 games , as they won 55 games . Olajuwon won the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award , and the Rockets clinched the Midwest title . The playoffs started with Houston 's first series victory in 5 years by defeating the Los Angeles Clippers , before an elimination by the SuperSonics during a game 7 overtime loss .
= = = Back to Back Championships : 1993 – 1995 = = =
On July 30 , 1993 , Leslie Alexander purchased the Rockets for $ 85 million . In Tomjanovich 's second full year as head coach , the Rockets began the 1993 – 94 season by tying an NBA record with start of 15 – 0 . Led by Olajuwon , who was named the MVP and Defensive Player of the Year , the Rockets won a franchise @-@ record 58 games . The Rockets recovered from being two games down to the Phoenix Suns in the second round of the playoffs , to advance to the finals . Houston was once again down by three games to two to the New York Knicks , but they managed to win the last two games on their home court , and claim their first championship in franchise history . Olajuwon was awarded the Finals MVP , after averaging 27 points , nine rebounds and four blocked shots a game .
The Rockets initially struggled in the first half of the 1994 – 95 season , and ended up winning only 47 games , which was 11 games lower than their previous year 's total . In a midseason trade with Portland , the Rockets obtained guard Clyde Drexler , a former teammate of Olajuwon at the University of Houston , in exchange for Otis Thorpe . Houston entered the playoffs as the sixth seed in the Western Conference , but then started a strong playoff run that earned the nickname " Clutch City " . After pushing the 60 – 22 Utah Jazz to five games , the Rockets were down by seven points with 5 : 40 remaining before Drexler led a comeback . They fell behind 3 – 1 to the 59 – 23 Phoenix Suns in the second round , but won three straight to win the series , and became only the first team in NBA history to overcome both a 2 – 0 and a 3 – 1 series deficit in a seven @-@ game series . The Rocket then beat in the conference finals the 62 – 20 San Antonio Spurs , which included that season 's MVP David Robinson , with Olajuwon , averaging 35 @.@ 3 points and 12 @.@ 5 rebounds . The return to the Finals was against the Orlando Magic , led by Shaquille O 'Neal and Penny Hardaway . When Houston swept the series in four straight games , they became the first team in NBA history to win the championship as a sixth seed – still the champion with the lowest seed , and the only without home court in any round – and the first to beat four 50 @-@ win teams in a single postseason en route to the championship . Olajuwon was named the Finals MVP , becoming only the second player after Michael Jordan to win the award two years in a row .
During the offseason , the Rockets went for a change of visual identity , making navy blue and silver the new primary colors while adopting a new cartoon @-@ inspired logo and pinstriped jerseys . The Rockets won 48 games in the 1995 – 96 campaign , in which Olajuwon became the NBA 's all @-@ time leader in blocked shots . They beat the Lakers in the first round of the playoffs , but were swept by the Seattle SuperSonics in the second round .
= = = The Big Three Era : 1996 – 1999 = = =
Before the start of the succeeding season , the Rockets made a dramatic trade that sent four players to Phoenix in exchange for Charles Barkley . The resulting " Big Three " of Olajuwon , Drexler , and Barkley led the Rockets to a 57 – 25 record , and Houston swept Minnesota in the first round . However , after a 7 @-@ game battle with Seattle , the Rockets fell in the Western Conference finals to the Utah Jazz , a team they had beaten on their way to championships in 1994 and 1995 .
The 1997 – 98 season was marked by injuries , and the team finished 41 – 41 with the eighth seed in the Western Conference . Houston once again faced the Jazz , this time in the first round , and they lost the series 3 – 2 . Drexler retired after the season , and the Rockets made another bold trade to bring in Scottie Pippen to take his place . In the strike @-@ shortened 1998 – 99 season , the Rocket went 31 – 19 , but lost to the Lakers in
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am which , although simpler , has many of the same elements , including the seated president flanked by two windows .
Below the print are these final words :
= = Reception = =
Hogarth was pleased with the results . European Magazine reported that he commented to a bookseller from Cornhill ( a Mr. Sewell ) :
there is no part of my works of which I am so proud , and in which I now feel so happy , as in the series of The Four Stages of Cruelty because I believe the publication of theme has checked the diabolical spirit of barbarity to the brute creation which , I am sorry to say , was once so prevalent in this country .
In his unfinished Apology for Painters he commented further :
I had rather , if cruelty has been prevented by the four prints , be the maker of them than the [ Raphael ] cartoons , unless I lived in a Roman Catholic country .
In his 1817 book Shakespeare and His Times , Nathan Drake credits the representation of " throwing at cocks " in the first plate for changing public opinion about the practice , which was common at the time , and prompting magistrates to take a harder line on offenders . Others found the series less to their liking . Charles Lamb dismissed the series as mere caricature , not worthy to be included alongside Hogarth 's other work , but rather something produced as the result of a " wayward humour " outside of his normal habits . Art historian Allan Cunningham also had strong feelings about the series :
I wish it had never been painted . There is indeed great skill in the grouping , and profound knowledge of character ; but the whole effect is gross , brutal and revolting . A savage boy grows into a savage man , and concludes a career of cruelty and outrage by an atrocious murder , for which he is hanged and dissected .
The Anatomy Act 1832 ended the dissection of murderers , and most of the animal tortures depicted were outlawed by the Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 , so by the 1850s The Four Stages of Cruelty had come to be viewed as a somewhat historical series , though still one with the power to shock , a power it retains for a modern audience .
= Gill Sans =
Gill Sans is a sans @-@ serif typeface designed by Eric Gill and released by the British branch of Monotype from 1928 onwards .
Gill Sans takes inspiration from the calligrapher and lettering artist Edward Johnston ’ s 1916 " Underground Alphabet " , the corporate font of London Underground , now although not at the time mostly simply called the " Johnston " typeface . Gill as a young artist had assisted Johnston in its early development stages . In 1926 , Douglas Cleverdon , a young printer and later a BBC executive , opened a bookshop in Bristol , and Gill painted a fascia for the shop in sans @-@ serif capitals . In addition , Gill sketched an alphabet for Cleverdon as a guide for him to use for notices and announcements . By this time Gill had become a prominent stonemason , artist and creator of lettering in his own right and had begun to work on creating typeface designs .
Gill was commissioned to develop his design into a full metal type family by Stanley Morison , an influential Monotype executive and historian of printing . Morison hoped that it could be a competitor to a wave of German sans @-@ serif fonts in a new " geometric " style , which included Erbar , Futura and Kabel families , which were being launched to considerable attention in Germany during the latter 1920s . Gill Sans was released in 1928 by Monotype , initially as a set of titling capitals that was quickly followed by a lower @-@ case . Gill 's aim was to blend the influences of Johnston , classic serif typefaces and Roman inscriptions to create a design that looked both cleanly modern and classical at the same time .
Marketed by Monotype as a design of " classic simplicity and real beauty " , it was intended as a display typeface that could be used for posters and advertisements , as well as for the text of documents that need to be clearly legible at small sizes or from a distance , such as book blurbs , timetables and price lists . Designed before setting documents entirely in sans @-@ serif text was common , its standard weight is noticeably bolder than most modern body text fonts .
An immediate success , the year after its release the London and North Eastern Railway chose it for all its posters , timetables and publicity material , a use later extended across all British railways . It also soon became used on the modernist , deliberately simple covers of Penguin books , and was sold up to very large sizes which were often used in British posters and notices of the period . Gill Sans was one of the dominant typefaces in British printing in the years following its release , and remains extremely popular : it has been described as " the English Helvetica " because of its lasting popularity in British design . Gill Sans has influenced many other typefaces , and helped to define a genre of sans @-@ serif , known as the humanist style .
Monotype rapidly expanded the original regular or medium weight into a large family of styles , which it continues to sell . A basic set is included with some Microsoft software and Mac OS X.
= = Characteristics = =
The proportions of Gill Sans stem from monumental Roman capitals in the upper case , and traditional " old @-@ style " serif letters in the lower . This gives Gill Sans a very different style of design to geometric sans @-@ serifs like Futura , based on simple squares and circles , or realist or grotesque designs like Akzidenz @-@ Grotesk , Helvetica and Univers influenced by nineteenth @-@ century lettering styles . For example , compared to realist sans @-@ serifs the " C " and " a " have a much less " folded up " structure , with wider apertures . The " a " and " g " in the roman or regular style are " double @-@ storey " designs , rather than the " single @-@ storey " forms used in handwriting and blackletter often found in grotesque and especially geometric sans @-@ serifs .
The upper @-@ case of Gill Sans is partly modelled on Roman capitals like those found on the Column of Trajan . Edward Johnston in one of his books on lettering had written that " the Roman capitals have held the supreme place among letters for readableness and beauty . They are the best forms for the grandest and most important inscriptions . " While Gill Sans is not based on purely geometric principles to the extent of the geometric sans @-@ serifs that had preceded it , some aspects of Gill Sans do nonetheless have a geometric feel . The " O " is an almost perfect circle and the capital " M " is based on the proportions of a square with the middle strokes meeting at the centre ; this was not inspired by Roman carving but is very similar to Johnston . But the influence of traditional serif letters is clear in the " two @-@ storey " lower @-@ case " a " and " g , " unlike that of Futura , and the " t " with its curve to bottom right and slanting cut at top left , unlike Futura 's which is simply formed from two straight lines . The lower @-@ case " a " also narrows strikingly towards the top of its loop , a common feature of serif designs but rarer in sans @-@ serifs .
Following the traditional serif model the italic has different letterforms from the roman , where many sans @-@ serifs simply slant the letters in what is called an oblique style . This is clearest in the " a " , which becomes a " single storey " design similar to handwriting , and the lower @-@ case " p " , which has a calligraphic tail on the left reminiscent of italics such as those cut by Caslon in the eighteenth century . The italic is nonetheless quite restrained , almost an oblique in many characters such as the " e " with its straight line on the underside of the bowl where serif fonts normally add a curve . Like most serif fonts ( but unlike most sans @-@ serif fonts ) , several weights and releases of Gill Sans use ligatures to allow its expansive letter " f " to join up with or avoid colliding with following letters .
The basic letter shapes do not look consistent across styles ( or even in the metal type era all the sizes of the same style ) , especially in Extra Bold and Extra Condensed widths , while the Ultra Bold style is effectively a different design altogether and was originally marketed as such . Monotype executive Dan Rhatigan , author of an article on Gill Sans 's development after Gill 's death , has commented that " Gill Sans grew organically ... [ it ] takes a very ' asystematic ' approach to type . Very characteristic of when it was designed and of when it was used . " ( At this time the idea that sans @-@ serif typefaces should form a consistent family , with glyph shapes as consistent as possible between all weights and sizes , had not fully developed : it was quite normal for families to vary as seemed appropriate for their weight until developments such as the groundbreaking release of Univers in 1957 . )
In the light weights , the slanting cut at top left of the regular " t " is replaced with two separate strokes . From the bold weight upwards Gill Sans has an extremely eccentric design of " i " and " j " with the dots ( tittles ) smaller than their parent letter 's stroke .
= = Development = =
Morison commissioned Gill to develop Gill Sans after they had begun to work together on Gill 's serif design Perpetua from 1925 onwards . Morison is known to have visited Cleverdon 's bookshop while in Bristol in 1927 where he would have seen Gill 's fascia and alphabet . Gill wrote that " it was as a consequence of seeing these letters " that Morison commissioned him to develop them , although this may not have been the exact point when he started to consider commissioning a sans @-@ serif design from Gill ; they had been collaborating for some years by this point and could have discussed the idea earlier . In the period during and after his closest collaboration with Johnston , Gill had intermittently worked on sans @-@ serif letter designs , including an almost sans @-@ serif capital design in an alphabet for sign @-@ painters in the 1910s , some " absolutely legible @-@ to @-@ the @-@ last @-@ degree ... simple block letters " for Army and Navy Stores in 1925 and some capital letter signs around his home in Capel @-@ y @-@ ffin , Wales . Gill had greatly admired Johnston 's work on their Underground project , which he wrote had redeemed the sans @-@ serif from its " nineteenth @-@ century corruption " of extreme boldness . Johnston apparently had not tried to turn the alphabet ( as it was then called ) that he had designed into a commercial typeface project . He had tried to get involved in type design before starting work on Johnston Sans , but without success since the industry at the time mostly created designs in @-@ house . Morison similarly respected the design of the Underground system , one of the first uses of a standard lettering style as corporate branding , writing that it " conferred upon [ the lettering ] a sanction , civic and commercial , as had not been accorded to an alphabet since the time of Charlemagne . "
Morison and Gill had met with some tension within Monotype while developing Perpetua and while Morison was an enthusiastic backer of the project , Monotype 's engineering manager and type designer F. H. Pierpont was deeply unconvinced , commenting that he could " see nothing in this design to recommend it and much that is objectionable " . ( Pierpont was the creator of Monotype 's previous mainstay sans @-@ serif , a loose family now called Monotype Grotesque . It is a much less sculptured design inspired by German sans @-@ serifs . ) Morison also intervened to insist that the letters " J " and " Q " be allowed to elegantly descend below the baseline , something not normal for titling typefaces which were often made to fill up the entire area of the metal type . In the early days of its existence it was not always consistently simply called " Gill Sans " , with other names such as " Gill Sans @-@ serif " , " Monotype Sans @-@ Serif " ( the latter two both used by Gill in some of his publications ) or its order numbers ( such as Series No. 231 ) sometimes used .
Extensive material on the development of Gill Sans survives through records in Monotype 's archives and in Gill 's papers . While the capitals ( which were prepared first ) resemble Johnston quite closely , the archives document Gill ( and the drawing office team at Monotype 's works in Salfords , who developed a final precise design and spacing ) grappling with the challenge of creating a viable humanist sans @-@ serif lower @-@ case and an italic , which Johnston did not have . Gill 's first draft proposed many slanting cuts on the ends of ascenders and descenders , looking less like Johnston than the final draft did . Early art for the italic looked very different , with swashes on many capitals . However , Gill did not use the calligraphic italic " g " he would later use on his serif designs Perpetua and Joanna , using instead a standard " double @-@ story " " g " in italic .
In the regular or roman style of Gill Sans , some letters were simplified from Johnston , with diamond dots becoming round and the lower @-@ case " L " becoming a simple line , but the " a " became more complex with a curving tail in most versions and sizes . In addition , the design was simply refined in general , for example by making the horizontals slightly narrower than verticals so that they do not appear unbalanced , a standard technique in font design which Johnston had not used . The " R " with its widely splayed leg is Gill 's preferred design , unlike that of Johnston ; historian James Mosley has suggested that this may be inspired by an Italian Renaissance carving in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London . Particular areas of discussion during the design process were the " a " ( several versions and sizes in the hot metal era had a straight tail like Johnston 's or a mildly curving tail ) and the " b " , " d , " " p " and " q , " where some versions ( and sizes , since the same weight would not be identical at every size ) had stroke ends visible and others did not . Rhatigan has commented that Monotype 's archives contain " enough [ material ] for a book just about the " b , " " d " , " p " , and " q " of Gill Sans . "
The titling capitals of Gill Sans were first unveiled at a printing conference in 1928 ; it was also shown in a specimen issued in the Fleuron magazine edited by Morison . While initial response was partly appreciative , it was still considered dubious by some ultra @-@ conservative printers who saw all sans @-@ serif type as modern and unsound ; one called it " typographical Bolshevism " . Sans @-@ serifs were still regarded as vulgar and commercial by purists in this period : Johnston 's pupil Graily Hewitt privately commented of them that :
In Johnston I have lost confidence . Despite all he did for us ... he has undone too much by forsaking his standard of the Roman alphabet , giving the world , without safeguard or explanation , his block letters which disfigure our modern life . His prestige has obscured their vulgarity and commercialism .
Nonetheless , Gill Sans rapidly became popular after its release .
Gill broached the topic of the similarity with Johnston in a variety of ways in his work and writings , writing to Johnston in 1933 to apologise for the typeface bearing his name and describing Johnston 's work as being important and seminal . However , in his Essay on Typography , he proposed that his version was " perhaps an improvement " and more " fool @-@ proof " than Johnston 's . Johnston and Gill had drifted apart by the beginning of the 1920s , something Gill 's groundbreaking biographer Fiona MacCarthy describes as partly due to the anti @-@ Catholicism of Johnston 's wife Greta . Frank Pick , the Underground Electric Railways Company managing director who commissioned Johnston 's typeface , privately thought Gill Sans " a rather close copy " of Johnston 's work . Gill 's biographer Malcolm Yorke has described Gill as " tactless " in his claims that the design was " as much as possible mathematically measurable ... as little reliance as possible should be placed on the sensibility of the draughtsmen and others concerned in its machine facture " , when so much of the development process such as size @-@ specific design and spacing was contributed by Monotype 's largely anonymous but highly experienced drawing office team ; Monotype executive Daniel Rhatigan has made similar comments .
= = = Weights and styles = = =
Following the initial success of Gill Sans , Monotype rapidly produced a wide variety of other variants . In addition , Monotype sold moulds ( matrices ) for Gill Sans in very large sizes for their " Supercaster " type @-@ casting equipment . Popular with advertisers , this allowed end @-@ users to cast their own type at a very competitive price . This made it a popular choice for posters . Gill 's biographer Malcolm Yorke has described it as " the essence of clarity for public notices " .
Versions of Gill Sans exist in a wide range of styles such as condensed and shadowed weights . An ultra @-@ light version slightly lighter than the normal light style was also not digitally available until the 2015 Nova release . Several shadowed designs are currently available , including a capitals @-@ only regular shadowed design and a light @-@ shadowed version with deep relief shadows . In the metal type era , a ' cameo ruled ' design that placed white letters in boxes or against a stippled black background was available . These can be used together with the regular , printing in different colours , to achieve a simple multicolour effect . Some of the decorative versions may predominantly have been designed by the Monotype office , with Gill examining , critiquing and approving the designs sent to him by post . Monotype would later also create a book weight , intermediate between the light and regular weight , suitable for body text . ( Gill 's colleague Robert Harling wrote in his anthology of the density of the basic weight making it ugly in extended passages of text , printing a passage in it as a demonstration . The suspicion that Gill Sans ' lower @-@ case is less of a success than its capitals began early : William Addison Dwiggins called it and Futura " fine in the capitals and bum in the lower @-@ case " while proposing to create an alternative , Metro , for Linotype around 1929 . ) The long series of extensions , redrawings and conversions into new formats of one of Monotype 's most important designs ( extending long beyond Gill 's death ) has left Gill Sans with a great range of alternative designs and releases .
= = = Gill Kayo = = =
In 1936 , Gill and Monotype released an extremely bold design named Kayo ( from KO , or knockout , implying its solidity ) . This has often been branded as Gill Sans Ultra Bold , though in practice many letters vary considerably from the structure of Gill Sans . It is available in regular and condensed widths . Gill , who thought of the design as something of a novelty , considered naming it " Double Elefans " . Gill 's colleague Robert Harling ( who many years later would collect an anthology and assessment of Gill 's lettering ) described it as " dismal " and sarcastically commented that " typographical historians of 2000AD ( which isn 't , after all , so very far away ) will find this odd outburst in Mr Gill 's career , and will spend much time in attempting to track down this sad psychological state of his during 1936 . " In his 1976 book on Gill 's work , he described it as " the most horrendous and blackguardly of these display exploitations " . Some initial drawings of Kayo may have been prepared by Gill 's son @-@ in @-@ law Denis Tegetmeier ; it was particularly popular in graphic design of the 1970s and 80s .
The bold weights of Gill Sans , including Kayo , are particularly controversial for design issues such as the eccentric design of the " i " and " j " , and for their extreme boldness . ( Gill Sans ' standard weight is , as already noted , already quite bold by modern standards . ) Gill argued in his Essay on Typography that the nineteenth @-@ century tendency to make sans @-@ serif typefaces attention @-@ grabbingly bold was self @-@ defeating , since the result was compromised legibility . In the closing paragraph he ruefully noted how he had contributed to the genre :
There are now about as many different varieties of letters as there are different kinds of fools . I myself am responsible for designing five different sorts of sans @-@ serif letters – each one thicker and fatter than the last because each advertisement has to try and shout down its neighbours .
= = = Alternate characters = = =
To cater for the tastes and national printing styles of different countries , Monotype developed a set of alternate characters . These include Futura @-@ inspired designs of " N " , " M " , " R " , " a " , " g " , " t " and others , a four @-@ terminal " W " in the French style , tighter versions of " R " , an alternative " Q " with tail that looped upwards ( similar to that on Century among others , and preferred by the LNER ) , oblique designs as opposed to the standard true italic , a more curving , true @-@ italic " e " and several alternative numeral designs . In particular , in the standard designs for Gill Sans the numeral " 1 " , upper @-@ case " i " and lower @-@ case " L " are all a vertical line and look identical , so an alternate " 1 " with a serif was sold for number @-@ heavy situations where this could otherwise cause confusion , such as on price @-@ lists . ( Not all timetables used it : for example , the L.N.E.R. preferred the simple version . ) Some early versions of Gill Sans also had features later abandoned such as an unusual " 7 " matching the curve of the " 9 " , a " 5 " with a different shape , and a lower @-@ case letter @-@ height " 0 " .
Gill was involved in the design of these alternates , and Monotype 's archive preserves notes that he rethought the geometric alternates . With the increasing popularity of Futura Gill Sans was not alone in being adapted : both Erbar and Dwiggins ' Metro would undergo what historian Paul Shaw has called a " Futura @-@ ectomy " to conform to taste . Monotype would later add text figures to Gill Sans , numbers at the height of lower @-@ case letters . Popular in design for body text , these are a traditional feature on serif fonts which Gill Sans did not originally have .
= = = Phototypesetting = = =
Monotype offered Gill Sans on film in the phototypesetting period . The fonts released in 1961 included Light 362 , Series 262 , Bold 275 , Extra Bold 321 , Condensed 343 , all of which were released in film matrix sets " A " ( 6 – 7 points ) and " B " ( 8 – 22 , 24 points ) . Also after Gill 's death , Monotype created versions for the Greek and Cyrillic alphabets .
= = = Infant and rounded versions = = =
Monotype created an ' infant ' version of Gill Sans using single @-@ storey " a " and " g " , and other more distinguishable characters such as a rounded " y " , seriffed " 1 " and lower @-@ case " L " with a turn at the bottom . Infant designs of fonts are often used in education and toys as the letters are thought to be more recognisable to children being based on handwriting , and are often produced to supplement popular fonts such as Akzidenz @-@ Grotesk and Bembo . Monotype also created a version with rounded stroke ends for John Lewis for use on toys .
= = Digital releases = =
The digital releases of Gill Sans fall into several main phases : releases before 2005 ( which includes most bundled " system " versions of Gill Sans ) , the 2005 Pro edition , and the 2015 Nova release which adds many alternate characters and is in part included with Windows 10 . In general characteristics for common weights the designs are similar , but there are some changes : for example , in the book weight the 2005 release used circular ij dots but the 2015 release uses square designs , and the 2015 release simplifies some ligatures . Digital Gill Sans also gained character sets not present in the metal type , including text figures and small capitals .
Like all metal type revivals , reviving Gill Sans in digital form raises several decisions of interpretation , such as the issue of how to compensate for the ink spread that would have been seen in print at small sizes more than larger . As a result , printed Gill Sans and its digital facsimile may not always match . The digital release of Gill Sans , like many Monotype digitisations , has been criticised , in particular for excessively tight letter @-@ spacing and lack of optical sizes : with only one design released that has to be used at any text size , it cannot replicate the subtlety of design and spacing of the metal type , for which every size was drawn differently . In the hot metal era the structure of the font varied by size as is normal for metal type , with wider spacing and other detail changes at smaller text sizes . In the phototype period Monotype continued to offer two or three sizes of master , but all of this subtlety was lost on transfer to digital . To replicate this , it is necessary to make manual adjustment to spacing to compensate for size changes , such as expanding the spacing and increasing the weight used at smaller sizes .
Former ATypI president John Berry commented of Gill Sans ' modernised spacing that " both the regular weight and especially the light weight look much better when they 're tracked loose . " In contrast , Walter Tracy wrote that he preferred the later spacing : " the metal version ... was spaced , I suspect , as if it were a serif face " .
= = = Gill Sans Nova ( 2
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By contrast , British Scouting makes use of imagery drawn from the Indian subcontinent , because that region was a significant focus in the early years of Scouting . Baden @-@ Powell 's personal experiences in India led him to adopt Rudyard Kipling 's The Jungle Book as a major influence for the Cub Scouts ; for example , the name used for the Cub Scout leader , Akela ( whose name was also appropriated for the Webelos ) , is that of the leader of the wolf pack in the book .
The name " Scouting " seems to have been inspired by the important and romantic role played by military scouts performing reconnaissance in the wars of the time . In fact , Baden @-@ Powell wrote his original military training book , Aids To Scouting , because he saw the need for the improved training of British military @-@ enlisted scouts , particularly in initiative , self @-@ reliance , and observational skills . The book 's popularity with young boys surprised him . As he adapted the book as Scouting for Boys , it seems natural that the movement adopted the names Scouting and Boy Scouts .
" Duty to God " is a principle of Scouting , though it is applied differently in various countries . The Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) take a strong position , excluding atheists . The Scout Association in the United Kingdom permits variations to its Promise , in order to accommodate different religious obligations . While for example in the predominantly atheist Czech Republic the Scout oath doesn 't mention God altogether with the organization being strictly irreligious , in 2014 , United Kingdom Scouts were given the choice of being able to make a variation of the Promise that replaced " duty to God " with " uphold our Scout values " , Scouts Canada defines Duty to God broadly in terms of " adherence to spiritual principles " and leaves it to the individual member or leader whether they can follow a Scout Promise that includes Duty to God . Worldwide around one in three Scouts are Muslim .
= = Movement characteristics = =
Scouting is taught using the Scout method , which incorporates an informal educational system that emphasizes practical activities in the outdoors . Programs exist for Scouts ranging in age from 6 to 25 ( though age limits vary slightly by country ) , and program specifics target Scouts in a manner appropriate to their age .
= = = Scout method = = =
The Scout method is the principal method by which the Scouting organizations , boy and girl , operate their units . WOSM describes Scouting as " a voluntary nonpolitical educational movement for young people open to all without distinction of origin , race or creed , in accordance with the purpose , principles and method conceived by the Founder " . It is the goal of Scouting " to contribute to the development of young people in achieving their full physical , intellectual , social and spiritual potentials as individuals , as responsible citizens and as members of their local , national and international communities . "
The principles of Scouting describe a code of behavior for all members , and characterize the movement . The Scout method is a progressive system designed to achieve these goals , comprising seven elements : law and promise , learning by doing , team system , symbolic framework , personal progression , nature , and adult support . While community service is a major element of both the WOSM and WAGGGS programs , WAGGGS includes it as an extra element of the Scout method : service in the community .
The Scout Law and Promise embody the joint values of the Scouting movement worldwide , and bind all Scouting associations together . The emphasis on " learning by doing " provides experiences and hands @-@ on orientation as a practical method of learning and building self @-@ confidence . Small groups build unity , camaraderie , and a close @-@ knit fraternal atmosphere . These experiences , along with an emphasis on trustworthiness and personal honor , help to develop responsibility , character , self @-@ reliance , self @-@ confidence , reliability , and readiness ; which eventually lead to collaboration and leadership . A program with a variety of progressive and attractive activities expands a Scout 's horizon and bonds the Scout even more to the group . Activities and games provide an enjoyable way to develop skills such as dexterity . In an outdoor setting , they also provide contact with the natural environment .
Since the birth of Scouting , Scouts worldwide have taken a Scout Promise to live up to ideals of the movement , and subscribe to the Scout Law . The form of the promise and laws have varied slightly by country and over time , but must fulfil the requirements of the WOSM to qualify a National Scout Association for membership .
The Scout Motto , ' Be Prepared ' , has been used in various languages by millions of Scouts since 1907 . Less well @-@ known is the Scout Slogan , ' Do a good turn daily ' .
= = = Activities = = =
Common ways to implement the Scout method include having Scouts spending time together in small groups with shared experiences , rituals , and activities , and emphasizing good citizenship and decision @-@ making by young people in an age @-@ appropriate manner . Weekly meetings often take place in local centres known as Scout dens . Cultivating a love and appreciation of the outdoors and outdoor activities is a key element . Primary activities include camping , woodcraft , aquatics , hiking , backpacking , and sports .
Camping is most often arranged at the unit level , such as one Scout troop , but there are periodic camps ( known in the US as " camporees " ) and " jamborees " . Camps occur a few times a year and may involve several groups from a local area or region camping together for a weekend . The events usually have a theme , such as pioneering . World Scout Moots are gatherings , originally for Rover Scouts , but mainly focused on Scout Leaders . Jamborees are large national or international events held every four years , during which thousands of Scouts camp together for one or two weeks . Activities at these events will include games , Scoutcraft competitions , badge , pin or patch trading , aquatics , woodcarving , archery and activities related to the theme of the event .
In some countries a highlight of the year for Scouts is spending at least a week in the summer engaging in an outdoor activity . This can be a camping , hiking , sailing , or other trip with the unit , or a summer camp with broader participation ( at the council , state , or provincial level ) . Scouts attending a summer camp work on merit badges , advancement , and perfecting Scoutcraft skills . Summer camps can operate specialty programs for older Scouts , such as sailing , backpacking , canoeing and whitewater , caving , and fishing .
At an international level Scouting perceives one of its roles as the promotion of international harmony and peace . Various initiatives are in train towards achieving this aim including the development of activities that benefit the wider community , challenge prejudice and encourage tolerance of diversity . Such programs include co @-@ operation with non @-@ Scouting organisations including various NGOs , the United Nations and religious institutions as set out in The Marrakech Charter .
= = = Uniforms and distinctive insignia = = =
Individual national or other emblems may be found at the individual country 's Scouting article .
The Scout uniform is a widely recognized characteristic of Scouting . In the words of Baden @-@ Powell at the 1937 World Jamboree , it " hides all differences of social standing in a country and makes for equality ; but , more important still , it covers differences of country and race and creed , and makes all feel that they are members with one another of the one great brotherhood " . The original uniform , still widely recognized , consisted of a khaki button @-@ up shirt , shorts , and a broad @-@ brimmed campaign hat . Baden @-@ Powell also wore shorts , because he believed that being dressed like a Scout helped to reduce the age @-@ imposed distance between adult and youth . Uniform shirts are now frequently blue , orange , red or green and shorts are frequently replaced by long trousers all year or only under cold weather .
While designed for smartness and equality , the Scout uniform is also practical . Shirts traditionally have thick seams to make them ideal for use in makeshift stretchers — Scouts were trained to use them in this way with their staves , a traditional but deprecated item . The leather straps and toggles of the campaign hats or Leaders ' Wood Badges could be used as emergency tourniquets , or anywhere that string was needed in a hurry . Neckerchiefs were chosen as they could easily be used as a sling or triangular bandage by a Scout in need . Scouts were encouraged to use their garters for shock cord where necessary .
Distinctive insignia for all are Scout uniforms , recognized and worn the world over , include the Wood Badge and the World Membership Badge . Scouting has two internationally known symbols : the trefoil is used by members of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts ( WAGGGS ) and the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis by member organizations of the WOSM and most other Scouting organizations .
The swastika was used as an early symbol by the Boy Scouts Association of the United Kingdom and others . Its earliest use in Scouting was on the Thanks Badge introduced in 1911 . Lord Baden @-@ Powell 's 1922 design for the Medal of Merit added a swastika to the Scout Arrowhead to symbolize good luck for the recipient . In 1934 , Scouters requested a change to the design because of the connection of the swastika with its more recent use by the German National Socialist Workers ( Nazi ) Party . A new Medal of Merit was issued by the Boy Scouts Association in 1935 .
= = Age groups and sections = =
Scouting and Guiding movements are generally divided into sections by age or school grade , allowing activities to be tailored to the maturity of the group 's members . These age divisions have varied over time as they adapt to the local culture and environment .
Scouting was originally developed for adolescents — youths between the ages of 11 and 17 . In most member organizations , this age group composes the Scout or Guide section . Programs were developed to meet the needs of young children ( generally ages 6 to 10 ) and young adults ( originally 18 and older , and later up to 25 ) . Scouts and Guides were later split into " junior " and " senior " sections in many member organizations , and some organizations dropped the young adults ' section . The exact age ranges for programs vary by country and association .
The national programs for younger children include Tiger Cubs , Cub Scouts , Brownies , Daisies , Rainbow Guides , Beaver Scouts , Joey Scouts , Keas , and Teddies . Programs for post @-@ adolescents and young adults include the Senior Section , Rover Scouts , Senior Scouts , Venture Scouts , Explorer Scouts , and the Scout Network . Many organizations also have a program for members with special needs . This is usually known as Extension Scouting , but sometimes has other names , such as Scoutlink . The Scout Method has been adapted to specific programs such as Air Scouts , Sea Scouts , Rider Guides and Scoutingbands .
In many countries , Scouting is organized into neighborhood Scout Groups , or Districts , which contain one or more sections . Under the umbrella of the Scout Group , sections are divided according to age , each having their own terminology and leadership structure .
= = Adults and leadership = =
Adults interested in Scouting or Guiding , including former Scouts and Guides , often join organizations such as the International Scout and Guide Fellowship . In the United States and the Philippines , university students might join the co @-@ ed service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega . In the United Kingdom , university students might join the Student Scout and Guide Organisation , and after graduation , the Scout and Guide Graduate Association .
Scout units are usually operated by adult volunteers , such as parents and carers , former Scouts , students , and community leaders , including teachers and religious leaders . Scout Leadership positions are often divided into ' uniform ' and ' lay ' positions . Uniformed leaders have received formal training , such as the Wood Badge , and have received a warrant for a rank within the organization . Lay members commonly hold part @-@ time roles such as meeting helpers , committee members and advisors , though there are a small number of full @-@ time lay professionals .
A unit has uniformed positions — such as the Scoutmaster and assistants — whose titles vary among countries . In some countries , units are supported by lay members , who range from acting as meeting helpers to being members of the unit 's committee . In some Scout associations , the committee members may also wear uniforms and be registered Scout leaders .
Above the unit are further uniformed positions , called Commissioners , at levels such as district , county , council or province , depending on the structure of the national organization . Commissioners work with lay teams and professionals . Training teams and related functions are often formed at these levels . In the UK and in other countries , the national Scout organization appoints the Chief Scout , the most senior uniformed member .
= = Around the world = =
Following its foundation in the United Kingdom , Scouting spread around the globe . The first association outside the British Empire was founded in Chile in May 21 , 1909 after a visit to Baden Powell . In most countries of the world , there is now at least one Scouting ( or Guiding ) organization . Each is independent , but international cooperation continues to be seen as part of the Scout Movement . In 1922 the WOSM started as the governing body on policy for the national Scouting organizations ( then male only ) . In addition to being the governing policy body , it organizes the World Scout Jamboree every four years .
In 1928 the WAGGGS started as the equivalent to WOSM for the then female @-@ only national Scouting / Guiding organizations . It is also responsible for its four international centres : Our Cabaña in Mexico , Our Chalet in Switzerland , Pax Lodge in the United Kingdom , and Sangam in India .
Today at the international level , the two largest umbrella organizations are :
World Organization of the Scout Movement ( WOSM ) , for boys @-@ only and co @-@ educational organizations .
World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts ( WAGGGS ) , primarily for girls @-@ only organizations but also accepting co @-@ educational organizations .
= = = Co @-@ educational = = =
There have been different approaches to co @-@ educational Scouting . Countries such as the United States have maintained separate Scouting organizations for boys and girls . In other countries , especially within Europe , Scouting and Guiding have merged , and there is a single organization for boys and girls , which is a member of both the WOSM and the WAGGGS . In others , such as Australia and the United Kingdom , the national Scout association has opted to admit both boys and girls , but is only a member of the WOSM , while the national Guide association has remained as a separate movement and member of the WAGGGS . In some countries like Greece , Slovenia and Spain there are separate associations of Scouts ( members of WOSM ) and guides ( members of WAGGGS ) , both admitting boys and girls .
The Scout Association in the United Kingdom has been co @-@ educational at all levels since 1991 , and this was optional for groups until the year 2000 when new sections were been required to accept girls . The Scout Association transitioned all Scout groups and sections across the UK to become co @-@ educational by January 2007 , the year of Scouting 's centenary . The traditional Baden @-@ Powell Scouts ' Association has been co @-@ educational since its formation in 1970 .
In the United States , the Cub Scout and Boy Scout programs of the BSA are for boys only ; however , for youths age 14 and older , Venturing is co @-@ educational . The Girl Scouts of the USA ( GSUSA ) is an independent organization for girls and young women only . Adult leadership positions in the BSA and GSUSA are open to both men and women .
In 2006 , of the 155 WOSM member National Scout Organizations ( representing 155 countries ) , 122 belonged only to WOSM , and 34 belonged to both WOSM and WAGGGS . Of the 122 which belonged only to WOSM , 95 were open to boys and girls in some or all program sections , and 20 were only for boys . All 34 that belonged to both WOSM and WAGGGS were open to boys and girls .
WAGGGS had 144 Member Organizations in 2007 and 110 of them belonged only to WAGGGS . Of these 110 , 17 were coeducational and 93 admitted only girls .
= = = Membership = = =
As of 2010 , there are over 32 million registered Scouts and as of 2006 10 million registered Guides around the world , from 216 countries and territories .
= = = Nonaligned and Scout @-@ like organizations = = =
Fifteen years passed between the first publication of Scouting for Boys and the creation of the current largest supranational Scout organization , WOSM , and millions of copies had been sold in dozens of languages . By that point , Scouting was the purview of the world 's youth , and several Scout associations had already formed in many countries .
Alternative groups have formed since the original formation of the Scouting " Boy Patrols " . They can be a result of groups or individuals who maintain that the WOSM and WAGGGS are currently more political and less youth @-@ based than envisioned by Lord Baden @-@ Powell . They believe that Scouting in general has moved away from its original intent because of political machinations that happen to longstanding organizations , and want to return to the earliest , simplest methods . Others do not want to follow all the original ideals of Scouting but still desire to participate in Scout @-@ like activities .
In 2008 , there were at least 539 independent Scouting organizations around the world , 367 of them were a member of either WAGGGS or WOSM . About half of the remaining 172 Scouting organizations are only local or national oriented . About 90 national or regional Scouting associations have created their own international Scouting organizations . Those are served by five international Scouting organizations :
Order of World Scouts – the first international Scouting organisation , founded in 1911 .
Union Internationale des Guides et Scouts d 'Europe , an independent faith @-@ based Scouting organization founded in 1956 .
Confédération Européenne de Scoutisme , established in 1978 .
World Federation of Independent Scouts , formed in Laubach , Germany , in 1996 .
World Organization of Independent Scouts , mostly South @-@ American , founded in 2010 .
Some Scout @-@ like organizations are also served by international organizations for example :
Pathfinders
Royal Rangers
= = Influence on society = =
After the inception of Scouting in the early 1900s , some nations ' programs have taken part in social movements such as the nationalist resistance movements in India . Although Scouting was introduced to Africa by British officials as a way to strengthen their rule , the values they based Scouting on helped to challenge the legitimacy of British imperialism . Likewise , African Scouts used the Scout Law 's principle that a Scout is a brother to all other Scouts to collectively claim full imperial citizenship .
= = Recent controversies = =
More recently , the Boy Scouts of America was the focus of criticism in the United States for not allowing the open participation of homosexuals until removing the prohibition in 2013 .
In the United Kingdom , The Scout Association had been criticised for its insistence on the use of a religious promise , leading to the introduction of an alternative in January 2014 for those not wanting to mention a god in their promise . This change making the organisation entirely non @-@ discriminatory on the grounds of race , gender , sexuality , and religion ( or lack thereof ) .
Authoritarian communist regimes like the Soviet Union in 1920 and fascist regimes like Nazi Germany in 1934 often either absorbed the Scout movement into government @-@ controlled organizations , or banned Scouting entirely .
= = In film and the arts = =
Scouting has been a facet of culture during most of the 20th century in many countries ; numerous films and artwork focus on the subject . Movie critic Roger Ebert mentioned the scene in which the young Boy Scout , Indiana Jones , discovers the Cross of Coronado in the movie Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , as " when he discovers his life mission . "
The works of painters Ernest Stafford Carlos , Norman Rockwell , Pierre Joubert and Joseph Csatari and the 1966 film Follow Me , Boys ! are prime examples of this ethos . Scouting is often dealt with in a humorous manner , as in the 1989 film Troop Beverly Hills , the 2005 film Down and Derby , and the film Scout Camp . In 1980 , Scottish singer and songwriter Gerry Rafferty recorded I was a Boy Scout as part of his Snakes and Ladders album .
= Navy SEALS ( video game ) =
Navy SEALS is a shoot ' em up platform video game developed and published by Ocean Software . It was first released in the United Kingdom for the Amstrad CPC , Amstrad GX4000 and Commodore 64 in 1990 . It was later re @-@ released in the rest of Europe for the ZX Spectrum , Atari ST and Amiga home computers in the following year . It was then ported to the Game Boy on 1 September 1991 in the United States . The game is based on the film of the same name and follows the protagonist , Lieutenant Dale Hawkins , progressing through five side @-@ scrolling levels .
The game was developed by Ocean Software , in which they were renowned for creating video games related to their respective films . Navy SEALS focuses on Hawkins recovering caches of Stinger missiles from Arab soldiers in the Middle East . The game received positive reviews upon release , with critics mainly praising the graphics , presentation and challenging gameplay . However , criticism was directed at the ZX Spectrum port , which received disapproval over its monochrome graphics .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a side @-@ scrolling shoot ' em up and revolves around the protagonist , Lieutenant Dale Hawkins , recovering caches of hidden Stinger missiles from Arab terrorists in Oman . The game features a total of five levels with varying locations and begins with allocating five lives to the player . The main objective of the game is to locate and place time bombs on boxes containing Stinger missiles , in which the player is required to escape before the time runs out . The enemies featured in the game are Arab terrorists ; the player must neutralise them by shooting them with their selected weapon , which is a handgun by default . Other weapons available in the game include machine guns , rocket launchers , and a flamethrower , which are only accessible through finding hidden crates .
The second level of the game is in Beirut , and focuses on the player , along with a group of Navy Seals , rescuing hostages in a 3D presentation of the city . If the player is successful in rescuing the hostages and recovering all missiles , the remaining forces will rendezvous at a submarine . During the game , the player @-@ character may grapple onto ledges , climb ladders , crawl , and jump
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ag as commander of the Naval Gunnery School in Wik in Kiel , after Woldag took command of the heavy cruiser Blücher . Under his command were three training departments , the gunnery training ship Bremse and Hektor , numerous gunnery training boats , gun carriers , auxiliary vessels , and occasionally Hitler 's state yacht , the aviso Grille .
= = = Commander of the battleship Bismarck = = =
Ernst Lindemann was frustrated by the fact that — as commander of the Naval Gunnery School — he would never come into direct contact with the enemy . When he received the news that he had been selected to be the first commander of the battleship Bismarck , he was honoured by the trust that had been bestowed on him but doubted that he would be able to get Bismarck ready for action before the war was over . His doubts suggest that he was confident the war would end in a favourable outcome for Germany by mid @-@ 1940 . Prior to commanding Bismarck , Lindemann had never held any shipboard command , a situation rare if not unique in the Kriegsmarine . Nevertheless , Lindemann had served exclusively on ships with a gun calibre of at least 28 cm ( 11 in ) , and he was Germany 's leading gunnery expert . In 1940 , he ranked second out of Crew 1913 and was considered an outstanding leader .
Lindemann arrived at the Blohm & Voss shipbuilding works in Hamburg at the beginning of August 1940 . Bismarck 's keel had been laid on 1 July 1936 and she was launched on 14 February 1939 . Burkard Freiherr von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg joined Bismarck as fourth gunnery officer in June 1940 , and he would become the highest @-@ ranking officer to survive Bismarck 's last battle on 27 May 1941 . Much of what is currently known about Bismarck 's final days is attributed to his account as a witness . Lindemann made Von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg his personnel adjutant and instructed him to refer to the ship as " he " rather than " she " ; Lindemann considered the ship too powerful to be referred to as a female . He commissioned the battleship on 24 August 1940 . He showed a great deal of attachment to the ship and was respected by his crew .
Bismarck left the Kiel Fjord on the morning of 28 September 1940 heading east . After an uneventful voyage through rough seas , Bismarck reached Gotenhafen ( now Gdynia ) the next day . Here Bismarck conducted a number of sea trials in the relative safety of the Bay of Danzig ( now Gdańsk Bay ) . By 30 November 1940 , Lindemann had set a number of tests for the crew , which they passed easily . During high speed trials , Bismarck reached a top speed of 30 @.@ 8 kn ( 57 @.@ 0 km / h ; 35 @.@ 4 mph ) , exceeding the design speed . However , one weakness quickly became apparent : without using the rudders but only the screws , Bismarck was almost impossible to steer .
In November 1940 , Von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg was sent to the Naval Gunnery School at Wik to complete his heavy gun training courses , which ended his position as Lindemann 's personal adjutant . Lindemann 's new adjutant was the signals officer Second Lieutenant Wolfgang Reiner . Bismarck 's heavy guns were first test @-@ fired in the second half of November , and Bismarck was shown to be a very stable gun platform . After the 1940 Christmas celebration on board , Lindemann and the majority of the officers , non @-@ commissioned officers and sailors went on home leave . First gunnery officer Lieutenant Commander Adalbert Schneider relieved Lindemann as Bismarck 's commander during his absence . Lindemann spent his leave with his wife and daughter and returned on 1 January 1941 .
On 28 April 1941 , the ship and crew were ready , and stores were on board for a three @-@ month mission . Lindemann notified Naval High Command ( Oberkommando der Marine ) , Naval Groups North and West ( Marinegruppen Nord und West ) and Fleet Command that Bismarck was ready for action . The Chief of Fleet — Admiral Günther Lütjens — and his fleet staff held drills for the first time on board Bismarck on 13 May , testing the communication chain between Fleet Command and Bismarck 's officers .
Adolf Hitler — accompanied by Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel , his former naval adjutant Commander Karl @-@ Jesko von Puttkamer , and his Luftwaffe adjutant Oberst Nicolaus von Below , among others — visited Bismarck on 5 May 1941 . Missing was Grand Admiral Erich Raeder . Hitler was taken on a tour of the ship by Admiral Lütjens and inspected the various battle stations . Hitler and Lütjens also met in private and discussed the risks of a mission in the North Atlantic . After this meeting , Hitler and the officers of Bismarck had lunch in the officers ' mess , where Hitler spoke about America 's unwillingness to enter the war . Lindemann openly disagreed with Hitler , expressing his opinion that the possibility of the United States entering the war could not be ruled out .
= = = Operation Rheinübung = = =
The goal of Operation Rheinübung ( Rhine Exercise ) was for Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen — under the command of Lindemann 's Crew 1913 classmate Captain Helmuth Brinkmann — to break into the Atlantic and attack Allied shipping . Grand Admiral Raeder 's orders to the task force commander — Admiral Günther Lütjens — were that " the objective of the Bismarck is not to defeat enemies of equal strength , but to tie them down in a delaying action , while preserving combat capacity as much as possible , so as to allow Prinz Eugen to get at the merchant ships in the convoy " and " The primary target in this operation is the enemy 's merchant shipping ; enemy warships will be engaged only when that objective makes it necessary and it can be done without excessive risk . "
At 02 : 00 on 19 May 1941 , Bismarck and Prinz Eugen left Gotenhafen and proceeded through the Baltic Sea and out toward the Atlantic . Unknown to Lütjens , the British had intercepted enough signals to infer that a German naval operation might occur in the area . The German task force was first encountered by the Swedish seaplane @-@ cruiser Gotland on 20 May heading north @-@ west past Gothenburg . The British Admiralty was informed through a Norwegian officer in Stockholm who had learned of the sighting from a Swedish military intelligence source . Alerted by this report , British Admiralty requested air reconnaissance of the Norwegian coast . A Spitfire reconnaissance aircraft found and photographed the German task force in the Grimstad fjord ( 60 ° 19 @.@ 49 ′ N 5 ° 14 @.@ 48 ′ E ) , near Bergen , at 13 : 15 on 21 May . On the evening of 23 May at 19 : 22 , the German force was detected by the heavy cruisers HMS Suffolk and Norfolk that had been patrolling the Denmark Strait in the expectation of a German breakout . The alarm was sounded and Lindemann announced at 20 : 30 over the intercom : " Feind in Sicht an Backbord , Schiff nimmt Gefecht auf " . ( Enemy sighted to port . Engage ! ) Bismarck fired five salvos without scoring a direct hit . The heavily outgunned British cruisers retired to a safe distance and shadowed the enemy until their own heavy units could draw closer . However , Bismarck 's forward radar had failed as a result of vibration from the heavy guns firing during this skirmish , and Lütjens was obliged to order Prinz Eugen to move ahead of Bismarck in order to provide the squadron with forward radar coverage .
At the Battle of the Denmark Strait on 24 May 1941 , HMS Hood was sunk , probably by Bismarck . The hydrophones on Prinz Eugen detected a foreign ship to port at 05 : 00 . The Germans sighted the smokestacks of two ships at 05 : 45 , which the first gunnery officer Lieutenant Commander Adalbert Schneider initially reported as two heavy cruisers . The first British salvo revealed them to be battleships , but not until the British task force turned to port was their precise identity revealed . The British ships started firing at the German task force at 05 : 53 . Vice @-@ Admiral Lancelot Holland planned on targeting Bismarck first , but due to the reversed German battle order , HMS Prince of Wales and Hood opened fire on the Prinz Eugen instead . The commander of the Prince of Wales — Captain John Leach — detected this error and ordered his guns swung around to fire on Bismarck . The German task force was still waiting for the order to commence firing , which Admiral Lütjens did not give immediately . Two minutes later , after multiple inquiries by Schneider , " Frage Feuererlaubnis " ? ( Permission to open fire ? ) , an impatient Lindemann responded : " Ich lasse mir doch nicht mein Schiff unter dem Arsch wegschießen . Feuererlaubnis ! " ( I 'm not letting my ship get shot out from under my arse . Open fire ! ) At 06 : 01 , the fifth salvo by Bismarck , fired at a range of about 180 hectometres ( 18 @,@ 000 m ; 20 @,@ 000 yd ) , was seen to hit Hood abreast her mainmast . It is likely that one 38 cm ( 15 in ) shell struck somewhere between Hood 's mainmast and ' X ' turret aft of the mast . A huge jet of flame burst out from Hood from the vicinity of the mainmast . This was followed by a devastating magazine explosion that destroyed the aft part of the ship . This explosion broke the back of Hood , and she sank in only three minutes , her nearly vertical bow last to descend into the water .
Following the explosion , Prince of Wales was targeted by both German ships and disengaged from combat after seven direct hits , four by Bismarck and three by Prinz Eugen , at about 06 : 09 . During this brief engagement , Prince of Wales had also hit Bismarck three times , first striking the commander 's boat and putting the seaplane catapult amidships out of action . The second shell passed right through the bow from one side to the other . The third struck the hull underwater and burst inside the ship , flooding a generator room and damaging the bulkhead of an adjoining boiler room , partially flooding it . The damage caused to Bismarck by these two shots allowed 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 200 short tons ) of water into the
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catalysts for this change within Brooke . Additionally , Brooke is a very attractive man and this trait brings him to the centre of attention of the other individuals in the book . One reviewer noted that Brooke was depicted as so attractive that it seems that Dawson has " rather fallen for her subject " . However , despite his beauty and charm , the internal conflict in Brooke can be hard to sympathise with , Vanessa Curtis calling him " difficult for the reader to like " because he is " fey , brash , insecure and fickle " .
Nell on the other hand is a smart and responsible girl , age seventeen at the beginning of the novel . She too goes through character development . Initially , as one reviewer put it , Nell is filled with a " maelstorm of angst " as she tries to figure out her relationship with Brooke and both " shocked and intrigued " by Brooke 's eccentric behaviour . Though she expresses herself as in the control of most situations , in fact she is not , especially when Brooke is involved . One reviewer noted that Nell 's voice in the novel is not altogether convincing , saying " the levels of diction and spelling here seem rather high to be coming up from the kitchen " . The centrality of Nell in the novel was inspired by a postcard that Dawson bought which showed the maids from The Orchard during Brooke 's stay . Though inspired by real individuals , Nell 's character primarily draws inspiration from many individuals in Dawson 's own life . The name Nell Golightly is a mix of two names : Izzie Golightly , a close friend of Dawson 's mother , and Nelly Boxall , Virginia Woolf 's servant .
= = Style = =
Dawson includes excerpts and quotes from Brooke 's letters within her fictional passages , integrating both elements to create a complete narrative . In fact many of the comments made by Nell observing Brooke are actually comments made by his contemporaries . This style of integrating fact and fiction is similar to Dawson 's previous novel Fred and Eddie . The integration of these facts is nearly seamless . However , in interpreting Edwardian language , Dawson misuses the term " pump ship " according to Frances Spalding in The Independent . Critic Simon Akam noted that sometimes the recreation of Brooke 's language affects Nell 's language , making her comments more poetic then her usual dialect .
Critic Lorna Bradbury noted how many of the scenes are " wonderful " , each evoking further understanding of Brooke as a character . Joanna Briscoe also noted that the novel had a wonderful " sense of time and place " because it treats many elements unique to the period in the Britain very well , including Fabianism and class politics . The Great Lover also maintains a very vivid imagery and sensory elements related to The Orchard ; as Vanessa Curtis of The Scotsman says , " the fragrance of honey , apples and flowers suffuse the novel " .
= = Themes = =
Sexuality is one of the primary themes of the novel . Letters by Brooke recently rediscovered by historians expressed much conflict within himself about his own sexuality . This same sexual conflict becomes a major element of Dawson 's novel . Nell is consistently shocked by Brooke 's sexual desires and encounters throughout the novel , while at the same time Brooke is confused by his lustful desires for Nell and his desire to court sexually constrained upper @-@ class women . Brooke has other causes of internal conflict . In his search for the right person to lose his virginity to , he has a homosexual encounter almost out of desperation . The continual conflict between a desire to be loved , and the inability to find a lover is ironic when compared to the title of the novel and poem which inspired the novel : Brooke is clearly not a " great lover " .
Brooke 's character is strongly driven by his desire to break from conventions . Brooke 's unconventional actions are common throughout the novel , the most prominent being nude bathing and odd remarks and humour . These actions create an externally carefree individual that is in strong contrast to the down @-@ to @-@ earth Nell .
Social disconnect between the Edwardian upper and lower classes is also a prominent element of The Great Lover . Nell 's character gives an opportunity to explore how the class structure and employment for young women of the lower classes consumed their time . Brooke also commits himself to unsuccessfully campaigning against the " Poor Law " . Despite the treatment of class difference , Dawson does not use diction and thoughts which are convincingly lower @-@ class in many of her lower @-@ class characters , such as Nell , instead giving them more refined dialects .
= = Criticism = =
Reviews of The Great Lover were generally positive , many of them noting the ability of Dawson to evoke the personality of Brooke and produce an accurate sense of his contemporaries and contemporary society .
Lorna Bradbury of The Daily Telegraph called the novel " a psychologically convincing picture of a man who , even in his many flirtatious moments , is teetering on the edge , and a brilliant account of the poet ’ s nervous breakdown . " Similarly , Joanna Briscoe of The Guardian said , " by the final quarter , Dawson knows what she is doing with a tricky subject , and the novel comes into its own with explosive force . It is a daring experiment , and one whose mood , setting and eccentricities linger in the mind . " Helen Dunmore of The Times called the narrative of the novel " strong , satisfying and memorable " . The Daily Mail called the novel " an exceptional book even from the prize @-@ winning Dawson ; clever , moving , sexy and with a mesmerising feel for that magical , optimistic , but doomed time just before the Great War . " Vanessa Curtis of The Scotsman admired the novel for its much more satisfying portrayal of Brooke than his biographies and called it " a seductive book , evocative and well paced , the tale split between Brooke and Nell , the two narrative voices strong , distinctive and consistent . " Alice Ryan called the novel " a gripping and beautifully written book which deals not only with the history of Brooke and his alleged love child , but also with the wider history of the Fens , its places , people and traditions " . The Oxford Times critic Phillipa Logan too gave praise to the novel , saying that Dawson " exploits [ the ] ambiguities [ in Brooke 's life ] to the full , creating a compelling , thoroughly plausible narrative that explores Brooke ’ s time as a student in Cambridge . " Simon Akam of The New Statesman liked the novel , noting that " in her novel Dawson has [ ... ] pulled off the risky gamble of reimagining history . " The New Zealand Listener said , " The Great Lover is proof that its author is one of the finest practitioners of the literary historical novel and that this is her best novel yet . "
Thomas Mallon of The Washington Post , unlike other reviewers , gave a much more lukewarm assessment of the novel . He wrote , " The Great Lover is conscientious and good @-@ hearted , but for all its class @-@ crossing improbability , still rather timid . " For Mallon , the novel does not treat Brooke during his most interesting part of his life : during the first World War , when he becomes a public figure .
= 1880 Democratic National Convention =
The 1880 Democratic National Convention was held June 22 to 24 , 1880 , at the Music Hall in Cincinnati , Ohio , and nominated Winfield S. Hancock of Pennsylvania for President and William H. English of Indiana for Vice President in the United States presidential election of 1880 .
Six men were officially candidates for nomination at the convention , and several more also received votes . Of these , the two leading candidates were Hancock and Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware . Not officially a candidate , but wielding a heavy influence over the convention , was the Democratic nominee from 1876 , Samuel J. Tilden of New York . Many Democrats believed Tilden to have been unjustly deprived of the presidency in 1876 and hoped to rally around him in the 1880 campaign . Tilden , however , was ambiguous about his willingness to participate in another campaign , leading some delegates to defect to other candidates , while others stayed loyal to their old standard @-@ bearer .
As the convention opened , some delegates favored Bayard , a conservative Senator , and some others supported Hancock , a career soldier and Civil War hero . Still others flocked to men they saw as surrogates for Tilden , including Henry B. Payne of Ohio , an attorney and former representative , and Samuel J. Randall of Pennsylvania , the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives . The first round of balloting was inconclusive . Before the second round , Tilden 's withdrawal from the campaign became known for certain and delegates flocked to Hancock , who was nominated . English , a conservative politician from a swing state , was nominated for Vice President . Hancock and English were narrowly defeated in the race against Republicans James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur that autumn .
= = Issues and candidates = =
In 1876 , Republican Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio defeated Democrat Samuel J. Tilden of New York in the most hotly contested election to that time in the nation 's history . The results initially indicated a Democratic victory , but the electoral votes of several states were ardently disputed until mere days before the new president was to be inaugurated . Members of both parties in Congress agreed to convene a bi @-@ partisan Electoral Commission , which ultimately decided the race for Hayes . Most Democrats believed Tilden had been robbed of the presidency , and he became the leading candidate for nomination in 1880 . In the meantime , issues of tariff reform and the gold standard divided the country and the major parties .
The monetary issue played a large role in selecting the nominees in 1880 , but had little effect on the general election campaign . The debate concerned the basis for the United States dollar 's value . Nothing but gold and silver coin had ever been legal tender in the United States until the Civil War , when the mounting costs of the war forced Congress to issue " greenbacks " ( dollar bills backed by government bonds ) . They paid for the war , but resulted in the most severe inflation since the American Revolution . After the war , bondholders and other creditors ( especially in the North ) wanted to return to a gold standard . At the same time , debtors ( often in the South and West ) benefited by the way inflation reduced their debts , and workers and some businessmen liked the way inflation made for easy credit . The issue cut across parties , producing dissension among Republicans and Democrats alike and spawning a third party , the Greenback Party , in 1876 , when both major parties nominated
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the ring name 21st Century Fox .
= = Legal trouble = =
= = = Satan 's Choice motorcycle gang = = =
Croitoru has a history of run @-@ ins with the police . Many of his legals problems came while he was president of the Hamilton , Ontario chapter of the Satan 's Choice Outlaw motorcycle club . He was arrested for trafficking cocaine and served ten months in prison . Soon after , he was convicted of assault and was given a sentence of seven months . He encountered more problems on December 15 , 1996 when he and several friends from Satan 's Choice were kicked out of a strip club for wearing their gang 's colors . To get revenge , Croitoru and his friends planned to blow up the strip club . They changed their minds , however , and decided to bomb the local police station instead . The bomb caused $ 133 @,@ 000 in damages to the Sudbury , Ontario police station and a nearby bank and injured a police officer . Croitoru and two friends were arrested and charged , but the trial did not begin until almost two years later .
While Croitoru was awaiting trial for the bombing , the Hamilton branch of Satan 's Choice was shut down after an informant gave the police information about the gang 's involvement with drug dealing and extortion . The gang 's clubhouse was confiscated and the club 's national leadership decided to disband the Hamilton chapter . Croitoru got in a fight in Hamilton with another former Satan 's Choice member on January 13 , 1998 . A police officer saw Croitoru punch the other man in the face and arrested Croitoru for assault . In addition to the assault change , Croitoru was charged with extortion from an unrelated incident as well as carrying a concealed weapon and breaking the conditions of his release following the police station bombing . In September 1998 , Croitoru was brought to trial for his role in the bombing . He was convicted and sentenced to 33 months in prison .
Hitman Ken Murdock , who was himself jailed in 1999 , has claimed he was hired by the mafia to kill Croitoru but instead chose to spare his life .
= = = Murder accusations = = =
Croitoru 's most famous encounter with the law occurred on January 6 , 2005 when he was charged with the November 16 , 1998 murders of Lynn and Fred Gilbank . The couple was shot execution @-@ style with a shotgun . Police suspect that the murders were in response to Lynn Gilbank 's assistance in getting William and Angie Smith into a witness protection program after William Smith gave the police information about the Gravelle crime family . Croitoru , who had several contacts within the Gravelle family ( including a contract to kill police inspector Rick Wills , who was investigating the Gravelles ) , was a suspect in the investigation and had his phones tapped during the investigation .
After an investigation that lasted six years and cost $ 6 million , police laid charges against Croitoru and Andre Gravelle . Croitoru was charged with two counts of first degree murder and two counts of conspiracy to commit murder . After spending seven months in prison , Croitoru was released on $ 100 @,@ 000 bail . He was arrested on December 2 , 2005 for violating his bail terms , and police filed another extortion charge against him .
Evidence against Croitoru and Gravelle was presented over the course of eight weeks in 2006 , but the judge stated that the case against the two accused was not strong . Ontario Attorney General Michael Bryant withdrew the charges on June 12 , 2006 . Following this action by the attorney general , both Croitoru and Andre Gravelle announced plans to file lawsuits against people involved with the prosecution . Gravelle is suing for $ 25 million , and Croitoru is seeking $ 15 million for wrongful imprisonment and malicious prosecution . Hamilton Police Services was ordered to pay Gravelle $ 10 @,@ 000 for court costs . In June 2006 , Croitoru also pleaded guilty to the charges of extortion and violating the terms of his bail . As a result , he was forced to forfeit $ 10 @,@ 000 of the bail money .
= = = United Nations gang = = =
On May 15 , 2009 , Croitoru was arrested , along with seven other members of the United Nations gang . They were charged with conspiracy to commit murder for allegedly plotting to kill the Bacon Brothers and other members of the Red Scorpions gang . On January 24 , 2011 , Croitoru was charged with first degree murder in connection with the execution of Jonathan Barber and the attempted murder of Barber 's girlfriend Vicky King , then 17 , in Burnaby on 9 May 2008 . In July 2013 , he pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit murder , and the murder charges were stayed . He was sentenced to 13 years in prison , which was reduced to four years and eight months after factoring in time served . In January 2015 , he applied for parole , stating that he had agreed to help with the murders to impress members of the United Nations gang , but that he did not intend to kill anyone . The application was denied .
= = Personal life = =
Before entering wrestling , Croitoru played junior hockey for the Kitchener Rangers in the Ontario Hockey League . He was not drafted to the National Hockey League , however , and he decided to pursue professional wrestling instead . Croitoru is an accomplished weightlifter , and he once bench pressed 625 pounds . While awaiting his murder trial , Croitoru ran a home renovation business until he was unable to secure a bank loan to cover business expenses . After closing the business , Croitoru supported himself by working as a used car salesman . Croitoru came from a large family from Dundas , Ontario .
Croitoru currently lives in Vancouver , British Columbia with his common @-@ law wife to Tracy Edwards and his daughter Tiandra He most recently worked as a bodyguard for Lion 's Gate Entertainment , providing protection for such actors as Jack Nicholson and Cyndi Lauper . Croitoru also had a brief acting career , appearing in a movie titled Oklahoma Smugglers , in which he portrayed a wrestler , and such television shows as Reaper .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Stomach claw
Signature moves
Diving headbutt
Powerslam
Managers
Handsome Johnny Bradford
Jim Cornette
Pandora
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
American Wrestling Association
AWA Southern Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Border City Wrestling
BCW Can @-@ Am Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
International Championship Wrestling ( Cambridge , Ontario )
ICW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Midwest Territorial Wrestling
MTW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Smoky Mountain Wrestling
SMW Beat the Champ Television Championship ( 1 time )
= Calgary Hitmen =
The Calgary Hitmen are a major junior ice hockey team based in Calgary , Alberta , Canada . The Hitmen play in the Central Division of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . They play their home games at the Scotiabank Saddledome . Bret " The Hitman " Hart , a local @-@ born professional wrestler , was a founding owner as well as the inspiration for the team 's name . Established in 1994 , the team has been owned by the Calgary Flames hockey club since 1997 . They are the third WHL team to represent Calgary , preceded by the Centennials and Wranglers .
The Hitmen have finished with the best record in the WHL four times , and qualified for the playoffs for thirteen consecutive seasons between 1998 and 2010 . In 1999 , they became the first Calgary team to win the President 's Cup as league champions , and the first to represent the city in the Memorial Cup since the Calgary Canadians won the national junior title in 1926 . The Hitmen hold numerous WHL attendance records , and in 2004 – 05 became the first team in Canadian Hockey League history to average 10 @,@ 000 fans per game . Thirty @-@ nine former Hitmen players have gone on to play in the National Hockey League .
= = Franchise history = =
Graham James left his position as coach and general manager of the Swift Current Broncos to found the Hitmen in 1994 . He organized a group of eighteen investors in the club , including star National Hockey League players Theoren Fleury and Joe Sakic , along with Bret Hart , famous for his exploits in the World Wrestling Federation . The Calgary Flames , who had just assumed control of the then Saddledome and were looking to fill extra dates in the building , were receptive to the new team .
Calgary had been without a WHL team since the Wranglers moved south to become the Lethbridge Hurricanes in 1987 . The league 's expansion into Calgary was met with skepticism , as the league had previously failed in Western Canada 's largest markets of Vancouver , Edmonton , Calgary , and Winnipeg , when in competition with the NHL .
The Stampede Corral has served as a second home for the odd home game when the Saddledome is unavailable . They used the Corral for regular season home games in 1995 @-@ 1996 and playoff games in 1998 and 2016 .
= = = Controversial beginnings = = =
The club selected its name and logo as an homage to Bret " The Hitman " Hart . The team 's distinctive pink , grey and black jerseys were also modeled after Hart 's ring attire . The logo proved immensely popular and Hitmen merchandise sold well at many local retailers . However , the name and logo were also subject to heavy criticism from
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curves north and later east to enter Arlington city limits . Within Arlington , SR 530 intersects SR 9 , another north – south highway that the road has a brief concurrency with . After the concurrency , the highway is named Burke Avenue and intersects West Avenue , which was SR 9 before it was realigned to the current western alignment . The roadway becomes the Arlington – Darrington Road after bridging the Stillaguamish River and passing the Twin Rivers County Park , the road turns northeast into Arlington Heights .
In Trafton , which is located in Arlington Heights , SR 530 passes a residential area and a road that leads to the Jim Creek Naval Radio Station , a United States Navy facility . After leaving Trafton , the road crosses a railroad track used by the BNSF Railway before crossing the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River in Cicero . The highway crosses the tracks and the Stillaguamish River fork near Oso to continue east past several communities . The roadway turns southeast and passes the Darrington Municipal Airport to enter Darrington town limits . Once in Darrington , SR 530 becomes Seeman Street and goes east to an intersection with Seeman Street and Emmens Street . Emmens Street is also named the Mountain Loop Highway , which travels southwest to connect National Forest Route 20 and SR 92 in Granite Falls . At the intersection , the road turns north and leaves Darrington to follow the Sauk River . Outside of Darrington , the roadway travels north , briefly entering the boundaries of the Mount Baker National Forest and leaves Snohomish County . After entering Skagit County , SR 530 crosses the Sauk River and heads north to cross the Skagit River and end at an intersection with SR 20 in Rockport .
= = = Former route ( 1964 – 1991 ) = = =
From 1964 until 1991 , SR 530 began at an interchange with I @-@ 5 in Conway and traveled southeast to I @-@ 5 again at the current western terminus and then followed the current route . The former routing , now called the Pioneer Highway , followed the Seattle – Vancouver , BC route of the Great Northern Railway served by the International from Conway to Silvana . The former route began at a diamond interchange with I @-@ 5 in Conway , which was also the western terminus of SR 534 . From the interchange , the roadway traveled west to Fir Island Road , which travels west across the South Fork of the Skagit River to Fir Island . The road then turned south to parallel railroad tracks owned by the Great Northern Railway and also parallel the South Fork of the Skagit River . At Milltown , SR 530 intersected Milltown Road , which would later interchange with I @-@ 5 to the east . South of Milltown and west of Lake Ketchum , the route crossed into Snohomish County . After crossing into Snohomish County and passing Lake Ketchum , SR 530 traveled south to a junction with the Old Pacific Highway and turned southeast into North Stanwood . The highway exited North Stanwood to enter Stanwood , where it intersected SR 532 . The roadway curved southeast and passed Sunday Lake , some residential areas and Norman before entering Silvana . After Silvana , the road continued southeast and later eastward to interchange with I @-@ 5 .
= = History = =
The current route of SR 530 first appeared on a map around 1899 , when a road following the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River ended east of Oso . A map published in 1911 showed a road traveling from Conway southeast past Stanwood and Arlington towards Oso and Darrington . The first state @-@ maintained highway that used a section of the current roadway was Secondary State Highway 1E ( SSH 1E ) , which was established in 1937 during the creation of the Primary and secondary highways ; SSH 1E ran from an intersection with Primary State Highway 1 ( PSH 1 ) in Conway south to what would become SSH 1Y in 1945 in Stanwood ( then called East Stanwood ) and east past PSH 1 again to SSH 1A in Arlington . SSH 1E was later extended in 1957 past SSH 1A in Arlington to the Mountain Loop Highway in Darrington , which had been finished by late 1941 .
During the 1964 highway renumbering , SSH 1E became SR 530 , SSH 1A became SR 9 and SSH 1Y became SR 532 ; from 1964 until 1983 , SR 530 was 49 @.@ 07 miles ( 78 @.@ 97 km ) long . On December 26 , 1980 , SR 530 was closed between Stanwood and Silvana due to a flood that caused the Stillaguamish River to overflow from its banks , which the highway parallels . The roadway was extended 18 @.@ 64 miles ( 30 @.@ 00 km ) north from Darrington to SR 20 in Rockport , making the highway a total of 68 @.@ 34 miles ( 109 @.@ 98 km ) and both termini being in Skagit County . SR 530 was later shortened 16 @.@ 98 miles ( 27 @.@ 33 km ) , moving the western terminus to an interchange with I @-@ 5 southwest of Arlington .
Since being shortened , five minor construction projects , arranged by the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) , have occurred . The confluence of the Sauk and Suiattle rivers have eroded the riverbank that supports the road north of Darrington . Wilder Construction Inc. of Bellingham was hired by WSDOT to stabilize the riverbank to prevent the highway collapsing into the river . The project was completed in December 2007 and took place between Darrington and Rockport . A temporary rock wall was also constructed to protect SR 530 and will be removed once WSDOT realigns the highway north of Darrington , which is expected to be completed after 2011 .
On March 22 , 2014 , a three @-@ mile section of SR 530 in northern Snohomish County , roughly midway between Darrington and Arlington , was completely blocked by the Oso landslide . The highway was cleared enough by May 31 to open one lane of escorted traffic . Because the highway was badly damaged , and because the topography of the area had been altered by the landslide , WSDOT decided to elevate that section of the highway when it was rebuilt . As of July 27 , 2014 , the first of four stages in rebuilding the highway had been completed . The new roadway was opened September 22 , and the project is expected to be finished in early October 2014 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Philippines =
The Philippines ( / ˈfɪlᵻpiːnz / ; Filipino : Pilipinas [ ˌpɪlɪˈpinɐs ] ) , officially the Republic of the Philippines ( Filipino : Republika ng Pilipinas ) , is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean . It consists of about 7 @,@ 641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south : Luzon , Visayas , and Mindanao . The capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City , both part of Metro Manila .
The Philippines ' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and close to the equator makes the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons , but also endows it with abundant natural resources and some of the world 's greatest biodiversity . The Philippines has an area of approximately 300 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 115 @,@ 831 sq mi ) , and a population of more than 100 million with faster growth than any other east Asian country . It is the seventh @-@ most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world . An additional 12 million Filipinos live overseas , comprising one of the world 's largest diasporas . Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands . In prehistoric times , Negritos were some of the archipelago 's earliest inhabitants . They were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples . Exchanges with Chinese , Malay , Indian , and Islamic states occurred . Then , various nations were established under the rule of Datus , Rajahs , Sultans or Lakans .
The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon , Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization . In 1543 , Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain . With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City , in 1565 , the first Hispanic settlement in the archipelago was established . The Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years . This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion . During this time , Manila became the western hub of the trans @-@ Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons .
As the 19th century gave way to the 20th , there followed in quick succession the Philippine Revolution , which spawned the short @-@ lived First Philippine Republic , followed by the bloody Philippine – American War of conquest by US military force . Aside from the period of Japanese occupation , the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II , when the Philippines was recognized as an independent nation . Since then , the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy , which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non @-@ violent revolution .
The nation 's large population and economic potential have led it to be classified as a middle power . It is a founding member of the United Nations , World Trade Organization , Association of Southeast Asian Nations , the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation forum , and the East Asia Summit . It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank . The Philippines is considered to be an emerging market and a newly industrialized country , which has an economy transitioning from being one based on agriculture to one based more on services and manufacturing .
= = Etymology = =
The Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain . Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos during his expedition in 1542 named the islands of Leyte and Samar Felipinas after the then Prince of Asturias . Eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago . Before that became commonplace , other names such as Islas del Poniente ( Islands of the West ) and Magellan 's name for the islands San Lázaro were also used by the Spanish to refer to the islands .
The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history . During the Philippine Revolution , the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic . From the period of the Spanish – American War ( 1898 ) and the Philippine – American War ( 1899 – 1902 ) until the Commonwealth period ( 1935 – 46 ) , American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands , a translation of the Spanish name . From the 1898 Treaty of Paris , the name Philippines began to appear and it has since become the country 's common name . Since the end of World War II , the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
The metatarsal of the Callao Man , reliably dated by uranium @-@ series dating to 67 @,@ 000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date . This distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan , carbon @-@ dated to around 26 @,@ 500 years ago . Negritos were also among the archipelago 's earliest inhabitants , but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated .
There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos . F. Landa Jocano theorizes that the ancestors of the Filipinos evolved locally . Wilhelm Solheim 's Island Origin Theory postulates that the peopling of the archipelago transpired via trade networks originating in the Sundaland area around 48 @,@ 000 to 5000 BC rather than by wide @-@ scale migration . The Austronesian Expansion Theory postulates that Malayo @-@ Polynesians coming from Taiwan began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC , displacing earlier arrivals .
The most widely accepted theory , based on linguistic and archeological evidence , is the " Out @-@ of @-@ Taiwan " model , which hypothesizes that Austronesians from Taiwan , who were themselves descended from the neolithic civilizations of the Yangtze river such as the Liangzhu culture , began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC , displacing earlier arrivals . During the neolithic period , a " jade culture " is said to have existed as evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found in the Philippines dated to 2000 BC .
The jade is said to have originated nearby in Taiwan and is also found in many other areas in insular and mainland Southeast Asia . These artifacts are said to be evidence of long range communication between prehistoric Southeast Asian societies . By 1000 BC the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four kinds of social groups : hunter @-@ gatherer tribes , warrior societies , highland plutocracies , and port principalities .
= = = Precolonial epoch = = =
Some of the societies scattered in the islands of what would later become the Philippines remained isolated but many evolved into states that developed substantial trade and contacts with the peoples of eastern , southern and southeastern Asia ; including those from Brunei , China , India , Indonesia , Malaysia and Japan as well as other Austronesian islands .
The first millennium saw the rise of the port principalities and their growth into maritime states composed of autonomous barangays independent of or allied with larger nations which were either Malay thalassocracies led by Datus , tributary states to China ruled by Huangs or Indianized kingdoms governed by Rajahs .
The Kedatuan of Madja @-@ as was founded following a civil war in collapsing Srivijaya , wherein loyalists of the Malay datus of Srivijaya defied the invading Chola Dynasty and its puppet @-@ Rajah , called Makatunao , and set up a guerrilla @-@ state in the islands of the Visayas . Its founding datu , Puti , had purchased land for his new realms from the aboriginal Ati hero , Marikudo .
Madja @-@ as was founded on Panay island ( named after the destroyed state of Pannai allied under Srivijaya which was located in Sumatra ) . Afterwards , the people of Madja @-@ as often raided the port cities of southern China and warred with the Chinese navy .
The Rajahnate of Cebu was a neighbor of Madja @-@ as in the Visayas led by Rajamuda Sri Lumay , a monarch with partial Tamil descent . This state grew wealthy by making use of the inter @-@ island shipping routes within the archipelago .
Meanwhile , the Rajahnate of Butuan in northeastern Mindanao attained prominence under the rule of Rajah Sri Bata Shaja , who was from a Buddhist ruling @-@ class governing a Hindu nation . This state became powerful due to the local goldsmith industry and also maintained commercial ties and a diplomatic rivalry with the Champa civilization . Both the Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu maintained contact and traded with Kutai , a Hindu country in south Borneo established by Indian traders .
The Huangdom of Ma @-@ i centered in Mindoro , ruled by Huang Gat @-@ sa @-@ Lihan , was noted for its trust @-@ worthiness in trade .
In northern Luzon , the Huangdom of Pangasinan under Huang Taymey , exported horses and silver to China , the Kingdom of Ryukyu and Japan .
In central Luzon , the Kingdom of Tondo was ruled over by the Lakandula dynasty and the kingdom grew wealthy via the exclusive trading @-@ rights of Chinese goods which they marketed in southeast Asia . This was granted to them by the Ming Dynasty .
The 1300s saw the arrival and eventual spread of Islam in the Philippine archipelago . In 1380 , Karim ul ' Makdum and Shari 'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr , an Arab trader born in Johore , arrived in Sulu from Malacca and established the Sultanate of Sulu by converting Sulu 's rajah , Rajah Baguinda Ali and marrying his daughter . At the end of the 15th century , Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johor introduced Islam in the island of Mindanao and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao . The sultanate form of government extended further into Lanao .
Around this time , the people of Luzon were collectively called Lucoes and they rose to prominence by participating in trading ventures and military campaigns in Myanmar , Malacca and East Timor where they were employed as traders and mercenaries .
Islam then started to spread out of Mindanao in the south and went into Luzon in the north . Manila in Luzon was Islamized during the reign of Sultan Bolkiah in 1485 to 1521 . This was accomplished because the Bruneian Empire subjugated the Kingdom of Tondo by defeating Datu Gambang and installing the Muslim Rajah , Rajah Sulaiman I to the throne and by establishing the Bruneian puppet @-@ state of the Kingdom of Maynila . Sultan Bolkiah also married Laila Mecana , the daughter of Sulu Sultan Amir Ul @-@ Ombra to expand Brunei 's influence in both Luzon and Mindanao .
Nevertheless , states like the animist Igorot , Malay Madja @-@ as , Sinified Ma @-@ i , and Indianized Butuan still maintained their cultures . The rivalries between the datus , rajahs , huangs , sultans , and lakans eventually eased Spanish colonization . Furthermore , the islands were sparsely populated due to consistent natural disasters and inter @-@ kingdom conflicts . Therefore , colonization was made easy and the small states of the archipelago quickly became incorporated into the Spanish Empire and were Hispanicized and Christianized .
= = = Colonial era = = =
In 1521 , Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan 's expedition arrived in the Philippines , claimed the islands for Spain and was then killed at the Battle of Mactan . Colonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first Hispanic settlements in Cebu . After relocating to Panay island and consolidating a coalition of native Visayan allies and Hispanic soldiers , the Spaniards then captured Islamic Manila , therein they put down the Tondo Conspiracy and exiled the conspirators to Guam and Guerrero . Under Spanish rule , they established Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies ( 1571 ) .
They also defeated the Chinese @-@ warlord Limahong . In response to the Islamic invasion of the Philippines , the Castilian War was waged against the Sultanate of Brunei and war was also waged against the Sultanate of Ternate and Tidore ( in response to Ternatan slaving and piracy against the Butuan Rajahnate and Bohol ) . Fortifications were also set up in Taiwan and the Maluku islands . These were abandoned and the soldiers withdrew back to the Philippines in order to re @-@ concentrate their military forces because of a threatened invasion by the Japan @-@ born Ming @-@ dynasty loyalist , Koxinga , ruler of the stronghold of Tungning . However , the invasion was aborted . Meanwhile , settlers were sent to the Pacific islands of Palau and the Marianas .
Spanish rule eventually contributed significantly to bringing political unity to the fragmented states of the archipelago . From 1565 to 1821 , the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and then was administered directly from Madrid after the Mexican War of Independence . The Manila galleons , the largest wooden ships ever built , were constructed in Bicol and Cavite . The Manila galleons were accompanied with a large naval escort as it traveled to and fro Manila and Acapulco . The galleons sailed once or twice a year , between the 16th and 19th centuries .
Trade introduced foodstuff such as maize , tomatoes , potatoes , chili peppers , chocolate and pineapples from Mexico and Peru . Within the Philippines , the Marquisate of Buglas was established and rule of it was awarded to Sebastian Elcano and his crew , the survivors of the first circumnavigation of the world , as well as his descendants . New towns were also created and Roman Catholic missionaries converted most of the lowland inhabitants to Christianity . They also founded schools , a university , hospitals and churches which were built along the Earthquake Baroque architectural style . The Spanish also decreed the introduction of free public schooling in 1863 . As a result of these policies the Philippine population increased exponentially .
During its rule , the Spanish quelled various indigenous revolts . There were several external military challenges from Chinese and Japanese pirates , the Dutch , the English and the Portuguese . Those challengers were fought @-@ off despite the hostile forces having encircled the Philippine archipelago in a crescent formed from Japan to Indonesia . British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 in an extension of the fighting of the Seven Years ' War . Spanish rule was restored following the 1763 Treaty of Paris . The Spanish – Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years . In the last quarter of the 19th century Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Moro Muslims in the Sulu Sultanate on Sulu formally recognised Spanish sovereignty .
In the 19th century , Philippine ports opened to world trade and shifts started occurring within Philippine society . Many Spaniards born in the Philippines ( criollos
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From mid @-@ 1942 through mid @-@ 1944 , the Filipino guerrilla resistance had been supplied and encouraged by U.S. Navy submarines and a few parachute drops , so that the guerrillas could harass the Japanese Army and take control of the rural jungle and mountainous areas – amounting to about half of the Philippine archipelago . While remaining loyal to the United States , many Filipinos hoped and believed that liberation from the Japanese would bring them freedom and their already @-@ promised independence .
Eventually , the largest naval battle in history , according to gross tonnage , the Battle of Leyte Gulf , occurred when the Allied Forces started the liberation of the Philippines from the Japanese Empire . Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945 . By the end of the war it is estimated that over a million Filipinos had died .
= = = Postcolonial period = = =
On October 24 , 1945 , the Philippines became one of the founding members of the United Nations and the following year , on July 4 , 1946 , it became recognized by the United States as independent , during the presidency of Manuel Roxas . Disgruntled remnants of the communist Hukbalahap continued to roam the countryside but were put down by President Elpidio Quirino 's successor Ramon Magsaysay . Magsaysay 's successor , Carlos P. Garcia initiated the Filipino First Policy , which was continued by Diosdado Macapagal , with celebration of Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12 , the date of Emilio Aguinaldo 's declaration , while furthering the claim on the eastern part of North Borneo .
In 1965 , Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos . Early in his presidency he initiated numerous infrastructure projects but was accused of massive corruption and embezzling billions of dollars in public funds . Nearing the end of his term , Marcos declared Martial Law on September 21 , 1972 . This period of his rule was characterized by political repression , censorship , and human rights violations but the US were steadfast in their support . His wife Imelda continued to live a lavish lifestyle as the majority of Filipinos remained in poverty .
On August 21 , 1983 , Marcos ' chief rival , opposition leader Benigno Aquino , Jr . , was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport . Marcos eventually called snap presidential elections in 1986 . Marcos was proclaimed the winner , but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent , leading to the People Power Revolution . Marcos and his allies fled to Hawaii and Aquino 's widow , Corazon Aquino was recognized as president .
= = = Contemporary history = = =
The return of democracy and government reforms beginning in 1986 were hampered by national debt , government corruption , coup attempts , disasters , a persistent communist insurgency , and a military conflict with Moro separatists . During Corazon Aquino 's administration , U.S. forces withdrew from the Philippines , due the rejection of the U.S. Bases Extension Treaty , and leading to the official transfer of Clark Air Base in November 1991 and Subic Bay to the government in December 1992 . The administration also faced a series of natural disasters , including the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 . After introducing a constitution that limited presidents to a single term , Aquino did not stand for re @-@ election .
Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos , who won the Philippine presidential election held in May 1992 . During this period , the economy was known as the " Tiger Economy in Asia " , with an average of 6 % GDP growth rate . However , the political stability and economic improvements , such as the peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front in 1996 , were overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis . On his Presidency the death penalty was revived in the light of the Rape @-@ slay case of Eileen Sarmienta and Allan Gomez in 1993 and the first person to be executed is Leo Echegaray in 1999 .
Ramos ' successor , Joseph Estrada assumed office in June 1998 and managed to regain the economy from − 0 @.@ 6 % growth to 3 @.@ 4 % by 1999 amidst the 1997 Asian financial crisis . The government had announced a war against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front in March 2000 and neutralized the camps including the headquarters of the insurgents . In the middle of ongoing conflict with the Abu Sayyaf , accusations of alleged corruption , and a stalled impeachment process , Estrada 's administration was overthrown by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and succeeded by his Vice President , Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo on January 20 , 2001 .
In Arroyo 's 9 @-@ year administration , The economy experienced GDP growth from 4 % in 2002 to 7 % growth in 2007 with the completion of infrastructure projects like the LRT Line 2 in 2004 and managed to avoid the Great Recession . Nevertheless , it was tied with graft and political scandals like the Hello Garci scandal pertaining to the alleged manipulation of votes in the 2004 presidential elections . On November 23 , 2009 , the Maguindanao massacre led to the murder of 34 journalists .
Benigno Aquino III won the 2010 national elections and served as the 15th President of the Philippines . He was the third youngest person to be elected president and the first to be a bachelor . , beginning with the 2010 Manila hostage crisis that caused deeply strained relations between Manila and Hong Kong for a time . During the previous years , The Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro was signed on October 15 , 2012 , as the first step of the creation of an autonomous political entity named Bangsamoro . However , territorial disputes in eastern Sabah and the South China Sea have escalated . The economy performed well at 7 @.@ 2 % GDP growth , the second fastest in Asia . Aquino signed the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 , commonly known as K – 12 program in May 15 , 2013 aiming to enhance the educational system in the country . On November 8 , 2013 , Typhoon Yolanda ( Haiyan ) struck and heavily devastated the country , especially in the Visayas . On April 28 , 2014 , when United States President Barack Obama visited the Philippines , the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement , was signed . From January 15 to 19 , 2015 , January 15 to 19 , 2015 , Pope Francis stayed in the Philippines for a series of publicity tours and paid visits to the victims of Typhoon Haiyan ( Yolanda ) . On January 25 , 2015 , 44 members of the Philippine National Police @-@ Special Action Force were killed after a clash took place in Mamasapano , Maguindanao putting efforts to pass the Bangsamoro Basic Law into law in an impasse . On December 20 , 2015 , Pia Wurtzbach won the Miss Universe 2015 , making her the third Filipino to win the Miss Universe title following Gloria Diaz in 1969 and Margarita Moran in 1973 . On January 12 , 2016 , the Philippine Supreme Court upheld the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement paving the way for the return of United States Armed Forces bases into the country . On March 23 , 2016 , Diwata @-@ 1 was launched to the International Space Station ( ISS ) , becoming the country 's first micro @-@ satellite and the first satellite to be built and designed by Filipinos .
Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte of PDP – Laban won the 2016 presidential election becoming the first president from Mindanao . Camarines Sur representative Leni Robredo won the vice presidency . On July 12 , 2016 , the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in favor of the Philippines in its case against China 's claims in the South China Sea .
= = Politics = =
The Philippines has a democratic government in the form of a constitutional republic with a presidential system . It is governed as a unitary state with the exception of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao ( ARMM ) which is largely free from the national government . There have been attempts to change the government to a federal , unicameral , or parliamentary government since the Ramos administration .
The President functions as both head of state and head of government and is the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces . The president is elected by popular vote for a single six @-@ year term , during which he or she appoints and presides over the cabinet . The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate , serving as the upper house , with members elected to a six @-@ year term , and the House of Representatives , serving as the lower house , with members elected to a three @-@ year term .
Senators are elected at large while the representatives are elected from both legislative districts and through sectoral representation . The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court , composed of a Chief Justice as its presiding officer and fourteen associate justices , all of whom are appointed by the President from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
The Philippines ' international relations are based on trade with other nations and the well @-@ being of the 11 million overseas Filipinos living outside the country . As a founding and active member of the United Nations , the Philippines has been elected several times into the Security Council . Carlos P. Romulo was a former President of the United Nations General Assembly . The country is an active participant in the Human Rights Council as well as in peacekeeping missions , particularly in East Timor .
In addition to membership in the United Nations , the Philippines is also a founding and active member of ASEAN ( Association of Southeast Asian Nations ) , an organization designed to strengthen relations and promote economic and cultural growth among states in the
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successfully . The Philippines is the world 's second @-@ biggest geothermal producer behind the United States , with 18 % of the country 's electricity needs being met by geothermal power .
= = = Wildlife = = =
The Philippines ' rainforests and its extensive coastlines make it home to a diverse range of birds , plants , animals , and sea creatures . It is one of the ten most biologically megadiverse countries . Around 1 @,@ 100 land vertebrate species can be found in the Philippines including over 100 mammal species and 170 bird species not thought to exist elsewhere . The Philippines has among the highest rates of discovery in the world with sixteen new species of mammals discovered in the last ten years . Because of this , the rate of endemism for the Philippines has risen and likely will continue to rise .
The Philippines lacks large predators , with the exception of snakes , such as pythons and cobras , saltwater crocodiles and birds of prey , such as the national bird , known as the Philippine eagle , which scientists suggest as the largest eagle in the world . The largest crocodile in captivity , known locally as Lolong , was captured in the southern island of Mindanao .
Other native animals include the palm civet cat , the dugong , the cloud rat and the Philippine tarsier associated with Bohol . With an estimated 13 @,@ 500 plant species in the country , 3 @,@ 200 of which are unique to the islands , Philippine rainforests boast an array of flora , including many rare types of orchids and rafflesia .
Philippine maritime waters encompass as much as 2 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 849 @,@ 425 sq mi ) producing unique and diverse marine life , an important part of the Coral Triangle . The total number of corals and marine fish species was estimated at 500 and 2 @,@ 400 respectively . New records and species discoveries continuously increase these numbers underlining the uniqueness of the marine resources in the Philippines . The Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea was declared a World Heritage Site in 1993 . Philippine waters also sustain the cultivation of pearls , crabs , and seaweeds .
Deforestation , often the result of illegal logging , is an acute problem in the Philippines . Forest cover declined from 70 % of the Philippines 's total land area in 1900 to about 18 @.@ 3 % in 1999 . Many species are endangered and scientists say that Southeast Asia , which the Philippines is part of , faces a catastrophic extinction rate of 20 % by the end of the 21st century . According to Conservation International , " the country is one of the few nations that is , in its entirety , both a hotspot and a megadiversity country , placing it among the top priority hotspots for global conservation . "
= = = Climate = = =
The Philippines has a tropical maritime climate that is usually hot and humid . There are three seasons : tag @-@ init or tag @-@ araw , the hot dry season or summer from March to May ; tag @-@ ulan , the rainy season from June to November ; and tag @-@ lamig , the cool dry season from December to February . The southwest monsoon ( from May to October ) is known as the Habagat , and the dry winds of the northeast monsoon ( from November to April ) , the Amihan . Temperatures usually range from 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) to 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) although it can get cooler or hotter depending on the season . The coolest month is January ; the warmest is May .
The average yearly temperature is around 26 @.@ 6 ° C ( 79 @.@ 9 ° F ) . In considering temperature , location in terms of latitude and longitude is not a significant factor . Whether in the extreme north , south , east , or west of the country , temperatures at sea level tend to be in the same range . Altitude usually has more of an impact . The average annual temperature of Baguio at an elevation of 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) above sea level is 18 @.@ 3 ° C ( 64 @.@ 9 ° F ) , making it a popular destination during hot summers .
Sitting astride the typhoon belt , most of the islands experience annual torrential rains and thunderstorms from July to October , with around nineteen typhoons entering the Philippine area of responsibility in a typical year and eight or nine making landfall . Annual rainfall measures as much as 5 @,@ 000 millimeters ( 200 in ) in the mountainous east coast section but less than 1 @,@ 000 millimeters ( 39 in ) in some of the sheltered valleys . The wettest known tropical cyclone to impact the archipelago was the July 1911 cyclone , which dropped over 1 @,@ 168 millimeters ( 46 @.@ 0 in ) of rainfall within a 24 @-@ hour period in Baguio . Bagyo is the local term for a tropical cyclone in the Philippines .
= = Economy = =
The Philippine economy is the 39th largest in the world , with an estimated 2016 gross domestic product ( nominal ) of $ 369 @.@ 188 billion . Primary exports include semiconductors and electronic products , transport equipment , garments , copper products , petroleum products , coconut oil , and fruits . Major trading partners include the United States , Japan , China , Singapore , South Korea , the Netherlands , Hong Kong , Germany , Taiwan , and Thailand . Its unit of currency is the Philippine peso ( ₱ or PHP ) .
A newly industrialized country , the Philippine economy has been transitioning from one based upon agriculture to an economy with more emphasis upon services and manufacturing . Of the country 's total labor force of around 40 @.@ 813 Million , the agricultural sector employs 30 % of the labor force , and accounts for 14 % of GDP . The industrial sector employs around 14 % of the workforce and accounts for 30 % of GDP . Meanwhile , the 47 % of workers involved in the services sector are responsible for 56 % of GDP .
The unemployment rate as of 14 December 2014 , stands at 6 @.@ 0 % . Meanwhile , due to lower charges in basic necessities , the inflation rate eases to 3 @.@ 7 % in November . Gross international reserves as of October 2013 are $ 83 @.@ 201 billion . The Debt @-@ to @-@ GDP ratio continues to decline to 38 @.@ 1 % as of March 2014 from a record high of 78 % in 2004 . The country is a net importer but it is also a creditor nation .
After World War II , the Philippines was for a time regarded as the second wealthiest in East Asia , next only to Japan . In the 1960s its economic performance started being overtaken . The economy stagnated under the dictatorship of President Ferdinand Marcos as the regime spawned economic mismanagement and political volatility . The country suffered from slow economic growth and bouts of economic recession . Only in the 1990s with a program of economic liberalization did the economy begin to recover .
The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis affected the economy , resulting in a lingering decline of the value of the peso and falls in the stock market . The extent it was affected initially was not as severe as that of some of its Asian neighbors . This was largely due to the fiscal conservatism of the government , partly as a result of decades of monitoring and fiscal supervision from the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) , in comparison to the massive spending of its neighbors on the rapid acceleration of economic growth . There have been signs of progress since . In 2004 , the economy experienced 6 @.@ 4 % GDP growth and 7 @.@ 1 % in 2007 , its fastest pace of growth in three decades . Average annual GDP growth per capita for the period 1966 – 2007 still stands at 1 @.@ 45 % in comparison to an average of 5 @.@ 96 % for the East Asia and the Pacific region as a whole . The daily income for 45 % of the population of the Philippines remains less than $ 2 .
The economy is heavily reliant upon remittances from overseas filipinos , which surpass foreign direct investment as a source of foreign currency . Remittances peaked in 2010 at 10 @.@ 4 % of the national GDP , and were 8 @.@ 6 % in 2012 and in 2014 , Philippines total worth of foreign exchange remittances was US $ 28 billion . Regional development is uneven , with Luzon – Metro Manila in particular – gaining most of the new economic growth at the expense of the other regions , although the government has taken steps to distribute economic growth by promoting investment in other areas of the country . Despite constraints , service industries such as tourism and business process outsourcing have been identified as areas with some of the best opportunities for growth for the country .
Goldman Sachs includes the country in its list of the " Next Eleven " economies but China and India have emerged as major economic competitors . Goldman Sachs estimates that by the year 2050 , it will be the 20th largest economy in the world . HSBC also projects the Philippine economy to become the 16th largest economy in the world , 5th largest economy in Asia and the largest economy in the South East Asian region by 2050 . The Philippines is a member of the World Bank , the International Monetary Fund , the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , the Asian Development Bank which is headquartered in Mandaluyong , the Colombo Plan , the G @-@ 77 and the G @-@ 24 among other groups and institutions .
= = = Transportation = = =
The transportation infrastructure in the Philippines is relatively underdeveloped . This is partly due to the mountainous terrain and the scattered geography of the islands , but also the result of consistently low investment in infrastructure by successive governments . In 2013 , about 3 % of national GDP went towards infrastructure development - much lower than many of its neighbors . There are 213 @,@ 151 kilometers ( 132 @,@ 446 mi ) of roads in the Philippines , with only 25 @.@ 56 % of roads paved .
Under President Benigno Aquino III 's administration , various projects were initiated in an attempt to improve the country 's infrastructure and transportation systems . Buses , jeepneys , taxis , and motorized tricycles are commonly available in major cities and towns . In 2007 , there were about 5 @.@ 53 million registered motor vehicles with registrations increasing at an average annual rate of 4 @.@ 55 % .
The Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines manages airports and implementation of policies regarding safe air travel with 85 public airports currently operational . Ninoy Aquino International Airport ( NAIA ) serves the Greater Manila Area together with Clark International Airport . Philippine Airlines , Asia 's oldest commercial airline still operating under its original name , and Cebu Pacific , the leading low @-@ cost airline , are the major airlines serving most domestic and international destinations .
Expressways and highways are mostly located on the island of Luzon including the Pan @-@ Philippine Highway , connecting the islands of Luzon , Samar , Leyte , and Mindanao , the North Luzon Expressway , South Luzon Expressway , and the Subic – Clark – Tarlac Expressway .
Rail transport in the Philippines only plays a role in transporting passengers within Metro Manila . This area is served by three rapid transit lines : LRT @-@ 1 , and LRT @-@ 2 and MRT @-@ 3 . In the past , railways served major parts of Luzon , and railroad services were available on the islands of Cebu and Negros . Railways were also used for agricultural purposes , especially in tobacco and sugar cane production . Rail freight transportation is currently almost non @-@ existent . A few transportation systems are currently under development : DOST @-@ MIRDC and UP are implementing pre @-@ feasibility studies on Automated Guideway Transit . A so @-@ called Hybrid Electric Road Train which is a long bi @-@ articulated bus , was also being tested as of 2015 .
As an archipelago , inter @-@ island travel using watercraft is often necessary . The busiest seaports are Manila , Batangas , Subic , Cebu , Iloilo , Davao , Cagayan de Oro , and Zamboanga . 2GO Travel and Sulpicio Lines serve Manila , with links to various cities and towns through passenger vessels . The 919 @-@ kilometer ( 571 mi ) Strong Republic Nautical Highway ( SRNH ) , an integrated set of highway segments and ferry routes covering 17 cities was established in 2003 . The Pasig River Ferry Service serves the major rivers in Metro Manila , including the Pasig River and Marikina River having numerous stops in Manila , Makati , Mandaluyong , Pasig and Marikina .
= = = Science and technology = = =
The Philippines has pursued efforts to improve the field of science and technology . The Department of Science and Technology is the governing agency responsible for the development of coordination of science- and technology @-@ related projects in the Philippines . The National Scientist of the Philippines award is given to individuals that have contributed to different field of science in the country . Notable Filipino scientists include Maria Orosa , a food technologist famous for her formulated food products like calamansi nip , soyalac and the banana ketchup ,
Fe del Mundo , a pediatrician whose pioneering work in pediatrics as an active medical practice spanned 8 decades , Paulo Campos , a physician who was dubbed as " The Father of Nuclear Medicine in the Philippines " for his contributions in the field of nuclear medicine , Ramon Barba , an inventor and horticulturist known for his method to induce more flowers in mango trees .
Research organizations include the International Rice Research Institute , an international independent research and training organization established in 1960 with headquarters in Los Baños , Laguna , focusing on the development of new rice varieties and rice crop management techniques to help farmers in the country improve their lives . The Philippines bought its first satellite in 1996 . In 2016 , the Philippines first micro @-@ satellite , Diwata @-@ 1 was launched aboard the US Cygnus spacecraft .
= = = Communications = = =
The Philippines has a sophisticated cellular phone industry and a high concentration of users . Text messaging is a popular form of communication and , in 2007 , the nation sent an average of one billion SMS messages per day . Over five million mobile phone users also use their phones as virtual wallets , making it a leader among developing nations in providing financial transactions over cellular networks . The Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company commonly known as PLDT is the leading telecommunications provider . It is also the largest company in the country .
The National Telecommunications Commission is the agency responsible for the supervision , adjudication and control over all telecommunications services throughout the country . There are approximately 383 AM and 659 FM radio stations and 297 television and 873 cable television stations . On March 29 , 1994 , the country went live on the Internet via a 64 kbit / s connection from a router serviced by PLDT to a Sprint router in California . Estimates for Internet penetration in the Philippines vary widely ranging from a low of 2 @.@ 5 million to a high of 24 million people . Social networking and watching videos are among the most frequent Internet activities .
= = = Tourism = = =
The travel and tourism sector is a major contributor to the economy , contributing 7 @.@ 1 % to the Philippine GDP in 2013 and providing 1 @,@ 226 @,@ 500 jobs or 3 @.@ 2 percent of total employment . 2 @,@ 433 @,@ 428 international visitors arrived from January to June 2014 up by 2 @.@ 22 % in the same period in 2013 . South Korea , China , and Japan accounted for 58 @.@ 78 % while Americas accounted for 19 @.@ 28 % and Europe 10 @.@ 64 % . The Department of Tourism has responsibility for the management and promotion of the tourism sector .
The country 's rich biodiversity is one of the main tourist attractions with its beaches , mountains , rainforests , islands and diving spots among the most popular tourist destinations . As an archipelago consisting of about 7 @,@ 500 islands , the Philippines has numerous beaches , caves and other rock formations . Boracay has glaring white sand beaches and was named as the best island in the world by Travel + Leisure in 2012 . The Banaue Rice Terraces in Ifugao , the historic town of Vigan , the Chocolate Hills in Bohol , Magellan 's Cross in Cebu and the Tubbataha Reef in Visayas are other highlights .
= = = Hydrology = = =
Among the achievements of the government in the Philippines are a high access to an improved water source of 92 % in 2010 ; the creation of financially sustainable water service providers ( " Water Districts " ) in small and medium towns with the continuous long @-@ term support of a national agency ( the " Local Water Utilities Administration " LWUA ) ; and the improvement of access , service quality and efficiency in Manila through two high @-@ profle water concessions awarded in 1997 .
The challenges include limited access to sanitation services , high pollution of water resources , often poor drinking water quality and poor service quality , a fragmentation of executive functions at the national level among numerous agencies , and a fragmentation of service provision at the local level into many small service providers .
In 2015 it was reported by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation by WHO and UNICEF that 74 % of the population had access to improved sanitation and that " good progress " had been made . The access to improved sanitation was reported to be similar for the urban and rural population .
= = Demographics = =
The population of the Philippines increased from 1990 to 2008 by approximately 28 million , a 45 % growth in that time frame . The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1877 and recorded a population of 5 @,@ 567 @,@ 685 .
It is estimated that half of the population resides on the island of Luzon . The 3 @.@ 21 % population growth rate between 1995 and 2000 decreased to an estimated 1 @.@ 95 % for the 2005 – 2010 period , but remains a contentious issue . The population 's median age is 22 @.@ 7 years with 60 @.@ 9 % aged from 15 to 64 years old . Life expectancy at birth is 71 @.@ 94 years , 75 @.@ 03 years for females and 68 @.@ 99 years for males .
Since the liberalization of United States immigration laws in 1965 , the number of people in the United States having Filipino ancestry has grown substantially . In 2007 there were an estimated 12 million Filipinos living overseas .
According to the official count the population of the Philippines hit 100 million at the time of midnight on July 27 , 2014 , making it the 12th country to reach this number .
= = = Cities = = =
Metro Manila is the most populous of the 12 defined metropolitan areas in the Philippines and the 11th most populous in the world. as of 2007 , census data showed it had a population of 11 @,@ 553 @,@ 427 , comprising 13 % of the national population . Including suburbs in the adjacent provinces (
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.
To determine the age of a sample whose activity has been measured by beta counting , the ratio of its activity to the activity of the standard must be found . To determine this , a blank sample ( of old , or dead , carbon ) is measured , and a sample of known activity is measured . The additional samples allow errors such as background radiation and systematic errors in the laboratory setup to be detected and corrected for . The most common standard sample material is oxalic acid , such as the HOxII standard , 1 @,@ 000 lb of which was prepared by NIST in 1977 from French beet harvests .
The results from AMS testing are in the form of ratios of 12C , 13C , and 14C , which are used to calculate Fm , the " fraction modern " . This is defined as the ratio between the 14C / 12C ratio in the sample and the 14C / 12C ratio in modern carbon , which is in turn defined as the 14C / 12C ratio that would have been measured in 1950 had there been no fossil fuel effect .
Both beta counting and AMS results have to be corrected for fractionation . This is necessary because different materials of the same age , which because of fractionation have naturally different 14C / 12C ratios , will appear to be of different ages because the 14C / 12C ratio is taken as the indicator of age . To avoid this , all radiocarbon measurements are converted to the measurement that would have been seen had the sample been made of wood , which has a known δ13C value of − 25 ‰ .
Once the corrected 14C / 12C ratio is known , a " radiocarbon age " is calculated using :
<formula>
The calculation uses Libby 's half @-@ life of 5 @,@ 568 years , not the more accurate modern value of 5 @,@ 730 years . Libby ’ s value for the half @-@ life is used to maintain consistency with early radiocarbon testing results ; calibration curves include a correction for this , so the accuracy of final reported calendar ages is assured .
= = = Errors and reliability = = =
The reliability of the results can be improved by lengthening the testing time . For example , if counting beta decays for 250 minutes is enough to give an error of ± 80 years , with 68 % confidence , then doubling the counting time to 500 minutes will allow a sample with only half as much 14C to be measured with the same error term of 80 years .
Radiocarbon dating is generally limited to dating samples no more than 50 @,@ 000 years old , as samples older than that have insufficient 14C to be measurable . Older dates have been obtained by using special sample preparation techniques , large samples , and very long measurement times . These techniques can allow measurement of dates up to 60 @,@ 000 and in some cases up to 75 @,@ 000 years before the present .
Radiocarbon dates are generally presented with a range of one standard deviation ( usually represented by the Greek letter sigma as 1σ ) on either side of the mean . However , a date range of 1σ represents only 68 % confidence level , so the true age of the object being measured may lie outside the range of dates quoted . This was demonstrated in 1970 by an experiment run by the British Museum radiocarbon laboratory , in which weekly measurements were taken on the same sample for six months . The results varied widely ( though consistently with a normal distribution of errors in the measurements ) , and included multiple date ranges ( of 1σ confidence ) that did not overlap with each other . The measurements included one with a range from about 4250 to about 4390 years ago , and another with a range from about 4520 to about 4690 .
Errors in procedure can also lead to errors in the results . If 1 % of the benzene in a modern reference sample accidentally evaporates , scintillation counting will give a radiocarbon age that is too young by about 80 years .
= = = Calibration = = =
The calculations given above produce dates in radiocarbon years : i.e. dates that represent the age the sample would be if the 14C / 12C ratio had been constant historically . Although Libby had pointed out as early as 1955 the possibility that this assumption was incorrect , it was not until discrepancies began to accumulate between measured ages and known historical dates for artefacts that it became clear that a correction would need to be applied to radiocarbon ages to obtain calendar dates .
To produce a curve that can be used to relate calendar years to radiocarbon years , a sequence of securely dated samples is needed which can be tested to determine their radiocarbon age . The study of tree rings led to the first such sequence : individual pieces of wood show characteristic sequences of rings that vary in thickness because of environmental factors such as the amount of rainfall in a given year . These factors affect all trees in an area , so examining tree @-@ ring sequences from old wood allows the identification of overlapping sequences . In this way , an uninterrupted sequence of tree rings can be extended far into the past . The first such published sequence , based on bristlecone pine tree rings , was created by Wesley Ferguson . Hans Suess used this data to publish the first calibration curve for radiocarbon dating in 1967 . The curve showed two types of variation from the straight line : a long term fluctuation with a period of about 9 @,@ 000 years , and a shorter term variation , often referred to as " wiggles " , with a period of decades . Suess said he drew the line showing the wiggles by " cosmic schwung " , by which he meant that the variations were caused by extraterrestrial forces . It was unclear for some time whether the wiggles were real or not , but they are now well @-@ established . These short term fluctuations in the calibration curve are now known as de Vries effects , after Hessel de Vries .
A calibration curve is used by taking the radiocarbon date reported by a laboratory , and reading across from that date on the vertical axis of the graph . The point where this horizontal line intersects the curve will give the calendar age of the sample on the horizontal axis . This is the reverse of the way the curve is constructed : a point on the graph is derived from a sample of known age , such as a tree ring ; when it is tested , the resulting radiocarbon age gives a data point for the graph .
Over the next thirty years many calibration curves were published using a variety of methods and statistical approaches . These were superseded by the INTCAL series of curves , beginning with INTCAL98 , published in 1998 , and updated in 2004 , 2009 , and 2013 . The improvements to these curves are based on new data gathered from tree rings , varves , coral , plant macrofossils , speleothems , and foraminifera . The INTCAL13 data includes separate curves for the northern and southern hemispheres , as they differ systematically because of the hemisphere effect ; there is also a separate marine calibration curve . For a set of samples with a known sequence and separation in time such as a sequence of tree rings , the samples ' radiocarbon ages form a small subset of the calibration curve . The resulting curve can then be matched to the actual calibration curve by identifying where , in the range suggested by the radiocarbon dates , the wiggles in the calibration curve best match the wiggles in the curve of sample dates . This " wiggle @-@ matching " technique can lead to more precise dating than is possible with individual radiocarbon dates . Wiggle @-@ matching can be used in places where there is a plateau on the calibration curve , and hence can provide a much more accurate date than the intercept or probability methods are able to produce . The technique is not restricted to tree rings ; for example , a stratified tephra sequence in New Zealand , known to predate human colonization of the islands , has been dated to 1314 AD ± 12 years by wiggle @-@ matching . The wiggles also mean that reading a date from a calibration curve can give more than one answer : this occurs when the curve wiggles up and down enough that the radiocarbon age intercepts the curve in more than one place , which may lead to a radiocarbon result being reported as two separate age ranges , corresponding to the two parts of the curve that the radiocarbon age intercepted .
Bayesian statistical techniques can be applied when there are several radiocarbon dates to be calibrated . For example , if a series of radiocarbon dates is taken from different levels in a given stratigraphic sequence , Bayesian analysis can help determine if some of the dates should be discarded as anomalies , and can use the information to improve the output probability distributions . When Bayesian analysis was introduced , its use was limited by the need to use mainframe computers to perform the calculations , but the technique has since been implemented on programs available for personal computers , such as OxCal .
= = = Reporting dates = = =
Several formats for citing radiocarbon results have been used since the first samples were dated . As of 2014 , the standard format required by the journal Radiocarbon is as follows .
Uncalibrated dates should be reported as " < laboratory > : < 14C year > ± < range > BP " , where :
< laboratory > identifies the laboratory that tested the sample , and the sample ID
< 14C year > is the laboratory 's determination of the age of the sample , in radiocarbon years
< range > is the laboratory 's estimate of the error in the age , at 1σ confidence .
BP stands for " before present " , referring to a reference date of 1950 , so that 500 BP means the year 1450 AD .
For example , the uncalibrated date " UtC @-@ 2020 : 3510 ± 60 BP " indicates that the sample was tested by the Utrecht van der Graaf Laboratorium , where it has a sample number of 2020 , and that the uncalibrated age is 3510 years before present , ± 60 years . Related forms are sometimes used : for example , " 10 ka BP " means 10 @,@ 000 radiocarbon years before present ( i.e. 8 @,@ 050 BC ) , and 14C yr BP might be used to distinguish the uncalibrated date from a date derived from another dating method such as thermoluminescence .
Calibrated 14C dates are frequently reported as cal BP , cal BC , or cal AD , again with BP referring to the year 1950 as the zero date . Radiocarbon gives two options for reporting calibrated dates . A common format is " cal < date @-@ range > < confidence > " , where :
< date @-@ range > is the range of dates corresponding to the given confidence level
< confidence > indicates the confidence level for the given date range .
For example , " cal 1220 – 1281 AD ( 1σ ) " means a calibrated date for which the true date lies between 1220 AD and 1281 AD , with the confidence level given as 1σ , or one standard deviation . Calibrated dates can also be expressed as BP instead of using BC and AD . The curve used to calibrate the results should be the latest available INTCAL curve . Calibrated dates should also identify any programs , such as OxCal , used to perform the calibration . In addition , an article in Radiocarbon in 2014 about radiocarbon date reporting conventions recommends that information should be provided about sample treatment , including the sample material , pretreatment methods , and quality control measurements ; that the citation to the software used for calibration should specify the version number and any options or models used ; and that the calibrated date should be given with the associated probabilities for each range .
= = Use in archaeology = =
= = = Interpretation = = =
A key concept in interpreting radiocarbon dates is archaeological association : what is the true relationship between two or more objects at an archaeological site ? It frequently happens that a sample for radiocarbon dating can be taken directly from the object of interest , but there are also many cases where this is not possible . Metal grave goods , for example , cannot be radiocarbon dated , but they may be found in a grave with a coffin , charcoal , or other material which can be assumed to have been deposited at the same time . In these cases a date for the coffin or charcoal is indicative of the date of deposition of the grave goods , because of the direct functional relationship between the two . There are also cases where there is no functional relationship , but the association is reasonably strong : for example , a layer of charcoal in a rubbish pit provides a date which has a relationship to the rubbish pit .
Contamination is of particular concern when dating very old material obtained from archaeological excavations and great care is needed in the specimen selection and preparation . In 2014 , Tom Higham and co @-@ workers suggested that many of the dates published for Neanderthal artefacts are too recent because of contamination by " young carbon " .
As a tree grows , only the outermost tree ring exchanges carbon with its environment , so the age measured for a wood sample depends on where the sample is taken from . This means that radiocarbon dates on wood samples can be older than the date at which the tree was felled . In addition , if a piece of wood is used for multiple purposes , there may be a significant delay between the felling of the tree and the final use in the context in which it is found . This is often referred to as the " old wood " problem . One example is the Bronze Age trackway at Withy Bed Copse , in England ; the trackway was built from wood that had clearly been worked for other purposes before being re @-@ used in the trackway . Another example is driftwood , which may be used as construction material . It is not always possible to recognize re @-@ use . Other materials can present the same problem : for example , bitumen is known to have been used by some Neolithic communities to waterproof baskets ; the bitumen 's radiocarbon age will be greater than is measurable by the laboratory , regardless of the actual age of the context , so testing the basket material will give a misleading age if care is not taken . A separate issue , related to re @-@ use , is that of lengthy use , or delayed deposition . For example , a wooden object that remains in use for a lengthy period will have an apparent age greater than the actual age of the context in which it is deposited .
= = = Notable applications = = =
= = = = Pleistocene / Holocene boundary in Two Creeks Fossil Forest = = = =
The Pleistocene is a geological epoch that began about 2 @.@ 6 million years ago . The Holocene , the current geological epoch , begins about 11 @,@ 700 years ago , when the Pleistocene ends . Establishing the date of this boundary − which is defined by sharp climatic warming − as accurately as possible has been a goal of geologists for much of the 20th century . At Two Creeks , in Wisconsin , a fossil forest was discovered ( Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area ) , and subsequent research determined that the destruction of the forest was caused by the Valders ice readvance , the last southward movement of ice before the end of the Pleistocene in that area . Before the advent of radiocarbon dating , the fossilized trees had been dated by correlating sequences of annually deposited layers of sediment at Two Creeks with sequences in Scandinavia . This led to estimates that the trees were between 24 @,@ 000 and 19 @,@ 000 years old , and hence this was taken to be the date of the last advance of the Wisconsin glaciation before its final retreat marked the end of the Pleistocene in North America . In 1952 Libby published radiocarbon dates for several samples from the Two Creeks site and two similar sites nearby ; the dates were averaged to 11 @,@ 404 BP with a standard error of 350 years . This result was uncalibrated , as the need for calibration of radiocarbon ages was not yet understood . Further results over the next decade supported an average date of 11 @,@ 350 BP , with the results thought to be most accurate averaging 11 @,@ 600 BP . There was initial resistance to these results on the part of Ernst Antevs , the palaeobotanist who had worked on the Scandinavian varve series , but his objections were eventually discounted by other geologists . In the 1990s samples were tested with AMS , yielding ( uncalibrated ) dates ranging from 11 @,@ 640 BP to 11 @,@ 800 BP , both with a standard error of 160 years . Subsequently a sample from the fossil forest was used in an interlaboratory test , with results provided by over 70 laboratories . These tests produced a median age of 11 @,@ 788 ± 8 BP ( 2σ confidence ) which when calibrated gives a date range of 13 @,@ 730 to 13 @,@ 550 cal BP . The Two Creeks radiocarbon dates are now regarded as a key result in developing the modern understanding of North American glaciation at the end of the Pleistocene .
= = = = Dead Sea Scrolls = = = =
In 1947 , scrolls were discovered in caves near the Dead Sea that proved to contain writing in Hebrew and Aramaic , most of which are thought to have been produced by the Essenes , a small Jewish sect . These scrolls are of great significance in the study of Biblical texts because many of them contain the earliest known version of books of the Hebrew bible . A sample of the linen wrapping from one of these scrolls , the Great Isaiah Scroll , was included in a 1955 analysis by Libby , with an estimated age of 1 @,@ 917 ± 200 years . Based on an analysis of the writing style , palaeographic estimates were made of the age of 21 of the scrolls , and samples from most of these , along with other scrolls which had not been palaeographically dated , were tested by two AMS laboratories in the 1990s . The results ranged in age from the early 4th century BC to the mid 4th century AD . In many cases the scrolls were determined to be older than the palaeographically determined age . The Isaiah scroll was included in the testing and was found to have two possible date ranges at a 2σ confidence level , because of the shape of the calibration curve at that point : there is a 15 % chance that it dates from 355 − 295 BC , and an 84 % chance that it dates from 210 − 45 BC . Subsequently these dates were criticized on the grounds that before the scrolls were tested , they had been treated with modern castor oil in order to make the writing easier to read ; it was argued that failure to remove the castor oil sufficiently would have caused the dates to be too young . Multiple papers have been published both supporting and opposing the criticism .
= = = Impact = = =
Soon after the publication of Libby 's 1949 paper in Science , universities around the world began establishing radiocarbon @-@ dating laboratories , and by the end of the 1950s there were more than 20 active 14C research laboratories . It quickly became apparent that the principles of radiocarbon dating were valid , despite certain discrepancies , the causes of which then remained unknown .
The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology - often described as the " radiocarbon revolution " . In the words of anthropologist R. E. Taylor , " 14C data made a world prehistory possible by contributing a time scale that transcends local , regional and continental boundaries " . It provides more accurate dating within sites than previous methods , which usually derived either from stratigraphy or from typologies ( e.g. of stone tools or pottery ) ; it also allows comparison and synchronization of events across great distances . The advent of radiocarbon dating may even have led to better field methods in archaeology , since better data recording leads to firmer association of objects with the samples to be tested . These improved field methods were sometimes motivated by attempts to prove that a 14C date was incorrect . Taylor also suggests that the availability of definite date information freed archaeologists from the need to focus so much of their energy on determining the dates of their finds , and led to an expansion of the questions archaeologists were willing to research . For example , from the 1970s questions about the evolution of human behaviour were much more frequently seen in archaeology .
The dating framework provided by radiocarbon led to a change in the prevailing view of how innovations spread through prehistoric Europe . Researchers had previously thought that many ideas spread by diffusion through the continent , or by invasions of peoples bringing new cultural ideas with them . As radiocarbon dates began to prove these ideas wrong in many instances , it became apparent that these innovations must sometimes have arisen locally . This has been described as a " second radiocarbon revolution " , and with regard to British prehistory , archaeologist Richard Atkinson has characterized the impact of radiocarbon dating as " radical ... therapy " for the " progressive disease of invasionism " . More broadly , the success of radiocarbon dating stimulated interest in analytical and statistical approaches to archaeological data . Taylor has also described the impact of AMS , and the ability to obtain accurate measurements from very small samples , as ushering in a third radiocarbon revolution .
Occasionally , radiocarbon dating techniques date an object of popular interest , for example the Shroud of Turin , a piece of linen cloth thought by some to bear an image of Jesus Christ after his crucifixion . Three separate laboratories dated samples of linen from the Shroud in 1988 ; the results pointed to 14th @-@ century origins , raising doubts about the shroud 's authenticity as an alleged 1st @-@ century relic .
Researchers have studied other radioactive isotopes created by cosmic rays to determine if they could also be used to assist in dating objects of archaeological interest ; such isotopes include 3He , 10Be , 21Ne , 26Al , and 36Cl . With the development of AMS in the 1980s it became possible to measure these isotopes precisely enough for them to be the basis of useful dating techniques , which have been primarily applied to dating rocks . Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes can also form the basis of dating methods , as with potassium – argon dating , argon – argon dating , and uranium series dating . Other dating techniques of interest to archaeologists include thermoluminescence , optically stimulated luminescence , electron spin resonance , and fission track dating , as well as techniques that depend on annual bands or layers , such as dendrochronology , tephrochronology , and varve chronology .
= Oroville Dam =
Oroville Dam is an earthfill embankment dam on the Feather River east of the city of Oroville , California in the United States . At 770 feet ( 230 m ) high , it is the tallest dam in the U.S. and serves mainly for water supply , hydroelectricity generation and flood control . The dam impounds Lake Oroville , the second largest man @-@ made lake in the state of California , capable of storing more than 3 @.@ 5 million acre @-@ feet ( 4 @.@ 4 km3 ) , and is located in the Sierra Nevada foothills east of the Sacramento Valley .
Built by the California Department of Water Resources ( DWR ) , Oroville Dam is one of the key features of the California State Water Project ( SWP ) , one of two major projects passed that set up California 's statewide water system . Construction was initiated in 1961 , and despite numerous difficulties encountered during its construction , including multiple floods and a major train wreck on the rail line used to transport materials to the dam site , the embankment was topped out in 1967 and the entire project was ready for use in 1968 . The dam began to generate electricity after completion of the Edward Hyatt Pump @-@ Generating Plant , then the country 's largest underground power station .
Since its completion in 1968 , the Oroville Dam has allocated the flow of the Feather River from the Sacramento @-@ San Joaquin Delta into the State Water Project 's California Aqueduct , which provides a major supply of water for irrigation in the San Joaquin Valley as well as municipal and industrial water supplies to coastal Southern California , and has prevented large amounts of flood damage to the area – more than $ 1 @.@ 3 billion between the years of 1987 and 1999 . The dam has confined fish migration up the Feather River and the controlled flow of the river as a result of the Oroville Dam has affected riparian habitat . Multiple aims at trying to counter the dam 's impacts on anadromous fish have included the construction of a salmon / steelhead incubator on the river which began shortly after the dam was completed .
= = History = =
In 1935 , work began on the Central Valley Project ( CVP ) , a federal water project that would develop the Sacramento and San Joaquin river systems for irrigation of the highly fertile Central Valley . However , after the end of World War II in 1945 , the state experienced an economic boom that led to rapid urban and commercial growth in the central and southern portions of the state , and it became clear that California 's economy could not depend solely on a state water system geared primarily towards agriculture . A new study of California 's water supplies by the Division of Water Resources ( now California Department of Water Resources , DWR ) was carried out under an act of the California State Legislature in 1945 .
In 1951 , California State Engineer A.D. Edmonston proposed the Feather River Project , the direct predecessor to the SWP , which included a major dam on the Feather River at Oroville , and aqueducts and pumping plants to transfer stored water to destinations in central and southern California . The proposed project was strongly opposed by voters in Northern California and parts of Southern California that received water from the Colorado River , but was supported by other Southern Californians and San Joaquin Valley farmers . However , major flooding in the 1950s prompted the 1957 passage of an emergency flood @-@ control bill that provided sufficient funding for construction for a dam at Oroville , whether it would be part of the SWP or not . Groundbreaking on the dam site occurred in May 1957 with the relocation of the Western Pacific Railroad tracks that ran through the Feather River canyon . The Burns @-@ Porter Act , which authorized the SWP , was not passed until November 8 , 1960 – and only by a slim margin . Engineer Donald Thayer of the DWR was commissioned to design and head construction of Oroville Dam , and the primary work contract was awarded to Oro Dam Constructors Inc . , a joint venture led by Oman Construction Co .
Two concrete @-@ lined diversion tunnels , each 4 @,@ 400 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) long and 35 feet ( 11 m ) in diameter , were excavated to channel the Feather River around the dam site . One of the tunnels was located at river level and would carry normal water flows , while the second one would only be used during floods . In May 1963 , workers poured the last of 252 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 193 @,@ 000 m3 ) of concrete that comprised the 128 @-@ foot ( 39 m ) high cofferdam , which would protect the construction site from floods . This structure would later serve as an impervious core for the completed dam . With the cofferdam in place , an 11 @-@ mile ( 18 km ) rail line was constructed to move earth and rock to the dam site . An average of 120 train cars ran along the line each hour , transporting fill that was mainly excavated from enormous piles of hydraulic mining debris that were washed down by the Feather River after the California Gold Rush .
On December 22 , 1964 , disaster nearly struck when the Feather River , after days of heavy rain , reached
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open Dale 's abdomen and mortally wounds him . Upon arrival , the walker is dispatched by Daryl , but the group is distraught over Dale 's condition . Carl is shocked to see that the walker that injured Dale was the same one he encountered earlier in the forest . Hershel informs Rick that Dale 's injuries are too severe and he will not survive . The group comes to a quick and grievous consensus , as Rick prepares to shoot Dale in the head but is unable . Daryl takes the revolver and delivers the final shot to end Dale 's suffering .
= = Production = =
" Judge , Jury , Executioner " was directed by Greg Nicotero and written by Angela Kang . The episode became Nicotero 's first directing credit for a full @-@ length television episode of the series ; he had previously conceived and directed the six @-@ part web series The Walking Dead : Torn Apart . As part of a promotional campaign , cast member Norman Reedus participated in a live chat on Entertainment Weekly coinciding with the airing of " Judge , Jury , Executioner " .
This episode addresses the death of Dale Horvath , who is attacked and ripped open by a walker . Since writer Robert Kirkman felt that Dale epitomized a character of morality and humanity , much of " Judge , Jury , Executioner " explores themes related to the declining morality of individuals during a catastrophic event . Kirkman proclaimed that Dale 's death was a momentous occasion , ultimately marking a turning point for future development of The Walking Dead . " Dale 's character has been the heart and soul of the show , " he iterated . " He 's definitely the moral compass . He ’ s the guy that , more so than anyone , has been warning people to be careful how you let this world change you and monitoring what lengths people are going to survive . His loss is going to mean a great deal for all the characters in the show and is definitely going to represent a turn to a darker space . His death means a lot . " Kirkman added that it was difficult to release DeMunn from the cast . He stated : " It ’ s heartbreaking to lose Jeffrey DeMunn . He 's really given us a lot , these last two seasons on the show . It 's been amazing to work with him and get to know him and he ’ s an awesome dude and we ’ re definitely going to miss him . "
In contrast to his role in the television series , Dale 's comic book counterpart is among the longest surviving characters in the series , and he enters into a sexual relationship with Andrea . Kirkman asserted that it was necessary for writers to distance the development of Dale 's television character from that in the comic : " I have talked many times how much I like the difference between the comics and the show . There are going to be big plot lines that we may not necessarily get to , like the romance between Dale and Andrea . If you think you really want to read that story line , that 's available in the comics , and I highly recommend you pick those up . The show is always going to be a different animal and the decision to kill Dale off was a big one and it wasn 't one that was made lightly . "
As a visibly distraught Rick hesitates to shoot Dale , Daryl takes the gun and inevitably shoots Dale in the head . Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter suggested that producers were subtly building up prior to the moment . Kirkman felt this marked Daryl 's place in the group and was closure for the deceased Sophia Peletier , whose death caused Daryl to pull away from interacting with the group . Kirkman iterated that such actions were the testaments of his " putting everything on the line and opening himself up in a way he had never done before because his childhood was so messed up . " ; " So when he found out she was dead and in the barn all the time , that 's why he retreated and separated himself from the group . It was because he allowed himself to care and it just backfired on him in a big way . He didn 't want to be a part of the group and have those emotions and care about these people . So he 's been distancing himself from them up until this point , and now he 's seeing that these people need him and that he can fill a role and in being that harsh distant guy , you can do the things that no one else wants to do . He wants to step in and take that burden away from Rick for a moment . Rick is the one who stepped up and shot Sophia . Daryl saw that and because of his pain over the loss of Sophia he couldn 't do that . But when he sees Rick hesitate to do the same thing with Dale he knows : this is my moment , this is where I can prove my worth , and he steps in and does what he needs to do . "
In " Judge , Jury , Executioner " , Carl evolves into a desensitized character and ultimately relinquishes his naïveté to the world around him . Although Entertainment Weekly writer Clark Collis drew parallels to a serial killer , Kirkman suggested this was an initiative to give more screen time to the character . He avouched that Carl was " one of the most fun characters to tell stories about in this world . " He continued : " It 's true of the comic and it 's true of the show . Over time , we ’ re going to start to see more and more of this kid . What 's awesome about that is , think about what it would be like to grow up in this world . It 's one thing to have everything you know taken away from you and have to deal with this s — y world you now have to live in . But to have barely even really recognized what the world is and how it works and what to expect and then to be thrust into this apocalyptic threat and to grow up and mature with these kinds of situations . It 's going to make him grow up weird , is what I like to say . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Judge , Jury , Executioner " was originally broadcast on March 4 , 2012 in the United States on AMC . Upon airing , the episode garnered 6 @.@ 771 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . This indicates that 3 @.@ 5 % of people from the demographic viewed the episode . It became the highest @-@ rated cable telecast of the day , attaining significantly higher ratings than that of Storage Wars on A & E Television and Real Housewives of Atlanta on Bravo . Similarly , the episode outperformed all cable television programs during the week dated March 4 . Total viewership and ratings declined moderately from the previous installment , " 18 Miles Out " , which obtained 7 @.@ 04 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Judge , Jury , Executioner " was lauded by television critics . Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald called it an " incredible episode " ; " Walking Dead again proves it is one of the best dramas on TV and almost makes me feel good about paying my cable bill . " Writing for the San Antonio Express @-@ News , Rene Guzman opined that it " delivers all that messy drama in spades with a true gut @-@ wrenching end to one of the series ’ core characters " . Wetpaint 's Molly Friedman stated that in " Judge , Jury , Executioner " , the audience " finally had a reason to shed some tears and remember just how much we care about the original gang of apocalyptic misfits " . Kevin Yeoman of The Christian Science Monitor and E ! Online journalist Tierney Bricker concluded that the episode managed to effectively surprise the audience , while Cyriaque Lamar of io9 declared that " Judge , Jury , Executioner " was inferior to its predecessor by writing that it " served up a bunch of quasi @-@ entertaining scenes of people arguing and capped them off with one of the most accidentally funny closers ever committed to basic cable " . In his B + review , Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club said that the episode continued the series ' path of a more focused and central direction . Josh Jackson of Paste was intrigued with the series ' exploration of morality during an apocalyptic event in " Judge , Jury , Executioner " . Eric Goldman of IGN was much more pessimistic about the episode than the general consensus . In his 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating review , he called it " especially dull " when compared to the previous installment .
Dale 's death was adulated by commentators , who affirmed that it was a gruesome and emotional scene . Scott Meslow of The Atlantic suggested that because of his death , The Walking Dead embraced a more dark and sinister philosophy . He asserted , " Taken broadly , his death marks the death of a certain morality on the show , and the embrace of a philosophy that 's something crueler and darker . Dale , unlike any of the other survivors , maintained his humanity to the very end of his waking life — but even he couldn 't choose not to come back as something amoral and inhuman . In a world that seems utterly incapable of getting better , it 's a none @-@ too @-@ reassuring sign that things will almost certainly get worse . " Gina McIntyre of Los Angeles Times echoed synonymous thoughts : " It 's left to Daryl to shoot the man to end his suffering , which is profoundly too bad . Without Dale to raise all those nagging concerns about doing what 's right , zombie apocalypse or no zombie apocalypse , I fear for the future of this walker @-@ infested world . " Handlen and Calgary Herald 's Kimberly Potts thought that it was among the shocking moments in the series , while Friedman expressed that she was " riveted by the awesome attack [ ... ] and filled with sadness , as the original gang watched their friend die a slow and painful death " . Handlen remarked : " It ’ s a shocking scene , partially for its straight @-@ forward gore , and partially for the astonished , uncomprehending expression on Dale ’ s face . [ ... ] This , right here , is the kind of sequence the show needs . There ’ s too little sense of danger right now . " Verne Gay of Newsday described the sequence as " violent " , and ultimately summated that DeMunn 's absence will be felt as the show progresses . However , Lamar professed that the writers should have written off Dale in a more respectable way ; " That wasn 't the way to off the show 's most annoyingly sane character . Dale 's redeeming quality was his ability to guilt everybody into paying lip service to rule of law ; his weakness was his naïveté . Having an escaping Randall kill him would 've offered some poetic symmetry . I 'm not going to miss this character , but he deserved a better send @-@ off . " Time journalist Nate Rawlings drew allusions from Dale 's attack to the episode title , commenting that " when the lone zombie we see in this episode tears open Dale ’ s stomach , spilling the contents of his body onto the cold ground , we ’ re reminded that the walkers are the judges , they ’ re the jury , and this particular one was a most brutal executioner . " Although he was shocked by the sequence , Goldman assailed the earlier development of Dale in the episode , opining that he was obnoxious .
Handlen felt that the character development of Carl Grimes was more stable than similar developments in the episode ; " Using Carl to both resolve the episode ’ s plot , and making him semi @-@ responsible for Dale ’ s death , has a satisfying neatness , and serves as a reminder that for all their talk , Rick and the group have no idea what impact their choices will make . " Likewise , Jackson and Ryan Rigley of MTV noticed the darker transition of the character ; " Carl 's moral compass has greatly shifted since being shot and seeing the walking corpse of his friend , Sophia , " asserted Rigley . Jackson concluded that it was one of the episode highlights , writing , " He awakened from his coma talking about the beautiful doe , but ever since the dead body of Sophia limped its way out of that barn door , he 's become colder and harder . When Carol sees him at Sophia ’ s gravesite , she tries to comfort him with talk of heaven , and he calls her an idiot . He 's looking to emulate the men leading the group — the different kinds of toughness displayed by his father , Shane and Daryl . And he finds the chance to test his own bravery , playing near a zombie stuck in the mud by the creek , keeping the discovery to himself . " Jackson commented on Carl 's reaction to the death of Dale , saying that despite a gradual change to a dark nature , he " realizes [ ... ] that he 's still very much a kid " .
= 1983 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1983 Pacific hurricane season was the longest season ever recorded at that time . The 1983 Pacific hurricane season started on May 15 , 1983 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 , 1983 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1983 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . During the 1983 season , there were 21 named storms , which was slightly less than the previous season . Furthermore , eight storms reached major hurricane status , or Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) . The decaying 1982 @-@ 83 El Niño event likely contributed to this level of activity . That same El Niño influenced a very quiet Atlantic hurricane season .
The first storm of the season , Hurricane Adolph became the southernmost @-@ forming east Pacific tropical cyclone on record after forming at a latitude of 7 @.@ 1 ° N. After a slow start , activity picked up in July , when Hurricane Gil moved through the Hawaiian Islands , resulting in moderate damage . In early August , Hurricane Ismael was responsible for three deaths and $ 19 million ( 1983 USD ) in damage . During early September , Hurricanes Kiko and Lorena brought significant damage and seven deaths to southern Mexico . About a month later , Tropical Storm Octave became the worst tropical cyclone on record to affect Arizona . Octave killed 15 people , and caused $ 500 million in damage to Arizona and $ 12 @.@ 5 million to New Mexico . Later in October , Hurricane Tico was a very intense hurricane at the time of its landfall and thus left 25 @,@ 000 homeless . Damage throughout the country was estimated at $ 200 million while 135 deaths were reported in Mexico . Although most of its impact occurred in Mexico , Tico 's remnants brought significant flooding in the Central United States , resulting in six deaths and $ 42 million in damage . A few days later , Hurricane Raymond posed a threat to Hawaii , but did little actual damage . The final storm of the season , Hurricane Winnie , was a rare December cyclone .
= = Seasonal summary = =
During the 1983 season , a total of 21 named storms formed , which was well @-@ above the average of 15 .
However , this total was slightly less active than the 1982 Pacific hurricane season , which saw a then @-@ record 22 storms form . However , 1983 was at that time the most active season in the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) warning zone , but this record itself was surpassed during the 1985 Pacific hurricane season , and again in the 1992 Pacific hurricane season . Additionally , 12 storms reached hurricane intensity , which was above the average of eight . Of the 12 hurricanes , eight attained Category 3 intensity or higher on the SSHWS . The season started on May 21 with the formation of Adolph and ended on December 9 , with the dissipation of Hurricane Winnie . Lasting 201 days , 1983 was the longest season on record . There were a total of 1 @,@ 238 storm hours , which was the most in four years . Despite the activity in the EPHC 's warning responsibility , only two storms
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formed in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) ' s area of responsibility , both of which stayed depressions . A moderate El Niño was present throughout the season , with water temperatures across the equatorial Central Pacific was nearly 5 ° F ( 0 @.@ 6 ° C ) above normal . The Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) was in a warm phase during this time period . Both of these factors are known to enhance Pacific hurricane season activity . Furthermore , 1983 was in the middle of an era where all but the 1988 Pacific hurricane season was near or above average . Also despite a relatively active season , no storms developed within the Central Pacific basin .
One storm in 1983 formed in May , an event the occurs every other year on average . Another storm formed in June , which was below the average of 1 @.@ 7 storms per June . Despite a somewhat slow start , activity picked up in July , where 6 storms formed . This was twice the average , though only two of the storm thus far had exceeded hurricane intensity . Although August was less active , with only 3 storms developing , compared to the average of 4 , two of the storms that formed in July lasted into the early part of the month . However , activity picked back up again in September , with 5 storms forming , which was above the average of 3 . Three storms also formed in October , which was two storms above normal . One storm developed in November as well , a somewhat unusual occurrence . For the first time since 1947 , a hurricane developed in December .
Three storms during the season made landfall on Mexico . The first , Adolph did so in May . The second , Tico , hit near Mazatlán as a powerful hurricane , resulting in severe damage . Around this time , a weak tropical depression made landfall along the western portion of the nation as well . In addition , Tropical Depression Raymond made landfall on Hawaii in late October . Hurricane Hunters flew in to 2 storms within the EPHC zone ( Manuel and Ismael ) . Moreover , they flew into 3 storms in CPHC 's area of responsibility , Tropical Storms Gil and Narda , and Hurricane Raymond .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Adolph = = =
On May 21 , a tropical depression formed 500 mi ( 805 km ) southwest of Managua , at a latitude of 7 @.@ 1 ° N , becoming the southernmost @-@ forming tropical cyclone in the east Pacific basin . As the depression headed gradually west @-@ northwestward over extremely warm sea surface temperatures , it steadily intensified . Later that day , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Adolph . Further intensification occurred as Adolph headed west @-@ northwestward ; by May 24 , the EPHC reported that Adolph had strengthened into a hurricane , setting a then @-@ record for the earliest known hurricane in the basin , though this was later surpassed by Hurricane Alma in May 1990 . Shortly thereafter , the storm turned northwestward and intensified into a Category 2 hurricane on the SSHWS . Around that time , Adolph attained its peak intensity with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) as the storm briefly developed a well @-@ defined eye . At that time , Adolph was the strongest May hurricane on record . However , this record was broken by a hurricane in 2001 that was also named Adolph .
Following peak intensity , Adolph gradually weakened to a Category 1 hurricane . By May 25 , Adolph curved sharply north @-@ northeastward , as a result of being steered by anticyclonic deep @-@ layer mean . Despite being situated over fairly warm waters , Adolph weakened considerably due to increased wind shear . Although the EPHC expected the storm to stay at sea , Adolph curved north @-@ northeastward . It was then downgraded to a tropical storm on May 25 . Rapidly weakening , Tropical Storm Adolph moved onshore near Puerto Vallarta early the next day . After briefly moving offshore , it again made landfall near Mazatlán at 0800 UTC that day . Adolph soon dissipated over land , becoming the first of two storms to strike the Pacific coast of Mexico during the season . Because Hurricane Adolph weakened significantly prior to landfall , no deaths or major damage occurred . However , the remnants of the storm brought heavy showers and gusty winds to Florida . Although a modern Pacific hurricane season begins May 15 , one newspaper considered Adolph a " pre @-@ season " storm .
= = = Hurricane Barbara = = =
A tropical disturbance was first observed in early June about 210 mi ( 340 km ) south of Guatemala , and headed westward . The tropical disturbance intensified , and became the second tropical depression of the season on June 9 . After staying a tropical depression for 24 hours , the system was subsequently upgraded to Tropical Storm Barbara . Initially , Barbara was expected to come very close to the Mexican coast ; however , this failed to happen . At first , Tropical Storm Barbara moved west @-@ northwest , though on June 11 , the cyclone turned west @-@ northwest while gradually gaining intensity . At 1800 UTC on June 12 , Barbara was estimated to have attained hurricane status while centered 175 mi ( 280 km ) north of Clipperton Island . Shortly after becoming a hurricane , rapid deepening commenced , and by early the next morning , the hurricane was a high @-@ end Category 1 . Six hours later , Barbara skipped Category 2 status , and became a major hurricane . At 1800 UTC on June 13 , Hurricane Barbara was upgraded into a category 4 hurricane on the SSHWS while its peak strength of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . At peak , Barbara had a " fantastic eye " .
Hurricane Barbara held on to peak intensity for a day . Thereafter , Barbara slowly weakened after peak intensity as it began to encounter cooler water temperatures , while moving slowly northward around the western edge of a high pressure area over central Mexico . By the early morning hours of June 16 , the hurricane was positioned 380 km ( 235 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Socorro Island and about 500 mi ( 805 km ) west of the coast of Mexico . Later that day , Barbara weakened into a tropical storm due to strong wind shear . Barbara was downgraded to a tropical depression early on June 17 . Further weakening persisted , and Barbara dissipated on June 18 . At the time of dissipation , the system was situated several hundred miles west @-@ southwest of the Baja California peninsula .
= = = Tropical Storm Cosme = = =
A westward @-@ moving low @-@ latitude tropical disturbance was declared a tropical depression early on July 2 . After making a turn northwest , the depression maintained its intensity for 42 hours . By 1200 UTC on July 4 , the system was finally upgraded into a tropical storm after convection increased in coverage . However , Cosme failed to intensify further , and after encountering cooler waters , the storm rapidly dissipated . The EPHC declared Cosme dissipated at 1800 UTC on July 5 .
= = = Tropical Storm Dalilia = = =
An intense area of thunderstorms developed 230 mi ( 370 km ) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on July 4 . The system was first classified as a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on July 5 roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) south @-@ southeast of Acapulco . Turning west @-@ northwest and then northwest while accelerating , the EPHC upgraded the depression into Tropical Storm Dalilia at 1800 UTC on July 6 . Continuing to gain strength , Dalila reached its peak intensity as a strong tropical storm early on July 8 . After turning west the tropical storm started to lose strength while encountering colder water . At 0600 UTC on July 10 , Tropical Storm Dalilia had been downgraded into a tropical depression . Two days later , the EPHC reported that the tropical cyclone had dissipated .
= = = Tropical Storm Erick = = =
Tropical Storm Erick originated from a tropical wave that crossed Central America on July 9 and July 10 . At 0600 UTC on July 12 , the EPHC reported that it had upgraded the disturbance into a tropical depression . The depression moved steadily west @-@ northwest under the influence of an anticyclone over the Yucatán Peninsula . The system gradually intensified over waters as warm as 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) and at 0000 UTC on July 13 , the agency upgraded the low into a tropical storm . Tropical Storm Erick reached its peak intensity on July 14 as a high @-@ end tropical storm . The storm maintained peak intensity for 24 hours , before encountering cooler water . Rapidly weakening , Erick dissipated on July 16 far from land .
= = = Tropical Storm Flossie = = =
A tropical disturbance developed 70 mi ( 115 km ) southwest of Manzanillo late on June 16 . Several hours later , the disturbance was classified as a tropical depression . Initially , the depression drifted southward , but at 1800 UTC on July 17 , the system suddenly turned west @-@ northwest and accelerated . The storm gradually intensified while passing northeast of Socorro Island . Midday on July 19 , the tropical depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Flossie . Six hours later , Tropical Storm Flossie reached its peak wind speed of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . While the storm approached the Baja California peninsula , the storm ultimately turned west into an area of cool water and high amounts of wind shear . By 0000 UTC on July 21 , Flossie weakened into a tropical storm . Twelve hours later , Flossie ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone .
= = = Hurricane Gil = = =
The seventh tropical cyclone of the season developed during the afternoon hours of July 23 north of Clipperton Island . Thereafter , the EPHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Gil on July 24 . Gil subsequently began to intensify ; on 0000 UTC July 26 , the storm was upgraded into a Category 1 hurricane . Early on July 27 , the storm attained its peak intensity of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . Despite turning west @-@ northwest , Hurricane Gil maintained hurricane intensity until July 29 when the storm began to encounter cooler waters . Two days later , Gil was downgraded a tropical depression . After entering CPHC 's warning zone on August 1 , the CPHC Gil was re @-@ upgraded into a tropical storm . Gil accelerated while approaching the Hawaiian Islands ; on August 3 , the tropical cyclone reached its secondary peak of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) . After passing through the Hawaiian islands , Gil passed very close to French Frigate Shoals on August 4 as a marginal tropical storm . Early on August 5 , the system was downgraded into a tropical depression and degenerated into a trough about 300 mi ( 485 km ) west @-@ northwest of Tern Island later that day .
Prior to arrival of Gil , gale warnings were issued for much of the islands , but on August 2 , these warnings were discontinued for all islands except for Kauai . Jellyfish stung 50 tourists . On the northern part of the island , 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) winds were reported , resulting in extensive damage in some areas , but slight damage to others . A minor power outage on the island briefly left 2 @,@ 400 customers without electricity . In Maui , the outer rainbands of Gil led to minor flooding . Overall , damage from Gil was minimal and less than expected . Offshore , one person was presumed to
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's bay . After the ships docked , the crews of both ships got off and some Mayagüezanos boarded and raised the Spanish flag on both ships . The commander of the Glasgow became aware of the situation and asked the island 's governor , Jose Dufresne to turn over the ships . Dufresne refused and ordered the British warship out of the Puerto Rican dock .
The governor of Louisiana , Bernardo de Gálvez , was named Field Marshal of the Spanish colonial army in North America . In 1779 , Galvez and his troops , composed of Puerto Ricans and people from other Spanish colonies , distracted the British from the revolution by capturing Pensacola , the capital of the British colony of West Florida and the cities of Baton Rouge , St. Louis and Mobile . The Puerto Rican troops , under the leadership of Brigadier General Ramón de Castro , helped defeat the British and Indian army of 2 @,@ 500 soldiers and British warships in Pensacola . Galvez and his multinational army also provided the Continental Army with guns , cloth , gunpowder and medicine shipped from Cuba up the Mississippi River . General Ramón de Castro , who was Galvez 's Aide @-@ de @-@ camp in the Mobile and Pensacola campaigns , became the appointed governor of Puerto Rico in 1795 .
= = = = Sir Ralph Abercromby attacks Puerto Rico = = = =
On February 17 , 1797 , the governor of Puerto Rico Brigadier General Ramón de Castro , received news that Great Britain had invaded the island of Trinidad . Believing that Puerto Rico would be the next British objective he decided to put the local militia on alert and to prepare the island 's forts against any military action . On April 17 , 1797 , British ships under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby approached the coastal town of Loíza , to the east of San Juan . On April 18 , British soldiers and German mercenaries ( " Hessians " ) landed on Loíza 's beach . Under the command of de Castro , British ships were shot at by artillery from both El Morro and the San Gerónimo fortresses but were beyond reach . After the invaders disembarked practically all fighting was land based with many skirmishes , field artillery and mortar fire exchanges between the San Gerónimo and San Antonio Bridge fortress and British emplacements in Condado to the East and El Olimpo hill in Miramar to the South . The British tried to take the San Antonio , a key passage to the San Juan islet , and repeatedly bombarded the nearby San Gerónimo to the tune of nearly one thousand shells and almost demolishing it . At the Martín Peña Bridge , they were met by the likes of Sergeants José and Francisco Díaz and Colonel Rafael Conti who together with Lieutenant Lucas de Fuentes attacked the enemy with two cannons . After fiercely fighting by the Spanish forces and local militia , they were defeated in all attempts to advance into San Juan . The invasion failed because Puerto Rican volunteers and Spanish troops fought back and defended the island in a manner described by a British lieutenant as of " astonishing bravery " .
= = = = " La Rogativa " folklore = = = =
The defense of San Juan served as the base for the legend of " La Rogativa " . According to the popular Puerto Rican legend , on the night of April 30 , 1797 , the townswomen , led by a bishop , formed a rogativa ( prayer procession ) and marched throughout the streets of the city singing hymns and carrying torches while at the same time praying for the deliverance of the city . Outside the walls , the invaders mistook the torch @-@ lit movement for the arrival of Spanish reinforcements . When morning came , the enemy was gone from the island and the city was saved from a possible invasion . Four statues , sculptured by Lindsay Daen in the Plazuela de la Rogativa ( Rogativa Plaza ) in Old San Juan , pay tribute to the bishop and townswomen who participated in La Rogativa .
= = = = Attack of Aguadilla = = = =
The British also attacked Aguadilla and Punta Salinas . They were defeated by Colonel Conti and the members of the militia in Aguadilla , and the British troops that had landed on the island were taken prisoner . The British retreated on April 30 to their ships and on May 2 set sail northward . Because of the defeat given to the British forces , governor Ramon de Castro petitioned Spanish King Charles IV for recognition for the victors ; he was promoted to Field Marshal and several others were promoted and given pay raises . The British persisted in invading Puerto Rico , after Abercromby 's defeat , with unsuccessful skirmishes on the coastal towns of Aguadilla ( December 1797 ) , Ponce , Cabo Rojo , and Mayagüez . This continued to occur until 1802 when the war finally came to an end .
= = = 19th century = = =
France had threatened to invade the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo . In 1808 , the Spanish Crown sent their Navy , under the command of Puerto Rican Captain Ramón Power y Giralt , to prevent the invasion of Santo Domingo by the French by enforcing a blockade . Col. Rafael Conti organized a military expedition with the intention of defending the Dominican Republic . They were successful and were proclaimed as heroes by the Spanish Government .
= = = American Civil War = = =
During the 1800s , commerce existed between the ports of the eastern coast of the United States and Puerto Rico . Ship records show that many Puerto Ricans traveled on ships that sailed to and from the U.S. and Puerto Rico . Many of them settled in places such as New York , Connecticut and Massachusetts . Upon the outbreak of the American Civil War , many Puerto Ricans joined the ranks of the United States military armed forces , however since Puerto Ricans were Spanish subjects they were inscribed as Spaniards . The 1860 census of New Haven , Connecticut , shows there were 10 Puerto Ricans living there . Among of them was Augusto Rodriguez who joined the 15th Connecticut Regiment ( a.k.a. Lyon Regiment ) in 1862 . During the Civil War , Rodriguez , who reached the rank of Lieutenant , served in the defenses of Washington , D.C .. He also led his men in the Battles of Fredericksburg and Wyse Fork . The regiment was mustered out on June 27 , 1865 and he was discharged in New Haven on July 12 , 1865 .
= = = Slave revolts = = =
Up until 1873 , when slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico , the wealth amassed by many landowners in Puerto Rico derived mainly from the exploitation of slaves . But slavery generated its antithesis — disobedience , uprisings and flights .
In Puerto Rico there were many minor slave revolts in which the slaves clashed with the military establishment . In July 1821 , Marcos Xiorro , a bozal slave , planned and organized a conspiracy against the slave masters and the colonial government of Puerto Rico . According to his plot , which was to be carried out on July 27 , during the festival celebrations for Santiago ( St. James ) , several slaves were to escape from various plantations in Bayamón , which included the haciendas of Angus McBean , C. Kortnight , Miguel Andino and Fernando Fernández . They were then to proceed to the sugarcane fields of Miguel Figueres , and retrieve cutlasses and swords which were hidden in those fields . Xiorro , together with a slave from the McBean plantation named Mario and another slave named Narciso , would lead the slaves of Bayamón and Toa Baja and capture the city of Bayamón . They would then burn the city and kill those who were not black . After this , they would all unite with slaves from the adjoining towns of Río Piedras , Guaynabo and Palo Seco . With this critical mass of slaves , all armed and emboldened from a series of quick victories , they would then invade the capital city of San Juan , where they would declare Xiorro as their king . Unfortunately for the slave conspirators , the plot was divulged by a fellow slave to the authorities .
The mayor of Bayamón mobilized 500 soldiers . The ringleaders and followers of the conspiracy were captured immediately . A total of 61 slaves were imprisoned in Bayamón and San Juan . The ringleaders were executed and the fate of Xiorro remains a mystery . There were other minor revolts up until the abolition of slavery in the island became official .
= = Revolt against Spain = =
= = = South America = = =
In 1822 , there was an attempt , known as the Ducoudray Holstein Expedition , conceived , carefully planned and organized by General Henri La Fayette Villaume Ducoudray Holstein to invade Puerto Rico and declare it a republic .
This invasion was different from all its precursors since none before had intended to make Puerto Rico an independent nation , and use the Taino name " Boricua " as the official name of the republic , it was also intended more as a mercantile venture than a patriotic endeavor . It was the first time an invasion intended to make the city of Mayagüez the capital of the island . However , plans of the invasion were soon disclosed to the Spanish authorities and the plot never materialized .
= = = = United Provinces of New Granada = = = =
In the early 19th century the Spanish colonies , in what is known as the Latin American wars of independence , began to revolt against Spanish rule . Antonio Valero de Bernabé was a Puerto Rican military leader known in Latin America as the " Liberator from Puerto Rico " . Valero was a recent graduate of the Spanish Military Academy when Napoleon Bonaparte convinced King Charles IV of Spain to permit him to pass through Spanish soil with the sole purpose of attacking Portugal . When Napoleon refused to leave , the Spanish government declared war . Valero joined the Spanish Army and helped defeat Napoleon 's army at the Siege of Saragossa . Valero became a hero ; he was promoted to the rank of colonel and was awarded many decorations .
When Ferdinand VII assumed the throne of Spain in 1813 , Valero became critical of the new king 's policies towards the Spanish colonies in Latin America . He developed a keen hatred of the monarchy , resigned his commission in the army , and headed for Mexico . There he joined the insurgent army headed by Agustín de Iturbide , in which Valero was named chief of staff . He fought for and helped achieve Mexico 's independence from Spain . After the Mexican victory , Iturbide proclaimed himself Emperor of Mexico . Since Valero had developed anti @-@ monarchist feelings following his experiences in Spain , he revolted against Iturbide . His revolt failed and he attempted to escape from Mexico by way of sea .
Valero was captured by a Spanish pirate , who turned him over to the Spanish authorities in Cuba . Valero was imprisoned but managed to escape with the help of a group of men that identified with Simón Bolívar 's ideals . Upon learning of Bolívar 's dream of creating a unified Latin America , including Puerto Rico and Cuba , Valero decided to join him . Valero stopped in St. Thomas , where he established contacts with the Puerto Rican independence movement .
He then traveled to Venezuela , where he was met by General Francisco de Paula Santander . He next joined Bolívar and fought alongside " The Liberator " against Spain , gaining his confidence and admiration . Valero was named Military Chief of the Department of Panama , Governor of Puerto Cabello , Chief of Staff of Colombia , Minister of War and Maritime of Venezuela , and in 1849 was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General .
The meetings of the Puerto Rican Independence movement which met in St. Thomas were discovered by the Spanish authorities and the members of the movement were either imprisoned or exiled . In a letter dated October 1 , 1824 , which Venezuelan rebel leader José María Rojas sent to María de las Mercedes Barbudo , Rojas stated that the Venezuelan rebels had lost their principal contact with the Puerto Rican Independence movement in the Danish island of Saint Thomas and therefore the secret communication which existed between the Venezuelan rebels and the leaders of the Puerto Rican independence movements was in danger of being discovered .
Mercedes Barbudo , also known as the " first Puerto Rican female freedom fighter " , was a businesswoman who became a follower of the independence ideal for Puerto Rico upon learning that Bolivar dreamed of eventually engendering an American Revolution @-@ style federation , that would be known as the United Provinces of New Granada , between all the newly independent republics , with a government ideally set @-@ up solely to recognize and uphold individual rights . She was involved with the Puerto Rican Independence Movement which had ties with the Venezuelan rebels led by Simón Bolívar and who were against Spanish colonial rule in Puerto Rico .
Unknown to Mercedes Barbudo , the Spanish authorities in Puerto Rico under Governor Miguel de la Torre , were suspicious of the correspondence between her and the rebel factions of Venezuela . Secret agents of the Spanish Government had retained some of her mail and delivered it to Governor de la Torre . He ordered an investigation and had her mail confiscated . The Government believed that the correspondence served as propaganda of the Bolivian ideals and that it would also serve to motivate Puerto Ricans to seek their independence . Governor Miguel de la Torre ordered her arrest on the charge that she planned to overthrow the Spanish Government in Puerto Rico . Since Puerto Rico did not have a women 's prison she was held without bail at the Castillo San Cristóbal . Among the evidence which the Spanish authorities presented against her was Rojas letter . She was exiled to Cuba where she was able to escape and make her way to Venezuela where she spent her final days .
= = = Puerto Rico = = =
The Spanish government had received many complaints from the nations whose ships were attacked by Puerto Rican pirate Captain Roberto Cofresí . Cofresí and his men had attacked eight ships , amongst them an American ship . The Spanish government , which routinely encouraged piracy against other nations , was pressured and felt obliged to pursue and capture the famous pirate . In 1824 , Captain John Slout of the U.S. Naval Forces and his schooner USS Grampus engaged Cofresí in a fierce battle . The pirate Cofresí was captured , along with eleven of his crew members , and turned over to the Spanish Government . He was imprisoned in El Castillo del Morro in San Juan . Cofresi was judged by a Spanish Council of War , found guilty , and executed by firing squad on March 29 , 1825 .
On April 13 , 1855 , a mutiny broke out among the artillerymen at Fort San Cristóbal . They were protesting an extended two years of military service imposed by the island 's Spanish governor , Garcia Cambia . The mutineers pointed their cannons towards San Juan , creating a state of panic among the population . Upon their surrender , the governor had the eight men arrested and sentenced to death by firing squad .
= = = = Grito de Lares = = = =
Many Spanish colonies had gained their independence by the mid @-@ 1850s . In Puerto Rico , there were two groups : the loyalists , who were loyal to Spain , and the independentistas , who advocated independence . In 1866 , Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances , Segundo Ruiz Belvis , and other independence advocates met in New York City where they founded the Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico . An outcome of this venture was a plan to send an armed expedition from the Dominican Republic to invade the island . Several revolutionary cells were formed in the western towns and cities of Puerto Rico . Two of the most important cells were at Mayagüez , led by Mathias Brugman and code named " Capa Prieto " and at Lares , code @-@ named " Centro Bravo " and headed by Manuel Rojas . " Centro Bravo " was the main center of operations and was located in the Rojas plantation of El Triunfo . Manuel Rojas was named " Commander of the Liberation Army " by Betances . Mariana Bracetti ( sister @-@ in @-@ law of Manuel ) was named " Leader of the Lares Revolutionary Council . " Upon the request of Betances , Bracetti knitted the first flag of Puerto Rico also known as the revolutionary Flag of Lares ( Bandera de Lares ) .
The Spanish authorities discovered the plot and were able to confiscate Betances 's armed ship before it arrived in Puerto Rico . The Mayor of the town of Camuy , Manuel González ( leader of that town 's revolutionary cell ) , was arrested and charged with treason . He learned that the Spanish Army was aware of the independence plot , and escaped to warn Manuel Rojas . Alerted , the revolutionists decided to start the revolution as soon as possible , and set the date for September 28 , 1868 . Mathias Brugman and his men joined with Manuel Rojas 's men and with about 800 men and women , marched on and took the town of Lares . This was to be known as " Grito de Lares " ( The Cry of Lares ) The revolutionists entered the town 's church and placed Mariana Bracetti 's revolutionary flag on the High Altar as a sign that the revolution had begun . They declared Puerto Rico to be the " Republic of Puerto Rico " and named Francisco Ramírez its President . Manuel and his poorly armed followers proceeded to march on to the town of San Sebastián , armed only with clubs and machetes . The Spanish Army had been forewarned , and awaited with superior firepower . The revolutionists were met with deadly fire . The revolt failed , many revolutionists were killed , and at least 475 , including Manuel Rojas and Mariana Bracetti , were imprisoned in the jail of Arecibo and sentenced to death .
Others fled and went into hiding . Mathias Brugman was hiding in a local farm where he was betrayed by a farmer named Francisco Quiñones ; he was captured and executed on the spot . In 1869 , fearing another revolt , the Spanish Crown disbanded the Puerto Rican Militia , which had been composed almost entirely of native @-@ born Puerto Ricans , and also the Compañia de Artilleros Morenos de Cangrejos , a separate company of black Puerto Ricans . They then organized the Volunteer Institute , composed entirely of Spaniards and their sons .
= = = = Intentona de Yauco = = = =
Leaders of El Grito de Lares who were in exile in New York City joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee , founded on December 8 , 1895 to continue the quest for independence . In 1897 , with the aid of Antonio Mattei Lluberas and Fidel Velez , the local leaders of the independence movement of the town of Yauco , they organized another uprising , which became known as the Intentona de Yauco . On March 26 , 1897 , there was a second and last major attempt to overthrow the Spanish government . The local conservative political factions , which believed that such an attempt would be a threat to their struggle for autonomy , opposed such an action . Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities , who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule .
= = = Cuba = = =
In 1869 , the incoming governor of Puerto Rico , Jose Laureano Sanz , in an effort to ease tensions in the island , dictated a general amnesty and released all who were involved with the Grito de Lares revolt from prison . Both Mariana Bracetti and Manuel Rojas were released . Bracetti lived her lst years in the town of Añasco , while Rojas was deported to Venezuela . Many of the former prisoners joined the Cuban Liberation Army and fought against Spain . Among the many Puerto Ricans who volunteered to fight for Cuba 's independence were Juan Ríus Rivera , Francisco Gonzalo Marín , also known as " Pachin Marín " and José Semidei Rodríguez .
Juan Ríus Rivera as a young man met and befriended Betances , and was joined the pro @-@ independence movement in the island . He became a member of the Mayagüez revolutionary cell " Capá Prieto " under the command of Brugman . Ríus , did not participated directly in the revolt because at the time he was studying law in Spain , however he was an avid reader about information pertaining to the Antilles and learned about the failed revolt . He interrupted his studies and traveled to the United States where he went to the Cuba Revolutionary " Junta " and offered his services . He joined the Cuban Liberation Army and was given the rank of General . He fought alongside Gen. Máximo Gómez in Cuba 's Ten Years ' War . He later fought alongside Gen. Antonio Maceo Grajales and upon Maceo 's death was named Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Cuban Liberation Army . After Cuba gained its independence , Gen. Juan Ríus Rivera became an active political figure in the new nation .
Francisco Gonzalo Marín was a poet and journalist in Puerto Rico who joined the Cuban Liberation Army upon learning of the death of his brother Wecenlao in the battlefields of Cuba . Marin , who was given the rank of Lieutenant , befriended and fought alongside José Martí . In November 1897 Lt. Marin died from the wounds he received in a skirmish against the Spanish Army .
José Semidei Rodríguez from Yauco , Puerto Rico , fought in various battles in the Cuban War of Independence ( 1895 – 98 ) . After Cuba gained its independence he joined the Cuban National Army with the rank of Brigadier General . Semidei Rodríguez continued to serve in Cuba as a diplomat upon his retirement from the military .
= = Spanish – American War = =
In 1890 , Captain Alfred Thayler Mahan , a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker , wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy . Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea which would serve as coaling and naval stations and which would serve as strategical points of defense upon the construction of a canal in the Isthmus .
This was not new , since William H. Stewart , the former Secretary of State under the administrations of various presidents , among them Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses Grant , had stressed that a canal be built either in Honduras , Nicaragua or Panama and that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba . The idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars which the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba .
Captain Mahan made the following statement to the War Department :
Since 1894 , the Naval War College had been formulating plans for war with Spain . By 1896 , the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which including military operations in Puerto Rican waters . Not only was Puerto Rico considered a valuable as a naval station , Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked , that commodity was sugar .
The United States declared war on Spain in 1898 following the sinking of the battleship USS Maine in Havana harbor , Cuba . One of the United States ' principal objectives in the Spanish – American War was to take control of Spanish possessions Puerto Rico and Cuba in the Atlantic , and the Philippines and Guam in the Pacific .
The Spanish Crown sent the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican Provisional Battalions to defend Cuba against the American invaders . The 1st Puerto Rican Provisional Battalion , composed of the Talavera Cavalry and Krupp artillery , was sent to Santiago de Cuba where they battled the American forces in the Battle of San Juan Hill . After the battle , the Puerto Rican Battalion suffered a total of 70 % casualties which included their dead , wounded , MIA 's and prisoners .
The invasion of Puerto Rico by the American military forces was known as the Puerto Rican Campaign . On May 10 , 1898 , Spanish forces , under the command of Captain Ángel Rivero Méndez in the fortress of San Cristóbal in San Juan , exchanged fire with the USS Yale , and on May 12 a fleet of 12 American ships bombarded San Juan . On June 25 , the USS Yosemite arrived in San Juan and blockaded the port . Captains Ramón Acha Caamaño and José Antonio Iriarte , both natives of Puerto Rico , were among those who defended the city form Fort San Felipe del Morro . They had 3 Batteries under their command , which were armed with at least three 15 cm Ordóñez cannons . The battle lasted 3 hours and resulted in the death of Justo Esquivies , the first Puerto Rican soldier to die in the Puerto Rican Campaign .
On July 25 , General Nelson A. Miles entered the southern town of Guánica with 3 @,@ 300 troops and faced a minor skirmish in their landing .
One of the most notable battles during the Puerto Rico Campaign occurred between the Spanish forces and Puerto Rican volunteers , led by Captain Salvador Meca and Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Puig against the American forces led by Brigadier General George A. Garretson on July 26 , 1898 . The Spanish forces engaged the 6th Massachusetts in a firefight in what became known as the Battle of Yauco . Puig and his forces suffered 2 officers and 3 soldiers wounded and 2 soldiers dead . The Spanish forces were ordered to retreat .
The Puerto Rican Campaign was short compared to the other campaigns because the Puerto Ricans who resided in the southern and western towns and villages resented Spanish rule and tended to view the Americans as their liberators , thereby making the invasion much easier and because , as stated before , the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican Provisional Battalions where in Cuba defending that island . However , the Americans met resistance from the Spanish forces and Puerto Rican Volunteers and were engaged in the following battles : Battle of Fajardo , Battle of Guayama , Battle of the Guamani River Bridge , Battle of Coamo , Battle of Silva Heights and Battle of Asomante
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" . However , the government has stressed that income disparity does not equate to worsening of the poverty situation , and that the Gini coefficient is not strictly comparable between regions . The government has named economic restructuring , changes in household sizes , and the increase of high @-@ income jobs as factors that have skewed the Gini coefficient .
= = = Education = = =
Hong Kong 's education system used to roughly follow the system in England , although international systems exist . The government maintains a policy of " mother tongue instruction " ( Chinese : 母語教學 ) in which the medium of instruction is Cantonese , with written Chinese and English , while some of the schools are using English as the teaching language . In secondary schools , ' biliterate and trilingual ' proficiency is emphasised , and Mandarin @-@ language education has been increasing . The Programme for International Student Assessment ranked Hong Kong 's education system as the second best in the world .
Hong Kong 's public schools are operated by the Education Bureau . The system features a non @-@ compulsory three @-@ year kindergarten , followed by a compulsory six @-@ year primary education , a compulsory three @-@ year junior secondary education , a non @-@ compulsory two @-@ year senior secondary education leading to the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examinations and a two @-@ year matriculation course leading to the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examinations . The New Senior Secondary academic structure and curriculum was implemented in September 2009 , which provides for all students to receive three years of compulsory junior and three years of compulsory senior secondary education . Under the new curriculum , there is only one public examination , namely the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education .
Most comprehensive schools in Hong Kong fall under three categories : the rarer public schools ; the more common subsidised schools , including government aids @-@ and @-@ grant schools ; and private schools , often run by Christian organisations and having admissions based on academic merit rather than on financial resources . Outside this system are the schools under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and private international schools .
There are eight public and one private universities in Hong Kong , the oldest being the University of Hong Kong ( HKU ) , established in 1910 – 1912 . The Chinese University of Hong Kong was founded in 1963 to fulfill the need for a university with a medium of instruction of Chinese . Competition among students to receive an offer for an undergraduate programme is fierce as the annual number of intakes is limited , especially when some disciplines are offered by select tertiary institutions , like medicine which is provided by merely two medical schools in the territory , the Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine at the University of Hong Kong and the Faculty of Medicine of the Chinese University of Hong Kong . In addition to the public post @-@ secondary institutions there are also a number of private higher institutions which offer higher diplomas and associate degree courses for those who fail to enter a college for a degree study so as to boost their qualification of education , some of whom can have a second chance of getting into a university if they have a good performance in these sub @-@ degree courses .
= = = Health = = =
There are 13 private hospitals and more than 40 public hospitals in Hong Kong . There is little interaction between public and private healthcare . The hospitals offer a wide range of healthcare services , and some of the territory 's private hospitals are considered to be world class . According to UN estimates , Hong Kong has one of the longest life expectancies of any country or territory in the world . As of 2012 , Hong Kong women are the longest living demographic group in the world .
There are two medical schools in the territory , one based at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the other at the University of Hong Kong . Both have links with public sector hospitals . With respect to postgraduate education , traditionally many doctors in Hong Kong have looked overseas for further training , and many took British Royal College exams such as the MRCP ( UK ) and the MRCS ( UK ) . However , Hong Kong has been developing its own postgraduate medical institutions , in particular the Hong Kong Academy of Medicine , and this is gradually taking over the responsibility for all postgraduate medical training in the territory .
Since 2011 , there have been growing concerns that mothers @-@ to @-@ be from mainland China , in a bid to obtain the right of abode in Hong Kong and the benefits that come with it , have saturated the neonatal wards of the city 's hospitals both public and private . This has led to protest from local pregnant women for the government to remedy the issue , as they have found difficulty in securing a bed space for giving birth and routine check @-@ ups . Other concerns in the decade of 2001 – 2010 relate to the workload medical staff experience ; and medical errors and mishaps , which are frequently highlighted in local news .
= = Culture = =
Hong Kong is frequently described as a place where " East meets West " , reflecting the culture 's mix of the territory 's Chinese roots with influences from its time as a British colony . Concepts like feng shui are taken very seriously , with expensive construction projects often hiring expert consultants , and are often believed to make or break a business . Other objects like Ba gua mirrors are still regularly used to deflect evil spirits , and buildings often lack any floor number that has a 4 in it , due to its similarity to the word for " die " in Cantonese . The fusion of east and west also characterises Hong Kong 's cuisine , where dim sum , hot pot , and fast food restaurants coexist with haute cuisine .
Hong Kong is a recognised global centre of trade and calls itself an " entertainment hub " . Its martial arts film genre gained a high level of popularity in the late 1960s and 1970s . Several Hollywood performers , notable actors and martial artists have originated from Hong Kong cinema , notably Bruce Lee , Jackie Chan , Chow Yun @-@ fat , Michelle Yeoh , Maggie Cheung and Jet Li . A number of Hong Kong film @-@ makers have achieved widespread fame in Hollywood , such as John Woo , Wong Kar @-@ wai , and Stephen Chow . Homegrown films such as Chungking Express , Infernal Affairs , Shaolin Soccer , Rumble in the Bronx , In the Mood for Love and Echoes of the Rainbow have gained international recognition . Hong Kong is the centre for Cantopop music , which draws its influence from other forms of Chinese music and Western genres , and has a multinational fanbase .
The Hong Kong government supports cultural institutions such as the Hong Kong Heritage Museum , the Hong Kong Museum of Art , the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts , and the Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra . The government 's Leisure and Cultural Services Department subsidises and sponsors international performers brought to Hong Kong . Many international cultural activities are organised by the government , consulates , and privately .
Hong Kong has two licensed terrestrial broadcasters – ATV and TVB . There are three local and a number of foreign suppliers of cable and satellite services . The production of Hong Kong 's soap dramas , comedy series , and variety shows reach audiences throughout the Chinese @-@ speaking world . Magazine and newspaper publishers in Hong Kong distribute and print in both Chinese and English , with a focus on sensationalism and celebrity gossip . The media in Hong Kong is relatively free from official interference compared to Mainland China , although the Far Eastern Economic Review points to signs of self @-@ censorship by media whose owners have close ties to or business interests in the People 's Republic of China and states that even Western media outlets are not immune to growing Chinese economic power .
Hong Kong offers wide recreational and competitive sport opportunities despite its limited land area . It sends delegates to international competitions such as the Olympic Games and Asian Games , and played host to the equestrian events during the 2008 Summer Olympics . There are major multipurpose venues like Hong Kong Coliseum and MacPherson Stadium . Hong Kong 's steep terrain and extensive trail network with expansive views attracts hikers , and its rugged coastline provides many beaches for swimming .
= = = Sport = = =
Sports in Hong Kong are a significant part of its culture . Due mainly to British influence going as far back as the late 19th century , Hong Kong had an earlier introduction to Western athletics compared to other Asia regions . Football , cricket , basketball , swimming , badminton , table tennis , cycling and running have the most participants and spectators . In 2009 , Hong Kong successfully organised the V East Asian Games . Other major international sporting events including the Equestrian at the 2008 Summer Olympics , Hong Kong Sevens , Hong Kong Marathon , AFC Asian Cup , EAFF East Asian Cup , Hong Kong Tennis Classic , Premier League Asia Trophy , and Lunar New Year Cup are also held in the territory . As of 2010 , there were 32 Hong Kong athletes from seven sports ranking in world 's Top 20 , 29 athletes in six sports in Asia top 10 ranking . Moreover , Hong Kong athletes with disabilities are equally impressive in their performance as of 2009 , having won four world championships and two Asian Championships .
= = = Architecture = = =
According to Emporis , there are 1 @,@ 223 skyscrapers in Hong Kong , which puts the city at the top of world rankings . It has more buildings taller than 500 feet ( 150 m ) than any other city . The high density and tall skyline of Hong Kong 's urban area is due to a lack of available sprawl space , with the average distance from the harbour front to the steep hills of Hong Kong Island at 1 @.@ 3 km ( 0 @.@ 81 mi ) , much of it reclaimed land . This lack of space causes demand for dense , high @-@ rise offices and housing . Thirty @-@ six of the world 's 100 tallest residential buildings are in Hong Kong . More people in Hong Kong live or work above the 14th floor than anywhere else on Earth , making it the world 's most vertical city .
As a result of the lack of space and demand for construction , few older buildings remain , and the city is becoming a centre for modern architecture . The International Commerce Centre ( ICC ) , at 484 m ( 1 @,@ 588 ft ) high , is the tallest building in Hong Kong and the third tallest in the world , by height to roof measurement . The tallest building prior to the ICC is Two International Finance Centre , at 415 m ( 1 @,@ 362 ft ) high . Other recognisable skyline features include the HSBC Headquarters Building , the triangular @-@ topped Central Plaza with its pyramid @-@ shaped spire , The Center with its night @-@ time multi @-@ coloured neon light show ; A Symphony of Lights and I. M. Pei 's Bank of China Tower with its sharp , angular façade . According to the Emporis website , the city skyline has the biggest visual impact of all world cities . Also , Hong Kong 's skyline is often regarded to be the best in the world , with the surrounding mountains and Victoria Harbour complementing the skyscrapers . Most of the oldest remaining historic structures , including the Tsim Sha Tsui Clock Tower , the Central Police Station , and the remains of Kowloon Walled City were constructed during the 19th and early 20th centuries .
There are many development plans in place , including the construction of new government buildings , waterfront redevelopment in Central , and a series of projects in West Kowloon . More high @-@ rise development is set to take place on the other side of Victoria Harbour in Kowloon , as the 1998 closure of the nearby Kai Tak Airport lifted strict height restrictions . The Urban Renewal Authority is highly active in demolishing older areas , including the razing and redevelopment of Kwun Tong town centre , an approach which has been criticised for its impact on the cultural identity of the city and on lower @-@ income residents .
= = = Cityscape = = =
= Small Victories =
" Small Victories " is the first episode from season four of the science fiction television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 . Penned by Robert C. Cooper and directed by Martin Wood , the episode first aired on the American subscription channel Showtime on June 30 , 2000 . " Small Victories " resumes the story of the season 3 finale , " Nemesis " , in which the SG @-@ 1 team encountered the Replicators for the first time . As the Replicators threaten Earth and the Asgard home galaxy , the team must split to master their job .
" Small Victories " was another visual effects milestone for the series . The Replicators and the Asgard character Thor were computer @-@ animated for parts of the episode . Some scenes were filmed in and outside of a Russian Foxtrot class submarine . " Small Victories " was nominated for Best Special Effects in 2001 for an Emmy , a Gemini Award and a Leo Award .
= = Plot = =
Confident that the destruction of Thor 's starship has ended the Replicator threat to Earth ( " Nemesis " ) , the SG @-@ 1 team returns home through the second Stargate that has been put up at Stargate Command . Shortly after they learn that a Russian Foxtrot class submarine has been hijacked by creatures whose descriptions
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Doing so , Tucker revives Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol , and they try to find a way to stop the Ferengi . She assumes the gas @-@ machine was intentionally placed on the surface as a ' Trojan Horse ' . In Sickbay , three of the four Ferengi search for the non @-@ existent vault , and T 'Pol uses a PADD to distract and then start an argument between them .
In Engineering , Archer tries to negotiate with Krem , who is tempted when Archer says that he will throw in T 'Pol . In Archer 's quarters , Muk and Grish try interrogating Porthos , Archer 's pet Beagle . Muk goes to the launch @-@ bay and finds Tucker , who escapes , but Ulis subdues him with his electro @-@ whip . The Ferengi , Archer and Trip meet in the launch @-@ bay where Archer plays along with Tucker 's deception about " the vault " . T 'Pol assists in subduing the intruders , and the crew oversee the return of the stolen goods . Archer tells the Ferengi not to go within a light year of a human or Vulcan vessel ever again ( and they indeed do not reappear until some 200 years later in episode The Last Outpost ) .
= = Production = =
The writers of " Acquisition " , Maria and Andre Jacquemetton , developed a spoken language for the alien race known as the Ferengi . Although they had been seen previously on screen in previous incarnations of Star Trek , including throughout Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , a spoken language had not been developed . The pair wrote the dialogue initially in English , before translating it into French and then breaking it down into syllables . They described it as " fun to write " . The pair had intended for the Ferengi throughout the episode to speak their new language , but this was reduced to only the first act . This was the third episode written by the duo , after " Breaking the Ice " and " Dear Doctor " .
Story editor André Bormanis explained in a web chat just before the airing of the episode that they had sought to ensure that Jean @-@ Luc Picard was Captain who made first contact with the Ferengi officially ; Bormanis commented that he thought the episode was funny . The Ferengi made their first appearance in the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " The Last Outpost " , having been created by franchise creator Gene Roddenberry and producer Herbert Wright . The events of the episode " The Battle " established that it was Picard on board the USS Stargazer at the Battle of Maxia that made the official first contact with the race on behalf of the Federation .
The guest cast featured three former Star Trek alumni including Clint Howard who had appeared in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " The Corbomite Maneuver " as Balok . Ethan Phillips had appeared as Neelix , a main cast character in Star Trek : Voyager , as well as the Ferengi doctor Farek in The Next Generation episode " Ménage à Troi " . The third alumni was Jeffrey Combs who had appeared as several characters such as Weyoun and the Ferengi Brunt in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Combs had already previously in Enterprise as the Andorian Shran , and would continue to do so for the rest of the series . He said that being asked to appear as a Ferengi once again took him by surprise , but that Krem was " a world 's away " from the Brunt character , which pleased him .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Acquisition " originally aired on UPN on March 27 , 2002 . According to Nielsen ratings , it received a 5 @.@ 2 / 6 % share , meaning that it was seen by 5 @.@ 2 percent of all households , and 6 percent of all households watching television at the time of the broadcast .
Herc , in his review for Ain 't It Cool News , compared to the Die Hard inspired episode of Alias entitled " The Box " . He thought that the Enterprise episode wasn 't as good and suggested it might have been a filler episode . He gave it a rating of two and a half out of five . Alasdair Wilkins , at the A.V. Club described the episode as " Star Trek comfort food " , but also that it demonstrated " a show unable to carve out its own identity , content to rehash old stories when the show ’ s very premise demands new storytelling " . He also said that it was a " blatant example " of Enterprise repeating the story mechanics of previous seasons . Chaz Lipp at The Morton Report called " Acquisition " a " goofy " episode , and one of several which were " weak and uninspired " .
The first home media release of the episode was on VHS in the UK on September 23 , 2002 . It was first released in the United States on DVD , having been released as part of the season one box set during May 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray release of Enterprise was released in the United States on March 26 with the UK release following on April 1 .
= Mobility analogy =
The mobility analogy , also called admittance analogy or Firestone analogy , is a method of representing a mechanical system by an analogous electrical system . The advantage of doing this is that there is a large body of theory and analysis techniques concerning complex electrical systems , especially in the field of filters . By converting to an electrical representation , these tools in the electrical domain can be directly applied to a mechanical system without modification . A further advantage occurs in electromechanical systems : Converting the mechanical part of such a system into the electrical domain allows the entire system to be analysed as a unified whole .
The mathematical behaviour of the simulated electrical system is identical to the mathematical behaviour of the represented mechanical system . Each element in the electrical domain has a corresponding element in the mechanical domain with an analogous constitutive equation . All laws of circuit analysis , such as Kirchhoff 's laws , that apply in the electrical domain also apply to the mechanical mobility analogy .
The mobility analogy is one of the two main mechanical @-@ electrical analogies used for representing mechanical systems in the electrical domain , the other being the impedance analogy . The roles of voltage and current are reversed in these two methods , and the electrical representations produced are the dual circuits of each other . The mobility analogy preserves the topology of the mechanical system when transferred to the electrical domain whereas the impedance analogy does not . On the other hand , the impedance analogy preserves the analogy between electrical impedance and mechanical impedance whereas the mobility analogy does not .
= = Applications = =
The mobility analogy is widely used to model the behaviour of mechanical filters . These are filters that are intended for use in an electronic circuit , but work entirely by mechanical vibrational waves . Transducers are provided at the input and output of the filter to convert between the electrical and mechanical domains .
Another very common use is in the field of audio equipment , such as loudspeakers . Loudspeakers consist of a transducer and mechanical moving parts . Acoustic waves themselves are waves of mechanical motion : of air molecules or some other fluid medium .
= = Elements = =
Before an electrical analogy can be developed for a mechanical system , it must first be described as an abstract mechanical network . The mechanical system is broken down into a number of ideal elements each of which can then be paired with an electrical analogue . The symbols used for these mechanical elements on network diagrams are shown in the following sections on each individual element .
The mechanical analogies of lumped electrical elements are also lumped elements , that is , it is assumed that the mechanical component possessing the element is small enough that the time taken by mechanical waves to propagate from one end of the component to the other can be neglected . Analogies can also be developed for distributed elements such as transmission lines but the greatest benefits are with lumped element circuits . Mechanical analogies are required for the three passive electrical elements , namely , resistance , inductance and capacitance . What these analogies are is determined by what mechanical property is chosen to represent voltage , and what property is chosen to represent current . In the mobility analogy the analogue of voltage is velocity and the analogue of current is force . Mechanical impedance is defined as the ratio of force to velocity , thus it is not analogous to electrical impedance . Rather , it is the analogue of electrical admittance , the inverse of impedance . Mechanical admittance is more commonly called mobility , hence the name of the analogy .
= = = Resistance = = =
The mechanical analogy of electrical resistance is the loss of energy of a moving system through such processes as friction . A mechanical component analogous to a resistor is a shock absorber and the property analogous to inverse resistance ( conductance ) is damping ( inverse , because electrical impedance is the analogy of the inverse of mechanical impedance ) . A resistor is governed by the constitutive equation of Ohm 's law ,
<formula>
The analogous equation in the mechanical domain is ,
<formula>
where ,
G = 1 / R is conductance
R is resistance
v is voltage
i is current
Rm is mechanical resistance , or damping
F is force
u is velocity induced by the force .
Electrical conductance represents the real part of electrical admittance . Likewise , mechanical resistance is the real part of mechanical impedance .
= = = Inductance = = =
The mechanical analogy of inductance in the mobility analogy is compliance . It is more common in mechanics to discuss stiffness , the inverse of compliance . A mechanical component analogous to an inductor is a spring . An inductor is governed by the constitutive equation ,
<formula>
The analogous equation in the mechanical domain is a form of Hooke 's law ,
<formula>
where ,
L is inductance
t is time
Cm = 1 / S is mechanical compliance
S is stiffness
The impedance of an inductor is purely imaginary and is given by ,
<formula>
The analogous mechanical admittance is given by ,
<formula>
where ,
Z is electrical impedance
j is the imaginary unit
ω is angular frequency
Ym is mechanical impedance .
= = = Capacitance = = =
The mechanical analogy of capacitance in the mobility analogy is mass . A mechanical component analogous to a capacitor is a large , rigid weight . A capacitor is governed by the constitutive equation ,
<formula>
The analogous equation in the mechanical domain is Newton 's second law of motion ,
<formula>
where ,
C is capacitance
M is mass
The impedance of a capacitor is purely imaginary and is given by ,
<formula>
The analogous mechanical admittance is given by ,
<formula> .
= = = Inertance = = =
A curious difficulty arises with mass as the analogy of an electrical element . It is connected with the fact that in mechanical systems the velocity of the mass ( and more importantly , its acceleration ) is always measured against some fixed reference frame , usually the earth . Considered as a two @-@ terminal system element , the mass has one terminal at velocity ' ' u ' ' , analogous to electric potential . The other terminal is at zero velocity and is analogous to electric ground potential . Thus , mass cannot be used as the analogue of an ungrounded capacitor .
This led Malcolm C. Smith of the University of Cambridge in 2002 to define a new energy storing element for mechanical networks called inertance . A component that possesses inertance is called an inerter . The two terminals of an inerter , unlike a mass , are allowed to have two different , arbitrary velocities and accelerations . The costitutive equation of an inerter is given by ,
<formula>
where ,
F is an equal and opposite force applied to the two terminals
B is the inertance
u1 and u2 are the velocities at terminals 1 and 2 respectively
Δu = u2 − u1
Inertance has the same units as mass ( kilograms in the SI system ) and the name indicates its relationship to inertia . Smith did not just define a network theoretic element , he also suggested a construction for a real mechanical component and made a small prototype . Smith 's inerter consists of a plunger able to slide in or out of a cylinder . The plunger is connected to a rack and pinion gear which drives a flywheel inside the cylinder . There can be two counter @-@ rotating flywheels in order to prevent a torque developing . Energy provided in pushing the plunger in will be returned when the plunger moves in the opposite direction , hence the device stores energy rather than dissipates it just like a block of mass . However , the actual mass of the inerter can be very small , an ideal inerter has no mass . Two points on the inerter , the plunger and the cylinder case , can be independently connected to other parts of the mechanical system with neither of them necessarily connected to ground .
Smith 's inerter has found an application in Formula One racing where it is known as the J @-@ damper . It is used as an alternative to the now banned tuned mass damper and forms part of the vehicle suspension . It may have been first used secretly by McLaren in 2005 following a collaboration with Smith . Other teams are now believed to be using it . The inerter is much smaller than the tuned mass damper and smoothes out contact patch load variations on the tyres . Smith also suggests using the inerter to reduce machine vibration .
The difficulty with mass in mechanical analogies is not limited to the mobility analogy . A corresponding problem also occurs in the impedance analogy , but in that case it is ungrounded inductors , rather than capacitors , that cannot be represented with the
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@-@ 3 ) =
USS Concord ( Gunboat No. 3 / PG @-@ 3 ) was a member of the Yorktown class of steel @-@ hulled , twin @-@ screw gunboats in the United States Navy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . She was the second U.S. Navy ship named in honor of the town of Concord , Massachusetts , site of the Battle of Concord in the American Revolutionary War .
The contract to build Concord was awarded to N. F. Palmer & Co. of Philadelphia in the 1888 fiscal year . Her hull was subcontracted to the Delaware River Iron Shipbuilding & Engine Works which laid down her keel in May 1888 . Concord was launched in March 1890 . She was just over 244 feet ( 74 m ) long and 36 feet ( 11 m ) abeam and displaced 1 @,@ 710 long tons ( 1 @,@ 740 t ) . She was equipped with two steam engines which were supplemented with three schooner @-@ rigged masts . The ship 's main battery consisted of six 6 @-@ inch ( 15 @.@ 2 cm ) guns and was augmented by an assortment of smaller caliber guns .
After her 1891 commissioning , Concord spent the next few years sailing along the East Coast , in the West Indies , and in the Gulf of Mexico . Concord cruised on the Asiatic Station — interrupted only by a short stint on the Alaskan sealing patrol — from 1893 until May 1896 , when she began a year out of commission at San Francisco . In January 1898 , Concord returned to the Asiatic Station , and joined Admiral George Dewey 's fleet for 1 May 1898 Battle of Manila Bay , a decisive American victory over the Spanish Fleet in the Spanish – American War . After the battle , Concord supported United States Army operations in the Philippines in the Philippine – American War . For the rest of her active career , Concord patrolled off the Mexican and Alaskan coasts and served on the Yangtze Patrol . She was decommissioned in 1909 and served as a barracks ship until 1914 , and as a quarantine ship at Astoria , Oregon for the Public Health Service until 1929 , at which time she was returned to the Navy and sold .
= = Design and construction = =
The Yorktown class gunboats — unofficially considered third @-@ class cruisers — were the product of a United States Navy design attempt to produce compact ships with good sea @-@ keeping abilities and , yet , able to carry a heavy battery . Concord was authorized in the 1888 fiscal year , and the contract for her construction was awarded to N. F. Palmer & Co. of Chester , Pennsylvania . The hull for Concord was sublet by Palmer to the Delaware River Iron Shipbuilding & Engine Works and built to the Navy 's Bureau of Construction and Repair design . The mechanical design was patterned after the layout for older sister ship Yorktown developed by William Cramp & Sons .
Concord 's keel was laid down in May 1888 , and the ship was launched on 8 March 1890 , sponsored by Minnie Darlington Coates , the daughter of Major Joseph R. T. Coates , the mayor of Chester . Among those in attendance at the launch ceremony was sculptor Daniel Chester French .
= = = Layout = = =
As built , Concord was 244 feet 5 inches ( 74 @.@ 50 m ) in length and 36 feet ( 11 m ) abeam . Her steel hull had an average draft of 14 feet ( 4 m ) , which was expected to give her the ability to escape from larger ships into shallow water . At the waterline was a turtleback deck of ⅜ -inch ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) steel that formed a watertight seal over the lower spaces . The deck had a crown at the level of the waterline and curved downwards to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) below the waterline at the sides of the ship . Below this armored deck were twelve compartments separated by watertight bulkheads ; the spaces above were equipped with watertight doors intended to be closed during battle .
Above the armored deck , Concord had forecastle and poop decks with an open gun deck that spanned the length of the ship between them . The conning tower was located forward on the forecastle deck and was oval @-@ shaped to deflect shot . It was outfitted with a steam @-@ powered steering wheel , a telegraph , and speaking tubes ; it was protected by 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of steel armor plate .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Concord was powered by two triple @-@ expansion steam engines which each drove one of the pair of 10 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) , three @-@ bladed screw propellers . The cylinders of each engine were 22 , 31 , and 51 inches ( 56 , 79 , and 130 cm ) in diameter and had a 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) stroke . Each engine was rated at 3 @,@ 400 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 500 kW ) and together were designed to move the ship at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ) , though the ship exceeded that in her trials .
The engines , situated in separate watertight compartments , were each fed by a pair of coal @-@ fired boilers . Each boiler was horizontally mounted and was 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) in diameter and 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 33 m ) in length with a total grate area of 220 square inches ( 1 @,@ 400 cm2 ) . Concord 's coal bunkers could carry up to 400 long tons ( 410 t ) of the fuel , and were shielded from " shot and shell " . At a near top @-@ speed of 16 knots , the ship could cover 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ) in 6 ½ days ; at the more economical speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) she could cruise 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ) over 62 days .
To supplement her steam power plant , Concord was built with three masts that were schooner @-@ rigged . She had a total sail area of 6 @,@ 300 square feet ( 590 m2 ) . The steam and sail combination was expected to allow Concord to remain at sea for months at a time during wartime .
= = = Armament = = =
Concord 's main battery consisted of six 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 30 caliber Mark 3 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 11 @,@ 000 pounds ( 5 @,@ 000 kg ) . Two were mounted on the forecastle deck , two on the poop deck , and the other pair amidships on the gun deck . The two guns on the gun deck were mounted 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above the waterline , while the other four were 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) above . The guns fired 105 @-@ pound ( 48 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles with a propellant charge weighing 18 @.@ 8 pounds ( 8 @.@ 5 kg ) at 1 @,@ 950 feet per second ( 590 m / s ) . At an elevation of 30 @.@ 2 ° , the guns had a range of 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) . Each gun was shielded with steel plating 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick .
Concord 's secondary battery consisted of two 6 @-@ pounder ( 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 24 in ) ) guns , two 3 @-@ pounder ( 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 85 in ) ) guns , and two 1 @-@ pounder ( 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) ) guns . All were based on designs of the French arms company Hotchkiss . According to a 1902 Bureau of Ordnance publication , an armor @-@ piercing round fired from a 6 @-@ pounder gun could penetrate 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of armor at a distance of 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) .
= = Career = =
USS Concord ( PG @-@ 3 ) was commissioned on 14 February 1891 under the command of Commander O. A. Batcheller . Concord operated on the coast of New England , and sailed from New York City on 17 November 1891 on a cruise to the West Indies and South America with her squadron , then arrived at New Orleans , Louisiana , on 27 April 1892 and cruised up the Mississippi River as far as Cairo , Illinois , visiting various ports en route .
Returning to New York on 13 June 1892 , Concord made another cruise to the West Indies late that year , and arrived back at Norfolk , Virginia , on 5 December . She participated in International Naval Review held at Norfolk and New York in March and April 1893 , and in June sailed from Norfolk for the Far East , calling at the Azores , Gibraltar , Malta , Port Said , Bangkok , and Saigon before arriving at Hong Kong on 30 October . She cruised on the Asiatic Station until 29 May 1894 when she arrived at Unalaska . She cruised on sealing patrol in the North Pacific to carry out the provisions of the treaty between the United States and United Kingdom , which empowered Concord to seize any vessel violating the laws protecting valuable fur seals . She gathered hydrographic information to correct Bering Sea charts and conduct scientific observations of the fur seals .
Concord returned to the Asiatic Station in September 1894 and continued to serve in the Far East until returning to San Francisco on 3 May 1896 . She was placed out of commission for repairs between 27 May 1896 and 22 May 1897 . After a cruise to Al
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askan waters 1 July – 29 November , she sailed from Mare Island 8 January 1898 for the Asiatic Station . With the declaration of war between Spain and the United States in April , Concord joined Admiral George Dewey 's squadron at Mirs Bay near Hong Kong on the 24th and sailed for the Philippines . On 1 May , Concord participated in the Battle of Manila Bay that resulted in American control of the Philippines .
Concord resumed her patrol on station in August 1898 , but returned to the Philippines on 19 December to assist in putting down the insurrection . Her duty consisted of patrolling the coast to restrict insurgent movements and shipping ; bombarding various strongholds ; and aiding United States Army operations . Except for a voyage to Guam in March 1900 to deliver stores , and a brief voyage to Hong Kong for repairs , Concord remained in Philippine waters until June 1901 , when she sailed by way of Alaskan waters to San Francisco , arriving 28 September 1901 . She cruised with the Fleet in Mexican waters , then went out of commission on 26 February 1902 at Mare Island .
Recommissioned on 15 June 1903 Concord operated along the North American coast from Alaska to Panama and to Hawaii and Alaska until decommissioned at Bremerton , Washington , on 25 August 1904 . Concord was commissioned again on 16 September 1905 and sailed from Bremerton on 24 December 1905 for operations in the Philippines . Remaining there until March 1906 , Concord sailed to China . Until 1908 she remained in the Far East serving at times on the Yangtze Patrol and as station ship at Shanghai and Canton .
Concord served as station ship at Guam from 2 January to 10 September 1909 , then sailed to Puget Sound Navy Yard where she arrived on 11 October . She was decommissioned for the final time on 4 November 1909 , and assigned as barracks ship for the Washington Naval Militia at Seattle . She was transferred to the Public Health Service of the Treasury Department on 15 June 1914 and served as a stationary quarantine barge at Astoria , Oregon . Returned to naval custody on 19 March 1929 , she was sold on 28 June 1929 .
In August 1915 two of the Concord 's six @-@ inch guns were placed in the War Garden of Woodland Park , Seattle , WA . The Seattle Times of 15 August stated : " Two six @-@ inch guns from the United States cruiser Concord which saw active service at the battle of Manila , yesterday afternoon were brought to Seattle from Bremerton under the direction of the United Spanish War Veterans , to be mounted in Woodland Park in the near future . W. S. F. Quick , chairman of the board of managers of the United Spanish War Veterans Club of Seattle , yesterday signed a receipt for government property valued at $ 18 @,@ 000 , which gives the local veterans practical possession of the pieces from now on . The two guns when mounted will be known as Battery Dewey . " These guns are today near the Woodland Park Zoo in the Phinney Ridge neighborhood of Seattle .
= Alan Shearer =
Alan Shearer , CBE , DL ( / ˈʃɪərər / ; born 13 August 1970 ) is a retired English footballer . He played as a striker in the top level of English league football for Southampton , Blackburn Rovers , Newcastle United and for the England national team . He is Newcastle 's and the Premier League 's record goalscorer . He was named Football Writers ' Association Player of the Year in 1994 and won the PFA Player of the Year award in 1995 . In 1996 , he was third in the FIFA World Player of the Year awards .
Shearer scored 283 league goals in his career , including a record 260 in the Premier League ( of which 58 were penalties ) with a record 11 Premier League hat @-@ tricks , and a total of 422 in all competitions including international at all levels . Until his retirement from international football 2000 he appeared 63 times for his country and scored 30 goals . Shearer had a goals to game ratio of 0 @.@ 667 throughout his career .
Since retiring as a player in 2006 , Shearer has worked as a television pundit for the BBC . In 2009 , he briefly left his BBC role to become Newcastle United 's manager in the last eight games of their 2008 – 09 season , in an unsuccessful attempt to save them from relegation . Shearer is a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) , a Deputy Lieutenant of Northumberland , a Freeman of Newcastle upon Tyne and an honorary Doctor of Civil Law of Northumbria and Newcastle Universities .
= = Early years = =
Shearer was born in Gosforth , Newcastle in 1970 to working @-@ class parents Alan and Anne Shearer . His father , a sheet @-@ metal worker , encouraged a keen Shearer to play football in his youth , and the young player continued with the sport as he progressed through school . He was educated at Gosforth Central Middle School and Gosforth High School . Growing up playing on the streets of his hometown , he originally played in midfield because " it meant [ he ] could get more involved in the games . " Shearer captained his school team and helped a Newcastle City Schools team win a seven @-@ a @-@ side tournament at St James ' Park , before joining the amateur Wallsend Boys Club as a teenager . It was while playing for the Wallsend club that he was spotted by Southampton 's scout , Jack Hixon , which resulted in Shearer spending his summers training with the club 's youth team , a time he would later refer to as " the making of me " . Shearer had successful trials for First Division clubs West Bromwich Albion , Manchester City and Newcastle United , before being offered a youth contract with Southampton in April 1986 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Southampton ( 1986 – 1992 ) = = =
Shearer was promoted to the first team after spending two years with the youth squad . He made his professional debut for Southampton on 26 March 1988 , coming on as a substitute in a First Division fixture at Chelsea , before prompting national headlines in his full debut at The Dell two weeks later . He scored a hat @-@ trick , helping the team to a 4 – 2 victory against Arsenal , thus becoming the youngest player – at 17 years , 240 days – to score a hat @-@ trick in the top division , breaking Jimmy Greaves ' 30 @-@ year – old record . Shearer ended the 1987 – 88 season with three goals in five games , and was rewarded with his first professional contract .
Despite this auspicious start to his career , Shearer was only eased into the first team gradually and made just ten goalless appearances for the club the following season . Throughout his career Shearer was recognised for his strength , which , during his time at Southampton , enabled him to retain the ball and provide opportunities for team mates . Playing as a lone striker between wide men , Rod Wallace and Matt Le Tissier , Shearer scored three goals in 26 appearances in the 1989 – 90 season , and in the next , four goals in 36 games . His performances in the centre of the Saints attack were soon recognised by the fans , who voted him their Player of the Year for 1991 .
In the middle of 1991 , Shearer was a member of the England national under @-@ 21 football squad in the Toulon Tournament in Toulon , France . Shearer was the star of the tournament where he scored seven goals in four games . It was during the 1991 – 92 season that Shearer rose to national prominence . 13 goals in 41 appearances for the Saints led to an England call @-@ up ; he scored on his debut , and was strongly linked in the press with a summer move to Manchester United . A possible move for Shearer was being mentioned in the media during late autumn of 1991 , but he rejected talk of a transfer ( Leeds United were also linked to Shearer ) and vowed to see out the season with Southampton , resisting the temptation of a possible transfer to the two clubs who headed the title race for most of the season . Speculation of a transfer to Liverpool , who finished the season as FA Cup winners , also came to nothing .
During the middle of 1992 , Southampton 's manager , Ian Branfoot , became " the most popular manager in English football " , as he took telephone calls from clubs " trying to bargain with players they don 't want plus cash " . Although Branfoot accepted that a sale was inevitable , he claimed that " whatever happens , we are in the driving seat " . In July 1992 , Shearer was sold to Blackburn Rovers for a fee of £ 3 @.@ 6 million , with David Speedie reluctantly moving to The Dell as part of the deal . Despite Branfoot 's claim to be " in the driving seat " , Saints failed to include a " sell @-@ on clause " in the contract . Shearer , less than a month off his 22nd birthday , was the most expensive player in British football . In his four years in the Southampton first team , Shearer made a total of 158 appearances in all competitions , scoring 43 goals .
= = = Blackburn Rovers ( 1992 – 1996 ) = = =
Despite making just one goalless appearance as England failed to progress past the Euro 1992 group stages , Shearer was soon subject to an English transfer record @-@ breaking £ 3.6million bid from Blackburn Rovers . Although there was also interest from Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson , Blackburn benefactor Jack Walker 's millions were enough to prise the striker from the Saints , and Shearer moved north to Ewood Park in the middle of 1992 .
His first season with Blackburn was mixed – he missed half of it through injury after snapping his right anterior cruciate ligament in a match against Leeds United in December 1992 , but scored a prolific 16 goals in the 21 games in which he did feature . Shearer also became a regular in the England team this season and scored his second international goal ; it came in a 4 – 0 1994 FIFA World Cup qualifier win over Turkey in November . The season ended sourly , however , as Shearer was forced to miss January through to May due to injury and England 's World Cup qualification chances were hit by a run of poor form .
Returning to fitness for the 1993 – 94 season , he scored 31 goals from 40 games as Blackburn finished runners @-@ up in the Premier League . His performances for the club led to him being named the Football Writers ' Association Footballer of the Year for that season . On the international scene , England had failed to qualify for the 1994 World Cup finals , but Shearer added three more goals to his international tally before embarking on his most successful domestic season as a player to date .
The arrival of Chris Sutton for the 1994 – 95 season established a strong attacking partnership at Blackburn . Shearer 's league @-@ record 34 goals , coupled with Sutton 's 15 , helped the Lancashire club take the Premier League title from arch rivals Manchester United on the final day of the season , and the duo gained the nickname " the SAS " ( Shearer And Sutton ) . After being asked by the press how he planned to celebrate winning the title , Shearer replied , by " creosoting the fence " . Shearer also had his first taste of European football in the UEFA Cup that season , and scored in the second leg as Blackburn went out in the first round , losing to Trelleborgs FF of Sweden . His efforts for the club led to Shearer being awarded the PFA Players ' Player of the Year for 1995 .
Although the club could not retain the title the following year , Shearer again ended the ( now 38 @-@ game ) season as Premier League top scorer , with 31 goals in 35 games , as Blackburn finished seventh in the league . The previous season 's first @-@ place finish also saw the club enter the Champions League . Shearer 's only goal in six full Champions League games was a penalty in a 4 – 1 victory against Rosenborg BK in the final fixture and Blackburn finished third in their group , failing to progress to the next stage .
He passed the 100 @-@ goal milestone for Blackburn in all competitions on 23 September 1995 , scoring a hat @-@ trick in their 5 – 1 home win over Coventry City in the Premier League . On 30 December , he scored his 100th Premier League goal for the club in a 2 – 1 home win over Tottenham Hotspur . His final tally for the club was 112 goals in the Premier League and 130 in all competitions . His final goals for the club came on 17 April 1996 , when he scored twice in a 3 – 2 home league win over Wimbledon .
Shearer 's international strike rate had also dried up , with no goals in the twelve matches leading up to Euro 96 . He missed the final three games of the season for his club due to injury , but recovered in time to play in England 's UEFA European Championship campaign .
= = = Newcastle United ( 1996 – 2006 ) = = =
After Euro 96 , Manchester United again sought to sign Shearer , and attempted to enter the battle for his signature . However Manchester United chairman Martin Edwards stated that Blackburn Rovers refused to let Shearer go to Old Trafford . Ultimately Shearer joined his boyhood club and Manchester United 's title rivals Newcastle United .
On 30 July 1996 , for a world transfer record @-@ breaking £ 15 million ( equivalent to £ 25 @.@ 39 million today ) Shearer joined his hometown club and league runners @-@ up Newcastle United , managed by his hero Keegan . Shearer made his league debut away at Everton , on 17 August 1996 , and maintained his form during the rest of the season , finishing as Premier League top @-@ scorer for the third consecutive season with 25 goals in 31 Premier League games , as well as winning another PFA Player of the Year accolade , despite a groin injury forcing him to miss seven matches . Perhaps his best performance of the season came on 2 February 1997 when Newcastle went into the final 15 minutes of the game 3 – 1 down at home to Leicester City in the league , only for Shearer to win them the game 4 – 3 by scoring a late hat @-@ trick .
However , the league title still eluded the club , who finished second in the league for a consecutive year , with Keegan resigning mid @-@ way through the season .
Another injury problem ; this time an ankle ligament injury sustained in a pre @-@ season match at Goodison Park , restricted Shearer to just two goals in 17 games in the 1997 – 98 season . His injury was reflected in the club 's form , and Newcastle finished just 13th in the Premier League . However , United ( now managed by Shearer 's old boss at Blackburn , Kenny Dalglish ) had a good run in the FA Cup ; Shearer scored the winning goal in a semi @-@ final victory over Sheffield United as the team reached the final . The team were unable to get on the scoresheet at Wembley , and lost the game 2 – 0 to Arsenal .
An incident during a game against Leicester City in the league saw Shearer charged with misconduct by the FA , with media sources claiming that video footage showed him intentionally kicking Neil Lennon in the head following a challenge . The referee of the game took no action against Shearer , and he was then cleared of all charges by the FA , with Lennon giving evidence in the player 's defence . Former Football Association chief Graham Kelly , who brought the charges against the player , later claimed in his autobiography that Shearer had threatened to withdraw himself from the 1998 World Cup squad if the charges were upheld ; a claim strenuously denied by Shearer .
An almost injury @-@ free season helped Shearer improve on his previous year 's tally in 1998 – 99 , the striker converting 14 goals in 30 league games and replacing Rob Lee as Newcastle captain , but Newcastle finished 13th again , with Ruud Gullit having replaced Kenny Dalglish just after the season got underway . He also helped Newcastle to a second consecutive FA Cup final and qualification for the following season 's UEFA Cup , scoring twice in the semi @-@ final against Tottenham Hotspur , but they once again lost ; this time 2 – 0 to treble @-@ chasing Manchester United .
On the opening day of the 1999 – 2000 season , Shearer received the first red card of his career in his 100th appearance for Newcastle . After dropping Shearer to the bench in a Tyne @-@ Wear derby loss against Sunderland , the unpopular Gullit resigned to be replaced by the 66 @-@ year @-@ old Bobby Robson . Despite Gullit giving Shearer the captain 's armband , reports of a rift between club captain and manager were rife , Gullit 's decision to drop Shearer proved deeply unpopular with fans and his departure capped a dismal start to the season . The animosity between Shearer and Gullit was later confirmed by the latter , who reported telling the striker that he was " ... the most overrated player I have ever seen . " Ironically , Robson had tried to sign Shearer for Barcelona in 1997 , making a bid of £ 20million which would have seen Shearer break the world 's transfer fee record for the second time in 12 months . However , then Newcastle manager Kenny Dalglish rejected the offer .
In Robson 's first match in charge , Shearer scored five goals in an 8 – 0 defeat of Sheffield Wednesday . With Robson in charge , the team moved away from the relegation zone , finishing in mid @-@ table and reached the FA Cup semi @-@ finals , but a third consecutive final was beyond them as they were beaten by Chelsea . Shearer missed only one league game and notched up 23 goals .
Shearer suffered an injury @-@ hit and frustrating season in 2000 – 01 , having retired from international football after the UEFA Euro 2000 tournament to focus on club football . He managed only five goals in 19 games in the league . 2001 – 02 was much better though ; Shearer bagged 23 goals in 37 league games as Newcastle finished fourth — their highest standing since 1997 — meaning they would qualify for the following season 's Champions League competition . One of the most memorable incidents of the season saw Roy Keane sent off after a confrontation with Shearer during Newcastle 's 4 – 3 win over the Red Devils in September 2001 . Shearer also saw red for the second time in his career this season , after allegedly elbowing an opposition player in a match against Charlton Athletic . The card was subsequently rescinded by referee Andy D 'Urso after reviewing video replays after the game .
The 2002 – 03 season saw Shearer and Newcastle make their return to the UEFA Champions League . Newcastle lost their first three matches in the opening group stage , but Shearer 's goal against Dynamo Kyiv , coupled with further wins against Juventus and Feyenoord saw the club progress to the second group stage . Shearer 's Champions League hat @-@ trick against Bayer Leverkusen and a brace against Internazionale in the second group stage helped him reach a total of seven Champions League goals , along with his 17 in 35 games in the league , and a total of 25 for the season as the team again improved to finish in third place in the Premier League .
After this , Newcastle would have one more chance to progress in the Champions League in early 2003 , but Shearer was one of those who failed to score as the team were eliminated in a penalty shootout by Partizan Belgrade in the third qualifying round . United progressed well in that season 's UEFA Cup and Shearer 's six goals helped the club reach the semi @-@ finals , where they were beaten by eventual runners up Olympique de Marseille . Domestically he also had a good season , with 22 goals in 37 appearances , however could not prevent the club dropping out of the Champions League places to finish in fifth , qualifying once again for the UEFA Cup .
Announcing that this would be his final season before retirement , Shearer 's form in 2004 – 05 was patchy ; alongside new signing Patrick Kluivert , he scored only seven goals in his 28 games as the club finished the season in 14th place . The club fared better in the cup competitions , however , eventually losing out to Sporting CP in the UEFA Cup quarter @-@ finals and Manchester United in the FA Cup semi @-@ finals . Shearer scored a hat @-@ trick in the first round win against Hapoel Bnei Sakhnin , and ended the season with a haul of 11 European goals , in addition to his one goal in domestic cups .
The middle of 2005 saw Shearer reverse his decision to retire after persuasion from manager Graeme Souness . He decided to continue playing in a player @-@ coach capacity until the end of the following season. and he returned for one more season in 2005 – 06 . This last season saw him break Jackie Milburn 's 49 @-@ year @-@ old record of 200 goals for Newcastle United ( not including his 38 World War II Wartime League goals ) when he netted his 201st strike in a home Premier League fixture against Portsmouth on 4 February 2006 , becoming the club 's highest @-@ ever league and cup competition goalscorer with 206 goals altogether . On 17 April 2006 , with three games remaining in his final season as a player , Shearer suffered a tear to the medial collateral ligament in his left knee after a collision during the 4 – 1 win at Sunderland in which he scored his 206th goal in what was his 395th appearance for the club . The injury caused him to miss those final three games , effectively bringing forward his retirement . Shearer finished his final season with 10 goals in 32 league games .
= = = Tribute and testimonial = = =
In tribute to Shearer 's contribution to Newcastle United over more than ten years , the club erected a large banner of Shearer on the outside of the cantilever superstructure of the Gallowgate End of St James ' Park . The banner measured 25 metres ( 82 ft ) high by 32 metres ( 105 ft ) wide , covering almost half of the Gallowgate End , aptly placed above the club bar , Shearers bar , opened in his honour in 2005 . The banner depicted Shearer as the " Gallowgate Giant " , with one arm aloft in his signature goal celebration , with the message " Thanks for 10 great years " , and was featured in the media coverage reflecting on his career at the club , with the banner being displayed from 19 April 2006 until 11 May 2006 , the day of his testimonial match . The banner could be seen across the city and as far away as Gateshead across the River Tyne , standing taller than the iconic local landmark , the Angel of the North .
Shearer was awarded a testimonial match by the club , against Scottish @-@ side Celtic . All proceeds of the match went to charitable causes . Because of the injury he sustained three games earlier at Sunderland , Shearer was unable to play in the whole match ; however he kicked @-@ off the game and came off the bench to score a penalty , winning the game 3 – 2 . The match was a sell @-@ out , and saw Shearer perform a lap of honour at the end with his family ,
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whole future of the city lies within our own hands . Los Angeles Harbor ( which ought to have been larger and deeper ) ; the great Desert City which may be ; and the Colorado River water system ; these are the three factors which will settle the future of the City of Los Angeles . And the time to strike is now !
Jaher lists Widney as among those Los Angeles entrepreneurs who were the " most avid civic boosters ... [ who ] made sanguine by their triumphs , they expect urban growth to bring further gains ... [ who ] predicted that the city would become a great metropolis " . Widney envisioned Los Angeles " developing into the health capital of the world , a heliopolis of holistic health culture " .
He was a member of the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce from October 1888 . His first two books promoted California . In California of the South ( 1888 ) , described by David Fine as " one of the earliest booster tracts " Widney and Walter Lindley wrote : " The health @-@ seeker who , after suffering in both mind and body , after vainly trying the cold climate of Minnesota and the warm climate of Florida , after visiting Mentone , Cannes , and Nice , after traveling to Cuba and Algiers , and noticing that he is losing ounce upon ounce of flesh , and his cheeks have grown more sunken , his appetite more capricious , his breath more hurried , that his temperature is no longer normal , ... turns with a gleam of hope toward the Occident " — by which they meant Southern California . Many people followed that gleam and found it something more than hope " .
= = Public service = =
Widney helped define the railroad , maritime and commercial policy of Southern California . He and Robert were entrepreneurial professionals . They were " effective lobbyists for the Southern Pacific [ railroad ] and for harbor improvements " and were " active in transport enterprises and in the development of the San Pedro harbor " .
In 1871 , Widney wanted Los Angeles to have a harbor , and with Phineas Banning successfully lobbied the United States Congress for funding for the harbor at San Pedro , California ( the Port of Los Angeles ) . He was chairman of the Los Angeles Citizens ' Committee on the Wilmington Harbor . He successfully opposed the attempt of the railroad interests of Collis Potter Huntington and his partners from claiming the state tidelands of the harbor for their own purposes , ensuring these lands remained in public hands .
Widney supported dividing the state of California and establishing the commonwealth of Southern California . He was regarded as " one of the ablest and most enthusiastic advocates of the new ' California of the South ' " . For many years Widney advocated the division of the state of California into at least two states , in order to maximize its representation in the U.S. Senate . He indicated in 1880 that " the topography , geography , climatic and commercial laws all work for the separation of California into two distinct civil organizations " . In 1888 , Widney said that " two distinct peoples are growing up in the state , and the time is rapidly drawing near when the separation which the working of natural laws is making in the people must become a separation of civil laws as well " .
In his book The Three Americas ( 1935 ) , Widney suggested that the United States , Canada , the United Kingdom , Australia , New Zealand , and South Africa form an Anglo @-@ Saxon federation with freedom of migration and a common citizenship .
While Republican in general politics , he was " an earnest worker in the cause of temperance " . In an 1886 Los Angeles Times op @-@ ed piece Widney suggested that the liquor question – the restriction of its manufacture and sale – should not only become the subject of a Republican party platform plank but should be the issue around which the party rebuilt itself . He was interested in the progress of prohibition , and served as head of the city 's nonpartisan anti @-@ saloon league .
Widney is regarded as " the outstanding early educator of Los Angeles " .
He was involved in the University of Southern California from its conception in 1879 , and served as a member of the Board of Trustees of USC from 1880 to 1895 .
He was heavily responsible for the creation of the USC College of Medicine in 1885 at the beginning of a three @-@ year " boom " cycle in Los Angeles , and served as founding dean , a responsibility he accepted for the next eleven years until his resignation on September 22 , 1896 . According to Michael Carter , " the University Catalogue for the academic year 1884 – 85 declared that applicants to the medical school , as to the rest of USC , would not be denied admission because of ' race , color , religion or sex . ' "
After the death of USC founding president Marion McKinley Bovard on December 30 , 1891 , the Board of Trustees elected Widney as the second president . After he " recognized a call of the Lord " , he accepted the presidency at a difficult time in the history of the young institution , which had only twenty @-@ five undergraduate students with a focus was on providing secondary education .
The College of Liberal Arts was eighteen thousand dollars in debt . He first set up a separate governing board for the College of Liberal Arts , both to refinance the debt and of tying that branch of the institution more closely to California Methodism . He raised $ 15 @,@ 000 , giving his own personal security to back up the loans , saving USC from bankruptcy . The Southern California Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church increased its support for USC in 1893 . The Conference " enthusiastically adopted Widney 's new financial program for the institution . Two of the church 's most distinguished and trusted leaders , Widney and Phineas F. Bresee , were at the helm . By the time of the annual conference of 1894 , the university had passed through its financial crisis , and Widney 's principal work was done " . In the spring of 1895 , Widney resigned after " four years of intensive unremunerated service to the university as its president " . He announced his intention to spend a year studying in the East . The board finally accepted the resignation , after their benefactor had turned aside repeated requests that he reconsider his decision .
In addition to his responsibilities at USC , Widney served several years as a member and president of the Los Angeles Board of Education .
In October 1894 at the dedication of the Peniel Hall , Widney announced his intention to organize a Training Institute , in which Bible and practical nursing were to be the principal studies .
= = Religious interests = =
Widney was raised in the Greene Street Methodist Episcopal Church in Piqua , Ohio . His uncle , Robert Samuel Maclay , was the first Methodist missionary to China , and an early Methodist missionary to Japan and Korea .
In the Los Angeles First Methodist Episcopal Church , the Widneys were members of the " District Aid Committee , " an organization devoted to securing better support for underpaid pastors .
He supported the Los Angeles City Mission ( the Peniel Mission ) , founded in 1886 as the Los Angeles Mission and was non @-@ denominational and nonsectarian .
Bresee and Widney wanted a church for the poor . They announced a service for October 6 , 1895 , in Red Men 's Hall near the Peniel Mission . On October 30 , 1895 , Bresee and Widney organised the Church of the Nazarene . Widney suggested the name of the new church .
Widney returned to the Methodist church as a pastor and was appointed to the church 's City Mission of Los Angeles ( formally organized in 1908 ) , where he ministered to thousands over the next several years .
In 1899 , he was the pastor of the Nazarene Methodist Episcopal Church . Growth of the congregation led to the building of a 500 @-@ seat building . He paid the full cost of construction and ministered without compensation . The new building was dedicated on June 3 , 1900 . In 1903 this church was renamed the Beth @-@ El Methodist Episcopal Church . Widney resigned from the Methodist Episcopal church in 1911 .
Widney was influenced by the teachings of preacher David Swing and Thomas Starr King , a broad @-@ minded , religiously inclusive Unitarian minister . Widney described King as " one of the few great and broad @-@ minded spirits of the church " ( Frankiel , p30 . ) [ 18 ] .
= = Racial beliefs = =
Widney lamented the decline in influence and power of the original Hispanic population of California . Widney said , " you could visit the hospitals and almshouses in the late ' eighties and look in vain for the Mexican or the Spaniard . "
Widney in his 1876 History indicates : " In the spring of 1850 , probably three or four colored persons were in the city . In 1875 , they numbered 175 souls , many of whom hold good city property acquired by industry . They are farmers , mechanics , or some other useful occupation , and remarkable for good habits " .
African @-@ American activist W. E. B. Du Bois used Widney 's Race Life of the Aryan Peoples to support his own view of the significance of the contributions of blacks to the development of modern civilization . Widney wrote " They [ the Negroes ] once occupied a much wider territory and wielded a vastly greater influence upon earth than they do now . "
In The Three Americas ( 1935 ) , Widney suggested that the United States buy British Guiana from the United Kingdom and give it to the African Americans as reparations for slavery .
= = Later years = =
Widney attributed his longevity to living simply and keeping busy . At age 94 , Widney advocated " no liquor , no tobacco , no drugs . I 'm not a fanatic on liquor , but to me it is a medicine . I keep it around and take it when I need it . But there is no excuse whatever for tobacco or drugs " . He recommended at least eight hours sleep each night and short naps throughout the day .
He died at 10 : 50 am on July 4 , 1938 in his home in Highland Park , Los Angeles , California , aged 96 . After services held in his home , he was buried at the Evergreen Cemetery at Boyle Heights , Los Angeles , California on July 6 , 1938 .
In March 1939 the new Crippled Children 's High School was renamed the Dr. Joseph Pomeroy Widney High School . This school is for those aged 13 to 22 with special educational needs . The Widney Hall Alumni House at the University of Southern California ) Widney Hall , the university 's original building , was declared a Los Angeles Historic @-@ Cultural Monument ( No. 70 ) on December 16 , 1970 . The University of Southern California honors its distinguished graduates by presenting the Widney Alumni Award . His portrait was painted by American artist Orpha Mae Klinker , and a bust of Widney was sculpted by Emil Seletz .
= = List of works = =
= = = Books ( co @-@ authored ) = = =
Lindley , Walter and Joseph Widney . California of the South : Its Physical Geography , Climate , Resources , Routes of Travel , and Health @-@ Resorts Being a Complete Guide @-@ Book to Southern California.D. Appleton and Company : 1888 ; 3rd edition ; 1896 .
Warner , J.J. ; Benjamin Hayes ; and Joseph Widney . An Historical Sketch of Los Angeles County , California : From the Spanish Occupancy , By the Founding of the Mission San Gabriel Archangel , September 8 , 1771 , to July 4 , 1876 . Prepared by a committee appointed by the Literary Committee of the Los Angeles Centennial Celebration . Louis Lewin & Co . : 1876 ; Reprint ed . O. W. Smith : 1936 .
= = = Books = = =
An Illustrated History of Los Angeles County , California : Containing a history of Los Angeles County from the earliest period of its occupancy to the present time , together with glimpses of its prospective future .. and biographical mention of many of its pioneers and also of prominent citizens of to @-@ day . Chicago , IL ; Lewis Publishing Company ( author ) , 1889 . [ 19 ] See page 200 re : JP Widney .
Apostol , Jane , The Historical Society of Southern California , A Centennial History 1891 – 1991 . Sultana Press , 1991 . Widney was actively involved in this society .
Botkin , Daniel B. No Man 's Garden : Thoreau and a New Vision for Civilization and Nature . Island Press , 2000 . See pages 220 – 221 for details re Widneyville .
Caughey , John Walton and La Ree Caughey . Los Angeles : Biography of a City . Berkeley , CA : University of California Press , 1976 .
Cory , H.T. The Imperial Valley and the Salton Sink . John J. Newbegin , 1915 .
de Stanley , Mildred . The Salton Sea yesterday and today . Los Angeles , CA : Triumph Press , 1966 .
E.T.W. Joseph Pomeroy Widney : A biography of Joseph Pomeroy Widney , M.D. , founder of the Los Angeles County Medical Association and of the College of Medicine of the University of Southern California , Civic Worker , and Author : Some Biographical Notes on a Colleague , who , at the Age of 95 , Still ' Carries On . ( California and Western Medicine ) . San Francisco , CA : 1936 .
Kress , George Henry . A History of the Medical Profession of Southern California . Los Angeles , CA : Times @-@ Mirror , 1910 .
Newmark , Marco . " The Community Builders of Los Angeles – Dr Joseph P. Widney " , pages 89 – 93 . In Jottings in Southern California History . Ward Ritchie Press , 1955 .
Rand , Carl Wheeler . Joseph Pomeroy Widney : Physician and Mystic . Los Angeles , CA : Anderson , Ritchie & Simon , 1970 .
= = = Theses and dissertations = = =
Gay , Leslie F. , Jr . " History of the University of Southern California . " Masters Thesis , 1910 .
Potter , Edward Lawrence . The Widney Family . 1966 ; reprinted Nazarene : 1987 . " First international archives project of the Church of the Nazarene . " . Reprinted by the Church of the Nazarene , 1987 .. Thesis ( M.A. ) --Los Angeles : University of Southern California , 1966 .. Bibliography : leaves [ 125 ] -130 .
= Battle of the Netherlands =
The Battle of the Netherlands ( Dutch : Slag om Nederland ) was part of Case Yellow ( German : Fall Gelb ) , the German invasion of the Low Countries ( Belgium , Luxembourg , and the Netherlands ) and France during World War II .
The battle lasted from 10 May 1940 until the main Dutch forces surrendered on the 14th . Dutch troops in the province of Zealand continued to resist the Wehrmacht until 17 May when Germany completed its occupation of the whole nation .
The Battle of the Netherlands saw one of the first major uses of paratroopers to occupy crucial targets prior to ground troops reaching the area . The German Luftwaffe utilised paratroopers in the capture of several major airfields in the Netherlands in and around key cities such as Rotterdam and The Hague in order to quickly overrun the nation and immobilise Dutch forces .
The battle ended soon after the devastating bombing of Rotterdam by the German Luftwaffe and the subsequent threat by the Germans to bomb other large Dutch cities if Dutch forces refused to surrender . The Dutch General Staff knew it could not stop the bombers and surrendered in order to prevent other cities from suffering the same fate . The Netherlands remained under German occupation until 1945 , when the last Dutch territory was liberated .
= = Background = =
Britain and France declared war on Germany in 1939 , following the German invasion of Poland , but no major land operations occurred in Western Europe during the period known as the Phoney War in the winter of 1939 – 1940 . During this time , the British and French built up their forces in expectation of a long war , and the Germans completed their conquest of Poland . On 9 October , Adolf Hitler ordered plans to be made for an invasion of the Low Countries , to use them as a base against Great Britain and to pre @-@ empt a similar attack by the Allied forces , which could threaten the vital Ruhr Area .
The Dutch were ill @-@ prepared to resist such an invasion . When Hitler came to power , the Dutch had begun to re @-@ arm , but more slowly than France or Belgium ; only in 1936 did the defence budget start to be gradually increased . Successive Dutch governments tended to avoid openly identifying Germany as an acute military threat . Partly this was caused by a wish not to antagonise a vital trade partner , even to the point of repressing criticism of Nazi policies ; partly it was made inevitable by a policy of strict budgetary limits with which the conservative Dutch governments tried in vain to fight the Great Depression , which hit Dutch society particularly hard . Hendrikus Colijn , prime minister between 1933 and 1939 , was personally convinced Germany would not violate Dutch neutrality ; senior officers made no effort to mobilise public opinion in favour of improving military defence .
International tensions grew in the late 1930s . Crises were caused by the German occupation of the Rhineland in 1936 ; the Anschluss and Sudeten crisis of 1938 ; and the German occupation of Bohemia and Moravia and the Italian invasion of Albania in the spring of 1939 . These events forced the Dutch government to exercise greater vigilance , but they limited their reaction as much as they could . The most important measure was a partial mobilisation of 100 @,@ 000 men in April 1939 .
After the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the ensuing outbreak of the Second World War , the Netherlands hoped to remain neutral , as they had done during the First World War 25 years earlier . To ensure this neutrality , the Dutch army was mobilised from 24 August and entrenched . Large sums ( almost 900 million guilders ) were spent on defence . It proved very difficult to obtain new matériel in wartime , however , especially as the Dutch had ordered some of their new equipment from Germany , which deliberately delayed deliveries . Moreover , a considerable part of the funds were intended for the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) , much of it related to a plan to build three battlecruisers .
The strategic position of the Low Countries , located between France and Germany on the uncovered flanks of their fortification lines , made the area a logical route for an offensive by either side . In a 20 January 1940 radio speech , Winston Churchill tried to convince them not to wait for an inevitable German attack , but to join the Anglo @-@ French Entente . Both the Belgians and Dutch refused , even though the German attack plans had fallen into Belgian hands after a German aircraft crash in January 1940 in what became known as the Mechelen Incident .
The French supreme command considered violating the neutrality of the Low Countries if they had not joined the Anglo @-@ French coalition before the planned large Entente offensive in the summer of 1941 , but the French Cabinet , fearing a negative public reaction , vetoed the idea . Kept into consideration was a plan to invade if Germany attacked the Netherlands alone , necessitating an Entente advance through Belgium , or if the Netherlands assisted the enemy by tolerating a German advance into Belgium through the southern part of their territory , both possibilities discussed as part of the hypothèse Hollande . The Dutch government never officially formulated a policy on how to act in case of either contingency ; the majority of ministers preferred to resist an attack , a minority and Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands refused to become a German ally whatever the circumstances . The Dutch tried on several occasions to act as an intermediary to reach a negotiated peace settlement between the Entente and Germany .
After the German invasion of Norway and Denmark , followed by a warning by the new Japanese naval attaché Captain Tadashi Meada that a German attack on the Netherlands was certain , it became clear to the Dutch military that staying out of the conflict might prove impossible . They started to fully prepare for war , both mentally and physically . Dutch border troops were put on greater alert . Reports of the presumed actions of a Fifth Column in Scandinavia caused widespread fears that the Netherlands too had been infiltrated by German agents assisted by traitors . Countermeasures were taken against a possible assault on airfields and ports . On 19 April a state of emergency was declared . However , most civilians still cherished the illusion that their country might be spared , an attitude that after the war has been described as a state of denial . The Dutch hoped that the restrained policy of the Entente and Central Powers during the First World War might be repeated and tried to avoid the attention of the Great Powers and a war in which they feared a loss of human life comparable to that of the previous conflict . On 10 April Britain and France repeated their request that the Dutch enter the war on their side , but were again refused .
= = = Dutch forces = = =
= = = = Royal Dutch Army = = = =
In the Netherlands , all the objective conditions were present for a successful defence : a dense population , wealthy , young , disciplined and well @-@ educated ; a geography favouring the defender ; and a strong technological and industrial base including an armaments industry . However , these had not been exploited : while the Wehrmacht at the time still had many shortcomings in equipment and training , the Dutch army in comparison was like David compared to Goliath . The myth of the general German equipment advantage over the opposing armies in the Battle of France was in fact a reality in the case of the Battle of the Netherlands . On the one hand there was the modern German army with tanks and dive bombers ( such as the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka ) and on the other hand the Dutch army , whose armoured forces comprised only 39 armoured cars and five tankettes , and an air force for a large part consisting of biplanes . The Dutch government 's attitude towards war was reflected in the state of the country 's armed forces , which had not significantly expanded their equipment since before the First World War , and were inadequately armed even by the standards of 1918 . During the 1920s , an economic recession lasting from 1920 until 1927 and the general détente in international relations caused a limitation of the defence budget . In that decade , only 1 @.@ 5 million guilders per annum was spent on equipment . Both in 1931 and 1933 , commissions appointed to economise even further failed , because they concluded that the acceptable minimum had been reached and advised that a spending increase was urgently needed . Only in February 1936 was a bill passed creating a special 53 @.@ 4 million guilder defence fund .
The lack of a trained manpower base , a large professional organisation or a sufficient matériel reserve precluded a swift expansion of Dutch forces . There was just enough artillery to equip the larger units : eight infantry divisions ( combined in four Army Corps ) , one Light ( i.e. motorised ) Division and two independent brigades ( Brigade A and Brigade B ) , each with the strength of half a division or five battalions . All other infantry combat unit troops were raised as light infantry battalions that were dispersed all over the territory to delay enemy movement . They made use of many pillboxes , about two thousand in number , but in lines without any depth . Modern large fortresses like the Belgian stronghold of Eben Emael were nonexistent ; the only modern fortification complex was that at Kornwerderzand , guarding the Afsluitdijk . Total Dutch forces equalled 48 regiments of infantry as well as 22 infantry battalions for strategic border defence . In comparison , Belgium , despite a smaller and more aged male population , fielded 22 full divisions and the equivalent of 30 divisions when smaller units were included .
After September 1939 , desperate efforts were made to improve the situation , but with very little result . Germany , for obvious reasons , delayed its deliveries ; France was hesitant to equip an army that would not unequivocally take its side . The one abundant source of readily available weaponry , the Soviet Union , was inaccessible because the Dutch , contrary to most other nations , did not recognise the communist regime . An attempt in 1940 to procure Soviet armour captured by Finland failed .
On 10 May , the most conspicuous deficiency of the Dutch Army lay in its shortage of armour . Whereas the other major participants all had a considerable armoured force , the Netherlands had not been able to obtain the minimum of 146 modern tanks ( 110 light , 36 medium ) they had already considered necessary in 1937 . A single Renault FT tank , for which just one driver had been trained and which had the sole task of testing antitank obstacles , had remained the only example of its kind and was no longer in service by 1940 . There were two squadrons of armoured cars , each with a dozen Landsverk M36 or M38 vehicles ; another dozen DAF M39 cars were in the process of being taken into service , some still having to be fitted with their main armament . A single platoon of five Carden @-@ Loyd Mark VI tankettes used by the Artillery completed the list of Dutch armour .
The Dutch Artillery had available a total of 676 howitzers and field guns : 310 Krupp 75 mm field guns , partly produced in licence ; 52 105 mm Bofors howitzers , the only really modern pieces ; 144 obsolete Krupp 125 mm guns ; 40 150 mm sFH13 's ; 72 Krupp 150 mm L / 24 howitzers and 28 Vickers 152 mm L / 15 howitzers . As antitank @-@ guns 386 Böhler 47 mm L / 39s were available , which were effective weapons but too few in number , being only at a third of the planned strength ; another three hundred antiquated 6 Veld ( 57 mm ) and 8 Staal ( 84 mm ) field guns performed the same role for the covering forces . Only eight of the 120 modern 105 mm pieces ordered from Germany had been delivered at the time of the invasion . Most artillery was horse @-@ drawn .
The Dutch Infantry used about 2 @,@ 200 7 @.@ 92 mm Schwarzlose M.08 machine guns , partly licence produced , and eight hundred Vickers machine guns . Many of these were fitted in the pillboxes ; each battalion had a heavy machine gun company of twelve . The Dutch infantry squads were equipped with an organic light machine gun , the M.20 Lewis machine gun of which about eight thousand were available . This weapon was prone to jamming and not very suitable for offensive operations . Most Dutch infantry were equipped with the Dutch Mannlicher rifle , a variant of the Mannlicher M1893 . This weapon had been in service with the Dutch military for over 40 years and its obsolescence had become obvious , but the Dutch military did not have the money to replace it . There were but six 80 mm mortars for each regiment . This lack of firepower impaired the fighting performance of the Dutch infantry .
Despite the Netherlands being the seat of Philips , one of Europe 's largest producers of radio equipment , the Dutch army mostly used telephone connections ; only the Artillery had been equipped with the modest number of 225 radio sets .
= = = Dutch Air Forces = = =
The Dutch air force , which
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, 2011 , a stream of " Blood In My Eyes " , another new song from the album , was released for free listening on Alternative Press . On May 28 , 2011 , Sum 41 performed a live set for " Guitar Center Sessions " on DirecTV . The episode included an interview with program host , Nic Harcourt . On June 14 , 2011 , it was announced that " Baby , You Don 't Wanna Know " will be released as the second single of the album . On June 28 , 2011 , it was confirmed that the band shot a music video for the song during a day off in Germany . In July 2011 , Matt Whibley has confirmed that the music video for the first single " Screaming Bloody Murder " will be left unreleased due to its content and difficulties with the label , but the video for " Baby , You Don 't Wanna Know " will be released soon instead .
In May 2011 , during the band 's 10th anniversary Japanese tour , the band debuted for the first time some new songs from Screaming Bloody Murder , including " Reason to Believe " , " Blood in My Eyes " , " Sick of Everyone " and " Back Where I Belong " . During the same tour , Deryck Whibley 's cousin , Matt , who served as the band 's assistant as well as video photographer , has joined the band on stage as an unofficial member to play the keyboards . He then continued to play keyboards during the band 's European summer tour in June – July 2011 .
On August 9 , 2011 , Sum 41 released the live album Live at the House of Blues , Cleveland 9 @.@ 15 @.@ 07 - a live recording of a show that took place on September 15 , 2007 , in Cleveland , Ohio , while the band was touring its previous album Underclass Hero .
On August 13 , 2011 , while the band was touring the US as part of the Vans Warped Tour , making up for dates the group had to cancel on its 2010 stint on the tour ; the band was forced once again to cancel all remaining dates in the US and Canada after playing only 3 shows , after Deryck re @-@ injured his back . On August 23 , 2011 , it was announced on the band 's official website that following Deryck Whibley 's back injury on August 13 , which forced the band to already cancel its US and Canadian dates in August , the band would be indefinitely postponing all upcoming tour dates for 2011 , due to Deryck undergoing a treatment for his medical condition . It was confirmed that the band 's first ever South American tour as well as the group 's first ever Asian tour ( excluding Japan ) , would all be cancelled , and rescheduled for some time in 2012 . In an interview with Jason McCaslin that took place in Oppikoppi , McCaslin has said that " it 's safe to say Sum 41 won 't have another album out for at least the next two years . " On November 30 , 2011 , Sum 41 was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance for the song Blood In My Eyes , however on February 12 , 2012 , the Foo Fighters won . On February 24 , 2012 , it was announced on the band 's Twitter that this week the band will be shooting a music video for the song " Blood In My Eyes " with director Michael Maxxis in Los Angeles , confirming that it 'll be the third single of the album . Shooting of the video took place on February 29 , 2012 , at the desert around the Los Angeles area . On March 19 , 2012 , it was announced on the band 's Twitter that the 1st cut of the music video was ready , and that the video will be shortly released and some changes will be made . The video was finally released on the 10th of September .
It was announced in September that the band was planning a Does This Look Infected ? 10th Anniversary Tour to celebrate the album 's release in 2002 . The tour consisted of North American dates that spanned from November into December .
= = = 2012 – 15 : Jocz 's departure and Zummo 's arrival = = =
On November 26 , 2012 , the band members revealed that they were taking a break from touring in 2013 to begin work on a new record . On April 18 , 2013 , drummer Jocz announced he would be leaving the band via his official Facebook page , leaving Whibley as the sole founding member of the band . In an interview on February 7 , 2014 , Deryck revealed that the band has possibly found a new drummer and would be premiering new music " soon " . The expected sixth album would have been the band 's first with Whibley and McCaslin as the only two band members from the group 's original release left , until Baksh 's return in 2015 , which will also be his first album with band since 2004 's Chuck . The album will also be the band 's first without founding drummer Steve Jocz , and the first to feature drummer Frank Zummo .
On May 16 , 2014 , Deryck Whibley posted on his personal website , explaining that he had a liver and kidney failure due to extensive drinking . He also stated that he had some ideas for new songs , and that the band would be soon starting to make a new album . On June 9 , 2014 , Deryck Whibley has stated on his personal Facebook page that he was working on new Sum 41 music out of his home studio to get ready to record some new tunes . On March 19 , 2015 , a short video was posted on the band 's Facebook page , showing only a speaker and showcasing a song snippet not belonging to any previous recording of the band , hinting new music is about to be finished .
= = = 2015 – present : Baksh 's return and 13 Voices = = =
On July 9 , 2015 , The band launched a PledgeMusic campaign for its comeback album On July 23 , 2015 , the band played its comeback show at the Alternate Press Awards , which featured former lead guitarist Dave Baksh , joining the band on stage 9 years after officially leaving the band . The band 's set also featured DMC as guest . Since the performance , rumors speculated that Dave had returned to the band rather than being just a guest . On August 14 , 2015 , Sum 41 announced through Alternative Press that Baksh had made his official return to the group , and will appear on the group 's sixth album . On December 26 , 2015 , Sum 41 teased two new songs on Instagram 's account . On January 1 , 2016 , Deryck Whibley published on the Facebook page that the new album is almost finished .
The band is set to perform on the 2016 Warped Tour . On May 11 , 2016 , the group announced its signing to Hopeless Records . On June 1 , 2016 , the band announced that an album was set to be released in the fall of 2016 . On June 6 , 2016 , the group announced that the album would be titled 13 Voices and that it is scheduled for release on October 7 , 2016 .
= = Side projects and collaborations = =
Before the release of Half Hour of Power and up until the departure of Dave Baksh , Sum 41 occasionally played as an alter @-@ ego 1980s heavy metal band called Pain for Pleasure during shows . The band appeared in Sum 41 's music videos for " Fat Lip " and " We 're All to Blame " and had at least one song on each of the band 's first three releases . The group 's best known song under the Pain for Pleasure moniker is the song of the same name from All Killer No Filler , a track that remains the band 's staple during live shows .
Sum 41 has collaborated with many other artists , both live and in the studio , among whom are Tenacious D , Ludacris , Iggy Pop , Pennywise , Bowling for Soup , Unwritten Law , Treble Charger , Nelly , Gob , Tommy Lee , Rob Halford , Kerry King , Metallica , and Ja Rule .
Shortly after touring for Does This Look Infected ? , Sum 41 was recruited by Iggy Pop for his album , Skull Ring . Deryck co @-@ wrote the first single from the album , " Little Know It All " , and joined Iggy on the Late Show with David Letterman to promote the song . Following the band 's September 11 , 2005 show in Quebec City , Quebec , the band went on a touring hiatus , although on April 17 , 2006 , Sum 41 played at a tribute to Iggy Pop , joining Iggy on stage for " Little Know It All " and " Lust For Life " .
During the band 's 2006 touring hiatus , Whibley focused on his producing career : he produced two songs for Avril Lavigne 's album The Best Damn Thing . Jocz recorded his first video as director for a Canadian band , The Midway State , and McCaslin started a side project with Todd Morse of H2O and Juliette and the Licks . McCaslin 's two @-@ person band , named The Operation M.D. , released its debut album , We Have an Emergency , in early 2007 . As well as playing bass , keyboards , and acoustic guitar , McCaslin contributed backing vocals as well as leading vocals on three songs . The album was co @-@ produced and mixed by Whibley . The group 's video for its first single , " Sayonara " , was directed by Jocz .
In December 2007 , McCaslin interviewed Slash of Velvet Revolver . They talked about Slash 's experiences while in Guns N ' Roses and his part in Velvet Revolver . The interview was part of a MySpace project and was posted on the site in three parts .
The 2010 video game Vancouver 2010 features Sum 41 's " Open Your Eyes " from Chuck as one of the game 's songs .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Sum 41 have been described as pop punk , skate punk , punk rock , nu metal , melodic hardcore , alternative rock and alternative metal .
The band 's style has been disputed by fans because of the complex combination of different musical styles and the more mature , serious , and heavy sound in later albums . The band 's EP Half Hour of Power is described as punk rock , skate punk and pop punk . All Killer , No Filler was described as pop punk and skate punk . Does This Look Infected ? has been described as punk rock , pop punk and melodic hardcore . Chuck was getting heavier opting out the original pop punk sound with strong metal influences and an alternative rock sound , but the band kept in touch with its punk rock and melodic hardcore roots , which created an even more mature side than the group 's previous effort . Critics have described Underclass Hero as a revival of the band 's pop punk style . Some of the band 's songs contain political @-@ social commentary ; " The Jester " is an " anti @-@ Bush screed " , " Underclass Hero " is a song about class struggle , and " Dear Father " is about Deryck 's absent father . The band 's most recent effort , Screaming Bloody Murder , marks a return to the direction of Chuck , with songs such as the title track or the Grammy @-@ nominated Blood in my Eyes featuring heavier guitar riffs . Opposite to the heavier direction , there are also tracks such as the second single Baby You Don 't Wanna Know whose style leans more towards a garage rock approach . The album furthermore features more experimental song structures , mostly evident in the piece A Dark Road Out Of Hell consisting of three tracks of the record .
Sum 41 have been influenced by bands like NOFX , Pennywise , The Vandals , Gob , Bad Religion , Rancid , Green Day , Metallica , Iron Maiden , Blink @-@ 182 , The Offspring , Megadeth , Slayer , Nirvana and The Beatles .
= = Internet videos = =
Touring in support of Chuck , the band played videos before its set which were deemed " unsuitable for children " . Controversy arose over some of the videos ' violent content . The group made several other videos , including Basketball Butcher and 1 @-@ 800 @-@ Justice , which were originally available exclusively on Sum 41 's now @-@ defunct fan club , The Goon Platoon .
Sum 41 's most recent internet video project is a " weekly series , " SUM 41 - Road to Ruin . The trailer was posted on January 8 , 2007 on the Sum 41 web page . The first episode debuted on January 21 ; it followed the band members ' exploits on the group 's Singapore 2003 tour . Since then , the episodes have included footage of drunkenness in New Orleans , setting off a fire alarm in a hotel , and a feature about the band 's first tour manager . So far , the group has released ten episodes , with the group 's latest and as the group stated , its ' last ' for now being an episode that features the band 's guitar technician . The group also created a series of cartoons based on superhero " Stickman Moss " , who saved the world from anti @-@ punk figures who endangered the world of punk rock .
In December 2009 , the band launched a new daily update series from the pre @-@ production of the group 's upcoming fifth studio album . It was announced on the band 's Myspace page that the daily updates will run for the 2 – 3 weeks of pre @-@ production . 13 video updates from the pre @-@ production were made and posted on the band 's official Myspace page .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Sum 41 has been nominated for seven Juno Awards and has won twice . In 2001 , the group was nominated for " Best New Group " at the Juno awards , but lost to Nickelback . The band was nominated for " Best Group " in the Juno Awards of 2002 but again lost to Nickelback . Also in 2001 , The album All Killer No Filler was nominated for " Best Album ; however , it lost to The Look of Love by Diana Krall . In 2003 , Sum 41 won a Juno Award for " Group Of The Year " . In 2004 , the group was nominated again , this time with Does This Look Infected ? for " Rock Album of the Year " , but lost to Sam Roberts 's We Were Born in a Flame . In 2005 , the album Chuck won " Rock Album of the Year " ; the group was also nominated for " Group of The Year " , but lost to Billy Talent . In 2008 , the band 's album Underclass Hero was nominated for the Juno Award " Rock Album of the Year " ; however , the album lost to Finger Eleven 's Them vs. You vs. Me . The group also has been nominated for three different Canadian Independent Music Awards . In 2004 , the band won a Woodie Award for " The Good Woodie ( Greatest Social Impact ) " . The band was also nominated for a Kerrang ! Award in 2003 for " Best Live Act " . On November 30 , 2011 , Sum 41 was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance for the song Blood In My Eyes , however on February 12 , 2012 , the Foo Fighters won .
= = = Awards = = =
A select list of Sum 41 's awards and nominations .
= = Band members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
All Killer , No Filler ( 2001 )
Does This Look Infected ? ( 2002 )
Chuck ( 2004 )
Underclass Hero ( 2007 )
Screaming Bloody Murder ( 2011 )
13 Voices ( 2016 )
= History of Northwest Territories capital cities =
The history of Northwest Territories capital cities begins with the purchase of the Territories by Canada from the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1869 , and includes a varied and often difficult evolution . Northwest Territories is unique amongst the other provinces and territories of Canada in that it has had seven capital cities in its history . The territory has changed the seat of government for numerous reasons , including civil conflict , development of infrastructure , and a history of significant revisions to its territorial boundaries .
The result of these changes has been a long and complex road to responsible government . Effectively providing services and representation for the population has been a particular challenge for the Territories ' government , a task often complicated by the region 's vast and changing geographic area . A small number of communities in Northwest Territories have unsuccessfully tried to become the capital over the years . The territory has had the seat of government outside of its territorial boundaries twice in its history . The only other political division in Canada without a seat of government inside its own boundaries was the defunct District of Keewatin that existed from 1876 until 1905 .
The term " capital " refers to cities that have served as home for the Legislative Assembly of Northwest Territories , the legislative branch of Northwest Territories government . In Canada , it is customary for provincial and territorial level government to have the administrative centre of the civil service in the same city as the legislative branch . The Northwest Territories , however , had separate administrative and legislative capitals officially exist between 1911 and 1967 . This is the only province or territory in Canadian history to have had such an arrangement .
= = Fort Garry , Manitoba ( 1870 – 1876 ) = =
The Government of Canada purchased the North @-@ Western Territory and Rupert 's Land from the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1868 , under the terms of the Rupert 's Land Act 1868 for £ 300 @,@ 000 British pounds . Both purchased territories were largely uninhabited , consisting mostly of uncharted wilderness . After the purchase , the Government decided to merge both of the properties into a single jurisdiction and appoint a single territorial government to run both . The purchase of the two territories added a sizable portion of the current Canadian landmass .
In 1869 , Ontario Member of Parliament William McDougall was appointed as the first Lieutenant Governor of the Northwest Territories and sent to Fort Garry to establish formal governance for Canada . Before his party arrived at the settlement , a small group led by Louis Riel intercepted him near the Ontario border and forced him to turn back because they opposed the transfer to the Canadian government . The inhabitants of the Red River Valley began the Red River Rebellion , delaying formal governance until their demands for provincial status were met .
The rebellion resulted in the creation of the Province of Manitoba ( inclusive of Fort Garry ) and a delay in establishing governance in the Territories . In 1870 , the Northwest Territories and Manitoba formally entered the Canadian confederation . The two jurisdictions remained partially conjoined : under the Temporary Government Act , 1870 . The Temporary North @-@ West Council was appointed in 1872 , mainly from members of the new Manitoba Legislative Assembly , with the Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba serving as the leader of the territorial government . The Governor and Council were mandated to govern the Territories through the Manitoba Act and did so from outside of the Northwest Territories . Fort Garry served as the first seat of government for both jurisdictions .
The temporary government sat for the first time in 1872 . It was renewed by federal legislation each year until a permanent solution for governance was decided upon . The federal government renewed the Temporary Council for the last time in 1875 and chose a new location , within the boundaries of the Northwest Territories , to form a new government . Along with the new seat of power , a new council greatly reduced in size was appointed along with a new Lieutenant Governor to specifically lead the Territories without also governing Manitoba .
In the 1870s , Fort Garry consisted of two distinct settlements . The first site was named Upper Fort Garry , and the secondary site was named Lower Fort Garry , 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) downstream on the Red River . After the territorial government moved , Fort Garry continued to be the seat of government for Manitoba , and for the now defunct District of Keewatin territory between 1876 and 1905 . Fort Garry evolved to become modern @-@ day Winnipeg , still the capital of Manitoba , with Lower Fort Garry being declared a national historical site .
= = Fort Livingstone , North @-@ West Territories ( 1876 – 1877 ) = =
The North @-@ West Territories Act , 1875 dissolved the Temporary North @-@ West Council and appointed a permanent government to take effect on October 7 , 1876 . The new council governed from Fort Livingstone , an outpost constructed west of the Manitoba border , in modern @-@ day Saskatchewan . Fort Livingstone served as a small frontier outpost and not as a bona fide capital city . The location was chosen by the federal government as a temporary site to establish the new territorial government until the route of the
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railway was determined .
Fort Livingstone was founded in 1875 by the newly created North @-@ West Mounted Police , the predecessor of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police , Canada 's national police force . The Swan River North @-@ West Mounted Police Barracks , inside Fort Livingstone , became the temporary assembly building for legislative @-@ council sessions as well as the office for the Lieutenant Governor .
The bulk of the police forces moved out to Fort Macleod in 1876 , to crack down on the whisky trade . A year later , Lieutenant Governor David Laird moved the seat of government to Battleford . The decision was based upon the original plans of constructing the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) through Battleford .
Fort Livingstone continued to serve as a small outpost until being totally destroyed by a prairie grass fire in 1884 . The nearest modern settlement to the original Fort Livingstone site is Pelly , Saskatchewan , four kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to the south . The fort is sometimes referred to as Fort Pelly or Swan River . The Fort Livingstone site is marked with a plaque as was declared a Saskatchewan provincial heritage site and contains no resident population .
= = Battleford , North @-@ West Territories ( 1877 – 1883 ) = =
The Northwest Territories government moved to Battleford in 1877 on the order of the Lieutenant Governor . Battleford was supposed to be the permanent capital of the Territories . The town was chosen because it was expected to be linked with the Canadian Pacific Railway .
The government in Battleford would see significant milestones towards attaining responsible government for the Northwest Territories . For the first time , the territory had democratically elected members join the appointed members in the assembly . Elections in the territory became a reality after the passage of the Northwest Territories election ordinance 1880 . The first election took place in 1881 , after electoral districts were created by royal proclamations , issued the order of the Lieutenant Governor . Battleford hosted the first official royal visit in western Canada , when the Marquis of Lorne and Princess Louise Caroline Alberta toured the territories in 1881 .
The first Northwest Territories legislature building , and residence for the Lieutenant Governor named " NWT Government House " , was completed and used by the territorial government until 1883 . After the government moved the building stood as a historical site until it was destroyed in a fire in 2003 .
After consultation with Canadian Pacific Railway officials , Lieutenant Governor Edgar Dewdney made the decision to move the capital to Regina , also in present @-@ day Saskatchewan , in June 1882 . The decision to move the capital was controversial with the public because Edgar Dewdney owned real estate in Regina . He was accused of having conflicted interests between his private affairs and the needs of the government .
= = Regina , North @-@ West Territories ( 1883 – 1905 ) = =
After Edgar Dewdney ordered that the government be moved south to meet the railway in Regina , it was confirmed as the new territorial capital on March 27 , 1883 . Construction of a new legislature began . In Regina , the government continued to grow as the size of the settlement increased rapidly . The legislature had the most sitting members in Northwest Territories history after the fifth general election in 1902 .
The government in Regina struggled to deliver services to the vast territory . The influx of settlers and responsibility for the Klondike , as well as constant fighting with the federal government over limited legislative powers and minimal revenue collection , hampered the effectiveness of government . The government during this period slowly released powers to the elected members . In 1897 , after control of the executive council was ceded to elected members from the Lieutenant @-@ Governors , a short @-@ lived period of party politics evolved that challenged the consensus model of government that had been used since 1870 .
The territorial government under the leadership of Premier Frederick Haultain struck a deal with the federal Government of Canada in early 1905 to bring provincial powers to the territories . This led to the creation of the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta from the southernmost and most populous areas of the territory . The Northwest Territories , reduced to its northern , lightly populated hinterland , continued to exist under the 1870s constitutional status under control of the federal government . A new council was convened in Ottawa , Ontario to deal with the region .
The Territorial Administration Building was declared a historical site by the Saskatchewan government after it was restored by the Saskatchewan Government in 1979 , the building remains standing to this day . The territorial government would not have another permanent legislature of its own design until 1993 . After 1905 , Regina continued to serve as capital for the province of Saskatchewan .
= = Ottawa , Ontario as legislative capital ( 1905 – 1967 ) = =
In 1905 , under the direction of Wilfrid Laurier , the Northwest Territories seat of government was moved to Ottawa , Ontario , the capital of Canada . This change was made when Northwest Territories defaulted back to the 1870 constitutional status after Alberta and Saskatchewan were sectioned off from the territory on September 1 , 1905 . After the populated regions of the territory were made into their own jurisdictions , there were very few settlements left in the territory with any significant population or infrastructure . The non @-@ Inuit population was estimated to total around 1 @,@ 000 . Inuit were not counted at the time because they had no status under Canadian law , and were not yet settled in towns or villages .
In the period without a sitting council from 1905 to 1921 , the government of the Territories was small but still active . A small civil service force was sent to Fort Smith to set the town up as the new administrative capital in 1911 . A budget to provide minimal services was still given by the federal government . Commissioner Frederick D. White administered the territories day @-@ to @-@ day operations during that period . During this 16 @-@ year lapse in legislative government , no new laws were created , and the Territories and its population were severely neglected even with the services provided at the time .
The first session of the new council was called to order in 1921 , a full 16 years after the government was dissolved in Regina . This new government contained no serving member who was resident in the Territories . The council during this period was primarily composed of high @-@ level civil servants who lived and worked in Ottawa . The first person to sit on the council since 1905 who actually resided from within the Territories was John G. McNiven who was appointed in 1947 .
The Ottawa @-@ based council eventually grew sensitive to the needs of the territory residents . Democracy returned to the territories in the sixth general election in 1951 . After the election , the council was something of a vagabond body , with alternating sittings in Ottawa , and various communities in Northwest Territories . The council held meetings in school gymnasiums , community halls , board rooms , or any suitable infrastructure . The council even transported ceremonial implements to conduct meetings with such as the speakers chair and mace . Both are traditional artifacts common to Westminster style parliaments .
Legislative sessions held in Ottawa were conducted in an office building on Sparks Street . The Northwest Territories government continues to hold an office in Ottawa on Sparks Street to this day . In 1965 , a federal government commission was set up to determine a new home for the government and the future of the territory . The seat of government was moved back inside the territories to Yellowknife , after it was selected capital in 1967 .
= = Fort Smith , Northwest Territories as administrative capital ( 1911 – 1967 ) = =
Fort Smith became the official administration and transportation hub for the Northwest Territories in 1911 . This marked the first services provided by the territorial government in six years . The first services included an agent from the Department of Indian Affairs , a medical doctor , and a Royal Canadian Mounted Police station .
Fort Smith was chosen to house the civil service because of its geographical location and state of development . The community was one of the few that had steamboat service from the railheads in Alberta and access to the vast waterways in the territory . The community was the easiest for the government to access , and the most well developed community , closest to Ottawa .
Fort Smith housed the civil service working in the Territories officially until 1967 . The town continued to host the civil service for many years after Yellowknife was picked as capital , because the infrastructure was not yet in place in the new capital city at the time .
= = Carrothers Commission examines Self @-@ government for the North ( 1965 @-@ 1967 ) = =
The " Advisory Commission on the Development of Government in the Northwest Territories " , commonly called the Carrothers Commission for its chair , Alfred Carrothers , was struck by the Government of Canada in 1965 . The Carrothers Commission marked a significant turning point in modern Northwest Territories history . The Carrothers Commission was tasked to evaluate and recommend changes to the Northwest Territories to deal with an array of outstanding issues regarding self @-@ government in the north . One of the more visible and lasting effects of the Carrothers Commission was to choose a new capital city for the territorial government .
The Carrothers Commission , for the first time , gave some voice to residents in the Northwest Territories through extensive consultations with the territorial population . In prior years , the decision to change the seat of government had always been made without consulting Northwest Territories residents . Edgar Dewdney , for example , who made the decision to change the capital from Battleford to Regina , faced controversy because he owned property in Regina . After the territorial government moved to Ottawa , the government was often resented for being so far away .
The Carrothers Commission spent two years visiting nearly every community in the territory and consulting with residents , community leaders , business people , and territorial politicians . The Carrothers Commission investigated and considered five communities for the capital : Hay River , Fort Simpson , Fort Smith , Inuvik and Yellowknife .
Many people in the Northwest Territories believed that Fort Smith would win since it already housed the Territories ' civil service .
= = Yellowknife , Northwest Territories , current capital ( 1967 – present ) = =
Yellowknife officially became the capital on September 18 , 1967 , after the Carrothers commission chose it for its central location , transportation links , industrial base and residents ' preferences .
Yellowknife , in 1967 , was not yet ready to serve as home for the government . During the years that it took for the capital 's infrastructure to slowly develop , most of the civil service remained in Fort Smith for many years and the governing Council continued its practice of holding legislative sessions all over the territory for a number of years .
The Northwest Territories marked a new era when the legislative council moved into a newly constructed legislature building on November 17 , 1993 . The new legislature was the first building built specifically for the Northwest Territories government since the government sat in Regina 88 years earlier . The legislature building was constructed to feature themes derived from the Inuit culture , which signaled that the government was sensitive to the ethnicity of the resident population .
The modern day territorial government has matured in Yellowknife to become effective and responsible . The government in Yellowknife had largely gained back its powers on par with the pre @-@ 1905 government that was dissolved during creation of Alberta and Saskatchewan . The civil service has been effectively consolidated into the city of Yellowknife ; and has gained control over administering its own elections from Elections Canada . Education is now under the jurisdiction of the territorial government and the territory has most powers afforded to the rest of the provinces . There has even talk by the Federal government of the territories gaining provincial status in the future .
= = Lessons learned for Nunavut capital ( 1995 vote ) = =
As chronicled above , all seven capitals throughout the history of the Northwest Territories were chosen by some form of external government decision , though the Carrothers Commission did consult with the territorial population to guide its decision .
After the selection of Yellowknife as the capital in 1967 , many residents in the eastern Arctic continued to feel unrepresented by the territorial government , and many movements and groups were formed to remedy the situation . Lessons had been learned from the historical changes in the Northwest Territories ' seat of power , resulting in a number of territorial democratic processes leading to the creation of the new territory of Nunavut in 1999 , formed from the eastern half of the Northwest Territories .
In 1976 , as part of the land claims negotiations between the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami population and the Government of Canada , the parties discussed division of the Northwest Territories to provide a separate territory for the Inuit . In 1982 , a plebiscite on division was held throughout the Northwest Territories , in which a majority of the residents voted in favour of division .
The land claims agreement was completed in September 1992 and ratified by a majority of voters . On July 9 , 1993 , the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act and the Nunavut Act were passed by the Canadian Parliament .
In December , 1995 , the Nunavut capital plebiscite was held , and the voters in the future Nunavut territory chose Iqaluit as their capital city , defeating Rankin Inlet . Iqaluit became the official capital on April 1 , 1999 , when Nunavut separated from the Northwest Territories .
= The Boat Race 1982 =
The
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bable . It is sought to annihilate them . As human beings they are oppressed and scandalously treated in an intolerable fashion ... The depriving of these people of their rights must come to an end . ... I have stated that the " Reich " would not tolerate any further oppression of these three and a half million Germans , and I would ask the statesmen of foreign countries to be convinced that this is no mere form of words .
The following morning , 13 September , Chamberlain and the Cabinet were informed by secret service sources that all German embassies had been told that Germany would invade Czechoslovakia on 25 September . Convinced that the French would not fight ( Daladier was privately proposing a three @-@ Power summit to settle the Sudeten question ) , Chamberlain decided to implement " Plan Z " and sent a message to Hitler that he was willing to come to Germany to negotiate . Hitler accepted and Chamberlain flew to Germany on the morning of 15 September ; this was the first time , excepting a short jaunt at an industrial fair , that Chamberlain had ever flown . Chamberlain flew to Munich and then journeyed by rail to Hitler 's retreat at Berchtesgaden .
The face to face meeting lasted about three hours . Hitler demanded the annexation of the Sudetenland , and through questioning him , Chamberlain was able to obtain assurances that Hitler had no designs on the remainder of Czechoslovakia or on the areas in Eastern Europe which had German minorities . After the meeting Chamberlain returned to London believing that he had obtained a breathing space during which agreement could be reached and the peace preserved . Under the proposals made at Berchtesgaden the Sudetenland would be annexed by Germany if a plebiscite in the Sudetenland favoured it . Czechoslovakia would receive international guarantees of its independence which would replace existing treaty obligations — principally the French pledge to the Czechoslovaks . The French agreed to the requirements . Under considerable pressure the Czechoslovaks also agreed , causing the Czechoslovak government to fall .
Chamberlain flew back to Germany , meeting Hitler in Bad Godesberg on 22 September . Hitler brushed aside the proposals of the previous meeting , stating " that won 't do any more " . Hitler demanded immediate occupation of the Sudetenland and that Polish and Hungarian territorial claims on Czechoslovakia be addressed . Chamberlain objected strenuously telling Hitler that he had worked to bring the French and Czechoslovaks into line with Germany 's demands , so much so that he had been accused of giving in to dictators and had been booed on his departure that morning . Hitler was unmoved .
That evening , Chamberlain told Lord Halifax that the " meeting with Herr Hitler had been most unsatisfactory " . The following day , Hitler kept Chamberlain waiting until mid @-@ afternoon when he sent a five @-@ page letter , in German , outlining the demands he had spoken of orally the previous day . Chamberlain replied by offering to act as an intermediary with the Czechoslovaks , and suggested that Hitler put his demands in a memorandum which could be circulated to the French and Czechoslovaks .
The leaders met again late on the evening of 23 September — a meeting which stretched into the early morning hours . Hitler demanded that fleeing Czechs in the zones to be occupied take nothing with them . He extended his deadline for occupation of the Sudetenland to 1 October — the date he had long before secretly set for the invasion of Czechoslovakia . The meeting ended amicably with Chamberlain confiding to Hitler his hopes they would be able to work out other problems in Europe in the same spirit . Hitler hinted that the Sudetenland fulfilled his territorial ambitions in Europe . Chamberlain flew back to London , stating " It is up to the Czechs now . "
= = = = = Munich conference = = = = =
Hitler 's proposals met with resistance not only from the French and Czechoslovaks , but also from some members of Chamberlain 's cabinet . With no agreement in sight , war seemed inevitable . The Prime Minister issued a press statement calling on Germany to abandon the threat of force in exchange for British help in obtaining the concessions it sought . On the evening of 27 September , Chamberlain addressed the nation by radio , and after thanking those who wrote to him , stated :
How horrible , fantastic , incredible it is that we should be digging trenches and trying on gas @-@ masks here because of a quarrel in a far @-@ away country between people of whom we know nothing . It seems still more impossible that a quarrel that has already been settled in principle should be the subject of war .
On 28 September , he called on Hitler to invite him to Germany again to seek a solution through a summit involving the British , French , Germans , and Italians . Hitler replied favourably and word of this response came to Chamberlain as he was winding up a speech in the House of Commons which sat in gloomy anticipation of war , Chamberlain informed the House of this in his speech . The response was a passionate demonstration with members cheering Chamberlain wildly . Even diplomats in the galleries applauded . Lord Dunglass later commented , " There were a lot of appeasers in Parliament that day . "
On the morning of 29 September Chamberlain left Heston Aerodrome ( to the east of today 's Heathrow Airport ) for his third and final visit to Germany . On arrival in Munich the British delegation was taken directly to the " Führerbau " where Daladier , Mussolini and Hitler soon arrived . The four leaders and their translators held an informal meeting with Hitler stating that he intended to invade Czechoslovakia on 1 October . Mussolini distributed a proposal similar to Hitler 's Bad Godesberg terms . In fact , the proposal had been drafted by German officials and transmitted to Rome the previous day . The draft was debated by the four leaders and Chamberlain raised the question of compensation for the Czechoslovak government and citizens which Hitler refused to consider .
The leaders were joined by advisers after lunch and hours were spent on long discussions of each clause of the Italian draft agreement . Late that evening the British and French left for their hotels on the grounds that they had to seek advice from their respective capitals . Meanwhile , the Germans and Italians enjoyed the feast which Hitler had intended for all the participants . During this break , Chamberlain adviser Sir Horace Wilson met with the Czechoslovaks informing them of the draft agreement and enquiring which districts particularly were important to them . The Munich Conference resumed about 10 p.m. and was mostly in the hands of a small drafting committee . At 1 : 30 a.m. the Munich Agreement was ready for signing , though a signing ceremony was delayed when Hitler discovered that the ornate inkwell on his desk was empty .
Chamberlain and Daladier returned to their hotel and informed the Czechoslovaks of the agreement . The two Prime Ministers urged quick acceptance by the Czechoslovaks of the agreement since the evacuation by the Czechs was to begin the following day . At 12 : 30 pm the Czechoslovak government in Prague objected to the decision but agreed to its terms .
= = = = = Aftermath and reception = = = = =
Prior to leaving the " Führerbau " , Chamberlain requested a private conference with Hitler which the German leader agreed to , and the two met at Hitler 's apartment in the city later that morning . Chamberlain urged restraint in the implementation of the agreement and requested that the Germans not bomb Prague if the Czechs resisted , to which Hitler seemed agreeable . Chamberlain took from his pocket a paper headed " Anglo – German Agreement " , which contained three paragraphs including a statement that the two nations considered the Munich Agreement " symbolic of the desire of our two people never to go to war again " . According to Chamberlain , Hitler interjected " Ja ! Ja ! " ( " Yes ! Yes ! " ) as the Prime Minister read it . The two men signed the paper then and there . When , later that day , German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop remonstrated with Hitler for signing it , the " Führer " replied , " Oh , don 't take it so seriously . That piece of paper is of no further significance whatever . " Chamberlain , on the other hand , when he returned to his hotel for lunch patted his breast pocket and said , " I 've got it ! " Word leaked as to the outcome of the meetings before Chamberlain 's return causing delight among many in London , though causing gloom amongst Churchill and his adherents .
Chamberlain returned to London in triumph . Large crowds mobbed Heston where he was met by the Lord Chamberlain , the Earl of Clarendon , who gave him a letter from King George VI assuring him of the Empire 's lasting gratitude and urging him to come straight to Buckingham Palace to report . The streets were so packed with cheering people that it took Chamberlain an hour and a half to journey the nine miles from Heston to the Palace . After reporting to the King , Chamberlain and his wife appeared on the Palace balcony with the King and his wife , Queen Elizabeth . He then went to Downing Street where both the street and the front hall of Number 10 were packed . As he headed upstairs to address the crowd from a first @-@ floor window someone called to him , " Neville , go up to the window and say ' peace for our time ' . " Chamberlain turned around and responded , " No , I don 't do that sort of thing . " Nevertheless , Chamberlain recalled the words of his predecessor , Benjamin Disraeli and his return from the Congress of Berlin in his statement to the crowd :
My good friends , this is the second time there has come back from Germany to Downing Street peace with honour . I believe it is peace for our time . We thank you from the bottom of our hearts . Now I recommend you go home , and sleep quietly in your beds .
King George issued a statement to his people , " After the magnificent efforts of the Prime Minister in the cause of peace it is my fervent hope that a new era of friendship and prosperity may be dawning among the peoples of the world . " When the King met with Duff Cooper , who resigned as First Lord of the Admiralty over the Munich Agreement , he told Cooper that he respected people who had the courage of their convictions , but could not agree with him . He wrote to his mother , Queen Mary , that " the Prime Minister was delighted with the results of his mission , as are we all " . The dowager queen responded to her son with anger against those who spoke against the Prime Minister : " He brought home peace , why can 't they be grateful ? " Most newspapers supported Chamberlain uncritically , and he received thousands of gifts , from a silver dinner service to many of his trademark umbrellas .
The Commons discussed the Munich Agreement on 3 October . Though Cooper opened by setting forth the reasons for his resignation and Churchill spoke harshly against the pact , no Conservative voted against the government . Only between 20 and 30 abstained , including Churchill , Eden , Cooper and Harold Macmillan .
= = = Path to war ( October 1938 – August 1939 ) = = =
In the aftermath of Munich , Chamberlain continued to pursue a course of cautious rearmament . He told the Cabinet in early October 1938 , " [ I ] t would be madness for the country to stop rearming until we were convinced that other countries would act in the same way . For the time being , therefore , we should relax no particle of effort until our deficiencies had been made good . " However , later in October , he resisted calls to put industry on a war footing , convinced that such an action would show Hitler that the Prime Minister had decided to abandon Munich . Chamberlain hoped that the understanding he had signed with Hitler at Munich would lead toward a general settlement of European disputes . However , Hitler expressed no public interest in following up on the accord . Having considered a general election immediately following Munich Chamberlain instead reshuffled his Cabinet . By the end of the year , however , public concerns caused Chamberlain to conclude that " to get rid of this uneasy and disgruntled House of Commons by a General Election " would be " suicidal " .
Despite Hitler 's relative quietness as the " Reich " absorbed the Sudetenland , foreign policy concerns continued to preoccupy Chamberlain . He made trips to Paris and Rome hoping to persuade the French to hasten their rearmament and to persuade Mussolini to be a positive influence on Hitler . However , several of his Cabinet members , led by the Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax , began to draw away from the appeasement policy . Halifax was now convinced that Munich , though " better than a European war " , had been " a horrid business and humiliating " . Public revulsion over the pogrom of Kristallnacht on 9 November 1938 made any attempt at a " rapprochement " with Hitler unacceptable , though Chamberlain did not abandon his hopes .
Still hoping for reconciliation with Germany , Chamberlain made a major speech at Birmingham on 28 January 1939 in which he expressed his desire for international peace , and had an advance copy sent to Hitler at Berchtesgaden . Hitler seemed to respond ; in his " Reichstag " speech on 30 January 1939 , he stated that he wanted a " long peace " . Chamberlain was confident that improvements in British defence since Munich would bring the dictator to the bargaining table . This belief was reinforced by a German official 's conciliatory speech welcoming Ambassador Henderson back to Berlin after an absence for medical treatment in Britain . Chamberlain responded with a speech in Blackburn on 22 February hoping that the nations would resolve their differences through trade , and was gratified when his comments were printed in German newspapers . With matters appearing to improve Chamberlain 's rule over the House of Commons was firm and he was convinced the government would " romp home " in a late @-@ 1939 election .
On 15 March 1939 , Germany invaded the Czech provinces of Bohemia and Moravia , including Prague . Though Chamberlain 's initial parliamentary response was , according to biographer Nick Smart , " feeble " , within 48 hours he had spoken more forcefully against the German aggression . In 17 March speech given at Birmingham , Chamberlain warned that " no greater mistake could be made than to suppose that because it believes war to be a senseless and cruel thing the nation has so lost its fibre that it will not take part to the utmost of its power in resisting such a challenge if it were ever made " . The Prime Minister questioned whether the invasion of Czechoslovakia was " the end of an old adventure , or the beginning of a new " and whether it was " a step in the direction of an attempt to dominate the world by force " . The Colonial Secretary , Malcolm MacDonald stated , " whereas the Prime Minister was once a strong advocate of peace , he has now definitely swung around to the war point of view " . This speech was met with widespread approval in Britain and recruitment for the armed services increased considerably .
Chamberlain sought to build an interlocking series of defence pacts among the remaining European countries as a means of deterring Hitler from war . He sought an agreement among Britain , France , the USSR and Poland whereby the first three would go to the assistance of Poland if her independence were threatened , but Polish mistrust of the Soviet Union caused those negotiations to fail . Instead , on 31 March 1939 , Chamberlain informed an approving House of Commons of British and French guarantees that they would lend Poland all possible aid in the event of any action which threatened Polish independence . In the ensuing debate Eden stated that the nation was now united behind the government . Even Churchill and Lloyd George praised Chamberlain 's government for issuing the guarantee to Poland .
The Prime Minister took other steps to deter Hitler from aggression . He doubled the size of the Territorial Army , created a Ministry of Supply to expedite the provision of equipment to the armed forces , and instituted peacetime conscription . The Italian invasion of Albania on 7 April 1939 led to guarantees being given to Greece and Romania . On 17 June 1939 , Handley Page received an order for 200 Hampden twin @-@ engined medium bombers , and by 3 September 1939 , the chain of radar stations girdling the British coast was fully operational .
Chamberlain was reluctant to seek military alliance with the Soviet Union , distrusting Joseph Stalin ideologically and feeling that there was little to gain given the massive purges that recently had taken place in the Red Army . However , much of his Cabinet favoured such an alliance , and when Poland withdrew her objection to Anglo – Soviet alliance Chamberlain had little choice but to proceed . The talks with Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov , to which Britain sent only a low @-@ level delegation , dragged on over several months and eventually foundered on 14 August 1939 when Poland and Romania refused to allow Soviet troops to be stationed on their territories . A week after the failure of these talks the Soviet Union and Germany signed the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact which committed the countries to non @-@ aggression toward each other . A secret agreement divided up Poland in the event of war . Chamberlain had disregarded rumours of a Soviet @-@ German " rapprochement " , and was dismissive of the publicly announced pact stating that it in no way affected British obligations toward Poland . Nevertheless , on 23 August 1939 , Chamberlain had Henderson deliver a letter to Hitler telling him that Britain was fully prepared to live up to its obligations to Poland . Hitler instructed his generals to prepare for an invasion of Poland , telling them , " Our enemies are small worms . I saw them at Munich . "
= = = War leader ( 1939 – 40 ) = = =
= = = = Declaration of war = = = =
Germany invaded Poland in the early morning hours of 1 September 1939 . The British Cabinet met late that morning and issued a warning to Germany that unless it withdrew from Polish territory Britain would carry out its obligations to Poland . When the House of Commons met at 6 : 00 p.m. , Chamberlain and Labour deputy leader Arthur Greenwood ( deputising for the sick Clement Attlee ) entered the chamber to loud cheers . Chamberlain spoke emotionally , laying the blame for the conflict on Hitler .
No formal declaration of war was immediately made . French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet stated that France could do nothing until its parliament met on the evening of 2 September . In fact , Bonnet was trying to rally support for a Munich @-@ style summit proposed by the Italians to be held on 5 September . The British Cabinet , however , demanded that Hitler be given an ultimatum at once , and if troops were not withdrawn by the end of 2 September , that war be declared forthwith . Chamberlain and Halifax were convinced by Bonnet 's pleas from Paris that France needed more time for mobilisation and evacuation , and postponed the expiration of the ultimatum ( which had in fact not yet been served ) . The House of Commons received Chamberlain 's lengthy statement , which made no mention of an ultimatum , badly . Greenwood rose to " speak for the working classes " . Conservative backbencher Leo Amery urged Greenwood to " Speak for England , Arthur " , implying that the Prime Minister was not so speaking . Chamberlain replied that telephone difficulties were making it hard to communicate with Paris and tried to dispel fears that the French were weakening . He had little success ; too many members knew of Bonnet 's efforts . National Labour MP and diarist Harold Nicolson later wrote , " In those few minutes he flung away his reputation . " The seeming delay gave rise to fears Chamberlain would again seek a settlement with Hitler . Chamberlain 's last peacetime Cabinet met at 11 : 30 that night , with a thunderstorm raging outside , and determined that the ultimatum would be presented in Berlin at nine o 'clock the following morning — to expire two hours later prior to the House of Commons convening at noon . At 11 : 15 a.m. , Chamberlain addressed the nation by radio stating that the United Kingdom was at war with Germany :
This morning , the British ambassador in Berlin , handed the German government , the final note , stating that unless we heard from them , by 11 o 'clock , that they were prepared at once , to withdraw their troops from Poland , a state of war would exist between us . I have to tell you now , that no such undertaking has been received , and that consequently , this country is now at war with Germany . ... We have a clear conscience ; we have done all that any country could do to establish peace . The situation in which no word given by Germany 's ruler could be trusted , and no people or country could feel itself safe had become intolerable ... Now may God bless you all . May He defend the right . It is the evil things we shall be fighting against — brute force , bad faith , injustice , oppression , and persecution — and against them I am certain that the right will prevail .
That afternoon Chamberlain addressed the House of Commons ' first Sunday session in over 120 years . He spoke to a quiet House in a statement which even opponents termed " restrained and therefore effective " :
Everything that I have worked for , everything that I have hoped for , everything that I have believed in during my public life has crashed into ruins . There is only one thing left for me to do : that is devote what strength and power I have to forwarding the victory of the cause for which we have sacrificed so much .
= = = = " Phoney War " = = = =
Chamberlain instituted a War Cabinet and invited the Labour and Liberal parties to join his government which they declined . He restored Churchill to the Cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty with a seat in the War Cabinet . Chamberlain also gave Eden a government post ( Dominions Secretary ) but not a seat in the small War Cabinet . The new First Lord proved to be a difficult Cabinet colleague , deluging the Prime Minister with a sea of lengthy memos . Chamberlain castigated Churchill for sending so many memos as unnecessary when the two met in War Cabinet every day . Chamberlain suspected , correctly as it proved after the war , that " these letters are for the purpose of quotation in the Book that he will write hereafter " . Chamberlain was also able to deter some of Churchill 's more extreme plans , such as Operation Catherine , which would have sent several heavily armoured ships into the Baltic Sea with little support and no air cover as a means of stopping shipments of iron ore to Germany . With the naval war the only significant front involving the British in the early months of the war , the First Lord 's obvious desire to wage a ruthless , victorious war established him as a leader @-@ in @-@ waiting in the public consciousness and among parliamentary colleagues .
With little land action in the west , the initial months of the war were dubbed the " Bore War " , later renamed the " Phoney War " by journalists . Chamberlain , in common with most Allied officials and generals , felt the war could be won relatively quickly by keeping economic pressure on Germany through a blockade while continuing rearmament . Chamberlain was reluctant to go too far in altering the British economy . The government submitted an emergency war budget about which Chamberlain stated , " the only thing that matters is to win the war , though we may go bankrupt in the process " . However , actual government expenditures rose by little more than the rate of inflation between September 1939 and March 1940 . Despite these difficulties , Chamberlain still enjoyed approval ratings as high as 68 % and almost 60 % in April 1940 .
= = = = Downfall = = = =
In early 1940 the Allies approved a naval campaign that was devised to seize the northern part of Norway , a neutral country , including the key port of Narvik , and possibly also to seize the iron mines at Gällivare in northern Sweden from which Germany obtained much of its iron ore . Since the Baltic freezes in winters the iron ore was sent by ship south from Narvik during warmer times of the year . The Allies planned to begin by mining Norwegian waters , thus provoking a German reaction in Norway , and then the Allies planned to occupy much of the country . Unforeseen by the Allies , however , Germany had itself planned to occupy Norway , and on 9 April German troops occupied Denmark and began an invasion of Norway . German troops quickly overran much of the country . The Allies sent troops to Norway who met with little success , and on 26 April the War Cabinet ordered a withdrawal . The Prime Minister 's opponents decided to turn the adjournment debate for the Whitsun recess into a challenge to Chamberlain who soon heard about the plan . After initial anger , Chamberlain determined to fight .
What became known as the " Norway debate " opened on 7 May , and lasted for two days . The initial speeches , including Chamberlain 's , were nondescript , but Admiral of the Fleet Sir Roger Keyes , member for Portsmouth North , in full uniform , delivered a withering attack on the conduct of the Norway campaign , though he excluded Churchill from criticism . Leo Amery then delivered a speech which he concluded by echoing Oliver Cromwell 's words on dissolving the Long Parliament : " You have sat here too long for any good you are doing . Depart , I say , and let us have done with you . In the name of God , go ! " When Labour announced that they would call for a division of the House of Commons , Chamberlain called upon his " friends — and I still have some friends in this House — to support the Government tonight " . Though the use of the word " friends " was a conventional term to refer to party colleagues , and , according to biographer Robert Self , many MPs took it that way , it was an " error of judgment " for Chamberlain to refer to party loyalty " when the gravity of the war situation required national unity " . Lloyd George joined the attackers and Churchill concluded the debate with a vigorous speech in support of the government . When the division took place , the government , which had a normal majority of over 200 , prevailed by only 81 , with 38 MPs in receipt of the government whip voting against it , with between 20 and 25 abstaining .
Chamberlain spent much of 9 May in meetings with his Cabinet colleagues . Many Conservative MPs , even those who had voted against the government , indicated on 9 May and in the days following that they did not wish Chamberlain to depart but rather would seek to reconstruct his government . However , Chamberlain decided that he would resign unless the Labour Party was willing to join his government , and so he met with Attlee later that day . Attlee was unwilling but did agree to consult his National Executive then meeting in Bournemouth . Chamberlain favoured Halifax as the next Prime Minister , but Halifax proved reluctant to press his own claims , and Churchill emerged as the choice . The following day Germany invaded the Low Countries and Chamberlain considered remaining in office . However , Attlee confirmed that Labour would not serve under Chamberlain though it was willing to serve under someone else . Chamberlain went to Buckingham Palace to resign and advise the King to send for Churchill . Churchill later expressed gratitude to Chamberlain for not advising the King to send for Halifax who would have commanded the support of most government MPs . In a resignation broadcast that evening , Chamberlain told the nation ,
For the hour has now come when we are to be put to the test , as the innocent people of Holland , Belgium , and France are being tested already . And you and I must rally behind our new leader , and with our united strength , and with unshakable courage fight , and work until this wild beast , which has sprung out of his lair upon us , has been finally disarmed and overthrown .
Queen Elizabeth told Chamberlain that her daughter , Princess Elizabeth wept as she heard the broadcast . Churchill wrote to express his gratitude for Chamberlain 's willingness to stand by him in the nation 's hour of need , and Lord Baldwin , the only living former Prime Minister besides Chamberlain and Lloyd George , wrote , " You have passed through fire since we were talking together only a fortnight ago , and you have come out pure gold . "
= = Lord President of the Council and death = =
In a departure from usual practice , Chamberlain did not issue any resignation Honours list . With Chamberlain remaining leader of the Conservative Party , and with many MPs still supporting him and distrusting the new Prime Minister , Churchill refrained from any purge of Chamberlain loyalists . Churchill wished Chamberlain to return to the Exchequer , which he declined , convinced that accepting would lead to difficulties with the Labour Party . Instead , he accepted the post of Lord President of the Council with a seat in the shrunken five @-@ member War Cabinet . When Chamberlain entered the House of Commons on 13 May 1940 , for the first time since his resignation , " MPs lost their heads , they shouted , they cheered , they waved their order papers , and his reception was a regular ovation . " However , Churchill was received coolly by the House . Some of Churchill 's great speeches to the House , such as " We shall fight on the beaches " , met with only half @-@ hearted enthusiasm there .
His fall from power left Chamberlain deeply depressed , writing , " Few men can have known such a reversal of fortune in so short a time . " He especially regretted the loss of Chequers as " a place where I have been so happy " , though after a farewell visit there by the Chamberlains on 19 June , he wrote " I am content now that I have done that , and shall put Chequers out of my mind . " As Lord President he assumed vast responsibilities over domestic issues and chaired the War Cabinet during Churchill 's many absences . Attlee later remembered him as " free from any of the rancour he might have felt against us . He worked very hard and well : a good chairman , a good committeeman , always very businesslike " . As chairman of the Lord President 's Committee , he exerted great influence over the wartime economy . When Axis feelers for peace reached the War Cabinet on 26 May 1940 , with the Low Countries conquered and France tottering , Halifax urged following up and seeing if the actual offer was worthwhile . The battle over the course of action within the War Cabinet lasted three days , and Chamberlain 's statement on the final day that there was unlikely to be an acceptable offer and that the feelers should not be pursued at that time helped persuade the War Cabinet to reject negotiations .
Twice in May 1940 Churchill broached the subject of bringing Lloyd George into the government . Each time Chamberlain indicated that due to their longtime antipathy he would immediately retire if Lloyd George were appointed a minister . Churchill did not appoint Lloyd George but brought up the subject with Chamberlain again early in June . This time , Chamberlain agreed to Lloyd George 's appointment provided Lloyd George gave a personal assurance to put aside the feud . However , Lloyd George declined to serve in Churchill 's government .
Chamberlain worked to bring his Conservative Party in line behind Churchill , working with the Chief Whip , David Margesson , to overcome members ' suspicions and dislikes of the Prime Minister . On 4 July , after the British attack on the French fleet , Churchill entered the Chamber to a great cheer from Conservative MPs orchestrated by the two , and the Prime Minister was almost overcome with emotion at the first cheer he had received from his own party 's benches since May . Churchill returned the loyalty refusing to consider Labour and Liberal attempts to expel Chamberlain from the government . When criticisms of Chamberlain appeared in the press , and when the former Prime Minister learned that Labour intended to use an upcoming secret session of Parliament as a platform to attack him , Chamberlain told Churchill that he could only defend himself by attacking Labour . The Prime Minister intervened with the Labour Party and the press , and the criticism ceased , according to Chamberlain , " like turning off a tap " .
In July 1940 , a polemic entitled Guilty Men was released by " Cato " — a pseudonym for three journalists ( including future Labour leader Michael Foot ) . It attacked the record of the National Government , alleging that it had failed to prepare adequately for war . It called for the removal of Chamberlain and other ministers who had allegedly contributed to the British disasters of the early part of the war . The short book sold more than 200 @,@ 000 copies , many of which were passed from hand to hand , and went into twenty @-@ seven editions in the first few months despite not being carried by several major bookshops . According to historian David Dutton , " its impact upon Chamberlain 's reputation , both among the general public and within the academic world , was profound indeed " .
Chamberlain had long enjoyed excellent health , except for occasional attacks of gout , but by July 1940 , he was in almost constant pain . He sought treatment , and later that month entered hospital for surgery . Surgeons discovered that he was suffering from terminal bowel cancer , but they concealed it from him , instead telling him that he would not require further surgery . Chamberlain resumed work in mid @-@ August . He returned to his office on 9 September . However , renewed pain , compounded by the night @-@ time bombing of London which forced him to go to an air raid shelter and denied him rest , sapped his energy , and he left London for the last time on 19 September returning to Highfield Park in Heckfield . He offered his resignation to Churchill on 22 September , which the Prime Minister initially was reluctant to accept . However , as both men realised that Chamberlain would never return to work , Churchill finally allowed him to resign . The Prime Minister asked if Chamberlain would accept the highest order of British chivalry , the Order of the Garter , of which his brother had been a member . Chamberlain refused stating that he would " prefer to die plain ' Mr. Chamberlain ' like my father before me , unadorned by any title " .
In the short time remaining to him , Chamberlain was angered by the " short , cold and for the most part depreciatory " press comments on his retirement , according to him written " without the slightest sign of sympathy for the man or even any comprehension that there may be a human tragedy in the background " . However , the King and Queen drove down from Windsor to visit the dying man on 14 October . He received hundreds of sympathetic letters from friends and supporters . He wrote to John Simon , who had served as Chancellor of the
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1990s , using the released papers to justify the initial conclusions of Guilty Men . Oxford historian R. A. C. Parker argued that Chamberlain could have forged a close alliance with France after the Anschluß , in early 1938 , and begun a policy of containment of Germany under the auspices of the League of Nations . While many revisionist writers had suggested that Chamberlain had had few or no choices in his actions , Parker argued that Chamberlain and his colleagues had chosen appeasement over other viable policies . In his two volumes , Chamberlain and Appeasement ( 1993 ) and Churchill and Appeasement ( 2000 ) , Parker stated that Chamberlain , due to his " powerful , obstinate personality " and his skill in debate , caused Britain to embrace appeasement instead of effective deterrence . Parker also suggested that had Churchill held high office in the second half of the 1930s Churchill would have built a series of alliances which would have deterred Hitler , and perhaps would have caused Hitler 's domestic opponents to procure his removal .
Dutton observes that Chamberlain 's reputation , for good or ill , will probably always be closely tied to evaluation of his policy toward Germany :
Whatever else may be said of Chamberlain 's public life his reputation will in the last resort depend upon assessments of this moment [ Munich ] and this policy [ appeasement ] . This was the case when he left office in 1940 and it remains so sixty years later . To expect otherwise is rather like hoping that Pontius Pilate will one day be judged as a successful provincial administrator of the Roman Empire .
= = Honours and styles of address = =
= = = Styles of address = = =
1869 @-@ 1918 : Arthur Neville Chamberlain Esq
1918 @-@ 1922 : The Hon Arthur Neville Chamberlain MP
1922 @-@ 1938 : The Rt Hon Arthur Neville Chamberlain MP
1938 @-@ 1940 : The Rt Hon Arthur Neville Chamberlain MP FRS
= = = Academic = = =
Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) – 1938
Oxford University – DCL
Cambridge University – LLD
Birmingham University – LLD
Bristol University – LLD
Leeds University – LLD
Reading University – DLitt
= = = Freedoms = = =
Honorary Freedom City of Birmingham
Honorary Freedom City of London – conferred 1940 but died before acceptance , the scroll being presented to his widow in 1941
= = = Others = = =
Honorary Air Commodore , No 916 ( County of Warwick ) Balloon Squadron , Auxiliary Air Force – 1939
= = Parliamentary election results = =
= Death of Jimi Hendrix =
On September 18 , 1970 , the American musician Jimi Hendrix died in London , aged 27 years . One of the most influential guitarists of the 1960s , he was described by the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as " arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music . "
In the days before his death , Hendrix had been in poor health , due in part to fatigue caused by overworking , a chronic lack of sleep , and an illness assumed to be influenza @-@ related . Insecurities about his personal relationships and disillusionment with the music industry had also contributed to his frustration . Although the details of his final hours and death are disputed , Hendrix spent much of his last day with Monika Dannemann . During the morning of September 18 , she found him unresponsive in her apartment at the Samarkand Hotel , 22 Lansdowne Crescent , Notting Hill . She called for an ambulance at 11 : 18 a.m. , and he was taken to St Mary Abbot 's Hospital where an attempt was made to resuscitate him . He was pronounced dead at 12 : 45 p.m.
The post @-@ mortem examination concluded that Hendrix aspirated his own vomit and died of asphyxia while intoxicated with barbiturates . At the inquest , the coroner , finding no evidence of suicide and lacking sufficient evidence of the circumstances , recorded an open verdict . Dannemann stated that Hendrix had taken nine of her prescribed Vesparax sleeping tablets , 18 times the recommended dosage .
On October 1 , 1970 , Hendrix was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Renton , Washington . In 1992 , his former girlfriend Kathy Etchingham asked British authorities to reopen the investigation into his death . A subsequent inquiry by Scotland Yard proved inconclusive , and in 1993 , they decided against proceeding with the investigation .
= = Background = =
The American musician Jimi Hendrix ( born November 27 , 1942 ) was one of the most influential guitarists of the 1960s . His Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography says he " was arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music . Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before . His boundless drive , technical ability and creative application of such effects as wah @-@ wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll . "
During the week before his death , he was dealing with two pending lawsuits , one a paternity case and the other a recording contract dispute that was due to be heard by a UK High Court the following week . He was also troubled with wanting to leave his manager , Michael Jeffery . Hendrix was fatigued and suffering from poor health , due in part to severe exhaustion caused by overworking , a chronic lack of sleep , and a persistent illness assumed to be influenza @-@ related . Lacking trusting personal relationships , his insecurities about the future and disillusionment with the music industry contributed to his frustration .
On September 11 , 1970 , Hendrix gave his final interview in his suite at the Cumberland Hotel in London , where he talked with Keith Altham , a journalist for Record Mirror . During the interview , Hendrix confirmed reports that Billy Cox , the bass player in his band , The Jimi Hendrix Experience , was leaving . Cox , who had been suffering from severe exhaustion and was exhibiting symptoms of paranoia , mutually agreed with Hendrix that they should suspend their plans to collaborate musically . When Altham asked Hendrix : " Do you feel any kind of compulsion to prove yourself as King Guitar " , Hendrix replied : " No , I don 't even let that bother me . Because they say a lot of things about people that , if they let it bother them , they wouldn 't even be around today ... King Guitar now ? Wow , that 's a bit heavy . " Altham also suggested that Hendrix invented psychedelic music , to which he laughed and replied : " A mad scientist approach ... I don 't consider [ my music ] the invention of psychedelic , it 's just asking a lot of questions . "
The following day , Hendrix received a phone call from one of his girlfriends , Devon Wilson , who had become jealous after hearing rumors that he was dating another woman , Kirsten Nefer . Nefer recalled : " I heard Jimi talk to Devon ... she was mad ... she went into fits ... Jimi said ' Devon , get off my back ' " . Hendrix was scheduled to perform in Rotterdam on September 13 , but the show , along with three others , was cancelled due to Cox 's incapacitation . During the evening of September 13 , Nefer visited Hendrix at the Cumberland . After informing him that she would have to go back to work that evening , he convinced her to phone her boss , actor George Lazenby , and ask for the night off . Lazenby became angry and shouted over the phone to Nefer : " You 're nothing but a fucking groupie " , which Hendrix overheard . The exchange upset him , and he told Nefer : " Don 't you ever go out to that guy again " . Nefer explained to him that she had spent six months working on a film with Lazenby and that she did not want to quit her job ; Hendrix eventually agreed . Nefer spent the night with him and left in the morning .
Hendrix spent most of the early afternoon and evening of September 14 discussing his career plans with the record producer Alan Douglas . In the early morning hours of September 15 , he went to London 's Heathrow Airport with Douglas , who was returning to New York . Hendrix 's confidante Sharon Lawrence was in London , and spoke with him that day . Lawrence commented : " Jimi tracked me down , detailing his pressures and discussing the ' so @-@ called friends ' . He was jittery and angry . " According to Lawrence , Hendrix told her : " I can 't sleep . I can 't focus to write any songs . " Later that afternoon , his girlfriend Monika Dannemann arrived at the Cumberland . She and Hendrix then drove to her apartment in the Samarkand Hotel , 22 Lansdowne Crescent , Notting Hill .
During the afternoon of September 15 , Hendrix was asked by his friend Eric Burdon , formerly of the Animals , if he wanted to participate in a jam session at Ronnie Scott 's Jazz Club with Burdon 's newly formed band , War . Hendrix accepted , but when he arrived at the club that evening , he was not allowed to play due to his apparently drug @-@ related disorientation . Burdon commented : " Jimi came down and was well out of it . He ... was wobbling too much to play , so I told him to come back the following night . " Hendrix returned the next night and presented a healthier appearance . The crowd was enthusiastic and impressed by his performance despite his uncharacteristically subdued guitar playing when he sat in with War on " Tobacco Road " and " Mother Earth " . This was the last time Hendrix played guitar in public .
= = Final hours = =
= = = Late morning and early afternoon = = =
Although the details of Hendrix 's last day and death are unclear and widely disputed , he had spent much of September 17 in London with Monika Dannemann . He awoke late that morning at Dannemann 's apartment in the Samarkand Hotel . By around 2 p.m. , he was sitting in a garden area outside the apartment enjoying some tea while she took photographs of him holding his favorite Fender Stratocaster guitar that he called the " black beauty " . In the opinion of author Tony Brown , " Jimi doesn 't look particularly healthy in these photographs : his face seems a little puffy and on only a few of the pictures does he attempt to smile . "
According to Dannemann , by 3 p.m. they had left the apartment to use a bank . They continued on to Kensington Market , where Hendrix signed an autograph for a young boy , purchased a leather jacket , and ordered some shoes . He also briefly spoke with his ex @-@ girlfriend Kathy Etchingham , inviting her to visit him at his hotel that evening at 8 p.m. ; she declined the invitation due to prior engagements and later admitted that she had " regretted it ever since " . Hendrix and Dannemann then went to a Chelsea antiques market , where Hendrix purchased more clothing . After another stop to buy writing paper , which he used to compose his final lyrics , Dannemann and Hendrix drove to his suite at the Cumberland Hotel , meeting Devon Wilson as she walked down King 's Road . Hendrix asked Dannemann to stop the car so that he could get out and talk with Wilson , who invited Hendrix to a party that evening . Dannemann became jealous , giving Wilson a cold stare during the brief meeting . Later , Phillip Harvey invited Dannemann and Hendrix to tea ; they accepted . Prior to their arrival at Harvey 's , they briefly stopped by the Cumberland .
While at the hotel , Hendrix made several telephone calls . Dannemann said he phoned his lawyer Henry Steingarten , asking him to find a way out of his contract with his manager Mike Jeffery , and producer Eddie Kramer , for whom Hendrix left a voice message . Mitch Mitchell said that he called Hendrix at the Cumberland on September 17 , after having been asked to do so by tour manager Gerry Stickells , who had spoken to Hendrix just minutes earlier . Mitchell said that during the phone conversation Hendrix agreed to join him around midnight at the Speakeasy Club for a previously arranged jam session , which included Sly Stone .
= = = Late afternoon and evening = = =
After stopping at the Cumberland , Hendrix and Dannemann accompanied Harvey to his apartment , arriving around 5 : 30 p.m. Hendrix and Dannemann smoked hashish and drank tea and wine with Harvey and two of his female companions while discussing their individual careers . Sometime around 10 p.m. , Dannemann , apparently feeling left out of the conversation and jealous of the attention Hendrix was giving Harvey 's female friends , became visibly upset and stormed out of the flat . Hendrix followed her , and an argument ensued between them during which Dannemann reportedly shouted : " you fucking pig " . Harvey , concerned that their yelling would draw unwanted attention from the police , asked them to quiet down .
Harvey , who had remained silent about the incident out of respect for his English nobleman father , Arthur Vere Harvey , gave an affidavit after his father 's death in 1994 . In his statement , he claims to have been mildly concerned for Hendrix 's safety , worried that Dannemann might " resort to serious physical violence " . According to Harvey , Dannemann " verbally assaulted [ Hendrix ] in the most offensive possible way " . Approximately 30 minutes later , Hendrix re @-@ entered the flat and apologized for the outburst before leaving with Dannemann at 10 : 40 p.m. Dannemann said she then prepared a meal for them at her apartment around 11 p.m. and shared a bottle of wine with Hendrix . Sometime after returning to the apartment , Hendrix took a bath , then wrote a poem titled " The Story of Life " .
= = = Early morning = = =
At approximately 1 : 45 a.m. on Friday , September 18 , Dannemann drove Hendrix to the party Wilson had invited him to earlier that day , which was hosted by Hendrix 's acquaintance and business associate , Pete Cameron . At the party , Hendrix complained to Cameron about business problems , ate some food , and took at least one amphetamine tablet . Approximately 30 minutes later , Dannemann rang the flat 's intercom asking for Hendrix . Another guest , Stella Douglas , asked her to return later . According to guest Angie Burdon , the estranged wife of Eric Burdon of the Animals , when Dannemann came back around 15 minutes later , Douglas used an assertive approach with her to the point of being impolite . Undeterred , Dannemann demanded to speak with Hendrix . Burdon recalled : " [ Hendrix ] got angry because [ Dannemann ] wouldn 't leave him alone . " According to Burdon , other guests at the party shouted out the windows at Dannemann , asking her to leave . Hendrix eventually yielded and spoke with Dannemann before unexpectedly leaving the party around 3 a.m.
Dannemann , the only eyewitness to Hendrix 's final hours , said that sometime after 3 a.m. , she prepared two tuna fish sandwiches for them after arriving back at her basement apartment . Around 4 a.m. , Hendrix , struggling with insomnia after having consumed amphetamines hours earlier , asked her for sleeping tablets . She later said she refused his request hoping he would fall asleep naturally . Dannemann said she surreptitiously took a sleeping tablet sometime around 6 a.m. , with Hendrix still awake . She awoke sometime between 10 and 10 : 20 a.m. to find him sleeping normally in bed next to her . She said she then left to purchase cigarettes , and when she returned around 11 a.m. , found him in bed breathing , although unconscious and unresponsive . She telephoned for an ambulance at 11 : 18 a.m. and one arrived at 11 : 27 a.m.
When ambulance crew members Reg Jones and John Saua arrived at the Samarkand , the door to the flat was wide open , the gas fire was on , the curtains were drawn , and the apartment was dark . The crew called out several times , but after receiving no response , they entered and found Hendrix alone in bed . Dannemann was nowhere to be found . According to Jones : " Well , we had to get the police , we only had [ Hendrix ] and an empty flat , so John ran up and radioed , and got the aspirator ... It was horrific . He was covered in vomit . There was tons of it all over the pillow — black and brown it was . His airway was completely blocked all the way down ... We felt his pulse ... showed a light in his eyes . But there was no response at all . " At 11 : 30 a.m. , police officers Ian Smith and Tom Keene responded to a call for police assistance from the ambulance control centre . Jones commented : " Once the police arrived , which seemed like no time at all , we got [ Hendrix ] off to hospital as quick as we could . "
The ambulance crew left the hotel at approximately 11 : 35 a.m. to take Hendrix to St Mary Abbot 's Hospital and they arrived at 11 : 45 a.m. Medical registrar Dr. Martin Seifert stated : " Jimi was rushed into the [ resuscitation ] room . He was put on a monitor , but it [ ECG trace ] was flat . I pounded his heart [ CPR ] a couple of times , but there was no point , he was dead " . According to Seifert , the attempt to resuscitate Hendrix lasted " just a few minutes " . The surgical registrar , Dr. John Bannister , commented : " He was cold and he was blue . He had all the parameters of someone who had been dead for some time . We worked on him for about half an hour without any response at all . " Bannister pronounced Hendrix dead at 12 : 45 p.m. , on Friday , September 18 , 1970 ; he was 27 years old . He later stated : " On admission he was obviously dead . He had no pulse , no heartbeat , and the attempt to resuscitate him was merely a formality . "
= = Media response = =
During the morning of September 18 , Eric Burdon arrived at the Samarkand sometime before the ambulance crew and found that Hendrix was already dead . Burdon immediately became concerned that police would find drugs at the apartment , and as he was collecting incriminating evidence , he found the poem that Hendrix had written hours earlier , " The Story of Life " . Burdon , who said he had previously discussed suicide and death with Hendrix , assumed the poem was a suicide note . Under this assumption , he made comments to the press regarding his belief that Hendrix had committed suicide that he has since recanted : " I made false statements ... I simply didn 't understand what the situation was . I misread the note ... I thought it was a goodbye " . Dannemann said Hendrix told her : " I want you to keep this [ poem ] forever [ and ] I don 't want you to forget anything that is written . It 's a story about you and me " .
Soon after Bannister pronounced Hendrix dead , a hospital spokesperson told the press : " We don 't know where , how , or why he died , but he died of an overdose . " By that evening , many newspapers in London and New York had printed sensationalized headlines that exploited the death @-@ from @-@ overdose account . Hendrix 's public relations manager , Les Perrin , granted an interview on Dutch radio soon after the hospital announcement . He commented : " Well , all I know is that Mr. Hendrix 's body was taken to St. Mary Abbots Hospital in Kensington , London , at 11 : 45 this morning , and he was certified to be dead on arrival . " At 2 p.m. , BBC Radio 1 reported : " Jimi Hendrix , regarded by millions as one of the most talented and original performers in modern rock music , is dead . " That evening , The New York Times described him as " a genius black musician , a guitarist , singer and composer of brilliantly dramatic power . He spoke in gestures and big as he could imagine and create . "
On September 19 , Dannemann spoke with a journalist for the German tabloid Bild . During the interview , published on September 24 , Dannemann stated : " I loved him , and Jimi loved me ... We were already engaged ... I would then have designed the sleeves for his records ... He could not sleep . So I gave him the tablets . " On September 20 , a reporter from The Daily Telegraph interviewed Dannemann 's brother , Klaus @-@ Peter Dannemann , who stated : " [ Monika ] telephoned me on [ September 19 ] and told me that [ Hendrix ] took nine sleeping tablets . She said that Jimi had told her that he wanted to sleep for a day and a half before he went to America . She told me that he did not intend to kill himself . "
= = Post @-@ mortem = =
To determine the cause of death , the coroner , Gavin Thurston , ordered a post @-@ mortem examination on Hendrix 's body , which was performed on September 21 by Professor Robert Donald Teare , a forensic pathologist . Teare reported that Hendrix was " well nourished and muscular " , and he identified a quarter @-@ inch scar on Hendrix 's left wrist . He said that there were " no stigmata of [ intravenous ] drug addiction . Once these marks are there [ in the skin ] , they never go away . In this case , there were no marks at all . " Although Teare observed that the right side of Hendrix 's heart was widely dilated , he found no evidence of valvular heart disease . He discovered a partially collapsed left lung and 400 ml of fluid in Hendrix 's chest . Both lungs were congested , and vomit was found in the smaller bronchi . According to Teare , Hendrix 's stomach " contained a medium @-@ sized partially digested meal in which rice could be distinguished . " Teare concluded that Hendrix 's kidneys were healthy , and his liver was congested . His " bladder was half full of clear urine . " He stated that Hendrix 's blood alcohol content was 100 mg per 100 ml , " enough to fail a breathalyzer test ... the equivalent of about four pints of beer . " Teare reported that analysis of Hendrix 's blood " revealed a mixture of barbiturates consistent with those from Vesparax " , and he estimated that drug concentrations translated to ingestion of 1 @.@ 8 grams of barbiturate , 20 mg of amphetamine , and 20 mg of cannabis . Teare gave the cause of death as : " Inhalation of vomit due to barbiturate intoxication . " He did not attempt to determine Hendrix 's time of death .
Thurston began an inquest on September 23 , and on September 28 he concluded that Hendrix had aspirated his own vomit and died of asphyxia while intoxicated with barbiturates . Citing " insufficient evidence of [ the ] circumstances " , he recorded an open verdict . He commented : " The cause of death was clearly inhalation of vomit due to barbiturate intoxication , but there is no evidence as to intention to commit suicide ... If the question of intention cannot be answered , then it is proper to find the cause of death and leave it an open verdict . " Dannemann later stated that Hendrix had taken nine of her prescribed Vesparax sleeping tablets . Intended to be taken in half @-@ tablet doses , nine tablets of the powerful sedative amounted to 18 times the recommended amount .
After Hendrix 's body had been embalmed by Desmond Henley , it was flown to Seattle , Washington , on September 29 . After a service at Dunlop Baptist Church on October 1 , he was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Renton , Washington , the location of his mother 's gravesite . Hendrix 's family and friends traveled in twenty @-@ four limousines . More than two hundred people attended the funeral , including several notable musicians such as the original Experience members Mitch Mitchell and Noel Redding , as well as Miles Davis , John Hammond and Johnny Winter .
= = Inconsistencies and the Scotland Yard inquiry = =
Tony Brown , author of Jimi Hendrix : The Final Days ( 1997 ) , had been in regular contact with Dannemann from 1980 until her death in 1996 . He visited with her on multiple occasions and spoke with her numerous times over the phone . Soon after contacting her , Brown came to the conclusion that her account of the events of Hendrix 's final days " would change from one call to the next . " In the days following Hendrix 's death , she gave two significantly different accounts of the morning of September 18 .
At approximately 4 p.m. on September 18 , Dannemann told Police Sergeant John Shaw : " We went to sleep about 7 a.m. When I woke up at eleven his face was covered in vomit , and he was breathing noisily . I sent for an ambulance , and he was taken to hospital . I also noticed that ten of my sleeping tablets were missing . " In a statement given to P. Weyell of the coroner 's office on September 24 , she said :
I made a sandwich and we talked until about 7 a.m. He then said that he wanted to go to sleep . He took some tablets , and we went to bed . I woke up about 11 : 00 a.m. , and saw that Jimi 's face was covered in vomit . I tried to wake him but could not . I called an ambulance and he was taken to the hospital in Kensington ... Prior to going with him to the hospital , I checked my supply of Vesparax sleeping tablets and found that nine of them were missing .
In Dannemann 's initial statements , she said she awoke at 11 a.m. on September 18 . During the inquest she stated that she awoke at 10 : 20 a.m. , and left to purchase cigarettes , something she had previously failed to mention . In 1971 , she wrote a manuscript in which she said she awoke at 10 a.m. In 1975 , during an interview with author Caesar Glebbeek , Dannemann stated that she awoke at 9 a.m. According to Burdon , Dannemann phoned him as " the first light of dawn was coming through the window . " Stickells said he received a phone call regarding a problem with Hendrix " between 8 a.m. and 9 a.m. " Mitchell said he waited for Hendrix at the Speakeasy Club until they closed at 4 a.m. , and a couple of hours after his hour and a half drive home , he received a phone call from Stickells , who told him Hendrix had died . In her statements to the police and coroner 's office , Dannemann never mentioned telephoning Burdon .
Although Dannemann stated that Hendrix was alive when placed in the ambulance at approximately 11 : 30 a.m. and that she rode with him on the way to the hospital , the ambulance crew later denied she was there . Statements from the paramedics who responded to the call support that they found Hendrix alone in the flat when they arrived at 11 : 27 a.m. , fully clothed and apparently already dead . Jones later commented : " [ When ] we arrived at the flat , the door was flung wide open , nobody about , just the body on the bed . " Saua stated : " There was just me and the casualty and Reg the driver . Nobody else . " Burdon stated : " [ Dannemann ] didn 't leave in the ambulance ; she was with me " . According to Jones , Hendrix 's bowels and bladder had released some of their contents prior to the ambulance crew 's arrival at the Samarkand . Saua stated that the vomit was dry when they arrived , making use of their aspirator ineffective . Saua commented : " When we moved [ Hendrix ] , the gases were gurgling , you get that when someone has died " . According to police officer Smith : " The ambulance men were there , but Jimi was dead ... There was really nothing they could do for him . " Smith also disputes Dannemann 's claim that she was there with Hendrix at the flat and in the ambulance :
No , I remember quite clearly the doors shutting on the crew and Jimi ... there was no one about . If she had been in the flat , they would never have called us to come ... But because no one was there , he was dead , and circumstances were a little odd , suspicious , they radioed ... us in . It wasn 't until later in the day that I found out that it was Jimi Hendrix .
In 1992 , after having conducted an extensive review of the events of September 18 , 1970 , the London Ambulance Service issued an official statement : " There was no one else , except the deceased , at the flat when they arrived ; nor did anyone else accompany them in the ambulance to St. Mary Abbotts Hospital . "
In 1992 , having arranged for a private investigation of Hendrix 's death , Etchingham supplied the results of the effort to UK authorities and requested they reopen the coroner 's inquest . After a several @-@ month inquiry by Scotland Yard , during which every interested party to the events was interviewed , officials were confident the request would be granted . The investigation eventually proved inconclusive in 1993 , when Attorney General Sir Nicholas Lyell decided that proceeding with the investigation would not serve the public , due in part to the excessive time that had passed since Hendrix 's death .
= Liv Tyler =
Liv Rundgren Tyler ( born Liv Rundgren ; July 1 , 1977 ) is an American actress and former child model . She is the daughter of Aerosmith 's lead singer , Steven Tyler , and model Bebe Buell . Tyler began a career in modeling at the age of 14 but , after less than a year , she decided to focus on acting . After her film debut Silent Fall ( 1994 ) , she appeared in supporting roles in Empire Records ( 1995 ) , Heavy ( 1996 ) and That Thing You Do ! ( 1996 ) . Tyler later achieved critical recognition in the leading role in Bernardo Bertolucci 's Stealing Beauty ( 1996 ) , playing a teenage girl visiting her deceased mother 's artist friends in Italy . She followed this by appearing in supporting roles including Inventing the Abbotts ( 1997 ) and Robert Altman 's black comedy Cookie 's Fortune ( 1999 ) .
Tyler achieved international recognition as a result of her portrayal of Elf maiden Arwen Undómiel in the Lord of the Rings film trilogy ( 2001 – 2003 ) . She has appeared in an eclectic range of films , including the 2004 comedy Jersey Girl , the indie film Lonesome Jim ( 2005 ) , the drama Reign Over Me ( 2007 ) and big @-@ budget studio films such as Armageddon ( 1998 ) , the home invasion horror film The Strangers ( 2008 ) and The Incredible Hulk ( 2008 ) .
In 2014 , Tyler made her television debut on the HBO series The Leftovers in a recurring role .
She has served as a United Nations Children 's Fund ( UNICEF ) Goodwill Ambassador for the United States in 2003 , and as a spokesperson for Givenchy 's line of perfume and cosmetics .
= = Early life = =
Tyler was born Liv Rundgren at Mount Sinai Hospital in East Harlem , New York . She is the only daughter of Bebe Buell , a model , singer , and former Playboy Playmate ( Miss November 1974 ) , and Steven Tyler , the lead singer of Aerosmith . Her mother named her after Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann , after seeing Ullmann on the cover of the March 5 , 1977 issue of TV Guide . She is of Italian , German , Polish , and English ancestry on her father 's side and German ancestry on her mother 's side . Tyler has three half @-@ siblings : Mia Tyler ( born 1978 ) , Chelsea Anna Tallarico ( born 1989 ) , and Taj Monroe Tallarico ( born 1992 ) . Her maternal grandmother , Dorothea Johnson , founded the Protocol School of Washington .
From 1972 to 1979 , Liv ’ s mother Bebe Buell lived with rock musician Todd Rundgren . In 1976 , Buell became unexpectedly pregnant from a brief relationship with Steven Tyler . On July 1 , 1977 , Buell gave birth , naming the daughter Liv Rundgren and claiming that Todd Rundgren was the biological father . Rundgren and Buell ended their romantic relationship but Rundgren put his heart and soul into the " white lie " . At age eight Liv met Steven Tyler and noticed a resemblance she shared with his other daughter , Mia . When she asked her mother about the similarity , the secret was revealed . The truth about Tyler 's paternity did not become public until six years later in 1991 , when she changed her name from Rundgren to Tyler , but kept the former as a middle name . Buell 's stated reason for the initial decision was that Steven was too heavily addicted to drugs at the time of her birth . Since learning the truth about her paternity , Liv and Steven have developed a close relationship . They also have worked together professionally , once when she appeared in Aerosmith 's music video for " Crazy " in 1993 , and again when Aerosmith performed many of the songs in the film Armageddon ( 1998 ) in which Tyler starred .
According to Tyler " ... Todd [ Rundgren ] basically decided when I was born that I needed a father so he signed my birth certificate . He knew that there was a chance that I might not be his but .... " He paid to put her through private school , and she visited him several times a year .
Tyler maintains a close relationship with Rundgren . " I ’ m so grateful to him , I have so much love for him . You know , when he holds me it feels like Daddy . And he ’ s very protective and strong . "
Tyler attended the Congressional Schools of Virginia , Breakwater School , and Waynflete School in Portland , Maine , before returning to New York City with her mother at age 12 . She went to York Preparatory in New York City for junior high and high school after her mother researched the school to accommodate Tyler 's ADHD . She graduated in 1995 and left to continue her acting career . When asked about the way she spent her youth , Tyler said : " For me , I didn ’ t get much of a childhood in my teen years because I ’ ve been working since I was 14 . But that also kept me out of trouble . When everybody was doing acid and partying like crazy , I was at work on a movie in Tuscany ... having my own fun , of course , but it was a different kind of thing . I have no regrets . I love the way my life has gone . "
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Tyler received her first modeling job at age 14 with the assistance of Paulina Porizkova , who took pictures of her that ended up in Interview magazine . She later starred in television commercials . She , however , became bored with her modeling career less than a year after it started , and decided to go into acting , although she never took acting lessons . Tyler first became known to television audiences when she starred alongside Alicia Silverstone in the music video for Aerosmith 's 1993 song " Crazy " .
= = = 1994 – 1997 : Film debut ; Stealing Beauty = = =
Tyler made her feature film debut in Silent Fall in 1994 , where she played the elder sister of a boy with autism . In 1995 , she starred in the comedy drama Empire Records . Tyler has described Empire Records as " one of the best experiences " she has ever had . Soon after , she landed a supporting role in James Mangold 's
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( Maypole ) in eastern Bosnia , and Operation Rösselsprung ( Knight 's Move ) , the attempt to capture or kill the Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito .
On 20 June 1944 , Phleps was awarded the German Cross in Gold . In September , he was appointed plenipotentiary general of German occupation troops in south Siebenbürgen and the Banat , organising the flight of the Volksdeutsche of north Siebenbürgen ahead of the advancing Soviet Red Army .
= = Death and aftermath = =
While en route to a meeting with Himmler in Berlin , Phleps and his entourage made a detour to reconnoitre the situation near Arad , Romania after receiving reports of Soviet advances in that area . Accompanied only by his adjutant and his driver , and unaware of the presence of Red Army units in the vicinity , he entered Șimand , a village approximately 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north of Arad , on the afternoon of 21 September 1944 . Soviet forces were already in the village , and Phleps and his men were captured and brought in for interrogation . When the building in which they were held was attacked by German aircraft later that afternoon , the prisoners tried to escape and were shot by their guards . Bergel suspects that Phleps had been set up by Hungarian army officers who had found out that Phleps knew of plans for Hungary to switch sides as Romania had done shortly before . Phleps ' personal effects , including his identity card , tags and decorations , were found by a Hungarian patrol and handed over to German authorities on 29 September 1944 . Phleps had been listed as missing in action since 22 September 1944 when he did not show up for his meeting with Himmler , who had issued a warrant for Phleps ' arrest .
Phleps was posthumously awarded the Oak Leaves to his Knight 's Cross on 24 November 1944 , which was presented to his son , SS @-@ Obersturmführer ( First Lieutenant ) Dr.med. Reinhart Phleps , a battalion doctor serving in the 7th SS Division . Soon after his death , the 13th Gebirgsjäger Regiment of the 7th SS Division was given the cuff title Artur Phleps in his honour . Phleps was married ; his wife 's name was Grete and in addition to their son Reinhart , they had a daughter , Irmingard . One of Phleps ' brothers became a doctor , and the other was a professor at the Danzig technical university , now Gdańsk University of Technology .
= = Accusations of war crimes = =
Phleps was accused by the Yugoslav authorities of war crimes in association with the atrocities committed by 7th SS Division in the area of Nikšić in Montenegro . At the Nuremberg trials on 6 August 1946 , a document from the Yugoslav State Commission for Crimes of Occupiers and their Collaborators regarding the crimes of the 7th SS Division was quoted as follows :
At the end of May 1943 the division came to Montenegro to the area of Niksic in order to take part in the fifth enemy offensive in conjunction with the Italian troops . [ ... ] The officers and men of the SS division Prinz Eugen committed crimes of an outrageous cruelty on this occasion . The victims were shot , slaughtered and tortured , or burnt to death in burning houses . [ ... ] It has been established from the investigations entered upon that 121 persons , mostly women , and including 30 persons aged 60 – 92 years and 29 children of ages ranging from 6 months to 14 years , were executed on this occasion in the horrible manner narrated above . The villages [ and then follows the list of the villages ] were burnt down and razed to the ground . [ ... ] For all of these most serious War Crimes those responsible besides the actual culprits--the members of the SS Division Prinz Eugen--are all superior and all subordinate commanders as the persons issuing and transmitting the orders for murder and devastation . Among others the following war criminals are known : SS Gruppenfuehrer and Lieutenant General of the Waffen @-@ SS Phleps ; Divisional Commander , Major General of the Waffen @-@ SS Karl von Oberkamp ; Commander of the 13th Regiment , later Divisional Commander , Major General Gerhard Schmidhuber ...
= = Awards = =
Phleps received the following awards during his service :
Austrian Military Merit Medal ( Signum Laudis )
in Bronze with war decoration and swords on 13 October 1914
in Silver with war decoration on 15 March 1916
Austrian Military Merit Cross 3rd Class with war decoration and swords on 3 July 1915
Decoration for Services to the Red Cross 2nd Class with war decoration on 23 October 1915
Prussian Iron Cross ( 1914 ) 2nd Class on 27 January 1917
Austrian Order of the Iron Crown 3rd Class with war decoration and swords on 24 April 1917
Officers cross of the Order of Franz Joseph with war decoration and swords on 23 July 1918
Order of the Star of Romania
Officers cross with swords on ribbon of military merit on 12 March 1920
Commanders cross on 28 February 1933
Czechoslovak War Cross on 1 March 1928
Order of the Yugoslav Crown 2nd Class in 1933
Bulgarian Order of Military Merit 2nd Class on 26 April 1934
Romanian Order of the Crown
Commander on 1 January 1927
Grand Cross on 10 May 1939
Clasp to the Iron Cross ( 1939 ) 2nd Class on 10 July 1941
Iron Cross 1st Class on 26 July 1941
Infantry Assault Badge in Bronze on 7 November 1943
German Cross in Gold on 20 June 1944 as SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen @-@ SS in the V SS Mountain Corps
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight 's Cross on 4 July 1943 as SS @-@ Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen SS and commander of SS @-@ Division " Prinz Eugen "
670th Oak Leaves on 24 November 1944 ( posthumously ) as SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen @-@ SS , commanding general of the V SS Mountain Corps and Higher SS and Police Leader as well as commander @-@ in @-@ chief in Siebenbürgen .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals = = =
= = = Websites = = =
= Neville Cardus =
Sir John Frederick Neville Cardus , CBE ( 3 April 1888 – 28 February 1975 ) was an English writer and critic . From an impoverished home background , and mainly self @-@ educated , he became The Manchester Guardian 's cricket correspondent in 1919 and its chief music critic in 1927 , holding the two posts simultaneously until 1940 . His contributions to these two distinct fields in the years before the Second World War established his reputation as one of the foremost critics of his generation .
Cardus 's approach to cricket writing was innovative , turning what had previously been largely a factual form into vivid description and criticism ; he is considered by contemporaries to have influenced every subsequent cricket writer . Although he achieved his largest readership for his cricket reports and books , he considered music criticism as his principal vocation . Without any formal musical training , he was initially influenced by the older generation of critics , in particular Samuel Langford and Ernest Newman , but developed his own individual style of criticism — subjective , romantic and personal , in contrast to the objective analysis practised by Newman . Cardus 's opinions and judgments were often forthright and unsparing , which sometimes caused friction with leading performers . Nevertheless , his personal charm and gregarious manner enabled him to form lasting friendships in the cricketing and musical worlds , with among others Newman , Sir Thomas Beecham and Sir Donald Bradman .
Cardus spent the Second World War years in Australia , where he wrote for The Sydney Morning Herald and gave regular radio talks . He also wrote books on music , and completed his autobiography . After his return to England he resumed his connection with The Manchester Guardian as its London music critic . He continued to write on cricket , and produced books on both his specialisms . Cardus 's work was publicly recognised by his appointment as a Companion of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in 1964 and the award of a knighthood in 1966 , while the music and cricket worlds acknowledged him with numerous honours . In his last years , he became a guru and inspirational figure to aspiring young writers .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
= = = = Family background and early childhood = = = =
Neville Cardus was born on 3 April 1888 in Rusholme , Manchester . Throughout his childhood and young adulthood he was known as " Fred " . There has been confusion over his birth date ; some sources give it as 2 April 1889 , and Cardus himself hosted a dinner party on 2 April 1959 believing this to be his 70th birthday . His birth certificate , however , confirms the earlier date . Neville 's mother was Ada Cardus , one of several daughters of Robert and Ann Cardus of 4 Summer Place , Rusholme . On 14 July 1888 , when the baby was three months old , Ada left her parents ' home and married John Frederick Newsome , a blacksmith . Apart from their shared forenames , there is no evidence that Newsome was Neville 's father , who is described in Cardus 's autobiographical works as a violinist in an orchestra . The Newsome marriage was short @-@ lived , and within a few years Ada and Neville had returned to her parents ' home in Summer Place .
Robert Cardus was a retired policeman ; to augment his small pension the family took in neighbours ' washing , and the household income was further supplemented by his daughters ' earnings from part @-@ time prostitution . In his autobiographical writings , Cardus refers to his home environment at Summer Place as " sordid ... unlettered and unbeautiful " , yet enlivened by laughter : " Humour kept breezing in " . Commentators have suggested that Cardus tended to overstate the deprived aspects of his childhood ; his biographer Christopher Brookes asserts that " Cardus was the product neither of a slum , nor a cultural desert " . Robert Cardus , though uneducated , was not illiterate , and was instrumental in awakening his grandson 's literary interests . Theatres , libraries and other cultural facilities were easily accessible from the Cardus home .
Neville 's formal schooling was limited to five years at the local board school , where the curriculum was basic and the methods of tuition harsh : " [ T ] he boy who showed the faintest sign of freedom of the will was caned " . This experience did not curb Neville 's intellectual curiosity ; at a very young age he was expanding his cultural horizons , through the worlds of reading and of music hall and pantomime . When he was 10 years old he discovered the novels of Dickens ; years later he wrote that there were two classes of person , " those who have it in them from birth onwards to appreciate Dickens and those who haven 't . The second group should be avoided as soon as detected " . His earliest creative writing took the form of a handwritten magazine , The Boy 's World , full of articles and stories he had written . He circulated it among his schoolmates , until it was discovered and torn up by an irate teacher .
= = = = Manchester , 1901 – 12 = = = =
After Robert Cardus 's death in 1900 the family moved several times , eventually breaking up altogether . Cardus left school in 1901 and took a variety of short @-@ term , unskilled jobs before finding more secure employment as a clerk with Flemings ' marine insurance agency . He lived for a time with his Aunt Beatrice with whom , according to Brookes , he had at an early age " embarked on a lifelong love affair ... In his eyes she could do no wrong " . A flamboyant character , Beatrice brought colour into Cardus 's life ; she encouraged him to read worthwhile books and her memory , Brookes asserts , " remained a potent inspirational force " throughout his later life as a writer . She also bought him his first cricket bat .
These years were a period of intense self @-@ education . Cardus became an habitué of the local libraries , and extended his reading from Dickens to include many of the masters of literature : Fielding , Thackeray , Conrad and — with more reservation — Hardy and Henry James . In due course he added philosophy and metaphysics to his curriculum ; this began with his discovery of George Henry Lewes , which led him on to the works of Kant , Hume , Berkeley and , eventually , Schopenhauer . He supplemented these studies by attending free lectures at Manchester University , and met regularly with a group of like @-@ minded autodidacts at Alexandra Park or , in the winter , at the Lyons café in Albert Square , to discuss and debate for whole afternoons . At first Cardus 's schedule of self @-@ improvement was random ; eventually he compiled what he called a " cultural scheme " whereby he devoted a set weekly number of hours to different subjects .
Cardus 's interest in music began with the popular tunes sung by his mother and her sisters in the family home . He remembered hearing for the first time the melody of the " Vilja " song from Franz Lehár 's operetta The Merry Widow , which " curled its way into my heart to stay there for a lifetime " . In April 1907 he was " swept ... into the seven seas of music " by a performance of Edward German 's operetta Tom Jones . " I am unable to explain " , Cardus wrote many years later , " why it should have been left to Edward German — of all composers — to release the flood " . He began going to the Hallé Orchestra 's concerts at the Free Trade Hall where , on 3 December 1908 , he was present at the premiere of Elgar 's first symphony , under Hans Richter . He regularly attended the fortnightly concerts at the Royal Manchester College of Music , where students ' performances were assessed by the principal , Adolph Brodsky . As part of his scheme of study , Cardus briefly took singing lessons , his only formal instruction in music . In 1912 Cardus published his first musical article , " Bantock and Style in Music " , in Musical Opinion .
Alongside his intellectual pursuits Cardus played and followed cricket . As a small boy he had begun to visit Old Trafford Cricket Ground to watch Lancashire matches : " The first cricketer I saw was A.C. MacLaren ... I can still see the swing of MacLaren 's bat , the great follow @-@ through finishing high and held there with the body poised " . In 1902 he saw the Test match against Australia in which Victor Trumper scored a century before lunch and thereby won a permanent place among Cardus 's heroes . Cardus first played cricket on rough waste land close to his home in Rusholme ; as he matured he developed as an effective medium @-@ paced off break bowler , and for several seasons from 1908 onwards he played as a weekend professional in Manchester league cricket . " I am not ashamed to confess that I seldom hesitated , as soon as a batsman came to the crease , to let him have a quick one bang in the penis ; after which a quick , simple straight one would invariably remove him from the scene " .
= = = Shrewsbury = = =
In the spring of 1912 , in search of a change from his unrewarding clerical job , Cardus applied for the post of assistant cricket coach at Shrewsbury School , citing his bowling averages in Manchester club cricket . He reasoned that , by living frugally during the Shrewsbury summers , he would be able to finance his winter studies of music and literature . His application was successful , and in May 1912 he began his duties . He worked initially under Attewell , a former Nottinghamshire professional , and later under the Yorkshire and England cricketer Ted Wainwright . Cardus established good working relations with both of these , but identified most closely with Cyril Alington , the school 's headmaster : " Because of Alington I call myself ... an old Salopian " . Alington first detected Cardus 's intellectual potential when he found him reading a copy of Gilbert Murray 's translation of Euripides 's drama Medea . In August 1914 , in addition to his cricketing duties he became Alington 's secretary , after the previous incumbent joined the army at the outbreak of war ; Cardus was rejected for military service because of his poor eyesight .
Cardus did not find his duties at Shrewsbury onerous . He made frequent trips to Manchester , for Hallé concerts or to watch Thomas Beecham conduct at the Manchester Opera House . He found time for other work ; thus , in 1913 , he was the music critic for the northern edition of The Daily Citizen . This short @-@ lived newspaper was an official organ of the early Labour Party ; mainly out of admiration for Bernard Shaw Cardus had joined the Independent Labour Party , but quickly lost interest in socialism : " Their creed or system was obviously not to be a means to an end but an end in itself " . According to Brookes , the influence of Shrewsbury School affected Cardus to the extent that " [ t ] he playing fields of an English public school were for him a more natural setting than the iconoclastic frenzy of the Lyons café where socialism vied with Richard Strauss for pride of place in the race to modernity " . The Daily Citizen paid poorly , and Cardus 's association with it soon ended .
Cardus spent his winters in Manchester , studying hard in anticipation of any opportunity for an opening as a music critic , eking out his summer savings by taking temporary clerical work . Around 1916 he met Edith King , an art teacher and amateur actress who became a regular attender at the Lyons café meetings . In the summers , when Cardus returned to Shrewsbury , she kept him informed of musical and cultural events in Manchester . The Shrewsbury years , which Brookes describes as a " magical interlude " , ended suddenly when , at the end of the 1916 summer , Alington was appointed headmaster of Eton . Initially it seemed likely that Cardus would join him there as his secretary , but Cardus 's military exemption was under review ; the uncertainty of his position ended the possibility of a post at Eton . He left Shrewsbury in September 1916 with little money , and no immediate prospects of regular work .
= = = Manchester Guardian , 1917 – 1940 = = =
= = = = First years = = = =
In the winter of 1916 – 17 Cardus continued his private studies while working intermittently ; among various jobs , he collected insurance premiums for a burial society . Early in January 1917 he wrote to C. P. Scott , The Manchester Guardian 's editor , asking for any available post at the paper , as " the means whereby to continue my education " . To bolster his chances he enclosed specimens of his writing . The result was , first , a temporary unpaid position as Scott 's secretary , but in mid @-@ March Scott offered a job on the paper 's reporting staff . The writer J. B. Priestley later asserted that Cardus , who did not know shorthand , was engaged not as a reporter , but as a " writer " . In Cardus 's own account of these years he appears to have been fully engaged in reporters ' duties , his lack of shorthand being dismissed by the chief reporter , Haslam Mills , who paraphrased Shakespeare : " Some men are born to shorthand , others achieve shorthand , while others have shorthand thrust upon them " . Mills advised Cardus to concentrate on style : " We can be decorative at times ; we can even be amusing . Here , possibly , you will find scope " .
Within a year Cardus had been moved from the reporters ' room to take charge of the paper 's " Miscellany " column . He also resumed the duties of part @-@ time secretary to Scott , who was at this time over 70 , and had edited The Manchester Guardian since 1872 . Despite his years , he struck Cardus as " of inexhaustible energy and aliveness " . Scott was a demanding employer , who gave his young writers free rein , but expected in return long hours and total dedication . Driven hard , sometimes to the point of exhaustion , Cardus nevertheless relished these years , and never complained to Scott of weariness . Early in 1919 his role changed again , when he was made junior drama critic under the direction of C.E. Montague , the paper 's principal theatre critic who had returned from war service with no great desire to continue in the role . Cardus 's principal ambitions still lay in the direction of music criticism , though he recognised that this door was closed while Samuel Langford , music critic since 1906 , remained in post . In preparation for any opportunity that might arise in that direction , Cardus maintained a daily two @-@ hour study of music or music literature .
= = = = Cricket correspondent = = = =
In the spring of 1919 , while recovering from a serious pulmonary condition , Cardus took up a suggestion from his news editor , William Percival Crozier , that he should watch some cricket at Old Trafford and , if he felt able , write reports on a few matches . On 19 May 1919 Cardus went to the first day of Lancashire 's match with Derbyshire . His first published cricket report , on the following day , showed little sign of his later characteristic style : " I simply had no intention of writing on cricket for any length of time ; this was a spare @-@ time affair ... and I fitted myself into the idioms and procedures of the sporting writers of 1919 " . Scott nonetheless saw a potential , and from the beginning of 1920 Cardus became the paper 's regular cricket correspondent , under the by @-@ line " Cricketer " , a position he held for 20 years .
Cardus 's emergence as cricket correspondent was concurrent with another appointment , that of deputy and successor designate to Langford as music critic . In January 1920 Cardus deputised for Langford at a recital by the Russian tenor Vladimir Rosing , and impressed Scott with the quality of his notice . With the succession to Langford assured , and a significant increase in salary , Cardus was happy to devote his summers exclusively to cricket . He remained circumspect about his commitment to the sport : " Never have I regarded my cricket as more than a means to an end ; that end being always music " . Nevertheless , he developed a style of cricket reporting that quickly lifted him to the forefront of contemporary sports writers . He did this , according to his fellow cricket writer Gerald Howat , by using imagery and metaphor to create " a mythology of characters and scenes " . John Arlott described Cardus as " the creat [ or ] of modern cricket writing " .
The new sense of financial and professional security was probably instrumental in the decision of Cardus and Edith King to marry , on 17 June 1921 . The marriage , which lasted until Edith 's death 47 years later , was unconventional ; the couple led individual lives and rarely lived together , while remaining devoted friends . Cardus described his wife as " a great spirit and character , born for sisterhood not marriage . " From this time onward , Cardus used the forename " Neville " in place of " Fred " , and adopted the initials " N.C. " for his music reviews , to distinguish this persona from " Cricketer " . In August 1921 Cardus gained what he termed " the only scoop of my career " , when he reported the unexpected victory by 28 runs of MacLaren 's scratch side over the previously unbeaten Australian touring team . The match , at The Saffrons ground at Eastbourne , had attracted little interest from other cricket correspondents , being treated as a foregone conclusion .
The focus of much of Cardus 's cricket writing was the Lancashire side of the inter @-@ war years , and in particular their twice @-@ yearly battles with rivals Yorkshire . His eye was as much on the players and their personalities as on the game , on " the match within the match " , with the actual scores treated as secondary . Cardus justified this : " Do I add up the notes of a Mozart " Vivace " to evaluate the music ? " To meet Cardus 's requirements , the players were sometimes " enlarged " , notably Emmott Robinson , the veteran Yorkshire all @-@ rounder of the 1920s who through Cardus 's pen became " the apotheosis of Yorkshire cricket and Yorkshire character " . In the 1930s , Cardus 's style became less effusive , as his older heroes were replaced by players with , in his view , less romantic appeal . Bradman was an exception ; after his exploits in the England versus Australia Test series of 1930 Cardus described the Australian as " an incredible exponent who in himself sums up all the skill and experience that have gone before him ... he has kindled grand bonfires of batsmanship for us " .
Selections from Cardus 's Manchester Guardian cricket writings were published in a series of books between 1922 and 1937 . Because of financial constraints the paper did not send " Cricketer " to Australia to cover the " Bodyline " tour of 1932 – 33 . Cardus was generally approving of Jardine 's controversial bodyline tactics , writing on 5 March 1933 : " [ H ] ad [ Jardine ] been a weak man , all the energy of Larwood [ England 's premier bowler ] might have proved as vain a thing as it did in 1930 " . In 1936 – 37 , Cardus accompanied the MCC team to Australia ; otherwise
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.@ 0 km / h ) . Roebling reasoned that the decks and sufficient trusses would form a rigid tube , making the bridge stiffer than a normal suspension bridge . The theory was similar to that of the tubular bridge but implemented at a lower cost . The engineering community was critical of Roebling 's project . Robert Stephenson , builder of the tubular Britannia Bridge , was among those short @-@ listed to complete the Niagara Suspension Bridge before Roebling 's selection . Stephenson had submitted a design for a tubular bridge , and in 1859 he built a large and expensive tubular bridge for the Grand Trunk Railway at Montreal , Quebec . The bridge builder then said in derision of Roebling 's suspension railway , " If your bridge succeeds , mine is a magnificent blunder . "
In the face of criticism , Roebling completed the project in four years , using Ellet 's bridge as scaffolding . The railway deck was stress @-@ tested by the crossing of the 23 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 21 t ) steam engine London at a speed of 8 miles per hour ( 13 km / h ) on March 8 , 1855 . Ten days later the upper deck of the bridge was officially opened ; the lower deck had been opened to the public a year earlier . As the first commercial passenger train trundled over the bridge , the two countries were finally connected by railroad across the Niagara River . The successful crossings of these and later trains made Roebling 's Suspension Bridge the first working suspension railway bridge in history .
= = Engineering = =
Roebling 's bridge was supported by two limestone towers on each side of the gorge . These Egyptian @-@ style towers stood 88 feet ( 27 m ) tall on the American shore and 78 feet ( 24 m ) tall on the Canadian shore . With their foundations 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) in the earth , the limestone structures could support up to 12 million pounds ( 5 @.@ 4 million kg ) . Four 10 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 27 cm ) thick main cables held up the bridge ; two cables ran through iron saddles at the top of each tower . Each cable comprised 3 @,@ 059 wires that were spun with Roebling 's patented technique used in his Allegheny Suspension Aqueduct . The ends of each cable were secured to 6 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 56 m2 ) cast @-@ iron plates sunk 20 – 30 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 1 m ) deep in the bedrock . Support lines hung down from iron clamps that encircled the main cables , and held up the decks . Deep trusses — never before seen on a large suspension bridge — lined the sides of the bridge , and joined the two decks so that the structure looked like a cage . The trussed sides and the upper and lower decks , which spanned 825 feet ( 251 m ) , formed a " hollow straight beam " , reinforcing the rigidity of the bridge .
The Suspension Bridge was further stiffened by guy @-@ wires which ran from its upper deck to the top of its towers . Criticism of suspension bridges was growing after the Wheeling Suspension Bridge collapsed under strong winds in 1854 . To address these concerns , Roebling added more guy @-@ wires to secure the lower deck to the shores below . Roebling 's efforts ensured that his Suspension Bridge remained standing while other suspension bridges across the Niagara River collapsed because of strong winds . Although he was not the first engineer to appreciate the need for a suspension bridge to be sufficiently rigid or to implement the methods to do so , Roebling was the first to understand the principles behind the methods and combine them in the building of a suspension bridge . Roebling proved that despite popular opinion , properly built suspension bridges can safely support the passage of heavy railway traffic . The engineer 's combination of stiffening methods created the first modern suspension bridge . Such was the rigidity of the Suspension Bridge that it withstood the shockwave caused by the nearby fall of a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 4 @,@ 500 t ) mass of rock in 1863 ; the force of the impact manifested itself as a wave , rippling through the decks of the bridge from the American side to the Canadian side and back .
From the United States , the New York and Erie Rail Road 's Canandaigua and Niagara Falls Railroad and New York Central Railroad 's Buffalo and Niagara Falls Railroad crossed over the bridge and reached into Ontario . Similarly , the Great Western Railway in Canada extended its network from Canada into New York . At the time of the bridge 's opening , the three railroads were of different gauges : 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge on the New York Central , 5 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 676 mm ) on the Great Western , and 6 ft ( 1 @,@ 829 mm ) on the Erie . Instead of accommodating three railways side @-@ by @-@ side on a single wide deck , the bridge saved space by overlapping the tracks over each other . This method used only four rails ; one pair formed the track for one railway , and the other pair formed another . One rail from each pair would then form the final track . In the first year of the bridge 's operation , an average of 30 trains trundled across it each day . Five years later , 45 trains passed over the structure daily .
Roebling mandated that the trains be limited to a maximum speed of 5 miles per hour ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) to ensure absolute safety . He was confident the bridge could handle faster train traffic , but he preferred a safe operation . In his tests the bridge supported a 326 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 296 t ) train , bending 10 @.@ 5 inches ( 27 cm ) under the weight . This was within the maximum load of 450 short tons ( 410 t ) specified in the design of the bridge . The figure was a conservative estimate . The cables and guy @-@ wires could support 7 @,@ 300 short tons ( 6 @,@ 600 t ) , and travel journalist Alfred J. Pairpoint commented that it was normal to see 1 @,@ 200 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 1 @,@ 100 t ) trains pass over the bridge without danger . The bridge shook whenever a train trundled over it , although this had no effect on its integrity . When the frequency of passing trains was high , the trembling was noticeable to travelers on the lower deck and proved uncomfortable to some ; writer Mark Twain noted , " You drive over to Suspension Bridge and divide your misery between the chances of smashing down two hundred feet into the river below , and the chances of having a railway @-@ train overhead smashing down onto you . Either possibility is discomforting taken by itself , but , mixed together , they amount in the aggregate to positive unhappiness . " Despite such commentaries , thousands of people crossed over the bridge safely every day .
American engineers regard the Suspension Bridge as a major achievement of efficiency . In a fledgling country where resources — material and financial — were limited , they had to make do with whatever was available . This goal was espoused by the American Society of Civil Engineers , which opined , " That is the best engineering , not which makes the most splendid , or even the most perfect work , but that which makes a work that answers the purpose well , at the least cost . " Roebling had built a bridge that rivaled grander bridges of leading European nations at a much lower cost . His Suspension Bridge used only one @-@ sixth the material of Stephenson 's Brittania Bridge , but was twice as long and had a capacity that exceeded the tubular bridge . Moreover , the expenditure on Roebling 's Suspension Bridge was $ 400 @,@ 000 , whereas a tubular bridge of equivalent length and load @-@ bearing capability would have cost $ 4 million . Roebling 's success established him as the master of suspension bridges . The inclined guy @-@ wires that stretched from the top of towers to the roadway of the Suspension Bridge became the signature of his future works .
Although the Suspension Bridge proved that the suspension system could be safely used to carry railroads , no more suspension railway bridges were built . The outbreak of the American Civil War diverted attention from such civil engineering ventures , and by the time attention was paid to building bridges again , cantilever bridges were in vogue for railway bridges . Regardless , the Suspension Bridge 's success made it a model for suspension railway bridges . When the city of Quebec called for a structure to span the St. Lawrence River in 1850 , it looked to the Suspension Bridge for inspiration . Seventeen years later , the British journal Engineering called for a suspension railway to bridge the Straits of Messina and also referred to Roebling 's bridge . Lastly , Stuart opened his 1871 work on the history of American engineering , Lives and Works of Civil and Military Engineering in America , with an illustration of the bridge .
= = Legacy = =
As a border crossing between two large growing countries , the Suspension Bridge had throngs of travelers passing over it . Furthermore , it was the intersection of three major railroads . Coupled with its vicinity to a natural wonder , the Niagara Falls , the bridge brought a lot of railroad traffic into the region once it was opened . The towns at the ends of the bridge benefited greatly from this heavy movement of people and goods . The village of Suspension Bridge , United States , grew quickly within a few years after the opening of the bridge , acquiring shops , factories , and a hotel . Its tourism and commerce soon rivaled the town of Niagara Falls , New York ; eventually , the village was merged into the town in 1892 . Similarly , Clifton on the Canadian end of the bridge was integrated into the town of Niagara Falls , Ontario . The two Niagara Falls cities boasted commerce that surpassed neighboring settlements . Around the time of its official opening , the bridge was one of the busiest points of trade on the United States – Canadian border , carrying $ 12 million of transitory goods and $ 2 million of bonded materials into Canada . To handle the large amount of goods exchanged over the border , the Lewiston customs house — the primary customs for the Niagara region — was relocated to the Niagara Suspension Bridge in 1863 .
The bridge 's depiction as an engineering marvel and beautiful sight lured many visitors to the Falls . Travelers could , while crossing the bridge , enjoy a view of the Falls enhanced by the sensation of standing 250 feet ( 76 m ) in the air . The Falls , however , proved distant and indistinct to some when there was overcast weather . On the whole , the Suspension Bridge was considered as an attraction that must be seen by visitors to Niagara Falls . In paintings and prints of the bridge , the Suspension Bridge became the focus , pushing the Falls into the background . Unlike paintings of the Falls that capture the viewer 's eye with their majestic views of the natural wonder , pictures of the bridge impressed viewers with the utilitarian design of the structure . By 1897 , the inbound trains to Niagara Falls brought 276 @,@ 900 visitors during the months of May to August . A streetcar system was established in 1882 to handle the increasing cross @-@ border pedestrian traffic . Initially pulled by horses , the trolleys were converted to run on electricity in 1892 . The Suspension Bridge was the pride and symbol of the Great Western Railway , which touted it as the " only Route via Niagara Falls & Suspension Bridge " .
Travelers on the Suspension Bridge witnessed several death @-@ defying stunts performed across the Niagara Gorge . On June 30 , 1859 , they saw Charles Blondin 's feat of becoming the first man to cross the chasm on a tightrope . In mid @-@ crossing Blondin sat down on the rope and lowered a line to retrieve a drink from the deck of the Maid of the Mist below . In his later tightrope acts at the same spot , the acrobat would perform a different stunt on each occasion . One time he cooked and ate an omelette in mid @-@ crossing ; another time he carried his manager Harry Colcord on his back . While giving Colcord a piggyback ride , Blondin stopped five times on the tightrope to rest and recover his strength ; each time Colcord gingerly got off Blondin 's back and stood on the tightrope , climbing back on after the acrobat had enough rest . Blondin 's success inspired other acrobats , such as William Leonard Hunt ( " The Great Farini " ) , Samuel Dixon , Clifford Calverly , and Signorina Maria Spelterini , to emulate and try to surpass his acts at the same spot . The Signorina , the only woman to walk across the Niagara on a tightrope , once crossed while blindfolded and another time with her hands and legs in manacles .
Another group of people in America had their own risky crossings over the Niagara Gorge as they fled over the border into Canada . They were enslaved African @-@ Americans who sought freedom by escaping to a country that declared the liberation of any slave who entered it . The bridge was part of the Underground Railroad , a network of routes designed to smuggle slaves in the United States to freedom in Canada . Before the American Civil War , fleeing slaves had only four main routes into Canada , of which one was crossing the Niagara River . Slaves who escaped along the Niagara route had help from several quarters . The state of New York generally favored granting freedom to slaves ; this attitude emboldened African @-@ American workers in Niagara , who frequently helped slaves flee to Canada . Before the Suspension Bridge was completed , fugitives either crossed the raging river on a boat or risked their lives by swimming at calmer points of the river . The Suspension Bridge made escape across the river easier and safer , although there was still risk . To avoid getting caught and sent back to their owners , slaves had to sneak across on foot or hide aboard trains and oxcarts . Antislavery activist Harriet Tubman guided fugitives at night and bribed custom officials to turn a blind eye . As a result , many slaves crossed the Suspension Bridge to freedom before the United States was engulfed in civil war .
When the war ended and the United States turned its focus toward rebuilding , Roebling started building his Brooklyn Bridge . As the monumental task could affect naval navigation , it required state approval , and the government wanted a thorough review of the engineer 's credentials ; hence , a Bridge Party was organized . Comprising Roebling and his son , as well as their fellow bridge engineers , generals , businessmen , and high society figures , the party toured the country to review four bridges Roebling had built before the civil war . The final item on their itinerary was Roebling 's Niagara Suspension Bridge . At the dinner to commemorate the end of the bridge tour , civil war veteran General Henry Warner Slocum gave a toast and called the Suspension Bridge a symbol of inspiration for the United States in its rebuilding efforts . This sentiment was shared by the guests and was expressed at later dinners across the United States . The achievement of building a large suspension bridge over a gorge in the face of overwhelming adversity — constant put @-@ downs by the professional community , American and European — gave the United States a sense of pride . Nationalism rose as the country lauded the bridge . The completion of the bridge that had been deemed impossible by the Western world gave Americans , who had lesser technical accomplishments than Europe at that time , a trophy that stood above any other . The Suspension Bridge became the American symbol to brave the toughest of challenges and do the impossible , pushing their drive for industrialization even harder . Charles W. Woodman specifically drew attention to the Suspension Bridge in his 1865 address to the United States Senate for approval to build a rail system to transport a ship out of the water and up around the Niagara Falls .
= = Maintenance and replacement = =
Budget concerns forced Roebling to build the Suspension Bridge primarily with wood ; the cost of casting the components out of iron and transporting them " [ way ] out West " was exorbitant . The organic material decayed and rotted because of the moisture present around Niagara Falls . As the industrialization of the United States moved forward rapidly , the introduction of the Bessemer process greatly lowered the cost of the more durable steel and iron . By 1880 , the Suspension Bridge 's wooden trusses , beams , and flooring were replaced with steel . The wire cables were not replaced ; their cores were still in pristine condition . The outer layer of wires in the cables was , however , lightly corroded and had to be replaced . Due to severe deterioration , the limestone towers were replaced in 1886 with steel framed versions . These renovations increased the bridge 's strength and helped it handle heavier loads for a few more years .
The weight of trains in North America had greatly increased by the mid @-@ 1890s . Larger and more powerful locomotives were required to pull cars that handled an increasing number of passengers and goods ; compared to the 23 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 21 t ) locomotives crossing the bridge in the 1850s , 170 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 150 t ) locomotives were the common engines 40 years later . The weight of these trains exceeded the specifications of the Suspension Bridge , and the bridge companies took the opportunity to review and request the replacement of the bridge . Civil engineer Leffert L. Buck , who had been hired to maintain the Suspension Bridge , was selected to design the replacement bridge . He settled for a bridge of the arch design . At that time , arch bridges were the new models for railway bridges and were more cost @-@ efficient than suspension bridges . Buck built the new bridge around and below the Suspension Bridge , replacing it a piece at a time . His plan allowed bridge traffic — train and pedestrian — to continue without disruption . By August 27 , 1897 , the last pieces of the Suspension Bridge were dismantled , leaving the Lower Steel Arch Bridge — later renamed the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge — in its stead . On inspection , the cores of the cables that formerly held up the Suspension Bridge were found to be as sound as on the day the bridge was built .
= SM U @-@ 21 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 21 or U @-@ XXI was a U @-@ 20 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during the First World War . The design for U @-@ 21 was based on submarines of the Royal Danish Navy 's Havmanden class ( three of which had been built in Austria @-@ Hungary ) , and was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war .
U @-@ 21 was just over 127 feet ( 39 m ) long and was armed with two bow torpedo tubes , a deck gun , and a machine gun . Construction on U @-@ 21 began in mid 1915 and the boat was launched in September 1916 . After suffering damage during a diving trial in January 1917 , U @-@ 21 underwent seven months of repairs before her commissioning in August 1917 .
The U @-@ boat conducted patrols off the Albanian coast in October 1917 , but experienced the failure of the seal on her main hatch . The repairs kept the boat out of action until June 1918 . But in July a piston in her diesel engine broke , knocking the submarine out of the rest of the war . At the end of World War I , U @-@ 21 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 . U @-@ 21 had no wartime successes .
= = Design and construction = =
When it became apparent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy that the First World War would not be a short one , they moved to bolster their U @-@ boat fleet by seizing the plans for the Danish Havmanden class submarines , three of which had been built at Whitehead & Co. in Fiume . Although the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was not happy with the design , which was largely obsolete , it was the only design for which plans were available and which could be begun immediately in domestic shipyards . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy unenthusiastically placed orders for U @-@ 21 and her three sister boats on 27 March 1915 .
U @-@ 21 was one of two boats of the class to be built at the Pola Navy Yard . Due to demands by the Hungarian government , subcontracts for the class were divided between Hungarian and Austrian firms , and this politically expedient solution worsened technical problems with the design , resulting in numerous modifications and delays for the class in general .
U @-@ 21 was an ocean @-@ going submarine that displaced 173 metric tons ( 170 long tons ) surfaced and 210 metric tons ( 207 long tons ) submerged and was designed for a complement of 18 . She was 127 feet 2 inches ( 38 @.@ 76 m ) long with a beam of 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . For propulsion , she featured a single shaft , a single 450 bhp ( 340 kW ) diesel engine for surface running , and a single 160 shp ( 120 kW ) electric motor for submerged travel . She was capable of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) while surfaced and 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 21 , the Havmanden class , upon which the U @-@ 20 class was based , had a range of 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) , surfaced , and 23 nautical miles ( 43 km ) at 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) submerged .
U @-@ 21 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 66 mm / 26 ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 21 was launched on 15 August 1916 , the first of the four U @-@ 20 @-@ class boats . During a diving trial in January 1917 , the submarine was damaged when it sank too deep , requiring repairs that took place over the next seven months . U @-@ 21 was commissioned on 15 August under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Hugo von Seyffertitz . A 31 @-@ year @-@ old native of Brixen , von Seyffertitz was a first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander .
Ten days after commissioning , U @-@ 21 safely submerged to a depth of 42 metres ( 138 ft ) . However , her nose was dented when she hit bottom on another test dive in September , necessitating more repairs . On 29 September , von Seyffertitz steered the boat from the submarine base at Brioni to Cattaro , where she arrived on 1 October . On 4 October , U @-@ 21 set out for a patrol off the coast of Albania , but had returned to Cattaro by mid October .
On 15 October , von Seyffertitz and U @-@ 21 departed from Cattaro to begin their first Mediterranean deployment . Slated to sail into the Ionian Sea , U @-@ 21 instead had to turn back the following day when the main hatch seal on the conning tower leaked and could not be repaired . After her 18 October return to Cattaro , she sailed for Pola , arriving on 24 October . There , she would undergo another lengthy stay in port for repairs . While U @-@ 21 was under repair , von Seyffertitz was transferred to U @-@ 47 .
Linienschiffleutnant Robert Dürrial was assigned the new commander of U @-@ 21 on 24 March 1918 . The 26 @-@ year @-@ old Galician had served as commander of U @-@ 10 for four months in 1917 . Dürrial led U @-@ 21 out of Pola on 1 June for Cattaro , making stops en route at Arbe and Novigrad for repairs to the gyrocompass .
On 16 July , while conducting patrols off the Albanian coast , a piston in U @-@ 21 's diesel engine broke and Dürrial put in at Djenovic . On 25 July , U @-@ 21 was towed to Pola , where she remained until the end of the war . She was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 . Like all of her sister boats , U @-@ 21 had no wartime successes .
= Rickey Henderson =
Rickey Nelson Henley Henderson ( born December 25 , 1958 ) is an American retired professional baseball left fielder who played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for nine teams from 1979 to 2003 , including four stints with his original team , the Oakland Athletics . Nicknamed " The Man of Steal " , he is widely regarded as baseball 's most reliable leadoff hitter and baserunner . He holds the major league records for career stolen bases , runs , unintentional walks and leadoff home runs . At the time of his last major league game in 2003 , the ten @-@ time American League ( AL ) All @-@ Star ranked among the sport 's top 100 all @-@ time home run hitters and was its all @-@ time leader in base on balls . In 2009 , he was inducted to the Baseball Hall of Fame on his first ballot appearance .
Henderson also holds the single @-@ season record for stolen bases ( 130 in 1982 ) and is the only player in AL history to steal 100 bases in a season , having done so three times . His 1 @,@ 406 career steals is 50 % higher than the previous record of 938 by Lou Brock . Henderson is the all @-@ time stolen base leader for the Oakland A 's and previously held the New York Yankees ' franchise record from 1988 to 2011 . He was among the league 's top ten base stealers in 21 different seasons .
Henderson was named the AL 's Most Valuable Player in 1990 , and he was the leadoff hitter for two World Series champions : the 1989 Oakland A 's and the 1993 Toronto Blue Jays . A 12 @-@ time stolen base champion , Henderson led the league in runs five times . His 25 @-@ year career elevated Henderson to the top ten in several other categories , including career at bats , games , and outfield putouts and total chances . His high on @-@ base percentage , power hitting , and stolen base and run totals made him one of the most dynamic players of his era . He was further known for his unquenchable passion for playing baseball and a buoyant , eccentric and quotable personality that both perplexed and entertained fans . Once asked if he thought Henderson was a future Hall of Famer , statistician Bill James replied , " If you could split him in two , you 'd have two Hall of Famers . "
= = Early years = =
Henderson was born in Chicago , Illinois , and named Rickey Nelson Henley , named after singer @-@ actor Ricky Nelson , to John L. Henley and Bobbie Henley on Christmas Day , 1958 , in Chicago , in the back seat of an Oldsmobile on the way to the hospital . Henderson later joked , " I was already fast . I couldn 't wait . " When he was two years old , his father left home , and his family moved to Oakland , California , when he was seven . His father died in an automobile accident ten years after leaving home . His mother married Paul Henderson in Rickey Henley 's junior year of high school and the family adopted the Henderson surname . As a child learning to play baseball in Oakland , Henderson developed the ability to bat right @-@ handed although he was a naturally left @-@ handed thrower — a rare combination for baseball players , especially non @-@ pitchers . In the entire history of Major League Baseball through the 2008 season , only 57 position players are known to have batted right and thrown left , and Henderson is easily the most successful player to do so . Henderson later said , " All my friends were right @-@ handed and swung from the right side , so I thought that 's the way it was supposed to be done . "
In 1976 , Henderson graduated from Oakland Technical High School , where he played baseball , basketball and football , and was an All @-@ American running back with a pair of 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard rushing seasons . He also ran track , but did not stay with the team as the schedule conflicted with baseball . Henderson received over a dozen scholarship offers to play football . Despite a childhood dream to play for the Oakland Raiders , he turned down the scholarships on the advice of his mother , who argued that football players had shorter careers . In 1983 , Henderson married his high @-@ school sweetheart , Pamela . They have three children : Angela , Alexis , and Adrianna .
= = Minor leagues = =
Henderson was drafted by the Oakland Athletics in the fourth round of the 1976 Major League Baseball draft . He spent the first season of his minor league career with the Boise A 's
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which could only be expressly subjugated to another aim . This is different from other systems , such as the New Zealand Bill of Rights , that require an interpretation to be " reasonable " . As happened in R ( Anderson ) v Home Secretary , the alternative where such interpretation is not possible the alternative is a declaration of incompatibility under Section 4 . Lord Hoffmann in a case , R ( Simms ) v Home Secretary , which bridged the introduction of the Human Rights Act , said :
Parliamentary sovereignty means that Parliament can , if it chooses , legislate contrary to fundamental principles of human rights . The Human Rights Act 1998 will not detract from this power . The constraints upon its exercise by Parliament are ultimately political , not legal . But the principle of legality means that Parliament must squarely confront what it is doing and accept the political cost . Fundamental rights cannot be overridden by general or ambiguous words . This is because there is too great a risk that the full implications of their unqualified meaning may have passed unnoticed in the democratic process . In the absence of express language or necessary implication to the contrary , the courts therefore presume that even the most general words were intended to be subject to the basic rights of the individual . In this way the courts of the United Kingdom , though acknowledging the sovereignty of Parliament , apply principles of constitutionality little different from those which exist in countries where the power of the legislature is expressly limited by a constitutional document .
" Read and give effect " requires the interpretation " where possible " of legislation – where there is an interpretation open to the court that is consistent with Convention rights , it must be chosen over those that do not . Following the introduction of the Human Rights Act , there was some disagreement between judges as to how far this provision went . Lord Steyn , in R v A , has said " the interpretative obligation under section 3 of the 1998 Act is a strong one . It applies even if there is no ambiguity in the language in the sense of the language being capable of two different meanings . " He further noted that it may be necessary under section 3 to " adopt an interpretation which linguistically may appear strained " and that a declaration of incomparability was a " measure of last resort " . However , In re S established that there may be cases where interpretation can go to far ; that the court can assume an administrative power it would not ordinarily have , with practical consequences that it is not best placed to consider : " a meaning which departs substantially from a fundamental feature of an Act of Parliament is likely to have crossed the boundary between interpretation and amendment . " Given that the precise wording of a statute could be altered under the section , the " thrust " was important ; going against the " thrust " required legislative power that the courts did not have . Although other sources could be used ( see , for example , Pepper v Hart ) , the wording of a statute must be considered the primary intent of parliament . The decision in Ghaidan v Godin @-@ Mendoza appears to have achieved some settling of the approach taken in extreme cases .
Section 3 ( 2 ) ( a ) extends the scope of section 3 to past and future Acts of Parliament in addition to present legislation . It therefore contradicts the usual policy of implied repeal – whereby any inconsistency between statutes are resolved in favour of the later statute . The Human Rights Act must therefore be explicitly ( or " expressly " ) repealed by an Act of Parliament deliberately doing so , not merely be introducing contradictory legislation . The act therefore carries an additional normative force and has been considered constitutional in character as a result . It is widely recognised that parliament may never directly contradict convention rights , or at least do so very rarely . Sections 3 ( 2 ) ( b ) and 3 ( 2 ) ( c ) confirm the validity of all legislation , whether or not it has been interpreted under Section 3 . Section 3 can therefore be said to protect primary legislation which is incompatible , and any secondary legislation made under such primary legislation .
= = Interpretation = =
Three types of judicial interpretation are commonly identified in the context of section 3 : " reading in " , " reading out " and " reading down " . " Reading in " refers to adding in words that are not present in the statute so as to ensure compliance with Convention rights , and " reading out " removing words in a statute to do so . These processes had already been implemented with reference to the implementation of European legislation , so as to ensure compliance of domestic law with European law . Although accepted with secondary legislation , they remain controversial with primary legislation , since parliament would have included or omitted such words if it had had such an intent ; reading in or out words would therefore conflict with parliamentary intention . Courts have , however , accepted these powers , and during the passing of the Human Rights Act , it was agreed that the courts would have such a power .
In R v A , extra provisions were read into a statute to ensure compliance , since the statute itself had the legitimate aim of protecting potential rape victims ; it was merely , in the words of Lord Steyn , that " the methods adopted amounted to legislative overkill " . In Poplar Housing v Donaghue , the Court of Appeal rejected the possibility of reading in a provision , because it would have altered the method of remedying the problem to that laid down by Parliament , amounting to starting afresh on how best to approach the issue . Courts have been far more reluctant to read out wording for fear of going against parliamentary intention , but it remains a possibility .
" Reading down " involves choosing an interpretation that is compatible , where more than one is strictly possible . For example , placing a persuasive burden of proof on a defendant raising a defence – that he need persuade the jury that it is the case , was judged to be incompatible with Article 6 ( 2 ) of the Convention , which related to the presumption of innocence , which had long been a part of English law in R v Lambert . The court read down the burden of proof as merely one of an evidential burden – meaning the defendant merely had to raise some evidence to support the defence , which it believed did not conflict with Article 6 ( 2 ) . However , in Sheldrake v DPP , the court instead requiring a persuasive burden , because it believed in the context of the motoring offence in the case , this was not disproportionate and did not conflict with Article 6 ( 2 ) .
= = Academic commentary = =
Before the Human Rights Act was brought before parliament , the government 's whitepaper considered that it was necessary to prevent courts from setting aside legislation on the basis of incompatibility ( reflecting a strong need to respect parliamentary sovereignty ) . However , the effect on parliamentary sovereignty has been criticised despite the safeguards put in place . Section 3 has been defended , however , by reference to the enhanced morality and constitutionalism of the new system , prompted by an " incoming tide " of human rights . Aileen Kavanagh considers the choice of a court in cases not a question of parliamentary sovereignty , but a complex question of how far the judiciary can perform a legislative function in that area . She considers the political and legislative pressure on government after section 3 or 4 overwhelming to the extent that the concept of parliamentary sovereignty should be " eliminated " . However , other writers have stressed the important of the formal right to ignore either decision . The result of this debate has been to label section 3 either a " radical tool " to implement human rights , or a " signficiant limitation " of Parliament 's will .
Geoffrey Marshall has characterised section 3 as a " deeply mysterious provision " in several respects , including judging how strong a provision it is – an issue since dealt with by the courts – but has also noted a disparity between what the Act might be expected to do and what it does . He argues that a litigant would hope that courts would strive to uphold his rights under the Convention , accepting a derivation from them only rarely ; instead section 3 requires courts to find compatibility with the Convention where possible – in other words , to strive to find that the Convention does not impact the claimant . Alison L. Young has examined the upper boundaries to courts ' powers of interpretation . She puts forward three possible limits : firstly , where the text of a statute is not ambiguous ; secondly , where reading in words is inappropriate ; and , thirdly , where any interpretation is restricted to cases where it does not involve implied repeal . Young dismisses the first two as incompatible with the legislative history ( and , in at least the first case , judicial history ) and believes the third to present no rigid limit on courts ' powers at all . The decision of Pepper v Hart provides a method for the legislative history of a bill to play a role in its interpretation .
Philip Sales and Richard Ekins are among those that believe that section 3 has not displaced the purpose of interpretation – to discern parliamentary intention . In their eyes , section 3 is about " how interpreters are to infer that intention " . They also criticise the " judicial lawmaking " because it applies to the case in hand , concluding that this breaks the non @-@ retroactivity commonly considered part of the rule of law , although it is sometimes necessary . They also note that rules made by courts are not transparent , because their new interpretation under section 3 differs from their ordinary meaning – after all , section 3 must go beyond standard interpretation . This leaves citizens uncertain of what the law is . Sales and Ekins also suggest that while applying section 3 to post @-@ Human Rights Act legislation might be merely using a presumption that the legislature intended to follow it , applying it to pre @-@ Human Rights Act legislation cannot possibly base itself on such an inference . Section 3 , though , still allows them to do so .
Another view is that Section 3 provides a much strengthened basis for the sort of " weak review " – the scope of which carefully determined between courts on one hand and parliament on the other – in a statutory form . There have been at least three criticisms put forward : firstly that the impossibility of implied repeal goes against some formulations of
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, including hiring model Michele Merkin , who appeared as the lead character Joanna Dark in commercials and in @-@ store promotions for the game cartridge . Unlike GoldenEye 007 , the game received an M ( Mature ) rating from the Entertainment Software Rating Board due to its graphic content and adult language . This caused some controversy , as Nintendo has a reputation for family @-@ friendly games like Mario and Pokémon . Total sales for the game reached 1 @.@ 3 million copies in the United States . The European release followed on 30 June , and finally the game was released in Japan on 21 October . The Japanese launch was a success , with the sale of 35 @,@ 000 copies in the first week , and 77 @,@ 000 in total . Worldwide , Perfect Dark sold 3 @.@ 2 million copies according to game designer Chris Tilston . As a result , a Player 's Choice edition was released in 2001 .
A separate Game Boy Color game set in the same fictional universe , also titled Perfect Dark , was released shortly afterwards in August 2000 to help promote the Nintendo 64 game . Although its storyline is different from the Nintendo 64 title , the game features a compatibility mode that allows certain features within the Nintendo 64 game to alternatively be unlocked , via a Transfer Pak . On the other hand , a double soundtrack album , titled Perfect Dark : Dual CD Soundtrack , which features the complete score of the game , was released on 15 November 2000 exclusively through Nintendo Power magazine .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , Perfect Dark received very strong reviews from magazines and websites . Critics praised multiple aspects of the game , particularly its graphics , sound and value . GameSpot reviewer Joe Fielder awarded the game a rating of 9 @.@ 9 out of 10 , making it the highest @-@ reviewed first @-@ person shooter of the site . He commented , " As a single @-@ player or multiplayer [ first @-@ person shooter ] experience , Perfect Dark is unparalleled on the console systems " . Patrick Klepek , writing for Gaming Age , described it as " probably one of the best [ first @-@ person shooters ] to be released in quite a while " , while Chi Kong Lui of GameCritics criticised the game for its weak characters and unoriginal storyline , but nevertheless judged the " extraordinary amount of high @-@ quality multiplayer modes and features " , meant that " the game is still a blast " .
The graphics were praised for their dynamic lighting , clean textures , and realistic and fluid animations . IGN journalist Matt Casamassina remarked that the levels are much more detailed than the ones from GoldenEye 007 and that the polygon character models and weapons are " wonderfully animated " . Game Revolution highlighted the game 's semi @-@ realistic look , saying that it " adds to the depth and addiction of the game " . The sound received similar praise , with Jonathan Nicklas of Gaming Target comparing it favourably to that of Capcom 's survival horror title Resident Evil 2 . The voiced cutscenes , amount of ambient noises , musical score , and Dolby Surround Sound capabilities were said to effectively bring the game to life . The music was described as a mixture between Vangelis ' Blade Runner theme and the GoldenEye 007 soundtrack .
The gameplay was generally praised for the challenging artificial intelligence of enemies and varied level design . GameCritics credited the missions for their " nice mix of timed , patterned , and random events that makes playing through them different and refreshing each time " . The enemies were admired for their use of squad tactics , for waiting for the player to come back instead of obediently chasing after them , and for ducking around a corner for cover . GamePro also gave high marks to the game 's Counter Operative mode , noting that the player " never [ knows ] which of the random bad guys [ the ] opponent controls " . The multiplayer and replay value were seen as the strongest features of the game . Reviewers noted that the flexibility of options , amount of game modes , " clever " weapons , number of unlockable features , and customisable Simulants give the game " endless replay value " . GameCritics stated that " Perfect Dark is easily the most advanced , elaborate , and entertaining multiplayer gaming experience on any home console . "
One frequently criticised aspect of the game was its low and inconsistent frame rate . According to Trigger Happy author Steven Poole , " The game 's inadequate temporal resolution — owing to a wrongheaded choice to privilege visual detail over frame @-@ rate — made it unplayable at higher difficulty levels . " In contrast , IGN pointed out that the frame rate " can be sluggish in certain wide @-@ open areas or when there are lots of enemies on @-@ screen , but for some odd reason it 's never really bothersome . Most of the time you 're so caught up in the game that you don 't notice it , and when you do , you 're willing to forgive it as Perfect Dark is just too much fun to dwell on such an issue " . Poole also described the " lazy sci @-@ fi fetishism " of Joanna Dark 's character design as " a blatant and doomed attempt to steal the thunder of Lara Croft " , and argued that she illustrated the challenges of characterising the protagonists of first @-@ person shooters , a problem that GoldenEye 007 had avoided by using the already well @-@ known character James Bond .
The overall positive reaction from critics can be gauged by the results of review compilation sites . The game has a Metacritic rating of 97 out of 100 , which is considered " universal acclaim " , and a GameRankings aggregate review score of 95 % as of June 2007 . Perfect Dark has also been featured in several " greatest game " lists . In 2006 , the game was placed at number 15 on IGN 's Readers Choice Top 100 Games Ever and Nintendo Power rated it the 100th best game made on a Nintendo system . In 2007 , the game was placed at number 86 on IGN 's Top 100 Games of All Time and Edge placed it at number 28 on their list of 100 Best Videogames ( a list voted for by readers , Edge staff and gaming industry professionals ) . Rare was also recognised for its work on the game , as the company was awarded the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Moving Images Award for 2000 and the Golden Satellite Award for Best Interactive Product in 2001 . At the GameSpot 's 2000 Game of the Year Awards , Perfect Dark was awarded Best Nintendo 64 Game and Best Shooting Game .
Edge published two retrospective articles on Perfect Dark in 2007 and 2008 . The magazine acknowledged that the game 's frame rate and other dated elements of its design rendered it " nigh @-@ on unplayable " , but found its ambitious range of options still praiseworthy : " At release , Perfect Dark was the most comprehensive first @-@ person shooter ever made , and in some ways it still is . " Edge found the ambitious mentality which resulted in weapons and computer @-@ controlled players being " designed for possibilities rather than balance " , both one of Perfect Dark 's most interesting aspects and the cause of its biggest problem : " Restraint [ ... ] would have made Perfect Dark a tighter , more focused experience , helped with those framerate issues , and removed almost all of the fun . " The magazine concluded that despite Perfect Dark not standing up as a good game to play in 2008 , " its currency of ideas and provocation [ ... ] remains sound . "
= = Legacy = =
Perfect Dark was one of the last first @-@ person shooters released for the Nintendo 64 , which was already nearing the end of its lifespan ; Nintendo unveiled their upcoming console , the GameCube , at SpaceWorld 2000 . A " sister " game to Perfect Dark , called Velvet Dark , was initially planned to be developed for either the Nintendo 64 or GameCube in late 2000 , but the project was ultimately abandoned . Also notable is the fact that Perfect Dark features a character named Velvet Dark that can be controlled by the second player in the game 's co @-@ operative mode . Twenty months before Perfect Dark was released , several members of the development team left Rare to form Free Radical Design . This company would develop the PlayStation 2 game TimeSplitters , another first @-@ person shooter based around a completely new engine . TimeSplitters and its sequels bear several gameplay and presentational similarities to GoldenEye 007 and Perfect Dark , including a similar aiming system and unlockable options through quick level completions .
Meanwhile Rare began development of a prequel titled Perfect Dark Zero for the GameCube . In 2002 , the company was purchased by Microsoft and the development of the game was subsequently transferred to Microsoft 's Xbox console . It was later decided that the game would instead be released for the Xbox 360 as a launch title . Perfect Dark Zero retains Perfect Dark 's mission objective system and Joanna Dark as the protagonist , but other features were not carried over . The game 's multiplayer mode supports more players due to the more advanced Xbox 360 hardware , and can also be played online via Xbox Live . Perfect Dark Zero received generally positive reviews from critics , but some publications such as Eurogamer and Game Informer felt it was a disappointment .
Perfect Dark 's worldwide sales were not as great as its predecessor 's eight million , and Joanna Dark did not attain the same status in pop culture as other video game heroines such as Tomb Raider 's Lara Croft . Nevertheless , the game 's universe continued to be developed with the release of the novel Perfect Dark : Initial Vector , a Rare @-@ sanctioned paperback by Greg Rucka . The novel is set in the time between Perfect Dark Zero and Perfect Dark , and portrays Joanna Dark as an ex @-@ bounty hunter drawn into the Carrington Institute 's battle with dataDyne through her own vendetta against the hyper @-@ corporations . Rucka stated , " If you 've played the first game , you 're going to get a huge treat , because a lot of stuff that happens in Perfect Dark we set up in the novel . " In 2007 , two new titles were developed : the comic series Perfect Dark : Janus ' Tears , written by Eric Trautmann , and a second novel by Rucka titled Perfect Dark : Second Front , both of which are direct chronological sequels .
In 2010 , Perfect Dark was remade on the Xbox 360 as an Xbox Live Arcade game , featuring reworked graphics and online features ( see Perfect Dark XBLA ) . The development of the remake was handled by 4J Studios , the same studio that previously handled the Xbox Live Arcade ports of Rare 's platform games Banjo @-@ Kazooie and Banjo @-@ Tooie . The remake was generally well received : while some critics considered the relatively unchanged game to be outdated , most agreed that the title was a solid revival of a classic . In August 2015 , both Perfect Dark Zero and the Xbox Live Arcade version of Perfect Dark were released for the Xbox One as part of Microsoft 's Rare Replay collection .
= Tribal Hidage =
The Tribal Hidage is a list of thirty @-@ five tribes that was compiled in Anglo @-@ Saxon England some time between the 7th and 9th centuries . It includes a number of independent kingdoms and other smaller territories and assigns a number of hides to each one . The list of tribes is headed by Mercia and consists almost exclusively of peoples who lived south of the Humber estuary and territories that surrounded the Mercian kingdom , some of which have never been satisfactorily identified by scholars . The value of 100 @,@ 000 hides for Wessex is by far the largest : it has been suggested that this was a deliberate exaggeration .
The original purpose of the Tribal Hidage remains unknown : many scholars believe that it was a tribute list created by a king , but other possibilities have been suggested . The hidage figures may be purely symbolic and merely reflect the prestige of each territory , or they may represent an early example of book @-@ keeping . Many historians are convinced that the Tribal Hidage originated from Mercia , which dominated southern Anglo @-@ Saxon England until the start of the 9th century , but others have argued that the text was Northumbrian in origin .
The Tribal Hidage has been of great importance to historians since the middle of the 19th century , partly because it mentions territories unrecorded in other documents . Attempts to link all the names in the list with modern places are highly speculative and all resulting maps are treated with caution . Three different versions ( or recensions ) of the Tribal Hidage have survived , two of which resemble each other : one dates from the 11th century and is part of a miscellany of works ; another is contained in a 17th @-@ century Latin treatise ; the third version , which has survived in six mediaeval manuscripts , has many omissions and spelling variations . All three versions appear to be based on the same lost manuscript : historians have been unable to establish a date for the original compilation . The Tribal Hidage has been used to construct theories about the political organisation of the Anglo @-@ Saxons , and to give an insight into the Mercian state and its neighbours at a time when Mercia held hegemony over a number of other peoples . It has been used to support theories regarding the origin and location of the tribes in the list and the way in which the tribes were systematically assessed and ruled by others . Some historians have proposed that the Tribal Hidage is not a list of peoples but of administrative areas .
= = The hide assessments = =
The Tribal Hidage is , according to D. P. Kirby 's description , " a list of total assessments in terms of hides for a number of territories south of the Humber , which has been variously dated from the mid @-@ 7th to the second half of the 8th century " . Most of the kingdoms of the Heptarchy are included . Mercia , which is assigned 30 @,@ 000 hides , is at the top at the list , followed by a number of small tribes to the west and north of Mercia , all of which have no more than 7000 hides listed . Other named tribes have even smaller hidages , of between 300 and 1200 hides : of these the Herefinna , Noxgaga , Hendrica and Unecungaga cannot be identified , whilst the others have been tentatively located around the south of England and in the border region between Mercia and East Anglia . Ohtgaga can be heard as Jutegaga and understood as the area settled by Jutes in and near the Meon Valley of Hampshire . The term ' -gaga ' is a late copiest mistranscription of the Old English ' -wara ' ( people / men of ) the letter forms of ' w ' wynn and the long @-@ tailed ' r ' being read as ' g ' . A number of territories , such as the Hicca , have only been located by means of place @-@ names evidence . The list concludes with several other kingdoms from the Heptarchy : the East Angles ( who are assessed at 30 @,@ 000 hides ) , the East Saxons ( 7 @,@ 000 hides ) , Kent ( 15 @,@ 000 hides ) , the South Saxons ( 7 @,@ 000 hides ) and Wessex , which is assessed at 100 @,@ 000 hides .
The round figures of the hidage assessments make it unlikely they were the result of an accurate survey . The methods of assessment used probably differed according to the size of the region . The figures may be of purely symbolic significance , reflecting the status of each tribe at the time it was assessed . The totals given within the text for the figures suggest that the Tribal Hidage was perhaps used as a form of book @-@ keeping . Frank Stenton describes the hidage figures given for the Heptarchy kingdoms as exaggerated and in the instances of Mercia and Wessex , " entirely at variance with other information " .
= = The surviving manuscripts = =
A manuscript , now lost , was originally used to produce the three known different recensions of the Tribal Hidage : these have been named Recensions A , B and C.
Recension A , the earliest and most complete copy of the Tribal Hidage , dates from the 11th century . It is included in a miscellany of works , written in Old English and Latin , with Aelfric 's Latin Grammar and his homily De initio creaturæ , a work written in 1034 . It is in the keeping of the British Library , reference MS Harley 3271 . It was written by several different scribes , at a date no later than 1032 .
Recension B , which resembles Recension A , is contained in a 17th @-@ century Latin treatise , Archaeologus in Modum Glossarii ad rem antiquam posteriorem , written by Henry Spelman in 1626 . The tribal names are given in Old English . There are significant differences in spelling between the two recessions . The differences ( for instance Spelman 's use of the word hidas ) indicate that the text he copied was not Recension A , but a different text , written in Latin . According to Peter Featherstone , the highly edited form of the copied text suggests the possibility that Spelman embellished the Latin text himself .
Recension C has survived in six Latin documents . The texts each contain common omissions and spellings . Four versions , of 13th @-@ century origin , formed part of a collection of legal texts and , according to Featherstone , " may have been intended to act as part of a record of native English custom " . The other two versions are a century older : one is flawed and may have been a scribe 's exercise and the other was part of a set of legal texts .
= = Origin = =
Historians have not been able to agree upon the date for the original compilation of the list . According to Campbell ,
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who notes the plausibility of it being produced during the rise of Mercia , the document can probably be dated back to the 7th or 8th century . Other historians , such as J. Brownbill , Barbara Yorke , Frank Stenton and Cyril Hart , have generally agreed that the Tribal Hidage originated from Mercia at around this time , although they have different theories for the identity of the Mercian overlord under whom the list was compiled . Wendy Davies and Hayo Vierck have placed the document 's origin more precisely at 670 @-@ 690 .
There is near universal agreement that the text originates from Mercia , partly because the kings of Mercia are known to have held extensive power over other Anglo @-@ Saxon territories from the late 7th to the early 9th centuries , but also because the list , headed by Mercia , is almost exclusively of peoples who lived south of the river Humber . Peter Featherstone has concluded that the original material , dating from late 7th century Mercia , was then used to be included in a late 9th century document and asserts that the Mercian kingdom " was at the centre of the world mapped out by the Tribal Hidage " . Frank Stenton acknowledged that the evidence is not conclusive when he noted that " the Tribal Hidage was almost certainly compiled in Mercia " .
In contrast to most historians , Professor Nicholas Brooks has suggested that the list is of Northumbrian origin , noting that it would account for the inclusion of Elmet and the absence of the two Northumbrian kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia . He notes that a Mercian tribute list was would not have been headed by Mercia , as " an early mediaeval king did not impose tribute upon his own kingdom " : it must have been a list produced by another kingdom , perhaps with an altogether different purpose .
N. J. Higham has argued that because the date of the original information is unknown and the largest Northumbrian kingdoms are not included in the Tribal Hidage , it cannot be proved to be a tribute list of Mercian origin . He notes that Elmet , which was never a province of Mercia , is included in the list . He suggests that the Tribal Hidage may have been a tribute list drawn up by Edwin of Northumbria in the 620s , and that it probably originated before 685 , after which no Northumbrian king exercised imperium over the Southumbrian kingdoms . According to Higham , the values assigned to each people are likely to be specific to the events of 625 @-@ 626 , representing the individual contracts made between Edwin and those who recognised his overlordship at that time . This explains the artificial and rounded nature of the figures that were arrived at : the figure of 100 @,@ 000 hides for the West Saxons was probably the largest number Edwin knew . However , D. P. Kirby notes that the Northumbrian origin theory has not been generally accepted as convincing .
= = Purpose = =
The purpose of the Tribal Hidage remains unknown . Over the years different theories have been suggested for its purpose , linked with a range of dates for its creation .
According to many experts , the Tribal Hidage was a tribute list created upon the instructions of an Anglo @-@ Saxon king such as Offa of Mercia , Wulfhere of Mercia or Edwin of Northumbria — but it may have been used for different purposes at various times during its history . Cyril Hart has described it as a tribute list that involved all of Anglo @-@ Saxon England south of the Humber and that was created for Offa , but acknowledges that no proof exists that it was compiled during his rule . Higham notes that the syntax of the text requires that a word implying ' tribute ' was omitted from each line and argues that it was " almost certainly a tribute list " . According to Higham , the large size of the West Saxon hidation indicates that there were close links between the scale of tribute and any political considerations . James Campbell has argued that if the list served any practical purpose , it implies that tributes were assessed and obtained in an organised way , and notes that , " whatever it is , and whatever it means , it indicates a degree of orderliness , or coherence in the exercise of power ... " .
Yorke acknowledges that the purpose of the Tribal Hidage is unknown and that it may well not be , as has been commonly argued , an overlord 's tribute list . She warns against assuming that the minor peoples ( of 7000 hides or less ) possessed any " means of defining themselves as a distinct gentes " . She notes that among these , the Isle of Wight and the South Gyrwe tribes , tiny in terms of their hidages and geographically isolated from other peoples , were among the few who possessed their own royal dynasties .
P. H. Sawyer argues that the values may have had a symbolic purpose and that they were intended to be an expression of the status of each kingdom and province . To Sawyer , the obscurity of some of the tribal names and the absence from the list of others points to an early date for the original text , which he describes as a " monument to Mercian power " . The 100 @,@ 000 hides assigned to Wessex may have reflected its superior status at a later date and would imply that the Tribal Hidage in its present form was written in Wessex . The very large hidage assessment for Wessex was considered to be an error by the historian J. Brownbill , but Cyril Hart maintains that the value for Wessex is correct and that it was one of several assessments designed to exact the largest possible tribute from Mercia 's main rivals .
= = Historiography = =
Sir Henry Spelman was the first to publish the Tribal Hidage in his first volume of Glossarium Archaiologicum ( 1626 ) and there is also a version of the text in a book written in 1691 by Thomas Gale , but no actual discussion of the Tribal Hidage emerged until 1848 , when John Mitchell Kemble 's The Saxons in England was published . In 1884 , Walter de Gray Birch wrote a paper for the British Archaeological Society , in which he discussed in detail the location of each of the tribes . The term Tribal Hidage was introduced by Frederic William Maitland in 1897 , in his book Domesday Book and Beyond . During the following decades , articles were published by William John Corbett ( 1900 ) , Hector Munro Chadwick ( 1905 ) and John Brownbill ( 1912 and 1925 ) . The most important subsequent accounts of the Tribal Hidage since Corbett , according to Campbell , are by Josiah Cox Russell ( 1947 ) , Cyril Hart ( 1971 ) , Wendy Davies and Hayo Vierck ( 1974 ) and David Dumville ( 1989 ) .
Kemble recognised the antiquity of Spelman 's document and used historical texts ( such as Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ) to assess its date of origin . He proposed locations for each tribe , without attempting to locate each one , and suggested that some Anglo @-@ Saxon peoples were missing from the document . Birch , in his paper An Unpublished Manuscript of some Early Territorial Names in England , announced his discovery of what became known as Recension A , which he suggested was a 10th or 11th century copy of a lost 7th @-@ century manuscript . He methodically compared all the publications and manuscripts of the Tribal Hidage that are available at the time and placed each tribe using both his own theories and the ideas of others , some of which ( for instance when he located the Wokensætna in Woking , Surrey ) are now discounted . Maitland suspected that the accepted number of acres to each hide needed to be reconsidered to account for the figures in the Tribal Hidage and used his own calculations to conclude that the figures were probably exaggerated . John Brownbill advised against using Latin versions of the document , which he described as error @-@ prone . He determined that the Old English manuscript was written in 1032 and was a copy of an original Mercian manuscript . Chadwick attempted to allocate each tribe to one or more English shires , with the use of key passages from historical texts .
In 1971 , Hart attempted a " complete reconstruction of the political geography of Saxon England at the end of the 8th century " . Assuming that all the English south of the Humber are listed within the Tribal Hidage , he produced a map that divides southern England into Mercia 's provinces and outlying dependencies , using evidence from river boundaries and other topographical features , place @-@ names and historical borders .
= = Importance for historians = =
The Tribal Hidage is a valuable record for historians . It is unique in that no similar text has survived : the document is one of a very few to survive out of a great many records that were produced by the administrators of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms , a " chance survivor " of many more documents , as Campbell has suggested . Hart has observed that " as a detailed record of historical topography it has no parallel in the whole of western Europe " . The Tribal Hidage lists several minor kingdoms and tribes that are not recorded anywhere else and is generally agreed to be the earliest fiscal document that has survived from mediaeval England .
Historians have used the Tribal Hidage to provide evidence for the political organisation of Anglo @-@ Saxon England and it has been " pressed into service by those seeking to interpret the nature and geography of kingships and of ' peoples ' in pre @-@ Viking England " , according to N. J. Higham . In particular , the document has been seen as invaluable for providing evidence about the Mercian state and those peoples that were under its rule or influence .
Alex Woolf uses the concentration of tribes with very small hidages between Mercia and East Anglia as part of an argument that there were in existence " large , multi @-@ regional provinces , some of which were surrounded by small , contested territories " . Stenton positions the Middle Anglian peoples to the south @-@ east of the Mercians . He suggests that an independent Middle Anglia once existed , seemingly consisting of twenty of the peoples that were listed in the Tribal Hidage . The expansion of Wessex in the tenth century would have caused the obliteration of the Middle Anglia 's old divisions , by which time the places listed would have become mere names . Middle Anglia in the 7th century constitutes a model for the development of English administrative units during the period , according to Davies and Vierck , who demonstrate that it was created by Penda of Mercia when he made his son Peada king of the Middle Angles at the time that they were introduced to Christianity .
James Campbell refutes suggestions that the hides given for each tribe were the sum of a system of locally @-@ collected assessments and argues that a two @-@ tier system of assessment , one for large areas such as kingdoms and a more accurate one for individual estates , may have existed . He considers the possibility that many of the tribes named in the Tribal Hidage were no more than administrative units and that some names did not originate from a tribe itself but from a place from where the people were governed , eventually coming to signify the district where the tribe itself lived . Barbara Yorke suggests that the -sætan / sæte form of several of the place @-@ names are an indication that they were named after a feature of the local landscape . She also suggests the tribes were dependent administrative units and not independent kingdoms , some of which were created as such after the main kingdoms were stabilized .
The term Tribal Hidage may perhaps have led scholars to underestimate how the names of the tribes were used by Anglo @-@ Saxon administrators for the purpose of labelling local regions ; the names could be referring to actual peoples ( whose identity was retained after they fell under Mercian domination ) , or administrative areas that were unconnected with the names of local peoples . Campbell suggests that the truth lies between somewhere between these two possibilities . Davies and Vierck believe the smallest of the groups in the Tribal Hidage originated from populations formed into tribes after the departure of the Romans in the fifth century and suggest that these tribes might sometimes have joined forces , until large kingdoms such as Mercia emerged around the beginning of the 7th century . Scott DeGregorio has argued that the Tribal Hidage provides evidence that Anglo @-@ Saxon governments required a system of " detailed assessment " in order to construct great earthworks such as Offa 's Dyke .
The kingdom of East Anglia is recorded for the first time in the Tribal Hidage . According to Davies and Vierck , 7th century East Anglia may have consisted of a collection of regional groups , some of which retained their individual identity . Martin Carver agrees with Davies and Vierck when he describes the territory of East Anglia as having unfixed borders , stating that " political authority appears to have primarily invested in people rather than territory " .
= = = Early printed texts and commentaries = = =
Birch , Walter de Gray ( 1884 ) . " An Unpublished Manuscript of some Early Territorial Names in England " . Journal of the British Archaeological Society . 1 40 : 28 – 46 . Retrieved 13 November 2011 .
Brownbill , J. ( October 1912 ) . " The Tribal Hidage " . The English Historical Review 27 : 625 – 648 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / ehr / xxvii.cviii.625. Retrieved 13 November 2011 .
Chadwick , H. M. ( 1907 ) . " 1 England in the Sixth Century " . The Origin of the English Nation . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. pp. 6 – 10 . Retrieved 14 November 2011 .
Gale , Thomas ( 1691 ) . Historiae Britannicae , Saxonicae , Anglo @-@ Danicae Scriptores XV , volume 3 ( in Latin ) . Oxford. p . 748 . Retrieved 14 November 2011 .
Kemble , John Mitchell ( 1876 ) . The Saxons in England , volume 1 . London : Bernard Quaritch. pp. 81 – 84 .
Maitland , Frederic William ( 1907 ) . Domesday Book and Beyond : Three Essays in the Early History of England . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. pp. 506 – 509 .
Riley , Henry ; Carpenter , John ( 1860 ) . " Extracts from the Cottonian Portians of Liber Custumarum and Liber Legum Regum Antiquorum which have not previously appeared in the Government publications " . Chronicles and memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages ( in Latin and English ) . London : Great Britain Public Record Office. pp. 626 – 627 . Retrieved 14 November 2011 .
Spelman , Henry ( 1626 ) . Glossarium Archaiologicum ( in Latin ) ( 1687 ed . ) . London. pp. 291 – 292 . Retrieved 17 November 2011 .
= = = Modern sources = = =
Baxter , Stephen David ; Karkov , Catherine E. ; Nelson , Janet L. ; et al . ( eds . ) . Early Medieval Studies in Memory of Patrick Wormald . Farnham ( UK ) , Burlington ( USA ) : Ashgate .
Brooks , Nicholas ( 2000 ) . Anglo @-@ Saxon Myths : State and Church 400 @-@ 1066 . London : Hambledon Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 85285 @-@ 154 @-@ 6 .
Campbell , James , ed . ( 1991 ) . The Anglo @-@ Saxons . London : Penguin . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 014395 @-@ 5 .
Campbell , James ( 2000 ) . The Anglo @-@ Saxon State . London , New York : Hambledon and London . ISBN 1 @-@ 85285 @-@ 176 @-@ 7 .
Carver , M. O. H. , ed . ( 1992 ) . The Age of Sutton Hoo : the Seventh Century in North @-@ western Europe . Woodbridge : Boydell Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 851 @-@ 15361 @-@ 5 .
Davies , Wendy ; Vierck , Hayo ( 1974 ) . " The Contexts of Tribal Hidage : Social Aggregates and Settlement Patterns " . Frühmittelalterliche Studien 8 . Berlin , New York : De Gruyter . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 11 @-@ 024207 @-@ 2 .
DeGregorio , Scott , ed . ( 2010 ) . The Cambridge Companion to Bede . Cambridge , New York : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 73073 @-@ 0 .
Featherstone , Peter ( 2001 ) . " The Tribal Hidage and the Ealdormen of Mercia " . In Brown , Michelle P. ; Farr , Carol Ann . Mercia : an Anglo @-@ Saxon Kingdom in Europe . London : Leicester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8264 @-@ 7765 @-@ 8 .
Hart , Cyril ( 1971 ) . " Tribal Hidage " . Transactions of the Royal Historical Society . 5th series 21 : 133 – 157 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 3678924 .
Higham , N. J. ( 1995 ) . An English Empire : Bede and the Early Anglo @-@ Saxon Kings . Manchester : Manchester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7190 @-@ 4424 @-@ 3 .
Hill , David ; Rumble , Alexander R. ( 1996 ) . The Defence of Wessex : the Burghal Hidage and Anglo @-@ Saxon Fortifications . Manchester , New York : Manchester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7190 @-@ 3218 @-@ 0 .
Hines , John , ed . ( 1997 ) . The Anglo @-@ Saxons from the Migration Period to the Eighth Century . Woodbridge : Boydell Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 84383 @-@ 034 @-@ 5 .
Hunter Blair , Peter ( 2003 ) . An Introduction to Anglo @-@ Saxon England . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29219 @-@ 0 .
Kirby , D.P. ( 2000 ) . The Earliest English Kings . London and New York : Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 4152 @-@ 4211 @-@ 8 .
Neal , James R. ( May 2008 ) . Defining power in the Mercian Supremacy : An examination of the dynamics of power in the kingdom of the borderers . ( Submitted thesis ) . Reno : University of Nevada . Retrieved 17 August 2011 .
Sawyer , P. H. ( 1978 ) . From Roman Britain to Norman England . London : Methuen .
Stenton , Sir Frank ( 1988 ) . Anglo @-@ Saxon England . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 821716 @-@ 1 .
Woolf , Alex ( 2000 ) . " Community , Identity and Kingship in Early England " . In Frazer , William O. ; Tyrrell Andrew . Social Identity in Early Medieval Britain . London and New York : Leicester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7185 @-@ 0084 @-@ 9 .
Yorke , Barbara ( 2000 ) . " Political and Ethnic Identity : A Case Study of Anglo @-@ Saxon Practice " . In Frazer , William O. ; Tyrrell Andrew . Social Identity in Early Medieval Britain . London and New York : Leicester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7185 @-@ 0084 @-@ 9 .
= Ezra Meeker =
Ezra Manning Meeker ( December 29 , 1830 – December 3 , 1928 ) was an American pioneer who traveled the Oregon Trail by ox @-@ drawn wagon as a young man , migrating from Iowa to the Pacific Coast . Late in life he worked to memorialize the Trail , repeatedly retracing the trip of his youth . Once known as the " Hop King of the World " , he was the first mayor of Puyallup , Washington .
Meeker was born in Butler County , Ohio , to Jacob and Phoebe Meeker . His family relocated to Indiana when he was a boy . He married Eliza Jane Sumner in 1851 ; the following year the couple , with Ezra 's brother and with their newborn son , set out for the Oregon Territory , where land could be claimed and settled on . Although they endured hardships on the Trail in the journey of nearly six months , the entire party survived the trek . Meeker and his family briefly stayed near Portland , then journeyed north to live in the Puget Sound region . They settled at what is now P
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man , almost eighty , clambered into a prairie schooner , made in part of some in which the pioneers had journeyed westward , and the Oregon Trail was retraced and marked with monuments , that a people and a nation may not forget .
= = Books by Ezra Meeker = =
Washington Territory West of the Cascade Mountains . Olympia , Washington Territory : Printed at the Transcript Office . 1870 . OCLC 718439467 . Retrieved June 21 , 2013 .
Hop Culture in the United States. with W.A. Lawrence . Puyallup , Washington Territory : E. Meeker & Co . 1880 . OCLC 499484270 . Retrieved June 21 , 2013 .
Pioneer Reminiscences of Puget Sound , the Tragedy of Leschi . Seattle , WA : Lowman & Hanford Stationery and Print . Co . 1905 . OCLC 667877082 . Retrieved June 21 , 2013 .
Ox Team ; or , The Old Oregon Trail , 1852 – 1906 . New York , NY : Ezra Meeker . 1907 . OCLC 285181271 , 669330590 . Retrieved June 22 , 2013 .
Ventures and Adventures of Ezra Meeker . Seattle , WA : Rainier Print . Co . 1908 . OCLC 679498491 . Retrieved June 22 , 2013 .
Uncle Ezra 's Pioneer Short Stories for Children . Tacoma , WA : D. W. Cooper. n.d. , c . 1915 . OCLC 4935396 , 680290582 . Retrieved June 22 , 2013 .
The Busy Life of Eighty @-@ Five Years of Ezra Meeker . Seattle , WA : Ezra Meeker . 1916 . OCLC 679500468 . Retrieved June 23 , 2013 .
Seventy Years of Progress in Washington . Seattle , WA / Tacoma , WA : Allstrum Printing Co . 1921 . OCLC 644000145 , 300598059 . Retrieved June 23 , 2013 .
Ox @-@ Team Days on the Oregon Trail . Pioneer life series . Revised and edited by Howard R. Driggs , illustrated with drawings by F.N. Wilson . Yonkers @-@ on @-@ Hudson , NY : World Book Co . 1922 . OCLC 53229256 , 746979402 , 681269138 . Retrieved June 24 , 2013 .
Kate Mulhall , a Romance of the Oregon Trail . Drawings by Margaret Landers Sanford , Rudolf A. Kausch and Oscar W. Lyons . New York , NY : Ezra Meeker . 1926 . OCLC 701648479 . Retrieved June 24 , 2013 .
= Batman : Arkham Origins =
Batman : Arkham Origins is a 2013 action @-@ adventure video game developed by WB Games Montréal and released by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment for Microsoft Windows and the PlayStation 3 , Wii U and Xbox 360 video game consoles . Based on the DC Comics superhero Batman , it is the successor to the 2011 video game Batman : Arkham City and is the third main installment in the Batman : Arkham series . It was released worldwide on October 25 , 2013 .
Written by Corey May , Ryan Galletta and Dooma Wendschuh , the game 's main storyline is set five years before that of 2009 's Batman : Arkham Asylum and follows a younger , less @-@ refined Batman . A bounty is placed on him by crime lord Black Mask , drawing eight of the world 's greatest assassins to Gotham City on Christmas Eve . The villains , including the Joker and Anarky , take advantage of the chaos to launch nefarious schemes , while Gotham City police try to apprehend Batman .
The game , played from a third @-@ person perspective , focuses on Batman 's combat and stealth abilities , detective skills , and gadgets for combat and exploration . Aside from the main story , Batman can help the police deal with crimes , and confront other supervillains terrorizing the city . Arkham Origins introduces the ability for Batman to virtually recreate crimes , allowing him to investigate the scene and identify the culprit . The game is the first in the series with multiplayer capability . WB Games Montréal took over development duties for Arkham Origins from series creators Rocksteady Studios .
While the game received generally positive reviews , it was criticized for replicating previous Arkham games ' content and unnecessarily modifying it , while the multiplayer aspect was considered an unnecessary addition to the series . A companion game , Batman : Arkham Origins Blackgate , was released with Arkham Origins for Nintendo 3DS and PlayStation Vita , and a spin @-@ off mobile game for the iOS and Android platforms was released in October 2013 . An animated sequel , Batman : Assault on Arkham , was released in 2014 , and a successor game , Batman : Arkham Knight , was released in June 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Arkham Origins is an open world action @-@ adventure game incorporating stealth game tactics . Batman can use his cape to glide around Gotham City and the grapnel gun 's retracting rope to attach to hard @-@ to @-@ reach ledges and extend his flight . Some gadgets from previous Arkham games are present at the start of Arkham Origins , while others become available during play . Returning gadgets include the Cryptographic Sequencer , used to hack security consoles ; the Batclaw , used for hooking onto surfaces ; the Batarang , a throwing weapon ; the Remote Batarang , its remote @-@ controlled counterpart ; Explosive Gel , used to destroy weak surfaces and knock down enemies ; Smoke Pellets , used for stealthy exits and entrances ; the Disruptor , which can remotely disable guns and explosive mines , and the Grapnel Accelerator , an earlier version of the Grapnel Boost . New equipment in Batman 's arsenal include the Remote Claw ; this allows Batman to target two objects and pull them together , allowing him to throw enemies into each other or hit them with objects ( tethering two walled points creates a tightrope for Batman to cross ) ; Shock Gloves , which allow Batman to block electric attacks , disable some enemies and stun shielded ones , and short @-@ circuit objects , and the Concussion Detonator , capable of stunning large enemy groups .
The game introduces a fast travel system , allowing Batman to remotely summon his plane ( the Batwing ) to transport him to other areas of the game world quicker than gliding or grappling could . Enemy tower installations prevent Batman from summoning the craft in some areas , and must be disabled to make the Batwing ( not player @-@ controlled ) available . Some towers may be disabled only when the player has the necessary equipment .
Players can traverse enemy @-@ controlled areas by stealth or combat . Using an enhanced version of the series ' Freeflow combat system , combat introduces a tracking system assessing the players ' efficiency and highlighting battle achievements ( such as avoiding damage and using gadgets ) . Chaining attacks to maintain momentum , performance is rewarded with experience points . These points can be used in a branching upgrade system to enhance Batman 's abilities and gadgets , allowing players to upgrade several paths or specialize in one . Enemy attacks are prompted with a warning icon , indicating that the attack can be countered . Enemies are armed with weapons such as knives , lead pipes and shields . The game introduces new enemy types : the Martial @-@ Artist ( capable of blocking , evading and countering Batman 's attacks ) , the Armored Enforcer ( invulnerable until he is dazed and de @-@ armored ) and Venom @-@ infused henchmen ( who possess superhuman strength , allowing them to grapple Batman and launch attacks which cannot be countered ) . Some enemies are armed with guns , which can damage Batman , and a player can use stealth predatory tactics to tilt the odds in their favor . Many areas feature stone gargoyles or high outcrops , helping Batman remain concealed while setting traps and knocking out enemies .
Arkham Origins offers side missions , including Crime in Progress ( where Batman can assist the Gotham City Police Department ( GCPD ) by rescuing police officers from a gang or keeping an informant from being thrown to his death ) . Most Wanted allows Batman to pursue villains outside of the main story ( such as Anarky , who plants bombs around the city ) . The Dark Knight system offers tasks of escalating difficulty which improve stealth and combat . Batman 's radio scanner also allows him to locate side missions ; completed missions are rewarded with experience points and upgrades to Batman 's equipment . The game features collectible objects and puzzles similar to the Riddler challenges of previous games ( orchestrated by Enigma before assuming his Riddler identity ) . Collectible objects appear , similar to those in previous games . A " 1 vs. 100 " mode in the game 's challenge maps challenges the player to survive in combat against 100 increasingly difficult enemies .
The game emphasizes Batman 's detective skills ; for example , he can scan a crime scene with Detective Vision ( displayed in first @-@ person perspective ) to highlight points of interest ; holograms act out theoretical scenarios of the crime . The crimes can be reviewed via Batman 's link to the Batcomputer in the Batcave ; this allows a player to view virtual recreations of the scene from different angles ( with the ability to move back and forth through the crime 's timeline ) , view it in slow motion or pause while looking for clues to solve the crime . Small ( and large ) crime scenes are distributed throughout Gotham City . Reviewing the downing of a helicopter , Batman is presented with false and accurate clues ; investigation of the scene can reveal that the helicopter was shot , allowing Batman to trace the bullet 's trajectory to a murdered police officer and another crime scene . When a crime is solved , the player is shown a Batman @-@ narrated rundown of the crime . The Batcave is also a hub where Batman can change costumes , upgrade his equipment and access challenge maps to practice combat ( these maps were accessed separately in previous games ) . After completing the story mode a New Game Plus mode is unlocked , enabling a player to replay the game with all their acquired gadgets , experience and abilities ; enemies are tougher , and the icon warning players of attack is disabled . Completing New Game Plus unlocks I Am the Night mode , where the game ends if Batman dies .
On compatible systems , the Microsoft Windows version uses Nvidia 's PhysX software engine to produce more realistic , dynamic interactions with the game world . With PhysX enabled , some areas contain additional snow or fog ( which reacts to Batman moving through it ) ; with PhysX disabled , the effects are lessened or absent .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Arkham Origins introduces a multiplayer component to the series . Invisible Predator Online revolves around a gang war in Blackgate Prison between supervillains Joker and Bane . Three Joker gang members fight three Bane gang members , and in turn the team of Batman and Robin . Gangs win by killing all the opposing team 's reinforcements , while Batman and Robin win by acquiring intimidation points ( from eliminating gang members ) . A gang member can become boss ( Joker or Bane ) , gaining more @-@ powerful abilities . Gang members can access guns and explosives ; Batman and Robin can access gadgets and abilities from the main game , including Detective Vision . Gang members have a limited Enhanced Vision , which requires recharging . Hunter , Hunted sets three Joker thugs and three Bane thugs against Batman in a last @-@ team @-@ standing match in which each character has one life .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Characters = = =
Arkham Origins features a large ensemble cast of characters from the history of Batman comics . The main character is Batman ( Roger Craig Smith ) , a superhero trained to the peak of human physical perfection and an expert in martial arts who is aided by his butler , Alfred Pennyworth ( Martin Jarvis ) . Arkham Origins brings Batman into conflict with sadistic , brutal crime lord Black Mask ( Brian Bloom ) . The most powerful man in the city and ruler of Gotham 's criminal underworld , Black Mask has vast wealth and resources , has eliminated his opposition and is consolidating his power . His ebony mask conceals his identity , allowing him to operate publicly as Roman Sionis ( head of Janus Cosmetics ) . Black Mask has a bounty on Batman , which attracts eight accomplished assassins : the physically compelling Bane ( J. B. Blanc ) ; expert marksman Deadshot ; veteran mercenary Deathstroke ( Mark Rolston ) ; poisonous contortionist Copperhead ( Rosa Salazar ) ; the pyromaniac Firefly ( Crispin Freeman ) ; the highly charged Electrocutioner ( Steven Blum ) ; deformed criminal Killer Croc ( Khary Payton ) , and master martial artist Shiva ( Kelly Hu ) .
Batman is considered an outlaw by the Gotham City police , and is pursued by Captain James Gordon ( Michael Gough ) , Detective Harvey Bullock ( Robert Costanzo ) and corrupt GCPD officials Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb and SWAT team leader Branden . Other characters include the psychopathic Joker ( Troy Baker ) ; black @-@ market weapons dealer Penguin ( Nolan North ) ; the mind @-@ controlling Mad Hatter ( Peter MacNicol ) ; anti @-@ government , anti @-@ corporate anarchist Anarky ( Matthew Mercer ) ; rogue hacker Enigma ( Wally Wingert ) ; Alberto Falcone ; Gordon 's teenage daughter Barbara , and Blackgate warden Martin Joseph ( Khary Payton ) . The story takes place before Batman 's partnership with Robin ( Josh Keaton ) — although Robin is a playable character outside the main story — and before Barbara becomes Batman 's ally , Oracle . Dr. Harleen Quinzel ( Tara Strong ) , Vicki Vale , Amanda Waller ( C. C. H. Pounder ) , Quincy Sharp ( Tom Kane ) , and Calendar Man make cameo appearances in the game . Mr. Freeze ( Maurice LaMarche ) appears in the downloadable content , " Cold , Cold Heart " .
= = = Setting = = =
The events in Arkham Origins take place about five years before Batman : Arkham Asylum , in midwinter Gotham City . Batman , an experienced crime @-@ fighter in the second year of his career , is not yet the veteran superhero of Arkham Asylum and Arkham City . He is a mysterious force ; even the police do not know whether he is a vigilante , a myth or a supernatural being . Batman has fought ordinary criminals and gangsters , and is accustomed to being stronger and faster than his opponents . However , on a snowy Christmas Eve he is confronted with more @-@ dangerous foes : eight professional assassins hoping to collect a $ 50 @-@ million bounty placed on Batman 's head by Black Mask . Villains ( including the Joker ) take advantage of the assassins ' arrival to launch their own schemes , and Black Mask 's henchmen instigate
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0 km / h ) were reported , but did not cause any damage as well . However , the hurricane 's recurvature offshore was short lived , and the system eventually made its landfall near Fort Pierce , Florida early on August 8 . Offshore , the USAHS Algonquin , a cruise ship belonging to the Clyde @-@ Mallory cruise line , was caught in the storm , but managed to reach its destination of New York , New York without any major problems . The Hondruan freighter Lempira , which had also recorded the lowest barometric pressure associated with the hurricane , experienced considerable damage due to the strong seas . The ship lost all of its lifeboats , and as a result the United Fruit Company line was sent to accompany the damaged ship . Inland , damage was concentrated in an area extending from Jupiter to the border between Florida and Georgia . The hurricane 's landfall on the peninsula was attended by torrential rainfall , which damaged crops , particularly citrus . Rainfall peaked at 14 @.@ 5 in ( 370 mm ) in St. Cloud over a five @-@ day period from August 7 – 12 . There , the nearby East Lake Tohopekaliga began to overflow , threatening property and crops . Losses to the citrus crop were estimated by the Florida Citrus Exchange to be equivalent to 1 million boxes of citrus . However , damage to citrus in the Kissimmee area was comparatively less , and was limited to unripe fruit . Lake Okeechobee 's water level rose by 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) as a result of floodwater rushing into the lake . Damage along the lake 's shores mostly occurred to the north . To the south , in Clewiston , minor damage was confined to trees and windows . Two deaths occurred in the vicinity of the Indian River ; these were the only deaths associated with the hurricane in the state . Numerous highways were also washed out by the rains , especially on Florida 's south @-@ central east coast . Portions of State Road 4 were covered in debris strewn by strong winds . Damage to the state 's road systems was estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 by the former Florida State Highway Commission . Bridges were also badly damaged , with some needing replacement .
Alongside the heavy rainfall , strong winds were reported . Large live oak trees were uprooted , especially in Osceola , Brevard , Orange , and Marion counties in Florida . Initial estimates of property damage in several cities on Florida 's mid @-@ eastern coast reached $ 5 million , though this was later drastically scaled down . In Sebastian , winds were estimated at 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Due to the high winds , rail service on the Florida East Coast Railway was halted 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Jupiter after winds became unsuitable for continued travel . Portions of the railway were also flooded in water . The train station in Fort Pierce was later unroofed . Many of the state 's coastal beaches suffered from window damage and damage to vegetation caused by strong winds . An estimated 75 % of structures in Fort Pierce and 50 % of structures in Vera were estimated to have been damaged by the strong winds , particularly in the form of torn roofs . A report suggested that damage from those two cities reached at least $ 1 million . The strong winds also hampered telephone and telegraph networks across the state , with losses as a result in excess of $ 1 @,@ 000 . Power transmission lines belonging to the Florida Power & Light Company were downed , causing a widespread power outage along the coast from Titusville to West Palm Beach . Thus , services requiring electric power were postponed until power was later restored . In Stuart , failure of the electric pumps led to loss of telecommunications and the local water supply . In Melbourne , additional power lines were downed , and buildings experienced awning damage . Portions of Central Florida also saw considerable damage . In Winter Haven , winds were reported to have reached 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , before power was cut . A hotel in the city collapsed , and numerous houses were unroofed . Property damage in Kissimmee and Haines City was severe , with many collapsed buildings . In Haines City , a large garage collapsed , destroying automobiles parked within . Nearby in Lakeland , there was less damage , though winds estimated at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) tore signs and awnings . Effects of the storm in Tampa were comparatively less , though a lack of communications between the city and other locations led to speculation that Tampa had been severely hit . At nearby Clearwater , Florida , boats were run aground at the harbor , causing some damage . Similar conditions were felt in Ocala , though in some suburban areas trees were felled by the strong winds . Bus service in the area was delayed due to debris covering roadways .
= = = Elsewhere in the United States = = =
Upon the hurricane 's second landfall on the Florida Panhandle on August 10 , wind effects were much less significant , though the storm dropped widespread rainfall throughout its remaining path . Aided by orthographic lift from the Appalachian Mountains , the rainfall caused numerous reports of flood damage across the Southeast and Mid @-@ Atlantic states . For any given 50 @,@ 000 sq mi ( 130 @,@ 000 km2 ) area of land affected by the storm , the maximum average rainfall was 6 @.@ 4 in ( 160 mm ) . In southern and central Georgia , flood warnings were issued due to the potential for flood impacts late on August 10 . In Macon , Georgia , 8 @.@ 5 in ( 216 mm ) of rain was recorded in a 16 @-@ hour period . The Ocmulgee River , which runs through Macon , began to rise past flood stage as a result , causing the lower areas of the city to be inundated . Trees were also downed due to strong winds . Portions of the Central of Georgia Railway were washed out , forcing trains to be redirected . In Thomasville , Georgia , highways leading to Florida were rendered impassable due to blocking debris . In Valdosta , Georgia , a torn roof cut through several power lines , causing electrical disruptions in the city . Similar impacts were felt in Augusta , Georgia , where strong winds toppled trees , damaged cottages , and severed telecommunication lines . Five people there were injured . In addition , a tornado occurred nearby , damaging houses and flattening trees .
Further east in the Carolinas , five people were killed in the Piedmont region due to floods caused by the passing storm . Torrential rainfall in the area resulted in disruption of power , communications , and traffic . Precipitation in those two states peaked at 9 in ( 230 mm ) in western North Carolina . In South Carolina , the heavy rainfall forced the issuance of flood warnings on the rising Santee River and its tributaries . The Broad and Congaree Rivers in South Carolina later set high water level records due in part to the saturated soils caused by the storm . The storm reached Virginia by August 12 , resulting in additional flooding . A weather station in Richmond , Virginia recorded a minimum barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) . There , the James and Rivanna Rivers exceeded their respective flood stages , washing out peripheral crops . Offshore the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , over 100 people were rescued after rough waves swept them away . Moderate gales associated with the storm were reported as far north as New York .
= Wind shear =
Wind shear , sometimes referred to as windshear or wind gradient , is a difference in wind speed and / or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere . Atmospheric wind shear is normally described as either vertical or horizontal wind shear . Vertical wind shear is a change in wind speed or direction with change in altitude . Horizontal wind shear is a change in wind speed with change in lateral position for a given altitude .
Wind shear is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small distance , but it can be associated with mesoscale or synoptic scale weather features such as squall lines and cold fronts . It is commonly observed near microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms , fronts , areas of locally higher low @-@ level winds referred to as low level jets , near mountains , radiation inversions that occur due to clear skies and calm winds , buildings , wind turbines , and sailboats . Wind shear has a significant effect during take @-@ off and landing of aircraft due to its effects on control of the aircraft , and it has been a sole or contributing cause of many aircraft accidents .
Wind shear is sometimes experienced by pedestrians at ground level when walking across a plaza towards a tower block and suddenly encountering a strong wind stream that is flowing around the base of the tower . This phenomenon is a concern for architects .
Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by wind shear , which can bend the wave front , causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not , or vice versa . Strong vertical wind shear within the troposphere also inhibits tropical cyclone development , but helps to organize individual thunderstorms into longer life cycles which can then produce severe weather . The thermal wind concept explains how differences in wind speed at different heights are dependent on horizontal temperature differences , and explains the existence of the jet stream .
= = Definition = =
Wind shear refers to the variation of wind over either horizontal or vertical distances . Airplane pilots generally regard significant wind shear to be a horizontal change in airspeed of 30 knots ( 15 m / s ) for light aircraft , and near 45 knots ( 22 m / s ) for airliners at flight altitude . Vertical speed changes greater than 4 @.@ 9 knots ( 2 @.@ 5 m / s ) also qualify as significant wind shear for aircraft . Low level wind shear can affect aircraft airspeed during take off and landing in disastrous ways , and airliner pilots are trained to avoid all microburst wind shear ( headwind loss in excess of 30 knots ) . The rationale for this additional caution includes : ( 1 ) microburst intensity can double in a minute or less , ( 2 ) the winds can shift to excessive cross wind , ( 3 ) 40 @-@ 50 knots is the threshold for survivability at some stages of low @-@ altitude operations , and ( 4 ) several of the historical wind shear accidents involved 35 @-@ 45 knot microbursts . Wind shear is also a key factor in the creation of severe thunderstorms . The additional hazard of turbulence is often associated with wind shear .
= = Where and when it is strongly observed = =
Weather situations where shear is observed include :
Weather fronts . Significant shear is observed when the temperature difference across the front is 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) or more , and the front moves at 30 knots or faster . Because fronts are three @-@ dimensional phenomena , frontal shear can be observed at any altitude between surface and tropopause , and therefore be seen both horizontally and vertically . Vertical wind shear above warm fronts is more of an aviation concern than near and behind cold fronts due to their greater duration .
Upper @-@ level jet streams . Associated with upper level jet streams is a phenomenon known as clear air turbulence ( CAT ) , caused by vertical and horizontal wind shear connected to the wind gradient at the edge of the jet streams . The CAT is strongest on the anticyclonic shear side of the jet , usually next to or just below the axis of the jet .
Low @-@ level jet streams . When a nocturnal low @-@ level jet forms overnight above the Earth 's surface ahead of a cold front , significant low level vertical wind shear can develop near the lower portion of the low level jet . This is also known as nonconvective wind shear since it is not due to nearby thunderstorms .
Mountains . When winds blow over a mountain , vertical shear is observed on the lee side . If the flow is strong enough , turbulent eddies known as " rotors " associated with lee waves may form , which are dangerous to ascending and descending aircraft .
Inversions . When on a clear and calm night , a radiation inversion is formed near the ground , the friction does not affect wind above the top of the inversion layer . The change in wind can be 90 degrees in direction and 40 kt in speed . Even a nocturnal ( overnight ) low level jet can sometimes be observed . It tends to be strongest towards sunrise . Density differences cause additional problems to aviation .
Downbursts . When an outflow boundary forms due to a shallow layer of rain @-@ cooled air spreading out near ground level from the parent thunderstorm , both speed and directional wind shear can result at the leading edge of the three dimensional boundary . The stronger the outflow boundary is , the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear will become .
= = Horizontal component = =
= = = Weather fronts = = =
Weather fronts are boundaries between two masses of air of different densities , or different temperature and moisture properties , which normally are convergence zones in the wind field and are the principal cause of significant weather . Within surface weather analyses , they are depicted using various colored lines and symbols . The air masses usually differ in temperature and may also differ in humidity . Wind shear in the horizontal occurs near these boundaries . Cold fronts feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather , and may be preceded by squall lines and dry lines . Cold fronts are sharper surface boundaries with more significant horizontal wind shear than warm fronts . When a front becomes stationary , it can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind speed , known as a shear line , though the wind direction across the front normally remains constant . In the tropics , tropical waves move from east to west across the Atlantic and eastern Pacific basins . Directional and speed shear can occur across the axis of stronger tropical waves , as northerly winds precede the wave axis and southeast winds are seen behind the wave axis . Horizontal wind shear can also occur along local land breeze and sea breeze boundaries .
= = = Near coastlines = = =
The magnitude of winds offshore are nearly double the wind speed observed onshore . This is attributed to the differences in friction between land masses and offshore waters . Sometimes , there are even directional differences , particularly if local sea breezes change the wind on shore during daylight hours .
= = Vertical component = =
= = = Thermal wind = = =
Thermal wind is a meteorological term not referring to an actual wind , but a difference in the geostrophic wind between two pressure levels <formula> and <formula> , with <formula> ; in essence , wind shear . It is only present in an atmosphere with horizontal changes in temperature ( or in an ocean with horizontal gradients of density ) , i.e. baroclinicity . In a barotropic atmosphere , where temperature is uniform , the geostrophic wind is independent of height . The name stems from the fact that this wind flows around areas of low ( and high ) temperature in the same manner as the geostrophic wind flows around areas of low ( and high ) pressure .
The thermal wind equation is
<formula> ,
where the <formula> are geopotential height fields with <formula> , <formula> is the Coriolis parameter , and <formula> is the upward @-@ pointing unit vector in the vertical direction . The thermal wind equation does not determine the wind in the tropics . Since <formula> is small or zero , such as near the equator , the equation reduces to stating that <formula> is small .
This equation basically describes the existence of the jet stream , a westerly current of air with maximum wind speeds close to the tropopause which is ( even though other factors are also important ) the result of the temperature contrast between equator and pole .
= = = Effects on tropical cyclones = = =
Tropical cyclones are basically heat engines that are fueled by the temperature gradient between the warm tropical ocean surface and the colder upper atmosphere . Tropical cyclone development requires relatively low values of vertical wind shear so that their warm core can remain above their surface circulation center , thereby promoting strengthening . Vertical wind shear tears up the " machinery " of the heat engine causing it to break down . Strongly sheared tropical cyclones weaken as the upper circulation is blown away from the low level center .
The vertical wind shear in a tropical cyclone 's environment is very important . When the wind shear is weak , the storms that are part of the cyclone grow vertically , and the latent heat from condensation is released into the air directly above the storm , aiding in development . When there is stronger wind shear , this means that the storms become more slanted and the latent heat release is dispersed over a much larger area
= = = Effects on thunderstorms and severe weather = = =
Severe thunderstorms , which can spawn tornadoes and hailstorms , require wind shear to organize the storm in such a way as to maintain the thunderstorm for a longer period of time . This occurs as the storm 's inflow becomes separated from its rain @-@ cooled outflow . An increasing nocturnal , or overnight , low level jet can increase the severe weather potential by increasing the vertical wind shear through the troposphere . Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions , which then quickly cuts off its inflow of relatively warm , moist air and kills the thunderstorm .
= = = Planetary boundary layer = = =
The atmospheric effect of surface friction with winds aloft force surface winds to slow and back counterclockwise near the surface of the Earth blowing inward across isobars ( lines of equal pressure ) , when compared to the winds in frictionless flow well above the Earth 's surface . This layer where friction slows and changes the wind is known as the planetary boundary layer , sometimes the Ekman layer , and it is thickest during the day and thinnest at night . Daytime heating thickens the boundary layer as winds at the surface become increasingly mixed with winds aloft due to insolation , or solar heating . Radiative cooling overnight further enhances wind decoupling between the winds at the surface and the winds above the boundary layer by calming the surface wind which increases wind shear . These wind changes force wind shear between the boundary layer and the wind aloft , and is most emphasized at night .
= = = = Effects on flight = = = =
= = = = = Gliding = = = = =
In gliding , wind gradients just above the surface affect the takeoff and landing phases of flight of a glider . Wind gradient can have a noticeable effect on ground launches , also known as winch launches or wire launches . If the wind gradient is significant or sudden , or both , and the pilot maintains the same pitch attitude , the indicated airspeed will increase , possibly exceeding the maximum ground launch tow speed . The pilot must adjust the airspeed to deal with the effect of the gradient .
When landing , wind shear is also a hazard , particularly when the winds are strong . As the glider descends through the wind gradient on final approach to landing , airspeed decreases while sink rate increases , and there is insufficient time to accelerate prior to ground contact . The pilot must anticipate the wind gradient and use a higher approach speed to compensate for it .
Wind shear is also a hazard for aircraft making steep turns near the ground . It is a particular problem for gliders which have a relatively long wingspan , which exposes them to a greater wind speed difference for a given bank angle . The different airspeed experienced by each wing tip can result in an aerodynamic stall on one wing , causing a loss of control accident .
= = = = = Parachuting = = = = =
Wind shear or wind gradients are a threat to parachutists , particularly to BASE jumping and wingsuit flying . Skydivers have been pushed off of their course by sudden shifts in wind direction and speed , and have collided with bridges , cliffsides , trees , other skydivers , the ground , and other obstacles . Skydivers routinely make adjustments to the position of their open canopies to compensate for changes in direction while making landings to prevent accidents such as canopy collisions and canopy inversion .
= = = = = Soaring = = = = =
Soaring related to wind shear , also called dynamic soaring , is a technique used by soaring birds like albatrosses , who can maintain flight without wing flapping . If the wind shear is of sufficient magnitude , a bird can climb into the wind gradient , trading ground speed for height , while maintaining airspeed . By then turning downwind , and diving through the wind gradient , they can also gain energy . It has also been used by glider pilots on rare occasions .
Wind shear can also create wave . This occurs when an atmospheric inversion separates two layers with a marked difference in wind direction . If the wind encounters distortions in the inversion layer caused by thermals coming up from below , it will create significant shear waves that can be used for soaring .
= = = = = Impact on passenger aircraft = = = = =
Strong outflow from thunderstorms causes rapid changes in the three @-@ dimensional wind velocity just above ground level . Initially , this outflow causes a headwind that increases airspeed , which normally causes a pilot to reduce engine power if they are unaware of the wind shear . As the aircraft passes into the region of the downdraft , the localized headwind diminishes , reducing the aircraft 's airspeed and increasing its sink rate . Then , when the aircraft passes through the other side of the downdraft , the headwind becomes a tailwind , reducing lift generated by the wings , and leaving the aircraft in a low @-@ power , low @-@ speed descent . This can lead to an accident if the aircraft is too low to effect a recovery before ground contact .
As the result of the accidents in the 1970s and 1980s , most notably following the 1985 crash of Delta Air Lines Flight 191 , in 1988 the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration mandated that all commercial aircraft have on @-@ board wind shear detection systems by 1993 . Between 1964 and 1985 , wind shear directly caused or contributed to 26 major civil transport aircraft accidents in the U.S. that led to 620 deaths and 200 injuries . Since 1995 , the number of major civil aircraft accidents caused by wind shear has dropped to approximately one every ten years , due to the mandated on @-@ board detection as well as the addition of Doppler weather radar units on the ground ( NEXRAD ) . The installation of high @-@ resolution Terminal Doppler Weather Radar stations at many U.S. airports that are commonly affected by wind shear has further aided the ability of pilots and ground controllers to avoid wind shear conditions .
= = = = Sailing = = = =
Wind shear affects sailboats in motion by presenting a different wind speed and direction at different heights along the mast . The effect of low level wind shear can be factored into the selection of sail twist in the sail design , but this can be difficult to predict since wind shear may vary widely in different weather conditions . Sailors may also adjust the trim of the sail to account for low level wind shear , for example using a boom vang .
= = = = Sound propagation = = = =
Wind shear can have a pronounced effect upon sound propagation in the lower atmosphere , where waves can be " bent " by refraction phenomenon . The audibility of sounds from distant sources , such as thunder or gunshots , is very dependent on the amount of shear . The result of these differing sound levels is key in noise pollution considerations , for example from roadway noise and aircraft noise , and must be considered in the design of noise barriers . This phenomenon was first applied to the field of noise pollution study in the 1960s , contributing to the design of urban highways as well as noise barriers .
The speed of sound varies with temperature . Since temperature and sound velocity normally decrease with increasing altitude , sound is refracted upward , away from listeners on the ground , creating an acoustic shadow at some distance from the source . In the 1862 , during the American Civil War Battle of Iuka , an acoustic shadow , believed to have been enhanced by a northeast wind , kept two divisions of Union soldiers out of the battle , because they could not hear the sounds of battle only six miles downwind .
= = = = Effects on architecture = = = =
Wind engineering is a field of engineering devoted to the analysis of wind effects on the natural and built environment . It includes strong winds which may cause discomfort as well as extreme winds such as tornadoes , hurricanes and storms which may cause widespread destruction . Wind engineering draws upon meteorology , aerodynamics and a number of specialist engineering disciplines . The tools used include climate models , atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels and numerical models . It involves , among other topics , how wind impacting buildings must be accounted for in engineering .
Wind turbines are affected by wind shear . Vertical wind @-@ speed profiles result in different wind speeds at the blades nearest to the ground level compared to those at the top of blade travel , and this in turn affects the turbine operation . This low level wind shear can create a large bending moment in the shaft of a two bladed turbine when the blades are vertical . The reduced wind shear over water means shorter and less expensive wind turbine towers can be used in shallow seas .
= Operation Southern Move =
Operation Southern Move ( Croatian : Operacija južni potez ) was the final Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) and Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) offensive of the Bosnian War . It took place in western Bosnia and Herzegovina on 8 – 11 October 1995 . Its goal was to help the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) whose positions around the town of Ključ , captured by them during Operation Sana , were endangered by a counteroffensive by the Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) . The objectives of Operation Southern Move included the capture of the town of Mrkonjić Grad and positions on the Manjača Mountain which would allow the HV and the HVO to directly threaten Banja Luka , the largest Bosnian Serb city . Finally , the offensive was also aimed at capturing the Bočac Hydroelectric Power Station , the last significant source of electricity under VRS control in western Bosnia and Herzegovina . The combined HV and HVO forces were under the overall command of HV Major General Ante Gotovina .
The offensive achieved its objectives , and significantly contributed , along with Operations Sana and Maestral 2 to forcing the Bosnian Serb leadership to serious peace negotiations . A country @-@ wide ceasefire came into effect on 12 October , one day after the offensive ended , and was soon followed by negotiations which produced the Dayton Agreement , ending the Bosnian War .
= = Background = =
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) withdrew from Croatia following the acceptance and start of implementation of the Vance plan , its 55 @,@ 000 officers and soldiers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to a new Bosnian Serb army , which was later renamed the Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) . This re @-@ organisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina that took place between 29 February and 1 March 1992 . This declaration would later be cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital , Sarajevo , and other areas on 1 March 1992 . On the following day , the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . In the final days of March , Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery , resulting in a cross @-@ border operation by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) 108th Brigade . On 4 April 1992 , JNA artillery began shelling Sarajevo . There were other examples of the JNA directly supported the VRS , such as during the capture of Zvornik in early April 1992 , when the JNA provided artillery support from Serbia , firing across the Drina River . At the same time , the JNA attempted to defuse the situation and arrange negotiations elsewhere in the country .
The JNA and the VRS in Bosnia and Herzegovina faced the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) and the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) , reporting to the Bosniak @-@ dominated central government and the Bosnian Croat leadership respectively , as well as the HV , which occasionally supported HVO operations . In late April 1992 , the VRS was able to deploy 200 @,@ 000 troops , hundreds of tanks , armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and artillery pieces . The HVO and the Croatian Defence Forces ( Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS ) could field approximately 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons , while the ARBiH was largely unprepared with nearly 100 @,@ 000 troops , small arms for less than a half of their number and virtually no heavy weapons . Arming of the various forces was hampered by a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo that had been introduced in September 1991 . By mid @-@ May 1992 , when those JNA units which had not been transferred to the VRS withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the newly declared Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , the VRS controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The extent of VRS control was extended to about 70 percent of the country by the end of 1992 .
= = Prelude = =
By 1995 , the ARBiH and the HVO had developed into better @-@ organised forces employing comparably large numbers of artillery pieces and good defensive fortifications . The VRS was not capable of penetrating their defences even where its forces employed sound military tactics , for instance in the Battle of Orašje in May and June 1995 . After recapture of the bulk of the Republic of Serb Krajina ( the Croatian Serb @-@ controlled areas of Croatia ) in Operation Storm in August 1995 , the HV shifted its focus to western Bosnia and Herzegovina . The shift was motivated by a desire to create a security zone along the Croatian border , establish Croatia as a regional power and gain favours with the West by forcing an end to the Bosn
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Republican Flem D. Sampson , greatly diminishing Stanley 's chances in the senatorial campaign .
In 1930 , President Herbert Hoover appointed Stanley to the International Joint Commission , a body charged with settling boundary disputes between the United States and Canada . Stanley became its chair in 1933 . He was very proud of his service on the Commission , and once noted that nowhere on earth have two great powers lived so long as neighbors with so few disputes . He served until 1954 when he resigned under pressure from his own party .
Stanley died in Washington , D.C. , on August 12 , 1958 and was buried in Frankfort Cemetery in Frankfort , Kentucky . He was survived by his wife , Sue ( Soaper ) Stanley , and two of his three sons , William Stanley and Augustus Owsley Stanley II . His grandson , Augustus Owsley Stanley III ( 1935 – 2011 ) , became a well @-@ known LSD chemist and backer of the Grateful Dead during the hippie movement .
= Grace , Replaced =
" Grace , Replaced " is the eighteenth episode of the first season of the American television series Will & Grace . It was written by Katie Palmer and directed by series producer James Burrows . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on April 8 , 1999 . Actors Molly Shannon , Leigh @-@ Allyn Baker , and Tom Gallop guest starred on " Grace , Replaced " .
In the episode , Grace 's ( Debra Messing ) job forces her to work overtime , which leads to Will ( Eric McCormack ) feeling neglected . As a result , he seeks solace in the company of a new neighbor , Val ( Shannon ) . Meanwhile , Jack ( Sean Hayes ) is annoyed that he has to perform community service for assaulting a meter maid .
Before the airing , NBC moved the program to Thursdays at 8 : 30 p.m. , after it was a success in the Tuesday lineup . " Grace , Replaced " was the first episode to debut on the Thursday slot . Since then , the episode has generally received positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it was watched by 12 @.@ 9 million viewers , which resulted in the episode attracting its highest ratings of the season .
= = Plot = =
Will ( Eric McCormack ) feels neglected by his best friend , Grace ( Debra Messing ) , as she spends a lot of time with her work . When Will calls Grace to confirm for a lunch date , Grace cannot go as she is too busy creating interior designs . Later , while doing his laundry , Will meets his new upstairs neighbor , Val ( Molly Shannon ) . Immediately , the two take a liking to one another . The next day , Will visits Grace at work and introduces Val to her . After the two leave , Karen ( Megan Mullally ) — Grace 's friend and socialite assistant — tells Grace that she did not like the way Will and Val acted towards one another . Grace , however , refuses to accept what Karen implies .
Meanwhile , after slapping a meter maid , Jack ( Sean Hayes ) is ordered to work 40 hours of community service , picking up garbage , and while he does this is forced to wear an orange jumpsuit . While doing community service he visits Karen at Grace Adler Designs . While there , Jack goes through a trash bag and sees Soon @-@ Yi Allen 's phone bill . Jack shows Karen the bill which quickly results in the two prank calling Soon @-@ Yi .
At Will and Grace 's apartment , Will and Val play Pyramid against Will 's friends Ellen ( Leigh @-@ Allyn Baker ) and Rob ( Tom Gallop ) . Grace , who comes home , is shocked when her Pyramid record with Will — 2 minutes and 14 seconds — is the same as Will and Val 's . Before leaving , Grace is horrified that Will called her Val . While at her office , Grace learns that Will is sick . She goes home to attend to him and is surprised to see Val there . Grace tells her that since she is home that Val can go . Val , however , does not leave . This results in the two fighting . The fight , however , is broken by Will and tells them to work the situation out . Grace admits she felt jealous of Val as she believed Val had replaced her , due to her not being there for Will . Will , however , reassures Grace that no one can replace her as his best friend . As a result , Grace and Val make up .
= = Production = =
" Grace , Replaced " was written by Katie Palmer and directed by series producer James Burrows . This was Palmer 's first written episode , and was Burrows ' 18th directed episode . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 8 , 1999 . Before the airing of the episode , it was confirmed that actress Molly Shannon would guest star as Val , a new neighbor in Will and Grace 's apartment building . This episode would be Shannon 's first appearance on the show , with her later guest starring in the episodes " Girls , Interrupted " , " Last of the Really Odd Lovers " , " Fagel Attraction " , and " One Gay at a Time " .
= = Reception = =
" Grace , Replaced " brought in 12 @.@ 9 million American viewers upon its original broadcast in the United States , and making it the seventh highest @-@ rated show during the week of April 5 – 11 , 1999 . Originally , Will & Grace aired on Mondays , but due to insufficient viewership , NBC decided to move the program to Tuesdays at 9 : 30 p.m. , which was a success as viewers tuned in . The network then changed the time slot from Tuesdays to Thursdays at 8 : 30 p.m. , between Friends and Frasier , with this episode becoming a success as it attracted its highest audience ratings of the season . The previous episode , " Secrets and Lays " , was watched by 9 @.@ 6 million viewers . Many believed this decision was a good one , with a contributor of The Buffalo News commenting that the time slot change suggested that NBC felt that Will & Grace had a better chance of becoming a success than the current sitcom Jesse . In a report in The Star @-@ Ledger it said that the decision of Will & Grace airing on Thursdays was a good benefit on behalf of NBC as the program was " the only watchable comedy " .
The episode received generally positive reception . Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz of The Star @-@ Ledger were complimentary towards " Grace , Replaced " , writing that the episode " is a winner , packed with witty dialogue . " Monica Collins of the Boston Herald said that the episode " is one of the best of the series so far " . The Dallas Morning News writer Ed Bark noted that " Grace , Replaced " was " another energetic , generally amusing " episode . Bark , in regards to Jack and Karen , said that the two together " sometimes are almost more than the scenery can bear . " Aaron Barnhart for The Kansas City Star called the episode riotous , and said that the show " with [ its ] pop @-@ culture jokes delivered at blistering speed , outsized performances from ' supporting ' players Sean Hayes and Megan Mullally , and a camaraderie between platonic pals Eric McCormack and Debra Massing that would make even Plato blush . " Ted Cox of the Daily Herald was less positive about the episode , reporting that this episode " looked like more of the same " , recounting the show 's past story lines , and past NBC programs . Chicago Tribune 's Steve Johnson opined that the episode " starts strong and then goes awry [ ... ] It 's funny for a while [ ... ] But then it takes it to a ludicrous level , selling out its own internal logic by conspiring to put [ Molly ] Shannon and Messing into a ... catfight . At its best this series works a groove of pop @-@ culture savvy ; this visit from The Three Stooges by way of Dynasty will have you rolling your eyes in dismay . "
Critics praised Shannon 's performance in the episode . Bark wrote , " ... the talented Ms. Shannon is winningly glossy and brassy [ in this episode ] . Someday soon she 'll have her own sitcom . Bet on it . " Tom Feran of The Plain Dealer reported that Shannon 's appearance on the show would make " a good introduction for viewers curious about Will & Grace . " The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert enjoyed the actress in " Grace , Replaced " , writing that she is appealing as the Grace replacement .
= White Stag Leadership Development Program =
The White Stag Leadership Development Program , founded in 1958 , is a summer camp for youth 11 @-@ 18 led by two California @-@ based non @-@ profits that sponsor leadership development activities . The teen youth staff of the two programs develop and produce several week @-@ long leadership summer camps every year for several hundred youth from Central and Northern California and a few youth from other states and countries . The outdoors program relies on hands @-@ on learning methods to help develop leadership competencies in youth .
Originally founded on the Monterey Peninsula , California , in 1958 by Dr. Béla H. Bánáthy , there are currently two programs . One program in Concord , California is sponsored by the White Stag Association and a second program in Monterey , California is sponsored by the White Stag Leadership Development Academy . The entire program traces its history to the 1933 World Jamboree in Gödöllő , Hungary , which took as its emblem the white stag of Hungarian mythology . Four boys who did not know each other attended the Jamboree and met in the 1950s to lead the White Stag program . Founder Béla H. Bánáthy , a junior officer in the Hungarian Army during World War II , served on the National Council of the Hungarian Scout Association and became the voluntary national director for youth leadership development . At the end of the war , he narrowly escaped Soviet capture and likely execution . After considerable personal trials he arrived in June 1951 in Monterey , California to teach at the Army Language School . There he met two other Hungarians who had escaped the country before Soviet occupation , Joe Szentkiralyi and Paul Sujan , who had also attended the 1933 World Jamboree . They were initially assisted by a local American Scouter , Fran Peterson .
Bánáthy became the Monterey Bay Area Council Training Chairman and developed an experimental program to train Scouts in leadership skills . He collaborated with research psychologist Paul Hood , who was leader of Task NCO ( Non @-@ Commissioned Officer ) , a research project by the U.S. Army that sought to identify the essential leadership skills of non @-@ commissioned leaders . As part of his Master 's thesis , Bánáthy identified eleven specific leadership competencies that he taught in the program 's summer camp . The efforts of the four men , assisted by Maury Tripp , rapidly gained the attention of the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America . They conducted extensive research that validated Bánáthy 's leadership model and developed its own version for nationwide use . They introduced the leadership competencies during the 1970s into both the adult Wood Badge program and youth @-@ focused National Youth Leadership Training . These two programs had originally focused primarily on teaching Scoutcraft skills and the Patrol Method . The change to teaching leadership was a marked cultural shift for how both adults and youth were trained in the skills of Scouting .
The program is currently developed and delivered by two independent non @-@ profit groups in the Monterey Bay Area and in the San Francisco East Bay . In recent years , their youth staff plan and put on three week @-@ long summer camp programs at locations in Central and Northern California . The programs draw most of their participants from California , but attendees have come from Texas , Virginia , and international locations including France , Taiwan , Brazil , and China . The eleven leadership competencies remain a key part of both training program . The program , which observed its 50th anniversary in 2008 , has served over 21 @,@ 000 youth since its inception .
= = History = =
White Stag traces its direct roots to 1933 and Gödöllö , Hungary , and the Fourth World Scout Jamboree which three of its founders attended .
= = = Origins in Hungary = = =
At the 1933 World Scout Jamboree , a 14 @-@ year @-@ old Scout named Bela Bánáthy was kneeling by his campfire when three uniformed men rode up on horseback : Count Paul Teleki , the Chief Scout of Hungary and the Chief of Staff for the jamboree ; General Kisbarnaki Ferenc Farkas , a general staff officer of the Royal Hungarian Army ; and Baden @-@ Powell , the British hero of the Boer War and Chief Scout of the World . The men introduced themselves to the Scout and inspected his camp . They complimented him on a job well done and rode on . Meeting the Chief Scout of Hungary and Boer War hero Robert Baden @-@ Powell left a deep impression on Bánáthy . He decided he would become a military officer instead of a minister .
Bánáthy briefly met fellow Hungarian Boy Scout Joseph Szentkiralyi . Hungarian Sea Scouter Paul Ferenc Sujan 's camp was visited by Baden @-@ Powell , who asked to taste some of his soup . American Maury Tripp attended the Jamboree from Saratoga , California . These four Scouts would later play instrumental roles in forming the White Stag program on the Monterey Peninsula . At the conclusion of the Jamboree , Baden @-@ Powell gave a farewell speech in which he challenged the Scouts present to pursue the ideals represented by the White Stag .
This challenge and the myth of the White Stag it cites grew to become a source of inspiration to Bánáthy . During World War II , Bánáthy was a junior officer in the Royal Hungarian Army . After being seriously wounded during combat in Russia , through the connections he made at the World Jamboree , he was invited by General Farkas to join the faculty of the Hungarian Royal Academy . While there he served on the National Council of the Hungarian Scout Association and became the voluntary national director for youth leadership development . Barely escaping Soviet capture and likely execution at the end of World War II , Bánáthy arrived after considerable personal trials in June 1951 at Monterey , California to teach at the Army Language School , where he became reacquainted with Joe Szentkiralyi , who he had met at the Fourth World Jamboree .
Joseph Szentkiralyi had also barely survived World War II . He and his family had previously lived in the United States in 1939 , where Szentkiralyi worked in New York City . At the start of World War II , they were deported as enemy aliens back to Hungary . Because he spoke English , Szentkiralyi was assigned to watch over the crew members of the first American B @-@ 17 bomber to crash land in Hungary . When the crew told him sensitive information , he was ordered to reveal the information to his superiors . Citing the Geneva Convention , he refused . The authorities prepared to court @-@ martial him , and Szentkiralyi fled . During a time of frequent Allied aerial bombing raids , he hid where he figured no one would look for him : in the upper floors of apartment buildings . During one bombing raid a 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) bomb crashed through and landed on the floor above him . Fortunately it did not explode . Szentkiralyi and his family later narrowly survived the Siege of Budapest .
After the war ended , Szentkiralyi found work for the American Embassy in Budapest as a translator . However , this put him in a vulnerable position as the Communists hardened their grip on power . Because he had lived in the United States and spoke English , he knew he would fall under suspicion . People he knew began to disappear , including a friend who worked at the U.S. Embassy . Within a few days he found a note on his desk that read , " You are next . " With American assistance , he immediately fled Hungary for Switzerland . He and his family returned to New York City for a few months , and Szentkiralyi applied for a position as a Hungarian instructor at the Army Language School . The Army hired him in the summer of 1948 and he founded their Hungarian Department .
Starting in 1951 , almost 25 years afterward , four Scouts who had attended the 1933 Fourth World Jamboree were reunited on the Monterey Peninsula . Joseph Szentkiralyi ( which he later Anglicized as St. Clair ) renewed his acquaintance with Bánáthy when he hired him . In 1956 , they were joined by Hungarian Paul Ferenc Sujan . In Monterey , through their Scouting contacts , they met F. Maurice Tripp .
= = = Growth on the Monterey Peninsula = = =
Bánáthy had developed a passion for the idea of leadership development in boys when serving in the Hungarian Army . In Monterey , he became Chairman of the Leadership Training Committee of the Monterey Bay Area Council . He sought and received support for his concept of a leadership camp for boys with the Council Executive and Executive Board .
Bánáthy informally recruited one patrol of boys , including his own sons , and took them to summer camp in 1957 to test his idea . John Chiorini , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old Eagle Scout , was working on the waterfront . " Béla came through camp with a patrol of six or seven boys and commandeered me to teach a class on camp craft . He said he was trying out some new ideas with this patrol , " Chiorini reported " Béla listened intently as I presented and then he came up after and gave me some tips on teaching . He was a mentor to me from that point on . "
During the summer of 1958 , Bánáthy recruited two patrols of boys to take part . Chiorini was recruited to serve as senior patrol leader . There wasn 't much discussion of leadership competencies to start . Bánáthy seemed to have an internal sense of direction which not everyone understood . Chiorini said , " White Stag was all about creating an environment in which youth led youth . At the time , Scouting was not necessarily a boy @-@ led program . I remember it was very clear in Béla ’ s mind what a boy @-@ led Scouting program looked like . There was no question about who was in charge in White Stag . The boys were . " Fran Peterson , a local Scouter who served on the National Engineering Service for the Boy Scouts of America , along with St. Clair , Sujan , and Tripp , helped Bánáthy develop the White Stag program . Some of them remained active with it into the 1970s .
Borrowing on his experience at the 1933 World Jamboree , Bánáthy based the program symbol and its spirit and traditions on the white stag symbol found in the patch for the Fourth World Scout Jamboree , which was in turn based on Hungarian mythology . On June 8 , 1959 , at an adult staff meeting attended by Béla Bánáthy , Jack Stone , Bill White , Paul Holbrook , Ralph Herring , Fran Petersen , and Staff Advisor Bill Lidderdale , they " officially adopted White Stag as the name for junior leaders training events . " " Lord Baden @-@ Powell was my personal idol and I long felt a commitment to give back to Scouting what I had received , " Bánáthy said .
During August 1959 , the first full @-@ scale program was put on . Bánáthy served as Scoutmaster , Fran Petersen was Assistant Scoutmaster , along with eight other adult staff and 13 youth staff . The training troop consisted of 39 trainees from 24 troops . In the first two years of the program , emphasis was placed on training patrol leaders . Bánáthy said , " I saw in these principles an opportunity to develop the White Stag program for my three Boy Scout sons as well as show my gratitude to this country and Scouting . "
During the same year , Bánáthy continued his research on leadership and learned that the U.S. Army 's Human Resources Research Organization ( HumRRO ) at the Presidio of Monterey was conducting research into the leadership characteristics of non @-@ commissioned officers . Bánáthy contacted research psychologist Paul Hood , Task Leader of Task NCO ( Non @-@ commissioned Officer ) , and began a fruitful collaboration . A HumRRO publication titled , A Guide for the Infantry Squad Leader – What the Beginning Squad Leader Should Know About Human Relations articulated a core set of leadership competencies . Bánáthy found Hood 's research enumerated characteristics of leadership that strongly validated his vision and direction . With Hood 's active encouragement , he decided to incorporate these leadership skills into White Stag .
In 1960 , the adult staff announced that they would expand the program to offer an additional phase of leadership development for boys 14 – 17 years old , to train " junior trainers and impart leadership skills . " This phase was christened Troop Leadership Development .
= = = National Council takes notice = = =
With the interest and support of the Monterey Bay Area Council executive staff and board , the program was continually tested and improved . Two men with connections on the National Council , Fran Peterson ( a member of the National Council 's Engineering Service ) and F. Maurice Tripp ( a research scientist and member of the National Boy Scout Training Committee ) , brought the White Stag program to the National Council 's attention . In 1962 , Tripp formed and chaired an advisory board of educators , psychologists , management specialists , and members of the Scout professional staff .
During 1962 – 63 , Bánáthy focused his research and formalized it as his Master 's Thesis at San Jose State University . The Monterey Bay Area Council published an abbreviated version of it titled A Design for Leadership Development in Scouting . Responding to widespread interest , Dr. Tripp gave a talk in 1963 at the Fifty @-@ third Annual Meeting of the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America on Development of Leadership in Boy Leaders of Boys . In August 1963 , a patrol of Scouts from the San Mateo County Council and a few boys from the Circle Ten Council in Dallas attended White Stag summer camp at Camp Pico Blanco . The program was observed and evaluated by Ken Wells ( national director of Research ) and John Larson ( staff researcher ) . Wells had a long history with Wood Badge , beginning as a participant in the second United States Wood Badge course in 1948 . They were impressed by what they saw and experienced .
At the end of the August 1964 summer camp , Béla Bánáthy and Fran Peterson announced that White Stag would begin in 1965 to offer a third phase of leadership development for boys age 11 – 13 , called " Patrol Member Development . " This was a revolutionary step , for it made it possible for all boys 11 – 17 years old to learn leadership skills appropriate to their maturity , capabilities , and needs , and as they grew to re @-@ cycle through the program in another phase and acquire increased skills .
= = = World Scouting publishes paper = = =
In 1969 , the World Organization of the Scout Movement published a paper by Béla Bánáthy titled Leadership Development : World Scouting Reference Paper No. 1 . It described the results of the Boy Scouts of America 's research and testing and was presented at the World Scoutings Conference in Helsinki . He advocated leadership development by design in Scouting based on the leadership competencies of White Stag . Bánáthy was appointed to the Interamerican Scout Committee and guided their national training teams at three Interamerican Train the Trainer events in Mexico , Costa Rica , and Venezuela .
= = = Adapted for use in U.S. Wood Badge = = =
In January 1967 , John Larson began work with Bánáthy and Bob Perin to write a new Wood Badge staff guide focusing on leadership . Two of the project members , Ken Wells and Bob Perin , had participated in the second United States Wood Badge course in 1948 . Despite their long experience in Wood Badge , they saw the benefit of adding leadership skills development to Wood Badge . William " Green Bar " Hillcourt , Scoutmaster of the first U.S. Wood Badge course in 1948 , felt very strongly that the traditional teaching of Scoutcraft skills should be retained . Hillcourt had recently formally retired , but his opinion still held considerable weight . Nonetheless , Chief Scout Joseph Brunton approved the changes .
The National Boy Scouts of America began to test the revised Wood Badge program utilizing the White Stag leadership competencies later that year . In May 1967 , staff from councils who were invited to attend the initial course met at Philmont to plan the program , and on June 17 , 1967 , the first experimental Wood Badge course was offered at Philmont . One month later , the Circle Ten Council in Dallas presented its first new Wood Badge course . In September 1967 , six councils were approved to pilot @-@ test the new Wood Badge program in 1968 : Monterey Bay Area Council , Piedmont Council , Middle Tennessee , Del @-@ Mar @-@ Va , and Hiawatha ( formerly Onondago ) and Circle Ten Council . Among these was an experimental Wood Badge course in Monterey in 1968 . Bánáthy was Course Director , Joe St. Clair served as Scoutmaster , and Fran Petersen was senior patrol leader . John Larson , National Director of Education , was also present . In a unique application not since reproduced , all attendees were asked to bring their entire troop to a single week of summer camp , allowing the Wood Badge staff who also attended to use the summer camp as an application for Wood Badge .
= = = Modified for use in junior leader training = = =
Pilot @-@ testing and experimentation continued for three more years , and an experimental junior leader training program was begun in 1969 . This later became Troop Leader Development , containing modified versions of the leadership competencies which were included in the final Troop Leadership Development Staff Guide , written by John W. Larson , which credited White Stag with its origins :
= = = Recent history = = =
The White Stag program continued to present the Monterey Bay Area Council 's official junior leader training program through the early 1970s , and again from 1994 to 2004 . In 1975 , Bill Roberts , the Phase III Director , invited the first Explorer girls age 14 – 18 to take part in the program and adult women to serve on adult staff , becoming the first coeducational leadership development program in the Boy Scouts of America . When Bánáthy learned of girls ' new role in the program , he said it was long overdue . Committed to training youth of all ages in a manner reflecting the real world , where both sexes must work together , the next year White Stag invited girls age 11 – 13 to participate as well . The program was evaluated by a staff member from the Western Region of the Boy Scouts of America in 1978 . He wrote :
White Stag Association incorporated
At the same time , the Monterey Bay Area Council decided to replace the White Stag program with the nationally mandated adaptation of White Stag , the Troop Leader Development program . The adult volunteer leaders of White Stag , informally known as the White Stag Steering Committee , incorporated itself as the non @-@ profit foundation White Stag Association in 1982 and continued to sponsor the program . Prevented from using Camp Pico Blanco , it rented Skylark Ranch Resident Camp in the Santa Cruz Mountains from the Girl Scouts of Santa Clara County for two years . Over the next few years , the Association moved the summer program to San Mateo County Council 's Camp Cutter in the Santa Cruz Mountains , and later , at different times , to Marin Council 's Camp Marin @-@ Sierra and Yosemite Council 's Camp Mensinger in the California Sierra Nevada . They began attracting most of their youth from the San Francisco Bay Area . In 2014 , the Association secured use of Camp Robert L. Cole in the Tahoe National Forest near Cisco Grove , California .
White Stag Academy formed
When the Monterey Bay Area Council 's Junior Leader Training Chairman offered in 1994 to run the Council 's junior leader training program using the White Stag methods , the Council Executive agreed . White Stag adult alumni of the now San Francisco Bay Area @-@ based program who lived in the Monterey Peninsula area recruited a youth staff who planned and presented the White Stag program at Camp Pico Blanco in 1994 . This Monterey @-@ based program continued to present the council 's junior leader training program until 2005 , when a new Council Executive decided once again to adopt the current National Youth Leadership Training ( NYLT ) program . The adult leadership of the Monterey White Stag group incorporated in 2005 as the non @-@ profit charity White Stag Leadership Development Academy , Inc. to support the program . They have based their summer camp program at Camp Cutter and Camp Lindblad in the Santa Cruz Mountains , at Camp Tamarancho in Marin County , and at a custom @-@ built camp in Arroyo Seco on private land .
Girl Scout spin @-@ off
During 2004 , some leaders of the White Stag Academy organized a comparable program for the Girl Scouts of California 's Central Coast . The program teaches the eleven leadership skills used by White Stag . It was held at Cutter Scout Reservation for two years and is currently held at Boulder Creek Scout Reservation in the Santa Cruz Mountains . The Girl Scouts assumed leadership of the program after 2006 and renamed it Camp Artemis , after the Greek goddess who protects young girls , animals , and the natural environment . The Youth Staff are referred to as members of ALTA ( Artemis Leadership Training Adventure ) . They have continued to run Camp Artemis as a resident camp for girls 11 – 17 each summer .
Summer camp programs
Both the organization in Central California and the group in Northern California continue to develop and present summer camps for youth by youth , led by a corps of volunteer adults . The program will observe its 60th anniversary in 2018 . Participation in the Monterey @-@ based group has continued to increase each year , to 449 participants in 2013 , including 33 youth from Hong Kong , Taiwan , and mainland China , up from 70 in 2006 . The group sponsored by the White Stag Association has attracted between 40 and 83 campers from 2010 to 2014 . The two programs have operated continuously since the program 's founding entirely on a voluntary basis , with an estimated 21 @,@ 000 youth having attended its camps . In 2015 the two groups will produce four week @-@ long summer camps .
= = Core tenets = =
= = = Youth ready to learn = = =
In his master 's thesis , Bánáthy established his reasoning for focusing on developing leadership skills in youth rather than adults . He wrote that adults in leadership development experiences often have " deeply and rigidly established patterns which are difficult to change . " He felt leadership development needs to start early in life , when an opportunity exists to give individuals long @-@ term exposure to leadership behavior . Bánáthy formulated the White Stag program to address the needs of youth from 11 to 17 years of age . He did this when defining leadership as a learnable skill was still in its infancy .
= = = = Youth need leadership development = = = =
A number of researchers have identified needs of youth for specific kinds of formative experiences . In one study , Ferber , Pittman , and Marshall described five developmental priorities for youth . These were learning ( developing positive basic and applied academic attitudes
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, skills , and behaviors ) , thriving ( developing physically healthy attitudes , skills , and behaviors ) , connecting ( developing positive social attitudes , skills , and behaviors ) , working ( developing positive vocational attitudes , skills , and behaviors ) , and leading ( developing positive civic attitudes , skills , and behaviors ) .
Educators report that successful programs utilize " positive and sustained relations with a caring adult , mentoring in life skills and opportunities to use newly learned skills . " Other studies have identified areas that help youth acquire the attitudes , skills , and knowledge required to be effective in society . These areas are strong relationships with adults ; training in mediation , conflict resolution , team dynamics , and project management ; new roles and responsibilities based on experiences and resources that provide opportunity for growth , teamwork and peer networking ; and opportunities to practice communication , negotiation , and refusal skills .
= = = = Youth @-@ led program = = = =
The White Stag Leadership Development Program 's methods address all of the areas the studies identified . Mentored and coached by adults , the youth staff develop , plan and implement the week @-@ long summer camp programs . They develop skills in research , writing , planning , and evaluation . Using the outdoors , they practice learning activities , games , and outdoor skills required to live in a camping environment . They learn to get along with and other counsel youth from different backgrounds . They study eleven specific skills of leadership and practice presenting them to one another before summer camp , when they present these learning sessions to the participants . The youth , led and mentored by adults , work together with other youth they have never met , forming new relationships and learning to connect and cooperate . They learn basic group membership skills required in work life , like communication and planning , and plan and implement their leadership skills in their home community . They learn and practice problem @-@ solving and counseling skills , how groups form and grow , and planning skills . They learn and rehearse various kinds of communications skills , how to represent their group — both with and without the group 's input — and how to work effectively with others .
= = = Leadership competencies = = =
In his research for his master 's thesis , Bánáthy identified 80 characteristics of leadership . He condensed these into eleven specific leadership competencies which he then proposed be taught in a systematic process using six developmental levels tailored to the various needs of youth as they mature . The White Stag leadership competencies are organized into three groups . The competencies are taught based on the members ' and the overall group 's readiness and maturity .
= = = = Four @-@ stage learning approach = = = =
The group writes down both general goals and very specific , measurable objectives each year that describe leadership in behavioral terms . When engaging learners in leadership development learning activities , the youth staff implement a four @-@ phase approach called Manager of Learning .
The first step requires the participant to practice the skill without preparation . The simulation is made as real and practical as possible within the limitations of the training environment . Both the participant and the instructor gain through this Guided Discovery an assessment of the learner 's current knowledge , skills , attitudes relevant to the learning task .
The second step is a Teach / Learn session where the instructor begins to present information based on what the participants don 't already know . This is usually prefixed with a written statement describing in behavioral terms the objectives that the participant will complete during the session . The instructor may utilize more advanced members to help less skilled members . The instructor often tries to elicit information from the participants ' experience by asking questions .
Once the Teach / Learn is complete , the third step allows participants an opportunity in an Application to practice their newly acquired skills . This may or may not be an experience like the Guided Discovery .
The final step is an Evaluation discussion , during which the participants not only self @-@ assess whether they achieved the stated learning objectives , but to give feedback to the instructor about their success in presenting the information .
= = = = Developing group members = = = =
The first three competencies are essential to forming the group 's ability to organize itself and become ready for action .
Getting and Giving Information teaches participants about different types of communication and how communication helps establish the group . They learn how to get , store , and retrieve information . Individuals practice communicating to both help get the job done and keep the group together .
Understanding Group Needs and Characteristics helps individuals build group morale and unity . They learn about values , norms , needs , and characteristics .
Knowing and Understanding Group Resources helps learners to use resources to improve group togetherness , to learn about different kinds of resources , and how as a leader can use the diversity of group members ' skills and abilities to help the group succeed . They learn about how resources affect getting the job done and keeping the group together .
= = = = Growing group capability = = = =
The second group of leadership competencies help the group to develop and implement a plan .
Controlling the Group helps individuals to learn how their behavior affects others . Individuals learn the difference between external control of the group and personal control of their own behavior . They learn that controlling the group is something that everyone in the group contributes to . They learn about different techniques to influence group success . They gain skills in balancing the group 's versus the individual 's needs .
Counseling helps individuals to define key counseling ideas , learn simple counseling methods , and identify when simple counseling is appropriate .
Setting the Example helps participants identify what it means to set a good example , why setting an example is important , and describe ways a leader can set a good example .
Planning provides learners a chance to learn about problem @-@ solving and its importance to a leader . They learn problem @-@ solving and planning methods and how planning contributes to accomplishing the task and to group success .
Evaluation enables the learner to use evaluation improve group focus and get the job done . They learn to balance getting the job done and helping the group , and learn to continually assess their level of success .
= = = = Accomplish the task = = = =
The last group of leadership competencies helps individuals to grow the organization .
Sharing Leadership helps participants learn that leadership is something that is shared by all group members depending on the situation and group member 's abilities . They learn about what kinds of things affect the leader and the group , and what style of leadership is appropriate . They learn to select a style of leadership based on the job and the group situation .
Representing the Group is a way for participants to learn about how groups communicate and how to represent one group to another . They learn how to accurately represent their group to another .
Manager of Learning is a four @-@ step technique for instructing others . Participants learn how to develop effective learning techniques. for effectively communicating information ; emphasize the learner in the learning process .
= = The program = =
= = = Values = = =
The program has defined a set of values that govern how the program is implemented .
One of the most important is outdoor learning . Program leaders believe that the outdoors environment provides a context for learning that is physically demanding and entirely different from that experienced every day at home and in school . The outdoors stimulates new ways of thinking and approaching both task- and group @-@ related problems . As participants learn they can exceed what they perceive to be their physical limits , they find their mental capacity also grows . White Stag uses the physical environment to tire the individual and open their minds to new ways of thinking . The program does nothing indoors that can be done outdoors , and encourages physical fitness through outdoor activities . Using the outdoors avoids the negative association of a standard classroom environment .
In addition , the program utilizes outdoor camping skills to provide opportunities to practice leadership skills . One of the very first challenges a leader @-@ in @-@ training faces is to plan how to set up of their camp and cook their meals . They learn how to analyze the task , how to plan the task and organize the group , how to use all of the groups ' resources , how to implement their plan , and how to evaluate and correct .
The program teaches participants to cultivate an evaluation attitude , or a predisposition to continually seek improvement . Growth as a leader is dependent on his ability to assess his current skill level and to accept the necessity for change . The leader can only attain his goals if he continuously works to analyze his movement towards achieving his goals and objectives .
White Stag uses the patrol method to effectively include all members . Baden @-@ Powell wrote " [ t ] he Patrol System is the one essential feature in which Scout training differs from that of all other organizations , and where the System is properly applied , it is absolutely bound to bring success . It cannot help itself ! The formation of the boys into Patrols or from six to eight and training them as separate units each under its own responsible leader is the key to a good Troop . "
One of the most important values is a focus on hands @-@ on learning . The program emphasizes use of experiential learning activities in the context of outdoor education . These help participants retain what they learn about leadership generally and the eleven leadership competencies specifically . For example , participant teams can be challenged to build foot bridges , complete a hike , build a Tyrolean Traverse , cook a meal , or other practical challenges .
Always seeking to engage individuals both physically and mentally , the program uses the hurdle method . The hurdle method teaches individuals how to nimbly respond situation for which they have not specifically prepared themselves . The manager of learning prepared and present unexpected tasks or challenges to the leader and the group which they must organize themselves to find a solution or to complete a task . The hurdle method is closely linked to hands @-@ on learning .
The program believes leadership can be taught using a direct approach , not by osmosis or example alone . In early leadership development programs , learning about leadership was not specifically defined with qualified objectives . Learning about leadership was a by @-@ product of other learning activities . The White Stag Method challenges these indirect methods and focuses the participant 's experience using a direct approach . The White Stag program defines leadership behaviors in specific terms as eleven leadership competencies .
Youth spend too much time learning what their teachers think is important , irrelevant from what the youth may already know . The manager of learning value allows the youth to learn and practice his skills in situations simulating real life . The Manager of Learning methodology first exposes the learner to a situation to help both the learner and the leader assess his current state of knowledge . This causes the learner to internalize a need to improve his knowledge or skills . This is followed by a period of teaching or exposure during which the participant improves from their base @-@ line knowledge . The participant then gets a chance to apply what he has learned , and lastly , evaluates his performance improvement .
The program believes that learning never stops and embraces this as the infinity principle . According to Bánáthy , leadership behavior cannot be developed " during a few weeks , not even during several months , " but must be ongoing .
It takes months for individuals to gain proficiency in leadership skills . " The White Stag continues to leap on — upward and forward — in a never @-@ ending journey that leads the joyous followers to the promised land . For us who wear the badge of the White Stag , the White Stag journey symbolizes the idea of becoming the best we can . " The program borrowed words from Baden @-@ Powell 's Jamboree farewell , " Forward , Upward , Onward , " to define leadership :
Leadership is the process of influencing people by providing purpose , direction , and motivation to continually move the organization and individual forward , upward , and onward .
Individuals are taught to believe that difficult situations are opportunities for growth that must be overcome . Thus , leadership development cannot take place during a single training course . It is a continuous sequence of sequential , structured learning and experience @-@ building opportunities . The program subscribes to the belief that when an individual embraces the infinite challenge to change , he is engaged in the never @-@ ending process of becoming a leader . " The infinity principle of growth in leadership is what the White Stag symbolizes in this leadership development process . "
Avoiding stereotypes and labeling based on personal dress , the program uses polo shirts , t @-@ shirts , and other articles of clothing like neckerchiefs as uniforms . Participants uniforms display the White Stag logo , which is a visible reminder of the program 's founding vision articulated by Baden @-@ Powell at the conclusion of the 1933 World Jamboree . The uniform reminds the individual wearing it of their commitment to the program 's values . It instills self @-@ esteem in the person and pride in the program . It eliminates class and socio @-@ economic distinctions . Wearing a uniform improves member 's behavior and lessens the impact on a person 's personal wardrobe .
= = = Phases and levels = = =
Based on Béla Bánáthy 's original work , the program is still organized into three phases , each consisting of a candidate , youth staff , and an adult staff level . This structure allows youth to develop their leadership skills over several years through gradually more intense and more advanced levels of instruction . Each level is tailored to the needs of youth at specific ages and maturity levels .
The youth staff develop each summer camp 's program during the preceding nine months in a series of leadership development training and planning events . They are ultimately responsible for the entire leadership program 's content .
= = = Aims = = =
The program has four primary aims that are closely aligned with the aims of the Boy Scouts of America with the addition of leadership development . The program focuses on character development , which it defines as encouraging people to do what is right , no matter what , and to serve themselves and others . Its second aim is personal fitness , and in its programs it encourages individuals to accept physical and mental challenges , to surpass their own expectations , expand their knowledge , skills and abilities , and strive for continuous personal improvement . Their third aim is citizenship training , in which it helps individuals to develop a positive attitude , influence those around them , join in and shape their community . The paramount aim however is leadership development , in which it inspires individuals to engage life as an ongoing adventure , to challenge themselves , and to lead others to pursue excellence .
= = = Symbolism and mythology = = =
Differentiating White Stag from any other leadership program for youth is its spirit and traditions , including campfires , ceremonies , skits , yells , cheers , and emblems , all of which give it a distinctive character . These are used to communicate an ethic of always striving for self @-@ improvement and personal achievement , and values that include characteristics of servant leadership , compassion , enthusiasm , kindness , and selflessness .
The symbolism of the White Stag is described in a story telling the White Stag legend . The legend borrows from the Fourth World Jamboree held in Hungary , which in turn was inspired by Hungarian mythology of the white stag . The White Stag Legend is used to inspire in the participants a desire for reflection , continuous self @-@ improvement , and pursuit of higher aims and goals . Other traditions include woggles , waist ropes , staves , berets , and patrol names . The legend tells a version of a legend honoring Hunor and Magyar , who led their people in pursuit a mythical White Stag , following it over impassable trails to a new home . Through this story and other ceremonies , the program challenges individuals to continually strive " onward and upward " and " overcome challenges , continuously evaluate , focus on learning , and always strive to improve " .
= = Camp locations = =
The White Stag program is currently offered by two related non @-@ profit groups in Northern and Central California . In northern California , the non @-@ profit White Stag Association sponsors three Venturing crews , a Learning for Life group , and a Boy Scout troop that plan and produce the summer camp program in Northern California , in the past at Camp John Mensinger , Camp Wolfeboro , and since 2014 at Camp Robert L. Cole .
In central California , the non @-@ profit White Stag Leadership Development Academy sponsors a Learning for Life group , a Venturing crew , and a Boy Scout troop in the Silicon Valley Monterey Bay Council and the Alameda Council . These youth plan and put on a program each summer in Central California . In 2009 they offered for the first time two camps , one at Camp Tamarancho in Marin County in Northern California , and the second at Camp Lindblad in the Santa Cruz Mountains . They have continued to offer two weeks of summer camp and in 2012 based the program at a site in the Santa Lucia Range near Arroyo Seco . Youth staff participants are registered as members of the Boy Scouts or Venturing programs in the Silicon Valley Monterey Bay Council and the Alameda Council .
Both programs adhere to the Youth Protection Standards of the Boy Scouts of America , including background checks of all adult leaders . The Monterey @-@ based program has drawn participants from overseas , including France , China , Martinique , and Taiwan .
= = Financial support = =
The White Stag program is implemented by two 501 ( c ) 3 non @-@ profits . The White Stag Leadership Development Academy is located on the Monterey Peninsula and the White Stag Association is located in the San Francisco East Bay . Both are financially self @-@ supporting . The programs are administered and managed by part @-@ time adult volunteers . All participants , including youth and adult staff , pay fees to participate . Fees for participants attending the week @-@ long summer camp are US $ 275 – $ 325 in 2012 . Candidate attendees to White Stag Sierra pay up to $ 320 , while the Association in Monterey charges $ 335 . As of 2014 , adult and youth staff volunteers paid about US $ 400 in fees over the course of a year of staff development .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Since 1960 , the program has recognized one or two youth and adults each year by presenting them with a Silver Stag award . The device , a miniature solid sterling silver stag on a chain or medallion , recognizes the individual 's outstanding " contributions and qualities of leadership , spirit and service to the program . " One youth staff member from each phase is selected as the outstanding youth staff member . Each graduating participant received a neckerchief unique to each phase that is to be worn only at White Stag functions . Participants may also be recognized with other awards that vary from year to year .
= = Other programs that used the White Stag name = =
In 1967 , Rex Hatch returned to the Crossroads of America Council after attending a pilot test of the JLT program at Philmont . He founded in 1972 a junior leader training program , previously known as Silver Bars , which was initially based on the White Stag program 's principles . It was later modified to follow the National Youth Leadership Training Course syllabus . The Hoosier Trails Council in Bloomington , Indiana produced a " National Youth Leadership Training " program based on the national syllabus that was nicknamed " White Stag NYLT " until 2011 . On the east coast , the Narragansett Council in Rhode Island nicknamed their national NYLT program as " White Stag NYLT " until 2011 .
These programs are produced by the local councils . They present the standardized , nationally mandated National Youth Leadership Training program . The non @-@ profit White Stag Academy in Monterey , California sponsors Venture Crew 122 , which develops and produces a summer camp program independent of the Boy Scout of America 's nationally mandated junior leaders training program .
= Sugar & Spice ( Picket Fences ) =
" Sugar & Spice " is an episode of the CBS comedy @-@ drama series Picket Fences . Written by series creator David E. Kelley and directed by Alan Myerson , the episode originally aired on April 29 , 1993 . The episode caused controversy because it depicted 16 @-@ year @-@ old lead character Kimberly Brock engaged in same @-@ sex kissing with her best friend and frankly discussing her sexuality .
" Sugar & Spice " was an early entry on a list of American television episodes in which a lesbian or possibly lesbian character kisses a straight @-@ identifying character . These lesbian kiss episodes often occurred during times of the year when networks were most concerned about generating ratings , and have come to be viewed by some critics as gimmicks to help secure those ratings . The controversy generated by " Sugar & Spice " and other lesbian kiss episodes led to a chilling effect on the non @-@ sensationalized presentation of same @-@ sex intimacy on network television through most of the rest of the 1990s .
= = Plot = =
Kimberly Brock ( Holly Marie Combs ) and her best friend Lisa Fenn ( Alexondra Lee ) exchange several experimental kisses during a sleepover at Kimberly 's house , the first kiss being a chaste peck with the later kisses becoming more intimate . Kimberly 's younger brother Matthew ( Justin Shenkarow ) eavesdrops on the girls the next day when they discuss the incident and their feelings . He goes to his mother , town doctor Jill Brock ( Kathy Baker ) and tells her that Kimberly is a " lesbo " . A patient overhears and word of the kissing spreads through the town . Kimberly 's father , Sheriff Jimmy Brock ( Tom Skerritt ) and stepmother Jill react poorly to the idea that their daughter might be a lesbian , debating " nature vs. nurture " and " elective lesbianism " and even renting " hunk films " starring Mel Gibson and Kevin Costner . Kimberly turns to her birth mother , Lydia ( Cristine Rose ) , who had had a lesbian relationship in college . Lydia advises her that her relationship with another woman was during the women 's movement and that while she enjoyed her time with the woman she realized that she was confusing feelings of intimacy with sexuality . Lisa and Kimberly talk further . Lisa acknowledges that she is in love with Kimberly but Kimberly lets her know that she is unable to return those feelings .
In a secondary plot , male Sheriff 's deputy Kenny Lacos ( Costas Mandylor ) is given a promotion over female deputy Maxine Stuart ( Lauren Holly ) after she is asked in her interview about such things as whether she was planning to get married and get pregnant in the near future . She sues for sex discrimination and Kenny 's promotion is reversed . She tells Kenny that she would be proud to serve under him but tells Sheriff Brock that his blatant bigotry has made her less proud to serve under him .
= = Production = =
Before " Sugar & Spice " aired , CBS , fearing sponsor pullouts and viewer backlash , demanded revisions to the kissing scene . According to Kelley in a Los Angeles Times interview , the network initially suggested fading to black before the second more intimate kiss , then suggested cutting away before the kiss to a shot of one of Kimberly 's brothers eavesdropping . Eventually , the network and Kelley settled on reshooting the kissing scene in darkness . In the episode as aired , a line of dialog is inserted over a shot of the exterior of the Brock house to explain why the room is suddenly dark .
= = Reception = =
Network affiliate KSL @-@ TV in Salt Lake City , which had earlier refused to air an episode dealing with polygamy , also refused to air this episode . In a move described by Stephen Tropiano of PopMatters as " a prime example of network hypocrisy " , CBS released the original footage along with the reshot scene to Entertainment Tonight , which generated enormous publicity for the episode . Television critic John Martin described this episode as indicative of the way that Picket Fences deftly blended ethical and social issues with family concerns .
= = = The " lesbian kiss episode " = = =
Picket Fences was one of the first American television series to feature an intimate kiss between two women . Two years earlier , L. A. Law had aired an episode ( also written by Kelley ) that included a kiss between bisexual @-@ identified character C. J. Lamb ( Amanda Donohoe ) and straight @-@ identifying Abby Perkins ( Michele Greene ) . The kiss led to complaints to the network and five sponsors pulled their ads from the episode . In reviewing incidents of lesbian kisses on network television programs , the New York Times noted that they tended to happen during " sweeps " periods , when the networks use Nielsen ratings to determine advertising rates . Noting lesbian kisses during sweeps periods on such shows as L. A. Law , Roseanne , Party of Five and Ally McBeal in addition to the Picket Fences episode and noting that they were occurring about once per year , the Times concludes that kisses between women are :
" Eminently visual ; cheap , provided the actors are willing ; controversial , year in and year out ; and elegantly reversible ( sweeps lesbians typically vanish or go straight when the week 's over ) , kisses between women are perfect sweeps stunts . They offer something for everyone , from advocacy groups looking for role models to indignation @-@ seeking conservatives , from goggle @-@ eyed male viewers to progressive female ones , from tyrants who demand psychological complexity to plot buffs . "
The Guardian concurred in this assessment , calling the lesbian kiss episode " a clear sign of desperation and a show running out of ideas ... Snogging The Friend is the new Jumping The Shark . "
Michele Greene confirmed in an interview with AfterEllen.com that her kiss with Amanda Donohoe 's C. J. was a ratings ploy and that there was never any intention on the part of producers to seriously explore the possibility of a relationship between two women .
During a period in network television history when producers were pushing the broadcast boundaries on sexually explicit content with such shows as NYPD Blue , the controversy over this and other television episodes that made inroads into presenting same @-@ sex sexuality or affection led producers not to present any sexualization of their gay and lesbian characters . As noted by author Ron Becker ,
" So viewers got to see Carol and Susan wed on Friends , but they didn 't get to see them kiss . And fans of NYPD Blue could hear male hustlers talk about their johns , but the only sex they got to see involved the precinct 's straight cops — naked butts and all . Clearly , chastity was the price gay characters paid for admission to prime @-@ time television in the 1990s . "
= Eskimo ( film ) =
Eskimo ( also known as Mala the Magnificent and Eskimo Wife @-@ Traders ) is a 1933 American Pre @-@ Code drama film directed by W. S. Van Dyke and released by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) . It is based on the books Der Eskimo and Die Flucht ins weisse Land by Danish explorer and author Peter Freuchen . The film stars Ray Mala as Mala , Lulu Wong Wing as Mala 's first wife Aba , Lotus Long as Mala 's second wife Iva , Peter Freuchen as the Ship Captain , W. S. Van Dyke as Inspector White , and Joseph Sauers as Sergeant Hunt .
Eskimo was the first feature film to be shot in a Native American language ( Inupiat ) , and the first feature film shot in Alaska . The film also incidentally documented many of the hunting and cultural practices of Native Alaskans . The production for the film was based at Teller , Alaska , where housing , storage facilities , a film laboratory , and other structures were built to house the cast , crew , and equipment .
It was nicknamed " Camp Hollywood " . The crew included 42 cameramen and technicians , six airplane pilots , and Emil Ottinger — a chef from the Roosevelt Hotel . Numerous locations were used for filming , including Cape Lisburne in March 1933 , Point Hope and Cape Serdtse @-@ Kamen in April to July , and Herald Island in the Chukchi Sea in July . The film crew encountered difficulties recording native speech due to the " kh " sound of the native language . Altogether , pre @-@ production , principal photography , and post @-@ production took 17 months .
The motion picture was well received by critics upon release on 14 November 1933 , and received the first ever Academy Award for Best Film Editing , although it didn 't fare well at the box office . Scholar Peter Geller has more recently criticized the film as depicting the Eskimo as childlike , simple , and mythic " noble savages " rather than as human beings .
= = Plot = =
Mala is a member of an unspecified Eskimo tribe living in Alaska . He has a wife , Aba , and an infant son . He and the villagers are shown welcoming a newcomer to their village , hunting walrus , and celebrating the hunt . Mala learns of white traders at nearby Tjaranak Inlet from another Eskimo . Mala learns about rifles and desperately wants one , and Aba longs for needles and other white men 's goods . Mala gratefully offers Aba 's sexual favors to the man for telling him about the trading ship 's presence . Mala and Aba travel to the trading ship with their children , where the white ship captain takes all of Mala 's tanned animal skins in exchange for a single rifle . The captain demands that Aba spend the night with him . He gets her drunk and gives her worthless gifts , and has sexual intercourse with her . Mala is upset , but is told by the English @-@ speaking Eskimo Akat that " the white man is always right " .
Mala and the Eskimos go bowhead whale hunting in wooden boats and with harpoons provided by the white men , and an actual whale hunt and carcass slaughtering is depicted on film . After the successful hunt , two drunken white men kidnap Aba ( and prevent Mala from rescuing her ) and force her to get drunk . The ship captain rapes Aba , who escapes at dawn . The Captain 's Mate , hunting seals with a rifle , mistakes Aba ( passed out on the ice ) for an animal and kills her . Mala kills the ship captain with a harpoon ( mistakenly believing the captain shot his wife ) . He flees back to his village with his children .
Lonely and needing someone to care for his children and help with the sewing and other chores , Mala takes the young girl Iva as his new wife . But Mala still longs for Aba , and their relationship is a cold one . The Eskimos go hunting caribou by stampeding the animals into a lake and then hunting them with bow and arrow and spears from boats . Mala is haunted by Aba 's death , and after pouring out his grief through dance and prayer he changes his name to Kripik . Kripik 's attitude toward Iva softens dramatically , and they make love . The hunter whom Mala welcomed to the village the previous year returns to his village , and gives Kripik his wife in gratitude . The woman is more than happy to live with Mala , and Mala makes love to her as well .
Some years pass . The Royal Canadian Mounted Police establish a post at Tjaranak , bringing law to the area for the first time . Several white men accuse the Eskimos of being savage and without morals , and charge Mala with the murder of the ship captain . Sergeant Hunt and Constable Balk try to find Mala and arrest him , but get lost in a blizzard and nearly freeze to death . Kripik finds them , and saves their lives . Kripik is angry with the men until Hunt explains that they do not want Kripik 's wives . When Hunt asks if Kripik knows Mala , Kripik says " Mala is no more " . The Mounties believe Mala is dead , but their misunderstanding is corrected by Akat , who arrives in the village and innocently exposes Kripik .
The Mounties convince Kripik to come to the post to answer questions , and Kripik agrees . Several months pass . Hunt and Balk give Kripik the freedom of the post , and Hunt learns about the horrors the white traders visited on the Eskimo . When the Eskimo village moves on to new hunting rounds , Kripik 's family stays behind to wait for him . They begin to starve , and Kripik learns of their plight . However , the rigid and rule @-@ bound Inspector White has arrived at the RCMP outpost , and he demands that Kripik not only no longer be allowed to hunt during the day but also be chained down in his bed at night . Hunt tries to dissuade White , but White insists — and Hunt is forced to break his word that Kripik will not be chained .
During the night , Kripik pulls his hand free of the single manacle used to chain him down , but mangles his hand while doing so . Kripik flees the post with his team of sled dogs , heading for his family 's old village . Hunt and Balk pursue him . The rifle Kripik steals proves useless when the bullets are not the right gauge . Kripik is forced to kill his sled dogs one by one for food . In a driving blizzard , Kripik falls short of reaching his family , and is attacked and injured by a wolf ( which he manages to kill ) . Kripik is found by his eldest son Orsodikok ( now a teenager ) , rescued , and fed by his family .
The Mounties arrive the next morning , in hot pursuit . K
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ripik prevents his eldest son from killing the Mounties , and says he will leave and never come back . Kripik departs on foot , but Iva professes her love and goes with him . The Mounties pursue them on foot across the ice , which is breaking up . Sergeant Hunt takes aim at Kripik with his rifle , but cannot shoot him because Kripik has saved their lives and exhibited more honor and decency than white men have . Kripik and Iva escape on an ice floe , Hunt calling out goodbye and good luck to them . Hunt tells Balk that the ice will take Kripik and Iva across the inlet , and that the adults will be able to return to Orsodikok and the other children next spring .
= = Cast = =
Following is a list of the cast members :
Ray Mala as Mala
Lulu Wong Wing as Aba
Lotus Long as Iva
Iris Yamaoka as the Second Wife
Peter Freuchen as Ship Captain
Edward Hearn as Captain 's Mate
W. S. Van Dyke as Inspector White
Joseph Sauers as Sergeant Hunt
Edgar Dearing as Constable Balk
= = Production = =
= = = Script and casting = = =
The script for Eskimo was based on books by Danish explorer and author Peter Freuchen . W.S. Van Dyke was assigned by MGM to direct , but it was not a film which Van Dyke was interested in doing . He wrote to his uncle , John Charles Van Dyke , on May 24 , 1932 , " Am going to film Peter Freuchen 's book Eskimo . Don 't fancy the job a damn bit , but it brings in the bread and butter . "
Van Dyke intended the picture to depict the corrupting influence white culture had on the Eskimos , much as he had done in White Shadows in the South Seas . The script originally ended with Mala and Iva escaping onto the ice , only to drown . But producer Hunt Stromberg felt this ending was too downbeat , and changed it in April 1932 to the ending now seen on film .
Both Stromberg and Van Dyke wanted the Native Alaskans in the film to speak in their native tongue . However , MGM production chief Irving Thalberg worried that intertitles were too distracting and would seem old @-@ fashioned , and Stromberg agreed . By this time , however , it was September 1932 . To refilm the shot scenes in English would be prohibitively expensive , and Stromberg changed his mind so that intertitles ( not subtitles ) were used in the final film to translate the Inupiat language into English .
Stromberg demanded complete authenticity in casting , language , and the depiction of Eskimo life . Casting was critical . Van Dyke cast Inupiat natives ( most of them from Barrow , Alaska ) for all the minor roles , but Stromberg was so insistent on finding the perfect male lead that casting the title role of Mala / Kripik proved difficult . MGM wanted Ray Wise , the actor and cameraman ( who later changed his name to Ray Mala ) , as the star of the picture , and he would become Alaska 's first movie star . Wise was a half @-@ Inupiat , half @-@ Russian Jew who previously starred in the 1932 documentary film Igloo . Van Dyke wanted an all @-@ native cast , not a half @-@ native lead , and rejected Wise . A young native Alaskan was hired for the role , but he walked off the set in July 1932 when the stress of filming proved too great . Already on location in Alaska and isolated from the studio , Van Dyke turned to Ray Wise . Not only could Wise perform his own stunts , but Stromberg praised him as an immensely realistic actor . Wise came to Hollywood in 1925 , and in addition to his work on Igloo was working as an assistant cameraman . He was hired as a guide for Eskimo 's production to Alaska , and was able to offer his services to the film when the original actor quit . Although the film 's credits state that professional actors were used only for the Canadian police roles , in fact the major female roles were played by professional actresses Lotus Long and Lulu Wong Ying . Numerous minor roles are also clearly filled by trained actors in make @-@ up and costume .
According to Peter Freuchen , MGM considered filming in Greenland , where Freuchen 's novels were set . But the difficult weather and bright summer light ( which made filming difficult ) dissuaded them , and the production settled on Alaska instead . Freuchen accompanied the production not only as an actor , but as an interpreter as well .
= = = Principal photography and filming locations = = =
The start of production is not clear . A commercial transport ship , the Victoria , took the cast and crew from Seattle , Washington , to Nome , Alaska . There , the schooner Nanuk was rented by the studio to take the production team farther north . Originally known as the Pandora , the schooner would next be used in the 1935 production of Mutiny on the Bounty , and rerigged for the 1937 film Maid of Salem . The Nanuk acted as a mobile base of operations , and as a set for the shipboard scenes . MGM bought the schooner outright during the production . On @-@ screen credits for the film claim filming began in April 1932 , but The Hollywood Reporter said it began in July and the New York Times said June .
The production had its land @-@ based home at Teller , Alaska . Housing , storage facilities , a film laboratory , and other structures were built to house the cast , crew , and equipment , and the cast nicknamed the site " Camp Hollywood " . The crew included 42 cameramen and technicians , six airplane pilots , and Emil Ottinger — a chef from the Roosevelt Hotel . The production took 50 stone ( 700 lb ) ( 0 @.@ 32 metric tonnes ) of food with them to Alaska , as well as medical supplies , a mobile film processing laboratory , and sound recording equipment . Many native people ate bacon , corn flakes , and oranges for the first time , and became enamored of the food . Film was flown out of Teller back to Los Angeles every seven or eight weeks .
There are varying accounts about how much danger the production encountered during the 1932 – 33 winter season . The Hollywood Reporter said in October 1932 that the Nanuk was caught in the ice off Alaska and sled dog teams had to be used to rescue the film crew . However , crew on the film noted that the Nanuk wintered in Grantley Harbor at Teller . A press release by MGM in November 1932 claimed that the Nanuk reported via radio that it was frozen in the sea ice and drifting with 35 people aboard , unable to continue shooting until the spring . A report by the New York Times in February 1933 also claimed the Nanuk was locked in sea ice between Teller and Barrow . Peter Freuchen also relates that the Nanuk was blown off course by heavy winds several times .
Filming locations varied widely . Scenes of Eskimo villages on the ice , and some of the polar bear footage ( not used ) , were shot on sea ice 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) off Cape Lisburne , Alaska , in March 1933 . For this set , separate camera houses were built some distance away from the igloo sets , and accessed via tunnel below the snow . At one point , a sudden warm spell melted the igloos the production set up to house cast and cameras . Some interior and other shots were filmed on sets at the MGM studios in Culver City , California .
At one point , most of the Native Alaskans in the film went on strike . They were paid $ 5 per day for being extras , participating in hunts or tribal ceremonies , or for acting in minor roles . Although this was a large sum for Alaska at the time , many decided to strike for $ 10 or $ 15 a day . Van Dyke immediately hired strikebreakers from among the other native people as replacements , and the strike ended .
Although cinematographer Clyde DaVinna is credited with the cinematography , additional footage was shot by George Gordon Nogle , Josiah Roberts , and Leonard Smith . Screenwriter John Lee Mahin claims he shot a few of the scenes with Eskimo women when coverage was found to be lacking . Numerous days of shooting were lost in the summer when strong sunlight made it impossible to film . To reduce glare from the snow , most of the sets were sprayed with pink paint from the air .
Because Native Alaskan languages are somewhat staccato in nature and makes heavy of the " kh " sound , sound recordists initially had trouble recording native speech . The " kh " sound overwhelmed the microphones ( a problem known as " chopping " ) , which would then not pick up the following sounds . Significant adjustments were made in order to correct the problem .
= = = Hunting and wolf attack scenes = = =
The scenes of walrus , bowhead whale , and caribou hunting are all real . Because the hunting season for caribou , polar bear , walrus , and whale occur at the same time , the production was forced to spend more than a year in the Arctic ( covering two hunting seasons ) in order to get the necessary footage .
The walrus and polar bear hunts were filmed in July 1932 at Herald Island in the Chukchi Sea . Walrus carcasses were used as dog food and to attract polar bears . Additional polar bear hunting was filmed in March 1933 off Cape Lisburne . The bowhead whale hunt was filmed from late April to July 1933 in two locations : Off Point Hope , Alaska , and off Cape Serdtse @-@ Kamen on the Chukchi Peninsula . The whale hunting shoot took nearly three months because the whales kept fleeing every time they spotted boats . As depicted in the film , the Inupiat also hunted polar bears by roping and drowning them , but little of this footage made it into the picture .
According to Peter Freuchen , the scene in which the wolf attacks Mala is real . Freuchen says that Mala , armed with a rock and a pistol beneath his fur jacket , spent three afternoons trying to lure a wolf into attacking
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Baron 's wife , Baroness Felicity Dumas , who is believed to be in possession of the list . Later , Cate heads to the Dumas ' château located in the German Alps . While there , she is knocked unconscious by Armstrong , who spares her life by locking her in a cell . The Baroness gloats at Cate about her plans to take over the world and leaves . Cate then provokes Armstrong into an ensuing fist fight . After being defeated , Armstrong agrees to let Cate go , and defects H.A.R.M. by telling her where the list is located . Cate then realizes that she was infected after being knocked unconscious by Wagner in Hamburg days ago . The Baroness mentions that Wagner must set the count @-@ down to 10 days instead of 10 hours . Eventually , Cate obtains another antidote and later , the list located in the Baroness 's hidden lair .
When Cate traveled down the mountain via Gondola , defeating the H.A.R.M. helicopters in the process , she encounters Volkov and a gun duel ensues . During their duel , an explosion causes an avalanche to send Volkov over the edge of a cliff . Later , Cate is confronted by the Baroness , and another gun duel ensues . After defeating the Baroness , she reveals that she has also infected herself and is about to detonate . Cate hurries to clear the civilians off the streets , and hides inside a building as the Baroness explodes .
Back at UNITY 's headquarters , Cate is congratulated for a mission well done , and everybody leaves to grab some rest . Cate arrives at a graveyard where Bruno was buried to pay her respects . She is then confronted by the supposedly long @-@ dead Tom Goodman , who reveals that he is the real traitor within UNITY , and a final gun duel ensues . Cate manages to injure Tom and arrest him , but Smith shoots Tom , causing him to fall into a freshly dug grave . Smith then tries to shoot Cate as well , but Jones shoots Smith , and reveals that Bruno is still alive . Smith attempts his one last effort to shoot Cate , but Cate kills Smith just in time . With Tom and Smith shot dead , Jones and Bruno decide to tell Cate the truth ; Bruno falsified his death so that Cate and the rest of UNITY could find the real traitor . Seven years ago , Smith was taken out of the field by UNITY due to his inadequate fieldwork . In order to sabotage UNITY as a way to avenge himself , Smith joins H.A.R.M. to kill the real Tom Goodman , and replace him with an impostor ; a vacuum cleaner salesman named Melvin Blitzney who Smith met in a bar in Florida . When Cate 's investigation initially foiled H.A.R.M. ' s plan , both Tom and Smith 's impostor were forced to reveal their true intentions . Cate reacts in shock upon finding out the truth .
In a scene after the credits , it is revealed that Volkov survived the avalanche , and reports back to H.A.R.M. ' s mysterious Director , a middle @-@ aged drunk man who Cate has seen several times in different countries during the game . In a level exclusive to the Game of the Year Edition , Cate is sent on vacation to a small island , only to discover and destroy a secret H.A.R.M. base .
= = = Characters = = =
= = = = UNITY = = = =
Cate Archer ( voiced by Kit Harris ) – A Scottish former cat burglar and the first female operative in UNITY . Main protagonist of the game .
Bruno Lawrie ( John Patrick Lowrie ) – A legend among UNITY operatives , Bruno is also Cate 's best friend and mentor , who brought her into organization nine years ago .
Mr. Jones ( Nigel Neale ) – UNITY 's chief . A calm and wise man , Jones once was an operative himself .
Mr. Smith ( Roger Curtis ) – Jones ' right @-@ hand @-@ man and also a former operative . He is a very competent leader , but distrusts Cate 's abilities .
Tom Goodman ( Mike Madeoy ) – UNITY 's American operative , Tom Goodman is a tall , well @-@ built man with a charming smile .
Dr. Otto Schenker – A scientist from East Germany , he defects to the West and is about to join UNITY . However , he is captured by H.A.R.M. and has to be saved .
Santa ( Ken Boynton ) – UNITY 's main scientist and inventor , he provides Cate with gadgets between the missions .
= = = = H.A.R.M. = = = =
Dmitrij Volkov ( Jock Blaney ) – H.A.R.M. ' s " Director of Executive Action " . The Russian @-@ born Volkov is tall , strong , intelligent , and wears an eye @-@ patch . In H.A.R.M. , he is second only to the mysterious Director . He is also the vice @-@ president of Dumas Industrial Enterprises , under the assumed name of Damascus Valentine .
Inge Wagner ( Kit Harris ) – A H.A.R.M. agent supervisor , Inge is an overweight German woman who believes herself to be a great singer , while in reality her vocalizations are terrible and feared among her subordinates . She is also the owner of a popular nightclub in Hamburg . She commands H.A.R.M. troops on @-@ field and is one of Cate 's main enemies . She is also supposedly a distant relation of Richard Wagner .
Magnus Armstrong ( David Stalker ) – A former military man , the kilt @-@ wearing , muscular Scotsman is known to be a nice man , who , however , enjoys a fight . He is one of H.A.R.M. ' s field commanders . He respects fellow countrymen above all else , and he spares Cate 's life on more than one occasion .
Baron Archibald Dumas ( Jeff Steitzer ) – The president and owner of Dumas Industrial Enterprises is fabulously wealthy and reclusive . Not really a H.A.R.M. member , the childish and silly baron is manipulated by his wife . He claims to be a great safari hunter , but is in fact not , as all his trophies are secretly bought .
Baroness Felicity Dumas ( Barbara Dirickson ) – The de facto owner of Dumas Industrial Enterprises , she is one of the true leaders of H.A.R.M. , being the sponsor behind much of the organization 's activities .
The Elite Guard – Three multiracial go @-@ go girls who are an elite H.A.R.M. squad . They are seen in sporadic scenes throughout the game , complaining of how bored they are . They attack Cate Archer near the end of the game .
The Director – H.A.R.M. ' s chief and the most mysterious character of the game . He is mentioned several times by antagonists and intelligence items and appears in several missions as a harmless drunkard . His true identity is revealed at the very end .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Work on No One Lives Forever started in 1998 , after the release of Monolith Productions ' previous game , Shogo : Mobile Armor Division . Craig Hubbard , game designer for Shogo and NOLF expressed that Shogo " ( although critically successful ) fell embarrassingly short of [ the team 's ] original design goals " , and " it is a grim reminder of the perils of wild optimism and unchecked ambition " exercised by the relatively small development team . The team ( which included approximately 18 core members during development of NOLF ) was determined not to make the same mistakes again with their next game . Describing the pressure on Monolith , Hubbard said that they " were still trying to live down the stigma " of their 1998 game , Blood II : The Chosen , which had been prematurely released buggy and unpolished , and that the company " had a lot to prove , both to ourselves and the gaming public . "
Signing a contract with a publisher was a very difficult task for Monolith . Development had been going on for months , and the project had been approved by different publishers four times , before they were able to actually sign a deal with one . During this long time for finding a publishing partner , No One Lives Forever " mutated constantly in order to please prospective producers and marketing departments . The game actually started off as a mission @-@ based , anime @-@ inspired , paramilitary action thriller intended as a spiritual sequel to Shogo and ended up as a 60s spy adventure in the tradition of Our Man Flint and countless other 60s spy movies and shows . " This final theme for the game was settled on through discussions with Fox Interactive , the final publisher of NOLF . ( Parts of the initial " paramilitary action thriller " concept evolved into F.E.A.R. , another Monolith game , released after the NOLF series , in 2005 . ) Monolith 's producer for the game , Samantha Ryan said that before the deal was signed , " [ t ] here was a period where Monolith was two weeks from death . And Jason [ " Jace " Hall , CEO and co @-@ founder of Monolith ] closed the deal with Fox Interactive that basically saved the company . "
After finally signing a contract with Fox ( which partnership was announced to the public on August 24 , 1999 ) , the team was able to draft a mission statement , which stood as a point of reference during every aspect of developing the game .
Our primary aim was to make the player feel like the hero of a 60s action / adventure / espionage movie . We came up with a list of the characteristics we felt were necessary to achieve our objective . The game must have a strong narrative , with twists and turns in the spirit of Charade or Where Eagles Dare . It must feature a fiercely competent hero and an assortment of despicable villains . The hero must have access to an impressive arsenal of weapons and gadgets worthy of Our Man Flint , Danger : Diabolik , or Get Smart . There must be memorable , death @-@ defying situations , opportunities for stealth as well as all @-@ out action , and a variety of exotic locales to explore . Finally , every aspect of the presentation must convincingly evoke the era .
The game was announced at the 1999 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) conference show . While at this time – as described in the mission statement above – the game was already set out to be a spy @-@ themed shooter set in the 1960s , the version that was previewed to the press at this time had many differences to the finished product , with regard to characters , plot and setting . The game 's protagonist was originally set out to be a male character called Adam Church who worked for MI0 , " Her Majesty 's Most Secret Service " . However , many of the final gameplay and story elements are known to have been present in this earlier iteration of the game : the H.A.R.M. organization ; the defection of an East German biophysicist for information about a top @-@ secret Soviet weapons program ; the presence of humor in the game ; some locations , such as the sunken cargo freighter ; the use of gadgets , such as the rocket launching briefcase ; etc .
By at least July 1999 , Monolith has decided to introduce many major changes to the game ; the main reason being that the gaming press unexpectedly started comparing the game to James Bond games , like GoldenEye 007 ( 1997 ) . Hubbard mentioned that their intention was to " make a 60s spy game " , and that they " didn 't want to make a ' Bond ' style game , so when people were obviously drawing that comparison , we decided to rework things a bit . We wanted to get away from the Bond comparisons that people were making , so we 've changed the main character and the back @-@ story a fair amount . " As a result , the player controls a female protagonist in the final game , Cate Archer , who works for an organization called UNITY . Changing the main character to a woman not only helped the separation of the game from the Bond franchise , but also allowed for " more interesting dramatic possibilities " , and the " list of gadgets got a lot more visually interesting " . As Hubbard said , before switching to a female protagonist , he had been " struggling with trying to distinguish him from all the other male superspies from the era — extraordinarily handsome , intelligent , knowledgeable , resourceful , and so on . But a woman with those same characteristics immediately stood out because of the social climate of the time . No matter how qualified she might be , she 'd have to overcome some serious barriers just to get a chance to prove herself . And if things didn 't go flawlessly on a mission , she 'd catch more heat than she deserved . "
The female protagonist " went through numerous concept sketches , costume designs , hairstyles , names , and even nationalities . " According to Hubbard , it was a challenge to find a look for her that was not only evocative of era , " but also worked as a 3D model . " In the end , the in @-@ game model of Cate Archer was styled after model and actress Mitzi Martin . This was a marketing decision made by the publisher , Fox Interactive , which used its feature film casting department to look for an appropriate model internationally . Archer 's voice was provided by American voice actress Kit Harris , who also did the voice of the Inge Wagner character . Originally , Harris recorded the Scottish protagonist 's voice in a stronger Scottish accent . This was changed after a Scottish producer of the game felt that the particular accent used was too lower class , and an inappropriate choice ; Harris re @-@ recorded her lines with a " British bent " instead . Both the face and the voice of the character were changed in the game 's sequel , No One Lives Forever 2 : A Spy in H.A.R.M. ' s Way .
Along with the character and plot changes , it was also decided to change the game 's working title , No One Lives Forever , to something else , for similar reasons related to the Bond franchise ( in particular , the novel Nobody Lives for Ever ) , as well as possible legal considerations . However , the title , in fact , stayed throughout the development , and " The Operative " ( referring to the game 's heroine , Agent Archer ) was added to the beginning of the title .
After the game 's release , Hubbard identified the realistic expectations set by the team as a strong point in the game 's development , saying that " given our budget , team size , and development cycle , the best we could hope to do was to create a fun , engaging 60s espionage game that would make up in presentation what it lacked in innovation . " Other positive aspects of the process included the aforementioned mission statement , along with the flexible systems used in development , the cohesion of the team , and effective scheduling . On the other hand , Hubbard cited difficulties in fleshing out the final team , as well as inefficient pre @-@ production , delays due to waiting on technology , and the major difficulties in finding a publisher . Hubbard also mentioned the cinematic cutscenes as lengthy and problematic , partly because of technical difficulties , and partly because of conceptual flaws on his behalf , with regard to screenwriting . Regarding gameplay , he said that " [ o ] ne of the main failings of NOLF [ ... ] was that it ended up feeling a lot more scripted and linear than it was intended to be " . Hubbard also expressed dissatisfaction with the balance between action and intrigue : " Unfortunately , we came up a little short on intrigue . Stealth was too unforgiving . Once you were spotted , you were playing an action game . " The team paid attention to these points while developing No One Lives Forever 2 .
According to Hubbard , the team 's " greatest asset was [ probably ] the list of mistakes we made during Shogo . We started this project with a pretty sober view of what we could achieve . As a result , every major feature we outlined made it into the game , as well as a few additional items we came up with during the project . " However , there were still things that the team didn 't have enough time to implement . For example , No One Lives Forever 's team @-@ based multiplayer portion was originally going to be a story @-@ driven cooperative gameplay mode ( similar to the " Assault " game type in the 1999 first @-@ person shooter Unreal Tournament ) , including objectives and obstacles for the two teams . Like the single @-@ player story in the game , this gameplay mode was also going to incorporate humor ; for example , in one map , a goal of each team was to find a special watermelon for a mayor in a Moroccan marketplace . While this mode was publicly discussed even in July 2000 , it is not present as such in the final product ( which went gold on October 20 ) . The different objectives were changed to a general goal for both teams in all maps : photographing the other team 's intelligence item . However , a number of remnants stemming from the earlier gameplay design can be seen in some of the released maps , such as the office of the aforementioned mayor seen in the Morocco map . Fully realized co @-@ operative multiplayer was , however , a feature of No One Lives Forever 2 .
= = = Technology = = =
No One Lives Forever utilizes the Lithtech game engine , which was originally developed by Monolith , and later by its subsidiary , LithTech , Inc ( later known as Touchdown Entertainment ) . The game is based on Lithtech 2 @.@ 5 ( the first game to use this version ) , with many custom additions and modifications to support the game 's design , such as support for vehicles . According to the game 's creators , characters in NOLF were built from more polygons than any other PC action game at the time , with Cate Archer 's model having approximately 1700 polygons .
The artificial intelligence ( AI ) in NOLF was significantly advanced at the time of the game 's release . Enemy AI can react to eleven different stimuli , including hearing the player 's footsteps or weapon firing , seeing the player 's footprints in the snow , or hearing an ally scream in pain . The AI can try and investigate the source of these stimuli , by following the footprints for example , and can sound alarms or call for backup . During combat , the AI finds cover positions , and , to some extent , can also use its environment for protection , such as flipping over a table and hiding behind it . After advancing AI technology in their subsequent games , Monolith likened the way NOLF 's AIs pop randomly in and out of cover to a shooting gallery . Groups of AI guards make use of a group logic when investigating and combating the player . For example , one guard might start firing at the player , while another runs and calls for backup . The game 's AI includes friendly and enemy humans , as well as dogs , sharks , and helicopters .
= = Design = =
= = = Influences and humor = = =
In terms of video games , Monolith drew inspiration from a number of stealth / action games , such as Metal Gear Solid ( 1998 ) , Tenchu : Stealth Assassins ( 1998 ) , Syphon Filter ( 1999 ) , and GoldenEye 007 ( 1997 ) , because the team was " interested in a blend of stealth and action rather than focusing on one or the other exclusively . " The original release of the 1981 stealth game Castle Wolfenstein was also cited as being influential .
Thematically , influences behind The Operative : No One Lives Forever were primarily 1960s spy @-@ themed films , novels , television shows , as well as historical references . When it was decided that NOLF was going to be a 1960s spy game , lead designer Craig Hubbard started immersing himself in the subject matter , in order to " develop some fluency " in it . As he explained , he " was a big fan of early Bond films , but didn 't know a lot about the whole spy craze . So I watched the Derek Flint movies [ Our Man Flint , In Like Flint ] , Modesty Blaise , Matt Helm , Danger : Diabolik , Avengers – anything I could get my hands on . " Other influences included books , such as The Spy Who Came in from the Cold , TV shows like The Saint , The Pink Panther films , commando movies , such as The Guns of Navarone , as well as " lots of historical references , encompassing everything from books and documentaries on the spy trade to fashion catalogs and interior @-@ design books . " The basis for the biological explosives plot was the 1967 film Casino Royale . According to Hubbard , " the idea was to create a game that would make you feel like a superspy , so we tried to come up with situations , characters , and settings to support that goal . " During the course of the game , the player can hear explicit popular culture references , including the TV series The Prisoner and The Fugitive , the Matt Helm films The Silencers and The Ambushers , and exotica musicians Les Baxter and Sondi Sodsai . Other conversations allude to major events of the time , such as the studio years of The Beatles , and the commercial failure of the Edsel automobile .
Humor plays an important role in No One Lives Forever . As Hubbard explained , the game 's intention is " to make you laugh , but not at the expense of providing a broader , more satisfying emotional experience than a spoof generally allows , so that even if you don 't chuckle once , you can still have plenty of fun playing the game . At heart , NOLF is an action / adventure / espionage game with a healthy dose of levity . " Humor is presented mainly via visual gags , overheard conversations , textual intelligence items , and cutscenes . The humor includes " situational humor , and even a dash of absurdity and bathroom humor for good measure . Some of it is subtle , some of it isn 't . " The name of UNITY , H.A.R.M. , and other fictional organizations mentioned in the game follow the spy genre formula of using contrived acronyms for organizations ( see List of fictional espionage organizations ) . What H.A.R.M. actually stands for is never revealed , and speculation about its true meaning is used as a running gag in the game and its sequel .
Regarding comparisons between the game and the Austin Powers film series , Hubbard pointed out on several occasions that , unlike Austin Powers , No One Lives Forever is not a parody of the spy genre . Contrasting the source of the humor in the two series , Hubbard noted that while the game is " campy and silly , [ ... ] the underlying premise borders on apocalyptic . That dichotomy in tone results in a very different style of humor from a parody , where everything is in good fun and nobody , including the characters , takes anything very seriously . "
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack for the original version of No One Lives Forever ( as well as the later Mac OS X port ) was chiefly composed and produced by Guy Whitmore . The game uses DirectMusic technology , and its music is an example of an adaptive score : the music smoothly and flexibly adapts to the situations that players finds themselves in , in order to simulate film soundtracks . For instance , the music increases in tempo or urgency when the player is in a combat situation , or if enemies become aware of the player 's presence . Whitmore 's task as composer was " to capture the flavor of the ' 50s / ' 60s spy genre , without infringing on any existing copyrights . " In order to avoid any legal troubles over music from the James Bond franchise of films and games , Whitmore was initially asked to refrain from using brass instruments ; a directive he compared to " being asked to produce a blues album without guitars " . While some of the instrument sounds came from professional collections , others were home @-@ made samples , including solo cello sounds performed by Lori Goldston , used in the H.A.R.M. theme . Influences for the score included German composer Peter Thomas , the soundtrack of the 1968 film Barbarella , and " an array of Italian composers who did beautiful scores for low budget European erotic films . "
Whitmore 's adaptive score was not used for the PlayStation 2 version of the game . Instead , it featured original music by Rebecca Kneubuhl , and mixed by Gabriel Mann . The No One Lives Forever theme song was created by Rich Ragsdale . Kneubuhl and Mann also provided vocals for the title theme .
= = = = In the Lounge = = = =
The game was released with bonus 1960s @-@ inspired music on the second CD . The songs available on this album , titled In the Lounge , were not featured in the game , but were specifically written as extra material . The 9 songs were written by Rebecca Kneubuhl ( who created the in @-@ game score for the later PlayStation 2 port as well ) , and were recorded at Asylum Studios . The CD also features two songs by independent artists : " Void " by Red Delicious and " El Dorado " by Archie Thompson . These were selected for inclusion as part of a NOLF online " music search " , organized by Fox Interactive and Indiespace.com.
A different version of In the Lounge was also created . This includes the same 9 original tracks , although in a slightly different order . It does not include the two indie songs ; however , it does feature Rich Ragsdale 's NOLF title theme , as well as remixes of 6 of the original songs , by Gabriel Mann .
= = Releases and ports = =
= = = Original release and Game of the Year Edition = = =
The Operative : No One Lives Forever was originally released for Windows ( PC ) in the United States on November 9 , 2000 , by Fox Interactive , after it went gold on October 20 . Before the game 's release , a tech demo was released that included four single player missions , with one being a training mission . After the game 's release , another demo was released , dubbed " Mega Mix Demo " , which contained four single player levels and two multiplayer maps . A number of patches and map packs had also been made freely available for the game .
After receiving a number of Game of the Year ( GOTY ) awards , a special Game of the Year Edition was released on October 4 , 2001 . Published jointly by Sierra Entertainment and Fox Interactive , this re @-@ released version includes an exclusive mission otherwise not available in the original game , titled " Rest and Relaxation " , which is available after the original story . The GOTY edition comes with the game 's official Prima strategy guide , and it also contains more multiplayer maps , which were also made available as a download for owners of the original game .
In 2001 , Monolith Productions released a set of editing tools for No One Lives Forever that included the level editor and model editor used for development . The team also released the source code for NOLF ( version 1 @.@ 003 on Windows ) that year to " support the fan base by offering the tools to create their own levels " . It is available both as a download , as well as on the Game of the Year Edition CD @-@ ROM .
= = = PlayStation 2 port = = =
The game 's developer , Monolith Productions ported No One Lives Forever – Game of the Year Edition to the PlayStation 2 console . This port of the game was released on April 18 , 2002 ( although it was originally intended for a 2001 release ) , and was again published jointly by Sierra and Fox .
The PlayStation 2 version of the game included three exclusive flashback levels not available in other releases of the game titled " Nine Years Ago " , in which the player controls a younger Cate Archer , when she used to be a cat burglar . Each of the new levels is accessed during several moments in the original story , when Cate is knocked out by Armstrong . All three levels use new textures , new character models , and feature Cate 's cat burglar outfit , as well as two exclusive gadgets . The port does not feature Guy Whitmore 's original interactive score ; instead , it uses different original music by Rebecca Kneubuhl . Multiplayer mode is not present in this version of the game .
= = = Mac OS X port = = =
A port of No One Lives Forever – Game of the Year Edition for the Mac OS X operating system was developed by MumboJumbo , and published by MacPlay . It was released on November 21 , 2002 , soon after the original Windows release of No One Lives Forever 2 : A Spy in H.A.R.M. ' s Way ( which was also ported to Mac OS X by MacPlay later ) . Similarly to the Windows version of the game , the Mac OS X port also uses GameSpy technology for its online multiplayer mode , allowing players to play with each other , no matter which platform they use .
= = = Possible re @-@ release = = =
With the rise of digital distribution in video games in the latter part of the 2000s , there has been speculation about a possible re @-@ release , or even a remake of the titles in the No One Lives Forever series . However , a number of reports have pointed out the complicated state of the series ' intellectual property ( IP ) rights . Even parties that have strong ties to the IP , including video game publisher Activision and NOLF designer Craig Hubbard , have publicly admitted not knowing the precise legal situation of the series , as of May 2014 .
In April 2013 , Activision community manager Dan Amrich attempted to explain the acquisition history of the No One Lives Forever IP in a public video . This history includes the 2003 acquisition of NOLF publisher Fox Interactive by Vivendi Universal Games ( who also owned Sierra Entertainment ) , as well as the 2008 merger between Vivendi Universal Games ( VUG , which had since been renamed Vivendi Games ) and video game publisher Activision , forming the Activision Blizzard holding company . After the merger , Activision decided to sell off some IPs and retain others . In order to find out the legal details behind NOLF , Amrich asked his colleagues , saying that " [ t ] he person that I normally talk to about this stuff does not believe that we [ at Activision ] currently have the rights . They 've never seen it , they 've never been given the permission to put that stuff on [ GOG.com ] . He said , basically , ' If we had it , I would love to be able to reissue those old games . ' " Amrich also asked a friend of his who working at NOLF developer Monolith ( since acquired by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment ) , who also did not know who the IP belonged to . Amrich concluded that " at this time I do not believe that Activision has the rights to No One Lives Forever . "
When asked about the rights to the game in July 2013 , NOLF designer Craig Hubbard also expressed confusion about the legal complexities behind the series . According to Hubbard , " my understanding was that Monolith owned the IP and Fox owned the title of the first game , which was technically The Operative : No One Lives Forever . I think Monolith actually owned A Spy in H.A.R.M. ' s Way , the subtitle of the sequel , but I could be wrong about that . Fox got acquired by VUG , which in turn got acquired by Activision , while Monolith got bought by Warner Brothers , so some stars would have to align for everything to get sorted out . " Hubbard added that " there didn 't seem to be any interest in resurrecting the franchise " as of 2012 , while he was still working at Monolith / Warner Bros.
A possible venue for re @-@ release of the games would be computer game sale and distribution service GOG.com. In an interview with GOG.com 's Trevor Longino , he said that " NOLF is a really great title , and it ’ s one of the ones where the rights are a bear to get sorted . Just like pretty much any other classic IP you ’ re ever thought of , we ’ ve looked into it , but it ’ s not an easy thing to do . "
In April 2013 ,
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River is the Utah Lake 's only outflow , and originates at the northern end of the lake between the cities of Lehi and Saratoga Springs . It then meanders north through the north end of Utah Valley for approximately 8 miles ( 13 km ) until it passes through a gorge in the Traverse Mountains , known as the Jordan Narrows . The Utah National Guard base at Camp Williams lies on the western side of the river through much of the Jordan Narrows . The Turner Dam , located 41 @.@ 8 miles ( 67 @.@ 3 km ) from the river 's mouth ( or at river mile 41 @.@ 8 ) and within the boundaries of the Jordan Narrows , is the first of two dams of the Jordan River . The Turner dam diverts water to the right or easterly into the East Jordan Canal and to the left or westerly toward the Utah and Salt Lake Canal . Two pumping stations , situated next to the Turner Dam , divert water to the west into the Provo Reservoir Canal , Utah Lake Distribution Canal and Jacob @-@ Welby Canal . The Provo Reservoir Canal runs north through Salt Lake County , Jacob @-@ Welby runs south through Utah County and the Utah Lake Distribution Canal runs both north and south eventually leading back into Utah Lake . Outside the narrows , the river reaches the second dam , known as the Joint Dam , which is 39 @.@ 9 miles ( 64 @.@ 2 km ) from the river 's mouth . The Joint Dam diverts water to the east for the Jordan and Salt Lake City Canal and to the west for the South Jordan Canal .
The river then flows through the middle of the Salt Lake Valley , initially moving through the city of Bluffdale and then forming the border between the cities of Riverton and Draper . The river then enters the city of South Jordan where it merges with Midas Creek from the west . Upon leaving South Jordan , the river forms the border between the cities of West Jordan on the west and Sandy and Midvale on the east . From the west , Bingham Creek enters in West Jordan . Dry Creek , an eastern tributary , combines with the main river in Sandy . The river then forms the border between the cities of Taylorsville and West Valley City on the west and Murray and South Salt Lake on the east . The river flows underneath Interstate 215 in Murray . Little and Big Cottonwood Creeks enter from the east in Murray , 21 @.@ 7 miles ( 34 @.@ 9 km ) and 20 @.@ 6 miles ( 33 @.@ 2 km ) from the mouth respectively . Mill Creek enters on the east in South Salt Lake , 17 @.@ 3 miles ( 27 @.@ 8 km ) from the mouth . The river runs through the middle of Salt Lake City , where the river travels underneath Interstate 80 a mile west of downtown of Salt Lake City and again underneath Interstate 215 in the northern portion of Salt Lake City . Interstate 15 parallels the river 's eastern flank throughout Salt Lake County . At 16 miles ( 26 km ) from the mouth , the river enters into the Surplus Canal channel . The Jordan River physically diverts from the Surplus Canal through four gates and heads north with the Surplus Canal heading north @-@ west . Parley 's , Emigration , Red Butte Creeks converge from the east through an underground pipe , 14 @.@ 2 miles ( 22 @.@ 9 km ) from the mouth . City Creek also enters via an underground pipe , 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) from the river 's mouth . The length of the river and the elevation of its mouth varies year to year depending on the fluctuations of the Great Salt Lake caused by weather conditions . The lake has an average elevation of 4 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) which can deviate by 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . The Jordan River then continues for 9 to 12 miles ( 14 to 19 km ) with Salt Lake County on the west and North Salt Lake and Davis County on the east until it empties into the Great Salt Lake .
= = = Discharge = = =
The United States Geological Survey maintains a stream gauge in Salt Lake City that shows annual runoff from the period 1980 – 2003 is just over 150 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 190 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) per year or 19 percent of the total 800 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 990 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water entering the Jordan River from all sources . The Surplus Canal carries almost 60 percent of the water into the Great Salt Lake with various irrigation canals responsible for the rest . The amount of water entering the Jordan River from Utah Lake is just over 400 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 490 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) per year . Inflow from the 11 largest streams feeding the Jordan River , sewage treatment plants and ground water each accounts for approximately 15 percent of water entering the river .
= = Watershed = =
The Jordan Subbasin , as defined by the United States Geological Survey , is located entirely within Salt Lake and Utah counties in a roughly rectangular area of 791 square miles ( 2 @,@ 050 km2 ) . The Subbasin is part of the larger 3 @,@ 830 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 9 @,@ 900 km2 ) Jordan River Basin that includes the upper Jordan River , Utah Lake , Provo and Spanish Fork Subbasins . Four of the six largest cities in Utah are in Salt Lake County . The Jordan River flows through Sandy , with a 2010 population of 87 @,@ 461 ; West Jordan , population 103 @,@ 712 ; West Valley City , population 129 @,@ 480 ; and Salt Lake City , population 186 @,@ 440 . Flanked on either side by mountain ranges , the topography of the land varies greatly . The Wasatch Mountains rise on the east , with a high point of 11 @,@ 100 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) above sea level at Twin Peaks , near the town of Alta . The Oquirrh Mountains rise on the west , with a high point of over 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) above sea level at Farnsworth Peak . The low point of 4 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) is at the river 's mouth , where the river enters the Great Salt Lake . Both the Oquirrh and Wasatch Mountains are fault @-@ block mountains created from normal @-@ slip faults where the mountains rise at the fault and the valley floor drops . The Wasatch Fault runs along the western edge of the Wasatch Mountains and the Oquirrh Fault runs along the eastern edge of the Oquirrh Mountains .
From approximately 75 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 years ago , much of what is now northern Utah was covered by a Pleistocene lake called Lake Bonneville . At its greatest extent , Lake Bonneville reached an elevation of 5 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) above sea level and had a surface area of 19 @,@ 800 square miles ( 51 @,@ 000 km2 ) . The lake left behind lacustrine sediments , which resulted in a relatively flat lake bed , and the valley floors seen today . As the region experienced increasingly warmer and drier climate over time , Lake Bonneville 's water levels receded , leaving the Great Salt Lake and Utah Lake as remnants . The river 's greatest slope , 27 feet per mile ( 5 @.@ 1 m / km ) , is in the Jordan Narrows , while the rest of the river has a more gentle slope of 2 to 4 feet per mile ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 m / km ) .
Approximately 237 @,@ 000 acres ( 960 km2 ) ( 46 percent of land area ) of the Jordan Subbasin is in the Wasatch , Oquirrh and Traverse mountains . The United States Forest Service manages 91 @,@ 000 acres ( 370 km2 ) of land in the Wasatch Range . The vast majority of the Oquirrh Range is privately held , with Kennecott Copper Mine owning most of the land . The State of Utah has scattered land holdings of 9 @,@ 800 acres ( 40 km2 ) throughout the subbasin and owns the beds of all navigable streams and lakes .
The Jordan Subbasin has two distinct climate zones . The lower elevations are characterized as a cold , semi @-@ arid climate , with four distinct seasons . Both summer and winter are long with hot , dry summers and cold , snowy winters . Salt Lake City receives 61 inches ( 150 cm ) of snow annually , part of a total of 16 @.@ 5 inches ( 420 mm ) of precipitation per year . The mean maximum temperature is 91 ° F ( 33 ° C ) in July and 37 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in January Areas of higher elevation have two distinct seasons , summer and winter . One of the areas of highest elevation , Alta , Utah , receives 544 inches ( 1 @,@ 380 cm ) of snow annually , part of a total of 52 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) of precipitation per year . The mean maximum temperature is 71 ° F ( 22 ° C ) in July and 29 ° F ( − 2 ° C ) in January .
= = History = =
The first known inhabitants of the banks of the Jordan River were members of the Desert Archaic Culture , a group of nomadic hunter @-@ gatherers . A 3 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old archaeological site , called the Soo 'nkahni Village , was uncovered next to the Jordan River and over 30 @,@ 000 artifacts have been excavated . The next recorded inhabitants , between 400 A.D. to around 1350 A.D. , were the Fremont people , composed of several scattered bands of hunters and farmers living in what is now southern Idaho , western Nevada and most of Utah . The disappearance of the Fremont people has been attributed to both changing climatic conditions , which put an end to favorable weather for farming , and to the arrival of ancestors to the present @-@ day Ute , Paiute , and Northwestern Shoshone . Although there were no permanent Native American settlements when European settlers arrived in the Salt Lake Valley , the area bordered land occupied by several tribes , such as the Timpanogot band of the Utes in Utah Valley , the Goshutes on the western side of the Oquirrh Mountain Range and the Northwestern Shoshone north of the Salt Lake Valley .
In 1776 , Franciscan missionary Silvestre Vélez de Escalante was trying to find a land route from Santa Fe , New Mexico , to Monterey , California . His party included twelve Spanish colonials and two Utes from the Utah Valley Timpanogots band who acted as guides . On 23 September 1776 , the party entered Utah Valley at the present @-@ day city of Spanish Fork . The local Timanogots villagers hosted them and told them of the lake to the north . In his journal , Escalante described Utah Lake as a " lake , which must be six leagues wide and fifteen leagues long , [ and ] extends as far as one of these valleys . It runs northwest through a narrow passage , and according to what they told us , it communicates with others much larger . " The Great Salt Lake was described as the " other lake with which this one communicates , according to what they told us , [ and ] covers many leagues , and its waters are noxious and extremely salty . "
The next group of Europeans to see the Jordan River was the party of Étienne Provost , a French Canadian trapper . In October 1824 , Provost 's party was lured into a Shoshone camp somewhere along the Jordan River , where they were attacked in retaliation for the murder of a local chief . In truth , the murder was committed by a member of Peter Skene Ogden 's party . The men were caught off guard , and fifteen perished , but Provost and two others escaped . The river was historically named Proveau 's Fork , as the Quebec @-@ born fur trapper was known as Proveau and Provot , in addition to Provost ( and the pronunciation was " Provo " ) .
On 22 July 1847 , the first party of Mormon pioneers arrived in the Salt Lake Valley , and five days later another party led by Brigham Young crossed the Jordan River and bathed in the Great Salt Lake . The River Jordan ( located in the Middle East ) drains the Sea of Galilee into the Dead Sea in a way which the settlers found remarkably similar to the way the as @-@ yet @-@ unnamed local river drained Utah Lake into the saline Great Salt Lake . This similarity influenced the eventual name of the river , and on 22 August 1847 , a conference was held and the name Western Jordan River was decided upon , although it was later shortened to the Jordan River . By 1850 , settlements were established along the Jordan River , Big Cottonwood Creek , Little Cottonwood Creek , Mill Creek , Parley 's Creek and Emigration Creek . In 1850 , Captain Howard Stansbury of the United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers traveled the entire length of the Jordan River , surveying and making observations of the wildlife .
Around the year 1887 at Bingham Canyon in the Oquirrh Mountains , low @-@ grade copper deposits were discovered and mining claims were filed . Bingham Canyon is a porphyry copper deposit where magma containing copper , molybdenum , gold and other minerals slowly moved its way to the surface and cooled into rock . By 1890 , underground copper mining had started , and in 1907 , Kennecott Copper Mine started open pit mining . In the early 20th century , mills were established near the Jordan River in Midvale and West Jordan to process ore . As of 2010 , Kennecott Copper Mine 's open pit is 2 @.@ 8 miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) wide and 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) deep .
Throughout the 19th century and up to the 1940s , water from the Jordan River watershed sustained the agrarian society of the Salt Lake Valley . In 1950 , Salt Lake County had 489 @,@ 000 acres ( 198 @,@ 000 ha ) devoted to farming . By 1992 , however , the rapid urbanization of the Salt Lake Valley had reduced the amount of land devoted to farming to 108 @,@ 000 acres ( 44 @,@ 000 ha ) , which was further reduced to 82 @,@ 267 acres ( 33 @,@ 292 ha ) by 2002 .
= = = River modifications = = =
Alterations of the Jordan River watershed began two days after the Mormon Pioneers arrived in the Salt Lake Valley when water was diverted from City Creek for irrigation . The earliest dam and ditch along the Jordan River was constructed in 1849 to irrigate land on the west side of the river near present @-@ day Taylorsville . Other ditches include one built by Archibald Gardner , one of the founders of West Jordan in 1850 , to provide water for his mill and one built by Alexander Beckstead , a founder of South Jordan , who built the Beckstead Ditch in 1859 to provide water for farmland . Many other small dams and ditches were also constructed in the first 25 years , several of which are still used as of 2010 . All of these ditches irrigated only small amounts of land in the Jordan River floodplain ; the largest , the Beckstead Ditch , irrigated 580 acres ( 230 ha ) .
By the late 1860s , it became apparent that new , larger canals needed to be built if more acreage was to be farmed . The first dam in the Jordan Narrows was constructed in 1872 and raised in 1880 , sparking an outcry from residents living near Utah Lake who thought the dam was responsible for raising the level of the lake . After several years of dispute , a commission was established to determine an acceptable compromise for the elevation of Utah Lake . The commission 's 1885 decision stated that if the lake level were to rise above the established compromise level , the Jordan River could not be impeded by either dams or flood gates . Additionally , the commission stated that after water pumps were installed at the source of the river , the pumps should all be working if the lake were to rise above the compromise level . However , if the lake level fell below the compromise level , pumps could be turned off so that water could be held for storage in Utah Lake .
In 1875 , the first large canal , the South Jordan Canal , was completed and it brought water to the area above the bluffs of the Jordan River for the first time . All told , five large canals that originated from the dams in the Jordan Narrows were completed by 1883 . A second dam was built in 1890 a few miles downstream from the first dam and was constructed to better regulate the flow of two canals . Both dams have been rebuilt in subsequent years and operate as diversion points for canals rather than impounding water by the use of sluice gates and head gates . The drought of 1901 – 1902 caused the Jordan River , on occasion , to stop flowing , and in response to the drought a pumping plant was installed at the outlet from Utah Lake . It was the largest pumping plant in the United States at the time , and contained seven pumps with a total capacity of 700 cubic feet ( 20 m3 ) per second . Twice , during the droughts of 1934 and 1992 , Utah Lake levels dropped so low that the pumps were rendered useless and the Jordan River actually ran dry . In the 1950s , due to flood control measures to increase river velocity , large sections of the river were straightened in Salt Lake County . As part of the straightening process , meanders or curves in the river were cut off and the channel slope was increased . The river was also shifted to opposite sides of the flood plain in Midvale and Murray as part of local smelter operations .
Floods in 1983 – 1984 caused Utah Lake to overflow its banks , flooding homes and farmland in Provo , Lehi and present @-@ day Saratoga Springs . Dikes had to be constructed around Interstate 15 in Provo to prevent Utah Lake flooding the freeway . Big Cottonwood , Parley 's , Emigration and City creeks flowed down sand @-@ bag lined streets in order to manage the overflowing streams . Additional dikes were built at the Great Salt Lake to protect railroad lines and Interstate 80 . As a result of the flooding , the Utah Lake compromise level was amended to 4 @,@ 489 feet ( 1 @,@ 368 m ) .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Invertebrates and fish = = =
In the Jordan River , invertebrates play an important role as a source of food for fish and other aquatic life , and they function as a parameter by which to measure water quality and the health of the river . There are 34 different groups of invertebrates found in the Jordan River , most commonly of the class Oligochaeta ( which includes earthworms ) , mosquito larvae and caddisfly larvae . The state of Utah maintains a Sensitive Species List that includes " those species for which there is credible scientific evidence to substantiate a threat to continued population viability . " The Lyrate mountainsnail and the western pearlshell mussel , both native to the Jordan River watershed , are found on this list . A 2007 survey of invertebrates and their response to pollution stated that the Jordan River was substantially to severely impaired with organic pollution and that it contained reduced levels of dissolved oxygen .
Historically , the Jordan River was a cold @-@ water fishery that contained 13 native species , including the Bonneville cutthroat trout , Utah Lake sculpin , June sucker , Mottled sculpin , Utah chub and the Utah Sucker . Today , the Jordan River is a warm @-@ water fishery with the Utah Sucker and the endangered June Sucker present only in Utah Lake . The Utah chub , however , is still found in the Jordan River . The most common species of fish encountered today is the common carp , which was introduced into the Jordan River and Utah Lake as a source of food after overfishing caused the depletion of native species stocks . The Utah Division of Wildlife Resources regularly stocks the river with catfish and rainbow trout .
= = = Wildlife = = =
Before the area was urbanized , mammals such as bighorn sheep , mule deer , coyote , wolves , beaver , muskrat and jack rabbits would have been seen along the river . A " varmint hunt " was organized by John D. Lee around 1848 , after the arrival of Mormon settlers . The final count of the hunt included " two bears , two wolverines , two wildcats , 783 wolves , 409 foxes , 31 minks , nine eagles , 530 magpies , hawks and owls , and 1 @,@ 026 ravens . " None of the original large mammals is found along the Jordan River today ; they have , for the most part , been replaced by raccoons , red foxes and domestic pets . Animals from the Jordan River area found on the Utah Sensitive Species List include the smooth green snake , the western toad , kit fox , spotted bat , and Townsend 's big @-@ eared bat .
Combined with Utah Lake and the Great Salt Lake , the Jordan River offers one of the region 's richest bird resources . Over 200 bird species use the river for breeding habitat or as a stop @-@ over on their migratory route . Once @-@ common native species such as the willow flycatcher , gray catbird , warbling vireo , American redstart , black tern , and yellow @-@ billed cuckoo are no longer found along the river . The common yellowthroat and yellow @-@ breasted chat are still found in small isolated populations . The most common species now found are the black @-@ billed magpie , mourning dove , western meadowlark , barn swallow , and the non @-@ native ring @-@ necked pheasant and starlings .
= = = Vegetation = = =
Vegetation in the watershed is closely tied to elevation and precipitation levels . About 30 percent of the basin , mostly at higher elevation levels , is populated with oak , aspen and coniferous trees . At the lower levels , 27 percent of the basin is rich in mountain @-@ brush , sagebrush , juniper and grasses . About 34 percent of the Jordan River basin is classified as urban .
Russian olive and tamarisk or salt cedar trees now dominate the Jordan River floodplain where willow trees and cottonwood trees would once have been found . Plant species such as foxtail barley , saltgrass , rabbitbrush , cattails and other reeds are still found in small pockets along the river . Exotic pasture grasses such as orchard grass , bluegrass , redtop bentgrass , quackgrass , wheatgrass and fescue have become the common species of grass . The vulnerable flower , Ute 's Ladies ' -tresses , can also be found along the river .
= = Pollution = =
The Jordan River has been a repository for waste since the settling of the Salt Lake Valley . For 100 years , raw , untreated sewage was dumped into the river ; farming and animal runoff occurred ; and mining operations led to 40 smelters being built and contaminating the river with heavy metals , mostly arsenic and lead . In 1962 , the river in Midvale recorded a total coliform level of about 3 million per 100 milliliters , even though the state of Utah criteria for the total number of coliform bacteria in water samples should not exceed 5 @,@ 000 per 100 milliliters . In 1965 , a new sewage treatment plant came on @-@ line in Salt Lake City that prevented 32 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons per day ( 120 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) of raw sewage from being dumped into a canal .
The Utah Division of Water Quality and Utah Division of Drinking Water are responsible for the regulation and management of water quality in the State of Utah . Streams that exceed the standard contamination levels are placed on the 303d list in accordance with the Clean Water Act . The Act also requires states to identify impaired water bodies every two years and develop a total maximum daily load ( TMDL ) for pollutants that may cause impairments in the various water bodies . The Jordan River and Little Cottonwood Creek were included on the 2006 303d list ; parameters that exceeded the standard level for at least part of the Jordan River include temperature , dissolved oxygen , total dissolved solids , E. Coli and salinity .
= = = EPA Superfund sites = = =
Superfund sites are designated as being among the nation 's worst areas with respect to toxic and hazardous waste . The Environmental Protection Agency is the federal agency that determines if a particular site is hazardous , prepares a course of action to reduce the hazard , and finds the parties responsible for the pollution . If a site is listed with the Superfund program , federal dollars are available for cleanup .
The Kennecott South Zone / Bingham site contains contamination from Kennecott Copper Mine 's operation in Copperton , at the base of the Oquirrh Mountains to Bingham Creek and Butterfield Creek . A 72 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 190 km2 ) plume of lead , arsenic and sulfates ( covering 9 percent of the watershed ) currently contaminates the ground water from the mine site all the way to the Jordan River . The largest inland reverse osmosis plant in the country was built in 2006 to clean up the ground water and a second plant has been scheduled for construction ; completion of the ground water cleanup , however , is not projected until 2040 . In 1998 , the site was removed from the Superfund list due to Kennecott 's progress in the cleanup and a consent decree legally obligating Kennecott to continue the rest of the cleanup .
The Murray Smelter site was the location of a large lead smelter in operation from 1872 until 1949 . The 142 @-@ acre ( 57 ha ) site contained groundwater contamination from arsenic and lead , but the majority of the cleanup was completed in 2001 .
In Midvale , there are two Superfund sites that sit along 4 percent of the Jordan River . The Midvale Slag site is a 446 @-@ acre ( 180 ha ) site adjacent to 6 @,@ 800 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) of the Jordan River . From 1871 to 1958 , the site contained five separate smelters that processed ores from Kennecott and other mines . The site was contaminated with lead , arsenic , chromium , and cadmium . Cleanup of the property is complete , although the Jordan River Riparian Project still underway as of 2010 . Sharon Steel was a 460 @-@ acre ( 190 ha ) site adjacent to 4 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) of the Jordan River which was used , from 1902 to 1971 , for smelting copper from Kennecott Copper Mine . The site was contaminated with lead , arsenic , iron , manganese , and zinc . Cleanup has been completed , and the site taken off the Superfund list in 2004 .
= = = Uranium mill tailings = = =
Vitro Uranium Mill was a 128 @-@ acre ( 52 ha ) site located in South Salt Lake , surrounded by the Jordan River , Mill Creek , a small wetland and traversed by the South Vitro Ditch . The site , operational from 1953 to 1964 , contained a uranium mill and storage for uranium . In 1989 , surface contamination cleanup was completed with tailings , radioactively contaminated soil material , and debris removed from the site . However , 700 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 m3 ) of contaminated shallow ground water still remain , and studies are underway to determine what action should be taken .
= = Jordan River Parkway = =
The Jordan River Parkway was originally proposed in 1971 as a flood control measure with two reservoirs , restoration of wetlands , shoreline roads for cars , walking trails , and parks . By 1986 , $ 18 million had been used to purchase lands around the Jordan River and to construct the Murray Golf Course , several smaller parks and about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of canoe runs and trails . As of 2010 , the majority of the 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) continuous mixed @-@ use trail has been finished from Utah Lake to the Davis County border . A water trail for canoeing and kayaking is also being constructed , but dams , bridges , weirs and other obstacles hamper the use of the river .
Riverside parks include the International Peace Gardens , 8 @.@ 5 acres ( 3 @.@ 4 ha ) of gardens with each garden representing a different country ; Redwood Nature Area , about 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of natural areas ; South Jordan 's Riverfront Park , 59 acres ( 24 ha ) of trails , fishing ponds and natural areas ; Thanksgiving Point , including 15 themed gardens spread over 59 acres ( 24 ha ) and a 200 @-@ acre ( 81 ha ) 18 @-@ hole golf course ; and Utah County 's Willow Park , 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of camping and wildlife areas .
= = = Books = = =
= = = PDF documents = = =
= Neo soul =
Neo soul is a genre of popular music . The term was coined by music industry entrepreneur Kedar Massenburg during the late 1990s to market and describe a style of music that emerged from soul and contemporary R & B. Heavily based in soul music , neo soul is distinguished by a less conventional sound than its contemporary R & B counterpart , with incorporated elements ranging from jazz , funk , and hip hop to pop , fusion , and African music . It has been noted by music writers for its traditional R & B influences , conscious @-@ driven lyrics , and strong female presence .
Neo soul developed during the 1980s and early 1990s , in the United States and United Kingdom , as a soul revival movement . It earned mainstream success during the 1990s , with the commercial and critical breakthroughs of several artists , including D 'Angelo , Erykah Badu , Lauryn Hill , and Maxwell . Their music was marketed as an alternative to the producer @-@ driven , digitally approached R & B of the time .
Since its initial mainstream popularity and impact on the sound of contemporary R & B , neo soul has been expanded and diversified musically through the works of both African @-@ American and international artists . Its mainstream presence declined during the 2000s , although newer artists emerged through more independent means of marketing their music . According to music journalist Mark Anthony Neal , " neo @-@ soul and its various incarnations has helped to redefine the boundaries and contours of black pop . "
= = Etymology = =
As a term , neo soul was coined by Kedar Massenburg of Motown Records in the late 1990s as a marketing category following the commercial breakthroughs of artists such as D 'Angelo , Erykah Badu , Lauryn Hill , and Maxwell . The success of D 'Angelo 's 1995 debut album Brown Sugar has been regarded by several writers and music critics as inspiration behind the term 's origin . While some artists have ignored the label , others have received the designation with controversy because it may seem contrived to music audiences and imply that soul music had ended at some point in time . In a 2002 interview for Billboard , Massenburg said that genre classifications are often unpopular because they may be suggestive of a short @-@ lived trend . However , although he said neo soul is still essentially soul music , Massenburg felt there was a need to market artists of the genre for listeners to have an understanding of what they were buying .
In a 2010 article for PopMatters , music writer Tyler Lewis said that neo soul has been received with much controversy : " Given the way black music has been named by ( usually ) outsiders ever since the blues , the reaction to the name by artists who ostensibly fit into the ' neo @-@ soul ' category represents a wonderful example of black self @-@ determination in an industry that is still defiantly wedded to narrow definitions and images of black folks . " Jason Anderson of CBC News compares the etymology of neo soul to that of " new wave " and comments : " As imperfect as the term may be , neo @-@ soul is still an effective tag to describe the mix of chic modernity and time @-@ honoured tradition that distinguished the genre 's best examples . Neo @-@ soul artists tried to look both backward and forward , acting in the belief that a continuum might exist . "
= = Characteristics = =
Despite some ambivalence from artists , the term received widespread use by music critics and writers who wrote about artists and albums associated with the musical style . African American studies professor Mark Anthony Neal has described neo soul as " everything from avant @-@ garde R & B to organic soul ... a product of trying to develop something outside of the norm in R & B " . According to music writers , the genre 's works are mostly album @-@ oriented and distinguished by its musicianship and production , incorporating " organic " elements of classic soul music with the use of live instrumentation , in contrast to the more single @-@ oriented , hip hop @-@ based , and producer @-@ driven sampling approach of contemporary R & B. They also infuse jazz , funk , and African musical elements into R & B. In her book Musical Rhythm in the Age of Digital Reproduction , music author Anne Danielson wrote that neo soul toward the end of the 1990s exhibited a musical development that was part of " a remarkable increase in musicians ' experimentation with and manipulation of grooves at the microrhythmic level – that is , the level in played music that is usually understood in terms of phrasing and timing . "
Noting that most of the genre 's artists are singer @-@ songwriters , writers have viewed their lyrical content as more " conscious @-@ driven " and having a broader range than most other R & B artists . AllMusic calls it " roughly analogous to contemporary R & B " . Dimitri Ehrlich of Vibe said that they " emphasize a mix of elegant , jazz @-@ tinged R & B and subdued hip hop , with a highly idiosyncratic , deeply personal approach to love and politics " . Music writers have noted that neo soul artists are predominantly female , which contrasts the marginalized presence of women in mainstream hip hop and R & B. Jason Anderson of CBC News called neo soul a " sinuous , sly yet unabashedly earnest " alternative and " kind of haven for listeners turned off by the hedonism of mainstream hip @-@ hop and club jams . " Neo soul artists are often associated with alternative lifestyles and fashions , including organic food , incense , and knit caps .
According to music writer Peter Shapiro , the term itself refers to a musical style that obtains its influence from older R & B styles , and bohemian musicians seeking a soul revival , while setting themselves apart from the more contemporary sounds of their mainstream R & B counterparts . In a 1998 article on neo soul , Time journalist Christopher John Farley wrote that singers such as Hill , D 'Angelo , and Maxwell " share a willingness to challenge musical orthodoxy " . Miles Marshall Lewis commented that 1990s neo soul " owed its raison d 'être to
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boarding is legal throughout the park itself , the monuments and ball courts in the park fall under a city @-@ wide ban on skateboarding on public monuments , statues , and tennis / basketball courts .
Washington Park is the site of many festivals , concerts , and special occasions . The Tulip Festival held every year since 1949 in Washington Park is highlighted by the blossoming of 200 @,@ 000 tulips throughout the park . The African @-@ American tradition of Pinksterfest , whose origins are traced back even further to Dutch festivities , was later incorporated into the Tulip Fest and since 1998 the Tulip Fest has also included the Mother of the Year award . The Latin Festival and the Columbus Day Parade and Italian Festival are some of the ethnic festivals held every year in the park . The city , the Albany Police Athletic League , and Hannaford supermarkets sponsor the Capital Holiday Lights every winter , with 125 displays through the park . Proceeds benefit juvenile crime prevention programs .
Many fund raisers are held every year in the park as well , such as the American Cancer Society walkathon and the Freihofer 's Run for Women . The Freihofer 's Run is an International Association of Athletics Federations ( IAAF ) Silver Label race that draws professional marathon runners from Kenya , Ethiopia , Australia , and all across the United States along with locals as well . It is one of the largest all @-@ women races in the world , and has served as the 5K national championship in 1989 , 1990 , and 1993 – 2004 .
= = Historic district = =
The streets surrounding Washington Park , State Street to the north , Willett Avenue to the east , Madison Avenue to the south , and South Lake Avenue to the west , along with Englewood Terrace , Thurlow Terrace , and the residence at 76 Western Avenue to the northwest , are all included in the Washington Park Historic District . Most of the existing properties date to after the 1880s , with very few predating the creation of the park .
= = = State Street = = =
State Street is a one @-@ way eastbound street along Washington Park 's northern border . Over 60 townhouses sit on State Street facing the park , most are of brick or brownstone and three stories tall . Many of these homes were built for industrialists , bankers , railroad executives , and politicians by notable national architects such as Henry Hobson Richardson and Stanford White , and local ones such as Marcus T. Reynolds and Albert Fuller . Many of the buildings have fine details such as decorative tiles , terracotta , or stone . On the corner of State and Willett is located the First Presbyterian Church , designed by J. Cleveland Cady in 1882 , and the church is noted for its four Tiffany windows . New York Governor John Alden Dix lived at 491 State Street before and after his term in office . 423 State Street is owned by the University at Albany and used by its Center for Legislative Development . At 465 State Street is the Benjamin Walworth Arnold House and Carriage House , the only buildings in Albany designed by Stanford White .
= = = Willett Street = = =
Willet Street is a northbound one @-@ way street comprising three blocks , stretching from the southeastern corner of the park at the intersection with Madison Avenue to the northeastern corner with State Street . All of Willett Street is in the historic district , including approximately 33 buildings . The street is entirely residential except for the First Presbyterian Church , built in 1883 on the corner with State Street . Willett Street has many different styles including Queen Anne , Spanish Revival , Classical revival , Georgian , Romanesque , Italianate , and brownstones . Two larger apartment buildings , built in 1909 and 1927 , break up the otherwise continuous row of older townhouses . One of those apartment buildings is the Willett , formerly the Wareham , a five @-@ story building built in 1909 that spans 84 – 92 Willett Street . This building sits on a former site of the New York State Normal College , predecessor to the University at Albany , which burned in 1906 . The oldest building on Willett to maintain its original facade , 22 Willett , was built in 1872 . Nearby 28 Willett Street was the home of Martin Glynn , an owner and publisher of the Albany Times Union , a state comptroller , and the governor of New York from 1913 to 1914 . Glynn was the first Catholic New York governor and the only longtime Albany resident to reach that position .
= = = Madison Avenue = = =
Madison Avenue is part of the cross @-@ country US Route 20 , and at four lanes wide it is the busiest street in the district . Roughly 90 buildings on Madison Avenue face the park . East of the intersection with Robin Street , Madison is more urban with 19th @-@ century rowhouses ; west of Robin Street is dominated by large detached residences , many of which have been converted to medical offices . A few buildings , such as 694 and 710 Madison predate park improvements that occurred across the street at the Taylor property , which later became basketball and tennis courts . 682 Madison was formerly the home of the Academy of Holy Names . It is currently administrative offices for the Albany Medical Center Annex .
= = = South Lake Avenue = = =
South Lake Avenue facing Washington Park consists of 23 rowhouses , a modern apartment building , and a converted carriage house . The Elouise Apartments were built in 1927 in the Classical Revival architecture style and are eight stories tall . 55 South Lake Avenue is in the Art Deco style , while 57 to 87 South Lake , built in 1896 – 97 is a row of yellow brick facades designed by Albert Fuller .
= = = Englewood Place and Thurlow Terrace = = =
Englewood Place and Thurlow Terrace were constructed by the Commissioners of Washington Park and maintained by them for some time , with half the maintenance cost assessed on the private property facing the street . Restrictions were placed to prevent fences and unwelcome uses to preserve a park @-@ like appearance .
Englewood Place was a part of Robin Street until receiving its current name in the 1870s ; it was laid out in lots in 1879 , with large mansions and carriage houses built between 1879 and 1887 . 5 and 7 Englewood Place were designed by Robert Gibson , who also designed the All Saints Cathedral . 5 Englewood Place became the residence of the University at Albany 's president after 1997 . Thurlow Terrace was developed a decade after Englewood . 8 Thurlow Terrace was the residence of the Albany Catholic bishops until 1957 . From 1958 to 1972 the State University of New York owned 7 , 8 , 9 , and 10 Thurlow Terrace as their central administration , prior to moving to One Commerce Plaza .
= Heart of Stone ( Star Trek : Deep Space Nine ) =
" Heart of Stone " is the fourteenth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , and originally aired on February 6 , 1995 in broadcast syndication . The story was written by Ira Steven Behr and Robert Hewitt Wolfe , while the episode was directed by Alexander Singer and the score was created by David Bell .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine , a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy . In this episode , Odo ( René Auberjonois ) and Major Kira Nerys ( Nana Visitor ) are trapped on a small moon near the Badlands , while on the station Nog ( Aron Eisenberg ) tries to get Commander Benjamin Sisko 's ( Avery Brooks ) support for his application to Starfleet Academy .
The idea behind the main plot was inspired by a scene from the novel Sometimes a Great Notion . However , the rock prop used was unpopular with the cast and crew , and post @-@ production effects were required . The episode was the first of an ongoing plot thread with Nog entering Starfleet , which initially concerned Eisenberg as he thought he was being written out of the show . The episode was the fourth most watched episode of the third series , with 8 @.@ 3 million viewers . Critical response was mixed , with negative comments directed at the idea that the situation was created by the female Founder ( Salome Jens ) .
= = Plot = =
On board a Runabout , Odo ( René Auberjonois ) and Major Kira Nerys ( Nana Visitor ) are in pursuit of a Maquis vessel in the Badlands . They pursue the vessel to a small moon and land nearby . They find that the Maquis vessel is empty , and split up to search for the pilot . After a short while , Odo comes across Kira , whose foot is caught in an expanding crystal mass . Odo is unable to either remove the crystal from Kira , or transport Kira back to the Runabout .
Meanwhile , on Deep Space Nine , Nog ( Aron Eisenberg ) attempts to convince Commander Benjamin Sisko to endorse his application to join Starfleet Academy . Sisko gives the Ferengi the task of counting the inventory of a cargo bay , which he completes quickly but Sisko still has doubts . On the moon , Kira is slowly being covered by the crystal and insists that Odo leave her as there are increasing seismic tremors . He attempts to free her using an ultrasonic generator , and reveals some personal information to her as they wait for the crystal to shatter . As the crystal slowly swallows her whole after the generator fails to work , and the tremors become even worse , Odo confesses his love for Kira . To his surprise , she says that she is in love with him too .
On DS9 , Sisko informs Nog that he will not give him a recommendation as he has concerns that it is a scheme . Nog confesses that he wants to do it so that he doesn 't turn out like his father Rom ( Max Grodénchik ) , whom he describes as an engineering genius but his culture won 't let him pursue it . Sisko responds by agreeing to recommend Nog to the Academy . Odo is suspicious of Kira 's responses and points a phaser at her , demanding to know who she is . Kira and the crystal suddenly morph into the female Founder ( Salome Jens ) , who reveals that she was the Maquis all along and she was hoping to convince Odo to return to the Dominion . She reveals the location of the real Kira and transports away . Odo finds Kira and tells her of the Founder , but not of his feelings for her .
= = Production = =
Ira Steven Behr and Robert Hewitt Wolfe conceived the story and wrote the script for " Heart of Stone " , and intended the Odo / Kira storyline to be the A @-@ Plot . Behr later thought that the performances of Eisenberg and Brooks elevated the Nog / Sisko story to equal status and would result in a better reaction by fans . The idea of having a character trapped was taken from the Ken Kesey novel Sometimes a Great Notion in which a character is trapped under a log and drowned by rising water . Behr described the same scene in the 1971 film as " a great scene in a not so great movie " . The episode was intended to be low budget , but heavy on characterisation . At one point it was intended for Odo to sing the 1955 Richard Berry song " Louie Louie " , which the character described as a sea shanty , but producers couldn 't acquire the rights in time .
The cast and crew were unhappy with the rock prop used in the episode . Visual effects supervisor Glenn Neufeld strapped Visitor 's feet to the stage in order to ensure that the crystal didn 't move . Different versions of the crystal were then applied for different scenes , with the larger versions incorporating a seat for the actress so that she could relax inside the prop between takes . The prop caused problems for Visitor due to her claustrophobia , which was the second time during season three that a Wolfe scripted episode had caused her these types of problems after " Second Skin " . She also didn 't like how it appeared on screen : " I thought it was going to look like my body turning to stone . Instead I looked like a big old hot fudge sundae , and my head was the cherry on top . "
Director Alexander Singer admitted that the prop wasn 't what they envisioned , and work was conducted on it post @-@ production to improve it . Post @-@ production was also problematic as there were several morphing scenes involving Odo and the female Founder , which required reactions by other actors . Neufeld said that none of what they were aiming for worked in post @-@ production , but it was saved by the visual effects company VisionArt who managed to salvage the work . Jens agreed to re @-@ appear as the female Founder she had previously appeared as in " The Search " , and for her credit to only appear in the closing credits so as to avoid spoiling the twist in the Odo / Kira plot . Eisenberg was initially panicked by the script that showed Nog going to Starfleet Academy as he thought the character was being written out of the show , but executive producer Rick Berman assured him that it wouldn 't be the case . He later said that the scene where Nog talks to Sisko about his father was his favourite scene in the series .
= = Themes = =
Children had featured in Star Trek as major series characters since Wesley Crusher in Star Trek : The Next Generation . The character of Crusher had attended Starfleet Academy , but leaves Starfleet in the seventh season episode " Journey 's End " , aired in February 1994 . Jake Sisko was a major character in Deep Space Nine , but had expressed a desire to be a writer rather than join Starfleet in the sixth episode of the third season , " The Abandoned " . There was a desire to avoid the Crusher " chosen one " type storyline with Sisko , but after " The Abandoned " it was seen that there would no longer be a young character progressing through Starfleet as previously intended . Wolfe said that " Of Wesley , Jake , Alexander , and Nog , wouldn 't it be funny if Nog were the one to end up as a Starfleet captain ? " . Ronald D. Moore agreed with the new character direction , saying that " Somehow , Captain Nog sounds cool " .
Nog 's progression through Starfleet was followed in later episodes , with the character promoted to the rank of Lieutenant Junior Grade by the time of the series finale , " What You Leave Behind " . Odo 's unrequited love for Kira had been hinted at throughout season three building up to the reveal in " Heart of Stone " , which would be a repeating plot device up until the final episode of the series when Odo departs the crew .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Heart of Stone " was first broadcast on February 6 , 1995 in broadcast syndication . It received Nielsen ratings of 8 @.@ 3 million . This placed it in fourth place in the timeslot . This was an increase from the episode aired the previous week , as " Life Support " gained a rating of 8 @.@ 2 million . It was the fourth most viewed episode of the season on first broadcast after " The Search " , " Defiant " and " Meridian " .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for the A.V. Club in October 2012 . He had reservations about the episode up until the twist involving the Founder , and thought that Visitor 's performance as Kira had been slightly off all episode . He thought that having Kira admit her feelings for Odo was rushed and was disappointed by it and felt it ruined what he had considered to be one of the best episodes of the season . However , he was pleased that Odo was as suspicious as he was , and the twist was made all the more striking by the performances . He felt that the Nog / Sisko story was just as good , having felt that Nog had been " off @-@ putting " previously but the performance by Eisenberg in " Heart of Stone " was " amazing " . He particularly praised Nog 's monologue explaining his motives to join Starfleet , and said it was " terrific " as it was " exciting because it ’ s unexpected " .
Jamahl Epsicokhan reviewed the episode for his website " Heart of Stone " . He felt that the main Odo / Kira plot was " contrived " in that the female Founder stole a Maquis ship and set up the entire situation simply to attempt to convince Odo to return to his people . He said that the Nog and Sisko plot was " lightweight but amiable " , and he gave the episode an overall score of 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 . Michelle Erica Green watched the episode for the website TrekNation , and also questioned the main plot . She wrote " what was the shapeshifter going to do if someone OTHER than Kira was in the runabout with Odo ? Did she sit around and wait for the two of them to leave the station together ? " She had further concerns about the direction of the Odo and Kira relationship , and described the romance as a " cop @-@ out " . She thought that Odo 's declaration of his feelings felt forced , but that the plot featuring a crystal creature attacking a crew member reminded her of something from Star Trek : The Original Series .
The first home media release of " Heart of Stone " was as a two episode VHS cassette alongside " Life Support " in the United Kingdom on June 12 , 1995 . This was followed in the United States and Canada with a single episode release on October 5 , 1999 . It was later released on DVD as part of the season three box set on June 3 , 2003 .
= Oskar Schindler =
Oskar Schindler ( 28 April 1908 – 9 October 1974 ) was a German industrialist , spy , and member of the Nazi Party who is credited with saving the lives of 1 @,@ 200 Jews during the Holocaust by employing them in his enamelware and ammunitions factories , which were located in occupied Poland and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia . He is the subject of the 1982 novel Schindler 's Ark , and the subsequent 1993 film Schindler 's List , which reflected his life as an opportunist initially motivated by profit who came to show extraordinary initiative , tenacity and dedication to save the lives of his Jewish employees .
Schindler grew up in Zwittau , Moravia , and worked in several trades until he joined the Abwehr , the intelligence service of Nazi Germany , in 1936 . He joined the Nazi Party in 1939 . Prior to the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1938 , he collected information on railways and troop movements for the German government . He was arrested for espionage by the Czech government but was released under the terms of the Munich Agreement in 1938 . Schindler continued to collect information for the Nazis , working in Poland in 1939 before the invasion of Poland at the start of World War II .
In 1939 , Schindler acquired an enamelware factory in Kraków , Poland , which employed about 1 @,@ 750 workers , of whom 1 @,@ 000 were Jews at the factory 's peak in 1944 . His Abwehr connections helped Schindler to protect his Jewish workers from deportation and death in the Nazi concentration camps . As time went on , Schindler had to give Nazi officials ever larger bribes and gifts of luxury items obtainable only on the black market to keep his workers safe .
By July 1944 , Germany was losing the war , the SS began closing down the easternmost concentration camps and deporting the remaining prisoners westward . Many were killed in Auschwitz and Gross @-@ Rosen concentration camp . Schindler convinced SS @-@ Hauptsturmführer Amon Göth , commandant of the nearby Kraków @-@ Płaszów concentration camp , to allow him to move his factory to Brünnlitz in the Sudetenland , thus sparing his workers from certain death in the gas chambers . Using names provided by Jewish Ghetto Police officer Marcel Goldberg , Göth 's secretary Mietek Pemper compiled and typed the list of 1 @,@ 200 Jews who travelled to Brünnlitz in October 1944 . Schindler continued to bribe SS officials to prevent the execution of his workers until the end of World War II in Europe in May 1945 , by which time he had spent his entire fortune on bribes and black @-@ market purchases of supplies for his workers .
Schindler moved to West Germany after the war , where he was supported by assistance payments from Jewish relief organisations . After receiving a partial reimbursement for his wartime expenses , he moved with his wife , Emilie , to Argentina , where they took up farming . When he went bankrupt in 1958 , Schindler left his wife and returned to Germany , where he failed at several business ventures and relied on financial support from Schindlerjuden ( " Schindler Jews " ) – the people whose lives he had saved during the war . He was named Righteous Among the Nations by the Israeli government in 1963 . He died on 9 October 1974 in Hildesheim , Germany , and was buried in Jerusalem on Mount Zion , the only member of the Nazi Party to be honoured in this way .
= = Early life = =
Schindler was born on 28 April 1908 , into a Sudeten German family in Zwittau , Moravia , Austria @-@ Hungary . His father was Johann " Hans " Schindler , the owner of a farm machinery business , and his mother was Franziska " Fanny " Schindler ( née Luser ) . His sister , Elfriede , was born in 1915 . After attending primary and secondary school , Schindler enrolled in a technical school , from which he was expelled in 1924 for forging his report card . He later graduated , but did not take the Abitur exams that would have enabled him to go to college or university . Instead he took courses in Brno in several trades , including chauffeuring and machinery , and worked for his father for three years . A fan of motorcycles since his youth , Schindler bought a 250 @-@ cc Moto Guzzi racing motorcycle and competed recreationally in mountain races for the next few years .
On 6 March 1928 , Schindler married Emilie Pelzl ( 1907 – 2001 ) , daughter of a prosperous Sudeten German farmer from Maletein . The young couple moved in with Oskar 's parents and occupied the upstairs rooms , where they lived for the next seven years . Soon after his marriage , Schindler quit working for his father and took a series of jobs , including a position at Moravian Electrotechnic and the management of a driving school . After an 18 @-@ month stint in the Czech army , where he rose to the rank of Lance @-@ Corporal in the Tenth Infantry Regiment of the 31st Army , Schindler returned to Moravian Electrotechnic , which went bankrupt shortly afterwards . His father 's farm machinery business closed around the same time , leaving Schindler unemployed for a year . He took a job with Jarslav Simek Bank of Prague in 1931 , where he worked until 1938 .
Schindler was arrested several times in 1931 and 1932 for public drunkenness . Also around this time he had an affair with Aurelie Schlegel , a school friend . She bore him a daughter , Emily , in 1933 , and a son , Oskar Jr , in 1935 . Schindler later claimed the boy was not his son . Schindler 's father , an alcoholic , abandoned his wife in 1935 . She died a few months later after a lengthy illness .
= = Spy = =
Schindler joined the separatist Sudeten German Party in 1935 . Although he was a citizen of Czechoslovakia , Schindler became a spy for the Abwehr , the intelligence service of Nazi Germany , in 1936 . He was assigned to Abwehrstelle II Commando VIII , based in Breslau . He later told Czech police that he did it because he needed the money ; by this time Schindler had a drinking problem and was chronically in debt . His tasks for the Abwehr included collecting information on railways , military installations , and troop movements , as well as recruiting other spies within Czechoslovakia , in advance of a planned invasion of the country by Nazi Germany . He was arrested by the Czech government for espionage on 18 July 1938 and immediately imprisoned , but was released as a political prisoner under the terms of the Munich Agreement , the instrument under which the Czech Sudetenland was annexed into Germany on 1 October . Schindler applied for membership in the Nazi Party on 1 November and was accepted the following year .
After some time off to recover in Zwittau , Schindler was promoted to second in command of his Abwehr unit and relocated with his wife to Ostrava , on the Czech @-@ Polish border , in January 1939 . He was involved in espionage in the months leading up to Hitler 's seizure of the remainder of Czechoslovakia in March . Emilie helped him with paperwork , processing and hiding secret documents in their apartment for the Abwehr office . As he frequently travelled to Poland on business , he and his 25 agents were in a position to collect information about Polish military activities and railways for the planned invasion of Poland . One assignment called for his unit to monitor and provide information about the railway line and tunnel in the Jablunkov Pass , deemed critical for the movement of German troops . Schindler continued to work for Abwehr until as late as fall 1940 , when he was sent to Turkey to investigate corruption among the Abwehr officers assigned to the German embassy there .
= = World War II = =
= = = Emalia = = =
Schindler first arrived in Kraków in October 1939 on Abwehr business and took an apartment the following month . Emilie maintained the apartment in Ostrava and visited Oskar in Kraków at least once a week . In November 1939 , he contacted interior decorator Mila Pfefferberg to decorate his new apartment . Her son , Leopold " Poldek " Pfefferberg , soon became one of his contacts for black market trading . They eventually became lifelong friends . Also that November , Schindler was introduced to Itzhak Stern , an accountant for Schindler 's fellow Abwehr agent Josef " Sepp " Aue , who had taken over Stern 's formerly Jewish @-@ owned place of employment as a Treuhander ( trustee ) . Property belonging to Polish Jews , including their possessions , places of business , and homes were seized by the Germans beginning immediately after the invasion , and Jewish citizens were stripped of their civil rights . Schindler showed Stern the balance sheet of a company he was thinking of acquiring , an enamelware factory called Rekord Ltd owned by a consortium of Jewish businessmen that had filed for bankruptcy earlier that year . Stern advised him that rather than running the company as a trusteeship under the auspices of the Haupttreuhandstelle Ost ( Main Trustee Office for the East ) , he should buy or lease the business , as that would give him more freedom from the dictates of the Nazis , including the freedom to hire more Jews . With the financial backing of several Jewish investors , Schindler signed an informal lease agreement on the factory on 13 November 1939 and formalised the arrangement on 15 January 1940 . He renamed it Deutsche Emaillewaren @-@ Fabrik ( German Enamelware Factory ) or DEF , and it soon became known by the nickname " Emalia " . He initially acquired a staff of seven Jewish workers ( including Abraham Bankier , who helped him manage the company ) and 250 non @-@ Jewish Poles . At its peak in 1944 , the business employed around 1 @,@ 750 workers , a thousand of whom were Jews . Schindler also helped run Schlomo Wiener Ltd , a wholesale outfit that sold his enamelware , and was leaseholder of Prokosziner Glashütte , a glass factory .
Schindler 's ties with the Abwehr and his connections in the Wehrmacht and its Armaments Inspectorate enabled him to obtain contracts to produce enamel cookware for the military . These connections also later helped him protect his Jewish workers from deportation and death . As time went on , Schindler had to give Nazi officials ever larger bribes and gifts of luxury items obtainable only on the black market to keep his workers safe . Bankier , a key black market connection , obtained goods for bribes as well as extra materials for use in the factory . Schindler himself enjoyed a lavish lifestyle and pursued extramarital relationships with his secretary , Viktoria Klonowska , and Eva Kisch Scheuer , a merchant specialising in enamelware from DEF . Emilie Schindler visited for a few months in 1940 and moved to Kraków to live with Oskar in 1941 .
Initially , Schindler was mostly interested in the money @-@ making potential of the business and hired Jews because they were cheaper than Poles – the wages were set by the occupying Nazi regime . Later he began shielding his workers without regard for cost . The status of his factory as a business essential to the war effort became a decisive factor enabling him to help his Jewish workers . Whenever Schindlerjuden ( Schindler Jews ) were threatened with deportation , he claimed exemptions for them . Wives , children , and even persons with disabilities were claimed to be necessary mechanics and metalworkers . On one occasion , the Gestapo came to Schindler demanding that he hand over a family with forged identity papers . " Three hours after they walked in , " Schindler said , " two drunk Gestapo men reeled out of my office without their prisoners and without the incriminating documents they had demanded . "
On 1 August 1940 , Governor @-@ General Hans Frank issued a decree requiring all Kraków Jews to leave the city within the next two weeks . Only those who had jobs directly related to the German war effort would be allowed to stay . Of the 60 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 Jews then living
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which featured graphical adjustments for the platform 's widescreen , was announced in July 2007 . The port was made following the port of Destiny 2 . As with those games , transplanting the 2D graphics onto the PSP and maintaining the experience of the original caused some difficulties . Conversely , they found the memory capacity of the PSP compared to the PS2 a good thing . Yoshizumi felt that the fact that it was a port rather than a remake divided the development team . The port also included extra minor story scenes and a viewing gallery for concept art . Neither the original nor the port of Rebirth have received an English localization , making it one of three mainline Tales titles not have come to the west .
= = = Audio = = =
Rebirth 's soundtrack was composed by Motoi Sakuraba and Shinji Tamura , regular composers for the Tales series . The soundtrack was released as an album , Tales of Rebirth Original Soundtrack ( ティルズ オブ リバース オリジナル ・ サウンドトラック ) , on January 26 , 2005 . Reception of the album has been mixed to positive . Patrick Gann of RPGFan said that fans of previous Tales soundtracks would enjoy it , though personally found it tiring due to similarity to previous Tales soundtracks . The reviewer for Game @-@ OST was generally positive , calling it one of the best albums of the series and better listening outside the context of the game than previous albums , though stated that despite some improvements , it did little to improve on previous Tales scores . As with previous Tales games , a licensed theme song was used for the opening . For Rebirth , the theme song used was " Good Night " , a 2004 single by Japanese pop band Every Little Thing . The song was released on 27 December 2004 , shortly after the game 's release , on a CD single also containing " Koibumi " ( 恋文 , " Love Letter " ) . The single reached 1 # on the Oricon charts and remained in the charts for nineteen weeks .
= = Reception = =
Namco planned for high sales for Rebirth , preparing shipments of the game totaling 700 @,@ 000 units . By January 2005 , a month after release , Rebirth had sold 546 @,@ 726 units . As of December 2007 , the game has sold 605 @,@ 000 units . The game was among those which won the " Future Game " award at the 2005 CESA Game Awards , and later was given a " Gold " award , received for shipping over 500 @,@ 000 units , at the PlayStation Awards 2005 . The PSP port sold 46 @,@ 719 copies at release , reaching 6th place in the Japanese sales charts . The port went on to sell 83 @,@ 016 copies by the end of 2008 . Gaming magazine Famitsu received a score of 32 / 40 , with the four reviewers each giving it a score of 8 . The reviewers were generally positive about the gameplay , and one of them commented on enjoying the story .
Western gaming sites have also been very positive . Andrew Alfonso of IGN , reporting on the TGS 2004 demo , called the battle system " very fun " , and was generally impressed with the visual style with the exception of the world map . His main faults with the game were recurring issues with AI controls seen in previous games , but he made allowances for the fact that the version tested was a demo build . Anoop Gantayat , also writing for IGN when the game was released , was also impressed by the game , citing how quickly the game brought players into the action and how the battle mechanics had been improved over those in Destiny . GameSpy 's Heidi Kemps was favorably impressed by the game , but had reservations as to whether it could improve on Symphonia . Siliconera writer Rolando , writing after the announcement of the PSP port , praised the game 's ability to straddle the line between old and new , stating " this Tales really is a good Tales game that , while retaining a somewhat oldschool Tales charm , manages to reinvent the original formula and introduce a ton of good ideas that worked in your favor and made character customization fun . " RPGFan writer Zain was highly positive about the game : he cited the graphics is beautiful barring a few reservations about dungeons and the overworld map , praised the voice acting , and was generally positive about the story and characters . He also commented that the game was easier than previous Tales titles , and ended by calling it " one of the strongest games of this hardware generation , if not of all time . "
= = = Additional media = = =
Rebirth has been adapted into multiple media since its release . It inspired a five volume book series , released from February until November 2005 . Guidebooks and art books have also been released for the title . It also inspired a manga retelling of the story , published through 2005 . The comics were collected into two anthologies released on April 25 and May 27 , 2005 respectively . The story was also adapted into a CD audio drama series , released in four parts between October 2005 and February 2006 under the umbrella title Teiruzu Obu Ribāsu Dorama CD ( テイルズ オブ リバースドラマCD ? , lit . Tales of Rebirth Drama CD ) . To commemorate the PSP port , a new audio drama , titled Doramachikku DVD Pīchipai @-@ hen ( ドラマチック DVD ピーチパイ編 ? , lit . Dramatic DVD Peach Pie Edition ) , was created . It was released as a limited pre @-@ order addition , and contained voice actor interviews and stage videos from Jump Festa 2008 .
= Italian ironclad Regina Maria Pia =
Regina Maria Pia was the lead ship of the Regina Maria Pia class of ironclad warships built in French shipyards for the Italian Regia Marina in the 1860s . She and her three sister ships were broadside ironclads , mounting a battery of four 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and twenty @-@ two 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns on the broadside . Regina Maria Pia was laid down in July 1862 , was launched in April 1863 , and was completed in April 1864 .
Regina Maria Pia took part in the Battle of Lissa during the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866 . She attacked the unarmored frigates in the Austrian second division , and damaged two vessels . Her career was limited after the war , owing to the emergence of more modern ironclads and a severe reduction in the Italian naval budget following their defeat at Lissa . She was rebuilt as a central battery ship some time after Lissa , and was modernized again in the late 1880s . Regina Maria Pia was eventually broken up for scrap in 1904 .
= = Design = =
Regina Maria Pia was 81 @.@ 2 meters ( 266 ft 5 in ) long overall ; she had a beam of 15 @.@ 24 m ( 50 ft 0 in ) and an average draft of 6 @.@ 35 m ( 20 ft 10 in ) . She displaced 4 @,@ 201 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 135 long tons ; 4 @,@ 631 short tons ) normally and up to 4 @,@ 527 t ( 4 @,@ 456 long tons ; 4 @,@ 990 short tons ) at full load . Regina Maria Pia was a broadside ironclad , and she was initially armed with a main battery of four 8 inches ( 203 mm ) guns and twenty @-@ two 164 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns , though her armament changed throughout her career . The ship was protected by iron belt armor that was 4 @.@ 75 in ( 121 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull at the waterline . The battery deck was protected by 4 @.@ 3 in ( 109 mm ) of iron plate . She had a crew of 480 – 485 officers and men .
The ship 's propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , rectangular boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 96 knots ( 24 @.@ 00 km / h ; 14 @.@ 91 mph ) from 2 @,@ 924 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 180 kW ) . She could steam for 2 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 800 km ; 3 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship was initially schooner @-@ rigged to supplement the steam engine , though her masts were later reduced to a barque rig . Ultimately , she lost her sailing rig completely , having it replaced with a pair of military masts with fighting tops .
= = Service history = =
Regina Maria Pia was built at the French shipyard Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée in La Seyne . Her keel was laid down on 22 July 1862 and her completed hull was launched on 28 April 1863 . The ship was completed on 17 April 1864 and delivered to the Italian fleet . In June 1866 , Italy declared war on Austria , as part of the Third Italian War of Independence , which was fought concurrently with the Austro @-@ Prussian War . The Italian fleet commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , initially adopted a cautious course of action ; he was unwilling to risk battle with the Austrian Navy , despite the fact that the Austrian fleet was much weaker than his own . Persano claimed he was simply waiting on the ironclad ram Affondatore , en route from Britain , but his inaction weakened morale in the fleet , with many of his subordinates openly accusing him of cowardice .
Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on June 2
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7 , in an attempt to draw out the Italians . At the time , many of the Italian ships were in disarray ; several ships did not have their entire armament , and several others had problems with their engines . Regina Maria Pia was one of the few ironclads fit for action , so she , Castelfidardo , San Martino , and Principe di Carignano formed up to prepare to attack Tegetthoff 's ships . Persano held a council of war aboard Principe di Carignano to determine whether he should sortie to engage Tegetthoff , but by that time , the Austrians had withdrawn , making the decision moot . The Minister of the Navy , Agostino Depretis , urged Persano to act and suggested the island of Lissa , to restore Italian confidence after their defeat at the Battle of Custoza the previous month . On 7 July , Persano left Ancona and conducted a sweep into the Adriatic , but encountered no Austrian ships and returned on the 13th .
= = = Battle of Lissa = = =
On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet out of Ancona , bound for Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers ; the Italian warships began bombarding the Austrian forts on the island , with the intention of landing the soldiers once the fortresses had been silenced . In response , the Austrian Navy sent the fleet under Tegetthoff to attack the Italian ships . Regina Maria Pia was at that time in the 3rd Division , commanded by Captain Augusto Riboty , along with the ironclads Terribile , Formidabile , and Re di Portogallo , and the coastal defense ship Varese . After spending the 18th unsuccessfully bombarding the Austrian fortresses , the Italians withdrew late in the day , preparing to launch another attack the following morning . Persano sent most of his ships to bombard the town of Vis , but he was unable to effect the landing .
The next morning , Persano ordered another attack ; four ironclads would force the harbor defenses at Vis while Regina Maria Pia and the rest of the fleet would attempt to suppress the outer fortifications . This second attack also proved to be a failure , but Persano decided to make a third attempt the next day . Regina Maria Pia and the bulk of the fleet would again try to disable the outer forts in preparation for the landing . Before the Italians could begin the attack , the dispatch boat Esploratore arrived , bringing news of Tegetthoff 's approach . Persano 's fleet was in disarray ; the three ships of Admiral Giovanni Vacca 's 1st Division were three miles to the northeast from Persano 's main force , and three other ironclads were further away to the west . Persano immediately ordered his ships to form up with Vacca 's , first in line abreast formation , and then in line ahead formation . Regina Maria Pia initially was the last ship in the line , though Varese later joined up behind her .
Shortly before the action began , Persano decided to leave his flagship Re d 'Italia and transfer to Affondatore , though none of his subordinates on the other ships were aware of the change . They were thus left to fight as individuals without direction . More dangerously , by stopping Re d 'Italia , he allowed a significant gap to open up between Vacca 's three ships and the rest of the fleet . Tegetthoff took his fleet through the gap between Vacca 's and Persano 's ships , in an attempt to split the Italian line and initiate a melee . He failed to ram any Italian vessels on the first pass , so he turned back toward Persano 's ships , and took Re d 'Italia , San Martino , and Palestro under heavy fire . The Austrians quickly inflicted serious damage on Re d 'Italia and Palestro . While Tegetthoff 's ironclads were attacking Persano 's division , Riboty 's division , including Regina Maria Pia , engaged Anton von Petz 's division of unarmored steam frigates . In the melee , Regina Maria Pia collided with San Martino , damaging the latter 's ram bow .
After Palestro withdrew , the Austrian ironclads turned their attention to the ships of Riboty 's division . By this time , Re d 'Italia had been rammed and sunk , and Palestro was burning furiously . Persano broke off the engagement to consolidate his forces , but his ships , low on coal and ammunition , and with badly demoralized crews , could not be rallied by Persano 's half @-@ hearted attempt to launch an attack . The Italian fleet began to withdraw , followed by the Austrians ; as night began to fall , the opposing fleets disengaged completely , heading for Ancona and Pola , respectively . Regina Maria Pia had had one iron plate destroyed , and another had a steel shot lodged in it . She had been badly burned , and the flames had nearly reached her powder magazine . In return , she had damaged the Austrian ship of the line SMS Kaiser and the ironclad Prinz Eugen . After the battle , Vacca replaced Persano ; he was ordered to attack the main Austrian naval base at Pola , but the war ended before the operation could be carried out .
= = = Later career = = =
For the rest of her long career , Regina Maria Pia served in a variety of roles , both in the main fleet and in Italy 's colonial empire . In the immediate aftermath of the war , the Italian naval budget was drastically reduced ; so significant were the cuts that the fleet had great difficulty in mobilizing its ironclad squadron to attack the port of Civitavecchia in September 1870 , as part of the wars of Italian unification . Instead , the ships were laid up and the sailors conscripted to man them were sent home . Some time after 1866 , the ship was rebuilt as a central battery ship , with most of her guns located in a central , armored casemate . Two other guns were placed in the bow as chase guns , with a third mounted as a stern chaser . At this time , her armament was also revised , to two 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) guns in the bow and nine 8 in guns , four on each broadside and the last in the stern .
Regina Maria Pia took part in the launching ceremony for the ironclad Italia on 29 September 1880 ; also present were the Italian ironclad Principe Amedeo and King Umberto I aboard his yacht , and the British ironclads HMS Monarch and Thunderer with Vice Admiral George Tryon , both members of the Mediterranean Fleet . Between 1888 and 1890 , the ship had her barque rig replaced with military masts . By this time , she had been rearmed with eight 6 in ( 150 mm ) guns in the casemate and several smaller guns for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . These included five 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) guns , four 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns , and eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolver cannon . She also received three torpedo tubes . The ship was stricken from the naval register in 1904 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= 1877 Wimbledon Championship =
The 1877 Wimbledon Championship was a men 's tennis tournament held at the All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Club ( AEC & LTC ) in Wimbledon , London . It was the world 's first official lawn tennis tournament , and was later recognised as the first Grand Slam tournament or " Major " . The AEC & LTC had been founded in July 1868 , as the All England Croquet Club ; lawn tennis was introduced in February 1875 to compensate for the waning interest in croquet . In June 1877 the club decided to organise a tennis tournament to pay for the repair of its pony roller , needed to maintain the lawns . A set of rules was drawn up for the tournament , derived from the first standardised rules of tennis issued by the Marylebone Cricket Club in May 1875 .
The Gentlemen 's Singles competition , the only event of the championship , was contested on grass courts by 22 players who each paid one guinea to participate . The tournament started on 9 July 1877 , and the final – delayed for three days by rain – was played on 19 July in front of a crowd of about 200 people who each paid an entry fee of one shilling . The winner received 12 guineas in prize money and a silver challenge cup , valued at 25 guineas , donated by the sports magazine The Field . Spencer Gore , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old rackets player from Wandsworth , became the first Wimbledon champion by defeating William Marshall , a 28 @-@ year @-@ old real tennis player , in three straight sets in a final that lasted 48 minutes . The tournament made a profit of £ 10 and the pony roller remained in use . An analysis made after the tournament led to some modifications of the rules regarding the court dimensions .
= = Background = =
= = = Origins of lawn tennis = = =
The origin of tennis lies in the monastic cloisters in 12th @-@ century France , where the ball was struck with the palm of the hand in a game called jeu de paume . Rackets were introduced to the game in the early 16th century . This original version of tennis , now called " real tennis " , was mostly played indoors and popular among the royalty and gentry , while a crude outdoor version called longue paume was played by the populace . The prominence of the game declined in the 17th and 18th centuries , although there are sporadic mentions of a " long tennis " or " field tennis " version in the second half of the 18th century .
Between 1858 and 1873 several people in Victorian England experimented with a lawn version of tennis . Major Harry Gem and Augurio Perera demonstrated their game of Pelota ( Spanish for ball ) and in 1872 created the world 's first lawn tennis club at Leamington Spa . In February 1874 Major Clopton Wingfield introduced his version of lawn tennis , called Sphairistikè ; on his patent application , he described it as a " New and Improved Court for Playing the Ancient Game of Tennis " , and its rules were published in an eight @-@ page booklet . Wingfield is widely credited with popularising the new game through his energetic promotional efforts . The Sphairistikè court was hourglass @-@ shaped , wider at the baseline than at the net . The service was made from a single side in a lozenge shaped box situated in the middle of the court and it had to bounce beyond the service line . In November 1874 Wingfield published a second , expanded edition of The Book of the Game , which had 12 rules and featured a larger court and a slightly lower net .
= = = All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Club = = =
The All England Croquet Club was founded on 23 July 1868 by six gentlemen at the offices of The Field , a weekly country and sports magazine . After a yearlong search a suitable ground of four acres of meadowland was located between the London and South Western Railway and Worple Road in Wimbledon , then an outer suburb of London . The club 's committee decided on 24 September 1869 to lease the ground and paid £ 50 rental for the first year , a fee which increased to £ 75 and £ 100 , respectively , over the following two years . The increasing rent , coupled with a waning interest in the sedate sport of croquet , was causing the club financial difficulties . In February 1875 it decided to introduce lawn tennis at its grounds to capitalise on the growing interest in this new sport and generate additional revenue . The proposal was made by Henry Jones , a sports writer who published extensively in The Field under his nom de plume " Cavendish " and who had joined the club in 1869 . The introduction of lawn tennis was approved at the annual meeting and the club 's membership fee was set at two guineas to cover both sports . At a cost of £ 25 , one croquet lawn was converted to a tennis court ; soon after its completion on 25 February 1875 , a dozen new club members joined . In 1876 four more lawns , a third of the ground , were handed over to lawn tennis to address the increase in new members . A committee member , George Nicol , was appointed to deal exclusively with lawn tennis affairs . Lawn tennis had become so popular that on 14 April 1877 the name of the club was formally changed , at the suggestion of founding member John H. Hale , to the All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Club ( AEC & LTC ) .
= = = Rules of lawn tennis = = =
On 3 March 1875 the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) , in its capacity as the governing body for rackets and real tennis , convened a meeting at Lord 's Cricket Ground to test the various versions of lawn tennis with the aim to standardise the game 's rules . Wingfield was present to demonstrate Sphairistikè , as was John H. Hale , who presented his version called Germains Lawn Tennis ; there is no record of either
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not seen as a viable choice for a single . A quarrel then arose between Gaga and her label where " Alejandro " was ultimately chosen to be released . Through her account on Twitter , the singer remarked on the decision , " Alejandro is on the radio . Fuck it sounds so good , we did it little monsters . " The single was officially sent to radio on April 20 , 2010 in the United States . In an interview with Fuse TV , Gaga said that the inspiration behind " Alejandro " was her " Fear of Men Monster " .
= = Composition = =
Billboard described " Alejandro " as a synthpop song with a " stomping Euro @-@ pop beat " . The song is influenced by ABBA and Ace of Base . The Ace of Base influences are prominent in the beats of the song , the vocals , and the melody . The words are slurred in her mouth while consisting of an uplifting melody .
The song opens with the main melody from the Hungarian piece " Csárdás " by Italian composer Vittorio Monti played on violin , as a distressed Gaga ( speaking in a Spanish accent ) states : " I know that we are young , and I know that you may love me / But I just can 't be with you like this anymore , Alejandro . " The track then changes to a stomping Europop beat . Gaga bids her ex @-@ lovers farewell with a bitter @-@ hearted pre @-@ chorus where she sings : " You know that I love you , boy / Hot like Mexico , rejoice ! / At this point I 've got to choose / Nothing to lose . " By the end of the song , the three protagonists – Alejandro , Fernando , and Roberto – are bid farewell by Gaga .
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is set in the time signature of common time , with a moderate tempo of 99 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B minor with Gaga 's vocal range spanning from F ♯ 3 to G5 . The song has a basic sequence of Bm – D – F ♯ m as its chord progression . The lyrics talk about Gaga defending herself against a group of Latin men and has a number of ABBA allusions , including a reference to their 1976 song " Fernando " , which Gaga cited as one of her influences .
= = Critical reception = =
Chris Ryan from MTV described the song as a " lush paean to a love that 's ' hot like Mexico ' . " Evan Sawdey from PopMatters said that Gaga 's vocals sounded like those of Shakira in the song 's chorus . Ben Patashnik from NME called the song light @-@ hearted . Michael Hubbard of MusicOMH complimented the song as " brilliantly catchy , deceptively simple and wonderfully melancholy , " while Sarah Hajibagheri from The Times dismissed it for being a " painful Latino warble [ and ] a would @-@ be Eurovision reject . " The Boston Globe 's James Reed also gave a negative review of the song , writing that it is " a tepid dance track in which she trills the song 's title over and over again as if she had nothing better to say . " The song won Best Pop Dance Track at the Annual International Dance Music Awards , the major event held during the Winter Music Conference 2011 .
Comparisons with Swedish pop music groups ABBA and Ace of Base 's work were constant in reviews . Paul Lester from BBC felt that " [ Alejandro ] moves at an Ace of Base pace . " Lindsey Fortier from Billboard compared it to Ace of Base 's " Don 't Turn Around " and ABBA 's " Fernando " , adding that : " By the song 's end , Alejandro , Fernando and Roberto aren 't the only ones sent packing — the listener is dancing out right behind them " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine also made an Ace of Base connection calling the song a homage to them . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic denoted the song as an " updated ABBA revision " . Mikael Wood of Los Angeles Times called it bubbly and also went to compare with ABBA 's style . Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone called it a " loving ABBA spoof " . Scott Plagenhoef of Pitchfork Media noted that although " Alejandro " is an ABBA morph , " it comes off very modern , in part because U.S. pop and hip @-@ hop is currently drawing heavily from Europop , hi @-@ NRG , and dance music . " Brian R. Fitzgerland from The Wall Street Journal compared the song with Madonna 's 1987 single " Who 's That Girl " . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the song five out of five stars and compared it to Madonna 's song " La Isla Bonita " and Ace Of Base songs , but felt that Gaga added " her own twist to hers " . He also praised the song 's melodies describing them as " deceptively catchy " and the lyrics as " wistful " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Alejandro " debuted at number 72 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the issue dated April 17 , 2010 . It reached number five on the chart , becoming Gaga 's seventh consecutive top ten hit in the United States . Gaga became the second female artist to have her first seven singles reach top @-@ ten in the United States , since R & B singer Monica did so in 1995 – 99 . The song also debuted on the Mainstream Top 40 chart at number 35 , and the Hot Digital Songs chart at number 71 , after selling 24 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads according to Nielsen Soundscan . " Alejandro " peaked at number four on the Mainstream Top 40 chart , becoming the first single by her not to reach the number one position there . It also debuted on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart at 40 and reached the top on the issue dated July 7 , 2010 . The song has sold 2 @,@ 570 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States as of April 2016 , making Gaga the only artist in digital history to amass seven consecutive 2 million sellers as a lead act . In Canada , " Alejandro " debuted at number 78 on the Canadian Hot 100 issue dated April 4 , 2010 , and moved to number 50 the next week . The song reached a peak of number four , on the issue dated May 8 , 2010 .
On April 5 , 2010 , " Alejandro " debuted at number 49 in Australia on the official ARIA Singles Chart , and moved to number 28 the next week . It ultimately peaked at number two , thus becoming Gaga 's seventh top five hit in the country . " Alejandro " was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies of the single . The song debuted at number 35 on the New Zealand Top 40 on April 19 , 2010 . It has peaked at number 11 .
With the release of The Fame Monster , " Alejandro " charted on the UK Singles Chart at number 75 , on November 29 , 2009 , due to digital sales . On the May 16 , 2010 , chart , the song re @-@ entered at number 95 and ultimately peaked at number seven . According to the Official Charts Company , " Alejandro " has sold a total of 436 @,@ 000 copies as of February 2014 , and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . They also revealed it as the 37th best @-@ selling vinyl single in the UK for the 2010s decade . On the Mahasz issue dated December 6 , 2009 , the song debuted at number five on the Hungarian Singles Chart . Across Europe , the song reached the top five in Austria , the Ultratop charts of Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Denmark , France , Germany , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Netherlands , Norway , Slovakia , Sweden and Switzerland , while topping the charts in Finland , Poland , Bulgaria , Romania and Russia .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and release = = =
In January 2010 , it was reported that Gaga was holding casting calls for the music video of " Alejandro " and was eager for David Walliams to appear in the video alongside his wife Lara Stone . On March 23 , 2010 , Women 's Wear Daily reported that photographer Steven Klein would direct the music video , which Gaga confirmed herself . While touring Australia with The Monster Ball Tour , Gaga was interviewed by Australian radio station , Melbourne 's Nova 100 , where she talked about the music video . She said ,
I 'm so excited about the ' Alejandro ' video , [ ... ] Actually , we 're shooting it very soon and I don 't want to say who the director is yet because it 's going to give a lot away . [ ... ] Are you absolutely mad ? I would never , ever tell you [ about the concept of the video ] ! I would be more likely to lie through my teeth to you [ regarding ] what the video 's about so that you could all be surprised . But I will tell you it 's not the sequel to the ' Telephone ' video .
After confirming that Klein was directing her video , Gaga explained that she " doesn 't know what [ the video is ] going to look like until it 's finished " , and commented that " [ Steven Klein is ] a very good friend of mine and I love him so much , [ ... ] I have so much respect for him . And we 've been excited to collaborate and have a fashion photographer tell us a story , the story of my music through his lens and this idea of fashion and lifestyle . " Gaga explained that Klein understood her " I am what I wear " lifestyle , making him a suitable director for the video . She added , " It 's all about where I 'm from and love of theater and love of music and love of the lie in art , and Steven really knows and understands that , [ .... ] So we 're making a beautiful video , and I 'm so excited . " In May 2010 , Gaga told The Times about the concept of the video : " [ It 's about the ] purity of my friendships with my gay friends , and how I 've been unable to find that with a straight man in my life . It 's a celebration and an admiration of gay love — it confesses my envy of the courage and bravery they require to be together . In the video I 'm pining for the love of my gay friends — but they just don 't want me to be with them . "
A snippet of the video was shown on Larry King Live on June 1 , 2010 . The clip was from the portion of the video in black @-@ and @-@ white , where Gaga and her dancers perform variations on a sharp military march throughout . Kara Warner of MTV said that it seemed reminiscent of Madonna 's " Vogue " video and Christina Aguilera 's " Not Myself Tonight " , but stated that in " Alejandro " , Gaga 's style was more cutting , masculine and militant in contrast to Madonna 's . Because of the video 's military theme , comparisons were also made to Janet Jackson 's " Rhythm Nation " . On the program , Gaga said to King that the video has a " homoerotic military theme " [ ... ] " It is a celebration of my love and appreciation for the gay community , my admiration of their bravery , their love for one another and their courage in
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their relationships . " The video premiered on Gaga 's official website and her YouTube / Vevo account on June 8 , 2010 , at noon EDT ( June 8 , 2010 , 16 : 00 UTC ) .
= = = Synopsis = = =
A portion of the video is dedicated to the Broadway musical Cabaret . The video begins with soldiers in black leather uniforms in a cabaret with a close @-@ up of a soldier passed out in female fishnet stockings and heels as another lone soldier stares into the distance . The scene then cuts to male dancers performing elaborate choreography while marching forward with a Star of David . As the intro of the song begins , Gaga is shown leading a funeral procession , carrying the Sacred Heart on a pillow . When the lyrics begin , she sits on a throne wearing an elaborate headpiece and binocular @-@ like eyepieces , with a smoking pipe in her hand , watching her dancers perform a rigorous routine in the snow . Gaga is then seen as the character Sally Bowles from Cabaret , dancing and simulating sex acts with three men on a stage with twin beds surrounded by spotlights , all wearing nothing but underwear , intercut with shots of Gaga lying on a larger bed dressed in a red latex nun outfit . She subsequently appears dressed in a white hooded robe , reminiscent of Joan of Arc , with her dancers , interspersed with a shot of her as the nun , consuming a set of rosary beads . After this , Gaga and her dancers are shown in a sequence in black @-@ and @-@ white in their military uniforms performing a tribute dedicated to the late choreographer Bob Fosse , who won an Academy Award for his direction of the film version of Cabaret . Gaga is seen in a blonde bob and a similar outfit to one of Liza Minnelli 's performance costumes . The video moves to a scene of her wearing a bra equipped with AR @-@ 15 rifle barrels and her dancers performing another dance routine . She is then shown in the empty club , scenes of war breaking out flash by , and the lone soldier appears again . Going back to the Joan of Arc scene , she struggles with her dancers and disrobes . The video ends with her dressed as the nun , the film burning away from her face outwards . Klein explained that the video was , " about a woman 's desire to resurrect a dead love and who can not face the brutality of her present situation . The pain of living without your true love . "
= = = Reception = = =
James Montgomery from MTV commented that " Gaga has created a world that , while oppressive , also looks great . " In a separate piece Montgomery added that " ... she may have finally reached the point in her career where not even she can top herself . " Rolling Stone 's Daniel Kreps called the video a " cinematic epic . " Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly , liked the video ; however , he had no idea what was going on : " I can ’ t wait to hear Lady Gaga explain her latest video , “ Alejandro . ” Mostly because after watching it ( twice ! ) , I have absolutely no clue what ’ s going on beyond the obvious . " Anthony Benigno from Daily News felt that " the shock songstress ' new music video [ ... ] is chock full of bed @-@ ridden S & M imagery that makes it look like the softcore answer to The Matrix . Randall Roberts from Los Angeles Times said " the clip reinforces the notion that no one understands the convergence of image and music right now better than Gaga . " Jed Gottlieb from the Boston Herald said that " The plot [ of the video ] is hard to decipher , but it ’ s clearly not a story that ends happily ever after . " Jen Dose from National Post commented " Gaga ’ s new vid for ' Alejandro ' certainly brings the crazy we ’ ve all come to expect from her . It ’ s like an 8 + minute homage to Madonna — with some gay Nazis thrown in for good measure " . Amy Odell of New York said the video 's outfits were not as " intense " as those of " Bad Romance " or " Telephone . " Nate Jones of Time Magazine disliked the song , but felt the video " looks fantastic ... the self @-@ conscious ballsiness of Gaga and director Steven Klein works here . " Jennifer Cady from E ! liked the video , but did not think it was as good as Gaga 's previous work . Julie Moult from Daily Mail said " [ After the video ] , no @-@ one could accuse Lady Gaga of being the shy and retiring type . "
The video was also heavily compared to works by 1980s pop artists like Madonna and Janet Jackson . Critic Monica Herrera viewed the video as a hybrid of Madonna 's " Like a Prayer " and Janet Jackson 's " Rhythm Nation " . MTV 's Kyle Anderson found references to Madonna 's 1996 film Evita and the music videos for her songs " Like a Prayer " , " Human Nature " and " Vogue . " Rolling Stone compared the black @-@ and @-@ white cinematography of the video to that of " Vogue , " and noticed some " not so subtle " hints toward " Like a Prayer . " The magazine believed that the " Alejandro " was so similar to Madonna 's work because director Steven Klein had closely worked with Madonna prior to shooting " Alejandro . " Devon Thomas from CBS News said the " Madonna @-@ isms run high in the clip . " He noted Gaga 's short , cropped hair and black blazer " set against the stark , post @-@ industrialist mood of the [ " Alejandro " ] clip " was similar to " Express Yourself " and the machine @-@ gun bra in the video was similar to the cone bra Madonna sported in " Vogue . " He also compared the video to Madonna 's early Blond Ambition World Tour era by saying that " [ this video ] is a visual love letter to [ Madonna ] " . New York said the video " reeked " of Madonna . James Montgomery of MTV News defended Gaga against the Madonna comparisons , saying , " Just to say , ' Oh , ' cause it 's in black and white and she has a bowl haircut at one point , it 's Madonna , ' that 's sort of selling their vision short . "
= = = Religious iconography = = =
" Alejandro " created a media uproar after the release of the video because of its use of religious imagery . One of the most discussed scenes in the video was when Gaga , dressed in a latex nun outfit , swallowed rosary beads . The Catholic League criticized the video for its use of religious imagery , accusing Gaga of " playing a Madonna copy @-@ cat " . Moncia Herrara said of the mayhem : " [ Alejandro ] courts religious controversy in much the same way that Madonna 's ' Like a " Prayer ' video once did , intermingling Catholic imagery like rosary beads and nun 's robes with sexual cues . " In an interview with MTV , Klein explained that the religious symbolism was not meant to denote anything negative , but to represent Gaga 's battle between the darker and lighter forces . Thus at the end of the film , she is portrayed again in her nun 's habit . Klein added that the significance behind her mouth and eyes disappearing was " because she is withdrawing her senses from the world of evil and going inward towards prayer and contemplation . " He added that the scene where Gaga devours the rosary beads was her act of theophagy , the desire to consume the body of God , the rosary being symbolic of the Holy .
Many critics agreed that the religious imagery was a calculated move by Gaga to create controversy . Simon Voxick @-@ Levinson from Entertainment Weekly felt that the move was calculated , saying , " Gaga wants to offend people . She 's a provocateur . Gaga would probably be disappointed if no one was offended by her latest video . She 's doing that stuff for a reason . " He did not think that the risks were very original or as exciting as the ones in " Telephone . " " The risks that she was taking [ ... ] were easier targets [ ... ] It 's a little bit been there , done that , " he said . New York Times 's Jon Caramanica thought the controversy was Gaga 's attempt to take the " Queen of Pop " throne . He said , " " I 'm sure she 'd say she loves Madonna ... but I also think she 's saying , ' This [ Queen of Pop title ] is mine . ' And also , like , ' I 'm murdering you with my own style . I 've learned this . I know how to do this ... And look how flawlessly I do it . ' " He did feel , however , that the religious imagery was obvious and lazy : " Even the worst provocation is going to succeed . She got what she wanted . " Singer Katy Perry took to her Twitter account and wrote , " Using blasphemy as entertainment is as cheap as a comedian telling fart jokes . " The Huffington Post ascertained that while Gaga had not been mentioned directly by name that it was definitely a slam by Perry towards Lady Gaga . In an interview on NRJ Radio 's Le 6 / 9 , Perry said that the tweet was not solely about Gaga , stating that it was based on her personal views of religion at that time .
= = Live performances = =
Gaga performed " Alejandro " on her 2009 – 11 The Monster Ball Tour . It was the fourth song of the set list on the North American leg of the tour . However , on the European and British legs of the tour the song was performed towards the end of the show . The live performance saw her wearing a silver bodysuit and then being carried by her crotch by one of her male dancers and lowered onto another male dancer , engaging in a threesome with them . During the performance at San Diego , California , Gaga incorporated the city 's name in the song , later commenting " I am so lucky that San Diego rhymes with ' Fernando ' and ' Alejandro ' . " Ted Shaw of Windsor Star commented that " Songs like ' Alejandro ' , ' Teeth ' and ' Monster ' shoved the sex act in your face . " T 'Cha Dunlevy from The Gazette said that " the song followed in fast order , with not quite enough to set [ it ] apart . It was one choreographed dance number after the next . " Jeremy Adams from Rolling Stone commented that the performance was " [ one ] of several moments [ ... ] that gave parents in the audience consternation . " Jim Harrington from San Jose Mercury News compared Gaga 's performance of the song with that of an erotic dancer .
On April 20 , 2010 , Gaga performed the song at the MAC AIDS Fund Pan @-@ Asia Viva Glam launch in Tokyo where she wore a doily lace dress . She entered the stage in a procession inspired by a Japanese wedding , and as the lights dimmed , she sat at her piano on the rotating stage and belted out " Speechless " , which was followed by the performance of " Alejandro " , where she was picked up by one of her dancers , who appeared to be covered in talcum powder . Gaga taped a medley of " Bad Romance " and " Alejandro " for the ninth season of American Idol on April 28 , 2010 . Her performance aired on the show 's May 5 , 2010 episode . The performance started with Gaga playing the piano for a slowed @-@ down snippet of " Bad Romance " . She was dressed in a revealing @-@ but @-@ veiled black outfit , wielding a cape and was surrounded by shirtless dancers . Halfway through the performance , she shed her cape and began writhing on the floor . Over in one corner of the stage , a statue of the Virgin Mary had flames pouring out of the top of it , as Gaga sang the chorus . Fog filled the stage , as Gaga and her dancers performed an energetic dance routine . Luchina Fisher from ABC News called it a " thinly @-@ veiled performance dripping with sex and violins " and " Gaga doing her best Madonna impression . " On July 9 , 2010 , the song was performed on The Today Show , where she sang it on a stage , outside the studio . In May 2011 , Gaga performed the song during Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Carlisle , Cumbria . The song was also included on her 2012 Born This Way Ball Tour . The performance included her lounging on a couch made of meat and wearing her gun bra with half naked men dancing around her .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lady Gaga – vocals , songwriter , co @-@ producer , vocal arrangement , background vocals
RedOne – songwriter , producer , vocal editing , vocal arrangement , background vocals , audio engineering , instrumentation , programming , recording at FC Walvisch , Amsterdam and Sonic Vista Studios , Ibiza , Spain on July 24th 2009
Eelco Bakker – audio engineering
Johnny Severin – vocal editing
Robert Orton – audio mixing at Sarm Studios , London , England
Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering at Oasis Mastering , Burbank , California
Credits adapted from The Fame Monster album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= HMS Royal Oak ( 1892 ) =
HMS Royal Oak was one of seven Royal Sovereign @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Royal Navy during the 1890s . Upon her completion in 1894 , she was initially placed in reserve until mobilised in 1896 for service with the Flying Squadron . After returning briefly to reserve , the ship was assigned the following year to the Mediterranean Fleet . Royal Oak remained there until 1902 when she returned home ; after a refit , the ship was assigned to the Home Fleet , where she served as the flagship of the fleet 's second @-@ in @-@ command in 1904 – 05 . Royal Oak was then reduced to reserve until she was taken out of service in 1911 . The ship was sold for scrap in early 1914 .
= = Design and description = =
The design of the Royal Sovereign @-@ class ships was derived from that of the Admiral @-@ class ironclad battleships , greatly enlarged to improve seakeeping and to provide space for a secondary armament as in the preceding Trafalgar @-@ class ironclad battleships . The ships displaced 14 @,@ 150 long tons ( 14 @,@ 380 t ) at normal load and 15 @,@ 580 long tons ( 15 @,@ 830 t ) at deep load . They had a length between perpendiculars of 380 feet ( 115 @.@ 8 m ) and an overall length of 410 feet 6 inches ( 125 @.@ 1 m ) , a beam of 75 feet ( 22 @.@ 9 m ) , and a draught of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . Their crew consisted of 670 officers and ratings in 1903 .
The Royal Sovereigns were powered by a pair of three @-@ cylinder , vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft . Their engines were designed to produce a total of 11 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 8 @,@ 200 kW ) and a maximum speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) using steam provided by eight cylindrical boilers with forced draught . The ships carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 420 long tons ( 1 @,@ 443 t ) of coal , which gave them a range of 4 @,@ 720 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 740 km ; 5 @,@ 430 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Their main armament consisted of four breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun barbettes , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Each gun was provided with 80 rounds . Their secondary armament consisted of ten quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns . 200 rounds per gun were carried by the ships . Sixteen QF 6 @-@ pounder ( 2 @.@ 2 in ( 57 mm ) ) and a dozen QF 3 @-@ pounder ( 1 @.@ 9 in ( 47 mm ) ) Hotchkiss guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats . The two 3 @-@ pounders in the upper fighting top were removed in 1899 – 1902 and all of the remaining light guns from the lower fighting tops and main deck followed in 1905 – 09 . The Royal Sovereign @-@ class ships mounted seven 18 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes , although Royal Oak had four of hers removed in 1902 .
The Royal Sovereigns ' armour scheme was similar to that of the Trafalgars , as the waterline belt of compound armour only protected the area between the barbettes . The 14 – 18 @-@ inch ( 356 – 457 mm ) belt was 238 feet ( 72 @.@ 5 m ) long and had a total height of 8 feet 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) of which 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) was below water . Transverse bulkheads 14 – 16 inches ( 356 – 406 mm ) thick closed off the ends of the belt . Above the belt was a strake of 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) nickel @-@ steel armour closed off by 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) transverse bulkheads .
The barbettes were protected by compound armour , ranging in thickness from 11 to 17 inches ( 279 to 432 mm ) , and the casemates for the 6 @-@ inch guns were protected by armour equally thick . The thicknesses of the deck armour ranged from 2 @.@ 5 to 3 inches ( 64 to 76 mm ) . The walls of the forward conning tower were 12 – 14 inches ( 305 – 356 mm ) thick and the aft conning tower was protected by 3 @-@ inch plates .
= = Construction and career = =
The Royal Sovereign class was ordered as part of the Naval Defence Act 1889 that was a supplement to the normal naval estimates . Royal Oak , named after the tree in which King Charles II hid after the Battle of Worcester , was the sixth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy . The ship was laid down by Cammell Laird at their shipyard in Birkenhead on 29 May 1890 and floated out of the drydock on 5 November 1892 . She arrived at Portsmouth Dockyard on 29 October 1893 for fitting out , completed her sea trials in June 1894 , and cost £ 977 @,@ 996 . Upon completion , Royal Oak was placed in reserve at Portsmouth . Almost two years later , she mobilised there on 14 January 1896 for service in the Particular Service Squadron , which was formed in response to rising tensions in Europe following the Jameson Raid and Germany 's Kaiser Wilhelm II 's telegram of support to the Boer government . When the squadron disbanded on 25 November , the ship returned to reserve at Portsmouth .
Royal Oak was recommissioned on 9 March 1897 for service with the Mediterranean Fleet , where she was to relieve the battleship Collingwood . She departed Portsmouth on 24 March 1897 , and arrived at Malta on 5 April . Royal Oak was relieved by the battleship Bulwark and departed the Mediterranean in May 1902 . She arrived at Plymouth on 16 May , and at Portsmouth the following day , and paid off there on 6 June 1902 . She soon moved to Chatham Dockyard for a refit , during which casemates were provided for her six @-@ inch upper deck guns . On 16 February 1903 , Royal Oak recommissioned at Portsmouth for service in the Home Fleet using part of the battleship Nile 's crew as a nucleus . In the summer of 1903 , she participated in combined exercises in the Atlantic involving the Home Fleet , Mediterranean , and Channel Fleets , as well as the Cruiser Squadron .
In April 1904 , while operating with the Home Fleet off the Scilly Isles , Royal Oak and her sister ship Revenge had their bottoms lightly damaged when they struck a sunken wreck . On 9 May 1904 , Royal Oak became flagship of the Home Fleet 's second @-@ in @-@ command , relieving her sister Empress of India , and took part in annual maneuvers in July and August . On 7 March 1905 , Royal Oak paid off at Portsmouth into the Chatham Reserve , and her crew transferred to the battleship Caesar . The following day the ship recommissioned with a skeleton crew for service with the Sheerness @-@ Chatham Division of the newly formed Fleet in Commission in Reserve at Home . While she was under refit at Chatham , an explosion in her small @-@ arms magazine on 11 May killed one workman and injured three others . In July , Royal Oak participated in Reserve Fleet manoeuvres . Her crew was then transferred to the battleship Ocean , and Royal Oak recommissioned with a new nucleus crew to serve as an emergency reserve ship at Chatham .
As a unit of the First Division of the Blue Fleet , Royal Oak took part in annual maneuvers off the coast of Portugal and in the eastern Atlantic from 12 June to 2 July 1906 . On 1 January 1907 , she recommissioned in reserve at Devonport with a nucleus crew . In April 1909 , Royal Oak and the other reserve ships with nucleus crews at Devonport were formed into the 4th Division of the Home Fleet . She relieved her sister Ramillies as the parent ship of the division in June 1911 , and was in turn relieved of this duty by her sister Empress of India in November . The ship was taken out of service in December 1911 and towed to the Motherbank by the battleship Bellerophon in August 1912 . She was sold to Thomas W. Ward on 14 January 1914 for £ 36 @,@ 450 and subsequently broken up at Briton Ferry .
= French battleship Démocratie =
Démocratie was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Liberté class built by the French Navy . She had three sister ships : Liberté , Justice , and Vérité . Démocratie was laid down in May 1903 , launched in April 1904 , and completed in January 1908 , over a year after the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought made ships like Démocratie obsolete . She was armed with a main battery of four 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , compared to the ten guns of the same caliber mounted on Dreadnought .
Despite her out @-@ dated design , Démocratie served with the French Mediterranean Fleet throughout her career , including during World War I. She participated in the Battle of Antivari in late August 1914 , and spent the majority of the war based on the coast of Greece , in Corfu and Mudros , to keep the Austro @-@ Hungarian and Ottoman navies bottled up in port , though she saw no further action . After the end of the war , she went into the Black Sea to assist in the enforcement of the
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in the area after the American Civil War . The lake is one of the highest in Pennsylvania , which led Ricketts to name it Highland Lake by 1874 and rename it Ganoga Lake in 1881 ; Pennsylvania senator Charles R. Buckalew suggested the name Ganoga from the Seneca language word for " water on the mountain " .
The Ricketts built a stone house on the lake shore by 1852 or 1855 ; this served as a hunting lodge and tavern . In 1873 a large wooden addition was built north of the stone house , which became a hotel known as the North Mountain House . The hotel had one of the first summer schools in the United States in 1876 and 1877 . A branch railroad line to the lake served the hotel and also hauled ice cut from the lake for refrigeration . The hotel closed in 1903 , though the house remained the Ricketts family summer home . After the death of R. Bruce Ricketts in 1918 , his heirs sold much of his 80 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 ha ) to the state for Pennsylvania State Game Lands and Ricketts Glen State Park . The state tried to purchase the lake in 1957 , but was outbid by a group of investors who turned the land around it into a private housing development ; as such it is " off limits " to the public .
Ganoga Lake is on the Allegheny Plateau , just north of the Allegheny Front , in sedimentary rocks from the Pocono Formation . The Wisconsin Glaciation some 20 @,@ 000 years ago changed the drainage patterns of the lake ; this diverted its waters to Kitchen Creek and carved the 24 named waterfalls in Ricketts Glen State Park in the process . Ganoga Lake has a continental climate , with average monthly high temperatures ranging from 33 ° F ( 1 ° C ) in January to 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) in July . Ganoga Lake 's drainage basin is heavily forested and it is in an Important Bird Area . The lake and its surroundings have a variety of flora and fauna , although the ecosystem has been damaged by acid rain .
= = Description = =
Ganoga Lake is a natural spring @-@ fed lake just west of Pennsylvania Route 487 in southern Colley Township in southeastern Sullivan County , Pennsylvania . It is near the meeting point of Sullivan , Columbia and Luzerne counties , and is less than 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of Ricketts Glen State Park . Ganoga Lake is on the Allegheny Plateau at an elevation of 2 @,@ 260 feet ( 690 m ) . William Reynolds Ricketts , who owned the lake in the first half of the 20th century , claimed it was the highest lake in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains ; Petrillo repeats this in his history of the region , Ghost Towns of North Mountain . While the United States Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System identifies Ganoga Lake as the second highest in Pennsylvania ( after Siebert Lake in Somerset County , at 2 @,@ 287 feet ( 697 m ) ) , the Pennsylvania Audubon Society says Ganoga Lake is " the highest elevation natural lake in Pennsylvania " .
Ganoga Lake has a long , narrow oval shape , oriented north @-@ northwest to south @-@ southeast . In 1936 William Reynolds Ricketts wrote that the lake has an average width of 700 to 800 feet ( 210 to 240 m ) and is " about one mile long , lacking 600 to 700 ft . " or about 0 @.@ 88 miles ( 1 @.@ 42 km ) in length . However , according to a 1917 Pennsylvania Water Resources Inventory Report , in its largest dimensions it is 3 @,@ 720 feet ( 1 @,@ 130 m ) long ( 0 @.@ 705 miles or 1 @.@ 135 kilometres ) by 1 @,@ 025 feet ( 312 m ) wide . It has an average depth of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) and a maximum depth of 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) . The drainage basin for the lake is an area of 1 @.@ 5 square miles ( 3 @.@ 9 km2 ) , and its capacity is 373 acre feet ( 460 @,@ 000 m3 ) ( 121 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 US gallons or 459 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 litres or 101 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ) .
A branch of Kitchen Creek flows from the southern end of the lake ; 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) downstream it enters Lake Jean in Ricketts Glen State Park . From there the water flows through Ganoga Glen and its 10 named waterfalls , then joins the main stem of the creek at Waters Meet ; below this it flows over five more named waterfalls . Kitchen Creek is a tributary of Huntington Creek , which flows into Fishing Creek , which is a tributary of the Susquehanna River .
= = History = =
= = = First inhabitants = = =
Ganoga Lake is in the Susquehanna River drainage basin , the earliest recorded inhabitants of which were the Iroquoian @-@ speaking Susquehannocks . Their numbers were greatly reduced by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois , and by 1675 they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes . After this , the lands of the Susquehanna valley were under the nominal control of the Iroquois , who encouraged displaced tribes from the east to settle there , including the Shawnee and Lenape ( or Delaware ) .
On November 5 , 1768 , the British acquired land , known in Pennsylvania as the New Purchase , from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix ; this included what is now Ganoga Lake . After the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) , Native Americans almost entirely left Pennsylvania . The lake was originally in Northumberland County , then became part of Lycoming County when it was formed in 1795 . Sullivan County was formed from Lycoming County in 1847 , and two years later Colley Township was formed from Cherry Township . The lake drains into Kitchen Creek , where a Native American pot , decorated in the style of " the peoples of the Susquehanna region " , was found under a rock ledge around 1890 .
A hunter named Robinson , whose cabin was at the lake 's northern end about 1800 , was the first recorded inhabitant . He gave the lake its earliest known name : Robinson 's Lake . However , for most of the 19th century the lake was known as Long Pond , because of its elongated shape . From 1822 to 1827 the Susquehanna and Tioga Turnpike , which followed the lake 's western shore , was built between the Pennsylvania communities of Berwick in the south and Towanda in the north . Beginning in 1827 the northbound daily stagecoach left Berwick in the morning and stopped for lunch at the Long Pond Tavern on the lake about noon . The stage operated until 1851 ; the road was the Susquehanna and Tioga Turnpike until 1908 , when the modern Pennsylvania Route 487 was built . Route 487 follows the course of the turnpike as it approaches the lake from the south , then passes to the east of the lake instead .
While on a hunting trip north of the lake in 1850 , brothers Elijah and Clemuel Ricketts were frustrated at having to spend the night on a hotel 's parlor floor . In 1851 or 1853 they bought 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) , including the lake , as their own hunting preserve , and built a stone house on the lake shore by 1852 or 1855 . The stone house served as their lodge and as a tavern ; it was known as " Ricketts Folly " for its isolated location in the wilderness . Clemuel died in 1858 and Elijah bought his share of the land and house .
= = = R. B. Ricketts = = =
Elijah 's son Robert Bruce Ricketts , for whom Ricketts Glen State Park is named , joined the Union Army as a private at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 , and rose through the ranks to become a colonel . After the war , R. B. Ricketts returned to Pennsylvania and purchased the stone house , lake , and some of the land around it from his father on September 25 , 1869 for $ 3 @,@ 969 @.@ 81 ( approximately $ 71 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) ; eventually he controlled or owned more than 80 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 ha ) , including the lake and the park 's glens and waterfalls .
From 1872 to 1875 Ricketts and his partners operated a sawmill near the lake , 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) southeast of his house . In 1872 Ricketts used lumber from the mill to build a three @-@ story wooden addition next to the stone house ; this opened as the North Mountain House hotel in 1873 , and was run by Ricketts ' brother Frank from then until 1898 . The hotel hosted many of the Ricketts friends and relations as well as guests from Wilkes @-@ Barre , Philadelphia , New York City , and other places . Many of the guests arrived after school let out in June and stayed all summer until school resumed in September . In 1876 and 1877 , Ricketts ran the first summer school in the United States at his house and hotel ; one of the teachers was Joseph Rothrock , later known as the " Father of Forestry " in Pennsylvania .
Ricketts and the others living in the area were not aware of the waterfalls in what is now the state park until about 1865 , when they were discovered by two of the Ricketts ' guests who went fishing and wandered down Kitchen Creek . In 1879 Ricketts started the North Mountain Fishing Club , for anglers on the lake and creek . Guests of the hotel paid one dollar to fish as a club member . By 1874 Ricketts had renamed Long Pond as Highland Lake , and by 1875 had named the highest waterfall on Kitchen Creek as Ganoga Falls . In 1881 , Ricketts renamed Highland Lake as Ganoga Lake . Pennsylvania senator Charles R. Buckalew suggested the name Ganoga , an Iroquoian word which he said meant " water on the mountain " in the Seneca language . Donehoo 's A History of the Indian Villages and Place Names in Pennsylvania identifies it as a Cayuga language word meaning " place of floating oil " and the name of a Cayuga village in New York . Ganoga Lake is the source of the branch of Kitchen Creek that flows through Ganoga Glen , which has the tallest waterfall .
Ricketts was a lumberman who made his fortune clearcutting nearly all his land , but no logging was allowed within 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) of the lake , and the glens and their waterfalls in the state park were " saved from the lumberman 's axe through the foresight of the Ricketts family " . One hemlock tree cut near the lake to clear land for a building in 1893 was 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in diameter and 532 years old .
Ricketts and his business partners built the lumber town of Ricketts about 4 miles ( 6 km ) northeast of the lake starting in 1890 ; it had up to 800 inhabitants and several saw mills and operated until 1913 , when the timber was exhausted . A 3 @.@ 85 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 20 km ) branch line of the Lehigh Valley Railroad ran from Ricketts to the north end of the lake , opening in 1893 . There was daily passenger service to Wilkes @-@ Barre and Towanda on this line , which also served freight trains hauling ice from the lake for use in refrigeration from 1895 on . The ice cutting business on the lake employed 175 men , and had a 80 @-@ by @-@ 400 @-@ foot ( 24 by 122 m ) ice house at the north end of the lake , near the small train station made of logs . The Ganoga Lake Ice Company was incorporated in 1897 , and operated until about 1915 . Ricketts ' son William Reynolds Ricketts was one of five partners in the ice company . Ice skating was also a popular pastime on the lake . In 1913 the lake had a boathouse and was used by rowboats .
The North Mountain House was threatened by a forest fire in 1900 ; the subsequent loss of much of the surrounding old @-@ growth forest led to decreased numbers of hotel guests . In 1903 another large fire on North Mountain threatened the sawmill in the village of R
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, uses the Roman milestones indicating the city as a central point from which the distances of other towns were measured . The Madaba Map ( dated 542 @-@ 570 CE ) shows Eleutheropolis as a walled city with three towers , a curving street with a colonnade in the central part and an important basilica . In the centre is a building with a yellowish @-@ white dome on four columns . Eleutheropolis was last mentioned in the ancient sources by the near contemporary itinerarium of the Piacenza Pilgrim , about 570 .
In the 1st and 2nd centuries CE , Christianity penetrated the city due to its location on the route between Jerusalem and Gaza . The city 's first bishop , Justus , was one of the 70 Disciples . In 325 CE , Eleutheropolis was the seat of Bishop Macrinus , who in that year attended the First Council of Nicaea . Epiphanius of Salamis , Bishop of Salamis in Cyprus , was born at Eleutheropolis ; at Ad nearby he established a monastery which is often mentioned in the polemics of Jerome with Rufinus and John , Bishop of Jerusalem . Beit Guvrin is mentioned in the Talmud in the 3rd and 4th centuries , indicating a revival of the Jewish community around that time . The tanna Judah b . Jacob and the amora Jonathan ( referred to in the Talmud as " Yonatan me @-@ Bet Guvrin " or Jonathan of Bet Guvrin ) were residents of the city . The Talmudic region known as Darom was within the area of Eleutheropolis ( " Beit Guvrin " ) , later known by its Arabic corruption ad @-@ Dārūm . Excavations at Eleutheropolis show a prosperous city , and confirm the presence of Jews and Christians in the area . It was described as one of Palestine 's five " Cities of Excellence " by 4th @-@ century Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus . The territory under the administration of Eleutheropolis encompassed most of Idumea , with the districts of Bethletepha , western Edom and Hebron up to Ein Gedi , and included over 100 villages .
= = = Early Islamic period = = =
Early Muslim historian al @-@ Biladhuri mentions Bayt Jibrin ( the name given to it by the Arabs following the Muslim conquest ) as one of ten towns in Jund Filastin ( military district of Palestine ) conquered by the Muslim Rashidun army under ' Amr ibn al- ' As 's leadership during the 630s . Al @-@ Biladhuri also wrote that al- ' As enclosed a domain to Bayt Jibrin , which he named ' Ajlun , after one of his freemen . The 1904 Analecta Bollandiana recounts that in 638 the Muslim army beheaded fifty soldiers in Bayt Jibrin from the Byzantine garrison of Gaza who refused to abandon the Christianity and who were then buried in a church built in their honor . In the beginning of the power struggle between Ali and Mu 'awiya for the position of caliph , al- ' As left Medina in the Hejaz and resided in Bayt Jibrin with his two sons Muhammad and Abdullah . The latter died there .
The city may have been devastated in 788 , but in 796 , Bayt Jibrin was destroyed by Bedouin tribesmen in an effort to combat Christian influence in the region during a civil war between the Arab tribal federations of the area . According to a monk named Stephen , " it was laid waste , and its inhabitants carried off into captivity " . However , by 985 , the city , by then under Abbasid rule , seemed to have recovered , judging by the writings of the Muslim geographer al @-@ Muqaddasi :
" [ Bayt Jibrin ] is a city partly in the hill country , partly in the plain . Its territory has the name of Ad Darum ( the ancient Daroma and the modern Dairan ) , and there are here marble quarries . The district sends its produce to the capital ( Ar Ramlah ) . It is an emporium for the neighbouring country , and a land of riches and plenty , possessing fine domains . The population , however , is now on the decrease .... "
There is no marble quarry anywhere in Palestine , but al @-@ Muqaddasi prabably referred to the underground chalkstone quarries known today as " bell caves " .
= = = Crusader and Mamluk eras = = =
In 1099 , Crusaders invaded Palestine and established the Kingdom of Jerusalem . In 1135 , King Fulk of Jerusalem erected a castle on the lands of Bayt Jibrin , the first of a series of Crusader fortifications built at this time to ensure control over the ports of Caesarea and Jaffa . In 1136 , King Fulk donated the castle to the Knights Hospitallers . In 1168 , the Hospitallers were granted a charter to establish a Frankish colony , which they named " Bethgibelin " . Christian settlers in Beit Jibrin were promised a share of property looted from the Muslims . It was on the itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela , who found three Jews living there when he visited the country . The Ayyubid army under Saladin sacked Bethgibelin in 1187 , after most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem came under Muslim control as a consequence of his victory at the Battle of Hittin . Soon after its capture Saladin ordered the demolition of the Crusader castle . From 1191 @-@ 1192 , the town was held in probate by Henry of Champagne , as lord of the Kingdom of Jerusalem , while Saladin and Richard the Lionheart negotiated a ceasefire .
However , the Crusaders remained in control of Bethgibelin until 1244 , when the Ayyubids reconquered it under Sultan as @-@ Salih Ayyub . By 1283 , the Mamluks had taken control and it was listed as a domain of Sultan Qalawun . The city prospered under the Egypt @-@ based Mamluk Sultanate and served as a postal station . During Mamluk rule , Bayt Jibrin administratively belonged to Hebron and was under the jurisdiction of the Shafi 'i ( a school of law in Sunni Islam ) qadi ( head judge ) of that city .
= = = Ottoman rule and the ' Azza family = = =
Bayt Jibrin and all of Palestine was conquered by the Ottomans after their victory over the Mamluks during the 1516 Battle of Marj Dabiq . Bayt Jibrin subsequently became part of the nahiya ( subdistrict ) of Hebron ( al @-@ Khalīl ) , which was part of the sanjak ( " district " ) of Gaza . The Ottomans did not exercise strict control over their territories and tended to keep local leaders in their traditional positions as long as they complied with the higher authorities and paid imperial taxes . During Suleiman the Magnificent 's reign , in 1552 , the destroyed Crusader castle in Bayt Jibrin was partially rebuilt in order to protect the main road between Gaza and Jerusalem . In 1596 , the inhabitants of Bayt Jibrin , consisting of 50 Muslim families , paid taxes on wheat , barley and sesame seeds , as well as goats and beehives .
In the 19th century , Bayt Jibrin was the seat of the ' Azza family , who had ruled the area since migrating to Palestine from Egypt . In the 1840s , after the Ottomans attempted to crush local leaders in the Hebron Hills for their refusal to pay taxes , the ' Azza family joined a revolt against Ottoman rule . They had aligned themselves to the ' Amr clan of the Hebron @-@ area village of Dura . Between 1840 @-@ 46 , hostilities were raging between the Qays and Yaman tribo @-@ political factions in southern Palestine . The ' Azza and Amr families , part of the Qays confederation , were constantly clashing with the Yaman @-@ aligned Abu Ghosh clan , who were based in the vicinity of Jerusalem . In 1846 , the shaykh ( chief ) of Bayt Jibrin , Muslih al- ' Azza ( known as the " giant of Bayt Jibrin " ) , the leader of the ' Amr clan , and other local leaders were exiled , but were allowed to return in the early 1850s .
In 1855 , the newly appointed Ottoman pasha ( " governor " ) of the sanjak ( " district " ) of Jerusalem , Kamil Pasha , attempted to subdue the rebellion in the Hebron region . Kamil Pasha marched towards Hebron with his army in July 1855 , and after crushing the opposition , he ordered the local shaykhs to summon to his camp . Several of the shaykhs , including the leader of the ' Amr clan and Muslih al- ' Azza , did not obey the summons . Kamil Pasha then requested that the British consul in Jerusalem , James Finn , serve as an envoy and arrange a meeting with Muslih . Finn sent his vice @-@ consul to assure Muslih of his safety in Hebron and convinced him to meet with Kamil Pasha . Muslih was well received in Hebron and returned to Bayt Jibrin escorted by twenty of the governor 's men . Soon after , the Kamil Pasha paid a visit to Bayt Jibrin to settle affairs and collect the town 's overdue taxes . Kamil Pasha took an oath of loyalty from all the local shaykhs in the Hebron region , including those under the rule of Muslih al- ' Azza .
In 1838 , American archeologist Edward Robinson was able to locate the site of Bethgebrim . He cited William of Tyre 's reference to the Arabic name . Later travelers who visited Bayt Jibrin during that time were very impressed both by the shaykh of Bayt Jibrin , as well as by his " castle " or " manor " . At the time , the remains of the Crusader fortress still served for defensive purposes in the village . According to Bayt Jibrin 's shaykh , in 1863 , he was in command of 16 villages in the area and pledged " to provide as many as 2 @,@ 000 men to the government if necessary . " In 1864 , however , Muslih 's brother told a traveler that Muslih and his property had been seized on " false charges of treason , " and that he had been banished to Cyprus and then beheaded .
Bayt Jibrin 's status began to decline throughout the 19th century . According to Western travelers it was " a small and insignificant village " . The primary factors that contributed to the decline were the Bedouin raids on Bayt Jibrin 's countryside villages , the ' Azza revolt , tribal warfare among the inhabitants of the towns and villages throughout Palestine and epidemics which struck the town and the nearby area .
= = = British Mandate era = = =
After the British army captured Palestine from the Ottomans in 1917 @-@ 1918 , Bayt Jibrin resumed its role as an important town in the District of Hebron . The population was entirely Muslim , and had two schools , a medical clinic , a bus and a police station . The town 's inhabitants cultivated grain and fruit , and residents from nearby towns flocked to its weekly market or souk . During the winter of 1920 @-@ 1921 there was a severe outbreak of malaria . 157 villagers ( one @-@ sixth of the population ) died with the mortality rate in the district reaching 68 per 1 @,@ 000 . Crops remained unharvested due to lack of people strong enough to work in the fields . The new British regime began a program of sealing open wells , improving drainage and distributing quinine across Palestine . In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandate authorities , Bayt Jibrin had a population of 1 @,@ 420 , all Muslim , increasing the 1931 census to 1 @,@ 804 , still all Muslim , in a total of 369 houses .
On January 10 , 1938 , during the Arab National revolt of 1936 @-@ 1939 J. L. Starkey , a well @-@ known archaeologist , was killed by a group of armed Arabs on the track leading from Bayt Jibrin to Hebron .
In 1945 Bayt Jibrin had 2 @,@ 430 inhabitants , with a total of 56 @,@ 185 dunams of land . Of this , 2 @,@ 477 dunums were irrigated or used for plantations , 31 @,@ 616 dunams used for cereals , while 287 dunams were built @-@ up ( urban ) areas .
Bayt Jibrin was in the territory allotted to the Arab state under the 1947 UN Partition Plan .
= = = 1948 war = = =
The First Battalion of the Egyptian Army were ordered to take up position in Bayt Jibrin during the second half of May during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War . At the same time , the New York Times correspondent reported that thousands of Jaffa 's inhabitants had fled inland , including " large numbers " to the Bayt Jibrin area . In October 1948 , the Israeli Army ( IDF ) launched Operation Yoav , which differed from operations three months earlier , as the IDF was now equipped with aircraft , artillery , and tanks . On October 15 – 16 , the IDF launched bombing and strafing attacks on a number of towns and villages , including Bayt Jibrin . According to Morris , the towns caught in the fighting were neither psychologically nor defensively prepared for aerial strikes , and Israeli Air Force bombing of Bayt Jibrin on October 19 set off a " panic flight " of residents from the town .
On October 2
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3 , a United Nations @-@ imposed ceasefire went into effect , however , there was an IDF raid on the neighboring police fort on the night of October 24 , which resulted in more villagers fleeing Bayt Jibrin . Israeli troops from the Giv 'ati Brigade then occupied Bayt Jibrin and its police fort on October 27 . In 2008 , a former resident of the town who was eight months old at the time of the raid , described his family 's ordeal as follows :
In the 1948 war , the village was attacked by Israeli military units and bombed by Israeli aircraft . By that time , Beit Jibreen already hosted many refugees from neighboring villages . The fighting and bombing frightened the people . They escaped the fighting and sought shelter in the surrounding hills . [ My ] family found protection in a cave 5 km east of the village . They had left everything in their home , hoping to return after a few days when the attack would be over . The Israelis , however , did not allow them to return . Several men of Beit Jibreen were killed when they tried to go back .
In 1949 , a Jewish communal settlement , Kibbutz Beit Guvrin , was founded on the former town 's lands . The excavated areas of the successive Judahite , Hellenistic , Roman @-@ Byzantine and Crusader towns have been included in a large Israeli national park with major points of attraction for tourists . There is little focus on any traces of Arab presence within the park , the period from the 7th century onward receiving little attention .
= = Geography = =
Bayt Jibrin was situated in an area of plains and soft hills known as the Shfela ( Shephelah ) in Hebrew , located between the coastal plain to the west and the Hebron Hills to the east . The village was 21 kilometers ( 13 mi ) northwest of Hebron . The average elevation of Bayt Jibrin is 275 meters ( 902 ft ) above sea level . Nearby localities included the depopulated villages of Kudna to the north , al @-@ Qubayba to the southwest , al @-@ Dawayima to the south and the existing Palestinian towns of Beit Ula to the east and Idhna to the southeast . Historically , it was located on the main road between Cairo and Hebron , via Gaza .
In 1945 , Bayt Jibrin 's total land area was 56 @.@ 1 km2 ( 21 @.@ 7 sq mi ) , 98 % of which was Arab @-@ owned . The town 's urban area consisted of 287 m2 ( 0 @.@ 071 acres ) , with 33 @.@ 2 km2 ( 8 @,@ 200 acres ) of cultivable land and 21 @.@ 6 km2 ( 5 @,@ 300 acres ) of non @-@ cultivable land . 54 @.@ 8 % of the town 's land was planted with cereal crops , 6 @.@ 2 % with olives and 4 @.@ 4 % with irrigated crops .
The Bayt Jibrin region contains a large number of underground caverns , both natural formations and caves dug in the soft chalk by inhabitants of the region over the centuries for use as quarries , burial grounds , animal shelters , workshops and spaces for raising doves and pigeons . There is estimated to be 800 such caverns , many linked by an underground maze of passageways . Eighty of them , known as the Bell Caves , are located on the grounds of the Beit Guvrin National Park .
= = Archaeology = =
Today many of the excavated areas of Maresha and Beit Guvrin can be visited as part of the Israeli Beit Guvrin @-@ Maresha National Park . Furthermore , Archaeological Seminars , under the license of the Israel Antiquities Authority , conduct excavations of Maresha 's many quarried systems and invite visitors to participate .
In 1838 , the American Bible scholar Edward Robinson visited Bayt Jibrin , and identified it as ancient Eleutheropolis . The remains of the city of Maresha on Tell Sandahanna / Tel Maresha were first excavated in 1898 @-@ 1900 by Bliss and Macalister , who uncovered a planned and fortified Hellenistic city encircled by a town wall with towers . Two Hellenistic and one Israelite stratum were identified by them on the mound . Between 1989 @-@ 2000 , large @-@ scale excavations were held by the Israel Antiquities Authority ( IAA ) under the direction of Prof. Amos Kloner and conducted mainly in the Lower City of Maresha , concentrating both on the surface and on the subterranean complexes . Excavations continued in several subterranean complexes between 2001 and 2008 .
The largely preserved remains of the amphitheater built by the Romans were excavated by Kloner . Among other unique finds was a Roman bath that has been confirmed to be the largest in Israel and the Palestinian territories . Many of the ancient city 's olive presses , columbaria and water cisterns can still be seen . Less than 10 percent of the caves on Tel Maresha have been excavated .
The ruins of three Byzantine @-@ era churches are located in Bayt Jibrin . A church on a northern hill of the town , later used as a private residence , had elaborate mosaics depicting the four seasons which were defaced in the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War . A church south of the town , known as Khirbet Sandahanna , was dedicated to Saint Anne . The New Testament does not give any information about the mother of the Virgin Mary , but the widely circulated apocryphal Gospel of James gives her name as Anne , and her birthplace as Bethlehem . In another Christian tradition though , Bayt Jibrin is the birthplace of Saint Anne . The initial Byzantine church was rebuilt by Crusaders in the 12th century . Today , the apse with its three arched windows and half @-@ dome ceiling are still intact .
The wider area of the Shfela has been inhabited for much longer . Excavations were conducted by the Israel Antiquities Authority ( IAA ) about 12 kilometres northeast from Bayt Jibrin at a site located on the same wadi , Nahal Guvrin , near moshav Menuha . The IAA has unearthed there artifacts from a village believed to be 6 @,@ 500 years old , placing it at the end of the Stone Age or at the beginning of the Chalcolithic or " copper @-@ and @-@ stone age " . The finds include pottery vessels and stone tools , among them flint sickle blades , cultic objects , clay figurines of horned animals , ceramic spindle whorls and animal bones belonging to pigs , goats , sheep and larger herbivores . The inhabitants probably chose this area due to the arable land and copious springs flowing even in the rainless summer months . Archaeologists believe the villagers grew grain , as indicated by the sickle blades and the grinding and pounding tools , and raised animals that supplied milk , meat and wool , as attested to by the spindle whorls . The settlement was small in scope , approximately 1 @.@ 5 dunams , but there is evidence of bartering , based on the presence of basalt vessels and other lithic objects brought to the site from afar .
= = Demographics = =
During the Roman period , Bayt Jibrin had a mixed population of Jews , Christians and pagans . Under Muslim rule , Islam gradually became the dominant religion and by the 20th century , the entire population was Muslim .
In Ottoman tax records from 1596 , the town had a population of 275 inhabitants . In the 19th century its population reached 900 . This rose to about 1 @,@ 000 in 1912 , and to 1 @,@ 420 in the next decade . According to the 1931 census of Palestine , Bayt Jibrin 's population was 1 @,@ 804 . A 1945 land and population survey by Sami Hadawi reported a sharp increase to 2 @,@ 430 . The general growth pattern over every 9 – 11 years from 1912 to 1945 was around 400 @-@ 500 . In 1948 , the projected population was 2 @,@ 819 .
The number of refugees from Bayt Jibrin , including their descendants , was estimated to be 17 @,@ 310 in 1998 . Many live in the al- ' Azza ( also called Bayt Jibrin ) and Fawwar camps in the southern West Bank .
= = Culture = =
= = = Embroidery = = =
Bayt Jibrin , together with Hebron and the surrounding villages , was known for its fine Palestinian embroidery . An example is a woman 's jillayeh ( wedding dress ) from Bayt Jibrin , dated about 1900 , in the Museum of International Folk Art ( MOIFA ) collection in Santa Fe , New Mexico . The dress is made of handwoven indigo linen with long , pointed wing @-@ sleeves . The qabbeh ( " chest @-@ piece " ) is embroidered with the qelayed pattern ; the maya ( " water " ) motif , el @-@ ferraneh ( " the bakers wife " ) pattern , and the saru ( " cypress " ) motif . The side panels are also covered with cross @-@ stitch embroidery in a variety of traditional patterns .
Also on show is a late 19th @-@ century shambar ( large veil ) from Bayt Jibrin worn at weddings and festivals . It is made of embroidered handwoven black silk with a separate heavy red silk fringe . A woman wore the shambar mainly on her wedding day , positioned so that when she covered her face the embroidered end would show . Another item in the collection is a headdress ( iraqiyeh ) embroidered with cross @-@ stitch and decorated with Ottoman coins minted
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The game begins with the land of Hyrule in a state of fear because of strange happenings that have occurred recently . On a stormy night , Princess Zelda and the shrine maidens fear that the reason for these events is that Vaati 's seal is weakening . She summons Link and brings him to the castle so he can protect her and the other maidens while they open the portal to the Four Sword Sanctuary . When they do , however , a shadowy figure appears from the portal . This figure was Shadow Link , who then kidnapped the maidens of the Shrines and sealed them inside their crystals . Link follows him to the mysterious sanctuary where the Four Sword lies in the Pedestal , keeping the great evil sealed away . Suddenly , Link pulls the Four Sword out of its Pedestal , splitting into three clones of himself to destroy this doppelganger . However , The Seal that imprisoned the Sorcerer of Winds , Vaati , was broken and had released him from his Prison once again , wreaking havoc on the once peaceful kingdom of Hyrule and bringing chaos and horror .
As Link and his clones wander the overworld of Hyrule Field on their quest to restore peace to Hyrule , they learn that the creation of Link 's evil counterpart and the release of Vaati is only a small part in an insidious plot to take control of Hyrule . Things complicate as the dimension of the Dark World appears and people are being abducted throughout Hyrule . Four Links learn that not only have the knights of Hyrule mysteriously disappeared , but evil versions of them have been creating havoc . Hyrule castle has been taken over and monsters are appearing everywhere . Four Links agree that they will defeat Ganon and Vaati , and then rescue Zelda to restore peace to Hyrule .
It is revealed later in the game that the true villain is Ganon , King of Darkness . He has stolen a powerful trident and used it to take control of parts of Hyrule . Unfortunately , he stole the dark mirror and used it to create Shadow Link and then sent him to kidnap the shrine maidens and trick Link into releasing Vaati . In order to gain as much power as possible and build up his army , Ganon wants to take control of the shrine maidens ' power as well as abducting people and sending them into the Dark World where they would become part of his army . Vaati unknowingly furthered his plans by creating monsters to add to his army . It is revealed that the Knights of Hyrule were murdered by Ganon and their souls were trapped in the World of Darkness where they became creatures of Darkness . Four Links eventually save the shrine maidens , retrieve the Dark Mirror , destroy Shadow Link and Vaati , and face Ganon in a final battle . Trying to stop him from plunging the world into chaos , four Links use the Power of the Maidens of Shrines , Including Zelda , to defeat Ganon , penetrating him . As he was about to become sealed inside , he declared : " I cannot be destroyed by insects of you ! Noooo ! ! ! "
After penetrating Ganon , Four Links firmly seal him inside the Four Sword , bringing chaos and horror to an end . Peace returns to Hyrule , souls of the knights are freed from their torment , and the people celebrate as all traces of evil that plagued Hyrule are vanquished . With Ganon defeated and sealed inside , Link returns the Four Sword that sealed darkness away back to its resting pedestal and the Four Links become one again . After the battle , The Maidens of the Shrine use their powers and create a barrier , which is strong enough for the Four Sword to rest before the six maidens leave . Thus , his journey has ended and both of them leave the Sanctuary as Darkness fades away and Light endures in the Land of Hyrule , bringing peace and prosperity .
= = Development = =
At E3 2003 , Nintendo showcased two Zelda games which would make use of the Game Boy Advance connectivity , Four Swords and Tetra 's Trackers . In December of the same year , it was announced that both games would be together in a single disc , Four Swords + , along with a third , Shadow Battle . Four Swords Adventures was released in Japan with Hyrule Adventure , Shadow Battle , and Navi 's Trackers as three individual games bundled together . It was later announced on June 7 , 2004 , however , that Hyrule Adventures and Navi 's Trackers would be sold as two separate titles in the United States , while the retail status of Shadow Battle was still unknown . This decision was later changed to bundle Hyrule Adventure with Shadow Battle , and to not release Navi 's Trackers in the United States .
Despite the fact that translations for the PAL version were finished in October , the game was not released in Europe until early January 2005 . A possible reason for this is so that the game did not compete with The Minish Cap for sales , which in turn was released pre @-@ Christmas in Europe because , unlike North America , it would not cannibalize Nintendo DS sales .
Early on the development of Navi Trackers , it was decided that it would include a speech navigation system that talks and advises the player during mini @-@ games . Players type in their name and the system calls players by their name during the game in order to notify them of their turn .
= = Reception = =
In 2006 , Nintendo Power rated Four Swords Adventures the 48th best game made on a Nintendo system . It received a score of 86 out of 100 based on 55 aggregated reviews from Metacritic , and an average score of 85 % based on 67 reviews from Game Rankings .
GameSpot praised the game 's connectivity feature with the Game Boy Advance , claiming that this is " a truly compelling reason to invest in a GameCube @-@ to @-@ GBA link cable " and that " using the Game Boy Advance as a controller has an appreciable impact on the experience " . They also praised the story and said , " One of the differences between the original Four Swords and Adventures is a more persistent narrative . " The video was also applauded , with a critic quoted as remarking , " Adventures does improve on the original Four Swords ' visuals , making the Wind @-@ Waker @-@ derived visual style even more reminiscent of the cel @-@ shaded adventure of Link . " The audio was noted , with a review remarking , " The sound design for Four Swords Adventures will be even more familiar to anyone who has played any Zelda game , and especially to those who have played The Wind Waker . "
Four Swords Adventures also received criticism . Game Revolution said about the video , " Graphically , Four Swords Adventures is an odd mix of cheap 2D SNES sprites and nice Gamecube particle effects . It looks a lot like the GBA game , but now wears fancier pants and shows off upgraded visual flourishes , like Wind Waker style curly @-@ Q air poofs . Still , much of the technology has clearly been ported over from the GBA , creating an inconsistent feel . " They also criticized the requirement of the link cable , saying that " the required use of the GBA for multiplayer does limit the play potential . "
Four Swords Adventures was the third best @-@ selling game of June 2004 in North America with 155 @,@ 000 units , and has since sold 250 @,@ 000 copies , becoming a part of the Player 's Choice line . The game also sold 127 @,@ 000 units in Japan .
A manga novelization of the game was authored by Akira Himekawa . In it , each of the four Links have a distinct personality : the Link in green ( nicknamed " Green " ) acted similarly to his normal self , focused and brave , the Link in red ( " Red " ) was portrayed as a childish optimist , the one in blue ( " Blue " ) was quick @-@ tempered and aggressive , and the one in violet ( " Vio " ) was aloof and self @-@ possessive . This of course caused the four Links to argue among one another due to their conflicting personas . The four decided to use nicknames of the color they are wearing so they would not confuse each other .
= Hungry Like the Wolf =
" Hungry Like the Wolf " is a song by the British new wave band Duran Duran . Written by the band members , the song was produced by Colin Thurston for the group 's second studio album Rio . The song was released in May 1982 as the band 's fifth single in the United Kingdom . It reached the top 5 of the UK Singles Chart , and received a silver certification by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) .
" Hungry Like the Wolf " ' s Russell Mulcahy @-@ directed music video was filmed in the jungles of Sri Lanka , and evoked the atmosphere of the film Raiders of the Lost Ark . Although the band initially failed to break into the US market , MTV placed the " Hungry Like the Wolf " video into heavy rotation . Subsequently , the group gained much exposure ; the song peaked at the number 3 spot on the Billboard Hot 100 in March 1983 , and Duran Duran became an international sensation . The video won the first Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video in 1984 .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Hungry Like the Wolf " was written and recorded on a Saturday in the spring of 1982 at the basement studios of EMI 's London headquarters . Nick Rhodes started the song 's demo in the morning with a sequencer ; the song was built throughout the day as each band member arrived , and by the evening it was essentially complete .
" That track came from fiddling with the new technology that was starting to come in " , guitarist Andy Taylor said in an interview with Blender magazine . This refers to the rhythmic backing track they came up with by joining a Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine with a sequencer and a Roland Jupiter @-@ 8 keyboard .
Rhodes came up with an idea for the backing track in the car while he was going to the studio . He started playing with the Roland Jupiter 8 keyboard , while singer Simon Le Bon was working with the lyrics . The lyrics were inspired by Little Red Riding Hood , and the repeating of the word " do " at the end of each verse takes its melody from the instrumentals in Gordon Lightfoot 's song " If You Could Read My Mind " . Andy Taylor worked out a Marc Bolan @-@ ish guitar part , a very Marshall @-@ sounding Les Paul guitar lick that was added to the track . Then the bass and drums were added , and the whole track was finished that day , including Le Bon 's vocal melody and lyrics . The laugh at the beginning of the song and the screams during the song 's fade @-@ out were performed and recorded live by Rhodes ' girlfriend at the time .
The group re @-@ recorded the song for the Rio album a few months later at London 's AIR Studios with producer Colin Thurston , who also recorded the hits " Too Shy " for Kajagoogoo , and " I Want Candy " for Bow Wow Wow . Andy Taylor remembers : " He was a great organizer and arranger , we gave him far more ideas and music than the track actually needed , and he was important in the process of whittling them down to the essential elements . " Thurston and the band decided to keep the demo 's original electronic backing
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Duke of Albany ) and Alexander , Lord of Badenoch ( and future Earl of Buchan ) , and six daughters by petitioning Pope Clement VI to allow a canon law marriage to Elizabeth Mure .
Even though an English prisoner , David retained influence in Scotland and Robert had his Guardianship removed by parliament and given jointly to the earls of Mar and Ross and the lord of Douglas — this did not last and Robert was once again appointed Guardian by the Parliament of February 1352 . The paroled David attended this Parliament to present to Robert and the members of the Three Estates the conditions for his release . These contained no ransom demand , but required the Scots to name the English prince John of Gaunt as heir presumptive . The Council rejected these terms , with Robert opposed to a proposal that threatened his right of succession . The king had no option but to return to captivity — the English chronicler Henry Knighton wrote of the event :
... the Scots refused to have their King unless he entirely renounced the influence of the English , and similarly refused to submit themselves to them . And they warned him that they would neither ransom him nor allow him to be ransomed unless he pardoned them for all their acts and injuries that they had done , and all the offences that they had committed during the time of captivity , and he should give them security for that , or otherwise they threatened to choose another king to rule them .
By 1354 ongoing negotiations for the king 's release reached the stage where a proposal of a straight ransom payment of 90 @,@ 000 marks to be repaid over nine years , guaranteed by the provision of 20 high @-@ ranking hostages , was agreed — this understanding was destroyed by Robert when he bound the Scots to a French action against the English in 1355 . The capture of Berwick together with the presence of the French on English soil jolted Edward III into moving against the Scots — in January 1356 Edward led his forces into the south @-@ east of Scotland and burned Edinburgh and Haddington and much of the Lothians in a campaign that became known as the ' Burnt Candlemas ' . After Edward 's victory over France in September , the Scots resumed negotiations for David 's release ending in October 1357 with the Treaty of Berwick . Its terms were that in turn for David 's freedom , a ransom of 100 @,@ 000 marks would be paid in annual installments over ten years — only the first two payments were completed initially and nothing further until 1366 . This failure to honour the conditions of the Berwick treaty allowed Edward to continue to press for a Plantagenet successor to David — terms that were totally rejected by the Scottish Council and probably by Robert himself . This may have been the cause of a brief rebellion in 1363 by Robert and the earls of Douglas and March . Later French inducements couldn 't bring David to their aid and the country remained at peace with England until he unexpectedly died on 21 February 1371 .
= = King of Scots = =
= = = Consolidation of Stewart power and personal rule = = =
David was buried at Holyrood Abbey almost immediately but an armed protest by William , Earl of Douglas delayed Robert II 's coronation until 26 March 1371 . The reasons for the incident remain unclear but may have involved a dispute regarding Robert 's right of succession , or may have been directed against George Dunbar , Earl of March and the southern Justiciar , Robert Erskine . It was resolved by Robert giving his daughter Isabella in marriage to Douglas 's son , James and with Douglas replacing Erskine as Justiciar south of the Forth . Robert 's accession did affect some others who held offices from David II . In particular , George Dunbar 's brother John Dunbar , the Lord of Fife who lost his claim on Fife and Sir Robert Erskine 's son , Sir Thomas Erskine who lost control of Edinburgh Castle .
The Stewarts greatly increased their holdings in the west , in Atholl , and in the far north : the earldoms of Fife and Menteith went to Robert II 's second surviving son Robert , the earldoms of Buchan and Ross ( along with the lordship of Badenoch ) to his fourth son Alexander and the earldoms of Strathearn and Caithness to the eldest son of his second marriage , David . Importantly , King Robert 's sons @-@ in @-@ law were John MacDonald , Lord of the Isles , John Dunbar , Earl of Moray and James who would become the 2nd Earl of Douglas . Robert 's sons , John , Earl of Carrick , the king 's heir , and Robert , Earl of Fife , were made keepers of the castles of Edinburgh and Stirling respectively , while Alexander , Lord of Badenoch and Ross , and afterwards Earl of Buchan , became the king 's Justiciar and lieutenant in the north of the Kingdom . This build @-@ up of the Stewart family power did not appear to cause resentment among the senior magnates — the king generally did not threaten their territories or local rule and where titles were transferred to his sons the individuals affected were usually very well rewarded . This style of kingship was very different from his predecessor 's — David tried to dominate his nobles whereas Robert 's strategy was to delegate authority to his powerful sons and earls and this generally worked for the first decade of his reign . Robert II was to have influence over eight of the fifteen earldoms either through his sons directly or by strategic marriages of his daughters to powerful lords .
In 1373 , Robert ensured the future security of the Stewart dynasty by having Parliament pass entailments regarding the succession . At this time , none of his sons had heirs so it became necessary for a system to be devised to define precisely the circumstances in which each of his sons could inherit the crown — none of this would take precedence over normal succession by Primogeniture . By 1375 , the king had commissioned John Barbour to write the poem , The Brus , a history intended to bolster the public image of the Stewarts as the genuine heirs of Robert I. It described the patriotic acts of both Sir James , the Black Douglas and Walter the Steward , the king 's father , in their support of Bruce . Robert II 's rule during the 1370s saw the country 's finances stabilised and greatly improved due in part to the flourishing wool trade , reduced calls on the public purse and by the halting of his predecessor 's ransom money on the death of Edward III of England . Robert II — unlike David II whose kingship was predominantly Lothian and therefore lowland based — did not restrict his attention to one sector of his kingdom but frequently visited the more remote areas of the north and west among his Gaelic lords .
Robert II ruled over a country that continued to have English enclaves within its borders and Scots who gave their allegiance to the king of England — the important castles of Berwick , Jedburgh , Lochmaben and Roxburgh had English garrisons and controlled southern Berwickshire , Teviotdale and large areas in Annandale and Tweeddale . In June 1371 , Robert agreed to a defensive treaty with the French , and although there were no outright hostilities during 1372 , the English garrisons were reinforced and placed under an increased state of vigilance . Attacks on the English held zones , with the near @-@ certain backing of Robert , began in 1373 and accelerated in the years 1375 – 7 . This indicated that a central decision had probably been taken for the escalation of conflict rather than the previous small @-@ scale marauding attacks by the border barons . In 1376 , the Earl of March successfully recovered Annandale , but then found himself constrained by the Bruges Anglo @-@ French truce .
In his dealings with Edward III , Robert blamed his border magnates for the escalating attacks on the English zones , but regardless of this the Scots retained the recaptured lands , which were often portioned out among minor lords , so securing their interest in preventing English re @-@ possession . Despite Robert 's further condemnations of his border lords , all the signs were that Robert backed the growing successful Scottish militancy following Edward III 's death in 1377 . In a charter dated 25 July 1378 the king decreed that Coldingham Priory would no longer be a daughter house of the English Durham Priory but was to be attached to Dunfermline Abbey . In early February the Scots — apparently unaware of the conclusion of an Anglo @-@ French truce on 26 January 1384 that included the Scots in the cease @-@ fire — conducted an all @-@ out attack on the English zones winning back Lochmaben Castle and Teviotdale . John of Gaunt led a reciprocal English attack that took him as far as Edinburgh , where he was bought off by the burgesses , but destroyed Haddington . Carrick and James , Earl of Douglas ( his father William had died in April ) , wanted a retaliatory strike for the Gaunt raid . Robert may have concluded that as the French had reneged on a previous agreement to send assistance in 1383 and then having entered into a truce with England , that any military action would have been met with retaliation and exclusion from the forthcoming Boulogne peace talks . On 2 June 1384 , Robert resolved to send Walter Wardlaw , Bishop of Glasgow to the Anglo @-@ French peace talks , yet Carrick ignored this and allowed raids into the north of England to take place . Despite this , by 26 July , the Scots were part of the truce that would expire in October . Robert called a Council in September , probably for working out how to proceed when the truce concluded , and to decide how the war was to proceed thereafter .
= = = Loss of authority and death = = =
Robert 's son , John , Earl of Carrick , had become the foremost Stewart magnate south of the Forth just as Alexander , Earl of Buchan was in the north . Alexander 's activities and methods of royal administration , enforced by Gaelic mercenaries , drew criticism from northern earls and bishops and from his younger half @-@ brother David , Earl of Strathearn . These complaints damaged the king 's standing within the Council leading to criticism of his ability to curb Buchan 's activities . Robert 's differences with the Carrick affinity regarding the conduct of the war and his continued failure or unwillingness to deal with Buchan in the north led to the political convulsion of November 1384 when the Council removed the king 's authority to govern and appointed Carrick as lieutenant of the kingdom — a coup d ’ état had taken place . With Robert sidelined , there was now no impediment in the way of war . In June 1385 , a force of 1200 French soldiers joined the Scots in a campaign that involved the Earl of Douglas and two of Robert 's sons , John , Earl of Carrick and Robert , Earl of Fife . The skirmishes saw small gains but a quarrel between the French and Scottish commanders saw the abandonment of an attack on the important castle of Roxburgh .
The victory of the Scots over the English at the Battle of Otterburn in Northumberland in August 1388 set in motion Carrick 's fall from power . One of the Scottish casualties was Carrick 's close ally James , Earl of Douglas . Douglas died without an heir , which led to various claims upon the title and estate — Carrick backed Malcolm Drummond , the husband of Douglas 's sister , while Fife sided with the successful appellant , Sir Archibald Douglas , lord of Galloway who possessed an entail on the Douglas estates . Fife , now with his powerful Douglas ally , and those who supported the king ensured a countercoup at the December Council meeting when the guardianship of Scotland passed from Carrick ( who had recently been badly injured from a horse @-@ kick ) to Fife . Many had also approved of Fife 's intention to properly resolve the situation of lawlessness in the north and in particular the activities of his younger brother , Buchan . Fife relieved Buchan of his offices of lieutenant of the north and justiciar north of the Forth . The latter role was given to Fife 's son , Murdoch Stewart . Robert II toured the north @-@ east of the kingdom in late January 1390 , perhaps to reinforce the changed political scene in the north following Buchan 's removal from authority . In March , Robert returned to Dundonald Castle in Ayrshire where he died on 19 April and was buried at Scone on 25 April .
= = Historiography = =
The reign of Robert II has undergone a re @-@ appraisal since the works of historians Gordon Donaldson ( 1967 ) and Ranald Nicholson ( 1974 ) . Donaldson admits to a paucity of knowledge ( at the time that he was writing ) regarding Robert 's reign and accepts that the early chroniclers writing near to his reign found little to criticise . Robert 's career before and after he succeeded to the throne is described by Donaldson as " to say the least , undistinguished , and his reign did nothing to add lustre to it . " Donaldson goes further and debates the legality of the canon law marriage of Robert and Elizabeth Mure following the papal dispensation , but acknowledges that the Acts of Succession in 1371 and 1372 , although sealing the matter in the eyes of Parliament , did not end the generational feud of the descendants of Elizabeth Mure and of Euphemia Ross . Robert 's earlier participation in combat at the battles of Halidon and Neville 's Cross , according to Donaldson , had made him wary of sanctioning military expeditions against the English and that any such actions by his barons were concealed from him . Similarly , Nicholson described Robert 's reign as deficient and that his lack of the skills of governance led to internal strife . Nicholson asserts that the Earl of Douglas was bought off following his armed demonstration just before Robert 's coronation , and associates this with the doubt surrounding the legitimacy of Robert 's sons with Elizabeth Mure .
In contrast , the historians Stephen Boardman ( 2007 ) , Alexander Grant ( 1984 & 1992 ) and Michael Lynch ( 1992 ) give a more even @-@ handed appraisal of Robert II 's life . Modern historians show a kingdom that had become wealthier and more stable particularly during the first decade of his rule . Boardman explains that Robert II was subjected to negative propaganda while he was High Steward — David II 's followers denigrated his conduct during his lieutenancies and described them as " tyranny " — and again later as king when the supporters of his son John , Earl of Carrick said that Robert was a king lacking drive and accomplishments , weighed down by age and unfit to govern . Robert II 's association with Gaelic Scotland also drew criticism . He grew up in his ancestral lands in the west and was completely at ease with the Gaelic language and culture and possessed a potent relationship with the Gaelic lords in the Hebrides , upper Perthshire and Argyll . Throughout his reign , Robert spent long periods in his Gaelic heartlands and complaints at the time in Lowland Scotland seem to have been influenced by the view that the king was too much involved in Gaelic concerns . Boardman also asserts that much of the negative views held of Robert II find their origins in the writings of the French chronicler Jean Froissart who recorded that ' [ the king ] had red bleared eyes , of the colour of sandalwood , which clearly showed that he was no valiant man , but one who would remain at home than march to the field ' . Contrary to Froissart 's view , the early Scottish chroniclers — Andrew of Wyntoun and Walter Bower ( who both utilised a source that was nearly contemporary with Robert II ) — and later 15th and 16th century Scottish chroniclers and poets showed ' Robert II as a Scottish patriotic hero , a defender of the integrity of the Scottish kingdom , and as the direct heir to Robert I ' .
Grant ( 1992 ) acknowledges that Robert II 's reign in terms of foreign and domestic policy was " not so unsuccessful " . As far as William , Earl of Douglas 's reaction was concerned when he staged an armed demonstration before Robert 's coronation , Grant does not hold to the view that Douglas was in some way demonstrating against Robert 's legitimate right to the throne , but more an assertion that royal patronage should not continue as in the time of David II . Grant also advocates that the demonstration was aimed at father and son Robert and Thomas Erskine , who held the castles of Edinburgh , Stirling and Dumbarton from Robert 's predecessor . Grant seriously called into question the dependability of Froissart 's writings as an effective source for Robert II 's reign . Influential magnate coalitions headed by Carrick , having undermined the king 's position , manipulated the Council of November 1384 to effectively oust Robert II from any real power . Grant gives little weight to the asserted senility of Robert , and suggests that the deposition of Carrick in 1388 , and then the resolution to join the Anglo @-@ French truce of 1389 , were both at the instigation of Robert II . Yet power was not handed back to Robert II but to Carrick 's younger brother , Robert , earl of Fife which once again saw the king at the disposition of one of his sons . Despite this , the now unknown source whom both Wyntoun and Bower relied on made the point that Fife deferred to his father on affairs of state emphasising the difference in styles in the guardianships of his two sons .
Michael Lynch points out that Robert II 's reign from 1371 until the lieutenancy of Carrick in 1384 had been one exemplified by continued prosperity and stability - a time which Abbot Bower described as a period of " tranquility , prosperity and peace " . Lynch suggests that the troubles of the 1450s between James II and the Douglases ( which some historians have interpreted as the legacy of Robert II 's policy of encouraging powerful lordships ) , was in fact a continuation of David II 's build @-@ up of local lords in the Marches and Galloway — Robert was satisfied with government to leave alone the Douglas and the Stewart earls in their fiefdoms . The weakening of government if anything , Lynch suggests , came not before the 1384 coup but after it , despite the fact that the coup had at its root Robert II 's favouring of his third son , Alexander Stewart , Earl of Buchan ( known as the Wolf of Badenoch ) .
= = Fictional portrayals = =
Robert II has been depicted in historical novels . They include :
The Three Perils of Man ; or , War , women , and witchcraft ( 1822 ) by James Hogg . The tale takes place in the reign of Robert II whose " country enjoyed happiness and peace , all save a part adjoining to the borders of England . " Part of the action takes place at Linlithgow Palace , where Robert promises to marry his daughter Margaret Stewart " to the knight who shall take that castle of Roxburgh out of the hands of the English " . With Margaret adding her own terms , that " in case of his attempting and failing in the undertaking , he shall forfeit all his lands , castles , towns , and towers to me . " In the absence of volunteers , Margaret vows to take the Castle herself , defeating Lord Musgrave and his mistress Jane Howard .
The Lords of Misrule ( 1976 ) by Nigel Tranter . Covers events from c . 1388 to 1390 . Depicting the last years of Robert II and the rise of Robert III of Scotland to the throne . As the elderly king has grown " feeble , weary and half @-@ blind " , his sons , daughters and other nobles campaign for power . An ungoverned Scotland is ravaged by their conflicts . Robert Stewart , Duke of Albany , and Alexander Stewart , Earl of Buchan , are prominently featured .
Courting Favour ( 2000 ) by Nigel Tranter . Follows the career of John Dunbar , Earl of Moray in the courts of David II of Scotland and Robert II . John is a son @-@ in @-@ law to the latter and serves him as a diplomat .
= = Marriages and issue = =
In 1336 , he first married Elizabeth Mure ( died 1355 ) , daughter of Sir Adam Mure of Rowallan . The marriage was criticized for being uncanonical , so he remarried her in 1349 after receiving a papal dispensation in 1347 .
From this union , ten children reached adulthood :
John ( died 1406 ) , who became King of Scotland as Robert III , married Anabella Drummond .
Walter ( died in 1363 ) , husband of Isabella MacDuff , Countess of Fife .
Robert , Earl of Fife and from 1398 Duke of Albany ( died 1420 ) , married in 1361 Margaret Graham , Countess of Menteith , and his second wife in 1381 Muriella Keith ( died in 1449 ) .
Alexander Stewart , Earl of Buchan ( died 1405 ) , nicknamed " The Wolf of Badenoch " , married in 1382 to Euphemia of Ross .
Margaret , married John of Islay , Lord of the Isles .
Marjorie , married John Dunbar , Earl of Moray , then Sir Alexander Keith .
Elizabeth married Thomas de la Hay , Lord High Constable of Scotland .
Isabella ( died 1410 ) , married James Douglas , 2nd Earl of Douglas ( died in 1388 ) , followed in 1389 by David Edmonstone .
Johanna ( Jean ) , married Sir John Keith ( died 1375 ) , then John Lyon , Lord of Glamis ( died 1383 ) and finally Sir James Sandilands .
Katherine , married Sir Robert Logan of Grugar and Restalrig , Lord High Admiral of Scotland .
In 1355 , Robert married his second wife Euphemia de Ross ( died 1387 ) , daughter of Hugh , Earl of Ross . They had four children :
David Stewart , Earl of Strathearn , born about 1356 and died in 1389 .
Walter Stewart , Earl of Atholl , born about 1360 , beheaded at Edinburgh in 1437 for being involved in the assassination of King James I.
Elizabeth , who married in 1380 David Lindsay , 1st Earl of Crawford .
Egidia , who married in 1387 William Douglas of Nithsdale .
King Robert II has also many illegitimate children with several mistresses , including four sons with his favorite Mariota Cardeny , daughter of Sir Cardeny , and widow of Alexander Mac Naugthon :
Alexander Stewart , of Inverlunan
Sir John Stewart , of Cardeny
James Stewart , of Abernethy and Kinfauna
Walter Stewart
Other issue born by unknown women :
John Stewart , sheriff of Bute
Thomas Stewart , archdeacon of St Andrews
Alexander Stewart , canon of Glasgow
Maria or Mary Stewart , wife of Sir John de Danielstoun and mother of Sir Robert de Danielstoun of that Ilk ( ancestor of Cunningham of Kilmaurs , and Maxwell of Calderwood )
= Neil Armstrong =
Neil Alden Armstrong ( August 5 , 1930 – August 25 , 2012 ) was an American astronaut and the first person to walk on the Moon . He was also an aerospace engineer , naval aviator , test pilot , and university professor . Before becoming an astronaut , Armstrong was an officer in the U.S. Navy and served in the Korean War . After the war , he earned his bachelor 's degree at Purdue University and served as a test pilot at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics ( NACA ) High @-@ Speed Flight Station , where he logged over 900 flights . He later completed graduate studies at the University of Southern California .
A participant in the U.S. Air Force 's Man in Space Soonest and X @-@ 20 Dyna @-@ Soar human spaceflight programs , Armstrong joined the NASA Astronaut Corps in 1962 . He made his first space flight as command pilot of Gemini 8 in March 1966 , becoming NASA 's first civilian astronaut to fly in space . He performed the first docking of two spacecraft , with pilot David Scott . This mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his reentry control fuel to prevent a dangerous spin caused by a stuck thruster , in the first in @-@ flight space emergency .
Armstrong 's second and last spaceflight was as commander of Apollo 11 , the first manned Moon landing mission in July 1969 . Armstrong and Lunar Module pilot Buzz Aldrin descended to the lunar surface and spent two and a half hours outside the spacecraft , while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the Command / Service Module . Along with Collins and Aldrin , Armstrong was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Richard Nixon . President Jimmy Carter presented Armstrong the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978 . Armstrong and his former crewmates received the Congressional Gold Medal in 2009 .
Armstrong died in Cincinnati , Ohio , on August 25 , 2012 , at the age of 82 , after complications from coronary artery bypass surgery .
= = Early years = =
Neil Armstrong was born on August 5 , 1930 , to Stephen Koenig Armstrong and Viola Louise Engel in Auglaize County , near Wapakoneta , Ohio . He was of Scottish , Irish , and German ancestry , and had two younger siblings , June and Dean . Stephen Armstrong worked as an auditor for the Ohio state government ; the family moved around the state repeatedly after Armstrong 's birth , living in 20 towns . Neil 's love for flying grew during this time , having gotten off to an early start when his father took his two @-@ year @-@ old son to the Cleveland Air Races . When he was five , he experienced his first airplane flight in Warren , Ohio on July 20 , 1936 when he and his father took a ride in a Ford Trimotor , also known as the " Tin Goose " .
His father 's last move was in 1944 , back to Neil 's birthplace , Wapakoneta , in Auglaize County . Armstrong attended Blume High School and took flying lessons at the grassy Wapakoneta airfield . He earned a student flight certificate on his 16th birthday , then soloed later in August ; all before he had a driver 's license . Armstrong was active in the Boy Scouts and earned the rank of Eagle Scout . As an adult , he was recognized by the Boy Scouts of America with its Distinguished Eagle Scout Award and Silver Buffalo Award . On July 18 , 1969 , while flying towards the Moon inside the Columbia , Armstrong greeted the Scouts : " I 'd like to say hello to all my fellow Scouts and Scouters at Farragut State Park in Idaho having a National Jamboree there this week ; and Apollo 11 would like to send them best wishes " . Houston replied : " Thank you , Apollo 11 . I 'm sure that , if they didn 't hear that , they 'll get the word through the news . Certainly appreciate that . " Among the very few personal items that Neil Armstrong carried with him to the Moon and back was a World Scout Badge .
In 1947 , at age 17 , Armstrong began studying aeronautical engineering at Purdue University . He was the second person in his family to attend college . He was also accepted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) . The only engineer he knew ( who had attended MIT ) dissuaded him from attending , telling Armstrong that it was not necessary to go all the way to Cambridge , Massachusetts , for a good education .
His college tuition was paid for under the Holloway Plan . Successful applicants committed to two years of study , followed by two years of flight training and one year of service in the U.S. Navy as an aviator , then completion of the final two years of their bachelor 's degree . Candidates had to promise to not marry until graduation , signed the " Aviation Guarantee " to serve on Active Duty for at least four years , and would not receive a promotion to Ensign until two years after they received their Midshipman 's warrant .
= = Navy service = =
Armstrong 's call @-@ up from the Navy arrived on January 26 , 1949 , requiring him to report to Naval Air Station Pensacola for flight training at age 18 . This lasted almost 18 months , during which he qualified for carrier landing aboard USS Cabot and USS Wright . On August 16 , 1950 , two weeks after his 20th birthday , Armstrong was informed by letter that he was a fully qualified Naval Aviator .
His first assignment was to Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron 7 at NAS San Diego ( now known as NAS North Island ) . Two months later he was assigned to Fighter Squadron 51 ( VF @-@ 51 ) , an all @-@ jet squadron , and made his first flight in a jet , an F9F @-@ 2B Panther , on January 5 , 1951 . In June , he made his first jet carrier landing on USS Essex and was promoted the same week from Midshipman to Ensign . By the end of the month , Essex had set sail with VF @-@ 51 aboard , bound for Korea , where its VF @-@ 51 would act as ground @-@ attack aircraft .
Armstrong first saw action in the Korean War on August 29 , 1951 , as an escort for
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a photo reconnaissance plane over Songjin . Five days later on September 3 , he flew armed reconnaissance over the primary transportation and storage facilities south of the village of Majon @-@ ni , west of Wonsan . While making a low bombing run at about 350 mph ( 560 km / h ) , Armstrong 's F9F Panther was hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire . While trying to regain control , he collided with a pole at a height of about 20 feet ( 6 m ) , which sliced off about three feet ( 1 m ) of the Panther 's right wing . Armstrong flew the plane back to friendly territory , but due to the loss of the aileron , ejection was his only safe option . He planned to eject over water and await rescue by Navy helicopters , and therefore flew to an airfield near Pohang , but his ejection seat was blown back over land . A jeep driven by a roommate from flight school picked Armstrong up ; it is unknown what happened to the wreckage of No. 125122 F9F @-@ 2 .
Armstrong flew 78 missions over Korea for a total of 121 hours in the air , most of which were in January 1952 . He received the Air Medal for 20 combat missions , a Gold Star for the next 20 , and the Korean Service Medal and Engagement Star . Armstrong left the Navy at age 22 on August 23 , 1952 , and became a lieutenant ( junior grade ) , in the U.S. Naval Reserve . He remained in the reserve for eight years , then resigned his commission on October 21 , 1960 .
= = College years = =
After his service with the Navy , Armstrong returned to Purdue , where his best grades came in the four semesters following his return from Korea . He had previously earned average marks , but his final GPA was 4 @.@ 8 out of 6 @.@ 0 . He pledged the Phi Delta Theta fraternity after his return and he wrote and co @-@ directed its musical as part of the all @-@ student revue ; he was also a member of Kappa Kappa Psi National Honorary Band Fraternity and a baritone player in the Purdue All @-@ American Marching Band . Armstrong graduated in 1955 with a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering .
After returning to Purdue , he met Janet Elizabeth Shearon , who was majoring in home economics . According to the couple , there was no real courtship , and neither could remember the exact circumstances of their engagement , except that it occurred while Armstrong was working at the NACA 's Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory . They were married on January 28 , 1956 , at the Congregational Church in Wilmette , Illinois . When he moved to Edwards Air Force Base , he lived in the bachelor quarters of the base , while Janet lived in the Westwood district of Los Angeles . After one semester , they moved into a house in Antelope Valley . Janet never finished her degree , a fact she regretted later in life .
The couple had three children together : Eric , Karen , and Mark . In June 1961 , daughter Karen was diagnosed with a malignant tumor of the middle part of her brain stem ; X @-@ ray treatment slowed its growth , but her health deteriorated to the point where she could no longer walk or talk . Two @-@ year @-@ old Karen died of pneumonia , related to her weakened health , on January 28 , 1962 .
Armstrong later completed his Master of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering at the University of Southern California in 1970 . He would eventually be awarded honorary doctorates by several universities .
= = Test pilot = =
Following his graduation from Purdue , Armstrong decided to become an experimental research test pilot . He applied at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics ( NACA ) High @-@ Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base , which was later redesignated as the ‘ ‘ NASA Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center ’ ’ in 2014 . Although the committee had no open positions , it forwarded his application to the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory in Cleveland , where Armstrong began working in March 1955 . Armstrong 's stint at Cleveland lasted a couple of months , and by July 1955 he had returned to Edwards AFB for a new job .
On his first day at Edwards , Armstrong was tasked his first assignments , which were to pilot chase planes during releases of experimental aircraft from modified bombers . He also flew the modified bombers , and on one of these missions had his first flight incident at Edwards . On March 22 , 1956 , Armstrong was in a Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress , which was to air @-@ drop a Douglas D @-@ 558 @-@ 2 Skyrocket . He sat in the right @-@ hand pilot seat while the left @-@ hand seat commander , Stan Butchart , flew the B @-@ 29 .
As they ascended to 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 km ) , the number @-@ four engine stopped and the propeller began windmilling ( rotating freely ) in the airstream . Hitting the switch that would stop the propeller 's spinning , Butchart found the propeller slowed but then started spinning again , this time even faster than the other engines ; if it spun too fast , it would break apart . Their aircraft needed to hold an airspeed of 210 mph ( 338 km / h ) to launch its Skyrocket payload , and the B @-@ 29 could not land with the Skyrocket attached to its belly . Armstrong and Butchart brought the aircraft into a nose @-@ down alignment to increase speed , then launched the Skyrocket . At the instant of launch , the number @-@ four engine propeller disintegrated . Pieces of it damaged the number @-@ three engine and hit the number @-@ two engine . Butchart and Armstrong were forced to shut down the number @-@ three engine , due to damage , and the number @-@ one engine , due to the torque it created . They made a slow , circling descent from 30 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 000 m ) using only the number @-@ two engine , and landed safely .
As a research pilot , Armstrong served as project pilot on the F @-@ 100 Super Sabre A and C variants , F @-@ 101 Voodoo , and the Lockheed F @-@ 104A Starfighter . He also flew the Bell X @-@ 1B , Bell X @-@ 5 , North American X @-@ 15 , F @-@ 105 Thunderchief , F @-@ 106 Delta Dart , B @-@ 47 Stratojet , KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker , and was one of eight elite pilots involved in the paraglider research vehicle program ( Paresev ) .
Armstrong 's first flight in a rocket plane was on August 15 , 1957 , in the Bell X @-@ 1B , to an altitude of 11 @.@ 4 miles ( 18 @.@ 3 km ) . The nose landing gear broke on landing , which had happened on about a dozen previous flights of the Bell X @-@ 1B due to the aircraft 's design . He later flew the North American X @-@ 15 seven times ; his penultimate flight reached an altitude of 207 @,@ 500 feet ( 63 @.@ 2 km ) .
Armstrong was involved in several incidents that went down in Edwards folklore and / or were chronicled in the memoirs of colleagues . The first occurred during his sixth X @-@ 15 flight on April 20 , 1962 , while Armstrong tested a self @-@ adjusting control system . He flew to a height of over 207 @,@ 000 feet ( 63 km ) , ( the highest he flew before Gemini 8 ) , but the aircraft nose was held up too long during descent and the X @-@ 15 bounced off the atmosphere back up to 140 @,@ 000 feet ( 43 km ) . At that altitude , the air is so thin that aerodynamic surfaces have almost no effect . He flew past the landing field at Mach 3 ( 2 @,@ 000 mph ( 3 @,@ 200 km / h ) ) at over 100 @,@ 000 feet ( 30 km ) in altitude , and ended up 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of Edwards . After sufficient descent , he turned back toward the landing area , and barely managed to land without striking Joshua trees at the south end . It was the longest X @-@ 15 flight in both time and distance from the ground track .
Four days later , Armstrong was involved in a second incident , when he flew for the only time with Chuck Yeager . Their job , flying a Lockheed T @-@ 33 Shooting Star , was to evaluate Smith Ranch Dry Lake for use as an emergency landing site for the X @-@ 15 . In his autobiography , Yeager wrote that he knew the lake bed was unsuitable for landings after recent rains , but Armstrong insisted on flying out anyway . As they attempted a touch @-@ and @-@ go , the wheels became stuck and they had to wait for rescue . Armstrong tells a different version of events , where Yeager never tried to talk him out of it and they made a first successful landing on the east side of the lake . Then Yeager told him to try again , this time a bit slower . On the second landing , they became stuck and according to Armstrong , Yeager was in fits of laughter .
Many of the test pilots at Edwards praised Armstrong 's engineering ability . Milt Thompson said he was " the most technically capable of the early X @-@ 15 pilots . " Bill Dana said Armstrong " had a mind that absorbed things like a sponge . " Those who flew for the Air Force tended to have a different opinion , especially people like Yeager and Pete Knight , who did not have engineering degrees . Knight said that pilot @-@ engineers flew in a way that was " more mechanical than it is flying , " and gave this as the reason why some pilot @-@ engineers got into trouble : their flying skills did not come naturally .
A few weeks later on May 21 , 1962 , Armstrong was involved in what Edwards ' folklore called the " Nellis Affair . " He was sent in a Lockheed F @-@ 104 Starfighter to inspect Delamar Dry Lake in southern Nevada , again for emergency landings . He misjudged his altitude , and also did not realize that the landing gear had not fully extended . As he touched down , the landing gear began to retract ; Armstrong applied full power to abort the landing , but the ventral fin and landing gear door struck the ground , damaging the radio and releasing hydraulic fluid . Without radio communication , Armstrong flew south to Nellis Air Force Base , past the control tower , and waggled his wings , the signal for a no @-@ radio approach . The loss of hydraulic fluid caused the tail @-@ hook to release , and upon landing , he caught the arresting wire attached to an anchor chain , and dragged the chain along the runway .
It took thirty minutes to clear the runway and rig an arresting cable and Armstrong telephoned Edwards and asked for someone to collect him . Milt Thompson was sent in an F @-@ 104B , the only two @-@ seater available , but a plane Thompson had never flown . With great difficulty , Thompson made it to Nellis , but a strong crosswind caused a hard landing and the left main tire suffered a blowout . The runway was again closed to clear it , and Bill Dana was sent to Nellis in a T @-@ 33 Shooting Star , but he almost landed long — and the Nellis base operations office decided that to avoid any further problems , it would be best to find the three NASA pilots ground transport back to Edwards .
Armstrong made seven flights in the X @-@ 15 from November 1960 to July 1962 . He reached a top altitude of 207 @,@ 500 feet ( 63 @.@ 2 km ) in the X @-@ 15 @-@ 3 , and a top speed of Mach 5 @.@ 74 ( 3 @,@ 989 mph ( 6 @,@ 420 km / h ) ) in the X @-@ 15 @-@ 1 ; he left the Dryden Flight Research Center with a total of 2 @,@ 400 flying hours . Over his career , he flew more than 200 different models of aircraft .
= = Astronaut career = =
In 1958 , Armstrong had been selected for the U.S. Air Force 's Man In Space Soonest program . In November 1960 , he was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for the X @-@ 20 Dyna @-@ Soar , a military space plane under development by Boeing for the U.S. Air Force , and on March 15 , 1962 , he was selected by the U.S. Air Force as one of seven pilot @-@ engineers who would fly the space plane when it got off the design board .
In the months after the announcement that applications were being sought for the second group of NASA astronauts , Armstrong became more and more excited about the prospects of both the Apollo program and of investigating a new aeronautical environment . Armstrong 's astronaut application arrived about a week past the June 1 , 1962 , deadline . Dick Day , with whom Armstrong had worked closely at Edwards , saw the late arrival of the application and slipped it into the pile before anyone noticed . At Brooks Air Force Base at the end of June , Armstrong underwent a medical exam that many of the applicants described as painful and at times seemingly pointless .
Deke Slayton called Armstrong on September 13 , 1962 , and asked whether he would be interested in joining the NASA Astronaut Corps as part of what the press dubbed " the New Nine " ; without hesitation , Armstrong said yes . The selections were kept secret until three days later , although newspaper reports had been circulating since earlier that year that he would be selected as the " first civilian astronaut . " Armstrong was one of two civilian pilots selected for the second group ; the other was Elliot See , also a former naval aviator . See was scheduled to command Gemini 9 , but died in a T @-@ 38 crash in 1966 that also took the life of crewmate Charles Bassett . Armstrong was the first American civilian in space , but the first civilian was Valentina Tereshkova of the Soviet Union , nearly three years earlier . A textile worker and amateur parachutist , she was aboard Vostok 6 when it launched on June 16 , 1963 .
= = = Gemini program = = =
= = = = Gemini 8 = = = =
The crew assignments for Gemini 8 were announced on September 20 , 1965 , with Armstrong as Command Pilot and David Scott as Pilot . Scott was the first member of the third group of astronauts to receive a prime crew assignment . The mission launched on March 16 , 1966 ; it was to be the most complex yet , with a rendezvous and docking with the unmanned Agena target vehicle , the second American extra @-@ vehicular activity ( EVA ) by Scott . In total , the mission was planned to last 75 hours and 55 orbits . After the Agena lifted off at 10 a.m. EST , the Titan II carrying Armstrong and Scott ignited at 11 : 41 : 02 am EST , putting them into an orbit from where they would chase the Agena .
The rendezvous and first @-@ ever docking between two spacecraft was successfully completed after 6 @.@ 5 hours in orbit . Contact with the crew was intermittent due to the lack of tracking stations covering their entire orbits . Out of contact with the ground , the docked spacecraft began to roll , and Armstrong attempted to correct this with the Orbital Attitude and Maneuvering System ( OAMS ) of the Gemini spacecraft . Following the earlier advice of Mission Control , they undocked , but found that the roll increased dramatically to the point where they were turning about once per second , which meant the problem was in their Gemini 's attitude control . Armstrong decided the only course of action was to engage the Reentry Control System ( RCS ) and turn off the OAMS . Mission rules dictated that once this system was turned on , the spacecraft would have to reenter at the next possible opportunity . It was later thought that damaged wiring made one of the thrusters become stuck in the on position .
Throughout the astronaut office there were a few people , most notably Walter Cunningham , who publicly stated that Armstrong and Scott had ignored the malfunction procedures for such an incident , and that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if he had turned on only one of the two RCS rings , saving the other for mission objectives . These criticisms were unfounded ; no malfunction procedures were written and it was possible to turn on only both RCS rings , not just one or the other . Gene Kranz wrote , " the crew reacted as they were trained , and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong . " The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft are docked together , they must be considered to be one spacecraft .
Armstrong himself was depressed that the mission had been cut short , canceling most mission objectives and robbing Scott of his EVA .
= = = = Gemini 11 = = = =
The last assignment for Armstrong in the Gemini program was as the back @-@ up Command Pilot for Gemini 11 , announced two days after the landing of Gemini 8 . Having trained for two flights , Armstrong was quite knowledgeable about the systems and was more in a teaching role for the rookie backup Pilot , William Anders . The launch was on September 12 , 1966 , with Pete Conrad and Dick Gordon on board , who successfully completed the mission objectives , while Armstrong served as CAPCOM .
Following the flight , President Lyndon B. Johnson asked Armstrong and his wife to take part in a 24 @-@ day goodwill tour of South America . Also on the tour , which took in 11 countries and 14 major cities , were Dick Gordon , George Low , their wives , and other government officials . In Paraguay , Armstrong impressed dignitaries by greeting them in their local language , Guarani ; in Brazil he talked about the exploits of the Brazilian @-@ born Alberto Santos @-@ Dumont , who was regarded as having beaten the Wright brothers with the first flying machine with his 14 @-@ bis .
= = = Apollo program = = =
On January 27 , 1967 , the date of the Apollo 1 fire , Armstrong was in Washington , D.C. , with Gordon Cooper , Dick Gordon , Jim Lovell and Scott Carpenter for the signing of the United Nations Outer Space Treaty . The astronauts chatted with the assembled dignitaries until 6 : 45 p.m. when Carpenter went to the airport , and the others returned to the Georgetown Inn , where they each found messages to phone the Manned Spacecraft Center . During these telephone calls , they learned of the deaths of Gus Grissom , Ed White and Roger Chaffee . Armstrong and the group spent the rest of the night drinking scotch and discussing what had happened .
On April 5 , 1967 , the same day the Apollo 1 investigation released its report on the fire , Armstrong assembled with 17 other astronauts for a meeting with Deke Slayton . The first thing Slayton said was , " The guys who are going to fly the first lunar missions are the guys in this room . " According to Eugene Cernan , Armstrong showed no reaction to the statement . To Armstrong it came as no surprise — the room was full of veterans of Project Gemini , the only people who could fly the lunar missions . Slayton talked about the planned missions and named Armstrong to the backup crew for Apollo 9 , which at that stage was planned to be a medium Earth orbit test of the Lunar Module @-@ Command / Service Module combination . After design and manufacturing delays in the Lunar Module ( LM ) , Apollo 9 and Apollo 8 swapped crews . Based on the normal crew rotation scheme , Armstrong would command Apollo 11 .
To give the astronauts experience with how the LM would fly on its final landing descent , NASA commissioned Bell Aircraft to build two Lunar Landing Research Vehicles , later augmented with three Lunar Landing Training Vehicles ( LLTV ) . Nicknamed the " Flying Bedsteads " , they simulated the Moon 's one @-@ sixth of Earth 's gravity by using a turbofan engine to support the remaining five @-@ sixths of the craft 's weight . On May 6 , 1968 , about 100 feet ( 30 m ) above the ground , Armstrong 's controls started to degrade and the LLTV began banking . He ejected safely ( later analysis suggested that if he had ejected half a second later , his parachute would not have opened in time ) . His only injury was from biting his tongue . Even though he was nearly killed , Armstrong maintained that without the LLRV and LLTV , the lunar landings would not have been successful , as they gave commanders valuable experience in the behavior of lunar landing craft .
= = = = Apollo 11 = = = =
After Armstrong served as backup commander for Apollo 8 , Slayton offered him the post of commander of Apollo 11 on December 23 , 1968 , as Apollo 8 orbited the Moon . In a meeting that was not made public until the publication of Armstrong 's biography in 2005 , Slayton told him that although the planned crew was Armstrong as commander , lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin and command module pilot Michael Collins , he was offering the chance to replace Aldrin with Jim Lovell . After thinking it over for a day , Armstrong told Slayton he would stick with Aldrin , as he had no difficulty working with him and thought Lovell deserved his own command . Replacing Aldrin with Lovell would have made Lovell the Lunar Module Pilot , unofficially the lowest ranked member , and Armstrong could not justify placing Lovell , the commander of Gemini 12 , in the number 3 position of the crew .
A March 1969 meeting between Slayton , George Low , Bob Gilruth , and Chris Kraft determined that Armstrong would be the first person on the Moon , in some part because NASA management saw Armstrong as a person who did not have a large ego . A press conference held on April 14 , 1969 , gave the design of the LM cabin as the reason for Armstrong 's being first ; the hatch opened inwards and to the right , making it difficult for the lunar module pilot , on the right @-@ hand side , to exit first . Slayton added , " Secondly , just on a pure protocol basis , I figured the commander ought to be the first guy out ... I changed it as soon as I found they had the time line that showed that . Bob Gilruth approved my decision . " At the time of their meeting , the four men did not know about the hatch consideration . The first knowledge of the meeting outside the small group came when Kraft wrote his 2001 autobiography .
On July 16 , 1969 , Armstrong received a crescent Moon carved out of Styrofoam from the pad leader , Guenter Wendt , who described it as a key to the Moon . In return , Armstrong gave Wendt a ticket for a " space taxi " " good between two planets " .
= = = = = Voyage to the Moon = = = = =
During the Apollo 11 launch , Armstrong 's heart reached a top rate of 110 beats per minute . He found the first stage to be the loudest — much noisier than the Gemini 8 Titan II launch — and the Apollo CSM was relatively roomy compared to the Gemini capsule . This ability to move around was suspected to be the reason why none of the Apollo 11 crew suffered from space sickness , while members of previous crews did . Armstrong was especially happy , as he had been prone to motion sickness as a child and could experience nausea after doing long periods of aerobatics .
The objective of Apollo 11 was to land safely rather than to touch down with precision on a particular spot . Three minutes into the lunar descent burn , Armstrong noted that craters were passing about two seconds too early , which meant the Eagle would probably touch down beyond the planned landing zone by several miles . As the Eagle 's landing radar acquired the surface , several computer error alarms appeared . The first was a code 1202 alarm , and even with their extensive training , neither Armstrong nor Aldrin was aware of what this code meant . They promptly received word from CAPCOM Charles Duke in Houston that the alarms were not a concern ; the 1202 and 1201 alarms were caused by an executive overflow in the lunar module computer . As described by Buzz Aldrin in the documentary In the Shadow of the Moon , the overflow condition was caused by his own counter @-@ checklist choice of leaving the docking radar on during the landing process , so the computer had to process unnecessary radar data and did not have enough time to execute all tasks , dropping lower @-@ priority ones . Aldrin stated that he did so with the objective of facilitating re @-@ docking with the CM should an abort become necessary , not realizing that it would cause the overflow condition .
When Armstrong noticed they were heading towards a landing area which he believed was unsafe , he took over manual control of the LM , and attempted to find an area which seemed safer , taking longer than expected , and longer than most simulations had taken . For this reason , there was concern from mission control that the LM was running low on fuel . Upon landing , Aldrin and Armstrong believed they had about 40 seconds worth of fuel left , including the 20 seconds worth of fuel which had to be saved in the event of an abort . During training , Armstrong had landed the LLTV with less than 15 seconds left on several occasions , and he was also confident the LM could survive a straight @-@ down fall from 50 feet ( 15 m ) if needed . Analysis after the mission showed that at touchdown there were 45 to 50 seconds of propellant burn time left .
The landing on the surface of the Moon occurred several seconds after 20 : 17 : 40 UTC on July 20 , 1969 , at which time one of three 67 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) -long probes attached to three of the Lunar Module 's four legs made contact with the surface , a panel light inside the LM lit up , and Aldrin called out , " Contact light . " Armstrong shut the engine off and said , " shutdown . " As the LM settled onto the surface , Aldrin said , " Okay . Engine stop " , then they both called out some post @-@ landing checklist items . After a ten @-@ second pause , Duke acknowledged the landing with , " We copy you down , Eagle . " Armstrong announced the landing to Mission Control and the world with the words , " Houston , Tranquility Base here . The Eagle has landed . " Aldrin and Armstrong celebrated with a brisk handshake and pat on the back before quickly returning to the checklist of tasks needed to ready the lunar module for liftoff from the Moon should an emergency unfold during the first moments on the lunar surface . After Armstrong had confirmed touch @-@ down , Duke re @-@ acknowledged , and expressed the flight controllers ' anxiety : " Roger , ... Tranquility . We copy you on the ground . You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue . We 're breathing again . Thanks a lot . " During the landing , Armstrong 's heart rate , at one point , reached 160 beats per minute , according to the NASA Apollo 11 Mission Report .
= = = = = First Moon walk = = = = =
Although the official NASA flight plan called for a crew rest period before extra @-@ vehicular activity , Armstrong requested that the EVA be moved to earlier in the evening , Houston time . Once Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside , Eagle was depressurized , the hatch was opened and Armstrong made his way down the ladder first .
At the bottom of the ladder Armstrong said , " I 'm going to step off the LEM now " ( referring to the Apollo Lunar Module ) . He then turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface at 2 : 56 UTC July 21 , 1969 , then spoke the famous words , " That 's one small step for [ a ] man , one giant leap for mankind . "
Armstrong prepared his famous epigram on his own . In a post @-@ flight press conference , he said that he decided on the words " just prior to leaving the LM [ lunar module ] . " In a 1983 interview in Esquire Magazine , Armstrong explained to George Plimpton : " I always knew there was a good chance of being able to return to Earth , but I thought the chances of a successful touchdown on the moon surface were about even money — fifty – fifty ... Most people don 't realize how difficult the mission was . So it didn 't seem to me there was much point in thinking of something to say if we 'd have to abort landing . " In 2012 , brother Dean Armstrong claimed that Neil had shown him a note with a draft of the line months before the launch , although historian Andrew Chaikin , who had interviewed the astronaut in 1988 for his book A Man on the Moon , disputed that he had ever claimed coming up with the line spontaneously during the mission .
Recordings of Armstrong 's transmission do not evidence the indefinite article " a " before " man " , though NASA and Armstrong insisted for years that static had obscured it . Armstrong stated he would never make such a mistake , but after repeated listenings to recordings , he eventually admitted he must have dropped the " a " . He later said he " would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended , even if it was not said — although it might actually have been " .
It has since been claimed that acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence of the missing " a " ; Peter Shann Ford , an Australia @-@ based computer programmer , conducted a digital audio analysis and claims that Armstrong did , in fact , say " a man " , but the " a " was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time . Ford and James R. Hansen , Armstrong 's authorized biographer , presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives , who conducted their own analysis . Armstrong found Ford 's analysis " persuasive . " However , the article by Ford was published on Ford 's own web site rather than in a peer @-@ reviewed scientific journal , and linguists David Beaver and Mark Liberman wrote of their skepticism of Ford 's claims on the blog Language Log . Thus , NASA 's transcript continues to show the " a " in parentheses .
When Armstrong made his proclamation , Voice of America was rebroadcast live via the BBC and many other stations worldwide . The estimated global audience at that moment was 450 million listeners , out of a then estimated world population of 3 @.@ 631 billion people .
About 20 minutes after the first step , Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface and became the second human to set foot on the Moon , and the duo began their tasks of investigating how easily a person could operate on the lunar surface . Early on , they unveiled a plaque commemorating their flight , and also planted the flag of the United States . The flag used on this mission had a metal rod to hold it horizontal from its pole . Since the rod did not fully extend , and the flag was tightly folded and packed during the journey , the flag ended up with a slightly wavy appearance , as if there were a breeze . Shortly after their flag planting , President Richard Nixon spoke to them by a telephone call from his office . The President spoke for about a minute , after which Armstrong responded for about thirty seconds .
In the entire Apollo 11 photographic record , there are only five images of Armstrong partly shown or reflected . The mission was planned to the minute , with the majority of photographic tasks to be performed by Armstrong with a single Hasselblad camera .
After helping to set up the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package , Armstrong went for a walk to what is now known as East Crater , 65 yards ( 59 m ) east of the LM , the greatest distance traveled from the LM on the mission . Armstrong 's final task was to remind Aldrin to leave a small package of memorial items to deceased Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Vladimir Komarov , and Apollo 1 astronauts Gus Grissom , Ed White and Roger B. Chaffee . The time spent on EVA during Apollo 11 was about two and a half hours , the shortest of any of the six Apollo lunar landing missions ; each of the subsequent five landings were allotted gradually longer periods for EVA activities — the crew of Apollo 17 , by comparison , spent over 22 hours exploring the lunar surface .
In a 2010 interview , Armstrong explained that NASA limited his Moon walk to two hours because they were unsure how the spacesuits would handle the extreme temperature of the Moon .
In 2013 , Popular Science 's photo gallery included a photo that Armstrong took of Aldrin but his own image is visible on Aldrin 's helmet as one of the best astronaut selfies .
= = = = = Return to Earth = = = = =
After they re @-@ entered the LM , the hatch was closed and sealed . While preparing for the liftoff from the lunar surface , Armstrong and Aldrin discovered that , in their bulky spacesuits , they had broken the ignition switch for the ascent engine ; using part of a pen , they pushed the circuit breaker in to activate the launch sequence . The lunar module then continued to its rendezvous and docked with Columbia , the command and service module . The three astronauts returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean , to be picked up by the USS Hornet .
After being released from an 18 @-@ day quarantine to ensure that they had not picked up any infections or diseases from the Moon , the crew were feted across the United States and around the world as part of a 45 @-@ day " Giant Leap " tour . Armstrong then took part in Bob Hope 's 1969 USO show , primarily to Vietnam .
Later from October 29 – 31 , 1969 he and the rest of the Apollo 11 astronauts visited the city of Tehran , capital of Iran , where he met Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the rest of the nation 's royal family .
In May 1970 , Armstrong traveled to the Soviet Union to present a talk at the 13th annual conference of the International Committee on Space Research ; after arriving in Leningrad from Poland , he traveled to Moscow where he met Premier Alexei Kosygin . He was the first westerner to see the supersonic Tupolev Tu @-@ 144 and was given a tour of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center , which Armstrong described as " a bit Victorian in nature " . At the end of the day , he was surprised to view delayed video of the launch of Soyuz 9 — it had not occurred to Armstrong that the mission was taking place , even though Valentina Tereshkova had been his host and her husband , Andriyan Nikolayev , was on board .
= = Life after Apollo = =
= = = Teaching = = =
Armstrong announced shortly after the Apollo 11 flight that he did not plan to fly in space again . He was appointed Deputy Associate Administrator for aeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research and Technology , Advanced Research Projects Agency ( ARPA ) , but served in this position for only a year , and resigned from it and NASA as a whole in 1971 .
He accepted a teaching position in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Cincinnati , having decided on Cincinnati over other universities , including his alma mater , Purdue , because it had a small aerospace department ; he hoped that the faculty members would not be annoyed that he came straight into a professorship with only the USC master 's degree . He began the work while stationed at Edwards years before , and finally completed it after Apollo 11 by presenting a report on various aspects of Apollo , instead of a thesis on the simulation of hypersonic flight . The official job title he received at Cincinnati was University Professor of Aerospace Engineering . After teaching for eight years , he resigned in 1979 without explaining his reason for leaving .
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the greatest of American heroes — not just of his time , but of all time " . The statement further said that Armstrong had carried the aspirations of the United States ' citizens and that he had delivered " a moment of human achievement that will never be forgotten . "
His family released a statement describing Armstrong as a " reluctant American hero [ who had ] served his nation proudly , as a navy fighter pilot , test pilot , and astronaut ... While we mourn the loss of a very good man , we also celebrate his remarkable life and hope that it serves as an example to young people around the world to work hard to make their dreams come true , to be willing to explore and push the limits , and to selflessly serve a cause greater than themselves . For those who may ask what they can do to honor Neil , we have a simple request . Honor his example of service , accomplishment and modesty , and the next time you walk outside on a clear night and see the moon smiling down at you , think of Neil Armstrong and give him a wink . " This prompted many responses , including the Twitter hashtag " # WinkAtTheMoon " .
Armstrong 's colleague on the Apollo 11 mission , Buzz Aldrin , said that he was " deeply saddened by the passing . I know I am joined by millions of others in mourning the passing of a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew . I had truly hoped that on July 20th , 2019 , Neil , Mike and I would be standing together to commemorate the 50th Anniversary of our moon landing ... Regrettably , this is not to be . " Apollo 11 Command Module pilot Michael Collins said , of Armstrong , " He was the best , and I will miss him terribly . " NASA Administrator Charles Bolden said that : " As long as there are history books , Neil Armstrong will be included in them , remembered for taking humankind 's first small step on a world beyond our own " .
A tribute was held in Armstrong 's honor on September 13 at Washington National Cathedral , whose Space Window depicts the Apollo 11 mission and holds a sliver of Moon rock amid its stained @-@ glass panels . In attendance were Armstrong 's Apollo 11 crewmates , Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin ; Eugene A. Cernan , the Apollo 17 mission commander and last man to walk on the Moon ; and former Senator and astronaut John Glenn , the first American to orbit the Earth . In a eulogy , Charles Bolden said , " Neil will always be remembered for taking humankind 's first small step on a world beyond our own , but it was the courage , grace , and humility he displayed throughout this life that lifted him above the stars . " Eugene Cernan recalled Armstrong 's low @-@ fuel approach to the Moon : " When the gauge says empty we all know there 's a gallon or two left in the tank ! " Diana Krall sang the song " Fly Me to the Moon " . Michael Collins led prayers . Aldrin and Collins left immediately after the event . The Apollo 15 commander , David Scott , spoke to the press ; he recalled the Gemini 8 mission with Armstrong when he spoke , possibly for the first time , about an incident in which glue spilled on his harness and prevented it from locking correctly minutes before the hatch had to be sealed or the mission aborted . Armstrong then called on back @-@ up pilot Pete Conrad to solve the problem , which he did , to continue the mission without stopping the countdown clock . " That happened because Neil Armstrong was a team player , he always worked on behalf of the team . "
On September 14 , Armstrong 's cremated remains were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean during a burial @-@ at @-@ sea ceremony aboard the USS Philippine Sea . Flags were flown at half @-@ staff on the day of Armstrong 's funeral .
= = Legacy = =
Armstrong received many honors and awards , including the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the Congressional Space Medal of Honor , the Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy , the Sylvanus Thayer Award , the Collier Trophy from the National Aeronautics Association , and the Congressional Gold Medal . The lunar crater Armstrong , 31 mi ( 50 km ) from the Apollo 11 landing site , and asteroid 6469 Armstrong are named in his honor . Armstrong was also inducted into the Aerospace Walk of Honor , the National Aviation Hall of Fame , and the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame . Armstrong and his Apollo 11 crewmates were the 1999 recipients of the Langley Gold Medal from the Smithsonian Institution .
Throughout the United States , there are more than a dozen elementary , middle and high schools named in his honor , and many places around the world have streets , buildings , schools , and other places named for Armstrong and / or Apollo . In 1969 , folk songwriter and singer John Stewart recorded " Armstrong " , a tribute to Armstrong and his first steps on the Moon . Purdue University announced in October 2004 that its new engineering building would be named Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering in his honor ; the building cost $ 53 @.@ 2 million and was dedicated on October 27 , 2007 , during a ceremony at which Armstrong was joined by fourteen other Purdue Astronauts . In 1971 , Armstrong was awarded the Sylvanus Thayer Award by the United States Military Academy at West Point for his service to the country . The Armstrong Air and Space Museum , in Armstong 's hometown of Wapakoneta , Ohio , and the airport in New Knoxville , where he took his first flying lessons when he was fifteen , were named after him .
Armstrong 's authorized biography , First Man : The Life of Neil A. Armstrong , was published in 2005 . For many years , Armstrong turned down biography offers from authors such as Stephen Ambrose and James A. Michener , but agreed to work with James R. Hansen after reading one of Hansen 's other biographies .
In a 2010 Space Foundation survey , Armstrong was ranked as the # 1 most popular space hero , and in 2013 , Flying magazine ranked him at # 1 on its list of the " 51 Heroes of Aviation " .
The press often asked Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight . In 2005 , Armstrong said that a manned mission to Mars will be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s : " I suspect that even though the various questions are difficult and many , they are not as difficult and many as those we faced when we started the Apollo [ space program ] in 1961 . " In 2010 , he made a rare public criticism of the decision to cancel the Ares 1 launch vehicle and the Constellation Moon landing program . In an open public letter also signed by Apollo veterans Jim Lovell and Gene Cernan , he noted , " For The United States , the leading space faring nation for nearly half a century , to be without carriage to low Earth orbit and with no human exploration capability to go beyond Earth orbit for an indeterminate time into the future , destines our nation to become one of second or even third rate stature " . Armstrong had also publicly recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission , when he had believed there was only a 50 percent chance of landing on the Moon . " I was elated , ecstatic and extremely surprised that we were successful " , he later said .
On November 18 , 2010 , at age 80 , Armstrong said in a speech during the Science & Technology Summit in The Hague , Netherlands , that he would offer his services as commander on a mission to Mars if he were asked .
In September 2012 , the US Navy announced that the first Armstrong @-@ class oceanographic research ship is named RV Neil Armstrong . The ship , christened on March 28 , 2014 , was launched on March 29 , 2014 , passed sea trials August 7 , 2015 and delivered to the Navy on September 23 , 2015 . It is a modern oceanographic research platform capable of supporting a wide range of oceanographic research activities conducted by academic groups .
The Space Foundation named Neil Armstrong as a recipient of its 2013 General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award .
= Johann Heinrich von Schmitt =
Heinrich Schmitt ( 1743 – 11 November 1805 ) was a lieutenant field marshal in the Habsburg military during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars .
He developed a sound military reputation as a surveyor , map @-@ maker , and strategist during Austria 's wars with the Ottoman Empire , He served on the Quartermaster 's staff during the War of the First Coalition . As a major general , he was one of Archduke Charles trusted advisers during the War of the Second Coalition campaign in southwestern Germany .
In 1799 , his reputation was tarnished by the assassination of the French delegates to the Congress of Rastatt in 1799 , and he retired the following year . When war broke out again in 1805 , he was recalled from retirement and assigned to the combined Russian @-@ Austrian forces on the Danube . On 11 November , Schmitt was killed by friendly fire at the Battle of Dürenstein .
= = Family and education = =
Heinrich Schmitt was born in 1743 , the son of Johann Sebastian von Schmitt , a captain of cavalry in the Imperial Cuirassier Regiment Graf Cordova . Schmitt may have been born in Pest ( Budapest ) in Hungary , or , as other sources claim , in Bavaria . In 1742 – 43 , his father 's regiment participated in the Battle of Sahay , and then in the Siege of Prague , followed by duty in Bavaria and the Rhineland in 1743 . His father died in 1752 — it is unclear where — and on 25 June 1758 , at the age of 14 years , Schmitt enrolled in the Imperial School of Engineering in Gumpendorf . There he received a thorough technical training in engineering and the extensive education provided for officers on all other major subjects , particularly those pertaining to war and science .
After three years , on 15 November 1761 , Schmitt received a commission as ensign , or Fähnrich , in the Infantry Regiment No. 15 Pallavicini . During his assignment with this regiment , he saw service in the last years of the Seven Years ' War ( 1765 – 1763 ) in the Bohemian theater . The lack of accurate maps had hampered the conduct of the Seven Years ' War and , in 1764 , Schmitt was assigned to a project to improve the map @-@ making capacity of the military . The idea of the scientific soldier , or a soldier educated in the specifics of military operations , led to an investment in the training and education of officers . The development of map making , and Carlos Pallavicini was at the forefront of this movement . On 1 February 1769 , after proving himself capable in this assignment , he was promoted to first lieutenant and transferred to the reorganized Quartermaster 's staff .
= = Military career = =
From 1769 to 1778 , Schmitt was assigned to the Turkish border areas , and was especially active in Temesvar , in the Banat , bordering the Ottoman Empire . In 1778 , he was promoted to captain and mobilized against Prussia during the short War of the Bavarian Succession , after which he transferred back to the Balkan border areas , where he stayed until 1782 . His thorough knowledge of the country guaranteed him map @-@ making and intelligence assignments in Turkish @-@ occupied Bosnia to gather information in preparation for an upcoming new war against Turkey . In particular , he developed material on the Turk 's military situation . His work on the development of intelligence of Turkish strength in Osijek and Alt Gradiska satisfied his superiors and when the war actually broke out in 1787 , he was assigned to the General Staff of the Slavonion Corps . He participated in the storming of the fortress at Šabac , in Serbia , on 24 April 1788 . Emperor Joseph II promoted him personally to major on 14 May 1788 . In 1789 , Schmitt fought at the Siege of Belgrade , and on 23 February 1790 , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel . In March 1790 , he transferred to Bohemia , under command of Field Marshal Ernst Gideon von Laudon , for anticipated action against the Kingdom of Prussia . When this war came to naught , he was transferred to the Austrian Netherlands in 1791 , to help contain a local uprising .
= = = Service in the French Revolutionary Wars = = =
At the outbreak of the War of the First Coalition against France in April 1792 , Schmitt was a staff officer in the main Imperial army in the Austrian Netherlands . He distinguished himself in the defense of the pass of the Croix @-@ aux @-@ Bois ( 14 September 1792 ) and in the battles of Raismes and Vicoigne on ( both on May 8 , 1793 ) . On 3 September 1793 , after his promotion to colonel , he served under Field Marshal Friedrich Josias Prinz von Sachsen @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld . In the autumn of 1794 , Schmitt organized the retreat of the main Imperial Army , now under the command of Coburg 's successor , Feldzeugmeister Count Clerfayt from their untenable positions in the Austrian Netherlands eastward to the Rhine .
In the campaign of 1795 , still serving under Field Marshal Count Clerfayt , he was appointed to the staff of Archduke Charles by Emperor Francis II in April 1796 . Schmitt , now a colonel , was at the Battle of Amberg ( 24 August 1796 ) , fought in the victory at the Battle of Würzburg ( 2 September 1796 ) , and on 6 September 1796 , was promoted to Major General . At this time , he became Archduke Charles ' primary adviser , and served as his Chief of the Quartermaster General Staff .
The trust the Archduke placed in Schmitt was briefly interrupted in 1799 when he was connected , by rumor , to the 29 April assassination of the French delegates to the Congress of Rastatt . The assassination occurred as the delegation was leaving the city , and reportedly was committed by soldiers of the 11th Hussars Szekely . The official investigation into the assassination placed enormous pressure on Schmitt , to such an extent that he briefly resigned as Charles ' Chief of Staff , but he was quickly reinstated . On 1 March 1800 , Schmitt was promoted to Lieutenant Field Marshal , but later in that year , the Archduke was himself replaced as commander @-@ in @-@ chief by Field Marshal Pál Kray . Although Schmitt remained on Kray 's staff , he again requested retirement , claiming he was tired and could no longer cope with the stress of the job . In reality , he and Kray 's Quartermaster General , Major General Johann Gabriel Chasteler de Courcelles , seldom saw eye @-@ to @-@ eye on any of the main issues facing the army and Kray relied more on Chasteler than on Schmitt . His request was initially refused , but on 19 August 1800 , Emperor Francis I approved the petition when Kray seconded it . Schmitt went first to Vienna and then Hostitz at Kromeriz , near Brno . There he lived with his old friend Ferdinand Ritter von Geißlern until 1805 .
= = = Recall to active duty = = =
During the War of the Third Coalition in 1805 – 1806 , Schmitt returned from retirement to active service . Equipped with a glowing letter of endorsement from Emperor Francis II to the Russian Infantry General Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov ( 1745 – 1813 ) , Schmitt arrived at the Russian headquarters and was appointed Chief of the Quartermaster General Staff of the Allied Army . Schmitt met with the Russian forces at the great abbey by Melk , on the Danube , and he and the commanders concocted a plan to encircle Édouard Mortier 's French force near Dürenstein . To do so , they drew not only on their own military experience , but called upon a captain from the region , to use his geographic and local knowledge .
= = = Death at Dürenstein = = =
Édouard Mortier had marched from Passau and Linz toward Vienna , traveling on the north bank of Danube . His newly created VIII Corps , known as Corps Mortier , consisted of three divisions , which were stretched 56 kilometers ( 35 mi ) apart along the river between Marbach and Dürenstein . This over @-@ extension left his Corps ' northern flank unprotected , against Napoleon 's specific instructions . Schmitt 's plan capitalized on this mistake . On 11 November 1805 , Kutuzov 's column trapped one of Mortier 's divisions , under command of Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan de la Peyrière . The Russians used a ruse to entice Gazan into an attack on a small force , and then trapped him between two columns . The French were surrounded at the front and rear by the Russians , caught on the flood plain at Dürenstein . They could neither move forward nor backward . A second French division arrived in mid @-@ afternoon and attacked the Russians in the flank , but were themselves surprised when Schmitt led an additional Russian column out of the mountains . Gazan 's division lost over 40 percent of its men , colors , and several guns . The battle lasted well into the night . In its waning moments , the French were evacuating across the Danube in a flotilla of boats . In the dark confusion , Schmitt was shot , probably by Russian musketry , in a field between the Waldstein and Heudürrgraben . Wilhelm von Kotzebue , a German in Russian service , later reported that the column came through the forest road and entered the main road on the river 's edge ; they immediately entered the cross @-@ fire between Dupont 's forward posts of Dragoons and the Dokhtoruv 's Russians . He fell by Wadstein , and was buried on the battlefield with the dead of his Russian column . Although his burial site has never been found , a monument for him was erected in a park in nearby Krems in 1811 .
= = Assessment and legacy = =
A key member of the Imperial Staff , Schmitt was the most experienced Austrian leader , called out of retirement for this specific task of organizing the Austro @-@ Russian retreat . He had wide experience as a leader : From the summer of 1796 until his retirement in 1800 , he had been Chief of the Quartermaster General Staff of the Army , of the Lower Rhine , the Rhine , and the Army of Germany , and a trusted member of Archduke Charles ' staff . Consequently , he had organized a variety of maneuvers and battle plans under different terrain . The military historian Digby Smith hypothesizes that Schmitt , an experienced officer and sound tactician , would have been more effective at the Battle of Austerlitz , at least more effective than his replacement , Franz von Weyrother , as Chief of the Quartermaster General Staff of the Allied Army . After Schmitt 's death , Weyrother , the architect of the Austrian defeat at Hohenlinden , developed the general battle plan of the Allied action at Austerlitz . In the long run , it was unlikely that Schmitt 's plan would have changed the overall outcome — Austerlitz was arguably one of Napoleon 's finest battles — but his battle plan would no doubt have been an improvement over the one the Allies used .
Schmitt never married . He was known for his bright intellect , his composure , and his innate courage . Heinrich Schmitt was , in his time , recognized as one of the best and most distinguished officers of the Imperial Austrian army .
= Maryland Route 22 =
Maryland Route 22 ( MD 22 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 12 @.@ 91 miles ( 20 @.@ 78 km ) from U.S. Route 1 Business ( US 1 Business ) and MD 924 in Bel Air east to an entrance to Aberdeen Proving Ground in Aberdeen . MD 22 is the main connection between the county seat of Bel Air and Aberdeen , which is the largest city in Harford County . The state highway also provides the primary route between Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) and Aberdeen Proving Ground .
MD 22 was one of the original state roads marked for improvement in 1909 and one of the original state @-@ numbered highways in 1927 . The highway was constructed between Bel Air and Aberdeen in the early 1910s . Another section of highway between Aberdeen and Havre de Grace , the Post Road , was also built in the early 1910s . The Post Road became part of US 40 in 1927 but was designated as an extension of MD 22 after US 40 was relocated in the early 1930s . MD 22 was reconstructed from Bel Air to Aberdeen in the 1950s . MD 22 's present course east of I @-@ 95 was built in the late 1960s ; the old section of MD 22 through Aberdeen became MD 132 .
= = Route description = =
MD 22 begins in the Bel Air Courthouse Historic District in the town of Bel Air as a one @-@ way pair , Fulford Avenue eastbound and Churchville Road westbound , at Main Street . Main Street carries northbound MD 924 and US 1 Business ; the business route enters downtown Bel Air from the west on Fulford Avenue . Churchville Road continues west as unsigned MD 922E , which intersects Bond Street , which carries southbound MD 924 and US 1 Business ; the business route leaves downtown Bel Air to the west on Churchville Road . The two directions of MD 22 unite at Shamrock Road as Churchville Road , a four @-@ lane divided highway that passes Rockfield Park and The John Carroll School as it leaves the town of Bel Air . The state highway crosses over Bynum Run as it passes through Fountain Green , where the highway intersects MD 543 ( Fountain Green Road ) .
East of MD 543 , MD 22 reduces to two lanes and passes the historic Dibb House and Tudor Hall , the latter notable for being the boyhood home of John Wilkes Booth . The state highway passes through the hamlet of Schucks Corner and intersects Thomas Run Road , which leads to Thomas Run Park , Harford Technical High School , Thomas Run Church , Medical Hall Historic District , and the historic Hays @-@ Heighe House on the campus of Harford Community College . In the unincorporated village of Churchville , MD 22 intersects MD 136 ( Calvary Road / Priestbridge Road ) adjacent to the community 's namesake , Churchville Presbyterian Church . After meeting the west end of MD 155 ( Level Road ) immediately to the east , the state highway curves to the south . After MD 156 ( Aldino Road ) splits to the east , MD 22 returns to an eastward heading to pass through the hamlet of Carsins . The state highway expands to a four @-@ lane highway immediately before intersecting Long Drive , which serves as the entrance to Ripken Stadium , home of the Aberdeen IronBirds . Just east of the stadium complex , the state highway meets I @-@ 95 ( John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway ) at a six @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf interchange .
MD 22 continues east as Aberdeen Thruway , a four @-@ lane divided highway bypass of downtown Aberdeen that connects I @-@ 95 with Aberdeen Proving Ground . Immediately east of I @-@ 95 , the state highway enters the city limits of Aberdeen and intersects Beards Hill Road . Beards Hill Road heads south as unsigned MD 132A , which leads to MD 132 ( Bel Air Avenue ) , the old alignment of MD 22 that leads to downtown Aberdeen . MD 22 continues east through an intersection with MD 462 ( Paradise Road ) and curves south . The state highway continues through grade @-@ separated crossings of CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision and the Amtrak Northeast Corridor northeast of downtown Aberdeen . Squeezed in between the two railroad lines is MD 22 '
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s partial cloverleaf interchange with US 40 ( Philadelphia Boulevard ) ; several movements between the two highways are provided via Rogers Avenue , which intersects MD 22 between the bridges across the Philadelphia Subdivision and US 40 . East of the railroads , the highway intersects Post Road , which heads north as another section of MD 132 ( officially MD 132B ) , before reaching its eastern terminus at Bel Air Avenue just west of an entrance to Aberdeen Proving Ground . The highway continues onto the military base as Harford Boulevard .
MD 22 is a part of the National Highway System for its entire length . The highway is a part of the main National Highway System from I @-@ 95 to Aberdeen Proving Ground and as a principal arterial from MD 924 in Bel Air to I @-@ 95 .
= = History = =
MD 22 was one of the original state roads marked for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . The highway was part of the original main road from Baltimore to Aberdeen and Havre de Grace that passed through Bel Air . The Post Road , also known as the Philadelphia Road , did not become the main connection between Baltimore and Aberdeen until the 1920s . The highway from Bel Air to Churchville , part of the Bel Air Road extending west from Havre de Grace , was already improved beyond a rudimentary dirt road by 1910 . The highway from Churchville to Paradise Road in Aberdeen was constructed in 1911 . The portion of the state road between Bel Air and Churchville was reconstructed in 1913 . The Post Road between Aberdeen and Havre de Grace was constructed as a state aid road around 1911 . All three segments were constructed as a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide macadam road . The original construction did not include the portions of Bel Air Avenue and the Post Road within the limits of Aberdeen . The portion of Bel Air Avenue from Paradise Road to the Post Road and the Post Road from there to approximately the modern intersection of MD 22 and MD 132B were rebuilt as a 17 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) wide concrete road in 1917 .
MD 22 was widened to 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) with the addition of 3 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide concrete shoulders around 1926 , just before the highway became one of the original state @-@ numbered highways in 1927 . The Post Road became part of US 40 the same year . Both MD 22 and US 40 from Aberdeen to Havre de Grace were widened to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 1930 . US 40 was relocated from the Post Road to its present alignment from Aberdeen to Havre de Grace between 1930 and 1933 . MD 22 was extended north along the Post Road to MD 132B 's present northern terminus by 1939 . Work to further modernize MD 22 began in 1951 when Churchville Road from Bel Air to MD 156 near Churchville was straightened , widened , and resurfaced . The Bel Air – Churchville work was completed in 1953 ; the following year , the MD 22 – MD 155 intersection was reconstructed . MD 22 from MD 156 to US 40 in Aberdeen was widened and resurfaced between 1954 and 1956 .
The Aberdeen Thruway was constructed to improve the east – west connection between I @-@ 95 , US 40 , and Aberdeen Proving Ground and to provide grade separated crossings of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad ( now CSX ) , Pennsylvania Railroad ( now Amtrak ) , and US 40 . The grade separations had been contemplated as early as 1942 . Construction on the relocation of MD 22 began in 1967 and was completed in 1969 . The old alignment of MD 22 from I @-@ 95 east and north through Aberdeen to US 40 near Havre de Grace was designated MD 132 . Beards Hill Road was reconstructed as a divided highway between MD 132 and MD 22 and the ramps from northbound I @-@ 95 to MD 132 and from eastbound MD 22 to MD 132 were constructed by 1972 . The western end of MD 22 was changed to a one @-@ way pair when Fulford Avenue was added to the state highway system as eastbound MD 22 in Bel Air in 1979 . The state highway was expanded to a divided highway from the east end of the one @-@ way pair to MD 543 between 1994 and 1999 . MD 22 was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway from the I @-@ 95 overpass west to Long Drive in 2004 concurrent with the transformation of the original diamond interchange with I @-@ 95 to a partial cloverleaf with collector @-@ distributor lanes .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Harford County .
= = Auxiliary routes = =
MD 22A is the designation for Old Section MD 22 , a 0 @.@ 13 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 21 km ) section of old alignment of MD 22 that serves several houses on the westbound side of MD 22 immediately to the west of the MD 22 – I @-@ 95 interchange . MD 22A was designated in 2004 when MD 22 was relocated slightly to the south as part of the construction of the divided highway to the west of I @-@ 95 .
MD 22B is the designation for Old MD 22 Spur , a 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) road connecting MD 22 north to MD 22A . MD 22B was designated in 2011 .
= Mechanical filter =
A mechanical filter is a signal processing filter usually used in place of an electronic filter at radio frequencies . Its purpose is the same as that of a normal electronic filter : to pass a range of signal frequencies , but to block others . The filter acts on mechanical vibrations which are the analogue of the electrical signal . At the input and output of the filter , transducers convert the electrical signal into , and then back from , these mechanical vibrations .
The components of a mechanical filter are all directly analogous to the various elements found in electrical circuits . The mechanical elements obey mathematical functions which are identical to their corresponding electrical elements . This makes it possible to apply electrical network analysis and filter design methods to mechanical filters . Electrical theory has developed a large library of mathematical forms that produce useful filter frequency responses and the mechanical filter designer is able to make direct use of these . It is only necessary to set the mechanical components to appropriate values to produce a filter with an identical response to the electrical counterpart .
Steel and nickel – iron alloys are common materials for mechanical filter components ; nickel is sometimes used for the input and output couplings . Resonators in the filter made from these materials need to be machined to precisely adjust their resonance frequency before final assembly .
While the meaning of mechanical filter in this article is one that is used in an electromechanical role , it is possible to use a mechanical design to filter mechanical vibrations or sound waves ( which are also essentially mechanical ) directly . For example , filtering of audio frequency response in the design of loudspeaker cabinets can be achieved with mechanical components . In the electrical application , in addition to mechanical components which correspond to their electrical counterparts , transducers are needed to convert between the mechanical and electrical domains . A representative selection of the wide variety of component forms and topologies for mechanical filters are presented in this article .
The theory of mechanical filters was first applied to improving the mechanical parts of phonographs in the 1920s . By the 1950s mechanical filters were being manufactured as self @-@ contained components for applications in radio transmitters and high @-@ end receivers . The high " quality factor " , Q , that mechanical resonators can attain , far higher than that of an all @-@ electrical LC circuit , made possible the construction of mechanical filters with excellent selectivity . Good selectivity , being important in radio receivers , made such filters highly attractive . Contemporary researchers are working on microelectromechanical filters , the mechanical devices corresponding to electronic integrated circuits .
= = Elements = =
The elements of a passive linear electrical network consist of inductors , capacitors and resistors which have the properties of inductance , elastance ( inverse capacitance ) and resistance , respectively . The mechanical counterparts of these properties are , respectively , mass , stiffness and damping . In most electronic filter designs , only inductor and capacitor elements are used in the body of the filter ( although the filter may be terminated with resistors at the input and output ) . Resistances are not present in a theoretical filter composed of ideal components and only arise in practical designs as unwanted parasitic elements . Likewise , a mechanical filter would ideally consist only of components with the properties of mass and stiffness , but in reality some damping is present as well .
The mechanical counterparts of voltage and electric current in this type of analysis are , respectively , force ( F ) and velocity ( v ) and represent the signal waveforms . From this , a mechanical impedance can be defined in terms of the imaginary angular frequency , jω , which entirely follows the electrical analogy .
The scheme presented in the table is known as the impedance analogy . Circuit diagrams produced using this analogy match the electrical impedance of the mechanical system seen by the electrical circuit , making it intuitive from an electrical engineering standpoint . There is also the mobility analogy , in which force corresponds to current and velocity corresponds to voltage . This has equally valid results but requires using the reciprocals of the electrical counterparts listed above . Hence , M → C , S → 1 / L , D → G where G is electrical conductance , the inverse of resistance . Equivalent circuits produced by this scheme are similar , but are the dual impedance forms whereby series elements become parallel , capacitors become inductors , and so on . Circuit diagrams using the mobility analogy more closely match the mechanical arrangement of the circuit , making it more intuitive from a mechanical engineering standpoint . In addition to their application to electromechanical systems , these analogies are widely used to aid analysis in acoustics .
Any mechanical component will unavoidably possess both mass and stiffness . This translates in electrical terms to an LC circuit , that is , a circuit consisting of an inductor and a capacitor , hence mechanical components are resonators and are often used as such . It is still possible to represent inductors and capacitors as individual lumped elements in a mechanical implementation by minimising ( but never quite eliminating ) the unwanted property . Capacitors may be made of thin , long rods , that is , the mass is minimised and the compliance is maximised . Inductors , on the other hand , may be made of short , wide pieces which maximise the mass in comparison to the compliance of the piece .
Mechanical parts act as a transmission line for mechanical vibrations . If the wavelength is short in comparison to the part then a lumped element model as described above is no longer adequate and a distributed element model must be used instead . The mechanical distributed elements are entirely analogous to electrical distributed elements and the mechanical filter designer can use the methods of electrical distributed element filter design .
= = History = =
= = = Harmonic telegraph = = =
Mechanical filter design was developed by applying the discoveries made in electrical filter theory to mechanics . However , a very early example ( 1870s ) of acoustic filtering was the " harmonic telegraph " , which arose precisely because electrical resonance was poorly understood but mechanical resonance ( in particular , acoustic resonance ) was very familiar to engineers . This situation was not to last for long ; electrical resonance had been known to science for some time before this , and it was not long before engineers started to produce all @-@ electric designs for filters . In its time , though , the harmonic telegraph was of some importance . The idea was to combine several telegraph signals on one telegraph line by what would now be called frequency division multiplexing thus saving enormously on line installation costs . The key of each operator activated a vibrating electromechanical reed which converted this vibration into an electrical signal . Filtering at the receiving operator was achieved by a similar reed tuned to precisely the same frequency , which would only vibrate and produce a sound from transmissions by the operator with the identical tuning .
Versions of the harmonic telegraph were developed by Elisha Gray , Alexander Graham Bell , Ernest Mercadier and others . Its ability to act as a sound transducer to and from the electrical domain was to inspire the invention of the telephone .
= = = Mechanical equivalent circuits = = =
Once the basics of electrical network analysis began to be established , it was not long before the ideas of complex impedance and filter design theories were carried over into mechanics by analogy . Kennelly , who was also responsible for introducing complex impedance , and Webster were the first to extend the concept of impedance into mechanical systems in 1920 . Mechanical admittance and the associated mobility analogy came much later and are due to Firestone in 1932 .
It was not enough to just develop a mechanical analogy . This could be applied to problems that were entirely in the mechanical domain , but for mechanical filters with an electrical application it is necessary to include the transducer in the analogy as well . Poincaré in 1907 was the first to describe a transducer as a pair of linear algebraic equations relating electrical variables ( voltage and current ) to mechanical variables ( force and velocity ) . These equations can be expressed as a matrix relationship in much the same way as the z @-@ parameters of a two @-@ port network in electrical theory , to which this is entirely analogous :
<formula>
where V and I represent the voltage and current respectively on the electrical side of the transducer .
Wegel , in 1921 , was the first to express these equations in terms of mechanical impedance as well as electrical impedance . The element <formula> is the open circuit mechanical impedance , that is , the impedance presented by the mechanical side of the transducer when no current is entering the electrical side . The element <formula> , conversely , is the clamped electrical impedance , that is , the impedance presented to the electrical side when the mechanical side is clamped and prevented from moving ( velocity is zero ) . The remaining two elements , <formula> and <formula> , describe the transducer forward and reverse transfer functions respectively . Once these ideas were in place , engineers were able to extend electrical theory into the mechanical domain and analyse an electromechanical system as a unified whole .
= = = Sound reproduction = = =
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of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . Fox later aired repeats of season one episodes , including " The Road Not Taken " , that featured Twitter posts by some of Fringe 's cast and producers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics . TV Squad 's Jane Boursaw called the episode 's case " an interesting premise " and was pleased that " things are really , REALLY starting to come together in a big way , which is good , considering that the finale is fast approaching " . Annalee Newitz of io9 declared it to be " one of the most rewarding episodes ever for people who love the show 's mythology , " and found Olivia 's universe @-@ hopping ability to be " truly cool " . Newitz concluded that " this was a truly awesome episode with a lot of payoff for those of us who have been glued to the set every Tuesday night , looking for answers . " The website later listed " The Road Not Taken " as one of the " crucial " episodes new viewers must watch to get into the show . Television Without Pity graded the episode with a A- .
Noel Murray of The A.V. Club complimented the episode 's opening scene for providing a succinct synopsis of the season to new viewers who may have been newly discovering the series after watching its lead @-@ in , American Idol . Though he graded the episode with an A- , Murray did however critique its climatic scene for being " clumsily paced and staged " . Murray mainly found positive aspects with the episode , explaining , " For a show that started out being a fairly dour procedural with wacky mad @-@ scientist elements , Fringe has really worked its way into that fantasy / sci @-@ fi sweet @-@ spot , where its own forward momentum makes the ridiculous look likely and arcane mythology seem well @-@ worth the time to sort through and analyze . " Other highlights Murray found was Noble 's performance , which he considered his " finest moment in the series to date , " and Olivia 's visions of the other universe .
IGN 's Ramsey Isler rated the episode with a score of 9 @.@ 2 out of 10 . He thought that after a " stereotypical , over @-@ the @-@ top " characterization in past episodes , Gaston " stepped up his portrayal " as Harris and was " annoying ... in a much more believable way . " Isler found the revelation surrounding Harris to be " deliciously surprising , " and wrote that the " last twenty minutes of the episode really ramped up the suspense and action . " However , the IGN reviewer thought that while the conversation with Grayson was an " hilarious homage to Leonard Nimoy , it seemed completely superfluous in terms of the overall storyline . " Isler concluded his review on a positive note by focusing on Noble 's performance , calling it " one of the best scenes [ he ] has ever done as Walter Bishop . It was emotional , believable , and perfectly accurate for a character that has a high level of self @-@ loathing and remorse for what he 's done , and the hopeless frustration of not being able to remember exactly why he did it . "
= Sunda Strait campaign of January 1794 =
The Sunda Strait campaign of January 1794 was a series of manoeuvres and naval actions fought between warships and privateers of the French Republic and a squadron of vessels sent by the British East India Company to protect trade in the region , later augmented by Dutch warships . The campaign developed as French forces based on Île de France reacted more quickly than the British forces in the Indian Ocean to the expansion of the French Revolutionary Wars on 1 February 1793 . French privateers rapidly spread along the British trade routes in the Far East , becoming concentrated around the narrow Sunda Strait between the islands of Java and Sumatra in the Dutch East Indies . These ships were soon joined by French Navy frigates and began to inflict losses on shipping in the region . The Royal Navy forces in the Indian Ocean were deployed elsewhere and so the East India Company , the private enterprise that ruled much of British India in the 1790s and maintained their own fleet and navy , raised a squadron of armed merchant ships to patrol the Strait and drive off the raiders .
The arrival of this British force on 2 January 1794 was initially a success , the squadron over @-@ running and capturing two large and well @-@ armed privateers on the on 22 January , not long after the French vessels had been beaten off during an attack on the British trading post at Bencoolen . On 24 January an action against a larger French squadron was fought in the Strait itself , but ended inconclusively and the squadrons divided , the British receiving the Dutch frigate Amazone as reinforcements . The French subsequently turned southwards out of the Strait and attacked Bencoolen again on 9 February , capturing an East Indiaman in the harbour before returning to Île de France with their prize .
= = Background = =
On 1 February 1793 , the French Republic declared war on Great Britain and the Dutch Republic , extending the already existing French Revolutionary Wars . It took several months for news of the outbreak of war to reach British India , messages arriving at Calcutta from Consul George Baldwin at Alexandria on 11 June . The Royal Navy commander in the region , Commodore William Cornwallis , immediately set about demanding the surrender of the French trading posts in India . Most fell within a few days , but the major port of Pondicherry refused , and was besieged from 1 August . The siege lasted a month before the French commander capitulated under bombardment from British land and naval forces . With the French presence eliminated from India , Cornwallis was ordered to return to Europe , leaving minimal naval forces in the Indian Ocean .
The Indian Ocean formed a vital part of Britain 's trade links with the wider British Empire . India was controlled by the East India Company , a commercial organisation that maintained its own army and navy in Indian waters and owned a fleet of large merchant ships known as East Indiamen . These vessels ranged in size between 400 and 1500 tons burthen ( bm ) , carried up to 30 cannons and were capable in certain conditions of fighting warships , although a frigate was usually more than a match for an individual East Indiaman . These ships sailed on an annual route from China , the East Indies or India carrying trade goods such as spices , tea or silk to Britain . There the goods were sold , and replaced with general cargo including military equipment and troops for the journey back to the Indian Ocean .
One of the most vital parts of the Indian trade route was through the Sunda Strait between the islands of Sumatra and Java in the Dutch East Indies , through which most of the China and East Indies trade passed on its journey to the Indian Ocean . French ships , both Navy warships and commercially owned privateers , operated along the Indian trade routes from their base at the isolated island of Île de France and recognised the strategic importance of the Sunda Straits . As soon as news of war arrived at Île de France French ships spread out into the Indian Ocean in search of British and Dutch merchant shipping , gathering in significant numbers off the Sunda Straits .
On 27 September 1793 French cruisers achieved their first major victory when three privateers mounting more than 20 guns each attacked the East Indiaman Princess Royal , under Captain James Horncastle , off Anjier ( or Anjere or Anger ) Point in the Sunda Strait . Although Horncastle resisted , the privateers outgunned him and eventually forced him to strike .
= = East India Company deployment = =
With the Royal Navy unable to provide forces to protect trade in the East Indies , the East India Company authorities in India decided to form a squadron from their own ships to patrol the region . Three East Indiamen , Wiliam Pitt , Britannia and Nonsuch , were diverted from their regular route for the service , accompanied by the brig Nautilus and under the overall command of Commodore Charles Mitchell . On 2 January 1794 this force passed Singapore and entered the Malacca Strait , sailing eastwards in search of French raiders . As the British squadron travelled along the northern coast of Sumatra , two French privateers attacked the East India Company ’ s trading post at Bencoolen on the southern coast . The privateers were the 30 @-@ gun Vengeur under Captain Corosin and the 26 @-@ gun Résolu under Captain Jallineaux , and on 17 January they approached the mouth of Rat Island Basin close to Bencoolen where the 32 @-@ gun East Indiaman Pigot lay at anchor . Pigot , under Captain George Ballantyne , had a crew of 102 men , but was completely unprepared for action . At 08 : 15 Vengeur opened fire at 150 yards ( 137 m ) , maintaining the battle for an hour and 45 minutes before hauling off so that Résolu could continue the combat . Ballantyne defended his vessel intelligently , positioning Pigot so that the French could only approach one at a time through the narrow mouth of the bay . This allowed him to drive off each ship in turn , the privateers falling back together at 10 : 20 with damaged rigging . Pigot too had suffered , with one man killed and sufficient damage to the rigging to require several weeks of repairs . After immediate repairs had been completed , Corosin abandoned Bencoolen and retreated to the Sunda Strait in search of weaker targets .
Early on 22 January , Mitchell 's squadron , reinforced by the East Indiaman Houghton , stopped a merchant ship for inspection and as the ship was searched two new sails appeared to the southwest near Shown Rock in the Zuften Islands . Suspicious of the identity of the new arrivals , Mitchell sent Britannia and Nonsuch in pursuit and the ships turned away . As the East Indiamen closed with the fleeing ships , they were identified as Vengeur and Résolu . The British vessels soon outran the French and the French opened fire to which the larger British vessels responded . Captain Thomas Cheap of Britannia engaged Vengeur while Captain John Canning of Nonsuch attacked Résolu at 10 : 45 and were soon supported by William Pitt and Houghton . The overwhelming numbers and size of the British squadron soon convinced Corosin and Jallineaux that further resistance was pointless and 45 minutes after the first shots were fired both surrendered . Corosin died in the aftermath of the battle after losing a leg and another 11 French sailors were killed and 25 wounded , while British losses were one killed and two wounded on Britannia . Both raiders were subsequently supplied with crews from the East Indiaman squadron .
= = Battle of the Sunda Strait = =
On the morning of 24 January , most of Mitchell 's squadron lay at anchor off the island of Pulau Panjang in Bantam Bay on the northwestern tip of Java , with Nonsuch and the new prizes remaining in the Zuften Islands about 15 miles ( 24 km ) distant . At 06 : 00 , sails were sighted in the northern part of the Sunda Strait passing the small island of Dwars in de Weg that were rapidly identified as three frigates and a brig . These were in fact the French naval squadron from Île de France , consisting of the frigates Prudente and Cybèle , the brig Vulcain and the captured Princess Royal , now renamed Duguay @-@ Trouin , under the overall command of Captain Jean @-@ Marie Renaud . Canning attempted to communicate with the strange vessels , but by 13 : 00 it was obvious from their lack of response that these were enemy ships , and the greatly outnumbered Canning made all sail northeast with his prizes to avoid destruction .
During the evening heavy rain squalls reduced visibility and prevented any decisive movement by either side , but on 25 January the French squadron had rounded St. Nicholas Point at the northwestern tip of Java and was in full pursuit of Canning 's ships , which had been joined by Houghton . Resolu in particular was struggling to escape the advancing enemy , but Mitchell had realised the danger and was sailing to intercept the French . At 06 : 30 Houghton , Nonsuch and Vengeur joined with the remainder of Mitchell 's force and two hours later Renaud 's ships met the British line , Resolu just managing to reach safety in the shelter of the large East Indiamen despite being hit repeatedly in the latter stages of the chase . For an hour the two squadrons continued a general exchange of fire at long @-@ range , before Mitchell turned William Pitt , Houghton and Nonsuch towards the French at 09 : 30 , the latter two both managing to hit Cybèle with destructive broadsides . Firing continued for another 18 minutes as Renaud withdrew , eventually anchoring off the island of Pulau Baby . Neither commander was keen to continue the action , Mitchell fearing that his undermanned ships would not be able to properly engage the better armed French vessels . Casualties among the French squadron are not known , but the only loss on the British ships was on Nonsuch , which had a man killed in combat with Cybèle .
= = Final operations = =
In need of reinforcement and resupply , Mitchell drew his squadron back to Batavia and was there joined by the 36 gun Dutch frigate Amazone under Captain Kerwal and an armed merchant ship . Mitchell 's ships then cruised the Sunda Strait for another two weeks without discovering any enemy vessels , before concluding the operation on 8 February and returning to the Indian Ocean via Bencoolen . Cheap died of an illness in June , but Mitchell survived and on his return to Britain in 1796 was knighted by King George III , and presented with £ 8 @,@ 000 ( the equivalent of £ 829 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) as reward and compensation for his diversion to the Straits . The Dutch meanwhile retained their warships for a raid on Sourabaya where two French corvettes were sheltering . Both were captured without a fight and sent back to France as cartels carrying French prisoners .
The French squadron under Renaud had used the retreat of Mitchell 's force to also withdraw into the Indian Ocean via Bencoolen , reaching the British trading post on 9 February . There Pigot was still undergoing repairs and was taken by surprise and captured . As the merchant ship was manoeuvred out of the bay , Renaud demanded the surrender of the small Fort Marlborough nearby and was informed that the fort was well armed and that the arrival of Mitchell 's squadron was expected at any moment . Unwilling to continue the engagement with Mitchell , Renaud withdrew immediately without assaulting the fort . The French squadron subsequently returned to Île de France where , in the Action of 22 October 1794 , they drew away two British warships that blockaded the island .
The Sunda Strait and surrounding waters remained an important strategic location throughout the war , although the subsequent organisation of East Indiamen into convoys and the return of a Royal Navy presence in the region assisted in limiting losses to French privateers and smaller warships . On more than one occasion convoys of East Indiamen successfully discouraged large squadrons from attempting attacks on the valuable merchant craft with their size and power .
= = Orders of battle = =
= = = East India Company = = =
= = = French Navy and privateers = = =
= Oslo Airport Station =
Oslo Airport Station ( Norwegian : Oslo lufthavn stasjon ) , also known as Gardermoen Station , is a railway station located in the airport terminal building of Oslo Airport , Gardermoen in Norway . Located on the Gardermoen Line , it is served by the Airport Express Trains , express trains to Trondheim and Oslo , regional trains to Lillehammer and Skien ( via Oslo ) and commuter trains to Eidsvoll and Kongsberg ( via Oslo ) .
The station is located 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) from Oslo Central Station . The station is manned , and there is a single bus route , and several coach services , to and from the airport . It opened in 1998 , along with the new airport . During 2000 – 2001 , there were several derailments at the station . South of the station is a terminal for unloading freight trains carrying aviation fuel .
= = Location = =
Gardermoen is at kilometer marker 51 @.@ 85 ( 32 @.@ 22 mi ) from Oslo S , but the actual distance is only 48 @.@ 07 km ( 29 @.@ 87 mi ) . This is because the distance markers follow the slightly longer Hoved Line between Oslo and Lillestrøm . The station is built directly below the airport terminal , and access is obtained via escalators or elevators located in the airport 's arrival hall . North of the station , the tracks run in a tunnel below the terminal and runway area . The tracks on platform 2 and 3 only have connection southwards ; north of the station they are only connected to a short turning track .
Aviation fuel is transported to the airport by train . CargoNet hauls a daily train load of fuel from Sjursøya , with an unloading terminal just south of the passenger station . They are the only freight trains to use the Gardermoen Line .
= = Services = =
Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) and the Airport Express Train are the only companies that operate to the station . The outer side platforms ( 1 and 4 ) serve NSB trains , while the two inner island platforms ( 2 and 3 ) serve the Airport Express Trains .
The station is manned , from 07 : 00 to 22 : 00 on weekdays , with reduced opening hours on weekends . The platform ( but not necessarily the trains ) are wheelchair accessible , and an escort service for disabled persons can be prebooked . Baggage trolleys are available , and a wide selection of services , including cafes , kiosks , banks and police , are available at the airport terminal , as are taxis . A single local bus route , Ruter no . 855 , also serves the airport from Kløfta , Jessheim and Maura . There are many coaches from all parts of the country that also serve the airport , as well as coach services to Oslo operated by Flybussekspressen and SAS Ground Services .
= = = Airport Express Train = = =
The Flytoget airport express train services operate six times per hour . Three run directly to Oslo Central Station ( Oslo S ) in nineteen minutes and terminate there ; the other three services make an additional stop at Lillestrøm Station , then continue beyond Oslo Central towards Drammen Station , a total of eight stops . Total travel time to Drammen is 60 minutes . In 2007 , the Airport Express Train had 5 @.@ 35 million passengers .
= = = Norwegian State Railways = = =
The Oslo Commuter Rail operated by NSB , provides one service in each direction each hour — line 450 from Kongsberg Station via Oslo Central to Eidsvoll Station . NSB also provides one regional service in each direction per hour towards Skien Station ( via Oslo Central ) and Lillehammer Station . On the Dovre Line to Trondheim Central Station , five daily express trains are also offered , including one NSB Night Train . Northbound trains use track 1 , while southbound trains use track 4 .
= = History = =
The decision to build the station , railway and airport was taken by the Parliament on 8 October 1992 . NSB Gardermobanen , a subsidiary of the Norwegian State Railways , was created to build the line and station , as well as operate the Flytoget airport express train services . Construction of the station was performed in parallel with the construction of the airport , and the station is built in the same style as the rest of the airport , in postmodernist concrete and wood .
The station was taken into use on 27 September 1998 , and public services commenced along with the opening of the airport on 8 October 1998 . In 2001 , as part of a reorganization of NSB Gardermobanen , the ownership of the station was transferred to the Norwegian National Rail Administration .
= = = Incidents = = =
In 2000 – 01 , the Airport Express Train experienced three derailments with empty trains at Gardermoen ; one caused by the engineer falling asleep and two by the train passing a red light . No more such accidents occurred after automatic train control was installed in 2001 .
= Anne Hyde =
Anne Hyde ( 12 March 1637 – 31 March 1671 ) was Duchess of York and of Albany as the first wife of the future King James II of England . Originally an Anglican , she converted to Catholicism soon after her marriage to James . This took place in 1660 after she became pregnant by him , but he is said to have promised to marry her the year before . The two first met in the Netherlands while Anne was living in the household of James ' sister Mary . James and Anne had eight children , but six died in early childhood . The two who survived to adulthood were Lady Mary , who succeeded her father after his deposition during the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and Lady Anne , who succeeded her brother @-@ in @-@ law and became the first monarch of Great Britain .
Born the daughter of a commoner – Edward Hyde ( later created Earl of Clarendon ) , Anne is best known for her marriage to James , which caused much gossip . Two months after the marriage , Anne gave birth to the couple 's first child , who had obviously been conceived out of wedlock . Until near the end of Anne 's life , some observers disapproved of James ' decision to marry Anne ; but not King Charles II , James ' brother , who wanted the marriage to take place . Another cause of disapproval was the public affection James showed towards Anne , such as kissing and leaning against each other , which was considered improper behaviour from man to wife during the seventeenth century .
James was a known philanderer who kept many mistresses , for which Anne often reproached him , once even complaining to the king , who sent one of James ' mistresses to the countryside where she remained until her death . Nonetheless , James fathered many illegitimate children . Years after Anne had herself converted , James avowed his Catholicism , which was a contributing factor to the Glorious Revolution . This was through Anne ’ s influence ; she had been exposed to Catholicism during visits to the Netherlands and France , and was strongly attracted thereto . She suffered from advanced breast cancer and died shortly after giving birth to her last child .
= = Early years ( 1637 – 60 ) = =
In 1629 , Edward Hyde married his first wife , Anne Ayliffe of Grittenham . Six months into the marriage Anne caught smallpox , miscarried and died . Three years later , Hyde married Frances Aylesbury . In 1637 , Anne , the couple 's eldest daughter , was born at Cranbourne Lodge in Windsor . Almost nothing except that she was named after Edward Hyde 's first wife is known of her life before 1649 , when her family fled to the Netherlands after the execution of the deposed King Charles I. They settled in Breda , where they were offered a home by Mary , Princess Royal and Princess of Orange , who had done the same with many English fugitives . The Princess appointed Anne a maid of honour , apparently against the wishes of her mother and late father .
Anne became a general favourite with the people she met either at The Hague or at the Princess of Orange 's country house at Teylingen . She was very attractive and stylish , and attracted many men . One of the first men to fall in love with Anne was Spencer Compton , a son of the Earl of Northampton . However , Anne quickly fell in love with Henry Jermyn , who returned her feelings . Anne dismissed Jermyn just as quickly when she met James , Duke of York , the son of the deposed king . On 24 November 1659 , two or three years after she first met him , James promised he would marry Anne . Charles , James ' brother , forced him reluctantly into this , saying that her strong character would be a positive influence on his weak @-@ willed brother .
= = Duchess of York ( 1660 – 71 ) = =
= = = Marriage = = =
Anne was visibly pregnant and the couple were obliged to marry . They held an official but private marriage ceremony in London on 3 September 1660 , following the restoration of the monarchy . The wedding took place between 11 at night and 2 in the morning at Worcester House – her father 's house in the Strand – and was solemnised by Dr. Joseph Crowther , James ' chaplain . The French Ambassador described Anne as having " courage , cleverness , and energy almost worthy of a King 's blood " . The couple 's first child , Charles , was born in October of that year , but died seven months later . Seven children followed : Mary ( 1662 – 1694 ) , James ( 1663 – 1667 ) , Anne ( 1665 – 1714 ) , Charles ( 1666 – 1667 ) , Edgar ( 1667 – 1671 ) , Henrietta ( 1669 – 1669 ) , and Catherine ( 1671 – 1671 ) . All of their sons and two of their daughters died in infancy .
Even well after their marriage , some observers disapproved of the prince 's decision , regardless of what he had promised beforehand . Samuel Pepys said of the marriage : " ... that the Duke of York 's marriage with her hath undone the kingdom , by making the Chancellor so great above reach , who otherwise would have been but an ordinary man , to have been dealt with by other people ... " After Anne 's death , the royal court tried to find a new wife for James , but this new wife was not , under any circumstances , to be of humble birth . As good a father as Pepys portrayed James to be , he strangely stated that Anne and James were unaffected by the death of their firstborn son . Pepys also described Anne as " not only the proudest woman in the world , but the most expensefull . " Even in the minds of Anne 's future son @-@ in @-@ law , William III of Orange and that of her cousin @-@ by @-@ marriage , Sophia of Hanover , the stigma of the Hydes ' lowly birth remained .
= = = Domestic life = = =
Anne experienced problems in her married life . She was not very much liked at court and James philandered with younger mistresses such as Arabella Churchill , with whom he fathered many illegitimate children , including two born during Anne 's lifetime ; thus he was called " the most unguarded ogler of his time . " Anne was not oblivious to this : Pepys wrote that she was jealous and chided James , but he also wrote that Anne and James were notorious for showing their affections publicly , kissing and leaning on each other . Pepys also wrote that when James fell in love with Lady Chesterfield , Anne complained to King Charles so insistently that Lady Chesterfield had to retreat to the countryside , where she remained until she died .
Anne became drawn to Catholicism , to which both she and James had been exposed during their time abroad and converted to it almost immediately after the Restoration . John Callow states that Anne " made the greatest single impact upon his thinking . " James also converted to Catholicism eight or nine years after Anne , but he still attended Anglican services until 1676 . James preferred to associate himself with Protestant people , such as John Churchill , whose wife later became a very close friend of Anne 's youngest surviving daughter Lady Anne . King Charles at the time opposed Catholicism and insisted that James ' children be raised in the Anglican faith , although he converted to Catholicism on his deathbed . James and Anne 's surviving daughters were raised as Anglicans .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
Anne was ill for 15 months after the birth of her youngest son , Edgar . She bore Henrietta in 1669 and Catherine in 1671 . Anne never recovered from Catherine 's birth . Ill with breast cancer , she died on 31 March 1671 . On her deathbed , her two brothers Henry and Laurence tried to bring an Anglican priest to give her communion , but Anne refused and she received viaticum of the Catholic Church . Two days after her death , her embalmed body was interred in the vault of Mary , Queen of Scots at Westminster Abbey 's Henry VII Chapel . In June 1671 , Anne 's only surviving son Edgar died of natural causes , followed by Catherine in December , leaving Ladies Mary and Anne as the Duke of York 's heiresses .
After Anne Hyde 's death , a portrait of her painted by Willem Wissing was commissioned by the future Mary II ; this used to hang above the door of the Queen 's Drawing Room of the Garden House at Windsor Castle . Two years after the death of his first wife , James married a Catholic princess , Mary of Modena , who bore James Francis Edward , James ' only son to survive to adulthood . James became king of England , Ireland , and Scotland in 1685 , but was deposed during the Glorious Revolution of 1688 . The throne was then offered by Parliament to Anne 's eldest daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange . After Mary died in 1694 and William in 1702 , Anne Hyde 's youngest daughter Anne became Queen of the three Kingdoms and , in 1707 , the first sovereign of the united Kingdom of Great Britain .
= = Issue = =
= = Style and arms = =
Following her marriage , Anne was styled as Her Royal Highness the Duchess of York .
= = Ancestry = =
= = Media portrayals = =
In the 2003 mini @-@ series , Charles II : The Power and The Passion ( or The Last King ) , Anne Hyde is portrayed by Tabitha Wady .
= New Waddell Dam =
The New Waddell Dam is an embankment dam on the Agua Fria River in Maricopa County , Arizona , 35 miles ( 56 km ) northwest of Phoenix . It serves as part of the Central Arizona Project ( CAP ) while also providing water for the Maricopa Water District . The dam creates Lake Pleasant with water from the Agua Fria and also the CAP aqueduct . In addition , it affords flood protection , hydroelectric power production and recreational opportunities . Construction on the dam began in 1985 and ended in 1994 . Its reservoir submerged the Old Waddell Dam which was completed in 1927 after decades of planning .
= = History = =
= = = Old Waddell Dam = = =
First referred to as the Frogs Tank Dam , the original Waddell Dam was the ambition of local businessmen who wanted to develop a project that used the Agua Fria for the irrigation of around 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 40 @,@ 000 ha ) of land . This was to be accomplished with a storage dam , diversion dam and system of canals . Their advancement of the project began in 1888 with the formation of the Agua Fria Water and Land Company . The company hired George Beardsley 's Agua Fria Construction Company , and in 1892 , construction on the project began . In 1895 , Beardsley died , and his brother William who was now president of the Water and Land Company helped continue the project . In 1896 , due to a lack of funding caused by poor nationwide economic conditions , the project was halted . The Water and Land Company soon went bankrupt , but William Beardsley would keep the project alive . Work had been primarily done on the diversion dam and canal while only the foundation of the storage dam , a gravity dam , was completed . The diversion dam , Camp Dyer Diversion Dam , was named after Edgar J. Dyer , a surveyor on the project .
After nearly 30 years of struggling with funding and pursuing various deals , William Beardsley hired engineer Carl Pleasant to assist with designing . Pleasant recommended hiring the engineer firm Peckham and James to draft plans for the storage dam at the Frogs Tank site . The gravity dam design was dropped , and a relatively new , cheaper and improved but controversial design was adopted : the multiple @-@ arch buttress dam . In 1925 , under a new state law , Beardsley was able to create the Beardsley @-@ Agua Fria Water Conservation District . Under the new district , funds could be raised through a bond issue . On December 20 , 1925 , the construction contract was signed , but the bonds had yet to be purchased . Five days before the contract was signed , Beardsley died . His son , Robert took direction of the project along with Pleasant . In early 1926 , Pleasant eventually sold the needed bonds to the New York firm Brandon , Gordon and Waddell . The firm sent Donald Ware Waddell to oversee construction .
Although the initial implementation of worker camps and site preparation had begun in 1925 , the main effort of construction began in 1926 with the diversion of the Agua Fria River . In that same year , the dam was renamed to Pleasant Dam . By February 1927 , concrete pouring for the 20 buttresses was nearing completion . The dam was complete in October 1927 . Its construction employed a maximum of 600 workers and cost over $ 3 @.@ 3 million . Prior to its inauguration , cracks were discovered in the dam 's buttresses . This led to much controversy over the new design of the dam and whether it was safe in the long @-@ term which delayed its inauguration until February 1928 . The situation was exacerbated on 12 March 1928 after the St. Francis Dam in California had a catastrophic failure . In 1929 , after a series of hearings and debates , which eventually reached the state legislature , the State Water Commissioner ordered the spillway for the dam to be lowered 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) to prevent excess water levels and stress on the dam . It was also required that specific water levels in the reservoir be maintained . The dam was rehabilitated until 1935 , and a steel roadbed was installed atop it that same year . In the early 1960s , it was renamed the Waddell Dam .
= = = New Waddell Dam = = =
In 1973 , construction on the Central Arizona Project ( CAP ) began while many of its facilities were still being planned and approved . One integral part of the project was a storage dam on the Salt River , Orme Dam . However , in 1977 , US President Jimmy Carter recommended that Orme Dam and
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trail riding championships , and in 1998 , a Mérens finished second in the European Championships . In 1998 , Stéphane Bigot made a crossing of the Pyrenees on a Mérens . Many tourist facilities now offer guided trail rides through the mountains of Ariege on Mérens horses , with some centers having a stable consisting entirely of members of the breed .
Several equine therapy centers use the Mérens in their program . Other uses for the breed include various agricultural work , including logging , where sure @-@ footed mountain horses can be used to access areas where equipment cannot go . Mounted police sometimes use the Mérens . A few are bred for their milk , which can be used in the manufacture of various products .
= Itzam K 'an Ahk II =
Itzam K 'an Ahk II ( Mayan pronunciation : [ itsam kʼan ahk ] ) , also known as Ruler 4 , was an ajaw of Piedras Negras , an ancient Maya settlement in Guatemala . He ruled during the Late Classic Period , from 729 – 757 AD . Itzam K 'an Ahk II ascended to the throne upon the death of K 'inich Yo 'nal Ahk II , who may have been his father . Itzam K 'an Ahk II may have fathered the following three kings of Piedras Negras : Yo 'nal Ahk III , Ha ' K 'in Xook , and K 'inich Yat Ahk II . Following Itzam K 'an Ahk II 's demise , he was succeeded by Yo 'nal Ahk III in 757 AD . Itzam K 'an Ahk II left behind several monuments , including stelae at Piedras Negras and a large mortuary temple now known as Pyramid O @-@ 13 . In addition , the details of his life and his K 'atun @-@ jubilee were commemorated on Panel 3 , raised by K 'inich Yat Ahk II several years following Itzam K 'an Ahk II 's death .
= = Biography = =
= = = Lineage = = =
Itzam K 'an Ahk II , also known as Ruler 4 , was born on November 18 , 701 AD ( 9 @.@ 13 @.@ 9 @.@ 14 @.@ 15 7 Men 18 K 'ank 'in in the Long Count ) . Of the three extant references to Itzam K 'an Ahk 's birth , not a single one mentions his pedigree or parentage , suggesting that Itzam K 'an Ahk was not a direct descendant of his predecessor , K 'inich Yo 'nal Ahk II . Despite this , Simon Martin and Nikolai Grube point out that in one portrait , the ajaw is shown with a turtle @-@ headdressed belt ornament , suggesting that one of Itzam K 'an Ahk 's ancestors may have indeed had the word auk , or turtle , in their name , signifying royalty . With this being said , Stela 40 — discussed later — shows what could be Itzam K 'an Ahk 's mother in Teotihuacano garb , suggesting that Itzam K 'an Ahk was emphasizing potential connections to Teotihuacan , possibly the home of his mother . Martin and Grube also point out that this stela was erected exactly 83 Tzolk 'in , or about 59 years , following the death of Itzam K 'an Ahk I , a former ajaw of Piedras Negras who lent his name to Itzam K 'an Ahk II , insinuating some sort of " special link " between the two rulers .
= = = Reign = = =
Itzam K 'an Ahk II 's accession to the throne occurred on November 9 , 729 AD ( 9 @.@ 14 @.@ 18 @.@ 3 @.@ 13 7 Ben 16 K 'ank 'in ) . In 749 AD , the ajaw celebrated the jubilee of his one K 'atun . This celebration was attended by many dignitaries , including local nobles such as a b 'aah sajal ( " first ruler " ) named K 'an Mo ' Te ' who had served K 'inich Yo 'nal Ahk II . The events of this banquet were later recorded by the final ajaw of Piedras Negras , K 'inich Yat Ahk II on Panel 3 ; this artifact shows Itzam K 'an Ahk II lecturing the interregnum ruler of Yaxchilan , Yopaat Bahlam II , about a past incident in which Yaxchilan had acknowledged the superiority of Piedras Negras . The K 'atun @-@ jubilee , therefore , has been interpreted by some Mayanists to have marked a period wherein Piedras Negras had eclipsed Yaxchilan in power . This celebration was followed by another festival in which Itzam K 'an Ahk II performed a " descending macaw " dance , and a nighttime feast wherein fermented cacao beans were served .
Bellicose action seems to have occurred during his reign , as a pyrite disc found in his tomb depicts the severed head of a leader from Hix Witz . Houston et al. argue that the Hix Witz polity was subordinate to Piedras Negras , largely based on the pyrite disk and because the Maya center is identified on Panel 7 , erected earlier by Itzam K 'an Ahk I , as a " tributary bearing plumes and textiles " to Piedras Negras .
= = = Death = = =
Itzam K 'an Ahk II 's almost thirty @-@ year reign was one marked by " hegemony over neighboring kingdoms " . The ruler died on November 26 , 757 AD ( 9 @.@ 16 @.@ 6 @.@ 11 @.@ 17 7 Kaban 0 Pax ) , and he was buried three days later . According to Panel 3 , the burial took place at the mythical location ho janaab witz , which has been deduced to mean , Pyramid O @-@ 13 , Itzam K 'an Ahk II 's memorial temple . Itzam K 'an Ahk II was succeeded by Yo 'nal Ahk III on March 10 , 758 AD . Due to the apparent veneration of Itzam K 'an Ahk II 's burial site by the succeeding kings , it has been hypothesized that Itzam K 'an Ahk II introduced a new reigning patriline to Piedras Negras , and that the following three kings — Yo 'nal Ahk III , Ha ' K 'in Xook , and K 'inich Yat Ahk II — may have been his sons .
= = Monuments = =
= = = Stelae = = =
Itzam K 'an Ahk II constructed at least five known stelae : 9 , 10 , 11 , 22 , and 40 . Stelae 9 , 10 , and 11 were all erected in front of or near Structure J @-@ 3 . Stela 11 , which was erected in August of 731 AD , is of the niche variety , meaning it depicts the ruler seated in a small hollow , or niche , and it was erected to commemorate the accession of the individual to the position of ajaw . The monument shows the ajaw flanked by subjects , witnesses to the ceremonies explored on the face of the stela . The expanse in front of the stone slab is designated as a space for offerings , denoted by the depiction of a sacrificed human near the bottom of the monument . The monument was discovered by Teoberto Maler in two pieces on the ground ; the front was in good condition , and some pigment was still visible . The glyphs on the upper right have been weathered , but the sides are largely intact . In the 1960s , looters cut the fallen monument into two halves for easier removal . The top portion is currently housed in the Museum of Fine Arts in Houston , Texas , whereas the bottom half is in a private collection in Switzerland .
Stela 9 was discovered in three pieces by Maler in 1899 . The fragments had been moderately weathered , and the base was later found in situ by the University of Pennsylvania 's University Museum . In the 1960s , looters removed the carved captives that had appeared on the left of the monument 's front . Stela 10 has been highly eroded , resulting in the loss of most of the monument 's details . In addition to the decay , the head ornament has been removed , and its current whereabouts are unknown . Stela 22 was dedicated on the East Group Plaza , located in front of Structure O @-@ 12 's terrace . The monument 's dedication initiated the East Group Plaza as a new center for sculpture and stelae . While previous stele had faced other directions , Stela 22 faced northwest towards the site 's acropolis , creating " a new axis of dialogue across the site . "
Stela 40 is of particular note because it contains the depiction o the aforementioned woman dressed in Teotihuacano garb ; it shows Itzam K 'an Ahk II scattering what appears to be either blood or incense into a " psychoduct " , the name for a vent or a hollow duct that goes from the outer of a temple or structure into an inner tomb . Simon and Grube argue that " the connection between the living and the dead is manifested [ on this stela ] as a ' knotted cord ' or breath which travels down to enter the nose of the deceased " . The female on the stela , denoted only by an " upside down vase " glyph , has been inferred to be Itzam K 'an Ahk II 's mother ; Pitts argues that the monument " offers an interesting vignette of Itzam K 'an Ahk II and his loyalty to a female ancestor , probably his mother . "
= = = Pyramid O @-@ 13 = = =
Pyramid O @-@ 13 is the name given to the hypothesized mortuary temple of K 'inich Yat Ahk II . According to Stephen Houston et al . , it was nearly twice as large as any of the previous buildings constructed at Piedras Negras . The pyramid itself changed substantially in the following years after Itzam K 'an Ahk II 's demise . K 'inich Yat Ahk II reset the older Panel 2 and installed two new panels , Panels 1 and the now @-@ famous Panel 3 . Megan O 'Neil argues that these changes were made in order for the ruling ajaw to have an " engagement with the past " . The pyramid was also the location of the stelae of Piedras Negras 's three last known rulers . All three of the aforementioned leaders revered the site as a dynastic shrine , suggesting some sort of familial connection with K 'inich Yat Ahk II .
In 1997 , an excavation led by Héctor Escobedo discovered a tomb , Burial 13 , underneath the plaza floor at the front of the pyramid 's frontal stairs which may have been the place of interment for Itzam K 'an Ahk II . Inside the tomb were discovered the remains of three humans : one adult male and two adolescents . Over 100 artifacts , including pieces of jade and ornaments , were found scattered about . There was evidence that the tomb had been reentered and disturbed after it had been sealed ; many bones were missing and there was evidence that the remaining body parts had been burnt long after the flesh had decomposed . Eventually , it was concluded that the apparent destruction was part of a ritual that had been described in Panel 3 , called el naah umukil , or " house @-@ burning at the burial " , and that it had been carried out by K 'inich Yat Ahk II . However , Stephen D. Houston cautions that , while Burial 13 might be the resting place of Itzam K 'an Ahk II , it has not been conclusively proven .
It has been pointed out that , architecturally , both the O @-@ 13 Pyramid and the Late Classic Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque , are nearly identical ; both have the same number of substructure terraces , and both pyramids ' substructures have exactly five doors . Furthermore , both pyramids were built into the sides of existing hills . Damien Marken and Kirk Straight , use this — as well as inscriptions on stelae at Palenque — to argue that there was some sort of relationship between the two polities .
= Sibu =
Sibu / ˈsibuː / ( simplified Chinese : 诗巫 ; traditional Chinese : 詩巫 ; pinyin : Shīwū ) is an inland town at the central region of Sarawak and the capital of Sibu District in Sibu Division , Sarawak , Malaysia . The town is located on the island of Borneo . The town covers an area of 129 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 50 @.@ 0 sq mi ) . It is located at the confluence of the Rajang and Igan Rivers , some 60 kilometres from the South China Sea and approximately 191 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 119 mi ) north @-@ east of the state capital Kuching . The population is mainly dominated by Chinese especially the Fuzhou people . Other ethnic groups such as indigenous Melanau , Malay , and Iban are also present in this region . The town population as of the year 2010 is 162 @,@ 676 .
Sibu was settled by James Brooke in 1862 when he built a fort in the town to fend off attacks by indigenous Dayak people . Following this , a small group of Chinese Hokkien people settled around the fort to carry out business activities safely in the town . In 1901 , Wong Nai Siong led a large scale migration numbering 1 @,@ 118 Foochow Chinese from Fujian province of China into Sibu . This made Sibu being referred popularly as " New Fuzhou " . Sibu bazaar and the first hospital in Sibu was built by the Brooke government . Lau King Howe Hospital and a number of Methodist schools and churches were built in the 1930s . However , the town of Sibu was burnt to the ground twice in 1889 and in 1928 but it was rebuilt after that . There was no fierce fighting in Sibu during the Japanese occupation of Sarawak in 1941 . The Japanese installed a new Resident at Sibu in June 1942 and Sibu was renamed to " Sibu @-@ shu " in August 1942 . After the Japanese surrender in 1945 , Sarawak was ceded to the British as Crown Colony . This has caused a dissatisfaction amongst a group of young Melanau people in Sibu who were pro @-@ independence . As a result , the second British Governor of Sarawak , Sir Duncan George Stewart was assassinated by Rosli Dhobi when he visited Sibu in December 1949 . Rosli was later hanged to death at Kuching Central Prison in 1950 . Sibu and the Rajang basin also became the centre of communist activities from 1950 and it continued even after the Sarawak independence in 1963 . A Rajang Security Command ( RASCOM ) was then established to curb Communist activities in the area . Communist insurgency in Sarawak was significantly impaired in 1973 and later ended in 1990 . Sibu was upgraded to the municipality status in 1981 . The town received a royal visit in September 2001 . The town is also a gateway to Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy ( SCORE ) since 2008 . In 2011 , 110th anniversary of Foochow settlement was celebrated in Sibu .
Sibu is the main tourist gateway to the Upper Rajang River , with its small riverine towns and its many Iban and Orang Ulu longhouses . Among the notable landmarks in Sibu are Wisma Sanyan , the tallest building in Sarawak , Lanang Bridge ( one of the longest river bridge in Sarawak ) and the biggest town square in Malaysia near the Wisma Sanyan . Lau King Howe Memorial Museum is the first and the only medical museum in Malaysia . Sibu Central Market is the biggest indoor market in Sarawak . Among the tourists attractions in Sibu are Sibu Heritage Centre , Tua Pek Kong Temple , Bawang Assan longhouses , Sibu Old Mosque , Jade Dragon Temple , Bukit Aup Jubilee Park , Bukit Lima Forest Park , Sibu Night Market , Borneo Cultural Festival ( BCF ) , and Sibu International Dance Festival ( SIDF ) . Timber and shipbuilding industries are the two major economic activities in Sibu .
= = Etymology = =
Before 1873 , Sibu was called " Maling " , which was named after a bend of the Rajang river called " Tanjung Maling " opposite the present day town of Sibu near the confluence of Igan and Rajang rivers . On 1 June 1873 , the third division of Sarawak ( present day Sibu Division ) was created under Brooke administration . The division was later named after the native rambutan fruit which can be found abundantly at the region . Rambutan is known as " Buah Sibau " in the Iban language .
= = History = =
= = = Bruneian Empire = = =
In the 15th century , the Malays living in southern Sarawak displaced the immigrant Iban people towards the present @-@ day Sibu region . Throughout the 17th and 18th century , the Rajang basin was rife with tribal wars between Ibans and indigenous people in the Rajang basin . Sometimes , the Ibans would form a loose alliance with the Malays to attack the Kayan tribes and perform raids on Chinese and Indonesian ships passing through the region .
= = = Brooke dynasty = = =
James Brooke started to rule Sarawak ( present day Kuching ) in 1841 after he obtained the territory from the Bruneian Empire . In 1853 , Sarawak has expanded its territory to include the Sibu region . Sibu was a small village with several shop @-@ houses . Such shophouses were built with atap roofs , wooden walls , and floors . The earliest inhabitants of Sibu were Melanau people , followed by Ibans , and Malay people in the 1850s . There used to be a Sibu Fort ( Fort Brooke ) , which was built by Rajah Brooke in 1862 . The fort was located at the present day Channel Road in Sibu . It served as an administrative centre for the Brookes in Sibu . However , it was demolished in 1936 . It was common for the White Rajah to build such forts to stake his territorial claim as well as means of protection . The existence of Sibu Fort is proven by historical writings :
There is a fort in Sibu , as indeed there is at most of the river places in Sarawak ...
The fort at Sibu was close to the Resident Dr. Hose 's house and was attacked by Dayaks only a few years ago . Johnson , one of Dr. Hose 's assistants , showed me a very long Dayak canoe capable of seating over one hundred men ...
The river at Sibu was of great width , over a mile across , in fact , and close to the bank is a Malay village , and a bazaar where the wily Chinaman does a thriving trade in the wild produce of the country , and makes huge profits out of the Dayaks and other natives on this river .
On 13 May 1870 , the fort was attacked by 3 @,@ 000 Kanowit Dayaks under the leadership of a Dayak chief named Lintong or Mua @-@ ri . The Dayaks tried to cut through the door of the fort by using axes but they were later defeated by the Brookes . There were 60 wooden shops in Sibu according to Sarawak Gazette published on 24 January 1871 . In 1873 , the third division of Sarawak was created with the town of Sibu included in the division .
The first Chinese arrival in Sibu was in the 1860s . A group of Hokkien people built two rows of 40 shophouses around Sibu Fort ( Fort Brooke ) . The Hokkien Chinese were a minority at that time , mostly consisting of Kekhs and Min Nan people who were doing business . A small number of Chiang Chuan ( 漳泉 ) and Amoy people later arrived at Sibu mostly due to commercial interests . By 1893 , Munan Anak Minggat and his followers arrived in Sibu . They built a longhouse at Pulau Kerto , which is an island at the bend of Rajang River opposite Sibu near the confluence of Rajang and Igan Rivers . He was a loyal war @-@ leader to the Brookes and has helped to quash Iban rebellions around Upper Katibas and Lupar rivers in the 1860s and 1880s . In 1903 , he was the first Iban to operate a rubber plantation in Kuching . He later invested the profits of his rubber plantation to shop @-@ houses and lands in Sibu .
On 10 February 1889 , the town of Sibu was burnt to the ground . This has caused a developmental delay in Sibu . The first hospital in Sibu was built by the Brooke government in 1912 . It was a wooden single @-@ storey building measuring 50 to 60 feet long , with an outpatient department , male and female wards . On 8 March 1928 , Sibu was again consumed by a great fire . However , the Tua Pek Kong Temple remained intact . The locals considered this a miracle .
= = = Chinese Foochow settlement = = =
Wong Nai Siong , a Christian scholar from Gutian County , Fujian province of China , learnt about Sarawak and the White Rajahs through his son @-@ in @-@ law , Dr Lim Boon Keng . Disillusioned with the Qing Dynasty 's heavy handed approach against the Boxer Rebellion where Chinese Christians were specially targeted for murder , Wong Nai Siong decided to search for a new settlement overseas , focusing on areas in South East Asia . Previously , in September 1899 , he had searched fruitlessly in Malaya and Indonesia .
Wong got an approval from Charles Brooke to look for a new settlement in the Rajang basin . In April 1900 , Wong travelled 13 days up the Rajang River before he decided to choose Sibu as the new settlement for his Foochow clansmen , because the area near Rajang delta would be suitable for growing crops . An agreement was signed on 9 July 1900 between Wong Nai Siong and the Brooke government in Kuching to allow Chinese settlers into the area .
On 21 January 1901 , the first batch of 72 settlers arrived at Sibu and settled at the Sungai Merah area , about 6 km from the town of Sibu at that time . On 16 March 1901 , the second batch of 535 settlers arrived . This day has been called as the " New Foochow Resettlement Day " . In June 1901 , final batch of 511 settlers arrived in Sibu . Sibu has been commonly referred to " New Fuzhou " ( 新福州 ) since then . This brought the total number of Foochow settlers to 1 @,@ 118 . Wong Nai Siong was appointed as " Kang Choo " ( 港主 ) , meaning " port master " for the Foochow settlement in Sibu . The settlers planted sweet potatoes , fruits , sugar cane , vegetables , and coarse grains at high grounds and rice in wetlands . Following their work in Sibu , most settlers choose to stay and called the place as their new home . Together with American pastor , Reverend James Matthew Hoover , Wong was also involved in the building of schools and churches in Sibu such as the Methodist church in 1902 and Ying Hua Methodist school at Sungai Merah in 1903 . From 1903 to 1935 , James Hoover helped to build 41 churches and 40 schools in Sibu . Between 1902 and 1917 , 676 Cantonese people arrived in Sibu .
In 1904 , Wong opposed the sale of opium and the building of a casino in the Sibu area , proposed by the Brooke government . He was later expelled by the Sarawak government due to failure to repay debt . Wong and his family left Sibu in July 1904 . Rev. James Hoover took over Wong 's role to manage the Sibu settlement . He introduced the first rubber seedlings to Sibu in 1904 . He build a Methodist church in 1905 . The church was later renamed to Masland Methodist church in 1925 . Hoover stayed at the Rajang basin for another 31 years until his death from malaria in 1935 at Kuching general hospital . The construction of Lau King Howe Hospital was completed in 1936 to accommodate the growing population of Sibu . The hospital served Sibu people for 58 years until 1994 when a new hospital was constructed in Sibu .
By 1919 , the influence of Chinese Civil War had spread to Sarawak when Kuomintang set up its first branches in Sibu and Kuching . Charles Brooke opposed such political activity by the local Chinese and had expelled several local Kuomintang leaders . However , Charles Vyner Brooke was more receptive of such activities by local Chinese . The local Chinese also participated in a donation drive to aid Kuomintang in its fight against Japanese invasion on China mainland . After World War II ended , local Kuomintang leaders supported the cessation of Sarawak to British as Crown Colony but the local communist leaders were against it . Clashes between the communist and the Kuomintang supporters were common . The Kuomintang branches in Sarawak were finally dissolved in 1949 when the party lost a war on China mainland to the Communist party and retreated to Taiwan . However , clashes between the both sides continued until 1955 when Kuomintang 's newspaper was banned by the colonial British government in May 1951 ; while Communist 's newspapar ceased to exist in 1955 due to financial difficulties .
= = = Japanese occupation = = =
Japanese forces landed in Miri on 16 December 1941 . They conquered Kuching on 24 December 1941 . On 25 December 1941 , Sibu was bombed by 9 Japanese warplanes flown from Kuching . The Resident of Third Division , Andrew Macpherson believed that the Japanese would start to invade Sibu following the air attack . He and his officer later fled Sibu to the upstream of Rajang River . They planned to pass through Batang Ai and trek through the forests to reach Dutch Borneo . However , they were caught and killed by the Japanese at Ulu Moyan , Sarawak .
In the evening of 26 December 1941 , Sibu people started to ransack an unguarded government rice storeroom . Some villagers staying along the Rajang River also came to steal for daily necessities . The situation soon got out of control . British Sime Darby company , Borneo Company Limited , and Chinese businessmen became the victims of the riots . The Chinese businessman decided to form a security alliance to calm down the chaos . On 29 January 1942 , a Japanese advance team was invited from Kuching to restore order in Sibu . The advance team later fled Sibu and back to Kuching . The power vacuum continued to exist in the third division until 23 June 1942 , when the Japanese headquarter in Kuching sent Senda @-@ Ni @-@ Jiro ( 千田倪次郎 ) to become the new Resident of the Third Division of Sarawak . After he took office , he immediately declared that Imperial Japanese Army would take total control of people 's lives and property . On 8 August 1942 , Sibu was renamed to " Sibu @-@ shu " ( 志布州 ) .
The Japanese started to impose expensive taxes on Chinese people . The Japanese also started a Sook Ching operation ( 肃清行动 ) on suspected anti @-@ Japanese individuals . Under extreme torture , some Chinese individuals gave a false name @-@ list of anti @-@ Japanese groups . These lists of names would later led to death of innocent individuals at Bukit Lima execution ground while some individuals were sent to a prison at Kapit .
= = = British Crown Colony = = =
After the Japanese occupation of Sarawak ended in 1945 , the last Rajah of Sarawak , Charles Vyner Brooke , decided to cede the state as part of the British crown colony . This proposal had met with fierce opposition from the Sarawakians which later developed into the anti @-@ cession movement of Sarawak . Rosli Dhobi was a Sarawak nationalist from Sibu and a member of the Malay Youth Movement ( Gerakan Pemuda Melayu ) where the main objective of the movement was to achieve Sarawak independence from the British rule . At the age of 17 , he assassinated Sir Duncan George Stewart , the second governor of colonial Sarawak on 3 December 1949 . He and three of his friends ( Awang Ramli Amit , Bujang Suntong , and Morshidi Sidek ) were then sentenced to death by hanging and were buried at the Kuching Central Prison on 2 March 1950 .
After 46 years , his remains was moved from the Kuching Central Prison and buried at the Sarawak Heroes Mausoleum near Sibu Town Mosque on 2 March 1996 . To honour his involvement in the anti @-@ colonial movement against the British , he and his associates who were involved in the assassination were later given a full state funeral by Sarawak state government .
= = = Communist insurgency = = =
After the defeat of Kuomintang at mainland China in 1949 , Sibu communist members started to establish themselves in Sarawak in the early 1950s . Huang Sheng Zi ( 黄声梓 ) from Bintangor became the president of Borneo Communist Party ( BCP ) . BCP activities mostly concentrated in Sibu , Sarikei , and Bintangor . His brother , Huang Zeng Ting ( 黄增霆 ) , who was also a communist , played an important role in the formation of first political party in Sarawak , Sarawak United Peoples ' Party ( SUPP ) and became the party 's first executive secretary . Sarawak Liberation League ( SLL ) was formed in 1954 following the consolidation of BCP with several other communist organisations .
The expansion of communism in Sibu relied heavily on student movements in several schools such as Chung Hua Secondary School ( 中华中学 ) , Catholic High school ( 公教中学 ) , and Wong Nai Siong High School ( 黄乃裳中学 ) . Some of the communist strong points in Sibu were at Oya road and Queensway ( now Jalan Tun Abang Haji Openg ) . The movement was also supported by the intelligentsia and workers in Sibu . For example , Dr Wong Soon Kai supported the movement by supplying free medication . Kampung Tanjung Kunyit villagers were among those being harassed into providing food and medical supplies to the communists . On 30 March 1971 , the communists launched an anti @-@ porn movement . In early 1973 , they launched another campaign which opposed tax increase and inflation of prices while endorsing an increase in workers ' wages . Some of the communist volunteers would start to distribute pamphlets at shophouses , schools , and the wharf terminal . The group also started military operation against police stations and naval bases . Communist guerillas would behead anyone who was suspected of being a government informant . The town was put under on @-@ and @-@ off 24 @-@ hour curfews for several months .
On 25 March 1973 , the Sarawak government , led by chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya 'kub started to clamp down on communist activities at the Rajang basin by setting up " Rajang Special Security Area " . A day later , Rajang Security Command ( RASCOM ) was formed as a result of co @-@ operation of civil , military , and police command headquarters . By August 1973 , several communist members were captured by the government . The captured members provided crucial details for the government to further impair the communist movement . On 22 September 1973 , Abdul Rahman started " Operation Judas " . A total of 29 people from the town of Sibu were captured . Among those captured were doctors , lawyers , businessmen , teachers , and one former member of parliament . Following the surrender of a communist movement in Sri Aman on 21 October 1973 , the communist activities at Rajang basin began to subside and would not be able to recover to its previous strength . Communist movement of Sarawak finally ended in 1990 .
= = = Recent developments = = =
On 1 November 1981 , the local council which administered the town of Sibu ( Sibu Urban District Council ) was upgraded to Sibu Municipal Council . The area of administration of Sibu expanded from 50 km2 to 129 @.@ 5 km2 . In 1994 , Sibu Airport and Sibu Hospital were constructed . In 2001 , Wisma Sanyan construction was completed . Yang di @-@ Pertuan Agong of Malaysia , Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah visited Sibu from 16 to 17 September 2001 to close a month @-@ long Malaysian Independence Day Celebration at Sibu Town Square .
Between 1999 and 2004 , Sibu Municipal Council decided to adopt the swan as a symbol of Sibu to inspire the people to work towards the goal of becoming a city in the future . Since then , a Swan statue has been erected near the Sibu wharf terminal and another statue is located in the town centre . Sibu is also nicknamed as " Swan City " . This came from a legend where famine in Sibu ended when a flock of swans flew through the skies of Sibu . There is another story where the Sibu Chinese immigrants regarded Sibu Melanau people as " Go " people because a staple food of Melanau staple food was " Sago " . Coincidentally , " Go " pronunciation is similar to Hokkien pronunciation of " Swan " . This reminded Sibu Chinese immigrants of " Swan River " back in Fuzhou , China . Therefore , they decided to name the Rajang River as " Swan River " ( 鹅江 ) .
In 2006 , the Lanang Bridge connecting Sibu to Sarikei was opened . Sibu also functions as the gateway to Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy ( SCORE ) . The town of Sibu and its surrounding areas has been the subject of several developmental projects since 2008 . In 2011 , the 110th anniversary of Foochow settlement was celebrated in Sibu . However , Sibu 's population growth and economic development is relatively slow when compared to Miri and Bintulu .
= = Government = =
Sibu has two members of parliament representing the two parliamentary constituencies of the town : Lanang ( constituency no : P.211 ) and Sibu ( constituency no : P.212 ) . The town also elects five representatives into the Sarawak State Assembly : Bukit Assek , Dudong , Bawang Assan , Pelawan , and Nangka .
= = = Local authorities = = =
A local council was first set up in Sibu on 31 January 1925 during the era of Brooke administration . It was later upgraded to Sibu Urban District Council ( SUDC ) in 1952 . After 29 years of administration , SUDC was upgraded to Sibu Municipal Council ( SMC ) on 1 November 1981 . SMC administers the town with a jurisdiction area of 129 @.@ 5 km2 from the banks of Rajang River to Salim road uptown . SUDC and SMC headquarters were housed inside the Sibu Town Hall for 38 years from 1962 to 2000 . SMC headquarters was later relocated to Wisma Sanyan in 2001 . The chairman of SMC is Tiong Thai King . The outskirts of Sibu such as Sibu Jaya and Selangau District are administered by Sibu Rural District Council ( SRDC ) covering a total area of 6
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is also the only city in Sarawak to possess a vehicle assembly plant . The plant is operated by N.B. Heavy Industries Sdn . Bhd . , and it has been assembling BeiBen , International and JAC commercial vehicles since 2010 . Sibu has two industrial areas : Upper Lanang Industrial estate ( Mixed Light Industries ) and Rantau Panjang Ship Building Industrial Zone .
There are two river ports at Sibu : Sibu port and Sungai Merah port , located at 113 km and 116 km along from the mouth of the Rajang river , respectively . Sibu port has maximum gross register tonnage ( GRT ) of 10 @,@ 000 tonnes while Sungai Merah port has a maximum GRT of 2 @,@ 500 tonnes . Sibu port is used mainly for handling timber and agricultural products while Sungai Merah port is used for handling fuel oil products . Rajang Port Authority ( RPA ) is located at Sibu port operation centre . RPA has earned a total revenue of RM 30 @.@ 1 million for the financial year of 2012 .
= = Transport = =
= = = Land = = =
Roads in Sibu are under the jurisdiction of Sibu Municipal Council ( SMC ) . Some of the notable roads in Sibu are Brooke Drive , Archer Street , and Wong Nai Siong Street . Kwong Ann roundabout is located near Brooke Drive in town centre while Bukit Lima roundabout is located near Wong King Huo Street in the uptown area . Sibu is also connected to other major towns and cities in Sarawak such as Kuching by Pan Borneo Highway . In early 2011 , Sibu @-@ Tanjung Manis Highway was opened . In April 2006 , Lanang Bridge connecting Sibu to Sarikei and Bintangor across the Rajang River was opened . Toll @-@ free Durin Bridge was opened in October 2006 connecting Sibu to other places such as Julau . The Durin bridge is located near the satellite township of Sibu Jaya .
= = = = Public transport = = = =
The town of Sibu has two bus stations . The local bus station is located at the waterfront near the Sibu wharf terminal . The long @-@ distance bus station is located at Pahlawan Street , near the Sungai Antu region . Jaya Li Hua Commercial Centre and Medan Hotel are located next to the long @-@ distance bus station . The local bus station at the waterfront serves the town area , Sibu Airport , Sibu Jaya , Kanowit , and Sarikei . Lanang Bus serves the connection between the local bus station and the long @-@ distance bus station while Panduan Hemat buses serves Sibu Airport and satellite township of Sibu Jaya . On the other hand , the long @-@ distance bus station serves Kuching , Bintulu , and Miri via the Pan Borneo Highway . Some of the buses serving at the long @-@ distance bus station are Biaramas , Suria Bus , and Borneo Highway Express .
Taxis in Sibu operates 24 hours a day . Taxis can be found at the airport , big hotels , taxi stands at the wharf terminal , and at Lintang Street . Taxi services are also offered for travel to nearby regions such as Mukah , Bawang Assan , Sarikei , and Bintangor . Kong Teck car rental is available at the airport .
= = = Water = = =
Sibu wharf terminal is located at Kho Peng Long Street near the Rajang river waterfront . It provides an alternative means of transport for the people living along the Rajang River . Among the destinations that can be reached by express boats from Sibu includes Belaga , Dalat , Daro , Kapit , Kanowit , Kuching , Sarikei , and Song . Sibu floating market which is made up of several large boats can also be seen from the wharf terminal . The boats are responsible to carry groceries to rural communities living along the river and do not have access to roads . There used to be a Pandaw River Cruise which operated along the Rajang River from Sibu to Pelagus Rapids Resort but its operation was terminated in 2012 due to logistical and operational difficulties .
= = = Air = = =
Sibu Airport was built in 1994 , located at 25 km from the town of Sibu and 1 km from the satellite township of Sibu Jaya . In 2008 , the airport handled 831 @,@ 772 passengers on 14 @,@ 672 flights and 735 metric tonnes of cargo . In April 2010 , the airport was allocated RM130 million by the Malaysian federal government for the upgrade of the terminal building . The airport terminal building is the second largest in Sarawak after the Kuching International Airport . The airport has a 2 @.@ 75 km runway and it serves Malaysia Airlines , Air Asia , and MASWings with direct flights to all major towns in Sarawak , such as Miri , Bintulu , Kuching , Kota Kinabalu , Kuala Lumpur , and Johor Bahru . In October 2011 , Firefly airline terminated its services in Sarawak while Malindo Air terminated its services to Sibu Airport in June 2014 due to low number of passengers .
= = Other utilities = =
= = = Courts of law , legal enforcement , and crime = = =
The court complex is located at Tun Abang Haji Openg Street , Sibu . It contains the High Court , Sessions Court , and the Magistrate Court . The Sibu town also has a Syariah Court located at Kampung Nyabor Street with jurisdictions in Sibu , Kanowit and Selangau districts . There is one district police headquarters at Tun Abang Haji Openg Street . The Sibu central police station is located at Kampung Nyabor Street . Sungai Merah police station and Lanang police station are also located in Sibu town area . There is also a prison in Sibu .
Tiong King Sing , an MP from Bintulu , has voiced concerns about gangsterism in Sarawak especially the Sibu town back in 2007 . As a result , " Operation Cantas Kenyalang " was started in 2008 to clamp down gangsterism in Sarawak . In September 2013 , Sibu police chief announced that " Lee Long " , " Sungai Merah " , and " Tua Chak Lee " gangs ceased to exist and Sibu town is free from organised gangsterism . There were 25 gangster groups in Sibu back in 2007 ; there are 7 groups as of 9 October 2013 . In September 2014 , Royal Malaysian Police headquarter at Bukit Aman , Kuala Lumpur , stated that 16 local gangster groups are still active in Sarawak especially in Sibu but they do not pose any serious security threats . This raised new concerns that such groups still pose a serious security risk in Sibu town and Sarawak in general .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Sibu Hospital is the second largest hospital in Sarawak and the secondary referral hospital for the central region of Sarawak which includes 5 divisions : Sibu , Kapit , Mukah , Sarikei , and Betong . There are 8 district hospitals in these divisions that are referred to Sibu . Sibu Hospital is also a teaching hospital for undergraduates from Universiti Malaysia Sarawak ( UNIMAS ) . There are also two private medical centres in Sibu : KPJ Sibu Specialist Medical Centre and Rejang Medical Centre .
Lanang and Oya Polyclinics are located in Sibu . There are also five 1Malaysia clinics in Sibu . The Bandong 1Malaysia clinic became the first 1Malaysia Clinic nationwide to offer echocardiography screening . There are also several pharmacy outlets in Sibu : B Y Chan pharmacy , Central Pharmacy , Lot 9 Pharmacy near by Delta Mall and Cosway Pharmacy .
= = = Education = = =
Sibu has about 85 primary schools and 23 secondary schools . The Sibu primary and secondary schools under the National Education System are managed by Sibu District Education Office located at Brooke Drive , Sibu . The oldest school in Sibu is Sacred Heart High School which was formed in 1902 by Rev. Father Hopfgarther . This was followed by Rev James Hoover where he formed Methodist Anglo @-@ Chinese School in 1903 . The school later evolved into Methodist primary and secondary schools in 1947 . Uk Daik primary school , built in 1926 , is one of the oldest Chinese primary schools in Sibu . Built in 1954 , St Mary primary school is the oldest English stream school in Sibu Division . Sibu also has five Chinese independent schools . The most notable ones are Catholic High School ( 1961 ) and Wong Nai Siong High School ( 1967 ) . All the Chinese independent schools in Sibu are under the purview of The United Association of Private Chinese Secondary School , Sibu Division , which is in turn under the purview of Sarawak Dong Zong and Dong Zong headquarters in Selangor . All the Chinese independent schools students will sit for Unified Examination Certificate ( UEC ) In 2013 , Woodlands International School opened in Sibu offering Cambridge International Examinations ( CIE ) course .
In 1997 , United College Sarawak ( UCS ) was established in Sibu at Teku Street . It was renamed to Kolej Laila Taib ( KLT ) in 2010 . This college offers business , accounting , civil engineering , architecture , Electrical and Electronic Engineering and quantity surveying courses . University College of Technology Sarawak ( UCTS ) , located just opposite the KLT , commenced its maiden intake of new undergraduate students in September 2013 . This university is established to provide human capital for the development of Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy ( SCORE ) . In 1967 , Pilley Memorial Secondary School was established in Sibu . In April 1991 , the school was upgraded to Methodist Pilley Institute ( MPI ) and it started to offer accounting , business management , and computer science courses .
Sarawak Maritime Academy was formed under the Shin Yang Group of Companies . It offers Diploma in Nautical ( DNS ) and Diploma in Marine Engineering courses . Sacred Heart College started to offer Diploma in Hotel Management courses in 2010 . Rimbunan Hijau ( RH ) Academy was established in 2005 and it started to offer training in automotive , oil palm plantations , hospitality , and business management in 2007 . Sibu Nursing College and ITA college offers nursing @-@ related programmes . In 1954 , the Methodist Theological School was established in Sibu . It is affiliated with Methodist Church in Malaysia and is accredited by the Association for Theological Education in South East Asia ( ATESEA ) .
Long distance study centres ( Pendidikan Jarak Jauh , PJJ ) in Sibu are opened by Universiti Utara Malaysia ( UUM ) at Lanang and Universiti Putra Malaysia ( UPM ) at Sibu Jaya . Universiti Malaysia Sarawak ( UNIMAS ) opened its Centre for Academic Information Services ( CAIS ) - Integrated Learning Facilities ( ILF ) at Sibu for undergraduate medical students undergoing their training at Sibu Hospital . Open University Malaysia ( OUM ) also opens a Sibu Learning Centre .
= = = Libraries = = =
The first public library in Sibu was started as Methodist Missionary Library in the 1950s . It was taken over by Sibu Urban District Council ( SUDC ) in 1955 . It was moved to the present location at Keranji road in 1986 as SMC public library . The library underwent a major upgrade in 2014 . Another public library named " Ling Zi Ming Cultural centre " ( 林子明文化館 ) was established by the local Chinese community under the Sibu Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry ( SCCCI , 詩巫中華總商會 ) in 1980 . It houses Chinese books collections . Another library named Sibu Jaya public library is located at the satellite township of Sibu Jaya , 26 km from the town of Sibu .
= = Culture and leisure = =
= = = Attractions and recreational spots = = =
= = = = Cultural = = = =
Since 2005 , Borneo Cultural Festival ( BCF ) is held by Sibu Municipal Council ( SMC ) in July every year at Sibu Town Square , for a period of 10 days . It is a celebration of traditional music , dances , contests , beauty pageant , food stalls , fun fairs , and product exhibitions . There are 3 separate stages for Iban , Chinese , and Malay performances . It draws around 20 @,@ 000 people every year . BCF was stopped briefly in 2011 before it was resumed in 2012 . Sibu has hosted the National Chinese Cultural Festival ( 全國華人文化節 ) twice : in 2001 ( 18th Festival ) and 2009 ( 26th Festival ) which lasted for 3 days . Among the activities organised during this festival were cultural village ( a venue designated to showcase cultural heritages from various ethnicity ) , lantern riddles , cultural dances , Chinese songs , dragon dances , and Chinese calligraphy . Sibu International Dance Festival ( SIDF ) was started in 2012 . It is usually held between June to September every year , which lasted for 5 days . It attracted around 14 to 18 international dance troupes for performances in Sibu . It includes activities such as workshops , conferences , outdoor performances , and a dance concert .
There are 9 Bawang Assan Iban longhouses which are 40 minutes away from the town of Sibu . The longhouses can be dated back from 18th century traditional longhouses to present day modern longhouses . Visitors can enjoy traditional rice wine tuak and other delicacies such as sarang semut , kain kebat , and pansuh . These Iban longhouses showcase their lifestyles , customs , traditional dance , and music . Homestays are also available at these longhouses . There are 3 ceramic factories in Sibu . Ceramic designs mainly depicts traditional culture of the natives .
= = = = Historical = = = =
Sibu Heritage Trail was launched in 2012 to include 9 landmarks in Sibu , which are : Sibu Heritage Centre , Sibu Old Mosque ( Masjid Al @-@ Qadim , built in 1883 ) , Warriors Memorial Site ( present burial site of Rosli Dhobi , near An @-@ Nur Mosque ) , oldest Muslim cemetery , Lau King Howe Hospital Memorial Museum , Hoover Memorial Square , Tua Pek Kong Temple , and Sibu Central Market . All the 9 landmarks can be reached by 2 kilometres of walking distance from each other . Sibu Heritage Centre is housed in a former Sibu Town Hall . It displays the early beginnings of Sibu , Iban and Malay cultures , with Chinese porcelain and clay vases which can be dated back to the era of Imperial China . Tua Pek Kong Temple is a Buddhist and Taoist Temple which was established in 1870 . The 7 @-@ storey Guanyin Pagoda ( Goddess of Mercy ) was built in the 1980s . The Lau King Howe Hospital Memorial Museum is the only medical museum in Malaysia . It displays dental , surgical , and obstetric services offered by the hospital from the 1950s to 1990s . Sungai Merah ( Red River ) Heritage Walk is the landmark of the earliest settlement of Foochow Chinese in Sibu in 1901 . There is a walking trail at the Sungai Merah river front leading up to Wong Nai Siong Memorial Garden . James Hoover Memorial Garden is also located near the Sungai Merah Heritage Walk .
= = = = Leisure and conservation areas = = = =
Bukit Aup Jubilee Park was opened in March 1993 . It is located 10 km away from the town of Sibu . It has a total undulating land of 24 acres ( 0 @.@ 097 km2 ) . The park was the two consecutive winner of National Landscaping Competition Award in 1997 and 1998 . The highest peak in the park , Bukit Aup ( 59 m above sea level ) was originally a traditional burial ground for Iban warriors . The burial ground has since been relocated to a nearby village for the development of the park . However , the Iban community still regarded the peak as a sacred place and frequently brought offerings for the benevolent spirit named Nanga Bari .
Bukit Lima peat swamp forest reserve , covering 390 hectares ( 3 @.@ 9 km2 ) , was gazetted as protected area since October 1929 . In January 2001 , Bukit Lima Forest Park covering 219 hectares ( 2 @.@ 19 km2 ) was constructed in the peat swamp forest and opened to the public . It has two separate trails of wooden planks of 3 @.@ 5 km and 2 @.@ 5 km long respectively . The park also has a 3 @-@ storey concrete watchtower for sightseeing . The park is managed by Sarawak Forestry Corporation ( SFC ) .
Sibu has other urban and suburban parks such as Kutien Memorial Garden , Hin Hua Memorial Park , and Permai Lake Garden . The Kutien Memorial Garden located at Lanang Street is managed by Sibu Kutien Association . The Kutien Garden showcase the association 's history and events . The Hin Hua Memorial Park is established by Sibu Heng Hua community where their earliest arrival in Sibu was in 1911 . YMCA Camp Resort is located away from the town . It provides facilities for camping and retreat .
= = = = Sports = = = =
Sibu has one stadium named Tun Zaidi Stadium at Old Airport Road . A new indoor stadium construction is also planned to replace the old stadium .
Sibu BASE jump is an annual event that is held in September every year since 2009 , which lasts for 3 days . Night jumps are also performed if the weather is fair . The BASE jumping usually takes place from the top of Wisma Sanyan which is 126 m high and is the tallest building in Sarawak . The number of jumpers has increased from 11 jumpers in 2009 to 45 jumpers in 2014 . In 2013 , world 's first tandem BASE jumping from a building ( Wisma Sanyan in Sibu ) was done by Sean Chuma ( world @-@ renowned BASE jumper ) , carrying Rudy Anoi ( chief executive of Sarawak Tourism Board , Sibu branch ) with him .
Since 2001 , Sarawak Health Marathon is held every year at Bukit Aup Jubliee Park , Sibu . The run can be divided into 6 categories , including 21 km Men ’ s and Ladies ’ Open , 7 km Men ’ s Fun Run and Boys ’ Junior , 2 @.@ 5 km Girls ’ Junior , and 2 @.@ 5 km Ladies Fun Run .
= = = = Other sights = = = =
Sibu Gateway is a landmark at the downtown area which includes an illuminated fountain , a garden , and a Swan statue surrounded by 12 Chinese zodiac signs . Rajang Esplanade is one of the 22 community parks in Sibu , mostly donated by Chinese clan associations . Rajang Esplanade has a walkway along the Rajang riverfront from Sibu wharf terminal to Kingwood Hotel with Hii 's association playground along the way . It offers a scene of muddy river with timber barges , express boats , and fishing boats commuting on the river . Several mural paintings depicting historical lifestyles and local cuisines are found at various locations in Sibu .
= = = = Other events = = = =
Sibu Bike Week is an event that is held in December every year since 2011 . It is a 3 @-@ day event aimed to bring all the enthusiasts of motocyclists , cars , audio systems , BMX , Zumba , and paintball to share their hobbies and experiences . It has attracted about 2 @,@ 000 bikers around the world . Among the activities held during Sibu Bike Week are Miss Sibu Bike Week Pageant , Tattoo queen and King competition . Borneo Talent Award ( BTA ) is held every year in Sibu since 2011 at Sibu Civic Centre . It showcases performances of singing , dancing , acrobatics , mimicry , playing musical instruments , magic show , and art performances .
= = = = Shopping = = = =
Sibu features a number of shopping malls : Wisma Sanyan , Medan Mall , Sing Kwong Shopping Complex , Farley Departmental Store , Delta Mall , Star Mega Mall , Everwin and Giant Hypermarket .
The Sibu Night Market was established in 1973 . It was situated in the town centre . Local traders will usually set up their mobile stalls from 5 pm to 10 pm every day . The stalls offer household goods , footwear , fashion items , and varieties of food . In August 2012 , the market was relocated to Butterfly Garden at Cross Road near the Tua Pek Kong Temple to ease traffic jams .
The Sibu Central Market is the biggest indoor market in Sarawak . It is located at Channel Street , opposite the Sibu wharf terminal . The central market has food stalls on top floor with dry and wet market on the ground floor . Among the items on sale in this market are exotic fruits , jungle produce , handicrafts , Bario rice , and poultry . There are 1 @,@ 100 stalls in the market on weekdays and 400 @-@ 500 additional stalls on weekends when the indigenous people from the interior brought their jungle produce to the market .
= = Cuisine = =
The " Bandong walk " project was started in 2012 and is scheduled to be completed in 2015 . This project is set to make the Bandong area a halal food hub of local delicacies for the locals and the tourists . Common dishes in Sibu include :
Kam Pua noodle ( also known as 干盘面 ) — noodles tossed in pork lard or vegetable oil , fried shallots , spring onions and sometimes soy sauce and / or chili sauce . It is available at almost all coffee shops and food stalls . Halal kampua noodles are available .
Duёng Mian Ngu ( also known as 鼎边糊 ) — a savoury soup with soft rice cake is available at several stalls as a hefty breakfast or a late night supper . It is often served with fish balls and squid .
Bian Nyuk ( also known as 扁肉 , 雲吞 , or Wonton ) — a meat dumpling which can be served dry or in a soup .
Gom bian ( also known as 光饼 or Kompia ) — a Foochow delicacy made with flour , baked in an oven and eaten either with or without meat and gravy . It is somewhat similar to a bagel . However , it can be either in a crisp or soft version . Traditional soft kompia dipped in pork sauce can be sought from Chung Hua road and the Sunday Market at Pedada road . There are deep fried variations available throughout the town of Sibu .
You Zhar Gui ( also known as 油炸桧 , 油條 , Yau Char Kway , or Kueh Cakoi in Malay ) — deep fried twin dough batter often dipped in soup or chili sauce . It is often eaten together with porridge or " Bak Kut Teh " （ 肉骨茶 ） .
Bek Ding Yuok ( also known as 八珍药 or Pek Ting Ngor ) : The soup of eight essences — Chinese soup containing at least eight herbal ingredients .
Rojak Kassim — Indian @-@ style rojak ( also known as pasembur or Mamak Rojak ) .
= = Notable people = =
= = = Politics = = =
Tun Datuk Patinggi Abang Muhammad Salahuddin Abang Barieng , 3rd and 6th Governor of Sarawak .
Tun Datuk Patinggi Ahmad Zaidi Adruce , 5th Governor of Sarawak .
Tun Datuk Patinggi Tuanku Bujang Tuanku Othman , 2nd Governor of Sarawak .
YBhg . Tan Sri Dr. Wong Soon Kai , former Deputy Chief Minister of Sarawak and former President of Sarawak United People 's Party ( SUPP ) .
Datuk Robert Lau Hoi Chew , former Member of Parliament for Sibu and former Malaysian Deputy Minister of Transport .
YB Datuk Tiong Thai King , former Member of Parliament for Lanang and chairman of Sibu Municipal Council ( SMC ) .
Wong Ho Leng , former Member of Parliament for Sibu , Sarawak State Legislative Member for Bukit Assek and former Chairman of Sarawak Democratic Action Party ( DAP ) .
YB Datuk Seri Fadillah Yusof , Minister of Public Works and Member of Parliament for Petra Jaya , Kuching .
YBhg . Dato ' Awang Bemee Awang Ali Basah , former Sarawak State Legislative Member for Nangka and former Chairman of Kuching Port Authority .
YBhg . Vincent Goh Chung Siong , former Sarawak State Legislative Member for Pelawan and Chairman of Rajang Port Authority .
YB Dr. Annuar Rapaee , Assistant Minister for Science Research and Biotechnology and Sarawak State Legislative Member for Nangka .
= = = Business = = =
Tan Sri Datuk Sir Tiong Hiew King , Chairman of Rimbunan Hijau Group and elder brother of Datuk Tiong Thai King . He was listed as one of the 10 richest Malaysians and also one of the Malaysians receiving the knighthood from the British Government .
Datuk Lau Hui Siong , Founder of See Hua Group which publishes See Hua Daily News , The Borneo Post , and Utusan Borneo .
= = = Others = = =
Ting Ming Siong , a food stall operator , known as the Guinness World Record Holder for the " Most wedding attended by a best man " . He attended 1 @,@ 393 weddings from September 1975 to 2 February 2006 )
Gloria Ting Mei Ru , Miss Malaysia World 2004 .
Datuk Dr. Matnor Daim , former Director of Education , Malaysia and recipient of National Education Leadership 2011 Award in conjunction of National Level Teachers Day 2011 in Kuching .
= 1761 Milestone =
The 1761 Milestone is a milestone on 640 South Main Street in Woonsocket , Rhode Island . The stone originally marked the junction of a Colonial highway from Great Road and an east @-@ west route from Boston , Massachusetts , to the state of Connecticut . The stone was rediscovered during the installation of an electrical road ( likely a tram ) . In 1898 , the stone was reportedly restored to its original location by the local chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution . The stone is embedded in a low retaining wall at the corner of South Main Street and Smithfield Road . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places
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of Croatia ( often called the NDH , from the Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska ) . The NDH combined almost all of modern @-@ day Croatia , all of modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern @-@ day Serbia into an " Italian @-@ German quasi @-@ protectorate " . NDH authorities , led by the Ustaše Militia , subsequently implemented genocidal policies against the Serb , Jewish and Romani population living within the borders of the new state .
The creation of an Axis puppet @-@ state known as the Kingdom of Montenegro was proclaimed on 12 July 1941 . The state was to be headed by an Italian regent and led by Drljević and his supporters . By 13 July , this proclamation prompted the outbreak of an anti @-@ Italian uprising in Montenegro led by local communists ( Partisans ) and Serb nationalists ( Chetniks ) . Having assumed power the previous day , Drljević established the Provisional Administrative Committee of Montenegro , a collaborationist entity which was a territorial component of the Italian Empire . He also organized his followers to fight against Montenegrin Chetniks and the Yugoslav Partisans . In September , he was dismissed from office by the Italians . Believing that his life was endangered by the revolt , they sent him to an internment camp in Italy . The idea of an independent Montenegro was abandoned , and the Italians opted for a military governorate . Several months later , Drljević escaped and smuggled himself into the German @-@ controlled area of the NDH . With the surrender of Italy in September 1943 , he moved back to Zemun . Here , he became the administrator of the German @-@ run Sajmište concentration camp . In the summer of 1944 Drljević relocated to Zagreb , where he created a Montenegrin State Council in the NDH with the assistance of the Germans and Croats . He also published a pamphlet in Zagreb titled Who are the Serbs ? ( Croatian : Tko su Srbi ? ) . In it , he blamed supposedly " aggressive " Serb policies for all past and modern problems in the Balkans , presented ethnic Serbs as a " degenerate race " and pointed out their similarities with Jews . Drljević had become a proponent of the theory that Montenegrins were an ethnic group distinct from Serbs following the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia . As early as 1921 , he had stated that Serb and Montenegrin " mentalities " were diametrically opposed . He stated : " The mentalities of Serbians and Montenegrins are irreconcilable . The visage of the former was speckled with [ Ottoman ] slavery ; liberty gave the latter a new visage . " It was not until 1941 that Drljević advanced the notion that Montenegrins were not Slavs at all , but Dinaric people descended from the ancient Illyrians . He wrote :
Races are communities of blood , whereas people are creatures of history . With their language , the Montenegrin people belong to the Slavic linguistic community . By their blood , however , they belong [ to the Dinaric peoples ] . According to the contemporary science of European races , [ Dinaric ] peoples are descended from the Illyrians . Hence , not just the kinship , but the identity of certain cultural forms among the Dinaric peoples , all the way from Albanians to South Tyroleans , who are Germanized Illyrians .
= = = Retreat and death = = =
In the spring of 1945 , Drljević visited parts of Montenegro held by the Chetniks of Pavle Đurišić . It was here that Đurišić made a safe @-@ conduct agreement with Drljević and with elements of the Armed Forces of the NDH . Although the details of the agreement are unknown , it appears to have been agreed that Đurišić and his men were to move into the NDH and cross the Sava River into Slavonia where they would be aligned with Drljević as the Montenegrin National Army , with Đurišić retaining operational command . Suspicious of Drljević 's intentions , Đurišić tried to outsmart him and his forces by sending only his sick and wounded across the Sava , keeping his fit troops south of the river . Following his defeat at the Battle of Lijevče Field , north of Banja Luka , and the defection of one of his sub @-@ units to Drljević , Đurišić was forced to negotiate directly with the leaders of the NDH forces about the further movement of his units towards Slovenia . This appears to have been a trap , as he was attacked and captured by them on his way to the meeting . On 20 April , Đurišić , Petar Baćović , Dragiša Vasić and Zaharije Ostojić were taken to the Stara Gradiška prison , near Jasenovac . The Ustaše gathered them in a field alongside 5 @,@ 000 other Chetnik prisoners and arranged for Drljević and his followers to select 150 Chetnik officers and non @-@ combatant intellectuals for execution . Đurišić , Baćović , Vasić and Ostojić were amongst those selected . They and the others were loaded onto boats by the Ustaše and taken across the Sava River , where they were killed either in the Jasenovac concentration camp itself or in a nearby marsh . Both the NDH forces and Drljević had reasons for ensnaring Đurišić . The NDH forces were motivated by the mass terror committed by Đurišić on the Muslim population in Sandžak and southeastern Bosnia while Drljević was opposed to Đurišić 's support of a union of Serbia and Montenegro which ran counter to Drljević 's separatism . Left without a leader , the majority of Đurišić 's men were integrated into Drljević 's Montenegrin National Army and withdrew with him towards the Austrian border .
In the second half of May , the troops of the Montenegrin National Army surrendered to the British and were quickly turned back into Yugoslavia and into the hands of the communists . Drljević managed to evade capture , and he and his wife sought refuge at a camp for displaced persons in the Austrian town of Judenburg . On 10 November 1945 , three of Đurišić 's followers discovered them there and murdered them by slitting their throats .
= = Legacy = =
In 1944 , Drljević rearranged the lyrics of the Montenegrin patriotic song " Oj , svijetla majska zoro " to celebrate the creation of the Montenegrin puppet regime that had been established in July 1941 . He was declared a war criminal at the Nuremberg Trials in 1946 . When " Oj , svijetla majska zoro " was chosen as the national anthem of Montenegro in 2006 with Drljević 's additions intact , many Montenegrin Serbs and unionists protested the selection due to its alleged fascist connotations .
= = Works = =
Borba za carinsku , vojnu i diplomatsku uniju između Crne Gore i Srbije ( 1914 ) ( A battle for a custom , military and diplomatic union between Montenegro and Serbia )
Centralizam ili federalizam ( 1926 ) ( Centralism or federalism )
Balkanski sukobi 1905 – 1941 ( 1944 ) ( Balkan conflicts 1905 @-@ 1941 )
Tko su Srbi ? ( 1944 ) ( Who are the Serbs )
= Surfacing ( album ) =
Surfacing is the fourth studio album by Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Sarah McLachlan . Released in 1997 , it was produced by McLachlan 's frequent collaborator , Pierre Marchand . McLachlan set about writing Surfacing in 1996 , after two and a half years touring for her previous album , 1994 's Fumbling Towards Ecstasy . Mentally exhausted , she found it difficult to concentrate on her new album and took six months off in Vancouver . After that she completed the ten songs for the album and went to Marchand 's Quebec studio to record .
Surfacing was released in July 1997 , coinciding with the start of McLachlan 's Lilith Fair tour . The album was a commercial success worldwide , reached the top position on the Canadian RPM 100 Albums chart and number two on the US Billboard 200 . Critical reviews were mixed ; some of the more positive reviews praised the songwriting , while the album 's detractors criticized it as banal and slow . The album spawned two Billboard Hot 100 top @-@ five hits , " Adia " and " Angel " , the top @-@ 15 hit " Building a Mystery " , and the top @-@ 30 hit " Sweet Surrender " . A radio @-@ only song , " I Love You " , was released in 2000 .
The album won four Juno Awards including for Album of the Year . " Building a Mystery " was awarded the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , while the instrumental @-@ only song " Last Dance " won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Performance .
= = Background = =
Following the 1993 release of her third album , Fumbling Towards Ecstasy , McLachlan spent two and a half years touring . This long period on the road finished in January 1996 ; she was due to begin work on her fourth album in April of that year , but was mentally exhausted . She later said " When I got off the road , I thought Fumbling was my swan song , [ and ] I 'd never make another record ever again . I couldn 't imagine writing another song in my life . I had a huge psychological block for a long time . " She spent time working in the studio in Quebec but struggled to produce anything for her new album . At her manager 's suggestion , she returned home to Vancouver and took six months off . She said that after this break — and some time spent in therapy — she began to feel more in control of her creativity and started writing material for the album .
One of the first songs written for the album was " Angel " . McLachlan said that writing the song was easy , " a real joyous occasion . " It was inspired by articles that she read in Rolling Stone about musicians who turned to heroin to cope with the pressures of the music industry and subsequently overdosed . She said that she identified with the feelings that might lead someone to use heroin : " I 've been in that place where you 're so fucked up and you 're so lost that you don 't know who you are anymore , and you 're miserable — and here 's this escape route . I 've never done heroin , but I 've done plenty of other things to escape . " She said that the song is about " trying not to take responsibility for other people 's shit and trying to love yourself at the same time . " Another song that she found easy to write was " Building a Mystery " , co @-@ written with her regular collaborator , Canadian musician and producer Pierre Marchand . Marchand heard her playing a guitar riff and suggested adding some lyrics that he had already written . They came up with the rest of the lyrics together , according to McLachlan , " pretty darn quickly . " When the album was finished , McLachlan commented , " I was so happy when I could let it go . I didn 't give it another thought when it was done . "
= = Recording and release = =
Like most of McLachlan 's albums , Surfacing was recorded at Marchand 's Wild Sky Studios in Morin @-@ Heights , Quebec . Marchand , who produced , engineered and mixed the album , recorded it on an Otari RADAR recorder and a Neumann 149 microphone . McLachlan played piano , acoustic guitar and electric guitar and Marchand played keyboards , bass and a drum machine as well as providing background vocals . The other musicians on the album were Jim Creeggan on upright bass , Yves Desrosiers on guitar , musical saw , lap steel guitar and slide bass , Brian Minato on bass and electric guitar , Michel Pepin on electric guitar and Ashwin Sood ( whom McLachlan married in 1997 ) on percussion and drums .
The album was released on July 15 , 1997 , on Nettwerk and Arista Records , reaching No. 1 on the Canadian RPM 100 Albums chart and No. 2 on the US Billboard 200 . The release of the album coincided with the inaugural tour of McLachlan 's Lilith Fair in mid @-@ 1997 . The first single from the album was " Building a Mystery " , released on August 19 ; it reached No. 1 on the Canadian singles chart and No. 13 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . " Sweet Surrender " was released March 10 , 1998 , and reached No. 2 on the Canadian chart and No. 28 on the Hot 100 . The third single released from the album was " Adia " on May 4 . It peaked at No. 3 on both the Canadian singles chart and the Billboard Hot 100 . " Angel " followed on November 24 , reaching No. 9 in Canada , and No. 4 on the Hot 100 . " I Love You " charted at No. 23 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs in April 2000 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
Writing for The New York Times , Sia Michel called the album " lushly atmospheric " but also ambivalent . She said that while the album paints a " vivid emotional landscape " , it is at odds with McLachlan 's statement that the album was about " ' facing ugly things ' about herself " ; not revealing anything particularly dark . Michel also noted certain old @-@ fashioned ideas in the album , particularly in " Sweet Surrender " , that contrast with the work of contemporaries such as Ani Difranco and PJ Harvey . She cited " Witness " as the highlight and said of the album , " [ p ] erhaps she hasn 't found what she 's looking for , but at least she 's trying . " Elysa Gardner of Los Angeles Times gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and said it " Showcases her considerable strengths--a shimmering soprano voice and a knack for intelligent , emotionally forthright lyrics but also suffers from a lack of compelling craftsmanship and textural daring . "
Music critic Robert Christgau gave the album a mixed review , with a C- rating . He said that although he had stayed away from McLachlan 's music in the past , " between her Lilith Fair counterpalooza and ' Building a Mystery ' bonanza , [ he ] had to dive in , and got less than [ he 'd ] bargained for . " He criticized McLachlan 's " monumental banality " and summed the album up as " renormalized pop at its most unnecessary . " A reviewer for Rolling Stone criticized the album 's slow tempo , commenting that " if you want a piece of her nirvana , you have to go along at her protracted , glacial pace . " They said that McLachlan is too " rigid in her introspection " and that they would like to hear her " work up a good head of steam " .
AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album three stars out of five and compared it unfavorably to McLachlan 's previous album Fumbling Towards Ecstasy . He said that some of the songs were good , and praised " Building a Mystery " in particular , but said that the album offered nothing new . He also noted that the timing of the release , coinciding with the launch of Lilith Fair and the publicity that McLachlan received from that , helped sales of the album . Jom , a staff reviewer for Sputnikmusic , gave the album a positive review , calling it " one of [ McLachlan 's ] best albums " and praising her " tremendous growth as a songwriter and a musician " . In interviews , American hip hop artist Darryl McDaniels of Run @-@ D.M.C. has said that hearing " Angel " on the radio , and subsequently listening to more of McLachlan 's music , helped him though a period of depression .
= = = Starr report = = =
The album was mentioned in the Starr Report , the late @-@ 1990s account of Independent Counsel Ken Starr 's investigation of the Monica Lewinsky scandal . After a visit to the White House in November 1997 , Lewinsky wrote that she " noticed you ( President Clinton ) had the new Sarah McLachlan CD " and that " whenever I listen to song # 5 ( Do What You Have to Do ) I think of you . " . McLachlan 's representatives had no comment on the matter .
= = = Awards = = =
At the Juno Awards of 1998 , McLachlan won four awards : Best Female Vocalist , Songwriter of the Year ( with Pierre Marchand , for " Building a Mystery " ) , Best Album ( for Surfacing ) and Single of the Year ( for " Building a Mystery " ) . The following year , she did not win any awards , but was nominated for Single of the Year ( for " Adia " ) and Best Video ( for " Sweet Surrender " ) .
At the 40th Grammy Awards in 1998 , McLachlan was nominated for three awards ; she won the awards for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance ( for " Building a Mystery " ) and Best Pop Instrumental Performance ( for " Last Dance " ) . In 1999 , she received one more nomination for the album , Best Female Pop Vocal Performance ( for " Adia " ) ; she lost to Celine Dion .
= = Track listing = =
Early editions sold in the U.S. and Canada included a two @-@ song bonus disc containing an alternate mix of " Sweet Surrender " and a rendition of " The Prayer of St. Francis " . Both of these tracks appeared on the Japanese edition of the album as well .
" Full of Grace " previously appeared on the collection Rarities , B @-@ Sides and Other Stuff . Song was also featured in the final moments of the second season finale of Buffy the Vampire Slayer .
" I Love You " would later be covered by Ellen Greene of Little Shop of Horrors fame for her album In His Eyes .
= = Personnel = =
Jim Creeggan — upright bass
Yves Desrosiers — electric guitars , lapsteel , slide bass , saw
Pierre Marchand — bass , drum machine , background vocals , keyboards
Sarah McLachlan — vocals , acoustic and electric guitars , piano
Brian Minato — bass , electric guitar
Michel Pepin — electric guitars
Ashwin Sood — drums , percussion , piano , background vocals
= = Charts = =
Album
Singles
= HMS Cardiff ( D58 ) =
HMS Cardiff was a C @-@ class light cruiser built for the Royal Navy during World War I. She was one of the five ships of the Ceres sub @-@ class and spent most of her career as a flagship . Assigned to the Grand Fleet during the war , the ship participated in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in late 1917 . Cardiff was briefly deployed to the Baltic in late 1918 supporting anti @-@ Bolshevik forces during the British campaign in the Baltic during the Russian Civil War .
She was then was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in early 1919 and spent most of the rest of the year in the Adriatic Sea . In early 1920 , the ship was in the Black Sea supporting the Whites against the Bolsheviks . Cardiff spent most of the rest of her time between the world wars overseas or in reserve . The ship played a minor role in World War II as she was initially assigned to the Northern Patrol , but became a training ship in late 1940 and continued in that role for the rest of the war . Cardiff was sold for scrap in
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combat missions . His victory total includes 114 RAF four @-@ engine bombers ; arguably accounting for more RAF casualties than any other Luftwaffe fighter pilot and becoming the third highest Luftwaffe claimant against the Western Allied Air Forces . His flight book indicated 2 @,@ 300 takeoffs and 1 @,@ 133 flying hours .
Until late 1944 , Schnaufer documented his aerial victories with detailed geographical locations . After this date , he claimed his victories over territory occupied by the Allies , and his victories were logged in a Planquadrat ( grid reference ) , for example " KP @-@ IP " . The grid map was composed of rectangles measuring 15 minutes of latitude by 30 minutes of longitude , an area of about 360 square miles ( 930 km2 ) .
This and the ♠ ( Ace of spades ) indicates those aerial victories which made Schnaufer an ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day , a term which designates a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more airplanes in a single day . This along with the + ( plus ) indicates almost certain identification . This along with the * ( asterisk ) indicates probable identification . This along with the ? ( question mark ) indicates possible identification .
= = Awards = =
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Night Fighters in Gold
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge
Wound Badge in Black
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 2 June 1942 )
1st Class ( 19 October 1942 )
Honour Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ) on 26 July 1943 as Leutnant and pilot
German Cross in Gold on 16 August 1943 as Oberleutnant in the II . / NJG 1
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds
Knight 's Cross on 31 December 1943 as Oberleutnant and Staffelführer of 12 . / NJG 1
507th Oak Leaves on 24 June 1944 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of IV . / NJG 1
84th Swords on 30 July 1944 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of IV . / NJG 1
21st Diamonds on 16 October 1944 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of IV . / NJG 1
Mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht on 10 October 1944
= = = Wehrmachtbericht reference = = =
= = Dates of rank = =
= Max Weber =
Karl Emil Maximilian " Max " Weber ( German : [ ˈmaks ˈveːbɐ ] ; 21 April 1864 – 14 June 1920 ) was a German sociologist , philosopher , jurist , and political economist whose ideas profoundly influenced social theory and social research . Weber is often cited , with Émile Durkheim and Karl Marx , as among the three founders of sociology .
Weber was a key proponent of methodological antipositivism , arguing for the study of social action through interpretive ( rather than purely empiricist ) means , based on understanding the purpose and meaning that individuals attach to their own actions . Unlike Durkheim , he did not believe in monocausality and rather proposed that for any outcome there can be multiple causes .
Weber 's main intellectual concern was understanding the processes of rationalisation , secularisation , and " disenchantment " that he associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity , and which he saw as the result of a new way of thinking about the world .
Weber is best known for his thesis combining economic sociology and the sociology of religion , elaborated in his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , in which he proposed that ascetic Protestantism was one of the major " elective affinities " associated with the rise in the Western world of market @-@ driven capitalism and the rational @-@ legal nation @-@ state . He argued that it was in the basic tenets of Protestantism to boost capitalism . Thus , it can be said that the spirit of capitalism is inherent to Protestant religious values .
Against Marx 's historical materialism , Weber emphasised the importance of cultural influences embedded in religion as a means for understanding the genesis of capitalism . The Protestant Ethic formed the earliest part in Weber 's broader investigations into world religion ; he went on to examine the religions of China , the religions of India and ancient Judaism , with particular regard to their differing economic consequences and conditions of social stratification .
In another major work , Politics as a Vocation , Weber defined the state as an entity that successfully claims a " monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory " . He was also the first to categorise social authority into distinct forms , which he labelled as charismatic , traditional , and rational @-@ legal . His analysis of bureaucracy emphasised that modern state institutions are increasingly based on rational @-@ legal authority .
Weber also made a variety of other contributions in economic history , as well as economic theory and methodology . Weber 's analysis of modernity and rationalisation significantly influenced the critical theory associated with the Frankfurt School .
After the First World War , Max Weber was among the founders of the liberal German Democratic Party . He also ran unsuccessfully for a seat in parliament and served as advisor to the committee that drafted the ill @-@ fated democratic Weimar Constitution of 1919 . After contracting Spanish flu , he died of pneumonia in 1920 , aged 56 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and family background = = =
Karl Emil Maximilian Weber was born in 1864 , in Erfurt , Province of Saxony , Prussia . He was the oldest of the seven children of Max Weber Sr. , a wealthy and prominent civil servant and member of the National Liberal Party , and his wife Helene ( Fallenstein ) , who partly descended from French Huguenot immigrants and held strong moral absolutist ideas . Weber Sr. ' s involvement in public life immersed his home in both politics and academia , as his salon welcomed many prominent scholars and public figures . The young Weber and his brother Alfred , who also became a sociologist and economist , thrived in this intellectual atmosphere . Weber 's 1876 Christmas presents to his parents , when he was thirteen years old , were two historical essays entitled " About the course of German history , with special reference to the positions of the Emperor and the Pope " , and " About the Roman Imperial period from Constantine to the migration of nations " . In class , bored and unimpressed with the teachers – who in turn resented what they perceived as a disrespectful attitude – he secretly read all forty volumes of Goethe , and it has been recently argued that this was an important influence on his thought and methodology Before entering the university , he would read many other classical works . Over time , Weber would also be significantly affected by the marital tension between his father , " a man who enjoyed earthly pleasures " , and his mother , a devout Calvinist " who sought to lead an ascetic life " .
= = = Education = = =
In 1882 Weber enrolled in the University of Heidelberg as a law student . After a year of military service , he transferred to the University of Berlin . After his first few years as a student , during which he spent much time " drinking beer and fencing " , Weber would increasingly take his mother 's side in family arguments and grew estranged from his father . Simultaneously with his studies , he worked as a junior lawyer . In 1886 Weber passed the examination for Referendar , comparable to the bar association examination in the British and American legal systems . Throughout the late 1880s , Weber continued his study of law and history . He earned his law doctorate in 1889 by writing a dissertation on legal history titled Development of the Principle of Joint Liability and the Separate Fund in the Public Trading Company out of Household and Trade Communities in Italian Cities . This work was used as part of a longer work On the History of Trading Companies in the Middle Ages , based on South @-@ European Sources , published in the same year . Two years later , Weber completed his Habilitationsschrift , Roman Agrarian History and its Significance for Public and Private Law , working with August Meitzen . Having thus become a Privatdozent , Weber joined the University of Berlin 's faculty , lecturing and consulting for the government .
= = = Early work = = =
In the years between the completion of his dissertation and habilitation , Weber took an interest in contemporary social policy . In 1888 he joined the Verein für Socialpolitik , a new professional association of German economists affiliated with the historical school , who saw the role of economics primarily as finding solutions to the social problems of the age and who pioneered large scale statistical studies of economic issues . He also involved himself in politics , joining the left @-@ leaning Evangelical Social Congress . In 1890 the Verein established a research program to examine " the Polish question " or Ostflucht : the influx of Polish farm workers into eastern Germany as local labourers migrated to Germany 's rapidly industrialising cities . Weber was put in charge of the study and wrote a large part of the final report , which generated considerable attention and controversy and marked the beginning of Weber 's renown as a social scientist . From 1893 to 1899 Weber was a member of the Alldeutscher Verband ( Pan @-@ German League ) , an organization that campaigned against the influx of the Polish workers ; the degree of Weber 's support for the Germanisation of Poles and similar nationalist policies is still debated by modern scholars . In some of his work , in particular his provocative lecture on " The Nation State and Economic Policy " delivered in 1895 , Weber criticises the immigration of Poles and blames the Junker class for perpetuating Slavic immigration to serve their selfish interests .
Also in 1893 he married his distant cousin Marianne Schnitger , later a feminist activist and author in her own right , who was instrumental in collecting and publishing Weber 's journal articles as books after his death , while her biography of him is an important source for understanding Weber 's life . They would have no children and it is usually acknowledged that their marriage was never consummated . The marriage granted long @-@ awaited financial independence to Weber , allowing him to finally leave his parents ' household . The couple moved to Freiburg in 1894 , where Weber was appointed professor of economics at the university , before accepting the same position at the University of Heidelberg in 1896 . There Weber became a central figure in the so @-@ called " Weber Circle " , composed of other intellectuals such as his wife Marianne , Georg Jellinek , Ernst Troeltsch , Werner Sombart , Marc Bloch , Robert Michels and György Lukács . Weber also remained active in the Verein and the Evangelical Social Congress . His research in that period was focused on economics and legal history .
In 1897 Max Weber Sr. died two months after a severe quarrel with his son that was never resolved . After this , Weber became increasingly prone to depression , nervousness and insomnia , making it difficult for him to fulfill his duties as a professor . His condition forced him to reduce his teaching and eventually leave his course unfinished in the autumn of 1899 . After spending months in a sanatorium during the summer and autumn of 1900 , Weber and his wife travelled to Italy at the end of the year and did not return to Heidelberg until April 1902 . He would again withdraw from teaching in 1903 and not return to it till 1919 . Weber 's ordeal with mental illness was carefully described in a personal chronology that was destroyed by his wife . This chronicle was supposedly destroyed because Marianne Weber feared that Max Weber 's work would be discredited by the Nazis if his experience with mental illness were widely known .
= = = Later work = = =
After Weber 's immense productivity in the early 1890s , he did not publish any papers between early 1898 and late 1902 , finally resigning his professorship in late 1903 . Freed from those obligations , in that year he accepted a position as associate editor of the Archives for Social Science and Social Welfare , where he worked with his colleagues Edgar Jaffé and Werner Sombart . His new interests would lie in more fundamental issues of social sciences ; his works from this latter period are of primary interest to modern scholars . In 1904 , Weber began to publish some of his most seminal papers in this journal , notably his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , which became his most famous work and laid the foundations for his later research on the impact of cultures and religions on the development of economic systems . This essay was the only one of his works from that period that was published as a book during his lifetime . Some other of his works written in the first one and a half decades of the 20th century – published posthumously and dedicated primarily from the fields of sociology of religion , economic and legal sociology – are also recognised as among his most important intellectual contributions .
Also in 1904 , he visited the United States and participated in the Congress of Arts and Sciences held in connection with the World 's Fair ( Louisiana Purchase Exposition ) in St. Louis . A monument to his visit was placed at the home of relatives whom Weber visited in Mt . Airy , North Carolina .
Despite his partial recovery evident in America , Weber felt that he was unable to resume regular teaching at that time and continued on as a private scholar , helped by an inheritance in 1907 . In 1909 , disappointed with the Verein , he co @-@ founded the German Sociological Association ( Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie , or DGS ) and served as its first treasurer . He would , however , resign from the DGS in 1912 . In 1912 , Weber tried to organise a left @-@ wing political party to combine social @-@ democrats and liberals . This attempt was unsuccessful , in part because many liberals feared social @-@ democratic revolutionary ideals .
= = = Political involvements = = =
At the outbreak of World War I , Weber , aged 50 , volunteered for service and was appointed as a reserve officer and put in charge of organizing the army hospitals in Heidelberg , a role he fulfilled until the end of 1915 . Weber 's views on the war and the expansion of the German empire changed during the course of the conflict . Early on he supported the nationalist rhetoric and the war effort , though with some hesitation as he viewed the war as a necessity to fulfill German duty as a leading state power . In time , however , Weber became one of the most prominent critics of German expansionism and of the Kaiser 's war policies . He publicly attacked the Belgian annexation policy and unrestricted submarine warfare and later supported calls for constitutional reform , democratisation and universal suffrage .
Weber joined the worker and soldier council of Heidelberg in 1918 . He then served in the German delegation to the Paris Peace Conference and as advisor to the Confidential Committee for Constitutional Reform , which drafted the Weimar Constitution . Motivated by his understanding of the American model , he advocated a strong , popularly elected presidency as a constitutional counterbalance to the power of the professional bureaucracy . More controversially , he also defended the provisions for emergency presidential powers that became Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution . These provisions were later used by Adolf Hitler to subvert the rest of the constitution and institute rule by decree , allowing his regime to suppress opposition and gain dictatorial powers .
Weber also ran , unsuccessfully , for a parliamentary seat , as a member of the liberal German Democratic Party , which he had co @-@ founded . He opposed both the leftist German Revolution of 1918 – 1919 and the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles , principled positions that defied the political alignments in Germany at that time , and which may have prevented Friedrich Ebert , the new social @-@ democratic President of Germany , from appointing Weber as minister or ambassador . Weber commanded widespread respect but relatively little influence . Weber 's role in German politics remains controversial to this day .
In the case of Weber 's critique of the left , he complained that the leaders of the leftist Spartacus League which was led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg and controlled the city government of Berlin while Weber was campaigning for his party : " We have this [ German ] revolution to thank for the fact that we cannot send a single division against the Poles . All we see is dirt , muck , dung , and horse @-@ play — nothing else . Liebknecht belongs in the madhouse and Rosa Luxemburg in the zoological gardens . ” Weber was at the same time critical of the Versailles Treaty which he believed unjustly assigned " war guilt " to Germany when it came to World War I. Weber believed that many countries were guilty of starting World War I , not just Germany . In making this case , Weber argued that “ In the case of this war there is one , and only one power that desired it under all circumstances through its own will and , according to their political goals required : Russia . . . . It never crossed [ my ] mind that a German invasion of Belgium [ in 1914 ] was nothing but an innocent act on the part of the Germans . "
Later that same month , in January 1919 , after Weber and Weber 's party were defeated for election , Weber delivered one of his greatest academic lectures Politics as a Vocation which was a reflection on the inherent violence and dishonesty found among the politicians , a profession in which only recently Weber was so personally active . About the nature of politicians , he concluded that " In nine out of ten cases they are windbags puffed up with hot air about themselves . They are not in touch with reality , and they do not feel the burden they need to shoulder ; they just intoxicate themselves with romantic sensations . "
= = = Last years = = =
Frustrated with politics , Weber resumed teaching during this time , first at the University of Vienna , then , after 1919 , at the University of Munich . His lectures from that period were collected into major works , such as the General Economic History , Science as a Vocation and Politics as a Vocation . In Munich , he headed the first German university institute of sociology , but never held a professorial position in sociology . Many colleagues and students in Munich attacked his response to the German Revolution and some right @-@ wing students held protests in front of his home . Max Weber contracted the Spanish flu and died of pneumonia in Munich on 14 June 1920 . At the time of his death , Weber had not finished writing his magnum opus on sociological theory : Economy and Society . His widow Marianne helped prepare it for its publication in 1921 – 22 .
= = Max Weber 's thought = =
Max Weber 's bureaucratic theory or model is sometimes also known as the " Legal @-@ Rational " model . The model tries to explain bureaucracy from a rational point of view via nine main characteristics or principles ; these are as follows :
= = = Max Weber 's Bureaucratic Model ( Legal @-@ Rational Model ) = = =
Weber wrote that the modern bureaucracy in both the public and private sector relies on the following principles .
" First , it is based on the general principle of precisely defined and organized across @-@ the @-@ board competencies of the various offices . These competencies are underpinned by rules , laws , or administrative regulations . " For Weber , this means
A rigid division of labor is established which clearly identifies the regular tasks and duties of the particular bureaucratic system .
There are firmly established chains of command , and the duties and capacity to coerce others to comply is described by regulation .
Regular and continuous execution of the assigned duties is undertaken by hiring people with particular qualifications which are certified .
Weber notes that these three aspects " constitute the essence of bureaucratic administration ... in the public sector . In the private sector , these three aspects constitute the essence of a bureaucratic management of a private company . "
Main Principles ( Characteristics ) :
Specialized roles .
Recruitment based on merit ( e.g. tested through open competition ) .
Uniform principles of placement , promotion , and transfer in an administrative system .
Careerism with systematic salary structure .
Hierarchy , responsibility and accountability .
Subjection of official conduct to strict rules of discipline and control .
Supremacy of abstract rules .
Impersonal authority . ( e.g. Office bearer does not bring the office with him ) .
Political neutrality .
Merits : Max Weber himself noted , real bureaucracy will be less optimal and effective than his ideal type model . Each of Weber 's principles can degenerate , more so , when it is utilized to analyze the individual level in the organization . But when implemented in a group setting in an organization , some form of efficiency and effectiveness can be achieved , especially with regards to better output . This is especially true when the Bureaucratic model emphasizes qualification ( merits ) , specialization of job @-@ scope ( labour ) , hierarchy of power , rules and discipline .
Demerits : However , competencies , efficiency and effectiveness can be unclear and contradictory especially when dealing with oversimplified matters . In a dehumanized bureaucracy , inflexible in distributing the job @-@ scope , with every worker having to specialize from day one without rotating tasks for fear of decreasing output , tasks are often routine and can contribute to boredom . Thus , employees can sometimes feel that they are not part of the organization 's work vision and missions . Consequently , they do not have any sense of belonging in the long term . Furthermore , this type of organization tends to invite exploitation and underestimate the potential of the employees , as creativity of the workers is brushed aside in favour of strict adherence to rules , regulations and procedures .
= = = Inspirations = = =
Weber 's thinking was strongly influenced by German idealism and particularly by neo @-@ Kantianism , to which he had been exposed through Heinrich Rickert , his professorial colleague at the University of Freiburg . Especially important to Weber 's work is the neo @-@ Kantian belief that reality is essentially chaotic and incomprehensible , with all rational order deriving from the way in which the human mind focuses its attention on certain aspects of reality and organises the resulting perceptions . Weber 's opinions regarding the methodology of the social sciences show parallels with the work of contemporary neo @-@ Kantian philosopher and pioneering sociologist Georg Simmel .
Weber was also influenced by Kantian ethics , which he nonetheless came to think of as obsolete in a modern age lacking in religious certainties . In this last respect , the influence of Friedrich Nietzsche 's philosophy is evident . According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , the " deep tension between the Kantian moral imperatives and a Nietzschean diagnosis of the modern cultural world is apparently what gives such a darkly tragic and agnostic shade to Weber 's ethical worldview " . Another major
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, and Mortimer Wheeler . Crawford himself was known as " Ogs " or " Uncle Ogs " to a number of these individuals , who shared his desire to professionalise the field and take it in a more scientific direction and away from the domination of antiquarian hobbyists . In particular , Crawford saw Antiquity as a rival to the Antiquaries Journal published by the Society of Antiquaries , an organisation that Crawford was contemptuous of , disliking their neglect of prehistory and believing that they did little valuable research .
The journal proved influential from the start . Although not initially using a process of peer review , Crawford asked his friends to read through submissions that he was unsure about . As well as seeking to shape and define the discipline , Antiquity sought to spread news of archaeological discoveries to a wider public , thereby being more accessible than pre @-@ existing scholarly journals . However , it resulted in Crawford receiving letters from proponents of various pseudo @-@ archaeological ideas , such as the ley line theory of Alfred Watkins ; he filed these letters under a section of his archive titled " Crankeries " and was annoyed that educated people believed such ideas when they were demonstrably incorrect . He refused to publish an advert for Watkins ' The Old Straight Track in Antiquity , with Watkins becoming very bitter towards him . In 1938 , Crawford served as President of the Prehistoric Society ; in this position he instigated a series of excavations , inviting the German archaeologist Gerhard Bersu – persecuted in Germany by the Nazi authorities – to move to England to oversee the excavation of Little Woodbury .
= = = Foreign visits and Marxism = = =
Crawford enjoyed foreign travel and left Britain on a number of occasions . In 1928 the OS sent him to the Middle East , there to collect aerial photographs that had been produced during the First World War and which were stored at Baghdad , Amman , and Heliopolis . In the summer of 1931 he visited Germany and Austria , there furthering his interest in interest in photography through the purchase of a Voigtländer . He later visited Italy with the intent of examining the possibility of producing OS maps pinpointing the country 's archaeological sites ; in November 1932 he met with the Italian leader Benito Mussolini , who was interested in Crawford 's ideas about creating an OS map of archaeological sites in Rome . This was part of a wider project to produce a series of maps covering the entirety of the Roman Empire , for which Crawford visited various parts of Europe during the late 1920s and 1930s . Holiday destinations included Germany , Austria , Romania , Corsica , Malta , Algeria , and Tunisia , and in 1936 he purchased a plot of land in Cyprus on which he had a house built . During these vacations , he visited archaeological sites and met with local archaeologists , encouraging them to contribute articles to Antiquity .
Crawford believed that society would progress with the growth of internationalism and the increased application of science , and politically he had moved toward socialism under the influence of Childe , who had become a close friend . He expressed the view that socialism was " the natural corollary of science in the regulation of human affairs " . He attempted to incorporate Marxist ideas into his archaeological interpretations , for instance in an article on " The Dialectical Process in the History of Science " that was published in The Sociological Review journal . He became enthusiastic about the Soviet Union , a state governed by the Marxist Communist Party , viewing it as the forerunner of a future world state .
With his friend Neil Hunter , he travelled to the Soviet Union in May 1932 , sailing to Leningrad aboard the Smolny . Once there , they followed a prescribed tourist itinerary , visiting Moscow , Nizhni Novgorod , Stalingrad , Rostov @-@ on @-@ Don , Tiflis , Armenia , Batum , and Sukhum . Crawford admired what he perceived as the progress that the Soviet Union had made since the fall of the Tsarist regime , the increasingly classless and gender @-@ equal status of its population , and the respect accorded to scientists in planning its societal development . He described his holiday with glowing praise in a book , A Tour of Bolshevy , stating that he did so in order to " hasten the downfall of capitalism " while at the same time making " as much money as possible " out of capitalists . The book was rejected by the publisher Victor Gollancz , after which Crawford decided not to approach other publishers , instead giving typed copies of the work to his friends . Although he became involved with the Friends of the Soviet Union and wrote several articles for the Daily Worker newspaper , he never joined the Communist Party of Great Britain or became involved in organised politics , perhaps fearing that to do so would jeopardise his employment in the civil service .
In Britain , he photographed a number of sites associated with the prominent Marxists Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin , as well as photographing the signs erected by landowners and religious groups , believing that in doing so he was documenting the traces of capitalist society before they would be swept away by socialism . Both in Britain and on a visit to Germany he photographed both pro @-@ fascist and anti @-@ fascist propaganda and graffiti , and like many leftists at the time , he believed that fascism was a temporary , extreme expression of capitalist society that would soon be overcome by socialism . He nevertheless expressed admiration for the German archaeological establishment under the Nazi government , highlighting that the British state lagged far behind in terms of funding excavations and encouraging the study of archaeology in universities ; he refrained from commenting on the political agenda that the Nazis had in promoting archaeology .
Despite his socialist and pro @-@ Soviet beliefs , Crawford believed in collaborating with all foreign archaeologists , regardless of political or ideological differences . In the spring of 1938 , he lectured on aerial archaeology at the German Air Ministry ; they published his lecture as Luftbild und Vorgeschichte , and Crawford was frustrated that the British government did not publish his work with the same enthusiasm . From there , he visited Vienna , to meet with his friend , the archaeologist Oswald Menghin , who took him to an event celebrating the Anschluss , at which he met the prominent Nazi Josef Bürckel . Shortly after , he holidayed in Schleswig @-@ Holstein , where German archaeologists took him to see the Danevirke .
In the late 1930s he began work on a book titled Bloody Old Britain , which he described as " an attempt to apply archaeological methods to the study of contemporary society " and in which he was heavily critical of his homeland . It examined 1930s Britain through its material culture , with Crawford reaching the judgement that it was a society in which appearances were given greater importance than value , with clothing for instance emphasising bourgeois respectability over comfort . He attributed much of this to the impact of capitalism and consumerism on British culture . The work fitted within an established genre of 1930s publications which lamented the state of British society , in particular the quality of its food and manufactured products as well as its increasing suburbanisation . However , by the outbreak of the Second World War the work had become less marketable due to its unpatriotic nature , and when he proposed it to Methuen Publishing in 1943 they turned it down ; he gave copies to a few friends , but never published it .
= = = Second World War = = =
In anticipation of the Second World War , Crawford expressed the view that he would " remain neutral " and not take sides , not because he favoured fascism over liberal democracy but because he saw both as repugnant forms of capitalist society which would ultimately be swept away by a socialist revolution ; in his words the war would be " a clash of imperialisms , a gangsters ' feud " . After war broke out , he decided that in the event of a German invasion of Britain he would destroy all of his leftist literature lest he be persecuted for possessing it .
In November 1940 , the German Luftwaffe began bombing Southampton , where the OS offices were located . Crawford removed some of the old OS maps and stored them in the garage of his house at Nursling , while also unsuccessfully urging the Director @-@ General to remove the OS ' archives of books , documents , maps and photographs to a secure location . Subsequently , the OS headquarters were destroyed in the bombing , resulting in the loss of most of their archive . The refusal of the OS administration to take his warnings seriously infuriated Crawford , exacerbating his anger about the civil service 's red tape and bureaucracy . In his words , " trying to get a move on in the Civil Service was like trying to swim in a lake of glue " . Resigning his membership of various British societies , he unsuccessfully tried to find employment abroad .
With little for an archaeology officer to do at the OS in wartime , in the summer of 1941 Crawford was seconded to the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England " for special duties during wartime " . They assigned him to carry out a project of photographic documentation in Southampton for the National Buildings Record , producing images of many old buildings or architectural features that were threatened by the Luftwaffe 's bombing campaign . He appreciated the value of this work , taking 5000 photographs over the course of the war . In 1944 , the Council for British Archaeology was founded , and while Crawford was invited to serve on its first council , he declined to do so , being lukewarm about the project .
= = Later life : 1946 – 1957 = =
In 1946 , at the earliest possible opportunity , Crawford resigned his post at the OS , where he was replaced by Charles Philips . He nevertheless retained his interest in Southampton and its architecture , in particular that of the Middle Ages , and in 1946 was a founding member of a lobby group , Friends of Old Southampton , which sought to protect the city 's historic architecture from destruction amid post @-@ war development . During the post @-@ war period he also came to be preoccupied and terrified by the prospect of a nuclear war , urging archaeological authorities to make copies of all their information and disperse it in different locations to ensure that knowledge survived any forthcoming Third World War . Retaining his left @-@ wing interests , in 1945 and 1946 he had some involvement with the Labour Party , although elsewhere he mocked the " ignorant " who thought that Labour " genuinely " represented socialism . In the latter part of the 1940s he became increasingly disillusioned with the Soviet Union after reading Arthur Koestler 's Darkness at Noon , a book about Joseph Stalin 's Great Purge and Moscow show trials , as well as learning of how Soviet scientists who did not support the ideas of Trofim Lysenko had been persecuted . In 1950 , after reading the memoir of Margarete Buber @-@ Neumann , he declared himself to be " fanatically anti @-@ Soviet [ and ] anti @-@ communist " .
In 1949 , Crawford was elected a Fellow of the British Academy , and in 1950 he became a Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire . In 1952 he was made an honorary Doctor of Letters by the University of Cambridge for his contributions to aerial archaeology .
Crawford returned his attention to Sudanese archaeology , describing Sudan as " an escape @-@ land of the mind at a time when the island of Britain was an austere prison " . At the invitation of the Sudanese government , he visited the country on an archaeological reconnaissance trip in January 1950 , before visiting the Middle Nile in 1951 . At Nursling , he wrote a book on the northern Sudanese Funj Sultanate of Sennar , which appeared in the same year as his long @-@ delayed report on the Abu Geili excavation , co @-@ written with Frank Addison . He followed this with the 1953 book Castles and Churches in the Middle Nile Region . Another of Crawford 's book projects in this period was a short history of Nursling , as well as an introductory guide to landscape studies , Archaeology in the Field , published in 1953 . In 1955 he then published his autobiography , Said and Done , which G. E. Daniel and Mark Pottle — the authors of Crawford 's entry in the Dictionary of National Biography — described as " a vivacious and amusing autobiography in which his character comes clearly through . "
After the discovery of prehistoric rock art on Stonehenge in 1953 , Crawford decided to examine the megalithic monuments in Brittany to examine the engravings there . Inspired by this subject , in 1957 he then published The Eye Goddess , a book in which he argued for the existence of a religion devoted to a Mother Goddess that was found across the Old World from the Palaeolithic through to the period of Christianisation , and which he believed was evidenced through various abstract depictions of eyes in prehistoric rock art . Similar ideas of a Neolithic religion devoted to a great goddess were also espoused in the works of Childe and Glyn Daniel that same decade , resulting in the observation from the later historian Ronald Hutton that " whether or not there was ever an ' Age of the Goddess ' in Neolithic Europe , there certainly was one among European intellectuals in the mid twentieth century " . Crawford 's book was nevertheless not well received academically .
Another of Crawford 's interests were cats , and he learned how to mimic cat noises , performing these on a BBC broadcast , " The Language of Cats " , which proved popular and resulted in his receiving a range of fan letters . A publisher in the United States invited him to write a book on the subject , but Crawford never completed it . In the mid @-@ 1950s , Crawford began to take an interest in astronomy and cosmological ideas about the origin of the universe , favouring Fred Hoyle 's steady state theory about an eternal universe with no beginning or end .
In 1951 , an edited volume , Aspects of Archaeology in Britain and Beyond : Essays Presented to O. G. S. Crawford , was published , having been edited by Grimes and brought out to mark Crawford 's 65th birthday . Reviewing the anthology for Antiquity , J. v. d . Waals and R. J. Forbes described it as " an exquisite birthday present " . Many of Crawford 's associates worried about him , aware that he lived alone – with only the company of his elderly housekeeper and cats – at his cottage in Nursling , lacking either a car or
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telephone . It was there that he died in his sleep on the night of 28 – 29 November 1957 . He had arranged for some of his letters and books to be destroyed , while others were to be sent to the Bodleian Library , with the proviso that some of them would not be opened until the year 2000 . His body was buried in the church graveyard at Nursling . In accordance with his instructions , the title " Editor of Antiquity " was inscribed on his gravestone , reflecting his desire to be remembered primarily as an archaeologist . On Crawford 's death , editorship of Antiquity was taken on by Daniel .
= = Personality = =
Crawford 's socialist beliefs were known to his colleagues and associates , as was his antipathy toward religion . While he became an atheist during his time at Marlborough College , it is not known exactly when he embraced socialism . He placed a strong emphasis on personal self @-@ sufficiency , and openly expressed contempt for those who required social interaction for their own happiness . His adult life was a solitary one , with no family and no dependents . His sexual orientation remains unknown , with Bowden noting that Crawford 's interactions with women were " cordial but not significant . " He was fond of cats , and kept several as pets , also rearing pigs for food as well as growing vegetables in his garden at Nursing . A heavy smoker , he was known for rolling his own cigarettes .
Crawford was often irritable and some colleagues found him exasperating to work with . He was known for his lack of patience , and when angry or frustrated was known to fling his hat to the floor in a gesture of rage . His biographer Kitty Hauser noted that " apparently trifling events left an indelible mark on him " , for he would remember a perceived slight for decades . However , Bowden expressed the view that while Crawford " had a quick temper , which he strove to control ... he was essentially a friendly man " , adding that he could be " clubbable , hospitable and kind " .
Jonathan Glancey referred to Crawford as " a compelling if decidedly cantankerous anti @-@ hero " and an " essentially Victorian eccentric " . Hauser characterised him as " a very British combination of a snob and a rebel " , also noting that he was " no great intellectual " . Similarly , Clark expressed the view that " Crawford 's achievements " stemmed from his " moral integrity and singleness of mind " rather than " any outstanding intellectual brilliance " , while the journalist Neal Ascherson described Crawford as " not conventionally intellectual " . Ascherson added that Crawford was " withdrawn , generally ill at ease with other members of the human species except on paper , and suspicious of personal celebrity " , in this way Ascherson contrasting him with his " gregarious " contemporaries Wheeler and Daniel .
Daniel characterised Crawford as having a " messianic desire " to promote archaeology " to the people of the world " . However , he was opinionated and dogmatic and expressed disdain for those who viewed the past in a different manner to himself . Piggott noted that Crawford was unable to sympathise with the perspectives of those studying past societies through a discipline other than archaeology , such as history or art history , and that he moreover could not sympathise with " anyone not as passionately concerned as himself in field antiquities " . For example , in one of his publications , Crawford dismissed historians as being " bookish " and " clean @-@ booted " . The archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes commented that in Crawford 's editorials for Antiquity , he directed " righteous indignation " toward " everybody from the State , Dominion and Colonial Governments , Universities and Museums , to tardy reviewers and careless proof @-@ correctors . "
Wheeler – who considered Crawford to be " one of my closest friends " – claimed that the latter was " an outspoken and uncompromising opponent " and a man who had a " boyish glee in calling the bluff of convention " . He added that Crawford exhibited the " divine impatience of the pioneer " and that he had an " inability to work in harness . If he joined a committee or a sodality , he did so only to resign at the first opportunity . " Piggott described Crawford as a mentor who " was encouraging , helpful , and unconventional : his racy outspoken criticism of what then passed for the archaeological Establishment was music to a schoolboy 's ear " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Crawford was much respected by his peers . According to Hauser , at the time of his death Crawford had " acquired an almost mythical status among British archaeologists as the uncompromising – if eccentric – progenitor of them all . " In 1999 , the archaeologist John Charlton referred to Crawford as " one of the pioneers of British archaeology this century " , while nine years later Ascherson described him as " beyond question one of the great figures of the ' modern ' generation which transformed British archaeological practice and its institutions between 1918 and – say – 1955 . " Ascherson noted that Crawford 's contributions to archaeology had little to do with archaeological theory and more to do with " the institutions and tools ... which he bequeathed to his profession " , including Antiquity . Crawford devoted little time to interpreting the archaeological record , and when he did so usually embraced functionalist interpretations , believing that people in traditional societies devoted almost all of their time to survival rather than behaving according to religious or symbolic concepts ; in his he was typical of his time and was influenced by Marxist materialism .
Crawford was recognised for his contributions to bringing archaeology to a wide sector of the British public . The archaeologist Caroline Malone stated that many viewed Crawford as " an ' amateur 's ' archaeologist , providing the means to publish and comment outside the restrictions of local journals and to offer a vision of a new and universal discipline " . Clark expressed the view that Crawford " always hankered to restore the flesh and blood and to make the past a reality to the living generation " , and in doing so helped to attract a greater public audience for British archaeology than many of his colleagues . Wheeler remarked that " he was our greatest archaeological publicist ; he taught the world about scholarship , and scholars about one another . " Commenting on Crawford 's editorship of Antiquity , Hawkes expressed the view that his " skill in steering between over @-@ simplification and over @-@ specialization has enabled the Magazine to succeed admirably in its role as go @-@ between for experts and public . "
Crawford 's system of documenting archaeological sites in the OS ' Archaeological Record provided the blueprint on which both the later National Archaeological Records in England , Scotland , and Wales , and the local sites and monuments records were based . In the 21st century , Crawford 's photographic archive stored at Oxford University 's Institute of Archaeology was still consulted by archaeologists seeking to view how various sites appeared during the first half of the 20th century . In 2008 , Kitty Hauser 's biography , Bloody Old Britain , was published . Reviewing her work for The Guardian , Glancey described it as " a truly fascinating and unexpected book " . Writing in Public Archaeology , Ascherson characterised it as " full of clever perception and sympathetic insight " but was critical of its lack of references and " occasional mistakes of fact " .
= David Beharall =
David Alexander Beharall ( born 8 March 1979 ) is a British entrepreneur and former professional English footballer who retired after a knee injury while playing for Stockport County in 2006 .
Since retiring he has set up a number of successful businesses and won North West Entrepreneur of the year as well as an award for his work within social media . Beharall now owns and runs digital agency CandidSky
Beharall started off his football playing career for Newcastle United in 1996 and graduated to the first team in 1998 . While at St James ' Park he had loan spells at Grimsby Town and Oldham Athletic in 2001 and 2002 before joining Oldham for a fee of £ 150 @,@ 000 in March 2002 . He left Oldham in February 2005 to join Carlisle United on a free transfer and a year later in February 2006 Beharall joined Stockport County before retiring due to a knee injury 3 months later .
= = Biography = =
= = = Newcastle United = = =
Beharall started off his playing career at hometown club Newcastle United in 1996 where he graduated to the first team in 1998 after being captain to the youth and reserve teams . Beharall made his first FA Premier League start and his début for Newcastle in the 3 – 1 loss against Everton on 17 April 1999 . Beharall started another 3 FA Premier League games during the 1998 – 99 season . During the 1999 – 00 season , Beharall played 2 more premier league games ; the 3 – 3 draw against Wimbledon and the 5 – 1 loss at Manchester United . The match against Manchester United turned out to be his last match for the club . After two years without a first team appearance , Beharall wanted to join Preston North End on loan after spending two days at Deepdale in early January 2001 , but Preston 's manager David Moyes decided against the move .
= = = Grimsby Town = = =
With first team opportunities running out at Newcastle , Beharall joined Grimsby Town in August 2001 originally on trial , with a view to a loan move due to Grimsby 's lack of central defenders . After his trial he joined The Mariners on loan in August 2001 for 3 months and made his début in a 1 – 0 win against Crewe Alexandra on 11 August . David played another 15 league and cup games for Grimsby Town , including the 2 – 1 cup upset they inflicted on Liverpool in the Football League Cup 3rd round at Anfield on 9 October 2001 . Beharall gave away the penalty that Liverpool midfielder Gary McAllister scored as he was judged to have handled the ball in the penalty box . That goal gave Liverpool the lead with 19 minutes left but goals from Marlon Broomes and Phil Jevons in stoppage time cancelled out Beharall 's mistake and Grimsby pulled off a big cup upset . Beharall endend his loan spell in November 2001 .
= = = Oldham Athletic = = =
Ten days after leaving Grimsby Town , Beharall was on the move again , this time to Oldham Athletic on a loan deal to the end of the season . Beharall made his dèbut in a 0 – 0 draw against Stoke City on 21 November 2001 . He played 17 league games , two FA Cup and two Football League Trophy matches during his loan spell at Oldham , scoring one goal in the 89th minute in a 1 – 1 draw against Wigan Athletic on 15 December 2001 . Beharall was bought by Oldham Athletic on 6 March 2002 for £ 150 @,@ 000 on a three @-@ year contract after impressing during his loan deal . David played one more league game for The Latics during the 2001 – 02 season against Wigan on 9 March , a match which Wigan won 1 – 0 . In the 2002 – 03 season Beharall played 32 league , 4 League and 3 FA Cup games for Oldham under the management of Iain Dowie , who replaced Mick Wadsworth in the summer of 2002 . In the pre @-@ season of the 2003 – 04 season , he suffered an injury which left him out of action until October 2003 . During this time in August 2003 Beharall was a victim of a carjacking when he and team mate Adam Griffin were attacked when they stopped at a cash machine with Beharall leaving Grffin in the passenger seat and his £ 21 @,@ 000 Mercedes @-@ Benz R230 car parked at a Texaco garage in Oldham . Griffin was left defenseless with one of the attackers holding him at knifepoint and another man hit Griffin 's left arm with an iron bar , then dragging and throwing Griffin to the ground . Beharall left his wallet and mobile phone in the car but was relieved that he and Griffin were OK . During the 2003 – 2004 season Beharall played 7 league , 2 FA Cup and 2 Football league games , he also scored 2 league goals against Plymouth Argyle on 1 November 2003 . After playing only 6 league games during the 2004 – 05 season new manager Brian Talbot , Beharall left the club on 24 January 2005 after agreeing a settlement figure .
= = = Carlisle United = = =
Nine days after leaving Oldham , Beharall joined Carlisle United , with him signing a contract until July 2006 . This was the first time in his career he played for a non @-@ league club . Beharall made his debut for the club in the 2 – 2 draw against Gravesend & Northfleet on 12 February 2005 . In the 2004 – 2005 season . Beharall was part of Carlisle 's return to the Football League , playing 14 matches ( 3 of these being playoff matches ) and playing 1 FA Trophy match . He scored one Conference goal , in the 2 – 1 win at Farnborough Town on 2 April 2005 . Beharall 's pre @-@ season preparations were ruined by an injury which made him miss the start of Carlisle 's season , but the MRI scan revealed he had not suffered a tear to any of the major knee ligaments . When he returned from injury in October 2005 , Beharall played 6 League and 2 Football League Trophy matches . Most of these appearances came in October and November . However , with the lack of opportunities , Beharall left Carlisle by mutual consent on 1 February 2006 .
= = = Stockport County = = =
After being released by Carlisle , Beharall decided to join League 2 strugglers Stockport County until the end of the 2005 – 06 season , after playing well in a reserve match for County prior to his move , he had high hopes of saving the club from relegation and also hoped to impress the County manager Jim Gannon enough to earn a new contract for the following season . Beharall made his début for County in the 2 – 1 away victory against Chester City . Beharall played another 11 league games during the 2005 – 06 for Stockport and was starting contract negotiations the managed Jim Gannon , but in May 2006 Beharall retired due to an ongoing bad knee injury .
= = Statistics = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Promotions = = =
2004 – 05 : Conference National Playoff Winner ( promotion to League Two ) – Carlisle United
= NBA Store =
The NBA Store is a series of officially licensed retailers which sell merchandise for the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . The most prominent of these stores is located in the United States on Fifth Avenue and 45th Street , Manhattan , New York . There are four other locations outside the United States : two in Beijing , China and two in the Metro Manila , Philippines .
The New York location is run by online retailer Fanatics , who also runs the League 's online store at NBAStore.com. The NBA Store sells over 35 @,@ 000 pieces of NBA merchandise and features several attractions ; it is often visited by players , celebrities , and political leaders . It also serves as a headquarters for the NBA where the association hosts charity events .
Since opening its first store in 1998 , the NBA has seen increasing business opportunities in foreign markets mainly due to the influx of new international players . The biggest growth has been in China , where players Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian , combined with the interest generated by the 2008 Summer Olympics , created enough demand to open two new stores . The NBA has also expanded into games like Second Life where it created a virtual NBA Store in 2007 .
The original Fifth Avenue store closed on February 13 , 2011 . The league temporarily relocated the store in a smaller space at 590 Fifth Avenue until August 2015 . The new location , located at 545 Fifth Avenue , opened on December 21 , 2015 .
= = New York City = =
Established in the fall of 1998 , the 25 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) store offers free video games , TV screens displaying live broadcasts and game action footage , and other attractions , like player measurement charts . Among its many products , the store sells current NBA & WNBA jerseys , replica jerseys of retired players , footwear , collectibles , photography , and other gifts . It has several departments , such as a home section , where customers can buy items like pillows , plates , and other NBA related items . NBA employees , including players , receive a 30 % discount on their purchases .
Construction involved removing beams to make space for a 36 @-@ by @-@ 54 @-@ foot hole in the bottom three floors of the existing 41 story building . Steve Candeloro has been the store 's concierge since it opened in 1998 . The store is frequently visited by celebrities , tourists , and NBA players who are in town to play the New York Knicks or New Jersey Nets . The NBA Store has been visited by important guests such as former President Bill Clinton , and the Mayor of London , Ken Livingstone , who received a personal tour by NBA Commissioner David Stern . The store is also host to The NBA Store Concert Series , concert events where musical artists perform at the store 's half court ; some previous performers include : Michelle Branch , Destiny 's Child , Run DMC , and Aaron Carter .
The NBA Store in New York City allowed its customers to rent areas for birthday parties or other private celebrations and has hosted charity events in the past . During Christmas 2006 , the wife of NBA player Dwyane Wade volunteered at the NBA Store Holiday Toy Drive . The New York Knicks regularly held events like Autographs for Supplies at the NBA Store where New York players like Eddy Curry , Zach Randolph , and WNBA 's Kym Hampton meet fans and signs items in an effort to raise school supplies for children and stress academics . In 2007 , the store held a fashion exhibition to celebrate the Casual Male Retail Group acquisition of the men 's big & tall clothing company Jared M. , a company popular among athletes and celebrities for its custom sportswear ; several NBA players were happy to show their support since the founder had fitted many of them in the past .
In 2007 , the most sold team paraphernalia were from the Los Angeles Lakers , New York Knicks , and the 2006 NBA champions the Miami Heat . The following year , the Lakers and Knicks retained their top spots , but the Heat were replaced by the new 2008 NBA champions the Boston Celtics .
The NBA Store 's main outlet in New York was closed in February 13 , 2011 due to high rent . " The amount of dollars the landlord is requiring from the next tenant ,
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