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1 's cannon to shoot down the leader , Dempsey and Kenyon before they can escape in a helijet . Southern recovers from his ordeal at the Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion .
= = Production = =
Initially unenthusiastic about his task of realising Alan Fennell 's script , director David Elliott developed his inspiration after seeing the 1965 spy thriller film The Ipcress File , starring Michael Caine . He remembers that the film " used all the old @-@ fashioned shots – looking through a lampshade , etc . On Monday morning , Paddy [ Seale , lighting camera operator ] came in and said , ' I saw a film this weekend , ' and I said , ' So did I. ' ' Was it The Ipcress File ? ' ' Yep . Right , that 's what I want to do . ' " In homage to The Ipcress File , Elliott decided to incorporate " quirky visuals " into his direction of the Thunderbirds episode .
Elliott decided to open the Glen Carrick Castle sequence with a tracking shot covering all three walls of the puppet set , coordinating the necessary camera manoeuvres with camera operator Alan Perry . In a pioneering move for a Supermarionation production , forced perspective is used during this scene to present a live human hand and scale puppet characters within the same frame . While the hand , intended to belong to Southern , twiddles a pen in the foreground of the shot , the puppets of Kenyon and Dempsey are positioned across a table in the background . Although the puppets of Thunderbirds were sculpted in 1 ⁄ 3 human size , a visual illusion ensures that Kenyon and Dempsey appear to be accurately scaled in proportion to the hand .
Incidental music for " 30 Minutes After Noon " was , for the most part , recycled from previous Anderson productions . The television belonging to Hudson Building janitor Sam Saltzman issues the " March of the Oysters " track from the Stingray episode " Secret of the Giant Oyster " . The Highland theme from " Loch Ness Monster " accompanies the scenes set in Glen Carrick Castle ; the castle model is itself a re @-@ use of Castle McGregor , which appeared in the same Stingray episode . Its last appearance in the Supermarionation productions was as Glen Garry Castle in the Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons episode " The Trap " .
= = Reception = =
" 30 Minutes After Noon " achieved viewing figures of 5 @.@ 2 million when it was repeated on BBC2 in 1992 . According to Nathalie Olah of The Independent , the nature of the episode 's plot demonstrates the " sense of drama " that made Thunderbirds popular : " Sure , most kids didn 't understand the workings of a plutonium bomb , but the fact that the show was capable of sustaining their attention , as well as that of their older siblings and parents , meant they had some idea by the end of said episode . " Thunderbirds co @-@ creator Sylvia Anderson praises scriptwriter Alan Fennell 's " vivid imagination " and his complex script , while also opining that " 30 Minutes After Noon " was " more a vehicle for live action than for the limited emotions of our puppet cast . "
Media historian Nicholas J. Cull links the episode to one of Fennell 's other Thunderbirds scripts , " The Man from MI.5 " , in which the main guest character is a British Secret Service agent called Bondson . For Cull , " 30 Minutes After Noon " is one of several Thunderbirds episodes that incorporates visual homage to the James Bond films . In particular , he comments on Southern 's briefing scene , in which the characters of Southern , Sir William Frazer and an unnamed aide are substituted by hats on a stand : " Southern 's hat is a trilby , tossed onto the stand in best James Bond fashion . " Tom Fox , in a review for Starburst magazine , draws a similar conclusion with regard to the scene ; he picks out the robot guards and the " spooky " , " nefarious " and " palatial " hideout of the Scottish castle as the episode 's other highlights . He gives " 30 Minutes After Noon " a rating of four out of five stars .
Commenting on David Elliott 's resolution to diversify the range of camera angles , Stephen La Rivière , author of Filmed in Supermarionation : A History of the Future , expresses disappointment that the first half of " 30 Minutes After Noon " presents standard camera work : he judges these scenes to be " filmed as normal " , and suggests that they compare negatively to the " quirky visuals " of the latter half . La Rivière also discusses the episode 's editing , noting that " 30 Minutes After Noon " is split into two distinct storylines ( with the exploits of Southern and the British Secret Service only coming after the devastation of the Hudson Building ) . He argues that , in this respect , the episode is similar to its antecedents , whose running time was unexpectedly doubled from 25 to 50 minutes and which therefore had to be extended with character @-@ based subplots , secondary rescues and other filler scenes .
In a review published in NTBS News Flash , " 30 Minutes After Noon " is described as a " thrilling , well @-@ paced episode " , which " brings together a very sadistic bad guy scheme and some innocent , and some not @-@ so @-@ innocent victims in peril , all providing plenty of action for International Rescue . " The reviewer commends the pacing as being " especially good " , and also credits the " inventive camera work " , commenting , " I don 't think I 've seen more use of ' real hand acting ' in any other episode . " The concept of exploding bracelet bombs is connected to the premise of the Saw horror films , in which victims are seen to be trapped in dangerous situations and are threatened with death if they do not carry out tasks that are put before them .
= = Adaptations = =
An audio adaptation of " 30 Minutes After Noon " , narrated by David Graham in character as Parker , was released as a mini @-@ album in the 1960s . The episode was also serialised by Alan Fennell and Malcolm Stokes in issues 18 – 20 of Thunderbirds : The Comic in 1992 , and re @-@ released in the graphic collection Thunderbirds in Action later that year .
= Muramasa : The Demon Blade =
Muramasa : The Demon Blade , known in Japan as Oboro Muramasa ( Japanese : 朧村正 , lit . " Hazy Muramasa " ) , is an action role @-@ playing game developed by Vanillaware for the Wii home console , and later the PlayStation Vita handheld console . The original game was published in 2009 by Marvelous Entertainment ( Japan ) , Ignition Entertainment ( North America ) , and Rising Star Games ( Europe ) . The Vita version was published in 2013 by Marvelous AQL in Japan and Aksys Games in Western territories . Using a 2D side @-@ scrolling perspective , the gameplay revolves around a beat em up fighting system , while incorporating RPG elements such as leveling and questing .
Muramasa takes place during the Edo period on Japan 's main island of Honshu . Due to ruling shogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi 's thirst for power , conflicts have arisen over ownership of the Demon Blades , samurai swords that force their wielders to kill others before bringing tragedy and madness upon them . The story revolves around two different protagonists related to this conflict — Momohime , a woman who is possessed by the spirit of vengeful rōnin Jinkuro Izuna ; and Kisuke , an amnesiac ninja on the run for a forgotten crime who is tied up with the tragedy that destroyed Momohime 's family . The Vita port includes four self @-@ contained stories based on Japanese folklore released under the banner title Genroku Legends ( 元禄怪奇譚 , Genroku Kaikitan ) .
The concept work for Muramasa began during the middle of development on Odin Sphere . Along with improving on the action gameplay over Odin Sphere , a great deal of effort was put into making the game 's setting authentic to the period . When the game released in the West , it retained its Japanese voicetrack to preserve its atmosphere . It released to moderate sales and mixed to positive reviews : the graphics were universally praised , the gameplay divided opinion and the story received a mixed response . The Vita port , released in the West as Muramasa Rebirth , released to strong sales and similar reception to its original version .
= = Gameplay = =
Muramasa is a two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) side @-@ scrolling action role @-@ playing game set on the main Japanese island of Honshu during the Edo period . Players take control of two characters with similar gameplay abilities . Navigation takes place through hand @-@ drawn 2D side @-@ scrolling environments reminiscent of Japanese artwork of the period , and can enter towns to talk with non @-@ playable characters ( NPCs ) and buy items such as health restoratives and accept quests . An additional cooking element allows the characters to cook meals using materials gathered during exploration : meals grant temporary character boosts , and fill a " fullness " meter that limits how much food a character can eat .
Combat comes in the form of both avoidable random encounters and scripted fights where the camera is fixed within the fighting area : enemies and bosses are primarily drawn from Japanese folklore and mythology . Battles are triggered only when enemies are near , with the player character otherwise keeping their weapons sheathed . In combat , characters attack and guard using a single @-@ button prompt , while another button accesses items such as healing potions . Continuously attacking triggers combos . Different moves include sword slashes combined with directional buttons , which have different effects such as throwing an enemy into the air with an upward slash . Additional offensive items such as smoke bombs are acquired during the course of the game . At the end of each battle , experience points are awarded to the player character depending on how fast the battle was finished : leveling up increases a character 's health , stats , and the amount of damage inflicted upon enemies .
Weapons are distinguished into two categories , Blade ( katana ) and Long Blade ( nōdachi ) : Blades are fast , while Long Blades are slower and deal higher damage . Three blades can be equipped at any one time : each blade has its own stats , determining the amount of damage that can be inflicted . When blocking or using a blade 's Secret Art special move , its Soul Power gauge depletes : if emptied , the sword breaks and its offensive abilities are drastically reduced . When sheathed , the Soul Power regenerates . Soul Power can be gathered in various locations to restore Soul Power and the character 's health . There are 108 blades that can be collected and forged in @-@ game : forging blades requires Soul Power and " spirit " , and each blade has a level cap determining when it can be forged . Weapon forging is governed by a weapon @-@ based skill tree .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Muramasa takes place on Honshu , the main island of the Japanese archipelago , with its overall style and setting drawing heavily upon Japanese folklore and mythology . It is set in the Genroku period , itself within the larger Edo period , during the reign of the shogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi . Tsunayoshi 's thirst for power has created conflict around ownership of the Demon Blades , samurai swords forged by the legendary swordsmith Muramasa Sengo that crave blood when drawn and bring madness and death to those foolish enough to draw them . Due to the chaos generated by this , the Demon Blades ' powers begin summoning demons from Yomi , along with causing ancient gods to stir from long slumber .
The two lead characters are Momohime ( 百姫 ) , a princess of the Narukami clan from the locality of Mino ; and Kisuke ( 鬼助 ) , a runaway ninja with no memories but a burning desire for vengeance . For the course of the game , Momohime is inadvertently possessed by the spirit of Jinkuro Izuna ( 飯綱 陣九朗 ) , an unscrupulous rōnin who was trying to possess the body of Momohime 's betrothed Yukinojo Yagyu ( 柳生 雪之丞 ) , a high @-@ status samurai . Momohime and Kisuke are each accompanied and watched over by a kitsune in human form . They are Kongiku ( 紺菊 ) , who holds unacknowledged affection for Jinkuro , and Yuzuruha ( 弓弦葉 ) , who aids Kisuke in his quest against the Demon Blades ' corruption . A key character in Kisuke 's storyline is Torahime ( 虎姫 ) , Momohime 's sister .
= = = Plot = = =
Momohime 's Story
Momohime 's story begins after she wakes up Kyo with memories of being killed by the dying Jinkuro when he was aiming for her betrothed , the samurai lord Yukinojo . Upon encountering the spirit of Jinkuro , he forcefully possesses her , but before the process of soul transference is finished , they are attacked . In the confusion , Momohime 's soul is kidnapped by the vengeful monk Rankai and Jinkuro is forced to follow Kongiku as Momohime 's body will die if her soul is harmed . With her soul safe , Jinkuro sets out to regain the Dark Resurrection Demon Blade so he can properly utilize his Soul Transference Technique and gain influence through a new host . Encountering Yukinojo , who is searching for Momohime , the two battle . Momohime forces Jinkuro to spare Yukinojo , even when she learns that Yukinojo 's intentions in marrying her were part of a scheme to ruin her family as punishment for defying the shogun . Jinkuro goes to Yukinojo 's compound to retrieve the Dark Resurrection , but the storehouse where it is said to be is absorbed into Yomi by demons . Descending into Yomi , Jinkuro 's soul is briefly captured by a demon , and it is only with Momohime 's help that he escapes and learns that the Dark Resurrection was never in the storehouse . With Momohime 's body beginning to fail due to the strain Soul Transference put on it , Jinkuro attempts to ascent to Heaven so he can become an immortal demon , but is stopped by Raijin and Fujin .
While willing to accept his death and allow Momohime her remaining time in her body , Kongiku shows them another way to Heaven . There , Yukinojo appears and reveals that he had the Dark Resurrection all along . They are then attacked by Fudo @-@ Myoou , who is there to deliver divine justice upon Jinkuro . In the first ending , Jinkuro allows himself to be sent to Yomi while Momohime lives ; she decides to forgo her marriage to Yukinojo and become a Buddhist nun in the hope of saving Jinkuro 's soul through prayer . In the second ending , Momohime and Jinkuro are intercepted by Kisuke and Yuzuruha , resulting in Kongiku being robbed of her human form as punishment for her defiance . Though defeated , Kisuke delivers a fatal wound to Momohime , forcing Jinkuro to merge his soul with Momohime 's to save her : this act leaves her an amnesiac but grants her Jinkuro 's sword fighting abilities , which become legendary as she travels Japan in search of her missing memories . In the third ending , after the battle with Fudo @-@ Myoou Jinkuro is transported to the night he first attacked Yukinojo and Momohime with the power of the Oboro Muramasa Demon Blade , which can defy the passage of fate . He chooses not to attack them , then later possesses Yukinojo 's body and uses that position to ensure Momohime 's safety and her family 's security . Momohime herself lives to be one hundred years old and bears three children , while Kongiku remains close to Jinkuro in the guise of a servant .
Kisuke 's Story
Kisuke 's story begins with him suffering amnesia and on the run from his former ninja comrades . Returning to Edo to discover the truth in the company of Yuzuruha , he accidentally breaks an ancient seal keeping damned souls at bay . Defeating the monsters they manifest as , he learns from his mollified ninja companions and their employer Yukinojo that he was part of a mission to steal the Kuzuryu Demon Blade from Momohime 's Nakurami Clan and punish them for defying the shogun 's order to surrender it , which in turn was tied in with Yukinojo 's intentions in marrying Momohime . Yukinojo sends Kisuke against Torahime , Momohime 's sister and the shrine maiden in charge of keeping the Kuzuryu 's power in check . Pursuing her , Kisuke fights both Torahime and undead soldiers loyal to her family . In pursuit of her , he faces agents who are preserving the flow of magic energy to Mount Fuji , including a young Yamabushi . His battles awaken his memories : he was originally disguised as a servant in Torahime 's household as part of Yukinojo 's scheme to destroy her family , but fell in love with Torahime and attempted to betray his ninja comrades when stealing the Kuzuryu . Dying from his wounds , the spirit of Senju Oboroya , the creator of the Oboro Style that controls the Demon Blades , fused with Kisuke to save his life and pass on the Oboro Style to someone who would use it for good . The fusion triggered Kisuke 's amnesia , but left him with the ability to wield Demon Blades without succumbing to their evil .
Rescuing Torahime from the spider demon Tsuchigumo , Kisuke learns that she died while fleeing from the shogun 's forces , and that her present life is a temporary gift from Amitābha . The two travel to Mount Fuji , where its native dragon god has gone berserk with rage after Japan 's ley line energy is diverted to Edo , forcing a route into Heaven . The true culprit is the dark deity imprisoned in the Kuzuryu , the mad god Inugami . Upon being confronted , the possessed Shogun Tsunayoshi fatally wounds Torahime , who dies in Kisuke 's arms : Kisuke then defeats Tsunayoshi and takes possession of the Kuzuryu . In the first ending , after the battle , Kisuke asks Amitābha to return the now @-@ enlightened Torahime to life , then commits suicide as an act of defiance when his demand is refused . Torahime asks for her and Kisuke to be reincarnated so she can help him attain enlightenment . In the second ending , Kisuke arrives to find Tsunayoshi killed by the Jinkuro @-@ possessed Momohime . Kisuke exorcises Jinkuro , and following Torahime 's final request becomes Momohime 's servant . The two then set out on a personal quest to locate all the Demon Blades causing conflict in Japan . In the third ending , after his battle , Kisuke is sent back in time to the day he first betrayed his employers through the Oboro Muramasa 's power . His warning allows Torahime to foil the plot against her family , then Kisiuke steals the Kuzuryu and sets off on a journey round the world to exhaust its power by striking down evil , promising to marry Torahime upon his return .
Genroku Legends
The Genroku Legends are split into four different stories directly inspired by Japanese folklore and set in the Muramasa universe . In " Fishy Tales of the Nekomata " , a domestic cat called Miike sees her family brought to ruin and all its members killed . Possessing the dying body of the family daughter Okoi and becoming a nekomata , she vows revenge against her family 's killers , assassins employed by their rival Netsuzo Wakamiya . Despite succeeding , her rage remains unseated and she extends her wrath to the entire household . In the end , her tails are cut off by Jinkuro when he is hired to exorcise her : before being robbed of her powers , she curses Jinkuro with illness , setting the events of Momohime 's story in motion . Now at peace , Miike spends time with an old priest and hosts moonlight dances with local cats . In the alternate ending , Miike becomes a ravenous demon whose rage is finally quelled by the old priest .
In " A Cause to Daikon For " , a local farmer named Gonbe stirs up a revolt when the local Daimyo raises the taxes to the point that his village is on the brink of ruin . Aided by the spirit of his deceased wife Otae , Gonbe fights through the Daimyo 's minions before killing him . After the fight , it is revealed that he has been relating his story to Enma , the King of Hell and , due to his actions , is condemned to be tormented there . Due to her love for him , Otae willingly joins Gonbe despite being a pure soul . However , due to the punishment demons being overworked and Gonbe complaining to Enma , he is banished with his comrades and Otae back to the living world , where they get a chance to live in peace under a new and kinder Daimyo . In the alternate ending , the entire sequence is said to have been illusions holding Gonbe 's spirit captive around the ruins of the Daimyo 's castle . He , Otae and his comrades are freed by a traveling Yamabushi and ascend to heaven .
In " A Spirited Seven Nights ' Haunting " , the Iga ninja Arashimaru infiltrates the house of the Okabe clan , where Arashimaru steals the sacred Spear of Bishamon and kills the leader of the Okabe clan . After learning that he was actually the leader 's son , Arashimaru flees in disgust . Taking shelter in a shrine , Arashimaru accidentally breaks a mirror sacred to the Goddess Inaraki , who becomes a Shirohebi ( white snake ) that curses him to die in seven days . Heading to exact revenge on the Iga leader after besting his master Shiranui in combat , Arashimaru learns that his mission was orchestrated by So Xian , a Ming @-@ era Chinese spy working to destabilize Japan 's ruling classes who was indirectly responsible for the taking the young Kisuke from his family . Arashimaru kills So Xian and escapes his lair with Shiranui 's aid , then goes peacefully to his death after asking the saddened Shirohebi to give his head and Spear of Bishamon to his brother Dengoro so he can restore the Okabe house . Arashimaru 's head is given proper burial at the Shirohebi 's insistence , and Arashimaru 's spirit is deified due to the grave becoming a prayer site for pilgrims . In the alternate ending , Arashimaru is possessed by So Xian 's spirit , who enslaves Shirohebi and takes on the name " Orochimaru " . In a desperate act of defiance , Shirohebi has Shiranui spirit away the Okabe clan 's last surviving heir during Orochimaru 's attack who , when grown , takes on the name " Jiraiya " to fight Orochimaru .
In " Hell 's Where the Heart Is " , an Oni girl named Rajyaki is sent by her father Enma to seal the treasures of the Seven Gods of Fortune . On her journey , a womanizing ex @-@ monk called Seikichi accidentally proposes to her and she accepts him as her husband . In the end , Seikichi saves her after a grueling battle by feeding her the sacred peach of Fukurokuju . Due to this , she is banished from Yomi by her father . In one ending , the Seven Gods of Fortune persuade Rajyaki to return to her father , while Seikichi moves to live a proper life . In the end , Rajyaki returns in human form and formalizes their marriage , which continues after Seikichi dies and goes to Hell . In the alternate ending , Rajyaki and Seikichi run into each other again when she is being hunted by samurai . Seikichi saves her , pretending he killed her and using that to establish himself as a samurai . Rajyaki takes the guise of his human wife , and they have three daughters who bear their mother 's demonic horns . The Genroku Legends conclude with the narrator detailing the locations of the Seven Gods ' treasures scattered through the stories , and thanking the player for locating them and calming Enma so his demons could return to Hell .
= = Development = =
Muramasa was developed by Vanillaware , a studio created by former Atlus staff members to create successor projects to the 2D action @-@ adventure game Princess Crown . According to sound producer Hitoshi Sakimoto , the game 's director George Kamitani was laying out plans for Muramasa when Odin Sphere was in the middle of development . According to Kamitani , while Odin Sphere was an evolution of Princess Crown 's narrative , Muramasa provided the chance of evolving its gameplay . He even went so far as to dub it " Princess Crown III " . The draft proposal was completed by the end of 2006 . The positive sales of Odin Sphere gave Vanillaware the capital needed to begin full development on Muramasa . The team 's style of development was identical to their strategy for Odin Sphere , although they worked to change up some aspects to make it a unique experience . When developing the game , the team decided to create a vertical plain for players to explore , something which the team had needed to forego with Odin Sphere . In addition , bathing sequences cut from Odin Sphere were reworked and incorporated into Muramasa as hot spring scenes .
The Wii was chosen as the game 's platform of release as its specs were fairly close to that of the PlayStation 2 , the console for which Odin Sphere was developed . This meant that the team could carry over their earlier experience rather than start from scratch learning about new hardware . Kamitani did create design proposals for versions on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , but went undeveloped development due to development costs . Using the Wii 's motion controls was tested by the team , but due to the game 's old @-@ fashioned style there was little need to implement them . The biggest problem when developing for the Wii was the graphics , especially how to get the various pieces of artwork in the game 's scenery to interact and respond properly . They also wanted to keep loading times down to a minimum , which was made possible due to the Wii 's area pre @-@ loading abilities . Technical tinkering of this kind went on until the end of development . The team was highly dedicated to the success of the project , putting a large amount of work to make it as good as it could be for players .
In creating the game 's atmosphere , which was based on Japan as it was in the Edo era combined with local folklore and mythology , the team wanted to create an air of realism within its fantasy world . In keeping with their wish for realism , Momohime and Kisuke were given distinct accents ( Momohime used a cultured dialect while Kisuke spoke with an Edogawa accent ) . Another realistic element was the game 's food , which was designed based on the types of delicacies that were popular in the 17th and 18th centuries . One of the folklore references was the 108 Demon Blades in the game , which was a direct reference to the 108 human vices in Japanese folklore . A number of monsters and deities from Japanese mythology made appearances in the game , and the art style was intended to give a " Japanese " feel without consciously copying artwork from the game 's period . The artwork was created at double its in @-@ game resolution , then reduced to fit within the hardware . Several potential playable characters and storylines , such as narratives following Jinkuro and Torahime , had to be cut from the game . Elements of the cut storylines were incorporated into Kisuke and Momohime 's stories . The game 's setting was a heavy departure from Vanillaware 's previous games , which had used Western @-@ inspired settings and stories . The game 's overall theme was " death " .
= = = Music = = =
The music was handled by a team from sound company Basiscape , composed of multiple composers who had worked on Odin Sphere . Sakimoto acted as sound producer , the sound director was Masaaki Kaneko , and the music was composed by Sakimoto , Yoshimi Kudo , Noriyuki Kamikura , Mitsuhiro Kaneda , Kimihiro Abe , Azusa Chiba and Masaharu Iwata . Sakimoto was working on music for Odin Sphere when the project was first proposed , and thought Kamitani was being overambitious working on a premise based in Japan when developing a game based on European mythology . During the initial planning stage , Sakimoto thought the game would be a " mock @-@ Japanese " project , with Japanese instruments inserted into techno music . Once he realized how sincere Kamitani was with the project , Sakimoto and the team needed to re @-@ identify with the roots of traditional Japanese music . For Sakimoto , his approach was to reconnect with how earlier Japanese people turned their wabi @-@ sabi philosophy and worldview into words and music : he carried over this approach into the project . Each of the composers had to go through similar experiences .
= = Release = =
Muramasa was first announced at the 2007 Tokyo Game Show ( TGS ) under the title Oboro Muramasa Yōtōden ( 朧村正妖刀伝 , lit . " The Hazy Legend of Muramasa 's Mystical Sword " ) , alongside its intended platform , setting and gameplay mechanics . After its announcement , information releases about the game virtually stopped , and an April 2008 report by Famitsu reported the game 's development was " struggling " , although no details were revealed . Muramasa was reintroduced at TGS 2008 under its current Japanese title , along with its planned release window in 2009 and details on its characters and story . The game released in Japan on April 9 , 2009 . It was later released as part of Nintendo Channel 's budget game line @-@ up in January 2010 , and re @-@ released on the Virtual Console for Wii U in July 2015 .
It was announced for a release in North America under the title Muramasa : The Demon Blade in October 2008 for a release the following year . The game was originally being published by Xseed Games , but in April 2009 they announced that they were dropping the title from their schedule . Publishing rights were transferred to Ignition Entertainment . Ignition Entertainment later explained that it was in hot competition with Xseed and Atlus to acquire the American publishing rights , and after seeing Muramasa at TGS 2008 they were encouraged to apply for the rights . The change between publishers was an internal agreement between Xseed , their parent company Marvelous USA , and Ignition . The situation was amicably resolved as Xseed already had a large number of Wii titles lined up , and giving Muramasa to another publisher allowed multiple titles not to be overlooked when it came to Western publicity . The game released in North America on September 8 , 2009 . The game 's localization was done by external localization companies in close collaboration with Ignition Entertainment . Due to the game 's strong Japanese atmosphere , it was seen as a hard sell in the West , but during localization a lot of work went into preserving it rather than adjusting it for Western tastes . Due to this , the game was not dubbed into English , but instead
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to be conscious , a topic studied in the field of artificial intelligence .
Thanks to recent developments in technology , consciousness has become a significant topic of research in psychology , neuropsychology and neuroscience within the past few decades . The primary focus is on understanding what it means biologically and psychologically for information to be present in consciousness — that is , on determining the neural and psychological correlates of consciousness . The majority of experimental studies assess consciousness by asking human subjects for a verbal report of their experiences ( e.g. , " tell me if you notice anything when I do this " ) . Issues of interest include phenomena such as subliminal perception , blindsight , denial of impairment , and altered states of consciousness produced by alcohol and other drugs , or spiritual or meditative techniques .
In medicine , consciousness is assessed by observing a patient 's arousal and responsiveness , and can be seen as a continuum of states ranging from full alertness and comprehension , through disorientation , delirium , loss of meaningful communication , and finally loss of movement in response to painful stimuli . Issues of practical concern include how the presence of consciousness can be assessed in severely ill , comatose , or anesthetized people , and how to treat conditions in which consciousness is impaired or disrupted .
= = Etymology and early history = =
The origin of the modern concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Locke 's Essay Concerning Human Understanding , published in 1690 . Locke defined consciousness as " the perception of what passes in a man 's own mind " . His essay influenced the 18th @-@ century view of consciousness , and his definition appeared in Samuel Johnson 's celebrated Dictionary ( 1755 ) . " Consciousness " ( French : conscience ) is also defined in the 1753 volume of Diderot and d 'Alembert 's Encyclopédie , as " the opinion or internal feeling that we ourselves have from what we do . "
The earliest English language uses of " conscious " and " consciousness " date back , however , to the 1500s . The English word " conscious " originally derived from the Latin conscius ( con- " together " and scio " to know " ) , but the Latin word did not have the same meaning as our word — it meant " knowing with " , in other words " having joint or common knowledge with another " . There were , however , many occurrences in Latin writings of the phrase conscius sibi , which translates literally as " knowing with oneself " , or in other words " sharing knowledge with oneself about something " . This phrase had the figurative meaning of " knowing that one knows " , as the modern English word " conscious " does . In its earliest uses in the 1500s , the English word " conscious " retained the meaning of the Latin conscius . For example , Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan wrote : " Where two , or more men , know of one and the same fact , they are said to be Conscious of it one to another . " The Latin phrase conscius sibi , whose meaning was more closely related to the current concept of consciousness , was rendered in English as " conscious to oneself " or " conscious unto oneself " . For example , Archbishop Ussher wrote in 1613 of " being so conscious unto myself of my great weakness " . Locke 's definition from 1690 illustrates that a gradual shift in meaning had taken place .
A related word was conscientia , which primarily means moral conscience . In the literal sense , " conscientia " means knowledge @-@ with , that is , shared knowledge . The word first appears in Latin juridical texts by writers such as Cicero . Here , conscientia is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else . René Descartes ( 1596 – 1650 ) is generally taken to be the first philosopher to use conscientia in a way that does not fit this traditional meaning . Descartes used conscientia the way modern speakers would use " conscience " . In Search after Truth ( Regulæ ad directionem ingenii ut et inquisitio veritatis per lumen naturale , Amsterdam 1701 ) he says " conscience or internal testimony " ( conscientiâ , vel interno testimonio ) .
= = In the dictionary = =
The dictionary meaning of the word consciousness extends through several centuries and associated cognate meanings which have ranged from formal definitions to somewhat more skeptical definitions . One formal definition indicating the range of these cognate meanings is given in Webster 's Third New International Dictionary stating that consciousness is : " ( 1 ) a. awareness or perception of an inward psychological or spiritual fact : intuitively perceived knowledge of something in one 's inner self. b. inward awareness of an external object , state , or fact. c. concerned awareness : INTEREST , CONCERN -- often used with an attributive noun . ( 2 ) : the state or activity that is characterized by sensation , emotion , volition , or thought : mind in the broadest possible sense : something in nature that is distinguished from the physical . ( 3 ) : the totality in psychology of sensations , perceptions , ideas , attitudes and feelings of which an individual or a group is aware at any given time or within a particular time span -- compare STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS . "
= = Philosophy of mind = =
The philosophy of mind has given rise to many stances regarding consciousness . The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy in 1998 defines consciousness as follows :
Consciousness — Philosophers have used the term ' consciousness ' for four main topics : knowledge in general , intentionality , introspection ( and the knowledge it specifically generates ) and phenomenal experience ... Something within one 's mind is ' introspectively conscious ' just in case one introspects it ( or is poised to do so ) . Introspection is often thought to deliver one 's primary knowledge of one 's mental life . An experience or other mental entity is ' phenomenally conscious ' just in case there is ' something it is like ' for one to have it . The clearest examples are : perceptual experience , such as tastings and seeings ; bodily @-@ sensational experiences , such as those of pains , tickles and itches ; imaginative experiences , such as those of one 's own actions or perceptions ; and streams of thought , as in the experience of thinking ' in words ' or ' in images ' . Introspection and phenomenality seem independent , or dissociable , although this is controversial .
In a more skeptical definition of consciousness , Stuart Sutherland has exemplified some of the difficulties in fully ascertaining all of its cognate meanings in his entry for the 1989 version of the Macmillan Dictionary of Psychology :
Consciousness — The having of perceptions , thoughts , and feelings ; awareness . The term is impossible to define except in terms that are unintelligible without a grasp of what consciousness means . Many fall into the trap of equating consciousness with self @-@ consciousness — to be conscious it is only necessary to be aware of the external world . Consciousness is a fascinating but elusive phenomenon : it is impossible to specify what it is , what it does , or why it has evolved . Nothing worth reading has been written on it .
Most writers on the philosophy of consciousness have been concerned to defend a particular point of view , and have organized their material accordingly . For surveys , the most common approach is to follow a historical path by associating stances with the philosophers who are most strongly associated with them , for example Descartes , Locke , Kant , etc . An alternative is to organize philosophical stances according to basic issues .
= = = The coherence of the concept = = =
Philosophers and non @-@ philosophers differ in their intuitions about what consciousness is . While most people have a strong intuition for the existence of what they refer to as consciousness , skeptics argue that this intuition is false , either because the concept of consciousness is intrinsically incoherent , or because our intuitions about it are based in illusions . Gilbert Ryle , for example , argued that traditional understanding of consciousness depends on a Cartesian dualist outlook that improperly distinguishes between mind and body , or between mind and world . He proposed that we speak not of minds , bodies , and the world , but of individuals , or persons , acting in the world . Thus , by speaking of " consciousness " we end up misleading ourselves by thinking that there is any sort of thing as consciousness separated from behavioral and linguistic understandings . More generally , many philosophers and scientists have been unhappy about the difficulty of producing a definition that does not involve circularity or fuzziness .
= = = Types of consciousness = = =
Many philosophers have argued that consciousness is a unitary concept that is understood intuitively by the majority of people in spite of the difficulty in defining it . Others , though , have argued that the level of disagreement about the meaning of the word indicates that it either means different things to different people ( for instance , the objective versus subjective aspects of consciousness ) , or else is an umbrella term encompassing a variety of distinct meanings with no simple element in common .
Ned Block proposed a distinction between two types of consciousness that he called phenomenal ( P @-@ consciousness ) and access ( A @-@ consciousness ) . P @-@ consciousness , according to Block , is simply raw experience : it is moving , colored forms , sounds , sensations , emotions and feelings with our bodies and responses at the center . These experiences , considered independently of any impact on behavior , are called qualia . A @-@ consciousness , on the other hand , is the phenomenon whereby information in our minds is accessible for verbal report , reasoning , and the control of behavior . So , when we perceive , information about what we perceive is access conscious ; when we introspect , information about our thoughts is access conscious ; when we remember , information about the past is access conscious , and so on . Although some philosophers , such as Daniel Dennett , have disputed the validity of this distinction , others have broadly accepted it . David Chalmers has argued that A @-@ consciousness can in principle be understood in mechanistic terms , but that understanding P @-@ consciousness is much more challenging : he calls this the hard problem of consciousness .
Some philosophers believe that Block 's two types of consciousness are not the end of the story . William Lycan , for example , argued in his book Consciousness and Experience that at least eight clearly distinct types of consciousness can be identified ( organism consciousness ; control consciousness ; consciousness of ; state / event consciousness ; reportability ; introspective consciousness ; subjective consciousness ; self @-@ consciousness ) — and that even this list omits several more obscure forms .
There is also debate in whether or not a @-@ consciousness and p @-@ consciousness always co @-@ exist or if they can exist separately . Although p @-@ consciousness without a @-@ consciousness is more widely accepted , there have been some hypothetical examples of A without P. Block for instance suggests the case of a “ zombie ” that is computationally identical to a person but without any subjectivity . However , he remains somewhat skeptical concluding " I don ’ t know whether there are any actual cases of A @-@ consciousness without P @-@ consciousness , but I hope I have illustrated their conceptual possibility . "
= = = Mind – body problem = = =
Mental processes ( such as consciousness ) and physical processes ( such as brain events ) seem to be correlated : but what is the basis of this connection and correlation between what seem to be two very different kinds of processes ?
The first influential philosopher to discuss this question specifically was Descartes , and the answer he gave is known as Cartesian dualism . Descartes proposed that consciousness resides within an immaterial domain he called res cogitans ( the realm of thought ) , in contrast to the domain of material things , which he called res extensa ( the realm of extension ) . He suggested that the interaction between these two domains occurs inside the brain , perhaps in a small midline structure called the pineal gland .
Although it is widely accepted that Descartes explained the problem cogently , few later philosophers have been happy with his solution , and his ideas about the pineal gland have especially been ridiculed . However , no alternative solution has gained general acceptance . Proposed solutions can be divided broadly into two categories : dualist solutions that maintain Descartes ' rigid distinction between the realm of consciousness and the realm of matter but give different answers for how the two realms relate to each other ; and monist solutions that maintain that there is really only one realm of being , of which consciousness and matter are both aspects . Each of these categories itself contains numerous variants . The two main types of dualism are substance dualism ( which holds that the mind is formed of a distinct type of substance not governed by the laws of physics ) and property dualism ( which holds that the laws of physics are universally valid but cannot be used to explain the mind ) . The three main types of monism are physicalism ( which holds that the mind consists of matter organized in a particular way ) , idealism ( which holds that only thought or experience truly exists , and matter is merely an illusion ) , and neutral monism ( which holds that both mind and matter are aspects of a distinct essence that is itself identical to neither of them ) . There are also , however , a large number of idiosyncratic theories that cannot cleanly be assigned to any of these schools of thought .
Since the dawn of Newtonian science with its vision of simple mechanical principles governing the entire universe , some philosophers have been tempted by the idea that consciousness could be explained in purely physical terms . The first influential writer to propose such an idea explicitly was Julien Offray de La Mettrie , in his book Man a Machine ( L 'homme machine ) . His arguments , however , were very abstract . The most influential modern physical theories of consciousness are based on psychology and neuroscience . Theories proposed by neuroscientists such as Gerald Edelman and Antonio Damasio , and by philosophers such as Daniel Dennett , seek to explain consciousness in terms of neural events occurring within the brain . Many other neuroscientists , such as Christof Koch , have explored the neural basis of consciousness without attempting to frame all @-@ encompassing global theories . At the same time , computer scientists working in the field of artificial intelligence have pursued the goal of creating digital computer programs that can simulate or embody consciousness .
A few theoretical physicists have argued that classical physics is intrinsically incapable of explaining the holistic aspects of consciousness , but that quantum theory may provide the missing ingredients . Several theorists have therefore proposed quantum mind ( QM ) theories of consciousness . Notable theories falling into this category include the holonomic brain theory of Karl Pribram and David Bohm , and the Orch @-@ OR theory formulated by Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose . Some of these QM theories offer descriptions of phenomenal consciousness , as well as QM interpretations of access consciousness . None of the quantum mechanical theories has been confirmed by experiment . Recent publications by G. Guerreshi , J. Cia , S. Popescu , and H. Briegel could falsify proposals such as those of Hameroff , which rely on quantum entanglement in protein . At the present time many scientists and philosophers consider the arguments for an important role of quantum phenomena to be unconvincing .
Apart from the general question of the " hard problem " of consciousness , roughly speaking , the question of how mental experience arises from a physical basis , a more specialized question is how to square the subjective notion that we are in control of our decisions ( at least in some small measure ) with the customary view of causality that subsequent events are caused by prior events . The topic of free will is the philosophical and scientific examination of this conundrum .
= = = Problem of other minds = = =
Many philosophers consider experience to be the essence of consciousness , and believe that experience can only fully be known from the inside , subjectively . But if consciousness is subjective and not visible from the outside , why do the vast majority of people believe that other people are conscious , but rocks and trees are not ? This is called the problem of other minds . It is particularly acute for people who believe in the possibility of philosophical zombies , that is , people who think it is possible in principle to have an entity that is physically indistinguishable from a human being and behaves like a human being in every way but nevertheless lacks consciousness . Related issues have also been studied extensively by Greg Littmann of the University of Illinois. and Colin Allen a professor at Indiana University regarding the literature and research studying artificial intelligence in androids .
The most commonly given answer is that we attribute consciousness to other people because we see that they resemble us in appearance and behavior ; we reason that if they look like us and act like us , they must be like us in other ways , including having experiences of the sort that we do . There are , however , a variety of problems with that explanation . For one thing , it seems to violate the principle of parsimony , by postulating an invisible entity that is not necessary to explain what we observe . Some philosophers , such as Daniel Dennett in an essay titled The Unimagined Preposterousness of Zombies , argue that people who give this explanation do not really understand what they are saying . More broadly , philosophers who do not accept the possibility of zombies generally believe that consciousness is reflected in behavior ( including verbal behavior ) , and that we attribute consciousness on the basis of behavior . A more straightforward way of saying this is that we attribute experiences to people because of what they can do , including the fact that they can tell us about their experiences .
= = = Animal consciousness = = =
The topic of animal consciousness is beset by a number of difficulties . It poses the problem of other minds in an especially severe form , because non @-@ human animals , lacking the ability to express human language , cannot tell us about their experiences . Also , it is difficult to reason objectively about the question , because a denial that an animal is conscious is often taken to imply that it does not feel , its life has no value , and that harming it is not morally wrong . Descartes , for example , has sometimes been blamed for mistreatment of animals due to the fact that he believed only humans have a non @-@ physical mind . Most people have a strong intuition that some animals , such as cats and dogs , are conscious , while others , such as insects , are not ; but the sources of this intuition are not obvious , and are often based on personal interactions with pets and other animals they have observed .
Philosophers who consider subjective experience the essence of consciousness also generally believe , as a correlate , that the existence and nature of animal consciousness can never rigorously be known . Thomas Nagel spelled out this point of view in an influential essay titled What Is it Like to Be a Bat ? . He said that an organism is conscious " if and only if there is something that it is like to be that organism — something it is like for the organism " ; and he argued that no matter how much we know about an animal 's brain and behavior , we can never really put ourselves into the mind of the animal and experience its world in the way it does itself . Other thinkers , such as Douglas Hofstadter , dismiss this argument as incoherent . Several psychologists and ethologists have argued for the existence of animal consciousness by describing a range of behaviors that appear to show animals holding beliefs about things they cannot directly perceive — Donald Griffin 's 2001 book Animal Minds reviews a substantial portion of the evidence .
On July 7 , 2012 , eminent scientists from different branches of neuroscience gathered at the University of Cambridge to celebrate the Francis Crick Memorial Conference , which deals with consciousness in humans and pre @-@ linguistic consciousness in nonhuman animals . After the conference , they signed in the presence of Stephen Hawking , the ' Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness ' , which summarizes the most important findings of the survey :
" We decided to reach a consensus and make a statement directed to the public that is not scientific . It 's obvious to everyone in this room that animals have consciousness , but it is not obvious to the rest of the world . It is not obvious to the rest of the Western world or the Far East . It is not obvious to the society . "
" Convergent evidence indicates that non @-@ human animals [ ... ] , including all mammals and birds , and other creatures , [ ... ] have the necessary neural substrates of consciousness and the capacity to exhibit intentional behaviors . "
= = = Artifact consciousness = = =
The idea of an artifact made conscious is an ancient theme of mythology , appearing for example in the Greek myth of Pygmalion , who carved a statue that was magically brought to life , and in medieval Jewish stories of the Golem , a magically animated homunculus built of clay . However , the possibility of actually constructing a conscious machine was probably first discussed by Ada Lovelace , in a set of notes written in 1842 about the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage , a precursor ( never built ) to modern electronic computers . Lovelace was essentially dismissive of the idea that a machine such as the Analytical Engine could think in a humanlike way . She wrote :
It is desirable to guard against the possibility of exaggerated ideas that might arise as to the powers of the Analytical Engine . ... The Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything . It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform . It can follow analysis ; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths . Its province is to assist us in making available what we are already acquainted with .
One of the most influential contributions to this question was an essay written in 1950 by pioneering computer scientist Alan Turing , titled Computing Machinery and Intelligence . Turing disavowed any interest in terminology , saying that even " Can machines think ? " is too loaded with spurious connotations to be meaningful ; but he proposed to replace all such questions with a specific operational test , which has become known as the Turing test . To pass the test , a computer must be able to imitate a human well enough to fool interrogators . In his essay Turing discussed a variety of possible objections , and presented a counterargument to each of them . The Turing test is commonly cited in discussions of artificial intelligence as a proposed criterion for machine consciousness ; it has provoked a great deal of philosophical debate . For example , Daniel Dennett and Douglas Hofstadter argue that anything capable of passing the Turing test is necessarily conscious , while David Chalmers argues that a philosophical zombie could pass the test , yet fail to be conscious . A third group of scholars have argued that with technological growth once machines begin to display any substantial signs of human @-@ like behavior then the dichotomy ( of human consciousness compared to human @-@ like consciousness ) becomes passé and issues of machine autonomy begin to prevail even as observed in its nascent form within contemporary industry and technology .
In a lively exchange over what has come to be referred to as " the Chinese room argument " , John Searle sought to refute the claim of proponents of what he calls " strong artificial intelligence ( AI ) " that a computer program can be conscious , though he does agree with advocates of " weak AI " that computer programs can be formatted to " simulate " conscious states . His own view is that consciousness has subjective , first @-@ person causal powers by being essentially intentional due simply to the way human brains function biologically ; conscious persons can perform computations , but consciousness is not inherently computational the way computer programs are . To make a Turing machine that speaks Chinese , Searle imagines a room with one monolingual English speaker ( Searle himself , in fact ) , a book that designates a combination of Chinese symbols to be output paired with Chinese symbol input , and boxes filled with Chinese symbols . In this case , the English speaker is acting as a computer and the rulebook as a program . Searle argues that with such a machine , he would be able to process the inputs to outputs perfectly without having any understanding of Chinese , nor having any idea what the questions and answers could possibly mean . If the experiment were done in English , since Searle knows English , he would be able to take questions and give answers without any algorithms for English questions , and he would be effectively aware of what was being said and the purposes it might serve . Searle would pass the Turing test of answering the questions in both languages , but he is only conscious of what he is doing when he speaks English . Another way of putting the argument is to say that computer programs can pass the Turing test for processing the syntax of a language , but that the syntax cannot lead to semantic meaning in the way strong AI advocates hoped .
In the literature concerning artificial intelligence , Searle 's essay has been second only to Turing 's in the volume of debate it has generated . Searle himself was vague about what extra ingredients it would take to make a machine conscious : all he proposed was that what was needed was " causal powers " of the sort that the brain has and that computers lack . But other thinkers sympathetic to his basic argument have suggested that the necessary ( though perhaps still not sufficient ) extra conditions may include the ability to pass not just the verbal version of the Turing test , but the robotic version , which requires grounding the robot 's words in the robot 's sensorimotor capacity to categorize and interact with the things in the world that its words are about , Turing @-@ indistinguishably from a real person . Turing @-@ scale robotics is an empirical branch of research on embodied cognition and situated cognition .
= = Scientific study = =
For many decades , consciousness as a research topic was avoided by the majority of mainstream scientists , because of a general feeling that a phenomenon defined in subjective terms could not properly be studied using objective experimental methods . In 1975 George Mandler published an influential psychological study which distinguished between slow , serial , and limited conscious processes and fast , parallel and extensive unconscious ones . Starting in the 1980s , an expanding community of neuroscientists and psychologists have associated themselves with a field called Consciousness Studies , giving rise to a stream of experimental work published in books , journals such as Consciousness and Cognition , Frontiers in Consciousness Research , and the Journal of Consciousness Studies , along with regular conferences organized by groups such as the Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness .
Modern medical and psychological investigations into consciousness are based on psychological experiments ( including , for example , the investigation of priming effects using subliminal stimuli ) , and on case studies of alterations in consciousness produced by trauma , illness , or drugs . Broadly viewed , scientific approaches are based on two core concepts . The first identifies the content of consciousness with the experiences that are reported by human subjects ; the second makes use of the concept of consciousness that has been developed by neurologists and other medical professionals who deal with patients whose behavior is impaired . In either case , the ultimate goals are to develop techniques for assessing consciousness objectively in humans as well as other animals , and to understand the neural and psychological mechanisms that underlie it .
= = = Measurement = = =
Experimental research on consciousness presents special difficulties , due to the lack of a universally accepted operational definition . In the majority of experiments that are specifically about consciousness , the subjects are human , and the criterion used is verbal report : in other words , subjects are asked to describe their experiences , and their descriptions are treated as observations of the contents of consciousness . For example , subjects who stare continuously at a Necker cube usually report that they experience it " flipping " between two 3D configurations , even though the stimulus itself remains the same . The objective is to understand the relationship between the conscious awareness of stimuli ( as indicated by verbal report ) and the effects the stimuli have on brain activity and behavior . In several paradigms , such as the technique of response priming , the behavior of subjects is clearly influenced by stimuli for which they report no awareness .
Verbal report is widely considered to be the most reliable indicator of consciousness , but it raises a number of issues . For one thing , if verbal reports are treated as observations , akin to observations in other branches of science , then the possibility arises that they may contain errors — but it is difficult to make sense of the idea that subjects could be wrong about their own experiences , and even more difficult to see how such an error could be detected . Daniel Dennett has argued for an approach he calls heterophenomenology , which means treating verbal reports as stories that may or may not be true , but his ideas about how to do this have not been widely adopted . Another issue with verbal report as a criterion is that it restricts the field of study to humans who have language : this approach cannot be used to study consciousness in other species , pre @-@ linguistic children , or people with types of brain damage that impair language . As a third issue , philosophers who dispute the validity of the Turing test may feel that it is possible , at least in principle , for verbal report to be dissociated from consciousness entirely : a philosophical zombie may give detailed verbal reports of awareness in the absence of any genuine awareness .
Although verbal report is in practice the " gold standard " for ascribing consciousness , it is not the only possible criterion . In medicine , consciousness is assessed as a combination of verbal behavior , arousal , brain activity and purposeful movement . The last three of these can be used as indicators of consciousness when verbal behavior is absent . The scientific literature regarding the neural bases of arousal and purposeful movement is very extensive . Their reliability as indicators of consciousness is disputed , however , due to numerous studies showing that alert human subjects can be induced to behave purposefully in a variety of ways in spite of reporting a complete lack of awareness . Studies of the neuroscience of free will have also shown that the experiences that people report when they behave purposefully sometimes do not correspond to their actual behaviors or to the patterns of electrical activity recorded from their brains .
Another approach applies specifically to the study of self @-@ awareness , that is , the ability to distinguish oneself from others . In the 1970s Gordon Gallup developed an operational test for self @-@ awareness , known as the mirror test . The test examines whether animals are able to differentiate between seeing themselves in a mirror versus seeing other animals . The classic example involves placing a spot of coloring on the skin or fur near the individual 's forehead and seeing if they attempt to remove it or at least touch the spot , thus indicating that they recognize that the individual they are seeing in the mirror is themselves . Humans ( older than 18 months ) and other great apes , bottlenose dolphins , killer whales , pigeons , European magpies and elephants have all been observed to pass this test .
= = = Neural correlates = = =
A major part of the scientific literature on consciousness consists of studies that examine the relationship between the experiences reported by subjects and the activity that simultaneously takes place in their brains — that is , studies of the neural correlates of consciousness . The hope is to find that activity in a particular part of the brain , or a particular pattern of global brain activity , which will be strongly predictive of conscious awareness . Several brain imaging techniques , such as EEG and fMRI , have been used for physical measures of brain activity in these studies .
Another idea that has drawn attention for several decades is that consciousness is associated with high @-@ frequency ( gamma band ) oscillations in brain activity . This idea arose from proposals in the 1980s , by Christof von der Malsburg and Wolf Singer , that gamma oscillations could solve the so @-@ called binding problem , by linking information represented in different parts of the brain into a unified experience . Rodolfo Llinás , for example , proposed that consciousness results from recurrent thalamo @-@ cortical resonance where the specific thalamocortical systems ( content ) and the non @-@ specific ( centromedial thalamus ) thalamocortical systems ( context ) interact in the gamma band frequency via synchronous oscillations .
A number of studies have shown that activity in primary sensory areas of the brain is not sufficient to produce consciousness : it is possible for subjects to report a lack of awareness even when areas such as the primary visual cortex show clear electrical responses to a stimulus . Higher brain areas are seen as more promising , especially the prefrontal cortex , which is involved in a range of higher cognitive functions collectively known as executive functions . There is substantial evidence that a " top @-@ down " flow of neural activity ( i.e. , activity propagating from the frontal cortex to sensory areas ) is more predictive of conscious awareness than a " bottom @-@ up " flow of activity . The prefrontal cortex is not the only candidate area , however : studies by Nikos Logothetis and his colleagues have shown , for example , that visually responsive neurons in parts of the temporal lobe reflect the visual perception in the situation when conflicting visual images are presented to different eyes ( i.e. , bistable percepts during binocular rivalry ) .
Modulation of neural responses may correlate with phenomenal experiences . In contrast to the raw electrical responses that do not correlate with consciousness , the modulation of these responses by other stimuli correlates surprisingly well with an important aspect of consciousness : namely with the phenomenal experience of stimulus intensity ( brightness , contrast ) . In the research group of Danko Nikolić it has been shown that some of the changes in the subjectively perceived brightness correlated with the modulation of firing rates while others correlated with the modulation of neural synchrony . An fMRI investigation suggested that these findings were strictly limited to the primary visual areas . This indicates that , in the primary visual areas , changes in firing rates and synchrony can be considered as neural correlates of qualia — at least for some type of qualia .
In 2011 , Graziano and Kastner proposed the " attention schema " theory of awareness . In that theory , specific cortical areas , notably in the superior temporal sulcus and the temporo @-@ parietal junction , are used to build the construct of awareness and attribute it to other people . The same cortical machinery is also used to attribute awareness to oneself . Damage to these cortical regions can lead to deficits in consciousness such as hemispatial neglect . In the attention schema theory , the value of explaining the feature of awareness and attributing it to a person is to gain a useful predictive model of that person 's attentional processing . Attention is a style of information processing in which a brain focuses its resources on a limited set of interrelated signals . Awareness , in this theory , is a useful , simplified schema that represents attentional states . To be aware of X is explained by constructing a model of one 's attentional focus on X
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1920s , he converted to Christianity . His first collection of poems , Christ in the Synagogue , published by V. Gollancz in 1930 , dealt to a large extent with his conversion and spiritual identity as both a Jew and an Englishman . This subject would become a recurring theme in his numerous mystical poems . Christ in the Synagogue reached only a small audience and received less than a dozen reviews , but The Manchester Guardian , The Nation and Athenaeum , The Times Literary Supplement , and The New Age wrote favourably of it .
Notwithstanding Aaronson 's small readership , V. Gollancz published a second verse collection in 1933 , titled Poems . Despite being little known to the general public , Aaronson gained a cult following of dedicated readers . His third collection , The Homeward Journey and Other Poems , was published by Christophers in 1946 . Some of his works also appeared in journals and anthologies such as the 1953 Faber Book of Twentieth Century Verse .
Since Aaronson 's poetry does not display formal innovation , literature professor William Baker , characterises him as " A post @-@ Georgian rather than a modernist [ poet ] " . Baker further notes that Aaronson 's poetry deals with several issues of his time , such as the rise of fascism and the Second World War , but points out that Aaronson did not directly write about the Holocaust . Upon Aaronson 's death , the poet Arthur Chaim Jacobs , compared him with Isaac Rosenberg , the more celebrated poet of the same Anglo @-@ Jewish generation . According to Jacobs , Aaronson was " clearly influenced by him in terms of diction , and in a kind of verbal energy which runs through a lot of his poetry . But he was less radical than Rosenberg in his use of language , and tended towards Keatsian luxuriance and sweetness . " Although much of Aaronson 's writings centred on his conversion to Christianity , Jacobs traces a continuing Hebraic mood in his poetry , writing that " His Christianity was hardly familiarly Anglican , and there is in his work an avowed sensuality which could in some ways be compared to that of modern Hebrew poets like Tchernikowsky or Shneur , or later , Avraham Shlonsky . "
Aaronson 's poetry was not widely publicised , and he left many unpublished poems at his death . Little scholarly attention has been paid to his life and poetry . In 1967 , Jacobs stated that " Further assessment of his work awaits more substantial publication " and about 40 years later Baker , who has written most extensively on Aaronson , named him among the Whitechapel intellectual writers and artists " today consigned to oblivion " .
= Benjamin Harrison =
Benjamin Harrison ( August 20 , 1833 – March 13 , 1901 ) was the 23rd President of the United States ( 1889 – 93 ) ; he was the grandson of the ninth president , William Henry Harrison . Before ascending to the presidency , Harrison established himself as a prominent local attorney , Presbyterian church leader and politician in Indianapolis , Indiana . During the American Civil War , he served the Union as a colonel and on February 14 , 1865 was confirmed by the U.S. Senate as a brevet brigadier general of volunteers to rank from January 23 , 1865 . After the war , he unsuccessfully ran for the governorship of Indiana . He was later elected to the U.S. Senate by the Indiana legislature .
A Republican , Harrison was elected to the presidency in 1888 , defeating the Democratic incumbent Grover Cleveland . Hallmarks of his administration included unprecedented economic legislation , including the McKinley Tariff , which imposed historic protective trade rates , and the Sherman Antitrust Act ; Harrison facilitated the creation of the National Forests through an amendment to the Land Revision Act of 1891 . He also substantially strengthened and modernized the Navy , and conducted an active foreign policy . He proposed , in vain , federal education funding as well as voting rights enforcement for African Americans during his administration .
Due in large part to surplus revenues from the tariffs , federal spending reached one billion dollars for the first time during his term . The spending issue in part led to the defeat of the Republicans in the 1890 mid @-@ term elections . Harrison was defeated by Cleveland in his bid for re @-@ election in 1892 , due to the growing unpopularity of the high tariff and high federal spending . He then returned to private life in Indianapolis but later represented the Republic of Venezuela in an international case against the United Kingdom . In 1900 , he traveled to Europe as part of the case and , after a brief stay , returned to Indianapolis . He died the following year of complications from influenza . Although many have praised Harrison 's commitment to African Americans ' voting rights , scholars and historians generally regard his administration as below @-@ average , and rank him in the bottom half among U.S. presidents . Historians , however , have not questioned Harrison 's commitment to personal and official integrity .
= = Family and education = =
Harrison 's paternal ancestors were the Virginia Harrisons . Their immigrant ancestor was Benjamin Harrison , who arrived in Jamestown , Virginia , in 1630 . The future president Benjamin was born on August 20 , 1833 , in North Bend , Ohio , as the second of eight children to John Scott Harrison and Elizabeth Ramsey ( Irwin ) . Benjamin was a grandson of President William Henry Harrison and the great @-@ grandson of Benjamin Harrison V , a Virginia governor and signer of the Declaration of Independence . Harrison was seven years old when his grandfather was elected President , but he did not attend the inauguration . Although Harrison 's family was distinguished , his parents were not wealthy . John Scott Harrison spent much of his farm income on his children 's education . Despite the family 's meager resources , Harrison 's boyhood was enjoyable , much of it spent outdoors fishing or hunting .
Benjamin Harrison 's early schooling took place in a one @-@ room schoolhouse near his home , but his parents later arranged for a tutor to help him with college preparatory studies . Harrison and his brother Irwin enrolled in Farmer 's College near Cincinnati , Ohio in 1847 . He attended the college for two years and while there met his future wife , Caroline Lavinia Scott , one of the daughters of the science professor , John Witherspoon Scott .
In 1850 , Harrison transferred to Miami University in Oxford , Ohio and graduated in 1852 . He joined the fraternity Phi Delta Theta , which he used as a network for much of his life . He was also a member of Delta Chi , a law fraternity which permitted dual membership . Classmates included John Alexander Anderson , who became a six @-@ term congressman , and Whitelaw Reid who ran as Harrison 's vice presidential candidate in his presidential reelection campaign . At Miami , Harrison was strongly influenced by history and political economy professor Robert Hamilton Bishop . Harrison joined a Presbyterian church at college and , like his mother , became a lifelong member .
After completing college , Harrison took up the study of law as a legal apprentice in the Cincinnati law office of Storer & Gwynne .
= = Marriage and early career = =
Before completing his law studies , Harrison returned to Oxford to marry Caroline Scott . On October 20 , 1853 , Caroline 's father , also a Presbyterian minister , performed the ceremony .
The Harrisons had two children , Russell Benjamin Harrison ( August 12 , 1854 – December 13 , 1936 ) , and Mary " Mamie " Scott Harrison ( April 3 , 1858 – October 28 , 1930 ) .
Harrison returned to live on his father 's farm while finishing his law studies . That same year , he inherited $ 800 after the death of an aunt , and used the funds to move with Caroline to Indianapolis , Indiana , in 1854 . He was admitted to the bar and began practicing law in the office of John H. Ray . The same year he became a crier for the Federal Court in Indianapolis , for which he was paid $ 2 @.@ 50 per day . Harrison became a founding member and first president of both the University Club , a private gentlemen 's club and the Phi Delta Theta Alumni Club . Harrison and his wife joined and assumed leadership positions at the First Presbyterian Church .
Having grown up in a Whig household , he favored that party 's politics while young . He joined the Republican Party shortly after its formation in 1856 , and that year campaigned on behalf of the Republican presidential candidate John C. Frémont . Harrison was elected as the Indianapolis City Attorney that year , a position that paid an annual salary of $ 400 .
In 1858 , Harrison entered into a law partnership with William Wallace and they opened their office called Wallace & Harrison . Two years later , Harrison successfully ran as the Republican candidate for reporter of the Indiana Supreme Court . He was an active supporter of his party 's platform , and served as Republican State Committee Secretary . His law partner Wallace was elected as county clerk in 1860 ; Harrison established a new firm with William Fishback , named Fishback & Harrison . They worked together until he entered the Army after the start of the American Civil War .
= = Civil War = =
In 1862 , President Abraham Lincoln issued a call for more recruits for the Union Army ; Harrison wanted to enlist , but worried about how to support his young family . While visiting Governor Oliver Morton , Harrison found him distressed over the shortage of men answering the latest call . Harrison told the governor , " If I can be of any service , I will go " .
Morton asked Harrison if he could help recruit a regiment , although he would not ask him to serve . Harrison recruited throughout northern Indiana to raise a regiment . Morton offered him the command , but Harrison declined , as he had no military experience . He was initially commissioned as a captain and company commander on July 22 , 1862 . Governor Morton commissioned Harrison as a colonel on August 7 , 1862 , and the newly formed 70th Indiana was mustered into Federal service on August 12 , 1862 . Once mustered , the regiment left Indiana to join the Union Army at Louisville , Kentucky .
For much of its first two years , the 70th Indiana performed reconnaissance duty and guarded railroads in Kentucky and Tennessee . In 1864 , Harrison and his regiment joined William T. Sherman 's Atlanta Campaign and moved to the front lines . On January 2 , 1864 , Harrison was promoted to command the 1st Brigade of the 1st Division of the XX Corps . He commanded the brigade at the battles of Resaca , Cassville , New Hope Church , Lost Mountain , Kennesaw Mountain , Marietta , Peachtree Creek and Atlanta . When Sherman 's main force began its March to the Sea , Harrison 's brigade was transferred to the District of Etowah and participated in the Battle of Nashville .
On January 23 , 1865 , President Lincoln nominated Harrison to the grade of brevet brigadier general of volunteers , to rank from that date , and the Senate confirmed the nomination on February 14 , 1865 . He rode in the Grand Review in Washington , D.C. before mustering out on June 8 , 1865 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = Indiana politics = = =
While serving in the army in October 1864 , Harrison was reelected reporter of the Supreme Court of Indiana and served four more years . Although not politically powerful , the position provided Harrison a steady income . President Grant appointed him to represent the federal government in a civil claim brought by Lambdin P. Milligan , whose wartime conviction for treason had been reversed by the Supreme Court . Due to Harrison 's advocacy , the damages awarded against the government were minimal .
With his increasing reputation , local Republicans urged Harrison to run for Congress . He initially confined his political activities to speaking on behalf of other Republican candidates , a task for which he received high praises from his colleagues .
In 1872 , Harrison campaigned for the Republican nomination for governor of Indiana . Former governor Oliver Morton favored his opponent , Thomas M. Browne , and Harrison lost his bid for statewide office . He returned to his law practice and , despite
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highly desirable , with 60 acres ( 24 ha ) of glebe land , a large Georgian rectory , and an income in 1906 of £ 503 per annum , rising during Davidson 's incumbency to £ 800 .
Stiffkey , close to the northern Norfolk coast , lies on both sides of the River Stiffkey , with extensive salt marshes on its seaward side . At the time of Davidson 's arrival in 1906 the village , with a population of around 350 , was generally impoverished although , according to Davidson 's 2007 biographer Jonathan Tucker , it was well supplied with shops and public houses . Davidson was quickly on good terms with most of the villagers , who referred to him with affection as " Little Jimmy " — he was only 5 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 60 metres ) tall . He was less well regarded by the local gentry , including the main landowner , Colonel Groom , who fell out with Davidson after the priest rebuked him for keeping a mistress .
On 9 October 1906 , now settled into a prosperous living , Davidson married Molly Saurin . The Stiffkey rectory became a family home , as children were born at regular intervals . Notwithstanding his parochial and domestic responsibilities , Davidson quickly adopted the habit of spending much of the week in London , engaged in various kinds of social work . Through his friendship with Reginald Kennedy @-@ Cox , whom he had met at Oxford , Davidson became involved with the Malvern Mission , forerunner of the Dockland Settlements , of which he later became a trustee . He also became chaplain to the Actors ' Church Union , based at St Paul 's , Covent Garden , and was frequently to be found backstage in London 's theatres , ministering to the needs of showgirls — sometimes with an unwelcomed degree of persistence . Between 1910 and 1913 he expanded this work to Paris , to which he made regular visits , sometimes acting as a chaperone for dancers recruited by the Folies Bergère . Many out @-@ of @-@ work and would @-@ be actresses were invited to stay at the Stiffkey rectory , sometimes as many as 20 at a time , to the consternation of Molly Davidson and of some of the local establishment who feared for the morals of local farmhands . Among those most disapproving of Davidson 's conduct was Major Philip Hamond , a churchwarden at Morston , who later became Davidson 's principal adversary .
= = = First World War = = =
Davidson was 39 years old at the outbreak of war in 1914 . In October 1915 , possibly to escape the increasingly turbulent atmosphere in the Stiffkey rectory , he joined the Royal Navy as a chaplain . He began his service on HMS Gibraltar , a depot ship based in the Shetland Islands , where he irritated his shipmates by calling church parades every time another ship visited the anchorage ; he had the full approval of the base commander , Vice Admiral Sir Reginald Tupper , who was known as " Holy Reggie " . Davidson 's service report from Gibraltar 's captain records that " he performs his duties in a perfunctory manner . Not on good terms with messmates , disregards mess rules and regulations " . In October 1916 Davidson joined HMS Fox in the Middle East , and shortly afterwards was arrested by the naval police during a raid on a Cairo brothel . He explained that he was looking for a diseased prostitute who had been infecting his men . Again his commanding officer 's reports were negative ; however , Davidson remained with the Fox until August 1918 when he was posted to HMS Leviathan in the northern Atlantic . Here , his commander was slightly more complimentary ; he found Davidson " a clever writer and entertainer [ who ] pays attention to duty " . Davidson left the Navy in March 1919 .
= = = " Prostitutes ' Padre " = = =
When Davidson returned home he found that Molly was six months ' pregnant . The dates of his service leave during 1918 made it apparent that he was not the father . A daughter was born on 21 June 1919 ; the likely father was a Canadian army colonel , Ernest Doudemain , a friend from Davidson 's schooldays who had lodged at the rectory in the latter part of 1918 . Although deeply upset by his wife 's infidelity , Davidson accepted the child — who bore some resemblance to him — as his own . To escape the poisoned atmosphere in Stiffkey he applied for a year 's posting as chaplain to a hill station at Simla in India , but the opportunity fell through . Instead , Davidson resumed his pre @-@ war routine of spending his weeks in London , departing early on Monday morning and returning late on Saturday . Sometimes , through a missed rail connection or other mishap , he was barely in time for the Sunday morning service at Stiffkey , and sometimes he would fail to arrive at all .
Davidson , perhaps on the basis of his youthful Thames @-@ side rescue , had convinced himself that nearly all young girls alone in London were in need of rescue from a life of vice . Typical of these was Rose Ellis , whom he met in Leicester Square in September 1920 . Twenty years old and living precariously from part @-@ time prostitution , she was homeless and had no money . Davidson gave her cash for a room , and arranged to meet her the following week . Thus began a friendship that endured for more than a decade . Davidson brought her to the rectory , where she worked for a time in the gardens . He also tried to get her a job with a touring theatre company , took her to Paris to find employment as an au pair , kept her supplied with small sums of money , and paid her medical bills when she was suffering from venereal disease .
According to his own estimate , Davidson approached around 150 to 200 girls a year over a period of 12 years ( he later modified these figures to an overall total of between 500 and 1000 ) . His activities usually centred on the innumerable Lyons , ABC and Express Dairies teashops and their staffs of waitresses . Davidson was mesmerised , says Blythe , by " the ineffable harmonies created by starched linen crackling over young breasts and black @-@ stockinged calves in chubby conference just below the hem of the parlourmaid 's frock " . Many rejected his advances ; a number of teashops considered him a pest and barred him . Landladies took exception to his habit of visiting their female tenants at all hours of the night . Commentators have found little evidence that he behaved indecently , or molested the girls ; he bought them tea , found them rooms , listened to their problems and sometimes found them work on the stage or in domestic service . He styled himself the " Prostitutes ' Padre " , and asserted to his bishop that this was " the proudest title that a true priest of Christ can hold " .
= = = Financial problems = = =
To meet the costs of his lifestyle , Davidson needed more money than his Stiffkey living could provide . He sought to improve his financial position when , in about 1920 , he met Arthur John Gordon , supposedly a wealthy American company promoter but in reality an undischarged bankrupt and confidence trickster . Gordon not only persuaded Davidson to invest his savings in a range of dubious schemes , but also got him to solicit funds from other investors . Davidson borrowed heavily to increase his investment and by 1925 was in serious financial difficulties . In February that year he failed to pay his local rates and was threatened with imprisonment . He avoided this by borrowing from moneylenders at exorbitant interest rates , but in October was forced to file a petition of bankruptcy with debts totalling £ 2 @,@ 924 . Eventually a settlement was reached , whereby around half of his Stiffkey stipend was applied to the reduction of his debts . Somehow , however , Davidson managed to continue his London life . He never stopped believing in Gordon 's essential honesty , and was certain that one day his investments would pay off . Much of his time in London was spent , not in pursuit of girls , but looking for Gordon .
= = Downfall and deposition = =
= = = Complaints and investigations = = =
Although many of Davidson 's parishioners accepted that his London rescue mission was entirely honourable , some , including Major Hamond , were less convinced . Hamond was suspicious of the stream of visitors that Davidson brought to the Stiffkey rectory and thought he was neglecting his parochial duties . In 1927 relations between the two men worsened when Davidson , in a letter which Tucker describes as " breathless in its rudeness and insensitivity " , upbraided the major for clearing the ground in the Morston churchyard alongside his recently deceased wife 's grave : " Morston Churchyard is the private freehold property of the Rector of Morston ... you have no possible right to interfere with it in any way without my permission any more than I have the right to come and annex a part of your garden . " On one occasion , Davidson arrived late at Morston to officiate at a communion service , having forgotten the bread and wine ; enraged , Hamond ordered him back to the rectory to collect it . An even greater lapse , in Hamond 's eyes , was Davidson 's failure to return to Stiffkey in time to officiate at the 1930 Armistice Day ceremony at the local war memorial .
Early in 1931 , advised by a cousin who was a priest , Hamond made a formal complaint against Davidson to the Bishop of Norwich , the Right Reverend Bertram Pollock , citing the rector 's supposed behaviour with women in London . Under the provisions of the Clergy Discipline Act of 1892 , members of the clergy could be prosecuted in a consistory court for " immoral acts " and , if convicted , face punishments ranging from temporary suspension to full deposition — " defrocking " — from holy orders . Pollock was initially reluctant to prosecute Davidson , but was advised by his legal counsel Henry Dashwood that the case should proceed . In search of evidence , Dashwood hired a private enquiry agent , who soon found Rose Ellis and persuaded her to sign a statement detailing her ten @-@ year association with Davidson . The statement — which was immediately retracted by Ellis and never presented in court — contained little indication of any intimate relationship other than that she had once lanced a boil on Davidson 's bottom .
Enquiries continued for many months . The bishop was initially reluctant to pursue the case — Davidson thought he might be prepared to replace the charges with a lesser one of indiscipline . In February 1932 Dashwood advised Pollock that the matter could not be suppressed in this way ; allegations had been printed in the Evening News on 1 February , and the story had been picked up by other papers whose lurid headlines had created much public interest . On 7 February the bishop received a letter from a 17 @-@ year @-@ old girl , Barbara Harris , which contained specific allegations of immoral conduct against Davidson and promised more : " I know lots of things against him that might help you ... He has the keys of a lot of girls ' flats and front doors . " This letter is described by Matthew Parris in his account of the case as " a masterpiece of vituperation " ; Davidson 's lawyers failed to identify some obvious differences between the handwriting in the letter and other examples of Harris 's writing , a factor which might have affected the impact of her subsequent testimony to the court .
= = = Consistory court hearing = = =
A consistory court was convened for 29 March 1932 , under the presidency of the Norwich diocesan chancellor , F. Keppel North . Davidson was accused of associating with " women of loose character " , and " accosting , molesting , and importuning young females for immoral purposes " . The prosecution 's case was in the hands of a high @-@ profile legal team , headed by Roland Oliver KC and including the future cabinet minister Walter Monckton . Davidson , meanwhile , engaged experienced lawyers to defend him , funding this partly through the sale of newspaper stories . Because of the level of press interest , and the number of London @-@ based witnesses involved , the court sat in Church House , Westminster , rather than in Norwich .
After Oliver provided a summary account of Davidson 's life in London , Barbara Harris gave evidence . Cullen likens her evidence to " a whip of scorpions " that Davidson took full in the face . Davidson had first met Harris in September 1930 , when she was 16 . He had used a favoured ploy — affecting to confuse her with a well @-@ known film actress — to persuade her to take a meal with him . He then began regular visits to her lodgings , gave her small sums of money and promised to find her work . From time to time he shared rooms with her : " At first he kept to the chair " , Harris wrote , " but after the first few nights he did not " . In her evidence to the court she said she had not had intercourse with Davidson , though he had attempted this on several occasions ; when she had repulsed his advances , she claimed that he had " relieved himself " .
Other aspects of the odd relationship were revealed during Harris ' lengthy examination and cross @-@ examination : her visit to the Stiffkey rectory where she had been made to work as an unpaid kitchenmaid and given only a chair to sleep in ; Davidson 's repeated promises to divorce his wife and marry Harris ; an incident when she and another girl , the latter in a nightgown , had danced in front of Davidson , supposedly so that he could judge their dancing abilities . The picture that Harris ' letter and evidence presented , if true , Tucker says , was that of " a man who is out of control ... running around London entertaining teenage girls ... adopting the guise of a kindly priest to ingratiate himself " .
Harris was followed into the witness @-@ box by a succession of landladies , waitresses and other women , all of whom confirmed Davidson 's habitual pestering without making any serious accusation of misconduct . When Davidson himself took to the stand , on 25 May , his light @-@ hearted , even flippant , manner created , says Tucker , " the flavour of a comedy routine with the rector 's counsel as straight man " . Davidson 's disastrous finances were aired — he took great offence when his association with Gordon was presented as a " partnership in crime " . He caused disbelief and amusement in the court when , questioned about the boil @-@ lancing incident with Rose Ellis , he professed not to know what a " buttock " was , claiming : " It is a phrase I have honestly never heard . So far as I remember it is a little below the waist . " At this stage , only Harris 's largely uncorroborated testimony had provided specific allegations of immorality ; the rest of the evidence was inconclusive and it seemed that the prosecution might fail . Davidson 's cause was severely damaged , however , when Oliver produced a photograph of him , taken on 28 March 1932 , with a nearly naked girl . She was Estelle Douglas , the 15 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of one of Davidson ' oldest friends . Davidson explained that the picture had been intended as a publicity shot to help the girl find work as an actress . He protested that he had been set up , and did not know she was naked under her shawl ; he thought she was wearing a bathing suit , as she had been in an earlier photograph . On 6 June , after closing speeches from both sides , the court adjourned until 8 July to allow the chancellor , who alone would determine the outcome , to consider the evidence .
= = = Verdict , sentence , defrocking = = =
During the court proceedings Davidson continued to officiate at Stiffkey and Morston , although his erratic attendance meant that substitutes often had to be arranged . On 12 June 1932 the Reverend R.H. Cattell arrived to officiate at the evening service in Stiffkey . He had just begun when Davidson entered the church and attempted to seize the Bible . The two priests wrestled with the book for some seconds before Cattell yielded , telling the congregation : " As nothing short of force will prevent Mr Davidson from taking part , I can see nothing left to do but to withdraw . " The crowds of reporters and sightseers at weekends led the Archdeacon of Lynn to issue a statement deploring the " media circus " and asking that " the full spirit of worship " be restored to Sunday services .
On 8 July 1932 Keppel North announced his verdict ; Davidson was guilty on five counts of immorality . The sentence would be determined by the bishop ; in the meantime , Davidson was entitled to seek leave to appeal to the Privy Council . Sorely in need of funds to meet his continuing legal expenses , Davidson reverted to his early career as a stage entertainer . On 18 July he made his debut with a variety act at the Prince 's Cinema in Wimbledon and later toured in the provinces until , possibly dissuaded by pressure from church authorities , theatres declined to book him . He then continued his public performances by appearing in a barrel on the Blackpool sea front , or " Golden Mile " , where thousands paid to observe him through a small window . Not everyone was impressed ; one customer , recalling the event years later , said : " He was very tatty and the place stank . " He shared his seafront billing with , among other attractions , " Mariana the Gorilla Girl " , the " Bearded Lady from Russia " and Dick Harrow , " the world 's fattest man " .
To the consternation of Hamond and some other parishioners , the bishop delayed issuing an instruction forbidding Davidson to preach . When Hamond locked the Morston church against him , the rector preached to a large congregation on the grass outside the church . In August , Davidson 's licence to minister as a priest was revoked ; his last service was morning worship at Stiffkey on 21 August 1932 , when around 1 @,@ 000 people congregated outside the church . That afternoon he demanded the Morston church keys from Hamond , who sent him away by turning him round and administering a substantial kick . Hamond was later fined for this assault .
In July and again in October , Davidson was refused leave to appeal to the Privy Council on grounds of either fact or law . The consistory court reconvened for sentencing in Norwich Cathedral on 21 October . Davidson was allowed briefly to address the court ; he admitted that his behaviour had been indiscreet , but regretted none of his actions and proclaimed his innocence " of any of the graver charges that have been made against me " . Then , in what Blythe describes as a " horrible little ceremony " , Bishop Pollock delivered the most severe sentence available — that of deposition : " Now therefore we , Bertram ... do thereby pronounce decree and declare that the said Reverend Harold Francis Davidson being a priest and deacon ought to be entirely removed , deposed and degraded from the said offices . " Davidson was thus defrocked . As the ceremony ended he made a furious impromptu speech , denouncing the sentence and declaring his intention to appeal to the Archbishop of Canterbury .
= = Campaigning for reinstatement = =
= = = Blackpool showman = = =
The consistory court had awarded the prosecution 's costs against Davidson , who now faced enormous legal bills and had no regular source of income . His only recourse was to return to Blackpool and resume his career as a showman ; this became his milieu for the next four years , interrupted by occasional prosecutions for obstruction and a nine @-@ day spell in prison in 1933 , for non @-@ payment of rent owing to one of his former London landladies . He informed the press : " While I am in the barrel I shall be occupied in preparing my case " . Although the barrel act remained his staple performance , he introduced variations over the years : freezing in a refrigerated chamber , or being roasted in a glass @-@ fronted oven while a mechanised devil prodded him with a pitchfork . In August 1935 the freezing routine led to Davidson 's arrest and prosecution for attempted suicide ; he won the case and was awarded £ 382 damages for false imprisonment . How much money Davidson made from his various acts is uncertain ; Tucker believes that the main financial beneficiary was his agent , Luke Gannon .
Molly Davidson had managed to acquire a small house in South Harrow , where Davidson spent his winters . Off @-@ season he worked sporadically , at one time as a door @-@ to @-@ door book salesman and on other as a porter at St Pancras railway station . He could not avoid press attention ; in November 1936 he was arrested and fined for pestering two 16 @-@ year @-@ old girls at Victoria station — he had approached them offering auditions for a leading role in a West End show . That same month he interrupted a Church Assembly at Central Hall , Westminster , at which the Archbishop of Canterbury was present . Davidson was prevented from addressing the meeting , at which he dropped numerous copies of a mimeographed pamphlet titled " I Accuse " , in which he listed his grievances and castigated the Church 's hierarchy .
= = = Death in Skegness = = =
By 1937 interest in Davidson 's Blackpool sideshows was waning and , for that summer , he accepted an invitation to join the self @-@ styled " Captain " Fred Rye 's animal @-@ themed show in the east coast resort of Skegness . He considered this a step upwards from what he termed " the blatant vulgarities of Blackpool " . Davidson 's act consisted of a 10 @-@ minute address delivered outside a cage containing two lions , after which he would enter the cage and spend a few minutes with the lions . This required courage on Davidson 's part , because he was fearful of animals . A 16 @-@ year @-@ old tamer , Irene Somner , supervised proceedings . The act was billed as " Daniel in a modern lion 's den " , and attracted large audiences , including a significant number of clergy .
On 28 July 1937 , at the evening performance , Davidson gave his usual speech before entering the cage in which two lions , Freddie and Toto , were sitting quietly . Then , according to Blythe : " in scarcely credible terms , the little clergyman from Norfolk and the lion acted out the classical Christian martyrdom to the full " . Eyewitnesses later reported that after Davidson had cracked his whip and shouted , Freddie became agitated and knocked Davidson over , before seizing him by the neck and running with him around the cage . Somner struggled to pacify the snarling Freddie , who eventually dropped the unconscious Davidson , enabling her to drag him to safety ; he was badly gashed , and had suffered a broken bone in his neck . An uncorroborated story circulated that while waiting for the ambulance , Davidson asked that the London newspapers be alerted in time for next day 's first editions . According to some press reports he sat up in hospital and asked visitors for their impressions of his ordeal in the cage . Most historians of the affair , however , believe that Davidson never recovered consciousness . He died on 30 July , his death possibly hastened by an insulin injection administered by a doctor who believed that Davidson was a diabetic . The coroner 's verdict was death by misadventure .
Friends and well @-@ wishers covered the expenses of the funeral , which took place on 3 August in Stiffkey churchyard . A large crowd — around 3 @,@ 000 according to Tucker — was in attendance including , from Davidson 's distant past , the Marchioness Townshend . Onlookers unable to get into the churchyard found vantage points on nearby walls , roofs and in trees . When the headstone was put in place it contained a line from Robert Louis Stevenson : " For on faith in man and genuine love of man all searching after truth must be founded . "
= = Aftermath and appraisal = =
In Skegness , Rye saw Davidson 's death as a business opportunity ; crowds flocked to see " The Actual Lion that Mauled and Caused the Death of the Ex @-@ Rector of Stiffkey " . By contrast , Molly Davidson 's financial situation was desperate . When her family applied to the church authorities for help , Archbishop Lang acted on her behalf behind the scenes and eventually she received grants from two church charities . She died in a Dulwich nursing home in 1955 . Of the other major participants in the legal case , Pollock remained as Bishop of Norwich until his resignation in 1942 , a year before his death . Davidson 's girls — Rose Ellis , Barbara Harris , Estelle Douglas and the rest — disappeared from public view after the 1932 trial , although a 1934 letter from Davidson indicates that Harris was then working at the London store Selfridges , under the name " Babs Simpson " . When announcing a 2010 book about the war artist Leslie Cole , The Fleece Press revealed that Harris had married Cole after changing her name and had thereafter successfully concealed her true identity from all enquirers . Even her husband may not have known of her past .
After Davidson 's death and burial , press attention withered as newspapers concentrated on more significant events in the years before the Second World War . In the decades after the war interest in the affair was periodically revived . In 1963 Blythe , deemed by Parris to be the affair 's " best historian " , published his account . Later in the 1960s , two stage musical versions were produced : The Stiffkey Scandals of 1932 , which appeared in Edinburgh in 1967 and London in 1968 , and God Made the Little Red Apple , staged in Manchester in 1969 . Neither of these productions was commercially successful ; when the former was adapted for television , The Daily Telegraph 's critic questioned the artistic justification for a musical about " so sad and peculiar a person " . In the 1970s Davidson 's case was the subject of a radio documentary , A Proper Little Gent , and in 1994 an episode of BBC Television 's Matter of Fact series examined the affair . Cullen 's full @-@ length biography of Davidson in 1975 posits a theory that multiple personalities led him to behave in different ways in differing circumstances . Robert Brown , in a biographical sketch for the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , suggests that what really motivated Davidson will never be known . In 2007 John Walsh published a fictionalised account of Davidson 's life , Sunday at the Cross Bones ( Fourth Estate ) , in which , according to a review in The Guardian , Davidson is depicted as " well @-@ meaning but ineffectual , bewildered by the world 's wickedness and his own barely acknowledged desires " .
The question of Davidson 's treatment by the consistory court was first raised by the Church Times immediately after the trial . A leading article argued that , although Davidson 's conduct had been " foolish and eccentric " , his intentions at least at the start of his ministry had been guided by idealism . Chancellor North was criticised both for lacking compassion and for the general conduct of the proceedings : " No experienced criminal solicitor could conceivably have blundered so badly and consistently . " In 2006 Davidson 's granddaughter , Karylin Collier , privately published a brief biography , The Rector of Stiffkey : His Life and Trial , in which she maintains the innocence of all the charges against him . Tucker argues that " Harold Davidson probably deserved to be quietly defrocked for his shortcomings as a priest " , but nevertheless believes that he was not an immoral man . He also highlights the incompetent presentation of Davidson 's case by his legal team , particularly their failure to question the provenance of the Barbara Harris letter . Tucker concludes that since the proceedings were flawed and the evidence of immorality flimsy , the Church of England owes it to the Davidson family to re @-@ examine the original findings .
The writer @-@ historian A. N. Wilson summarises Davidson as a " Tragic buffoon cum Christian Martyr " . In his history of Britain in the inter @-@ war years , A. J. P. Taylor writes that " Davidson offered a parable of the age . He attracted more attention than , say , Cosmo Gordon Lang , archbishop of Canterbury . Which man deserves a greater place in the
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11th Battalion UDR . The RUC were led to him through his glasses which had been found at the murder scene . Tests done on the glasses , which were eventually traced back to McDowell , revealed that the lenses were of a prescription worn by just 1 in 500 @,@ 000 of the population .
McDowell 's statement of admission was published in David McKittrick 's book Lost Lives :
" There was very little planning . I only came into it because of my UDR connection and the fact that I had a uniform . I was given a sub @-@ machine gun but I had never fired it . I passed out when the explosion happened and that was when I lost the gun , the glasses , and a UDR beret " .
On 15 October 1976 , Crozier and McDowell both received life sentences for the Miami Showband murders . McDowell had pleaded guilty . Crozier had pleaded not guilty . The judge , by sentencing McDowell and Crozier to 35 years imprisonment each , had handed down the longest life sentences in the history of Northern Ireland ; he commented that " killings like the Miami Showband must be stopped " . He added that had the death penalty not been abolished , it would have been imposed in this case . During the trial Des McAlea had received death threats which made him fear for the safety of his family ; this caused him to eventually leave Northern Ireland .
A third person , former UDR soldier John James Somerville ( aged 37 , a lorry @-@ helper and the brother of Wesley ) , was arrested following an RUC raid in Dungannon on 26 September 1980 . He was charged with the Miami Showband murders , the attempted murder of Stephen Travers , and the murder of Patrick Falls in 1974 . He was given a total of four life sentences ( three for the murders of the Miami Showband members and one for the Falls murder ) on 9 November 1981 ; he had pleaded not guilty . The three convicted UVF men , although admitting to having been at the scene , denied having shot anyone . None of the men ever named their accomplices , and the other UVF gunmen were never caught . The three men were sent to serve their sentence in the Maze Prison , on the outskirts of Lisburn . Fortnight Magazine reported that on 1 June 1982 , John James Somerville began a hunger strike at the Maze to obtain special category status . Crozier , McDowell , and Somerville were released after 1998 under the terms of the Belfast Agreement .
= = = Allegations = = =
A continued allegation in the case has been the presence of Captain Robert Nairac at the scene . Former serving Secret Intelligence Service agent Captain Fred Holroyd , and others , suggested that Nairac had organised the attack in co @-@ operation with Robin Jackson and the Mid @-@ Ulster UVF . In his maiden parliamentary speech on 7 July 1987 , Ken Livingstone MP told the House of Commons , " it was likely " that Nairac had organised the attack . Surviving band members Stephen Travers and Des McAlea told police and later testified in court that a British Army officer with a " crisp , clipped English accent " oversaw the Buskhill attack , the implication being that this was Nairac . In his book The Dirty War , Martin Dillon adamantly dismissed the allegation that Nairac had been present . He believed it was based on the erroneous linkage of Nairac to the earlier murder of IRA man John Francis Green in County Monaghan – the same pistol was used in both attacks . Regarding the soldier with the English accent , Dillon wrote :
it is to say the least highly dubious , if not absurd to conclude from such superficial factors that Nairac was present at the Miami murders . I was told by a source close to " Mr. A " and another loyalist hitman that Nairac was not present at either murder [ Miami Showband and John Francis Green ] .
Travers had described the English @-@ accented man as having been of normal height and thought he had fair hair , but was not certain . Travers was not able to positively identify Nairac , from his photograph , as having been the man at Buskhill . The RTÉ programme Today Tonight aired a documentary in 1987 in which it claimed that former UVF associates of Harris Boyle revealed to the programme 's researchers that Nairac had deliberately detonated the bomb to eliminate Boyle , with whom he had carried out the Green killing . Journalist Emily O 'Reilly noted in the Sunday Tribune that none of the three men convicted of the massacre ever implicated Nairac in the attack or accused him of causing Boyle 's death .
The band 's road manager , Brian Maguire stated that when he drove away from Banbridge in the lead , a few minutes ahead of the band 's minibus , he passed through security barriers manned by the RUC . As Maguire continued ahead , up the by @-@ pass towards Newry , he noticed a blue Triumph 2000 pulling @-@ out from where it had been parked in a lay @-@ by . Maguire recalled that the car first slowed down , then it accelerated , flashing its lights . Two men had been observed acting suspiciously inside the Castle Ballroom during the band 's performance that night , suggesting that the Miami Showband 's movements were being carefully monitored .
Another persistent allegation is the direct involvement of Mid @-@ Ulster UVF leader Robin Jackson . He was one of the men taken in by the RUC in August 1975 and questioned as a suspect in the killings , but was released without charge . The independent panel of inquiry commissioned by the Pat Finucane Centre concluded that there was " credible evidence that the principal perpetrator [ of the Miami Showband attack ] was a man who was not prosecuted – alleged RUC Special Branch agent Robin Jackson " . The same panel revealed that about six weeks before the attack , Thomas Crozier , Jackson , and the latter 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Samuel Fulton Neill , were arrested for the possession of four shotguns . Neill 's car was one of those allegedly used in the Buskhill attack . He was later shot dead in Portadown on 25 January 1976 , allegedly by Jackson for having informed the RUC about Thomas Crozier 's participation in the attack . The panel stated that it was unclear why Crozier , Jackson , and Neill were not in police custody at the time the Miami Showband killings took place . Martin Dillon maintained in The Dirty War that the Miami Showband attack was planned weeks before at a house in Portadown , and the person in charge of the overall operation was a former UDR man , whom Dillon referred to for legal reasons as " Mr. A " . Dillon also opined in God and the Gun : the Church and Irish Terrorism that the dead bombers , Harris Boyle and Wesley Somerville , had actually led the UVF gang at Buskhill . Journalists Kevin Dowling and Liam Collins in the Irish Independent however , suggested in their respective articles that Jackson had been the leader of the unit .
Former British soldier and writer Ken Wharton published in his book Wasted Years , Wasted Lives , Volume 1 , an alternative theory that was suggested to him by loyalist paramilitarism researcher Jeanne Griffin ; this was that the ambush was planned by Robin Jackson as an elaborate means of eliminating trumpet player Brian McCoy . Griffin suggests that McCoy , who originally came from Caledon , County Tyrone and had strong UDR and Orange Order family connections , was possibly approached at some stage by Jackson with a view of securing his help in carrying out UVF attacks in the Irish Republic . When McCoy refused , Jackson then hatched his plan to murder McCoy and his band mates in retaliation , even macabrely choosing Buskhill as the ambush site due to its similarity to Bus @-@ kill . Griffin goes on to add that the bogus checkpoint was set up not only to plant the bomb on board the van but to ensure the presence of McCoy which would have been confirmed when he handed over his driver 's license to the gunmen . She also thinks that had everything gone to plan once the bomb was planted in the van McCoy would have been instructed to drive through Newry where the bomb would have gone off and the UVF could then afterwards portray the Miami Showband as IRA members on a mission to blow up the local RUC barracks . Griffin based her theory on the nine bullets that were fired from a Luger into McCoy 's body and that Jackson 's fingerprints were found on the silencer used for a Luger . She furthermore opined that Jackson was the man Travers saw kicking McCoy 's body to make sure he was dead .
The Pat Finucane Centre has named the Miami Showband killings as one of the 87 violent attacks perpetrated by the Glenanne gang against the Irish nationalist community in the 1970s . The Glenanne gang was a loose alliance of loyalist extremists allegedly operating under the command of British Military Intelligence and / or RUC Special Branch . It comprised rogue elements of the British security forces who , together with the UVF , carried out sectarian killings in the Mid @-@ Ulster / County Armagh area . Their name comes from a farm in Glenanne , County Armagh , which was owned by RUC reservist James Mitchell ; according to RUC Special Patrol Group officer John Weir , it was used as a UVF arms dump and bomb @-@ making site . Weir alleged the bomb used in the Miami Showband attack came from Mitchell 's farm . Weir 's affidavit implicating Robin Jackson in a number of attacks including the 1974 Dublin bombings was published in the 2003 Barron Report ; the findings of an official investigation into the Dublin and Monaghan bombings commissioned by Irish Supreme Court Judge Henry Barron .
= = Later years = =
During the six years from the onset of " The Troubles " until the July 1975 attack , there had never been an incident involving any of the showbands . The incident had an adverse effect on the Irish showband scene , with many of the bands afraid to play in Northern Ireland . The emergence of discos later in the decade meant that ballrooms were converted into nightclubs , leaving the showbands with few venues available in which to perform . By the mid @-@ 1980s , the showbands had lost their appeal for the Irish public ; although The Miami Showband , albeit with a series of different line @-@ ups , did not disband until 1986 . The Miami Showband reformed in 2008 , with Travers , Des McAlea , Ray Millar and other new members . It is fronted by McAlea , who returned to Northern Ireland the same year after living in South Africa since about 1982 .
In 1994 , Eric Smyth , a former UDR member and the husband of Brian McCoy 's sister , Sheila , was killed by the IRA .
Travers travelled to Belfast in 2006 for a secret meeting with the second @-@ in @-@ command of the UVF 's Brigade Staff , in an attempt to come to terms with the killing of his former colleagues and friends . The meeting was arranged by Rev. Chris Hudson , a former intermediary between the government of Ireland and the UVF , whose role was crucial to the Northern Ireland peace process . Hudson , a Unitarian minister , had been a close friend of Fran O 'Toole . The encounter took place inside Hudson 's church , All Souls Belfast . The UVF man , who identified himself only as " the Craftsman " , apologised to Travers for the attack , and explained that the UVF gunmen had opened fire on the band because they " had panicked " that night . It was revealed in Peter Taylor 's book Loyalists that " the Craftsman " had been instrumental in bringing about the 1994 Combined Loyalist Military Command ( CLMC ) ceasefire .
Travers also visited the home of Thomas Crozier , hoping to meet with him , but the latter did not come to the door . He presently resides near Craigavon . James McDowell lives in Lurgan , and John James Somerville became an evangelical minister in Belfast . The UVF had cut all ties with Somerville after he had opposed the 1994 ceasefire . In January 2015 he was found dead in his Shankill Road flat . Aged 70 , he died of cancer of the kidney .
= = Memorials = =
A monument dedicated to the dead Miami Showband members was unveiled at a ceremony at Parnell Square North , Dublin , on 10 December 2007 . Survivors Stephen Travers and Des McAlea were both present at the unveiling , as was the Taoiseach , Bertie Ahern , who made a tribute . The monument , made of limestone , bronze and granite , by County Donegal sculptor Redmond Herrity , is at the site of the old National Ballroom , where the band often played .
A mural and memorial plaque to Harris Boyle and Wesley Somerville is in the Killycomain Estate in Portadown , where Boyle had lived . The plaque describes them as having been " killed in action " .
In a report on Nairac 's alleged involvement in the massacre , published in the Sunday Mirror newspaper on 16 May 1999 , Colin Wills called the ambush " one of the worst atrocities in the 30 @-@ year history of the Troubles " . Irish Times diarist , Frank McNally , summed up the massacre as " an incident that encapsulated all the madness of the time " . In 2011 , Journalist Kevin Myers denounced the attack with the following statement : " in its diabolical inventiveness against such a group of harmless and naïve young men , it is easily one of the most depraved [ of the Troubles ] " .
A stamp was issued in Ireland on 22 September 2010 commemorating the Miami Showband . The 55 @-@ cent stamp , designed with a 1967 publicity photograph of the band , included two of the slain members Fran O 'Toole and Brian McCoy as part of the line @-@ up when Dickie Rock was the frontman . It was one of a series of four stamps issued by An Post , celebrating the " golden age of the Irish showband era from the 1950s to the 1970s " .
= = The HET Report = =
The Historical Enquiries Team ( HET ) , which was set up to investigate the more controversial Troubles @-@ related deaths , released its report on the Miami Showband killings to the victims ' families in December 2011 . The findings noted in the report confirmed Mid @-@ Ulster UVF leader Robin Jackson 's involvement and identified him as an RUC Special Branch agent . According to the report , Jackson had claimed during police interrogations that after the shootings , a senior RUC officer had advised him to " lie low " . Although this information was passed on to RUC headquarters , nothing was done about it . In a police statement made following his arrest for possession of the silencer and Luger on 31 May 1976 , Jackson maintained that a week before he was taken into custody , two RUC officers had tipped him off about the discovery of his fingerprints on the silencer ; he also claimed they had forewarned him : " I should clear as there was a wee job up the country that I would be done for and there was no way out of it for me " . Although ballistic testing had linked the Luger ( for which the silencer had been specifically made ) to the Miami Showband attack , Jackson was never questioned about the killings after his fingerprints had been discovered on the silencer , and the Miami inquiry team were never informed about these developments .
Robin Jackson died of cancer on 30 May 1998 , aged 49 .
The families held a press conference in Dublin after the report was released . When asked to comment about the report , Des McAlea replied , " It 's been a long time but we 've got justice at last " . He did , however , express his concern over the fact that nobody was ever charged with his attempted murder. and that none of the perpetrators ever offered him an apology . Stephen Travers offered , " We believe the only conclusion possible arising from the HET report is that one of the most prolific loyalist murderers of the conflict was an RUC Special Branch agent and was involved in the Miami Showband attack " .
The HET said the killings raised " disturbing questions about collusive and corrupt behaviour " .
= Madman 's Drum =
Madman 's Drum is a 1930 wordless novel by American artist Lynd Ward ( 1905 – 1985 ) . Its 118 images tell the story of a slave trader who steals a demon @-@ faced drum from an African he murders , and the consequences for him and his family .
The book was executed in wood engravings . It is the second of Ward 's six wordless novels , after Gods ' Man of 1929 . Ward was more ambitious with this second work in the medium : the characters are more nuanced , the plot more developed and complicated , and his outrage at social injustice more explicit . He used a finer degree of detail in the artwork , through a wider variety of carving tools , and was expressive in his use of symbolism and exaggerated emotional facial expressions .
The book was well received upon release , and the success of Ward 's first two wordless novels encouraged publishers to publish more books in the genre . In 1943 psychologist Henry Murray used two images from the work in his Thematic Apperception Test of personality traits . Madman 's Drum is considered less successfully executed than Gods ' Man , and Ward streamlined his work in his next wordless novel , Wild Pilgrimage ( 1932 ) .
= = Synopsis = =
A slave trader steals from an African he murders a drum bearing the face of a demon , condemning his family to its curse . The slave trader becomes rich and buys a mansion for his family , in which he displays the drum and the sword he used to kill the drum 's original owner . He catches his son playing on the drum , beats the boy , and insists he read and study . The slave trader is lost at sea when he tries to return to Africa .
The boy devotes himself to study , while distancing himself from the vices of his peers . He embraces and then rejects religion , and a cross he tosses to the floor trips and kills his mother . He becomes a successful scientist , and in middle age marries and has two daughters , but is cold and indifferent to his family . One by one he loses them : his wife dies after having an affair with a musician , one daughter falls into depression when her labor @-@ organizer lover is hanged for his communist sympathies , and the other daughter falls in love with a man who pimps her to others . Driven insane by the loss of all who were close to him , he equips himself with the forbidden drum to play music with his wife 's musician lover .
= = Background = =
Born in Chicago , Lynd Ward ( 1905 – 1985 ) was a son of Methodist minister Harry F. Ward , a social activist and the first chairman of the American Civil Liberties Union . Throughout his career , the younger Ward displayed in his work the influence of his father 's interest in social injustice . He was drawn to art from an early age , and contributed images and text to high school and college newspapers .
After getting a university degree in fine arts in 1926 , Ward married writer May McNeer and the couple left for an extended honeymoon in Europe . Ward spent a year studying wood engraving in Leipzig , Germany , where he encountered German Expressionist art and read the wordless novel The Sun ( 1919 ) by Flemish woodcut artist Frans Masereel ( 1889 – 1972 ) . Ward returned to the United States and freelanced his illustrations . In New York City in 1929 , he came across the wordless novel Destiny ( 1926 ) by German artist Otto Nückel ( 1888 – 1955 ) . Nückel 's only work in the genre , Destiny told of the life and death of a prostitute in a style inspired by Masereel 's , but with a greater cinematic flow . The work inspired Ward to create a wordless novel of his own : Gods ' Man ( 1929 ) . In his second such work , Madman 's Drum , he hoped to explore more deeply the potential of the narrative medium , and to overcome what he saw as a lack of individuality in the characters in Gods ' Man .
= = Production and publishing history = =
Ward made 118 woodcuts for Madman 's Drum . The black @-@ and @-@ white images are not uniform in size — they measure from 4 by 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 2 cm × 7 @.@ 6 cm ) to 5 by 4 inches ( 13 cm × 10 cm ) . Cape & Smith published the book in October 1930 in trade and deluxe editions ; the latter was available in a signed edition limited to 309 copies . The original woodblocks are in the Lynd Ward Collection in the Joseph Mark Lauinger Memorial Library at Georgetown University in Washington , DC .
Jonathon Cape published the book in the UK in 1930 . It appeared in the collected volume Storyteller Without Words : The Wood Engravings of Lynd Ward in 1974 , and again in 2010 in a Library of America collection , Lynd Ward : Six Novels in Woodcuts , edited by cartoonist Art Spiegelman . It had a Japanese publication in 2002 by Kokusho Kankōkai , and was brought back into print in the US as a standalone edition by Dover Publications in 2005 .
= = Style and analysis = =
Madman 's Drum is a more ambitious work than Gods ' Man , with a larger cast of characters and more complicated plot . The book is more explicit in its radical leftist politics , and includes a subplot in which the main character 's sister 's communist lover is executed for his political beliefs . Late in life Ward described it as " set a hundred years or more ago ... in an obviously foreign land " , but that the story 's situation and characters could be encountered " almost anywhere at any time " .
The art has a variety of line qualities and textures , and more detail than in Gods ' Man . Ward availed himself of a larger variety of engraving tools , such as the multiple @-@ tint tool for making groups of parallel lines , and rounded engraving tools for organic textures . The large cast of characters is distinguished by visual details in faces and clothing , such as the main character 's sharp nose and receding hairline and his wife 's checked dress .
A wide range of emotions such as resentment and terror is expressed through exaggerated facial expressions . Ward broadens his use of visual symbolism , as with a young woman 's purity represented by a flower she wears — she is deflowered by a young man whose vest is adorned with flowers . His house also displays a floral stucco pattern and is adorned with phallic spears and an exultant rooster as a weathervane . To French comics scripter Jérôme LeGlatin , the " madman " in the title could be interpreted as any of a number of its characters : the laughing image adorning the drum , the subdued African , the slave trader , and even Ward himself .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The book 's release in 1930 was well @-@ received , though it did not achieve the earlier book 's sales . A reviewer for The Burlington Magazine in 1931 judged the book a failed experiment , finding the artwork uneven and the narrative hard to follow without even the chapter titles as textual guidance that Gods ' Man had .
The success of Ward 's first two wordless novels led American publishers to put out a number of such books , including Nückel 's Destiny in 1930 , as well as books by Americans and other Europeans . Interest in wordless novels was short @-@ lived , and few besides Masereel and Ward produced more than a single work . Each of Ward 's sold fewer copies than the last , and he abandoned the genre in 1940 after a failed attempt at a seventh . In 1943 psychologist Henry Murray used two images from Madman 's Drum in his Thematic Apperception Test of personality traits .
Cartoonist Art Spiegelman considered Ward 's second wordless novel a " sophomore slump " , whose story was bogged down by Ward 's attempt to flesh out the characters and produce a more complicated plot . He believed the artwork was a mix of strengths and weaknesses : it had stronger compositions , but the more finely engraved images were " harder to read " , and the death of the wife and other plot points were unclear and difficult to interpret . Spiegelman considered Ward to have broken free from this slump by streamlining his work in his next wordless novel , Wild Pilgrimage ( 1932 ) . Jérôme LeGlatin declared Madman 's Drum Ward 's first masterpiece , " [ triumphing ] at every fault , [ succeeding ] in each failure " as Ward freed himself from the restraint displayed in Gods ' Man .
= Glee : The Music , Volume 1 =
Glee : The Music , Volume 1 is the debut soundtrack album by the cast of the musical television series Glee , which aired on Fox in the United States . It features cover versions from the first nine episodes of the first season and was released on November 2 , 2009 by Columbia Records and 20th Century Fox Television Records . The album received mixed reviews from critics , with many praising large ensemble numbers , but comparing it to karaoke tracks . It went to number one on album charts in Ireland and the United Kingdom , and peaked at number three in Australia and number four in both Canada and the United States . Volume 1 has been certified platinum in these five countries .
All non @-@ bonus tracks from the album have been released as digital singles . The cast 's debut single , a cover of Journey 's " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , charted within the top five in many countries and has sold over one million copies in the US . Other high @-@ charting and best @-@ selling singles include the covers of Queen 's " Somebody to Love " , Neil Diamond 's " Sweet Caroline " , and " Defying Gravity " from the musical Wicked . Glee Live ! In Concert ! saw the cast tour the US in promotion of the series ' first season and its musical releases . The album earned a nomination for Grammy Award for Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media for the 2011 ceremony .
= = Development = =
Glee debuted in America on the Fox network on May 19 , 2009 . Series creator Ryan Murphy planned to include five to eight musical numbers per episode , and to release accompanying soundtrack albums every few months . In the week prior to the broadcast of the pilot episode , Murphy stated that seven different companies had bid on the rights to the series ' first soundtrack . The contenders were narrowed down to four labels , with Fox ultimately signing a deal with Columbia Records as a result of chairman Rob Stringer 's belief that Glee would be a success . Stringer appreciated the series ' use of both classic and contemporary pop music . He suggested that other record labels underestimated the potential of Glee 's musical releases as they are all cover versions .
Murphy was responsible for selecting all of the songs covered on the album , and strove to maintain a balance between show tunes and chart hits . He was surprised at the ease with which use of songs was approved by the record labels approached , and explained , " I think the key to it is they loved the tone of it . They loved that this show was about optimism and young kids , for the most part , reinterpreting their classics for a new audience . " Music supervisor P.J. Bloom cleared the song rights with their respective publishers , and music producer Adam Anders rearranged the tracks for the Glee cast . " Take a Bow " was offered for use at a reduced licensing rate , which surprised Murphy , who had believed he would not be able to afford the rights given that it had been a number one hit for Rihanna . Neil Diamond had some reluctance over licensing " Sweet Caroline " to the show , and retracted clearance after it had already been recorded . Bloom was able to convince him to reverse his decision , and Diamond went on to also license his song " Hello Again " for use on the show at a later date .
Stringer did not expect the success of Glee Cast single releases , and estimated that four million copies would be sold by Christmas 2009 . He was unsure whether the high sales figures would help or hinder the release of Glee : The Music , Volume 1 , and as such , was eager for its release in order to gauge the physical and digital market response . The 17 tracks selected for the album were considered amongst the series ' most popular , with Columbia and Fox aiming to attract casual buyers as well as Glee fans . Geoff Bywater , head of Fox 's music department , anticipated considerable sales from impulse buyers in retail stores . Instrumental versions of some songs were included as bonus tracks , based on a trend of fans recreating the musical numbers in tribute to the show .
In May 2010 , the Glee Cast undertook a US tour entitled Glee Live ! In Concert ! , performing tracks from the first season 's musical releases . From Glee : The Music , Volume 1 , " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , " Push It " , " Sweet Caroline " ,
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three challengers through November and December . When Kim and Tapa attacked ODB on the December 12 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim 's former tag team partner Madison Rayne returned to help ODB . Kim was defeated by Rayne on the January 2 , 2014 episode of Impact Wrestling .
Rayne received her championship match on January 16 at Impact Wrestling : Genesis , which she won , ending Kim 's reign at 88 days . The rivalry between Kim and Rayne continued as the two competed in a street fight on the February 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , which Kim won after a distraction by Tapa . On March 2 , both Kim defeated Rayne in a non @-@ title match for Wrestle @-@ 1 's Kaisen : Outbreak event in Tokyo , Japan . A week later at Lockdown , Kim was unsuccessful in regaining the TNA Knockouts Championship in a steel cage match . On the March 13 episode of Impact Wrestling , tension between Kim and Tapa began to show when Kim lost to the debuting Brittany after Tapa accidentally attacked Kim . After the match , a brawl between Kim and Tapa ensued , disbanding their alliance . Subsequently , Kim defeated Tapa twice , on Impact Wrestling and TNA Xplosion , ending Tapa 's TNA career .
= = = = Championship reigns ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = = =
On the April 10 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim competed in a four – way match to determine the next # 1 contender to Madison Rayne 's TNA Knockouts Championship , which would be won by Angelina Love . Kim turned face , for the first time since her return to the company , when she saved Rayne from an attack from The Beautiful People ( Angelina Love and Velvet Sky ) on the April 24 episode of Impact Wrestling , but later lost a tag team match against The Beautiful People with Rayne as her partner . Kim and Love would continue their feud , attacking each other on different occasions . On the June 12 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim defeated Brittany and Madison Rayne to become the number one contender to Love 's championship . Kim faced Love for the championship on June 15 at Slammiversary , but she was unsuccessful in winning the title .
On the June 26 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim teamed with her former rival Taryn Terrell in a tag team match against Love and Sky in a winning effort , when Kim pinned Love . Because of the win , Kim received a rematch against Love for the Knockouts Championship on the July 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , where Kim would win the championship for a fourth time . In her first title defense , Kim successfully retained her championship against Love , Madison Rayne and Brittany in a four @-@ way match on the July 10 episode of Impact Wrestling . Kim successfully defended her title against Velvet Sky on the July 24 episode of TNA Xplosion . On the July 31 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim successfully defended her championship against Taryn Terrell after the match went to a no @-@ contest due to interference from The Beautiful People . After choosing them as her opponents the previous week , Kim successfully retained her title against Terrell , Love and Sky in a four @-@ way match on the August 14 episode of Impact Wrestling . Following a backstage attack by Love , on a special Hardcore Justice edition of Impact Wrestling , Kim ended her feud with The Beautiful People when she defeated Love in a Last Knockout Standing match with her Knockouts Championship on the line .
Kim successfully defended her title against Taryn Terrell on the September 3 episode of Impact Wrestling . After the match , Kim and Terrell were both attacked by the debuting Havok . Kim and Havok brawled on the following edition of Impact Wrestling . In September , Kim injured her shoulder during a pre @-@ match brawl with Havok . Going against doctors advice , Kim defended her title later that night and lost her championship to Havok . Soon after , it was announced that Kim had suffered a separated shoulder and torn ligaments at the hands of Havok , and would be out of action indefinitely . Kim returned to Impact Wrestling in November , however her shoulder was not fully healed . Despite this , she demanded her rematch for the Knockouts title against Havok , which Kim would ultimately lose .
On the January 30 , 2015 episode of Impact Wrestling , in a three – way match for the Knockouts Championship , Kim and Madison Rayne lost to the defending champion , Taryn Terrell . On the May 1 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim started an alliance with Awesome Kong to feud with Terrell , Jade and Marti Bell , collectively known as The Dollhouse . The following week , Kim and Kong were defeated by The Dollhouse in a three – on – two handicap match . Kim sustained an arm injury on the May 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , after unsuccessfully challenging Terrell for the Knockouts Championship in a steel cage match , and was attacked by The Dollhouse afterwards .
After some hiatus , Kim returned on the July 15 episode of Impact Wrestling , portraying a superhero @-@ like character and attacking Jade , which allowed Brooke to win the Knockouts Championship . On the September 16 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim won her fifth Knockouts Championship by winning a four @-@ way match also involving Brooke , Lei 'D Tapa and Awesome Kong . Kim went on to defend and successfully retain the championship against Kong at Bound for Glory on October 4 . During October and November ( taped in July ) , she participated in the TNA World Title Series , where she ended first of her block , tied with Awesome Kong , advancing to the finals. on the December 2 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim lost to the then current TNA X Division Championship Tigre Uno and was eliminated from the TNA World Title Series . On January 19 , 2016 , Kim defended her title against Awesome Kong . She then lost her title to Jade in a three way match also involving Madison Rayne after Maria hit Kim with her title belt on the April 5 .
Two weeks later , Kim was kidnapped by Decay while participating in a Knockouts control Ladder Match ( won by Maria ) and was released for a tag team title match . On the following week , Kim was forced by Maria to fight Rosemary and was defeated by her after Maria distracted Earl Hebner . On the May 10 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim faced Jade for the Knockouts championship , which she lost by DQ after Sienna attacked them . On the May 24 episode of Impact Wrestling , Kim defeated Sienna to keep her job , only to be attacked by Sienna and Maria . A week after , with EC3 as a manager for the night , Gail received a match against Maria at Slammiversary and immediately after went on to win a tag team match , teaming up with Jade against Sienna and Allie . At Slammiversary , her match with an injured Maria turned into a Triple Threat match for the TNA Knockouts Championship between her , Jade and Sienna ( who eventually won the match ) .
= = = = TNA Hall of Fame ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
On June 14th , she was announced as the first female inductee into the TNA Hall of Fame .
= = Personal life = =
Prior to signing with WWE , Kim underwent breast augmentation surgery . After signing , she had her implants enlarged . While performing for WWE , one of her implants ruptured , which resulted in her being sidelined for two weeks .
Kim married celebrity chef Robert Irvine on May 10 , 2012 . The couple met on the set of Dinner : Impossible .
= = Other media = =
Kim posed topless for a cell phone ad campaign in South Korea . In 2007 , Kim was listed on Forbes ' top 40 list of " America 's Most Eligible Bachelorettes " . In 2009 , Kim was a part of the cast of the independent psychological thriller entitled Royal Kill . On October 13 , 2011 , Gail Kim , along with The Miz , John Morrison , Kofi Kingston , Heath Slater and Eve Torres appeared on a special WWE edition of Family BrainSurge . On August 18 , 2012 , Kim 's and Robert Irvine 's wedding ceremony was documented on an episode of Irvine 's Restaurant : Impossible program .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Air Raid Crash ( Over the shoulder back @-@ to @-@ belly piledriver ) – TNA
Christo / Flying Dragon ( Tilt @-@ a @-@ whirl headscissors armbar ) – 2002 – present
Eat Defeat ( Inverted stomp facebreaker ) – 2009 – present
Happy Ending ( Straight jacket neckbreaker slam ) – TNA ; used as a signature move in WWE
Hurricanrana pin – WWE ; 2002 – 2004
Signature moves
Multiple clothesline variations
Corner
Leaping
Running
Mutiple crossbody variationsReverse
Running
Springboard
Multiple diving maneuvers Hurricanrana
Neckbreaker – TNA ; 2006 – 2008
Splash – TNA ; 2007 – 2008
Senton splash
Double knee facebreaker
Dragon sleeper
Front missile dropkick
Headscissors takedown
Horizontal body avalanche
Over @-@ the @-@ shoulder single leg Boston crab
Running neckbreaker drop
Ringpost figure @-@ four leglock – adopted from Bret Hart
Roundhouse kick
Spear – TNA ; 2008
Springboard arm drag
Still Life ( Arm @-@ trap Argentine leglock / neckscissors combination ) – WWE ; 2003 – 2004
Toronto Slam ( Double leg slam )
Managers
America 's Most Wanted
Karen Jarrett
Madison Rayne
Lei 'D Tapa
Wrestlers managed
America 's Most Wanted
Molly Holly
Petey Williams
Jeff Jarrett
Eve Torres
Daniel Bryan
Lei 'D Tapa
Entrance themes
" International Woman " by Dara Shindler ( WWE ; 2002 – 2004 )
" Unstoppable " by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; 2005 – 2008 , 2011 )
" Strong and Sexy " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; 2009 – 2011 )
" Puppet ( s ) on a String " by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; 2011 – 2012 [ Instrumental ] , 2012 – 2013 [ With Lyrics ] , 2013 – present [ Sword Intro ] )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Apocalypse Wrestling Federation
Diva of the Year ( 2001 )
Association Biterroise de Catch
ABC Women 's Championship ( 1 time , current )
Funkin ' Conservatory
FC Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Imperial Wrestling Revolution
IWR Diamonds Division Championship ( 1 time , current )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her # 1 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2012
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA Knockouts Championship ( 5 times )
TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Madison Rayne
Knockout of the Year ( 2007 )
Gauntlet for the Gold ( 2007 – Knockouts )
Queen of the Knockouts ( 2013 )
TNA World Cup of Wrestling ( 2015 ) – with Jeff Hardy , Gunner , Rockstar Spud , Davey Richards & Crazzy Steve
TNA Hall of Fame ( Class of 2016 )
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
= Cuthbert of Canterbury =
Cuthbert ( died 26 October 760 ) was a medieval Anglo @-@ Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury in England . Prior to his elevation to Canterbury , he was abbot of a monastic house , and perhaps may have been Bishop of Hereford also , but evidence for his holding Hereford mainly dates from after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 . While Archbishop , he held church councils and built a new church in Canterbury . It was during Cuthbert 's archbishopric that the Diocese of York was raised to an archbishopric . Cuthbert died in 760 and was later regarded as a saint .
= = Early life and Hereford = =
Of noble birth , Cuthbert is first recorded as the Abbot of Lyminge , from where he was elevated to the See of Hereford in 736 . The identification of the Cuthbert who was Bishop of Hereford with the Cuthbert who became archbishop , however , comes from Florence of Worcester and other post @-@ Conquest sources . The contemporary record in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle says that Cuthbert was consecrated archbishop , where if he had been Bishop of Hereford , he would have been translated . No consecration is needed when a bishop is translated from one see to another . Given the nature of the sources , the identification of the bishop of Hereford with the archbishop of Canterbury , while likely , must not be regarded as proven .
If Cuthbert was at Hereford , he served in that capacity for four years before his elevation to the See of Canterbury in 740 . He is credited with the composition of an epitaph for the tomb of his three predecessors at Hereford . The cathedral church of the see may not even have been located at Hereford by Cuthbert 's time .
Whoever Cuthbert was prior to his election to Canterbury , he probably owed his selection as archbishop to the influence of Æthelbald , King of Mercia . A number of Mercians were appointed to Canterbury during the 730s and 740s , which suggests that Mercian authority was expanding into Kent .
= = Canterbury = =
Cuthbert was the recipient of a long letter from Boniface who complained about the lax morals of the clergy in the British Isles , and too much drinking of alcohol by the Anglo @-@ Saxon bishops . Cuthbert also sent letters to Lull who was Archbishop of Mainz and a native of England . During Cuthbert 's time as archbishop he no longer claimed authority over all of Britain , like his predecessor Theodore . Pope Gregory III in 735 had sent a pallium to the bishop of York , raising the see of York to the status of an archbishopric . As a sign of the enhanced status of York , Cuthbert only consecrated bishops south of the Humber and his synods were attended only by bishops from the south of England .
Cuthbert presided over the Council of Clovesho in 747 along with Æthelbald of Mercia . This gathering mandated that all clergy should explain the basic tenets of Christianity to the laity , as well as legislating on clerical dress , control of monasteries , and the behavior of the clergy . It also mandated that each diocese hold a synod to proclaim the decisions of the council . Cuthbert sent his deacon Cynebert to Pope Gregory III after the council with a report on the council and its resolutions . This action may have been taken in response to Boniface 's complaints about Cuthbert and Æthelbald to the papacy . The actions of the council were also gathered into a collection at Cuthbert 's command .
After the council , Cuthbert continued to correspond with Boniface up until Boniface 's martyrdom in 754 , and then sent condolences to Boniface 's successor . Cuthbert held a second synod in 758 , but nothing is known of any enactments it made . He also built the church of St. John the Baptist in Canterbury , which was destroyed by fire in 1067 . He was buried in his new church . The new church was located on the west side of the cathedral , and was used as a baptistery . The church also became a burial site for many of the archbishops , and later was used for trials by ordeal . There is no explicit contemporary reference that states that these uses were intended by Cuthbert , but the fact that the church was dedicated to St. John the Baptist argues strongly that Cuthbert at least intended the new building as a baptistery .
The burial practices of the archbishops did change after Cuthbert , but it is not clear whether this was intended by Cuthbert , as a Post @-@ Conquest Canterbury cartulary has it , or due to other reasons , unconnected with Cuthbert . Although Sonia Hawkes argues that the change in burial customs , which extended over most of Britain , resulted from Cuthbert 's mandating burial in church yards , instead of outside the city limits as had been the custom previously . However , the main evidence for this theory is a 16th @-@ century tradition at Canterbury and the archaeological evidence of a change in burial patterns . Although a change did occur , the archaeological evidence does not give a reason why this change happened , and given the late date of the Canterbury tradition , the theory cannot be considered proven .
= = Death and legacy = =
Cuthbert died on 26 October 760 , and was later considered a saint with a feast day of 26 October . He
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shown publicly in Germany on August 24 , 1961 with a 111 @-@ minute running time . During 1973 , the unedited German version of the film was released in the United States with the title The Testament of Dr. Mabuse with English subtitles .
= = = Reception = = =
During 1938 , Goebbels wrote that on looking at the film that he was " struck by the dullness of its portrayal , the coarseness of its construction , and the inadequacy of its acting . " Despite Goebbels statement , he would present the film uncensored from time to time in private screening rooms for close personal friends . On the French release , The New York Times wrote that " It is the French version of Fritz Lang 's production , " Le Testament du Dr. Mabuse " ( " Dr. Mabuse 's Will " ) . It is a hallucinating and horrifying story , depicted with great power and the extraordinary beauty of photography that Lang has led his admirers to expect . " At the Hungarian premiere of the German @-@ language print in 1933 , Variety wrote that the film " ... certainly shows the influence of American mystery pictures . The story is very long @-@ winded and even an ingenious director like Fritz Lang could not prevent its being rather slow @-@ moving in places . "
Bosley Crowther wrote a negative review in The New York Times on the film 's 1943 release , stating " it is a good , old film , well played and beautifully directed – but a battered antique , none the less . " On the 1973 re @-@ release , the same newspaper wrote a positive review of the film , stating that it " yields a sensational torrent of images that almost make the early nineteen @-@ seventies seem tame . " and " While this " Mabuse " lacks most of the surrealistic effects and the dazzling hallucinations that gave its predecessor such magic , it 's rich in the images and the shocks at which Lang excelled . " Modern critical reception of the film has been generally positive . Channel 4 gave the film a four stars out of five rating describing the film as a " Sensational crime drama " and " some of the dialogue is clunky , much of the acting ... is alien to modern audiences ... The final sequence involving the destruction of a huge chemical works and a car chase through eerily lit woods , round hairpin bends and over a closing level crossing is one of the triumphs of early cinema . " TV Guide gave the film a five out of five star rating terming it " a haunting , suspenseful sequel " . Critic Leonard Maltin gave the film three and a half stars out of four and compared it to Dr. Mabuse The Gambler stating that it is " less stylized but no less entertaining " . The online film database Allmovie rated the film four stars out five , stating that by " mixing several genres including cop drama , mystery , and horror , Lang created a rare hybrid picture full of striking characters and images . "
= = = Legacy = = =
After the film 's initial release , producer Seymour Nebenzal used scenes from the car chase in The Testament of Dr. Mabuse for his own production of Le roi des Champs @-@ Élysées ( 1934 ) featuring Buster Keaton . Producer Artur Brauner cited the Dr. Mabuse films as the reason he went into the film industry , noting that he left his parents out in the middle of the night and returned after seeing what he described as " the most exciting film I 've ever seen " . Brauner later bought the rights to the Dr. Mabuse films and hired Fritz Lang to film a sequel titled The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse . The film was released during 1960 and was Lang 's final film as a director . During 1962 , a remake of The Testament of Dr.Mabuse was released by director Werner Klingler .
Brauner produced several other Mabuse films after the release of The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse . Director Claude Chabrol identified The Testament of Dr. Mabuse as his primary inspiration to become a filmmaker . Chabrol made his own Mabuse inspired film that was released during 1990 titled Dr. M.
The 2008 film The Dark Knight features a version of The Joker inspired by Mabuse . Throughout the film , the character recites monologues promoting chaos & disorder which borrow heavily from Mabuse 's own in 1933 's The Testament of Dr. Mabuse . Director Christopher Nolan has stated : " I think I made Jonah ( Nolan 's brother ) watch Fritz Lang ’ s Dr. Mabuse prior to writing the Joker . "
= = = Home media = = =
A Region 1 DVD of The Testament of Dr. Mabuse was released by The Criterion Collection on May 18 , 2004 . This DVD release consists of two discs and contains both the German @-@ language and French @-@ language versions of the film. film critic Dave Kehr wrote the German print is " the definite version " . The German print of the film on the DVD is missing small parts of the film and runs at 121 minutes . A Region 2 DVD of the film was released by Eureka ! in a box set titled The Complete Fritz Lang Box Set . This set included the two other Mabuse films directed by Lang , Dr. Mabuse the Gambler and The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse .
= Atlantic puffin =
The Atlantic puffin ( Fratercula arctica ) , also known as the common puffin , is a species of seabird in the auk family . It is the only puffin native to the Atlantic Ocean ; two related species , the tufted puffin and the horned puffin , are found in the northeastern Pacific . The Atlantic puffin breeds in Iceland , Norway , Greenland , Newfoundland and many North Atlantic islands , and as far south as Maine in the west and the British Isles in the east . With a large population and a wide range , the species is not considered to be endangered , although there may be local declines in numbers . On land , it has the typical upright stance of an auk . At sea , it swims on the surface and feeds mainly on small fish , which it catches by diving underwater , using its wings for propulsion .
This puffin has a black crown and back , pale grey cheek patches and white underparts . Its broad , boldly marked red and black beak and orange legs contrast with its plumage . It moults while at sea in the winter and some of the bright @-@ coloured facial characteristics are lost . The external appearance of the adult male and female are identical except that the male is usually slightly larger . The juvenile has similar plumage but its cheek patches are dark grey . The juvenile does not have brightly coloured head ornamentation , its bill is less broad and is dark @-@ grey with a yellowish @-@ brown tip , and its legs and feet are also dark . Puffins from northern populations are typically larger than their counterparts in southern parts of the range . It is generally considered that these populations are different subspecies .
Spending the autumn and winter in the open ocean of the cold northern seas , the Atlantic puffin returns to coastal areas at the start of the breeding season in late spring . It nests in clifftop colonies , digging a burrow in which a single white egg is laid . The chick mostly feeds on whole fish and grows rapidly . After about six weeks it is fully fledged and makes its way at night to the sea . It swims away from the shore and does not return to land for several years .
Colonies are mostly on islands where there are no terrestrial predators but adult birds and newly fledged chicks are at risk of attacks from the air by gulls and skuas . Sometimes a bird such as an Arctic skua will harass a puffin arriving with a beakful of fish , causing it to drop its catch . The striking appearance , large colourful bill , waddling gait and behaviour of this bird have given rise to nicknames such as " clown of the sea " and " sea parrot " . It is the official bird symbol for the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The Atlantic puffin is a species of seabird in the order Charadriiformes . It is in the auk family , Alcidae , which includes the guillemots , typical auks , murrelets , auklets , puffins and the razorbill . The rhinoceros auklet ( Cerorhinca monocerata ) and the puffins are closely related , together composing the tribe Fraterculini . The Atlantic puffin is the only species in the genus Fratercula to occur in the Atlantic Ocean . Two other species are known from the northeast Pacific , the tufted puffin ( Fratercula cirrhata ) and the horned puffin ( Fratercula corniculata ) , the latter being the closest relative of the Atlantic puffin .
The scientific name Fratercula comes from the Medieval Latin fratercula , friar , a reference to the black and white plumage which resembles monastic robes . The specific name arctica refers to the northerly distribution of the bird , being derived from the Greek άρκτος ( " arktos " ) , the bear , referring to the northerly constellation , the Great Bear . The vernacular name puffin – puffed in the sense of swollen – was originally applied to the fatty , salted meat of young birds of the unrelated species Manx shearwater ( Puffinus puffinus ) , which in 1652 was known as the " Manks puffin " . It is an Anglo @-@ Norman word ( Middle English pophyn or poffin ) used for the cured carcasses . The Atlantic puffin acquired the name at a much later stage , possibly because of its similar nesting habits , and it was formally applied to Fratercula arctica by Pennant in 1768 . While the species is also known as the common puffin , " Atlantic Puffin " is the English name recommended by the International Ornithological Congress .
There are considered to be three subspecies :
Fratercula arctica arctica
Fratercula arctica grabae
Fratercula arctica naumanni
The only morphological difference between the three is their size . Body length , wing length and size of beak all increase at higher latitudes . For example , a puffin from northern Iceland ( subspecies naumanii ) weighs about 650 grams ( 23 oz ) and has a wing length of 186 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 3 in ) while one from the Faroes ( subspecies grabae ) weighs 400 grams ( 14 oz ) and has a wing length of 158 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 2 in ) . Individuals from southern Iceland ( subspecies arctica ) are intermediate between the other two in size . Ernst Mayr has argued that the differences in size are clinal and are typical of variations found in peripheral population and that no subspecies should be recognised .
= = Description = =
The Atlantic puffin is sturdily built with a thick @-@ set neck and short wings and tail . It is 28 to 30 centimetres ( 11 to 12 in ) in length from the tip of its stout bill to its blunt @-@ ended tail . Its wingspan is 47 to 63 centimetres ( 19 to 25 in ) and on land it stands about 20 cm ( 8 in ) high . The male is generally slightly larger than the female , but they are coloured alike . The forehead , crown and nape are glossy black , as are the back , wings and tail . A broad black collar extends around the neck and throat . On each side of the head is a large , lozenge @-@ shaped area of very pale grey . These face patches taper to a point and nearly meet at the back of the neck . The shape of the head creates a crease extending from the eye to the hindmost point of each patch giving the appearance of a grey streak . The eye looks almost triangular in shape because of a small , peaked area of horny blue @-@ grey skin above it and a rectangular patch below . The irises are brown or very dark blue and each has red orbital ring . The underparts of the bird , the breast , belly and undertail coverts , are white . By the end of the breeding season , the black plumage may have lost its shine or even taken on a slightly brownish tinge . The legs are short and set well back on the body giving the bird its upright stance on land . Both legs and large webbed feet are bright orange , contrasting with the sharp black claws .
The beak is very distinctive . From the side the beak is broad and triangular but viewed from above it is narrow . The half nearest the tip is orange @-@ red and the half nearest to the head is slate grey . There is a yellow chevron @-@ shaped ridge separating the two parts and a yellow , fleshy strip at the base of the bill . At the joint of the two mandibles there is a yellow , wrinkled rosette . The exact proportions of the beak vary with the age of the bird . In an immature individual , the beak has reached its full length but it is not as broad as that of an adult . With time the bill deepens , the upper edge curves and a kink develops at its base . As the bird ages , one or more grooves may form on the red portion . The bird has a powerful bite .
The characteristic bright orange bill plates and other facial characteristics develop in the spring . At the close of the breeding season , these special coatings and appendages are shed in a partial moult . This makes the beak appear less broad , the tip less bright and the base darker grey . The eye ornaments are shed and the eyes appear round . At the same time , the feathers of the head and neck are replaced and the face becomes darker . This winter plumage is seldom seen by humans because when they have left their chicks , the birds head out to sea and do not return to land until the next breeding season . The juvenile bird is similar to the adult in plumage but altogether duller with a much darker grey face and yellowish @-@ brown beak tip and legs . After fledging , it will make its way to the water and will head out to sea and not return to land for several years . In the interim , each year it will have a broader bill , paler face patches and brighter legs and beak .
The Atlantic puffin has a direct flight , typically 10 metres ( 33 ft ) above the sea surface and higher over the water than most other auks . It mostly moves by paddling along efficiently with its webbed feet and seldom takes to the air . It is typically silent at sea , except for the soft purring sounds it sometimes makes in flight . At the breeding colony it is quiet above ground but in its burrow makes a growling sound somewhat resembling a chainsaw being revved up .
= = Distribution = =
The Atlantic puffin is a bird of the colder waters of the North Atlantic Ocean . It breeds on the coasts of north west Europe , the Arctic fringes and eastern North America . The largest colony is on Iceland where 60 % of the world 's Atlantic puffins nest . The largest colony in the western Atlantic ( estimated at more than 260 @,@ 000 pairs ) can be found at the Witless Bay Ecological Reserve , south of St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador . Other major breeding locations include the north and west coasts of Norway , the Faroe Islands , the Shetland and Orkney islands , the west coast of Greenland and the coasts of Newfoundland . Smaller sized colonies are also found elsewhere in the British Isles , the Murmansk area of Russia , Novaya Zemlya , Spitzbergen , Labrador , Nova Scotia and Maine . Islands seem particularly attractive to the birds for breeding as compared to mainland sites .
While at sea , the bird ranges widely across the North Atlantic Ocean , including the North Sea , and may enter the Arctic Circle . In the summer , its southern limit stretches from northern France to Maine and in the winter the bird may range as far south as the Mediterranean Sea and North Carolina . These oceanic waters have such a vast extent of 15 to 30 million square kilometres ( 6 to 12 million square miles ) that each bird has more than a square kilometre at its disposal and it is unsurprising that they are seldom seen out at sea . In Maine , light level geolocators have been attached to the legs of puffins which store information on their whereabouts . The birds need to be re @-@ captured in order to access the information , a difficult task . One bird was found to have covered 4 @,@ 800 miles ( 7 @,@ 700 km ) of ocean in eight months , traveling northwards to the northern Labrador Sea then southeastward to the mid @-@ Atlantic before returning to land .
In a long @-@ lived bird with a small clutch size such as the Atlantic puffin , the survival rate of adults is an important factor influencing the success of the species . Only 5 % of the ringed puffins that failed to reappear at the colony did so during the breeding season . The rest were lost some time between departing from land in the summer and reappearing the following spring . The birds spend the winter widely spread out in the open ocean , though there is a tendency for individuals from different colonies to overwinter in different areas . Little is known of their behaviour and diet at sea but no correlation was found between environmental factors , such as temperature variations , and their mortality rate . A combination of the availability of food in winter and summer probably influences the survival of the birds , since individuals starting the winter in poor condition are less likely to survive than those in good condition .
= = Behaviour = =
Like many seabirds , the Atlantic puffin spends most of the year far from land in the open ocean and only visits coastal areas to breed . It is a sociable bird and it usually breeds in large colonies .
= = = At sea = = =
Atlantic puffins lead solitary existences when out at sea and this part of their life has been little studied as the task of finding even one bird on the vast ocean is formidable . When at sea , the Atlantic puffin bobs about like a cork , propelling itself through the water with powerful thrusts of its feet and keeping itself turned into the wind , even when resting and apparently asleep . It spends much time each day preening to keep its plumage in order and spread oil from the preen gland . Its downy under @-@ plumage remains dry and provides thermal insulation . In common with other seabirds , its upper surface is black and underside white . This provides camouflage , with aerial predators unable to observe the bird against the dark watery background and underwater attackers failing to notice it as it blends in with the bright sky above the waves .
When it takes off , the Atlantic puffin patters across the surface of the water while vigorously flapping its wings , before launching itself into the air . The size of the wing is a compromise between its uses above and below water and its surface area is small relative to the bird 's weight . To maintain flight , the wings need to beat very rapidly at a rate of several times each second . The bird 's flight is direct and low over the surface of the water and it can travel at 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) per hour . Landing is awkward ; it either crashes into a wave crest or , in calmer water , does a belly flop . While at sea , the Atlantic puffin has its annual moult . Land birds mostly lose their primaries one pair at a time to enable them still to be able to fly , but the puffin sheds all its primaries at one time and dispenses with flight entirely for a month or two . The moult usually takes place between January and March but young birds may lose their feathers a little later in the year .
= = = Food and feeding = = =
The Atlantic puffin diet consists almost entirely of fish , though examination of its stomach contents shows that it occasionally eats shrimps , other crustaceans , molluscs and polychaete worms , especially in more coastal waters . When fishing , it swims underwater using its semi @-@ extended wings as paddles to " fly " through the water and its feet as a rudder . It swims fast and can reach considerable depths and stay submerged for up to a minute . It can eat shallow @-@ bodied fish as long as 18 cm ( 7 in ) but its prey is commonly smaller fish , around 7 cm ( 3 in ) long . It has been estimated that an adult bird needs to eat about forty of these per day — sand eels , herring , sprats and capelin being the most often consumed . It fishes by sight and can swallow small fish while submerged , but larger specimens are brought to the surface . It can catch several small fish in one dive , holding the first ones in place in its beak with its muscular , grooved tongue while it catches others . The two mandibles are hinged in such a way that they can be held parallel to hold a row of fish in place and these are also retained by inward @-@ facing serrations on the edges of the beak . It copes with the excess salt that it swallows partly through its kidneys and partly by excretion through specialised salt glands in its nostrils .
= = = On land = = =
In the spring , mature birds return to land , usually to the colony at which they were hatched . Birds that were removed as chicks and released elsewhere were found to show fidelity to their point of liberation . They congregate for a few days on the sea in small groups offshore before returning to the cliff top nesting sites . Each large puffin colony is subdivided into sub @-@ colonies by physical boundaries such as stands of bracken or gorse . Early arrivals take control of the best locations , the most desirable nesting sites being the densely packed burrows on grassy slopes just above the cliff edge where take @-@ off is most easily accomplished . The birds are usually monogamous , but this is the result of their fidelity to their nesting sites rather than to their mates and they often return to the same burrows year after year . Later arrivals at the colony may find that all the best nesting sites have already been taken and be pushed towards the periphery where they are in greater danger of predation . Younger birds may come ashore a month or more after the mature birds and find no remaining nesting sites . They will not breed till the following year although it has been found that if the ground cover surrounding the colony is cut back before these sub @-@ adults arrive , the number of successfully nesting pairs may be increased .
Atlantic puffins are cautious when approaching the colony and no bird likes to land in a location where other puffins are not already present . They make several circuits of the colony before alighting . On the ground they spend much time preening , spreading oil from their preen gland and setting each feather in its correct position with beak or claw . They also spend time standing by their burrow entrances and interacting with passing birds . Dominance is shown by an upright stance , with fluffed chest feathers and cocked tail , an exaggerated slow walk , head jerking and gaping . Submissive birds lower their head and hold their body horizontal and scurry past dominant individuals . Birds normally signal their intention to take off by briefly lowering their body before running down the slope to gain momentum . If a bird is startled and takes off unexpectedly , a panic can spread through the colony with all the birds launching themselves into the air and wheeling around in a great circle . The colony is at its most active in the evening , with birds standing outside their burrows , resting on the turf or strolling around . Then the slopes empty for the night as the birds fly out to sea to roost , often choosing to do so at fishing grounds ready for early morning provisioning .
The puffins are energetic burrow @-@ engineers and repairers and the grassy slopes may be undermined by a network of tunnels . This causes the turf to dry out in summer , vegetation to die and dry soil be whirled away by the wind . Burrows sometimes collapse , and humans may cause this to happen by walking incautiously across nesting slopes . A colony on Grassholm was lost through erosion when there was so little soil left that burrows could not be made . New colonies are very unlikely to start up spontaneously because this gregarious bird will only nest where others are already present . Nevertheless , the Audubon Society had success on Eastern Egg Rock Island in Maine , where , after a gap of ninety years , puffins were reintroduced and started breeding again . By 2011 there were over 120 pairs nesting on the small islet . On the Isle of May on the other side of the Atlantic , only five pairs of puffins were breeding in 1958 while twenty years later there were 10 @,@ 000 pairs .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Having spent the winter alone on the ocean , it is unclear whether the Atlantic puffin meets its previous partner offshore or whether they encounter each other when they return to their nest of the previous year . On land , they soon set about improving and clearing out the burrow . Often , one stands outside the entrance while the other excavates , kicking out quantities of soil and grit that showers the partner standing outside . Some birds collect stems and fragments of dry grasses as nesting materials but others do not bother . Sometimes a beakful of materials is taken underground , only to be brought out again and discarded . Apart from nest @-@ building , the other way in which the birds restore their bond is by billing . This is a practice in which the pair approach each other , each wagging its head from side to side , and then rattle their beaks together . This seems to be an important element of their courtship behaviour because it happens repeatedly , and the birds continue to bill , to a lesser extent , throughout the breeding season .
The Atlantic puffin is sexually mature at the age of four to five years . The birds are colonial nesters , excavating burrows on grassy clifftops or reusing existing holes , and may also nest in crevices and amongst rocks and scree on occasion . It is in competition with other birds and animals for burrows . It can excavate its own hole or move into a pre @-@ existing system dug by a rabbit and has been known to peck and drive off the original occupant . Manx shearwaters also nest underground and often live in their own burrows alongside puffins , and their burrowing activities may break through into the puffin 's living quarters resulting in the loss of the egg . They are monogamous ( they mate for life ) and give biparental care to their young . The male spends more time guarding and maintaining the nest while the female is more involved in incubation and feeding the chick .
Egg @-@ laying starts in April in more southerly colonies but seldom occurs before June in Greenland . The female lays a single white egg each year but if this is lost early in the breeding season , another might be produced . Synchronous laying of eggs is found in Atlantic puffins in adjacent burrows . The egg is large compared to the size of the bird , averaging 61 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long by 42 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 7 in ) wide and weighing about 62 grams ( 2 @.@ 2 oz ) . The white shell is usually devoid of markings but soon becomes soiled with mud . The incubation responsibilities are shared by both parents . They each have two feather @-@ free brood patches on their undersides where an enhanced blood supply provides heat for the egg . The parent on incubation duty in the dark nest chamber spends much of its time asleep with its head tucked under its wing , occasionally emerging from the tunnel to flap dust out of its feathers or take a short flight down to the sea .
Total incubation time is around 39 – 45 days . From above ground level , the first evidence that hatching has taken place is the arrival of an adult with a beak @-@ load of fish . For the first few days the chick may be fed with these beak @-@ to @-@ beak but later the fish are simply dropped on the floor of the nest beside the chick which swallows them whole . The chick is covered in fluffy black down and its eyes are open and it can stand as soon as it is hatched . Initially weighing about 42 grams ( 1 @.@ 5 oz ) , it grows at the rate of 10 grams ( 0 @.@ 35 oz ) per day . Initially , one or other parents brood it , but as its appetite increases it is left alone for longer periods . Observations of a nest chamber have been made from an underground hide with peephole . It was found that the chick sleeps much of the time between its parents ' visits and also involves itself in bouts of exercise . It rearranges its nesting material , picks up and drops small stones , flaps its immature wings , pulls at protruding root ends and pushes and strains against the unyielding wall of the burrow . It makes its way towards the entrance or along a side tunnel to defecate . The growing chick seems to anticipate the arrival of an adult , advancing along the burrow just before it arrives but not emerging into the open air . It retreats to the nest chamber as the adult bird brings in its load of fish .
Hunting areas are often located 100 km ( 60 mi ) or more , offshore from the nest sites , although when feeding their young , the birds venture out only half that distance . It has been found that adults bringing fish to their chicks tend to arrive in groups . This is thought to benefit the bird by reducing kleptoparasitism by the Arctic skua which harasses puffins until they drop their fish loads . Predation by the great skua ( Catharacta skua ) is also reduced by several birds arriving simultaneously .
In the Shetland Islands , sand eels ( Ammodytes marinus ) normally form at least 90 % of the food fed to chicks . It was found that , in years where the availability of sand eels was low , breeding success rates fell , with many chicks starving to death . In Norway it is the herring ( Clupea harengus ) that is the mainstay of the diet . When herring numbers dwindled , so did puffin numbers . In Labrador the puffins seemed more flexible and when the staple forage fish capelin ( Mallotus villosus ) declined in availability , they were able to adapt and feed the chicks on other prey species .
The chicks take from 34 to 50 days to fledge , the period depending on the abundance of their food supply . In years of fish shortage , the whole colony may experience a longer fledgling period but the normal range is 38 to 44 days , by which time chicks will have reached about 75 % of their mature body weight . The chick may come to the burrow entrance to defecate but does not usually emerge into the open and seems to have an aversion to light until it is nearly fully fledged . Although the supply of fish by the adults reduces over the last few days spent in the nest , the chick is not abandoned as happens in the Manx shearwater . On occasions , an adult has been observed provisioning a nest even after the chick has departed . During the last few days underground , the chick sheds its down and the juvenile plumage is revealed . Its relatively small beak and its legs and feet are a dark colour and it lacks the white facial patches of the adult . The chick finally leaves its nest at night , when the risk of predation is at its lowest . When the moment arrives , it emerges from the burrow , usually for the first time , and walks , runs and flaps its way to the sea . It cannot fly properly yet so descending a cliff is perilous ; when it reaches the water it paddles out to sea , and may be three kilometres ( two miles ) away from the shore by daybreak . It does not congregate with others of its kind and will not return to land for two or three years .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Atlantic puffins are probably safest when out at sea . Here , the dangers are often from below the water rather than above , and puffins can sometimes be seen putting their heads underwater to peer around for predators . Seals have been known to kill puffins and large fish may also do so . Most puffin colonies are on small islands , and this is no coincidence as it avoids predation by ground @-@ based mammals such as foxes , rats , stoats and weasels , cats and dogs . When they come ashore , the birds are still at risk and the main threats come from the sky .
Aerial predators of the Atlantic puffin include the great black @-@ backed gull ( Larus marinus ) , the great skua ( Stercorarius skua ) , and similar @-@ sized species , which can catch a bird in flight , or attack one that is unable to escape fast enough on the ground . On detecting danger , puffins take off and fly down to the safety of the sea or retreat into their burrows , but if caught they defend themselves vigorously with beak and sharp claws . When the puffins are wheeling round beside the cliffs it becomes very difficult for a predator to concentrate on a single bird while any individual isolated on the ground is at greater risk . Smaller gull species like the herring gull ( L. argentatus ) and the lesser
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0 December .
German forces in the area had been further split up , as German general Erich von Manstein was given command of the newly created Army Group Don , comprising the German Fourth Panzer and Sixth Armies , and the Third and Fourth Romanian Armies . Although the situation looked bleak for the Germans , a moment of relative calm had settled after the end of Operation Uranus ; German and Soviet forces were planning their next movements .
= Hue – Da Nang Campaign =
The Hue – Da Nang Campaign was a series of military actions conducted by the Vietnam People 's Army ( VPA ) and the Viet Cong against the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) during the Vietnam War , also known in Vietnam as the American War . The campaign was centred on the cities of Huế ( Thừa Thiên @-@ Huế Province ) and Da Nang ( Quảng Nam Province ) , with secondary fronts in the provinces of Quảng Trị and Quảng Ngãi . The campaign began on March 5 and concluded on April 2 , 1975 .
During the spring season of 1975 , the Vietnam People 's Army High Command in Hanoi made the decision to seize the major South Vietnamese cities of Huế and Da Nang , and also destroy the various South Vietnamese units in I Corps Tactical Zone , led by ARVN General Ngô Quang Trưởng . Originally , the campaign was planned to take place over two phases ; during the seasons of spring @-@ summer and autumn . However , as the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces rolled over South Vietnamese defences on the outskirts of Huế and Da Nang , President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu ordered General Trưởng to abandon all territories under his control , and pull his forces back to the coastal areas of I Corps . However , the South Vietnamese withdrawal quickly turned into a rout , as the North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps picked off one South Vietnamese unit after another , until Huế and Da Nang was completely surrounded . By March 29 , 1975 , North Vietnamese troops had full control of Huế and Da Nang , while South Vietnam lost all territories in I Corps and most of the units belonging to the ARVN 1st Brigade .
The fall of Huế and Da Nang did not spell the end of the misery suffered by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . On March 31 , ARVN General Phạm Văn Phú — commander of II Corps Tactical Zone — attempted to form a new defensive line from Qui Nhơn to cover the retreat of the ARVN 22nd Infantry Division into the Mekong Delta , but they too were destroyed by the North Vietnamese . By April 2 , South Vietnam had lost control of the northern provinces , as well as two army corps .
= = Background = =
= = = North Vietnam = = =
During the Huế – Da Nang Campaign of 1975 , North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces were organised into three formations ; the Vietnam People 's Army 2nd Corps , Tri Thien Military Zone , and Military Region 5 Command . The 2nd Corps of the Vietnam People 's Army fielded three infantry divisions ( 304th , 324B and 325C Divisions ) , the 673rd Air @-@ Defence Division , the 164th Artillery Brigade , the 203rd Armoured Regiment , the 219th Combat Engineers Brigade , and the 463rd Communications Regiment . The 2nd Corps was led by Major @-@ General Nguyễn Hữu An , with Major @-@ General Le Linh as Political Commissar . Colonel Hoang Dan was the deputy commander , and Colonel Nguyen Cong Trang was the deputy political commissar .
Led by Brigadier @-@ General Lê Tự Đồng , the Tri Thien Military Zone had three infantry regiments ( 4th , 46th and 271st Regiments ) , and two battalions ( the 21st Independent Battalion and the 6th Local Force Battalion ) . Military Region 5 had one infantry division ( 2nd Division ) , which was supported by the 141st Regiment ( from the 3rd ‘ Gold Star ’ Division ) , the 52nd Independent Brigade , two artillery regiments ( 368th and 572nd Artillery Regiments ) , two local battalions ( 70th and 72nd Local Force Battalions ) , and two local regiments ( 94th and 96th Local Force Regiments ) . North Vietnamese and Viet Cong units of Military Region 5 were placed under the responsibility of Major @-@ General Chu Huy Mân , with Vo Chi Cong as political commissar .
= = = Objectives = = =
= = = = Tri Thien = = = =
On February 21 , 1975 , North Vietnamese field commanders from Tri @-@ Thien Military Zone and the 2nd Army Corp held a conference to establish their objectives , which were planned to occur in two phases ; the spring @-@ summer phase that would begin in March and probably conclude in May , and the autumn phase to last from July to August 1975 . The North Vietnamese objective was to take control of Quảng Trị Province , isolate the city of Huế and if the opportunity presents itself , they would capture the entire Tri Thien @-@ Huế area . To isolate Huế , the North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps would move against their target from the north @-@ west direction along Route 12 down to the south @-@ west along Highway 14 , thereby isolating the region from South Vietnamese forces in II Corps Tactical Zone .
In preparation for the Huế – Da Nang Campaign , the North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps had successfully captured several important base areas that surrounded South Vietnamese units in Quảng Trị Province and Thừa Thiên Province . Those areas included Đông Hà @-@ Ái Tử to the north , Khe Sanh @-@ Ba Long to the west , and A Lưới @-@ Nam Dong in southern Huế . The main body of the 304th Division and the 3rd Regiment , 324th Division , had assembled in Nong Son and Thường Đức to attack Da Nang from the west . In Military Region 5 , the 2nd Division had established its positions in Tiên Phước , Tra My and Trà Bồng in Quảng Ngãi Province , and Đắk Tô and Tân Cảnh in Kon Tum Province .
= = = = Quảng Tin @-@ Quảng Ngãi = = = =
Once Huế had been isolated , Military Region 5 Command would initiate the Nam @-@ Ngai Campaign from the provinces of Quảng Tin and Quảng Ngãi , to isolate Da Nang from the Central Highlands . North Vietnamese units such as the 2nd Division , the 141st Regiment , the 52nd Brigade , along with two artillery regiments ( 368th and 572nd Artillery Regiments ) would coordinate their efforts with the Viet Cong 94th and 96th Local Force Regiments , and the 70th and 72nd Local Force Battalions . As part of their overall objective , they would tie down the ARVN 2nd Division ( South Vietnam ) , the 11th Armoured Squadron and the 912th Regional Force Company in Quảng Ngãi Province . And , if the opportunity arises , they would also capture Bình Định Province and the city of Qui Nhơn .
= = = = Da Nang = = = =
In the final phase of their operation , the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong would cut off Da Nang from the surrounding regions which made up I Corps Tactical Zone , and prevent reinforcements from retaking the city . Then , depending on the situation , the North Vietnamese would organize an attack to capture the major South Vietnamese army , navy and air force installations in Da Nang .
= = = South Vietnam = = =
South Vietnamese military forces in Huế and Da Nang belonged to the ARVN 1st Brigade , I Corps Tactical Zone . Commanded by Lieutenant General Ngô Quang Trưởng , the South Vietnamese I Corps was considered to be the strongest amongst all the military formations of South Vietnam . It had three infantry divisions ( 1st , 2nd and 3rd Infantry Divisions ) , the Airborne Division ( led by Major General Le Quang Luong ) , the Marine Corps Division ( led by Major General Bui The Lan ) , and four ranger groups ( 11th , 12th , 14th and 15th Ranger Groups ) . The Airborne and Marine Corps Division each had an assigned strength of four brigades . In addition to the infantry units , there were also the 5th Armoured Brigade , five squadrons of armored vehicles ( 4th , 7th , 11th , 17th and 20th Armored Squadrons ) , 13 armored companies , and 21 artillery battalions .
Local defense in I Corps was provided by 50 battalions and five companies of Regional and Popular Forces , and six companies of military police . Support for ground forces in the area came in the form of the 1st Air Force Division ( commanded by Brigadier @-@ General Nguyen Van Khanh ) , with two naval squadrons operating on the coast and another two along the rivers . Overall , I Corps fielded about 134 @,@ 000 soldiers ; 84 @,@ 000 were regular soldiers and 50 @,@ 000 belonged to the Regional and Popular Forces . Those forces were equipped with 449 tanks and armored vehicles , 418 artillery pieces , 64 M @-@ 42 Duster light air @-@ defense weapons , 373 aircraft of different types , and 165 naval vessels of different sizes .
= = = Defensive strategy = = =
In combination with the ‘ Ly Thuong Kiet Military Plan ’ and experiences gained during the North Vietnamese Nguyễn Huệ Offensive , Lieutenant General Ngô Quang Trưởng organised the defenses of I Corps into three phases , to be staged from three different areas .
= = = = Defensive phases = = = =
The first phase , known as the ‘ orange phase ’ , was considered to be the most important because it provided South Vietnamese units in I Corps with a platform to stop enemy attacks , and even attack them if necessary . To accomplish the objectives of the ‘ orange phase ’ , General Trưởng placed several elite combat units such as the Ranger groups and armoured forces on constant combat alert . The second phase , known as the ‘ green phase ’ , was designed to delay enemy forces and buy more time for the South Vietnamese to regroup in order to stage a counter @-@ attack , in the scenario that enemy forces managed to overcome the ‘ orange phase ’ . In the final phase , or the ‘ blue phases ’ , require South Vietnamese units to secure their areas of defence , then destroy and push enemy forces out of I Corps .
= = = = Areas of defence = = = =
General Trưởng 's areas of defence were centred on Tri Thien @-@ Huế , Da Nang , and Quảng Nam @-@ Quảng Ngãi .
= = = = Tri Thien @-@ Huế = = = =
The task of holding Tri Thien and Huế was entrusted to the ARVN 1st Division ( South Vietnam ) , the 4th and 15th Ranger Groups , the 913th and 914th Regional Forces Companies , the 17th and 20th Armoured Squadrons , 10 artillery battalions , one squadron of helicopters , two squadrons of reconnaissance aircraft , and one coastal patrol squadron . Those forces were commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Lâm Quang Thi .
= = = = Nam @-@ Da Nang = = = =
Da Nang was under the direct responsibility of Lieutenant @-@ General Ngô Quang Trưởng . It was home of the ARVN 3rd Division ( South Vietnam ) , the 4th and 7th Armoured Squadrons , the 11th and 14th Ranger Groups , the 911th Regional Force Company , the 1st Air Force Division , one coastal patrol squadron and two riverine squadrons .
= = = = Quảng Tin @-@ Quảng Ngãi = = = =
Quảng Tin and Quảng Ngãi was held by the ARVN 2nd Division ( South Vietnam ) , the 12th Ranger Group , the 11th Armoured Squadron , three artillery battalions , the 912th Regional Force Company , one coastal patrol squadron and one riverine squadron . Brigadier @-@ General Trần Văn Nhựt commanded the 3rd Infantry Division , and all other units in Quảng Nam and Quảng Ngãi .
= = Prelude = =
On March 5 , 1975 , the North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps officially commenced its campaign against South Vietnamese forces of I Corps . The opening shots of the campaign was marked by an attack on South Vietnamese military convoys on Mount Hai Van , and the destruction of An Lo Bridge on National Highway 1 , located north of Huế . Positions held by the ARVN 913th Regional Force at Dong Ong Do and Hill @-@ 368 also came under attack , as Phu Bai Airbase was subjected to intense artillery bombardment . While the South Vietnamese were busy dealing with those attacks , General Nguyen Huu An secretly redeployed the 325th Division and the 9th Regiment of the 304th Division , from Quảng Trị towards Huế in the south . The 46th and 271st Regiment then moved into positions previously held by the 325th Division and 9th Regiment . And , to fool South Vietnamese intelligence agencies , the North Vietnamese also moved tank and artillery units to Cua Viet , Thanh Hoi and Ai Tu to cover their main thrust .
Between March 6 and 7 , the Viet Cong 4th Local Force Battalion assaulted and overran Mai Linh and 11 other surrounding military sub @-@ sectors in Quảng Trị Province . On the following day , General Lâm Quang Thi requested reinforcements from General Ngô Quang Trưởng in Da Nang , as a response to Communist attacks in his area of control . Meanwhile , the North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps continued their onslaught , with the 324th Division launching attacks on South Vietnamese positions in Mo Tau , and on Hills 75 , 76 , 224 , 273 , and 303 all located south of Huế .
By March 10 , several South Vietnamese units were defeated in their attempts to hold off the North Vietnamese ; the 1st battalion of 54th Infantry Regiments of ARVN 1st Division ( South Vietnam ) was destroyed on Hill 224 and 273 ; the ARVN 47th Armoured Squadron was overrun by the VPA 1st Regiment , 324th Division , on Mount Nghe ; and the ARVN 113th Regional Force Battalion conceded Pho Lai to the VPA 4th Regiment , which was supported by the 223rd Artillery Regiment . General Thi then ordered the 15th Ranger Group and the 2nd Battalion of the 54th Infantry Regiment , with support from the 27th and 37th Tank Squadrons , to mount a counter @-@ attack on Hill 224 . Over the period of one week , both sides fired over 8 @,@ 000 rounds of artillery shells on Hill 224 , and the South Vietnamese air force conducted over 60 bombing sorties in an attempt to halt the advances of the North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps .
On March 13 , amidst heavy fighting in the northern provinces of South Vietnam , General Ngô Quang Trưởng flew out to Saigon for a meeting with President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu . In this meeting , President Thiệu outlined his decision to abandon most of the provinces in I Corps Tactical Zone , and ordered General Trưởng to withdraw his forces towards the coastal regions of central Vietnam instead . In addition , the Airborne Division ( South Vietnam would be redeployed to the Mekong Delta region , where it could protect the nation 's capital . Unwilling to concede the northern provinces to the enemy , General Trưởng tried unsuccessfully to convince President Thiệu to reverse his decision in the believe that he could hold onto I Corps , and recapture lost territories by using the Airborne and Marine Corps Divisions . After he returned to his headquarters that afternoon , General Trưởng decided to redeploy his forces instead of carrying out President Thiệu 's order straightaway , for several reasons . Firstly , he wanted to convince the President that most South Vietnamese units were still intact , and that they still had the time to recapture lost territories . And secondly , General Trưởng did not want to create confusion amongst his subordinates , when the military situation in I Corps was still under control .
Thus , General Trưởng reorganised his defences in order to deal with the threat posed by North Vietnamese formations located south of I Corps ; he designated Da Nang to be the main centre of South Vietnamese defence in I Corps , with Tri Thien in the north , and with Quảng Nam and Quảng Ngãi in the south . To make up for the loss of the Airborne Division , General Trưởng ordered the 369th Marines Brigade to replace the 3rd Airborne Brigade in Quảng Nam Province , and the 258th Marines Brigade to take over from the 2nd Airborne Brigade on Mount Phu Gia , located north of Hai Van .
Meanwhile , between March 13 and 15 , the VPA 6th Regiment launched several attacks on Chuc Meo , La Son , Hill 300 and Hill 511 located west of Huế , forcing elements of the ARVN 1st Infantry Division to pull back towards Dong Tranh and Binh Dien .
On March 17 , the North Vietnamese High Command predicted that South Vietnamese units could withdraw into the cities of Huế and Da Nang , so the following orders were issued to North Vietnamese field commanders : General Lê Tự Đồng 's forces were to capture Phu Bai Air Base to prevent aerial transportation , and cut off a section of Highway 1 north of Huế ,
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and General Nguyen Huu An 's 2nd Army Corps must secure Highway 1 south of the city , with the aim of isolating both Huế and Da Nang from the rest of the country .
On the following day , General Dong 's forces staged their attacks from two main directions , from Thanh Hoi and Tich Tuong @-@ Nhu Le , moving along Route 68 and National Highway 1 respectively . The North Vietnamese 2nd Army Corps , on the other hand , assaulted South Vietnamese positions in Phu Loc and Phu Gia .
By 8 : 30pm on the evening of March 18 , most of northern Quảng Trị was under North Vietnamese control . ARVN Colonel Do Ky , also the provincial chief of Quảng Trị Province , tried to lead what was left of his troops back to Huế but was pursued by the North Vietnamese along National Highway 1 until they reached An Lo .
As the fighting in Quảng Trị unfolded , General Ngô Quang Trưởng flew back from Saigon where he tried to obtain approval from President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu for his new defensive plan , and hastily reorganised South Vietnamese defences in the northern regions of I Corps . Subsequently , General Trưởng sent out the following orders : the 480th Marines Brigade to leave Da Nang and to guard the north @-@ western flank of Huế ; the 1st Infantry Division , the 15th Ranger Group and the 7th Tank Squadron to protect south @-@ western Huế ; and the 258th Marines Brigade and the 914th Regional Force Battalion were to secure a section of Highway 1 which connected Huế with Da Nang .
= = Battle = =
= = = Fall of Huế = = =
While General Ngô Quang Trưởng was still busy reorganising South Vietnamese units in I Corps , on March 20 the Tri Thien Command finalised their plan to capture Huế , with the objective of preventing South Vietnamese forces from regrouping there . At 2 : 30pm on the same day , President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu phoned the ARVN 1st Brigade Headquarters , and ordered General Trưởng to defend only Da Nang due to the lack of resources . Beginning at 5 : 40am on March 21 , the VPA 325th and 324th Divisions attacked South Vietnamese units positioned astride Highway 1 . At the same time , elements of the K5 Special Forces Battalion destroyed Thua Luu Bridge , which connected a stretch of road on Highway 1 between Huế and Da Nang , forcing thousands of South Vietnamese civilian and military vehicles heading towards Da Nang to turn back . The ARVN 20th Tank Squadron was then sent out to reopen Highway 1 , but was defeated by the VPA 203rd Armoured Regiment .
In light of the worsening military situation on the evening of March 22 , General Ngô Quang Trưởng authorised General Lâm Quang Thi to pull his forces back to Da Nang . However , as the main roads were blocked by the North Vietnamese , General Thi 's only option was to use a coastal corridor between Thuan An and Tu Hien , and board transport vessels belonging to the 106th Navy Squadron and head back to Da Nang .
On the morning of March 23 , the VPA 324th Division advanced through Hill @-@ 303 and Mo Tau , and assaulted northern Phu Loc , while the VPA 325th Division captured Mui Ne , Phuoc Tuong , and encircled Tu Hien located south of Huế . In the north , the Viet Cong 4th , 46th and 271st Regiments pursued a retreating South Vietnamese formation consisted of the 147th Marines Brigade , the 14th Ranger Group , 5th Infantry Regiment of the 1st Infantry Division ) , and the 17th Armoured Squadron , heading towards Thuan An . And , at 4.30pm on March 23 , the VPA 101st Regiment ( part of the 325th Division ) overran Luong Dien , and surrounded Phu Bai Air Base , to close the main corridor leading into Huế from the south . Simultaneously , the Viet Cong 46th Regiment destroyed South Vietnamese defences on Bo River , captured the districts of Quang Dien , Quang Loi and Huong Can , and secured the main roads on the outskirts of northern Huế .
Between March 24 and 25 , the VPA 3rd ( 324th Division ) and 101st Regiments continued their drive towards Huế , after they successfully captured Phu Bai Air Base . At the same time , the 1st Regiment ( 324th Division ) along with the Viet Cong 4th and 271st Regiments were able to destroy the last elements of the ARVN 147th Marines Brigade and the 15th Ranger Group , before they could board navy vessels anchored off the shores of Huong Thuy , Luong Thien and Ke Sung and Cu Lai .
By the evening of March 25 , the North Vietnamese had secured all major points surrounding Huế , and South Vietnamese units that failed to escape were completely surrounded . Consequently , the North Vietnamese claimed to have captured large numbers of South Vietnamese prisoners and military hardware . In all , a total of 58 @,@ 722 South Vietnamese soldiers became prisoners of war , with one colonel and 18 lieutenant @-@ colonels amongst the ranks , as well as about 14 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese government officials and employees , who reported to the North Vietnamese military authorities . The South Vietnamese military in Huế also surrendered vast quantities of weaponry , which included 140 tanks and armoured vehicles .
= = = Tin @-@ Ngai Campaign = = =
From the beginning of March 1975 , the combined North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces of Military Region 5 had been coordinating their efforts with the 2nd Army Corp and Tri Thien Command to isolate General Ngô Quang Trưởng 's I Corps from II Corps , led by Major @-@ General Phạm Văn Phú . North Vietnamese and Viet Cong areas of operations in the southern regions of I Corps mainly centred in south @-@ western Quảng Tin and north @-@ western Quảng Ngãi , which included Tien Phuoc , Tam Kỳ , Nui Thanh , Tra Bong and Binh Son .
Regular units of the Vietnam People 's Army such as the 2nd Division , the 141st Regiment ( 3rd ‘ Gold Star ’ Division ) , the 52nd Independent Brigade , the 368th and 572nd Artillery Regiments operated alongside local Viet Cong units , namely the 94th and 96th Local Force Regiments , and 70th and 72nd Local Force Battalions . The southern region of I Corps was considered to be the weakest area of defence , which was under the responsibility of ARVN General Trần Văn Nhựt , who also led the 2nd Infantry Division . Also included in General Nhut 's order of battle were the 12th Ranger Group , the 916th Regional Force Battalion , the 11th Armoured Brigade , three battalions of artillery , one navy coastal squadron and riverine squadron .
Beginning at 4 : 30am on March 10 , North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces proceeded to capture the following targets : the VPA 38th Regiment overran the highpoints of Nui Vu , Nui Ngoc , Duong Con , Soui Da and Nui Vy ; the 36th Regiment destroyed South Vietnamese strong points at Trung Lien , Mount Da , Mount Khong ten , Ho Bach and Hill @-@ 215 ; the Viet Cong ‘ Ba Gia ’ Regiment held their positions on Hill @-@ 269 and Hill @-@ 310 , to stop South Vietnamese counter @-@ attacks from Tuan Duong ; while the 52nd Independent Brigade captured Go Han , Phuoc Tien , Duong Ong Luu , Duong Huế , Nui My , Hon Nhon , Deo Lieu , and Mount Đất Đỏ . Thus , 23 positions held by units of the ARVN 12th Ranger Groups were captured , just after four hours of fighting .
At 9 : 00am on March 10 , North Vietnamese soldiers of the 368th Artillery Regiment dragged 12 pieces of artillery which included 85mm , 105mm and 122mm guns onto the top of Nui Vu and Han Thon , and aimed their guns directly on Hill @-@ 211 and the administrative centre of Tien Phuoc , to support the 31st Regiment attacking those areas . At 1 : 30pm , following two failed counter @-@ attacks , South Vietnamese units in Phuoc Lam deserted from the battlefield . In the mean time , however , South Vietnamese troops in Tien Phuoc could bare held their ground with support from two A @-@ 37 bombers , after South Vietnamese commanders on the ground had called for reinforcement from Chu Lai . By 4 : 00pm , Tien Phuoc was captured by the VPA 2nd Division .
Due to the lost of Tien Phuoc and Phouc Lam , the ARVN 916th Regional Force Battalion retreated from the area . Thus , Tam Kỳ , the capital of Quảng Tin Province , was threatened to be overrun by the North Vietnamese .
On March 11 , General Ngô Quang Trưởng ordered General Trần Văn Nhựt to mobilise the 2nd Division ( South Vietnam ) , the 12th Ranger Group , elements of the 11th Armoured Squadron and one regional force battalion to mount a counter @-@ attack from Tuan Duong to Cam Khe and Duong Con. General Trưởng also ordered the ARVN 2nd Infantry Regiment ( 3rd Infantry Division ) to depart from Da Nang , and protect Tam Kỳ , so that General Nhut 's forces could be free up to fight the North Vietnamese .
However , between March 14 and 15 , the ARVN 2nd Infantry Regiment was forced to turn back from Tam Kỳ to deal with an attack on Thang Binh , by the Viet Cong 70th and 72nd Local Force Battalions . In southern Quảng Ngãi , the Viet Cong 94th Local Force Regiment attacked Binh Son , cut off a section of National Highway 1 near Chau O , and the ARVN 4th Infantry Regiment ( 2nd Infantry Division ) was pinned down trying to deal with Viet Cong attacks . Thus , South Vietnamese attempts to stage an effective counter @-@ attack were quickly blunted by the combined Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces in Quảng Ngãi Province . Recognising that he no longer has the manpower to mount a counter @-@ attack , General Nhut ordered his troops to abandon Tra Bong and Son Ha , and concentrate his units in Tam Kỳ and Chu Lai instead .
Following the failed counter @-@ attack , South Vietnamese forces in I Corps was further weakened when President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu pulled the Airborne Division back to Saigon . Now that the South Vietnamese 2nd Infantry Division and the 12th Ranger Group was overstretched between Quảng Ngãi and Hội An , with Tam Kỳ only defended by the ARVN 5th Infantry Regiment and one battalion from the ARVN 4th Infantry Regiment , North Vietnamese General Chu Huy Mân decided to utilise the advantage to capture Tam Kỳ . Beginning at 5 : 30am on March 21 , the North Vietnamese 2nd Division attacked Suoi Da , the last South Vietnamese outpost outside Tam Kỳ . At around 12 : 00pm , ARVN General Trần Văn Nhựt ordered the rest of the 4th Infantry Regiment out from Quảng Ngãi in an attempt to hold Tam Kỳ , so South Vietnamese defences in that province was further weakened . Again , taking advantage of the situation , General Chu Huy Mân ordered the 52nd Independent Brigade and the 94th Local Force Regiment to attack Quảng Ngãi . By 7 : 00am on March 24 , the cities of Tam Kỳ and Quảng Ngãi were simultaneously attacked by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces . In Tam Kỳ , the ARVN 4th and 5th Infantry Regiments were destroyed after two hours of heavy fighting , while the 37th and 39th Ranger Battalions ( from the ARVN 12th Ranger Group ) in the outskirts of the city simply fled from the battlefield . At 10 : 00am on March 24 , North Vietnamese and Viet Cong soldiers of the 2nd Division , the ‘ Ba Gia ’ Regiment , and the 31st Regiment successfully captured Tam Kỳ .
In Quảng Ngãi , the VPA 52nd Independent Brigade , with support from two special forces battalions , as well as tanks and armoured vehicles from the 574th Regiment , rolled over South Vietnamese defences . At around 2 : 00pm , the surviving elements of the ARVN 6th Infantry Regiment , the rest of the 12th Ranger Group and the 4th Tank Squadron was ambushed by the Viet Cong 94th Local Force Regiment along National Highway 1 , when they tried to retreat towards Chu Lai without a fight . As a result , over 600 South Vietnamese soldiers were killed , and around 3 @,@ 500 others were captured . At 11 : 30pm on March 24 , the North Vietnamese was in full control of Quảng Ngãi City . O
n March 25 , 1975 , the Tin @-@ Ngai Campaign concluded with North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces exercising full control over the provinces of Quảng Tin and Quảng Ngãi , leaving Da Nang as the only major city in I Corps still held by the South Vietnamese .
As such , out of the 44 provinces in South Vietnam , 10 were occupied by the Vietnam People 's Army , while three ARVN infantry divisions were rendered ineffective . In addition , the elite ARVN 147th Marines Brigade ceased to exist as a fighting force .
= = = Fall of Da Nang = = =
= = = = South Vietnamese dispositions = = = =
By 1975 , Da Nang had been become the second largest city in South Vietnam , with close to a million inhabitants . It was a major economic and political centre in I Corps Tactical Zone , and was home to the largest military installations which incorporated the South Vietnamese army , navy and air force . Logistically , the military infrastructure within the city could hold several thousand tons of weaponry , ammunition , food supplies and other essential war materials . It also had four large seaports , and a major airport at Da Nang and Nuoc Man . So , on March 25 , following the loss of Quảng Trị , Thừa Thiên , Quảng Nam and Quảng Ngãi , President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu ordered South Vietnamese commanders at all levels to hold what was left of I Corps till the very end . On March 26 , General Ngô Quang Trưởng gathered what was left of his units , about 75 @,@ 000 soldiers , and organised them into the following order :
Outer Defensive Line : The 258th Marines Brigade and the 914th Regional Force Battalion to hold all areas between Phuoc Tuong and Lien Chieu . The 369th Marines Brigade and the 57th Infantry Regiment ( 3rd Infantry Division ) were to protect Dai Loc and Dong Lam . The surviving elements of the 147th Marines Brigade , and the Marine Corps Division Headquarters would hold Nuoc Man airfield . Meanwhile , the remnants of the 3rd Infantry Division would hold Vinh Dien and Ninh Que , while the 15th Ranger Group held Ba Ren .
Inner Defensive Line : The 912th Regional Force Battalion , and the last elements of the 11th and 20th Armoured Squadrons held Phuoc Tuong @-@ Hoa My . The last three battalions of the 1st Infantry Division , the 2nd Infantry Division , the 12th Ranger Group , and about 3 @,@ 000 freshly trained soldiers from the Hoa Cam Training Camp were ordered to defend all key areas between Hoa Cam and Nuoc Man . All independent Regional and Popular Force battalions were placed in reserve , and could go into combat when required .
General Trưởng also had 12 artillery battalions at his disposal , as well as the 1st Air Force Division based at Da Nang and Nuoc Man , which were still intact despite the early clashes in I Corps .
= = = North Vietnamese plan of attack = = =
Following the conclusion of the Tri Thien and Tin @-@ Ngai Campaigns , the Vietnam People 's Army High Command ordered General Lê Trọng Tấn to journey south from Hanoi and personally take charge of the Da Nang Campaign . Subsequently , on March 25 , the North Vietnamese came up with a plan to attack Da Nang from four directions :
North : The 325th Division ( without the 95th Regiment ) , with support from one tank battalion and one artillery battalion , were ordered to advance along National Highway 1 and capture the ARVN 1st Brigade Headquarters , the South Vietnamese 1st Air Force Division at Da Nang , and then move on to the Son Tra Peninsula to capture the main seaport there .
North @-@ West : The 9th Regiment ( 304th Division ) , with support from one tank battalion , one artillery battalion and one anti @-@ aircraft gun battalion , were ordered to advance along Highway 14B , and capture the ARVN 3rd Infantry Division Headquarters at Phuoc Tuong , and then move on to Da Nang Air Base .
South & South @-@ East : The 2nd Division , with support from one artillery unit ( the 36th Artillery Regiment ) , one artillery battalion , one tank @-@ armoured vehicles battalion , one anti @-@ aircraft gun battalion , and one anti @-@ tank weapons company , were ordered to take Da Nang Air Base and the ARVN 1st Brigade Headquarters , then capture the city itself . The 3rd and 68th Regiments were placed in reserve .
South @-@ West : The 2nd Army Corps ( without the 9th Regiment , 304th Division ) was ordered to take all positions held by the ARVN 369th Marines Brigade along the defensive line at Thuong Duc @-@ Ai Nghia @-@ Hiep Duc , then advance toward Nuoc Man airfield . The 24th Regiment ( 304th Division ) was required to capture Hoa Cam , and then move on to Da Nang .
= = = = The fight begins = = = =
Before the North Vietnamese finalised their plan to capture Da Nang , the 2nd Army Corps had already begun making preparations for the final attack on the city . On March 24 , the VPA 325th Division fought with the ARVN 258th Marines Brigade and the 914th Regional Force Battalion at North Hai Van , and overran Phuoc Tuong , Nuoc Ngot , Tho Son and Thua Luu . Consequently , North Vietnamese forces captured enemy artillery positions in Phuoc Tuong , and made good use of it during the following weeks . On March 27 , with air @-@ support from A @-@ 37 attack aircraft from Da Nang , the 258th Marines Brigade and the 914th Regional Force Battalion tried to hold off North Vietnamese forces at Phu Gia and Hai Van , but they were pushed back and sustained heavy casualties in the process . The VPA 325th Division then continued their advance through So Hai , Loan Ly , An Bao and Lang Co . Soon afterwards , more than 30 artillery pieces belonging to the VPA 84th and 164th Artillery Regiments were placed at various high points in Son Thach , Son Khanh and Mui Trau ; beginning at 5 : 30am on March 28 , North Vietnamese artillery units bombarded South Vietnamese positions around Da Nang . Meanwhile , the ARVN 369th Marines Brigade quickly abandoned their position at Son Ga , after they had detected elements of the VPA 304th Division conducting reconnaissance missions on the battlefield . On March 28 , the VPA 66th Regiment ( 304th Division ) attacked and captured the administrative area of Ai Nghia and Nuoc Man airfield , while the VPA 24th Regiment attacked Hoa Cam and Toa in the outskirts of Da Nang .
The ARVN 369th Marines Brigade then tried to pull back towards An Dong and My Khe , but they were pursued by the VPA 2nd Division . Meanwhile , the 3 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese soldiers at Hoa Cam mutinied against their commanding officers , and surrendered to the North Vietnamese . South of Da Nang , the VPA 2nd Division , with support from tank and artillery units was able to overrun Ba Ren at around 9 : 00am on March 28 . In response , ARVN General Ngô Quang Trưởng ordered Air Force Brigadier @-@ General Nguyen Van Khanh to send a squadron of four A @-@ 37 bombers to destroy the main bridges at Ba Ren and Cau Lau , but they could not prevent the VPA 2nd Division from crossing the river using canoes , and other small river crafts . At 5 : 55am on March 29 , the outer South Vietnamese defence line located south of Da Nang succumbed to the North Vietnamese . At 6.30am on the same day , the last South Vietnamese strongholds in and around Hai Van were overrun by the North Vietnamese . The VPA 325th Division then secured Lien Chieu , the Nam O Bridge and the Trinh Me The Bridge , thereby clearing the main road for the supporting tank and armoured units to advance on Son Tra . As North Vietnamese troops were closing in , General Ngô Quang Trưởng and other high @-@ ranking South Vietnamese officers were airlifted out to the coastal areas , where they boarded the navy transport ship HQ @-@ 404 . At 12 : 00pm , the ARVN 1st Brigade Headquarters was finally captured . At 12 : 30pm , the 9th Regiment ( 304th Division ) also captured the ARVN 3rd Infantry Division Headquarters , and quickly established their control over the entire Phuoc Tuong area .
By the time Da Nang fall into North Vietnamese hands , South Vietnamese commanders on the ground simply lost control of their men as military discipline collapsed . On March 28 , about 6 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese soldiers of the 2nd Infantry Division deserted , and left the battlefield . And then the soldiers of the ARVN 3rd Infantry Division also retreated , thereby leaving the rear of the Marine Corps Division exposed to enemy attacks . Since March 25 , from the CIA Station in Da Nang , Al Francis and the U.S. Embassy in Saigon began formulating an evacuation plan , in order to evacuate U.S. citizens and South Vietnamese government officials out from Da Nang . As part of the plan , aircraft belonging to civilian airliners were to be used . And in addition to the South Vietnamese navy vessels of I Corps , U.S. General Homer Smith also provided five barges , six passenger liners , and three cargo ships to help with the evacuation process . Even though the evacuation plan was designed to be carried out in an orderly manner , chaos and confusion quickly descended on the civilian and military population of Da Nang as people fought each other to board the vessels anchored off the coast . On the afternoon of March 29 , North Vietnamese soldiers of the 2nd , 304th , 324th and 325th Divisions , as well as the 203rd Armoured Regiment , entered the city of Da Nang .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
The struggle for Huế and Da Nang had cost South Vietnam its entire army corps , namely the units of the ARVN 1st Brigade , I Corps Tactical Zone . According to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam 's official history , apart from the 16 @,@ 000 soldiers and civilians who managed to escape , over 120 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese soldiers were killed , wounded or captured after the fall of Huế and Da Nang . In their attempt to abandon the territories of I Corps , the South Vietnamese military left behind vast quantities of U.S.-supplied military hardware . The North Vietnamese claimed to have captured 129 aircraft of different models , 179 tanks and armoured vehicles , 327 artillery pieces , 184 transport vehicles and 47 naval crafts . More than 10 @,@ 000 tons of bombs , ammunition , grenades , food supplies , combat rations , and other materials were also captured . Total North Vietnamese and Viet Cong casualties are largely unknown .
= = = South Vietnam and the loss of the northern provinces = = =
President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu 's decision to abandon the Central Highlands and the coastal regions of I Corps had a negative impact on the fighting ability of South Vietnamese troops , especially as the northern provinces of South Vietnam were driven into chaos . On March 31 , after the fall of Huế and Da Nang , ARVN General Phạm Văn Phú @-@ commander of II Corps Tactical Zone- held a meeting with his General Staff and the provincial chiefs of Bình Định , Khánh Hòa , Phú Yên , Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận , and requested them to form a defensive line from Qui Nhơn into the Mekong Delta to cover the retreat of the ARVN 2nd Brigade from the Central Highlands . Subsequently , General Phu issued the following orders : Rear Admiral Hoang Co Minh was to oversee military operations in the Qui Nhơn region , Brigadier @-@ General Trần Văn Cẩm to hold Phú Yên , Brigadier @-@ General Nguyen Ngoc Oanh and Brigadier @-@ General Nguyen Van Luong was tasked with holding Nha Trang . Meanwhile , General Phan Dinh Niem- commander of the ARVN 22nd Infantry Division- was required to form a defensive line linking Qui Nhơn with Diêu Trì and Deo Ca , with the purpose of delaying North Vietnamese forces .
The withdrawal plan formulated by General Phạm Văn Phú and his General Staff was made with the belief that North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces would stop and consolidate their territorial gains before they could go on the attack again . However , during the spring offensive of 1975 , North Vietnamese commanders were more than willing to manoeuvre their units away from newly captured territories , in order to pursue retreating South Vietnamese units . Furthermore , South Vietnamese commanders never realised that Hanoi had given its field commanders the full flexibility to respond to the changing circumstances on the battlefield , and had supplied North Vietnamese units with weaponry required to achieve their objectives . Ultimately , the average South Vietnamese soldiers would have to pay for the miscalculation of their commanders . At 5 : 15am on March 31 , the 47th Infantry Regiment ( ARVN 22nd Infantry Division ) was ambushed by the 2nd Regiment ( VPA 3rd ‘ Gold Star ’ Division ) , while withdrawing towards Phu An @-@ Lai Nghi . Upon arrival at Phu Cat , the remnants of the ARVN 47th Infantry Regiment was encircled and assaulted by the VPA 198th Regiment , and ceased to exist as a fighting unit by 12 : 30pm .
The 41st Infantry Regiment ( ARVN 22nd Infantry Division ) also came under attack from the VPA 95th Regiment , as they moved from Nui Mot to Phu Phong . Throughout the evening of March 31 , the ARVN 41st Infantry Regiment fought with the VPA 141st Regiment , as soon as they reached Phat Giao . In contrast to the other units , the 42nd Infantry Regiment ( ARVN 22nd Infantry Division ) was able to escape the North Vietnamese onslaught , but their strength was significantly reduced before they reached Dieu Tri . On April 1 , Quy Nhon fall into the hands of the North Vietnamese , which was followed by Tuy Hòa on April 2 . ARVN General Trần Văn Cẩm was captured in Tuy Hòa after his helicopter had landed on the ground , where he tried to survey the battlefield . The destruction of the ARVN 22nd Infantry Division , which had about 10 @,@ 000 fully equipped men , stirred up chaos in Nha Trang ; more than 3 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese recruits from the Lam Son Army Training Centre retreated into the city , while another 1 @,@ 000 soldiers went on a rampage and looted goods on the main streets . The chief of Khánh Hòa Province , Colonel Ly Ba Pham , boarded a military aircraft and flew out to Phan Rang , after he had notified Saigon that " the situation is irreversible " . On the afternoon of April 2 , Nha Trang was overrun by the North Vietnamese , and not a single battle was fought in its defence . By 2 : 00pm on April 2 , ARVN General Phạm Văn Phú had lost every military unit and territory under his control .
= = = The decisions of President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu = = =
According to many academics , both in Vietnam and in the West , the major factor which contributed to the rapid collapse of South Vietnamese defences in 1975 was the numerous , and contradictory orders issued by President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu . During the various phases of the South Vietnamese retreat from the northern provinces , namely in I and II Corps Tactical Zones , President Thiệu had at least three different plans and decisions laid out before him , and each one either lacked consistency or simply contradicted one another . For example , on March 13 , President Thiệu ordered General Ngô Quang Trưởng to abandon I Corps , and return the elite Airborne Division to the Mekong Delta region of III Corps . Soon afterwards , similar orders were issued to Major @-@ General Phạm Văn Phú to evacuate from the Central Highlands . Then , on March 17 , with intervention from General Cao Văn Viên , President Thiệu contradicted his previous orders when he approved General Trưởng 's defensive plan to hold the major cities of Huế and Da Nang .
However , the very next day , President Thiệu ordered General Ngô Quang Trưởng and General Lâm Quang Thi to abandon Huế , and only concentrate sufficient numbers of South Vietnamese units to hold Da Nang . On March 29 , as General Trưởng was about to board the navy transport ship HQ @-@ 404 , he received a phone call from President Thiệu , who ordered him to turn back and retake Da Nang from the North Vietnamese forces . By that stage , however , South Vietnamese units in I Corps had virtually disappeared , while their commanding officers had fled from their posts . So General Trưởng refused to carry out President Thiệu 's orders . Between April 3 and 4 , President Thiệu reprimanded General Phạm Văn Phú and General Lâm Quang Thi for the debacles in II and I Corps respectively , and Generals Pham Quoc Thuan and Dư Quốc Đống for the fall of Phước Long in 1974 . Even though President Thiệu used the defeat of South Vietnamese forces as a justification for the arrest of those generals , his real intention behind the arrests was to avert an imaginary military coup against him . For that reason , he chose to pull the Airborne Division back to III Corps , which was commanded by loyalist officers , instead of the Marine Corps Division .
General Ngô Quang Trưởng and General Lê Nguyên Khang were spared , but both men responded strongly to President Thiệu 's reaction . In General Trưởng 's view , the aforementioned generals were victims of injustice , as they were far more competent than Thiệu 's loyalists in Saigon . In addition to the military disasters suffered on the battlefield , President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu also caused instability within his own government during the final days of South Vietnam 's existence . For example , on April 2 , President Thiệu requested the country 's National Assembly to dissolve Prime Minister Trần Thiện Khiêm 's cabinet , and replace him with Nguyễn Bá Cẩn . The National Assembly quickly approved President Thiệu 's request . Then on the same day , President Thiệu also ordered the arrest of seven individuals who had worked for Air @-@ Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ , believing they were plotting to overthrow him . William Colby — CIA Chief of Station in Saigon — wrote in a report back to Washington that the balance of power had leaned in Hanoi 's favour . As such , if South Vietnam were to survive the North Vietnamese onslaught , whoever replaced President Thiệu would have to accept a resolution to the conflict on North Vietnamese terms .
= Baccano ! =
Baccano ! ( Japanese : バッカーノ ! , Hepburn : Bakkāno ! , Italian for " ruckus " , Italian pronunciation : [ bakˈkaːno ] ) is a Japanese light novel series written by Ryohgo Narita and illustrated by Katsumi Enami . The series , often told from multiple points of view , is mostly set within a fictional United States during various time periods , most notably the Prohibition era . It focuses on various people , including alchemists , thieves , thugs , Mafiosi and Camorristi , who are unconnected to one another . After an immortality elixir is recreated in 1930 Manhattan , the characters begin to cross paths , setting off events that spiral further and further out of control .
The first novel was released in February 2003 under ASCII Media Works ' ( formerly MediaWorks ) Dengeki Bunko imprint , and as of March 2013 , twenty novels have been released . The novels were adapted into a sixteen episode anime television series directed by Takahiro Omori and produced by Brain 's Base and Aniplex . The first thirteen episodes were aired on WOWOW from July 26 , 2007 , to November 1 , 2007 ; the final three were released direct @-@ to @-@ DVD . The series was also adapted into a two @-@ volume manga , an adventure video game for the Nintendo DS and two drama CDs . An additional novel was released with the first drama CD and two gaiden novels were released in parts with the DVDs of the anime adaption .
Funimation has dubbed the anime episodes in English , and has licensed them for release in the United States and Canada . The series was also licensed by Manga Entertainment for English releases in the United Kingdom , and by Madman Entertainment for releases in Australia and New Zealand . The entire English @-@ dubbed series was streamed through Hulu during October 2009 and English @-@ subtitled episodes continue to be streamed . Funimation streams English @-@ subtitled and English @-@ dubbed episodes through their website . The series has also aired in the Philippines , Hong Kong and Southeast Asia on Animax Asia . On January 25 , 2016 , it was announced that the streaming and DVD home distribution rights for the North American distributor of the anime , Funimation , would expire , which occurred on February 8 , 2016 .
The light novels of the series have been well received by readers and have also been awarded . The first light novel , The Rolling Bootlegs , was awarded the Gold Prize of the ninth Dengeki Novel Prize , held by ASCII Media Works in 2002 , after reaching third place . The anime adaptation of the series has been popular in Japan and the United States , and has also received significant praise for its plot , characters , strong dubbing , animation and musical score .
= = Plot = =
Aboard the ship Advenna Avis in
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1711 , a group of alchemists summon a demon in the hopes of gaining eternal life . The demon gives them an elixir of immortality and the method of ending their existence , by " devouring " one another , and grants the summoner Maiza Avaro the formula of the elixir . Maiza and most of the alchemists decide that no one else must become immortal ; only Szilard Quates opposes . That night , the alchemists begin to disappear , devoured by Szilard . Realizing the threat posed by staying together , they scatter across the globe .
In New York City during November 1930 , Szilard succeeds in recreating the elixir , only to have it stolen by young thug Dallas Genoard . The elixir continually moves around the city because of Dallas , with the three mafiosi Gandor brothers , the two idiotic thieves Isaac Dian and Miria Harvent , and Maiza 's protege Firo Prochainezo and their Camorra family , the Martillo , all passing it around . Szilard makes Dallas an incomplete immortal ( meaning he still ages ) to retrieve the elixir . However , all other parties accidentally consume the elixir , mistaking it for alcohol , at a party for Firo . Firo falls in love with Szilard 's immortal homunculus Ennis , who betrays Szilard by telling Firo how to devour Szilard , which he does . The Gandor then cement Dallas to a barrel at the bottom of the Hudson River to punish him for killing Gandor members .
In late 1931 , the Gandor fight the Runorata family for control of the same area after a new drug surfaces . In an attempt to resolve the situation , Luck Gandor asks his adoptive brother Claire Stanfield , a psychopathic assassin , to travel to New York . Claire agrees to and boards the transcontinental train the Flying Pussyfoot , on which he works as a conductor . The train is hijacked by the Russo and Lemure gangs , who are trying to kidnap a senator 's family , and a battle ensues between the two gangs . Meanwhile , Jacuzzi Splot , Nice Holystone and their gang attempt to protect the passengers and fight the hijackers , while Claire assumes the identity of the Rail Tracer , a monster that eats train passengers , and slaughters much of the Russo and the Lemure , only to successfully propose to one of the Lemure , Chane Laforet , who is a daughter of immortals . The last remaining members of the Lemure are eventually defeated by Jacuzzi 's gang , while sadistic murderer Ladd Russo is incarcerated and loses his arm to Claire . At the same time , Ennis writes to Isaac and Miria , inviting them to Manhattan . The duo boards the same train and meets Jacuzzi , and unwittingly sway immortal Czeslaw Meyer from enacting malevolent acts by abandoning selling a series of homemade bombs meant for Runoratas to counter the Gandors .
The train arrives in New Year 1932 with the survivors going their separate ways : Jacuzzi and Nice escape custody and go into hiding after their base of operations in Chicago was taken over by the Russo family ; information gatherer Rachel returns to the Daily Days mostly unscathed ; Isaac and Miria introduce Czes to the Martillo family and is subsequently adopted by Firo and Ennis , who later marry , as the latter 's brother ; and Claire begins his mission to exterminate the enemies of his adoptive brothers , implying his intentions to find Chane and marry her after the job is done .
Later that year Dallas ' sister Eve searches for Dallas , putting her at odds with Luck . These stories involved the Daily Days News Information company and the Runorattas ' drug plot with Begg , a drug addicted immortal alchemist acquaintance of Maiza 's encroaching Gandor turf through his miracle drugs , testing it on innocent bystanders including a young man named Roy Maddock . Eventually Eve is caught up in the turf war involving drugs with the Runoratta family and Gandors , the ramifications of the turf war affecting two lovers : Gandor speakeasy waitress Edith and her boyfriend , revealed to be Roy . The climax of the conflict results in Luck secretly telling Eve where Dallas is to spare her from bloodshed , and with Claire 's help , the turf war ends with bittersweet results for Edith and Roy now associated with the Gandors until they finish the debt they compiled in the story albeit in happier terms .
Eventually , Dallas is pulled out of the river , but shortly after , he is abducted by the Larvae , a group working for Huey Laforet . Meanwhile , Jacuzzi 's operations begin to encroach on Gandor and Martillo turf . Representatives ( Ronnie Schiatto , Ennis and Tick Jefferson ) from both groups converge on Eve 's home , where his gang is staying along with Isaac and Miria . At the same time , the Larvae arrive to enlist Jacuzzi 's help ; they have kidnapped Dallas to prove that immortality is possible , and attempt to convince Jacuzzi into join them . Elsewhere in 1933 New York , Mist Wall , the largest branch office of the military equipment researcher and developer Nebula , is bombed as according to Huey 's plans with the help of Lamia , another faction of homunculus made by him .
The next year in 1934 at Alcatraz Island , Ladd befriends Firo , who was framed for a public bombing , and Isaac , who was finally caught for his thefts , and they meet Chane 's immortal father Huey , who was charged with treason and conspiracy years ago with affiliation to the Lemures among other terrorist acts . Meanwhile , Christopher Shouldered , Huey 's homunculus , and Graham Specter , Ladd 's loyal follower , cause an all out war in Chicago through various battles enacted by the Lamia and Russo family . Afterwards , Jacuzzi and his gang return to Chicago while Ladd attempts to kill Huey and fails thanks to the efforts of Isaac and Firo however the scuffle resulted in Huey 's eye taken with the help of Lamia operative Sham , a homunculus who can take over one 's consciousness by contact through his body in the form of water . The homunculus group Lamia ( associated with Larvae , the group previously encountered by the cast ) cause trouble for the Russo family while this happens . Several of the Lamia join their forces and others split for other purposes , particularly Christopher joining with the Russo family to protect their heir named Ricardo Russo along with Lamia member Sickle and Graham Spector . Isaac is eventually released from Alcatraz along with Firo . Placido Russo , Ricardo 's grandfather and Ladd 's uncle , is eventually turned immortal and consumed by Nebula scientist Renee for his failure in stopping the rampage of Chicago , resulting in Ricardo inheriting the crime family .
The remainder of the plot focuses of an even older faction of Immortals led by Huey 's mentor and former lover , Renee Paramedes Branvillier detailed their relationship with the 1711 immortals from the 1700s till the later 1930s and how the corporation Nebula involves themselves against the other crime families by allying themselves with Senator Beriam , who has a grudge against the immortals and wishes to rid the world of them . One particular immortal named Melvi targets Firo in 1935 by endangering Ennis in order to extract the memories of Szilard Quaites by eating Firo , unaware that his bodyguard is Claire Stanfield , resulting in his defeat . Later , Renee continues to pursue Huey by attempting to reclaim Chane for a purpose which put her at odds with Claire who intends to marry their daughter . As of this writing , the conflict appears to remain unresolved .
In 2001 , Maiza and a few immortals appear in a rural European town to apprehend a fellow alchemist and immortal Elmer C. Albatross , who had been masquerading as a demon and was imprisoned by the locals . They uncover an age old conspiracy detailing the origins of water homunculi from the 1930s ( Sham and Leeza Laforet , sister of Chane ) and also putting a stop the experiments on the people that had been ongoing in the town as they remained unaware of Szilard Quaite 's demise for almost the remaining century , his descendant Bild Quaites later encounters the immortals and reveals the horrific secrets of the village . Phil and Felt Nebil , homunculi resulting from Szilard 's experiments are subsequently freed from the village and allowed to wander the earth , ending up in New York after the ordeal .
In 2002 , a cult named SAMPLE launches a heist to replicate the Flying Pussyfoot incident via a twin cruise ship named Exit and Entrance only to be thwarted by Claire Stanfield and Chane Laforet 's descendants , Claudia and Charon Walken with Jaccuzi Splot and Nice Holystone 's descendant , Bobby Splot along with his gang with unwitting aide from another faction called Mask Makers led by Huey 's descendant Luchino B. Campanella . It is eventually revealed that Czes 's tormentor Fermet is in fact the mastermind and overall villain of the series after Szilard Quaites .
= = Production = =
Ryohgo Narita wanted to write a story set during the Prohibition and chose a light novel as the medium because not many of them had that setting . He believed that this choice would better attract the interest of the ASCII Media Works judges . After Narita saw The Untouchables , he spent about ten days working with inspirations and created Baccano ! " out of [ his ] useless calculations . " While writing the first novel The Rolling Bootlegs , he consulted many books while writing and mixed fictional elements with historical situations to create a unique plot flow . The story he originally planned was about an ancient magician who was revived during the Prohibition and began to terrorize New York City . A group of mafiosi then violently oppose the magician . However , the story became very different from the original concept . Narita never wrote a detailed outline for the novel and is relieved by that fact because it allowed the characters to " move on their own . " The original stages of the series included more supernatural elements . Maiza Avaro was a hypnotist ; Ennis was a succubus ; Szilard was a magician . In addition , every member of the Camorra , except for Firo , did not survive . Despite the great differences between the characters ' initial concepts and the result , Narita is " glad " that these ideas were not used in the finished novel .
Narita did not begin work on a second novel during the six months after the publication of The Rolling Bootlegs because his chief editor asked him to write nothing until after he graduated from university . After his graduation , he was offered to publish his next book in August , and he submitted his manuscripts in late April , a bit behind original deadlines . He had written over 400 pages , making the price over ¥ 700 , which is a high price for a novel written by a newcomer . This worried Narita because it was unlikely anyone would buy the novel . As a result , he and his chief editor decided that the novel would be released in two parts . However , Narita was still anxious about publishing such a long novel . To motivate himself to write more , he would often refer back to the dialogue he had written for Ladd Russo . As with the first novel , the plot changed because of the characters ' " movements " , most notably Claire Stanfield . Narita noted that all of the Lemure and Russo , with the exception of a character named Neider , were originally planned to die , but Claire 's presence in the novel left that concept " in ruins " . In addition , Chane Laforet , who was not well liked by the author , was also supposed to die , but as time passed , Narita became attached to her and changed her fate .
While creating the anime series , art director Ito Satoshi and other staff members scouted Manhattan and surrounding neighborhoods to accurately portray the area . They visited the Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood , Chinatown , Little Italy , Grand Central Terminal and various locations in Brooklyn and along the East River , many of which provide the backdrop for the events in Baccano ! . The staff also visited the Steamtown National Historic Site to create accurate steam locomotives .
Tyler Walker , the ADR director of the English dub of the series , held auditions for six days , during which about 140 people came for the eighteen main roles . Walker states that this is probably the longest casting process Funimation has held . He comments that because there are a lot of characters and most of them are older men , a character type he does not work with often , choosing voice actors and familiarizing them with their characters was difficult . He asked many directors and actors for recommendations and mainly aimed to cast newcomers , as he felt Baccano ! provided him a chance to discover newer talent . Walker wished to find actors who could provide the dialect and accents of the various time periods and locations , especially when casting for the characters with heavy European accents .
To prepare to write the script , Walker watched various movies featuring gangsters . He attempted to take what he could from The Untouchables , especially Robert De Niro 's portrayal of Al Capone . Walker watched movies created and set in the 1930s , including but not limited to The Public Enemy , Little Caesar , Once Upon a Time in America , Miller 's Crossing and various movies starring James Cagney , because he believed they would give him a truer feel on how people of the era sounded and talked . He wanted to capture the lingo and rhythm . Because Baccano ! is a " stylized gangster flick " and because of the nature of anime , he made the dialogue more flowery and lingo @-@ ridden than it would have been in reality .
= = Media = =
= = = Light novels = = =
The Baccano ! light novels are written by Ryohgo Narita and illustrated by Katsumi Enami . Originally , Narita entered the first novel into ASCII Media Works ' ninth Dengeki Novel Prize in 2002 and the novel won the Gold Prize , placing third . The first novel was released in February 2003 under ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Bunko imprint , and as of March 3 , 2013 , twenty novels have been released . In addition , one novel accompanied the first drama CD , released on March 31 , 2006 , and two gaiden novels were released in parts with DVDs of the anime adaption , released from October 24 , 2007 to May 28 , 2008 .
Daewon C.I. licensed the Korean @-@ language release of the series in South Korea and releases the novels under their NT Novels imprint . A Chinese @-@ language release in Taiwan and Hong Kong is published by the Taiwan branch of Kadokawa Media under their Fantastic Novels imprint .
It was announced at the 2015 Anime Expo that Yen Press will start publishing the Baccano ! novels in English in 2016 .
= = = Drama CDs = = =
The series has been adapted into two drama CDs . The first , titled 1931 Local Chapter ・ Express Chapter ( 鈍行編 ・ 特急編 , Donkōhen ・ Tokkyūhen ) The Grand Punk Railroad , was released March 31 , 2006 by MediaWorks . Named after the second and third light novels , the CD retells the events occurring aboard the Flying Pussyfoot train .
The second CD , Firo Prochainezo witnesses the 53rd death of Pietro Gonzalez ( フィーロ ・ プロシェンツォ 、 ピエトロ ・ ゴンザレスの五十三回目の死を目撃す , Firo Puroshentso , Pietoro Gonzaresu no gojūsankaime no shi o mokugeki su ) , was released by Movic on October 24 , 2007 . It follows Firo and Luck as they chase two men to a small village in Mexico and attempt to retrieve money stolen from the Martillo and Gandor families .
= = = Anime = = =
A 16 @-@ episode anime series directed by Takahiro Omori and produced by Brain 's Base , Aniplex and Movic was adapted from the light novels . The episodes describe the events spanning from 1930 to 1932 in a non @-@ linear fashion , including the recreation of the immortality elixir , the hijacking of the Flying Pussyfoot , Eve 's hunt for her brother and the gang war between the Gandor and the Runorata . The first thirteen episodes aired in Japan from July 26 , 2007 to November 1 , 2007 on WOWOW , a Japanese pay @-@ per @-@ view station , and the final three were released direct @-@
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to @-@ DVD . The series made its North American television debut when it started airing on the Funimation Channel September 6 , 2010 .
Eight DVD compilations were released by Aniplex , each containing two episodes , with the first released on October 24 , 2007 and the eighth on May 28 , 2008 . A Blu @-@ ray Baccano ! limited edition boxset was released on January 26 , 2011 by Aniplex . On July 21 , 2008 , Funimation announced that it has licensed Baccano ! for a North American release . Four DVD compilations were released , with the first on January 27 , 2009 and the fourth on June 16 , 2009 . A complete DVD collection boxset was released December 29 , 2009 , and re @-@ released on December 28 , 2010 as part of a lower @-@ priced Viridian Collection . A limited edition Blu @-@ ray boxset was released May 17 , 2011 . The entire English @-@ dubbed series was streamed through Hulu during October 2009 and English @-@ subtitled episodes continue to be streamed , and Funimation streamed subtitled and dubbed episodes through their website . In Australia and New Zealand , the series is licensed by Madman Entertainment , who released the series over four DVDs between June 24 , 2009 and October 21 , 2009 . A boxset was released on March 17 , 2010 . Baccano ! is licensed in the United Kingdom by Manga Entertainment and was released as a complete boxset on October 11 , 2010 . The series is aired in the Philippines , Hong Kong , India , Pakistan and Southeast Asia on Animax Asia .
It was announced on January 25 , 2016 , that Funimation 's DVD home distribution and streaming rights for the anime would expire on February 8 , 2016 and the series will be transferred to Aniplex of America .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The series ' original soundtrack was released as Spiral Melodies on October 24 , 2007 by Aniplex . Two singles , " Gun 's & Roses " by Paradise Lunch and " Calling " by Kaori Oda , were released on August 22 , 2007 . " Gun 's and Roses " contained the opening theme , a vocal version of the opening , two songs and karaoke versions of the three tracks . The " Calling " single included the ending theme , another track and the karaoke versions of the two .
= = = Manga = = =
A manga adaption titled Baccano ! 1931 The Grand Punk Railroad was written by Narita and illustrated by Ginyū Shijin . It was published in MediaWorks ' Dengeki Comic Gao ! magazine from December 27 , 2006 to February 27 , 2008 and was collected in two volumes released July 27 , 2007 and April 26 , 2008 . The chapters center around the hijacking of the Flying Pussyfoot train . The Chinese @-@ language release is published by the Taiwan branch of Kadokawa Media .
A second adaptation , written by Shinta Fujimoto and published in Square Enix 's Young Gangan magazine , began publication on October 16 , 2015 . The series is licensed by Yen Press , who publishes the chapters simultaneously with Japan .
Volume list
Chapter not yet in tankōbon format
= = = Video game = = =
On February 28 , 2008 , MediaWorks released an adventure game , simply titled Baccano ! , for the Nintendo DS . Based on the two Grand Punk Railroad light novels , the game recounts the events aboard the Flying Pussyfoot train from multiple perspectives . The player 's goal is to help the passengers arrive safely in New York City by selecting the correct choices . The game can conclude with one of about fifty scenarios , depending on the player 's decisions .
= = = Artbook = = =
On February 20 , 2009 , ASCII Media Works released an art book titled Katsumi Enami Artbook Baccano ! ( エナミカツミ画集バッカーノ ! , Enami Katsumi Gashū Baccano ! ) . The book not only featured illustrations drawn by Enami , but also included a story titled Boy Czeslaw , Fellows of the Forest ( of Buildings ) ( チェスワフぼうやと 、 ( ビルの ) 森の仲間達 , Chesuwafu Bōya to , ( Biru no ) Mori no Nakamatachi ) .
= = Reception = =
While reviewing the first light novel , Gabriella Ekens from Anime News Network said " he prose in Baccano ! is extremely punchy , moving quickly by focusing heavily on dialogue and action . " She also praised it by saying " blast moment to moment . " Nevertheless , she found the its gore as a con to enjoying it .
The anime adaptation of Baccano ! has received critical acclaim . Several critics from various websites have praised the series for its plot , characters , animation , musical score and its voice acting , especially the English dubbed version . For example , THEM Anime Reviews gave the entire series a score of 5 out of 5 stars , with reviewer Bradley Meek stating that the show was " a joy to watch " and despite the fact that " the series ends on an epilogue that feels a bit flat " , it left him with " the best possible feeling : a mixture of contentment and a hunger to see more " . He also praised the series for its animation which looked " great throughout , especially for a TV series " before summarizing the series as a " beautiful , confounding mess of chaos and delight " .
Baccano ! has received significant praise from Anime News Network reviewers . Theron Martin described the anime as " sometimes humorous , occasionally brutal , and nearly always fun " . He claimed that the anime 's " complex plotting and voluminous casting , combined with strong dubbing , animation , and musical score , make this a must @-@ see series for fans of American mobster stories , " and concluding that " this could be one of the year 's best series . " In his review , Carl Kimlinger claimed Baccano ! to be " one of the best , and certainly the most cleverly written series in recent years " and described it as " lethally fun " before giving the series an ' A ' rating for both the subbed and dubbed versions .
Davey C. Jones of Active Anime praised the anime , stating that , " Like Pulp Fiction changed the way we saw movies , Baccano will be the story that will change the way we see anime , " concluding that " this all over the map anime is one unique and crazy ride from start to its never ending finale " and that " Baccano offers something truly unique in anime . "
Daryl Surat and Mike Toole of Anime World Order Podcast consider Baccano ! to be their " pick for best series of 2007 ( or 2009 depending on how you want to count it ) . " Bryce Coulter of Mania Entertainment gave the complete series a ' B ' rating , stating that it is " a drastic and welcome departure from your typical anime formula and that ’ s what makes it so intriguing , " and concluding that it has a " little bit of comedy , drama , action , and romance all swirled up into one giant ruckus of fun ! "
= Michael Schumacher =
Michael Schumacher ( German pronunciation : [ ˈmɪçaʔɛl ˈʃuːmaxɐ ] ; born 3 January 1969 ) is a German retired racing driver . He is a seven @-@ time Formula One World Champion and is widely regarded as one of the greatest Formula One drivers of all time . He was named Laureus World Sportsman of the Year twice . He won two titles with Benetton in 1994 and 1995 before moving to Ferrari where he drove for eleven years . His time with Ferrari yielded five consecutive titles between 2000 and 2004 .
Schumacher holds many of Formula One 's driver records , including most championships , race victories , fastest laps , pole positions and most races won in a single season – 13 in 2004 ( the last of these records was equalled by fellow German Sebastian Vettel nine years later ) . In 2002 , he became the only driver in Formula One history to finish in the top three in every race of a season and then also broke the record for most consecutive podium finishes . According to the official Formula One website , he is " statistically the greatest driver the sport has ever seen " .
After beginning in karting , Schumacher won the German drivers ' championships in Formula König and Formula Three before joining Mercedes in the World Sportscar Championship . In 1991 , his Mercedes @-@ funded race debut for the Jordan Formula One team resulted in Schumacher being signed by Benetton Formula One team as their driver for the rest of that season . Establishing himself as a top driver , finishing third in 1992 and fourth in 1993 , Schumacher became the first German World Drivers ' Champion in 1994 by one point over Damon Hill . In 1995 he repeated the success , this time with a greater margin . Schumacher moved to Ferrari in 1996 . Schumacher came close to winning the 1997 and 1998 titles , before breaking his leg at the 1999 British Grand Prix , ending another title run . Things then came good for Schumacher who won another five consecutive drivers ' titles from 2000 to 2004 . Schumacher retired from Formula One driving in 2006 staying with Ferrari as an advisor . He came close to an eighth title that year , but due to technical problems in the final two races he fell short to Fernando Alonso . Schumacher agreed to return for Ferrari part @-@ way through 2009 , as cover for the badly injured Felipe Massa , but was prevented by a neck injury . Schumacher returned to Formula One on a permanent basis from 2010 with the Mercedes team before retiring for a second time at the conclusion of the 2012 season .
His career was not without controversy , including being twice involved in collisions in the final race of a season that determined the outcome of the World Championship , with Damon Hill in 1994 in Adelaide , and with Jacques Villeneuve in 1997 in Jerez . Off the track , Schumacher is an ambassador for UNESCO and a spokesman for driver safety . He has been involved in numerous humanitarian efforts throughout his life and donated tens of millions of dollars to charity . Schumacher and his younger brother , Ralf , are the only brothers to win races in Formula One , and they were the first brothers to finish 1st and 2nd in the same race , a feat they repeated in four subsequent races .
In December 2013 , Schumacher suffered a serious head injury while skiing . He was airlifted to a hospital and placed in a medically induced coma , having suffered a traumatic brain injury . He was in the coma for six months from 29 December 2013 until 16 June 2014 . He left the hospital in Grenoble for further rehabilitation at the University Hospital ( CHUV ) in Lausanne . On 9 September 2014 , Schumacher was relocated to his home where he continues to receive medical treatment and rehabilitation privately .
= = Early years = =
Schumacher was born in Hürth , North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , to Rolf Schumacher , a bricklayer , and his wife Elisabeth . When Schumacher was four , his father modified his pedal kart by adding a small motorcycle engine . When Schumacher crashed it into a lamp post in Kerpen , his parents took him to the karting track at Kerpen @-@ Horrem , where he became the youngest member of the karting club . His father soon built him a kart from discarded parts and at the age of six Schumacher won his first club championship . To support his son 's racing , Rolf Schumacher took on a second job renting and repairing karts , while his wife worked at the track 's canteen . Nevertheless , when Michael needed a new engine costing 800 DM , his parents were unable to afford it ; he was able to continue racing with support from local businessmen .
Regulations in Germany require a driver to be at least fourteen years old to obtain a kart license . To get around this , Schumacher obtained a license in Luxembourg at the age of 12 .
In 1983 , he obtained his German license , a year after he won the German Junior Kart Championship . From 1984 on , Schumacher won many German and European kart championships . He joined Eurokart dealer Adolf Neubert in 1985 and by 1987 he was the German and European kart champion , then he quit school and began working as a mechanic . In 1988 he made his first step into single @-@ seat car racing by participating in the German Formula Ford and Formula König series , winning the latter .
In 1989 , Schumacher signed with Willi Weber 's WTS Formula Three team . Funded by Weber , he competed in the German Formula 3 series , winning the title in 1990 . He also won the Macau Grand Prix . At the end of 1990 , along with his Formula 3 rivals Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen and Karl Wendlinger , he joined the Mercedes junior racing programme in the World Sports @-@ Prototype Championship . This was unusual for a young driver : most of Schumacher 's contemporaries would compete in Formula 3000 on the way to Formula One . However , Weber advised Schumacher that being exposed to professional press conferences and driving powerful cars in long distance races would help his career . In the 1990 World Sportscar Championship season , Schumacher won the season finale at the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in a Sauber – Mercedes C11 , and finished fifth in the drivers ' championship despite only driving in three of the nine races . He continued with the team in the 1991 World Sportscar Championship season , winning again at the final race of the season at Autopolis in Japan with a Sauber – Mercedes @-@ Benz C291 , leading to a ninth @-@ place finish in the drivers ' championship . He also competed at Le Mans during that season , finishing 5th in a car shared with Karl Wendlinger and Fritz Kreutzpointner . In 1991 , he competed in one race in the Japanese Formula 3000 Championship , finishing second .
= = Formula One career = =
Schumacher was noted throughout his career for his ability to produce fast laps at crucial moments in a race and to push his car to the very limit for sustained periods . Motor sport author Christopher Hilton observed in 2003 that a " measure of a driver 's capabilities is his performance in wet races , because the most delicate car control and sensitivity are needed " , and noted that like other great drivers , Schumacher 's record in wet conditions shows very few mistakes : up to the end of the 2003 season , Schumacher won 17 of the 30 races in wet conditions he contested . Some of Schumacher 's best performances occurred in such conditions , earning him the nicknames " Regenkönig " ( rain king ) or " Regenmeister " ( rain master ) , even in the non @-@ German @-@ language media . He is known as " the Red Baron " , because of his red Ferrari and in reference to the German Manfred von Richthofen , the famous flying ace of World War I. Schumacher 's nicknames include " Schumi " , " Schuey " and " Schu " . Schumacher is often credited with popularising Formula One in Germany , where it was formerly considered a fringe sport . When Schumacher retired in 2006 , three of the top ten drivers were German , more than any other nationality and more than have ever been present in Formula One history . Younger German drivers , such as Sebastian Vettel , felt Schumacher was key in their becoming Formula One drivers . In the latter part of his Formula One career , and as one of the senior drivers , Schumacher was the president of the Grand Prix Drivers ' Association . In a 2006 FIA survey , Michael Schumacher was voted the most popular driver of the season among Formula One fans .
= = = Jordan ( 1991 ) = = =
Schumacher made his Formula One debut with the Jordan @-@ Ford team at the 1991 Belgian Grand Prix , driving car number 32 as a replacement for the imprisoned Bertrand Gachot . Schumacher , still a contracted Mercedes driver , was signed by Eddie Jordan after Mercedes paid Jordan $ 150 @,@ 000 for his debut .
= = = = Belgian Grand Prix debut = = = =
The week before the race , Schumacher impressed Jordan designer Gary Anderson and team manager Trevor Foster during a test drive at Silverstone . His manager Willi Weber assured Jordan that Schumacher knew the challenging Spa track well , although in fact he had only seen it as a spectator . During the race weekend , team @-@ mate Andrea de Cesaris was meant to show Schumacher the circuit , but was held up with contract negotiations . Schumacher then learned the track on his own , by cycling around the track on a fold @-@ up bike he had brought with him . He impressed the paddock by qualifying seventh in this race . This matched the team 's season @-@ best grid position , and out @-@ qualified 11 @-@ year veteran de Cesaris . Motorsport journalist Joe Saward reported that after qualifying " clumps of German journalists were talking about ' the best talent since Stefan Bellof ' " . Schumacher retired on the first lap of the race with clutch problems .
= = = Benetton ( 1991 – 1995 ) = = =
Following his Belgian Grand Prix debut , and despite an agreement in principle between Jordan and Schumacher 's Mercedes management that would see the German race for the Irish team for the remainder of the season , Schumacher was engaged by Benetton @-@ Ford for the following race . Jordan applied for an injunction in the UK courts to prevent Schumacher driving for Benetton , but lost the case as they had not yet signed a final contract .
= = = = 1991 – 1993 = = = =
Schumacher finished the 1991 season with four points out of six races . His best finish was fifth in his second race , the Italian Grand Prix , in which he finished ahead of his team @-@ mate and three @-@ time World Champion Nelson Piquet .
At the start of the 1992 season the Sauber team , planning their Formula One debut with Mercedes backing for the following year , invoked a clause in Schumacher 's contract that stated that if Mercedes entered Formula One , Schumacher would drive for them . It was eventually agreed that Schumacher would stay with Benetton , Peter Sauber said that " [ Schumacher ] didn 't want to drive for us . Why would I have forced him ? " . The year was dominated by the Williams of Nigel Mansell and Riccardo Patrese , featuring powerful Renault engines , semi @-@ automatic gearboxes and active suspension to control the car 's ride height . In the " conventional " Benetton B192 Schumacher took his place on the podium for the first time , finishing third in the Mexican Grand Prix . He went on to take his first victory at the Belgian Grand Prix , in a wet race at the Spa @-@ Francorchamps circuit , which by 2003 he would call " far and away my favourite track " . He finished third in the Drivers ' Championship in 1992 with 53 points , three points behind runner @-@ up Patrese .
The Williams of Damon Hill and Alain Prost also dominated the 1993 season . Benetton introduced their own active suspension and traction control early in the season , last of the frontrunning teams to do so . Schumacher won one race , the Portuguese Grand Prix where he beat Prost , and had nine podium finishes , but retired in seven of the other 15 races . He finished the season in fourth , with 52 points .
= = = = 1994 – 1995 : World Championship years = = = =
The 1994 season was Schumacher 's first Drivers ' Championship . The season , however , was marred by the deaths of Ayrton Senna ( witnessed by Schumacher , who was directly behind in 2nd position ) and Roland Ratzenberger during the San Marino Grand Prix , and by allegations that several teams , but most particularly Schumacher 's Benetton team , broke the sport 's technical regulations .
Schumacher won six of the first seven races and was leading the Spanish Grand Prix , before a gearbox failure left him stuck in fifth gear . Schumacher finished the race in second place . Following the San Marino Grand Prix , the Benetton , Ferrari and McLaren teams were investigated on suspicion of breaking the FIA @-@ imposed ban on electronic aids . Benetton and McLaren initially refused to hand over their source code for investigation . When they did so , the FIA discovered hidden functionality in both teams ' software , but no evidence that it had been used in a race . Both teams were fined $ 100 @,@ 000 for their initial refusal to cooperate . However , the McLaren software , which was a gearbox program that allowed automatic shifts , was deemed legal . By contrast , the Benetton software was deemed to be a form of " launch control " that would have allowed Schumacher to make perfect starts , which was explicitly outlawed by the regulations . However , there was no evidence to suggest that this software was actually used . At the British Grand Prix , Schumacher was penalised for overtaking on the formation lap . He then ignored the penalty and the subsequent black flag , which indicates that the driver must immediately return to the pits , for which he was disqualified and later given a two @-@ race ban . Benetton blamed the incident on a communication error between the stewards and the team . Schumacher was also disqualified after winning the Belgian Grand Prix after his car was found to have illegal wear on its skidblock , a measure used after the accidents at Imola to limit downforce and hence cornering speed . Benetton protested that the skidblock had been damaged when Schumacher spun over a kerb , but the FIA rejected their appeal because of the pattern of wear and damage visible on the block . These incidents helped Damon Hill close the points gap , and Schumacher led by a single point going into the final race in Australia . On lap 36 Schumacher hit the guardrail on the outside of the track while leading . Hill attempted to pass , but as Schumacher 's car returned to the track there was a collision on the corner causing them both to retire . As a result , Schumacher won a very controversial championship , the first German to do so ( Jochen Rindt raced under the Austrian flag ) . At the FIA conference after the race , the new World Champion dedicated his title to Ayrton Senna .
In 1995 Schumacher successfully defended his title with Benetton . He now had the same Renault engine as Williams . He accumulated 33 more points than second @-@ placed Damon Hill . With team @-@ mate Johnny Herbert , he took Benetton to its first Constructors ' Championship and became the youngest two @-@ time World Champion in Formula One history .
The season was marred by several collisions with Hill , in particular an overtaking manoeuvre by Hill took them both out of the British Grand Prix on lap 45 and again on lap 23 of the Italian Grand Prix . Schumacher won nine of the 17 races , and finished on the podium 11 times . Only once did he qualify worse than fourth ; at the Belgian Grand Prix , he qualified 16th , but went on to win the race .
= = = Ferrari ( 1996 – 2006 ) = = =
In 1996 , Schumacher joined Ferrari , a team that had last won the Drivers ' Championship in 1979 and the Constructors ' Championship in 1983 , for a salary of $ 60 million over 2 years . He left Benetton a year before his contract with them expired ; he later cited the team 's damaging actions in 1994 as his reason for opting out of his deal . A year later Benetton employees Rory Byrne ( designer ) and Ross Brawn ( Technical Director ) joined Ferrari .
Ferrari had previously come close to the championship in 1982 and 1990 . The team had suffered a disastrous downturn in the early 1990s , partially as its famous V12 engine was no longer competitive against the smaller , lighter and more fuel efficient V10s of its competitors . Various drivers , notably Alain Prost , had given the vehicles labels such as " truck " , " pig " , and " accident waiting to happen " . Furthermore , the poor performance of the Ferrari pit crews was considered a running joke . At the end of 1995 , though the team had improved into a solid competitor , it was still considered inferior to front @-@ running teams such as Benetton and Williams . Schumacher declared the Ferrari 412T good enough to win the Championship .
Schumacher , Ross Brawn , Rory Byrne , and Jean Todt ( hired in 1993 ) , have been credited as turning this once struggling team into the most successful team in Formula One history . Three @-@ time World Champion Jackie Stewart believes the transformation of the Ferrari team was Schumacher 's greatest feat . Eddie Irvine also joined the team , moving from Jordan . During winter testing , Schumacher first drove a Ferrari , their 1995 Ferrari 412 T2 , and was two seconds faster than former regulars Jean Alesi and Gerhard Berger had been .
= = = = 1996 – 1999 = = = =
Schumacher finished third in the Drivers ' Championship in 1996 and helped Ferrari to second place in the Constructors ' Championship ahead of his old team Benetton . He won three races , more than the team 's total tally for the period from 1991 to 1995 . Early in the 1996 season the car had reliability trouble and Schumacher did not finish six of the 16 races . He took his first win for Ferrari at the Spanish Grand Prix , where he lapped the entire field up to third place in the wet . Having taken the lead on lap 19 , he consistently lapped five seconds faster than the rest of the field in the difficult conditions . In the French Grand Prix Schumacher qualified in pole position , but suffered engine failure on the race 's formation lap . However at Spa @-@ Francorchamps , Schumacher used well @-@ timed pit @-@ stops to fend off Williams 's Jacques Villeneuve . Following that , at Monza , Schumacher won in front of the tifosi . Schumacher 's ability , combined with the improving reliability of Ferrari , enabled him to end the season putting up a challenge to eventual race and championship winner Damon Hill at the Suzuka .
Michael Schumacher and Jacques Villeneuve vied for the title in 1997 . Villeneuve , driving the superior Williams FW19 , led the championship in the early part of the season . However , by mid @-@ season , Schumacher had taken the championship lead , winning five races , and entered the season 's final Grand Prix with a one @-@ point advantage . Towards the end of the race , held at Jerez , Schumacher 's Ferrari developed a coolant leak and loss of performance indicating he may not finish
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96 , and in 1997 Schröder , Münchmeyer , Hengst & Co. from Lloyds Bank was acquired to improve access to the German investment banking and private wealth management markets .
= = = Merger of Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation = = =
During the mid @-@ 1990s , Union Bank of Switzerland came under fire from dissident shareholders critical of its conservative management and lower return on equity .
Martin Ebner , through his investment trust , BK Vision , became the largest shareholder in Union Bank of Switzerland and attempted to force a major restructuring of the bank ’ s operations . Looking to take advantage of the situation , Credit Suisse approached Union Bank of Switzerland about a merger that would have created the second largest bank in the world in 1996 . Union Bank of Switzerland 's management and board unanimously rebuffed the proposed merger . Ebner , who supported the idea of a merger , led a shareholder revolt that resulted in the replacement of Union Bank of Switzerland 's chairman , Robert Studer with Mathis Cabiallavetta , one of the key architects of the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation .
On 8 December 1997 , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation announced an all stock merger . At the time of the merger , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation were the second and third largest banks in Switzerland , respectively . Discussions between the two banks had begun several months earlier , less than a year after rebuffing Credit Suisse 's merger overtures .
The merger resulted in the creation of UBS AG , a huge new bank with total assets of more than US $ 590 billion .
Also referred to as the " New UBS " to distinguish itself from the former Union Bank of Switzerland , the combined bank became the second largest in the world at the time , behind only the Bank of Tokyo @-@ Mitsubishi . Additionally , the merger pulled together the banks ' various asset management businesses to create the world 's largest money manager , with approximately US $ 910 billion in assets under management . The combined entity was originally to be called United Bank of Switzerland , but foreseeing a problem with United Bank Switzerland , opted for UBS .
The merger , which was billed as a merger of equals , resulted in the Union Bank of Switzerland 's shareholders receiving 60 % of the combined company and Swiss Bank 's shareholders receiving the remaining 40 % of the bank 's common shares . Union Bank of Switzerland 's Mathis Cabiallavetta became chairman of the new bank while Swiss Bank 's Marcel Ospel was named chief executive officer .
Nearly 80 % of the top management positions were filled by legacy Swiss Bank professionals . Prior to the merger , Swiss Bank Corporation was considered to be further along than Union Bank of Switzerland in developing its international investment banking business , particularly in the higher margin advisory businesses where Warburg Dillon Read was considered to be the more established platform .
Union Bank of Switzerland had a stronger retail and commercial banking business in Switzerland , while both banks had strong asset management capabilities . After the merger was completed , it was speculated that a series of losses suffered by UBS on its equity derivative positions in late 1997 was a contributing factor in pushing UBS management to consummate the merger .
= = = The failure of Long Term Capital Management ( LTCM ) = = =
Long Term Capital Management ( LTCM ) was a U.S. hedge fund used for trading strategies such as fixed income arbitrage , statistical arbitrage , and pairs trading , combined with high leverage . Its collapse in 1998 led to a bailout by major banks and investment houses , and resulted in massive losses for UBS at a time when it had merged with Swiss Bank Corporation . However , UBS involvement with LTCM pre @-@ dated the merger .
UBS had initially been reluctant to invest in LTCM , rebuffing an investment in 1994 and , again shortly thereafter . UBS , suffering criticism for its conservative business model , was looking for ways to catch up to its key Swiss rivals and viewed LTCM as the type of client that could help accelerate the bank 's growth . In 1997 , UBS entered into a financing arrangement with LTCM , and the hedge fund quickly became the bank 's largest client , generating US $ 15 million in fees for UBS . Union Bank of Switzerland sold LTCM a 7 @-@ year European call option on 1 million shares in LTCM , then valued at about US $ 800 million . It hedged this option by purchasing a US $ 800 million interest in LTCM and invested a further US $ 300 million in the hedge fund . Originally intended to provide UBS with a steady stream of income , UBS instead suffered major losses when the hedge fund collapsed . Following the merger , Swiss Bank managers were surprised to discover the massive exposure to LTCM at UBS . Ultimately , UBS was unable to sell or hedge its interest in LTCM as its value declined in the summer of 1998 .
By November 1998 , UBS 's losses from its exposure to LTCM were estimated at the level of approximately CHF 790 million . UBS would prove to be the largest single loser in the LTCM collapse , ultimately writing off CHF 950 million . The Federal Reserve Bank of New York organized a bailout of US $ 3 @.@ 625 billion by the hedge fund 's major creditors to avoid a wider collapse in the financial markets . UBS contributed US $ 300 million to the bailout effort , which would largely be recovered . In the aftermath of the LTCM collapse , Mathis Cabiallavetta resigned as chairman of UBS , along with three other executives .
Following its involvement with LTCM , UBS issued a statement : " Given the developments in the international financial markets , in the future UBS will [ ... ] focus even more intensively on those areas of business likely to generate sustainable earnings with a justifiable level of risk . "
= = = Rising in the ranks ( 2000 – 2007 ) = = =
On 3 November 2000 , UBS merged with Paine Webber , an American stock brokerage and asset management firm led by chairman and CEO Donald Marron . At the time of its merger with UBS , Paine Webber had emerged as the fourth largest private client firm in the United States with 385 offices employing 8 @,@ 554 brokers . The acquisition pushed UBS to the top wealth and asset management firm in the world . Initially , the business was given the divisional name UBS PaineWebber but in 2003 the 123 @-@ year @-@ old name Paine Webber disappeared when it was renamed UBS Wealth Management USA . UBS took a CHF 1 billion writedown for the loss of goodwill associated with the retirement of the Paine Webber brand when it integrated its brands under the unified UBS name in 2003 .
John P. Costas , a former bond trader and co @-@ head of Fixed income at Credit Suisse First Boston and head of Fixed Income Trading at Union Bank of Switzerland in 1998 , was appointed CEO of UBS 's investment banking division , which originated in SBC 's Warburg Dillon Read division and was renamed UBS Warburg in December 2001 . In an attempt to break into the elite bulge bracket of investment banks , in which UBS then had little success while rival Credit Suisse was establishing itself as a major player on Wall Street with the acquisition of Donaldson , Lufkin & Jenrette in 2000 , Costas shifted the growth strategy from acquiring entire firms to hiring individual investment bankers or teams of bankers from rival firms . Costas had followed a similar approach in building out the UBS fixed income business , hiring over 500 sales and trading personnel and increasing revenues from US $ 300 million in 1998 to over US $ 3 billion by 2001 .
The arrival of former Drexel Burnham Lambert investment banker Ken Moelis marked a major coup for Costas . Moelis joined UBS from Donaldson Lufkin & Jenrette in 2001 shortly after its acquisition by Credit Suisse First Boston ( although Huw Jenkins claimed he had hired Moelis to the UK Parliamentary Banking commission while under oath , which is patently false ) . In his six years at UBS , Moelis ultimately assumed the role of president of UBS Investment Bank and was credited , along with Costas , with the build @-@ out of UBS 's investment banking operation in the United States . Within weeks of joining , Moelis brought over a team of 70 bankers from Donaldson , Lufkin & Jenrette . Costas and Moelis hired more than 30 senior U.S. bankers from 2001 through 2004 .
It was estimated that UBS spent as much as US $ 600 million to US $ 700 million hiring top bankers in the U.S. during this three @-@ year period . Among the bank 's other major recruits during this period were Olivier Sarkozy , Ben Lorello , Blair Effron , and Jeff McDermott .
By 2003 , UBS had risen to fourth place from seventh in global investment banking fees , earning US $ 2 @.@ 1 billion of the US $ 39 billion paid to investment banks that year , increasing 33 % . Over the next four years , UBS consistently ranked in the top 4 in the global fee pool and established a track record of 20 consecutive quarters of rising profits .
However , by the end of 2006 , UBS began to experience changing fortunes . In late 2005 , Costas headed a new hedge fund unit within UBS known as Dillon Read Capital Management . His former position was taken over by Huw Jenkins , a long @-@ time legacy UBS investment banker . In 2006 , UBS bankers Blair Effron and Michael Martin announced their departures . In March 2007 , Moelis announced that he was leaving the company , and shortly thereafter founded a new business , Moelis & Company . As he had when joining UBS , Moelis took a large team of senior UBS investment bankers . Moelis 's departure was caused primarily by repeated conflict over the availability of capital from the bank 's balance sheet to pursue large transactions , particularly leveraged buyouts . The bank 's apparent conservatism would be turned on its head when large losses were reported in various mortgage securities rather than corporate loans that generated investment banking fees . After Moelis , other notable departures included investment banking co @-@ head Jeff McDermott in early 2007 and , as the financial crisis set in , other high @-@ profile bankers such as Oliver Sarkozy in early 2008 and Ben Lorello in 2009 .
= = = The beginning of UBS ' troubles : Subprime mortgage crisis ( 2007 ) = = =
At the beginning of 2007 , UBS became the first Wall Street firm to announce a heavy loss in the subprime mortgage sector as the subprime mortgage crisis began to develop . In May 2007 , UBS announced the closure of its Dillon Read Capital Management ( DRCM ) division . Before that time , there was little understanding of the troubles at DRCM or the massive expansion of risk engineered by the investment banking division under the leadership of the newly placed CEO Huw Jenkins .
DRCM , which was a large internal hedge fund , had been started with much publicity in 2005 and invested money both on behalf of UBS and some of its clients . DRCM had been formed in large part to keep some of the bank 's traders from defecting to hedge funds , as well as to create a position for John Costas , who had been instrumental in creating UBS 's successful investment banking business in the U.S. from 2001 – 2005 . Costas had been replaced by Huw Jenkins , a long @-@ time legacy UBS investment banker with little fixed income or mortgage experience . DRCM hired a large team of professionals , many of whom were attracted from the investment bank with large compensation packages . Although in 2006 , DCRM had generated a profit for the bank of US $ 720 million , after UBS took over DRCM 's positions in May 2007 , losses grew from the US $ 124 million recorded by DRCM , ultimately to " 16 % of the US $ 19 billion in losses UBS recorded . " The UBS investment bank continued to expand subprime risk in the second quarter of 2007 while most market participants were reducing risk , resulting in not only expanding DRCM losses but creating the 84 % of the other losses experienced by the bank . By October 2007 , UBS was indicating that the assets could not be sold given the illiquidity in the market .
In response to the growing series of problems at UBS , and possibly his role in spearheading Costas ' departure from the bank , Peter Wuffli unexpectedly stepped down as CEO of the firm during the second quarter of 2007 . Wuffli would be joined by many of his fellow managers in the next year , most notably the bank 's chairman Marcel Ospel . However , the bank 's problems continued through the end of 2007 , when the bank reported its first quarterly loss in over five years . As its losses jeopardized the bank 's capital position , UBS quickly raised US $ 11 @.@ 5 billion of capital in December 2007 , US $ 9 @.@ 7 billion of which came from the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation ( GIC ) and US $ 1 @.@ 8 billion from an unnamed Middle Eastern investor . Those 2007 capital injections would initially be highly unpopular among UBS shareholders who clamored to have an opportunity to participate on the same terms . However , over time , these early investments in UBS proved to be unsuccessful for the investors involved , as the bank 's stock price remained below 2007 levels more than two years later .
= = = = Impact of the financial crisis ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
After a significant expansion of fixed income risk during 2006 and 2007 under the leadership of Huw Jenkins , the UBS Investment Bank CEO , the bank 's losses continued to mount in 2008 when UBS announced in April 2008 that it was writing down a further US $ 19 billion of investments in subprime and other mortgage assets . ( Jenkins had been asked to leave in October 2007 . ) By this point , UBS 's total losses in the mortgage market were in excess of US $ 37 billion , the largest such losses of any of its peers . In response to its losses , UBS announced a CHF 15 billion rights offering to raise the additional funds need to shore up its depleted reserves of capital . UBS cut its dividend in order to protect its traditionally high Tier 1 capital ratio , seen by investors as a key to its credibility as the world 's largest wealth management company . Marcel Ospel , who had been the architect of the merger that created UBS in 1998 , also announced that he would step down as a chairman of the bank to be replaced by Peter Kurer , the bank ’ s general counsel with virtually no banking experience . This ultimately proved very costly to UBS .
In October 2008 , UBS announced that it had placed CHF 6 billion of new capital , through mandatory convertible notes , with Swiss Confederation . The SNB ( Swiss National Bank ) and UBS made an agreement to transfer approximately US $ 60 billion of currently illiquid securities and various assets from UBS to a separate fund entity . In November 2008 , UBS put US $ 6 billion of equity into the new “ bad bank ” entity , keeping only an option to benefit if the value of its assets were to recover . Heralded as a “ neat ” package by the New York Times , the UBS structure guaranteed clarity for UBS investors by making an outright sale .
UBS announced in February 2009 that it had lost nearly CHF 20 billion ( US $ 17 @.@ 2 billion ) in 2008 , the biggest single @-@ year loss of any company in Swiss history . Since the beginning of the financial crisis in 2007 , UBS has written down more than US $ 50 billion from subprime mortgage investments and cut more than 11 @,@ 000 jobs .
= = = Stabilizing the ship ( 2009 – present ) = = =
By the spring of 2009 , UBS announced another management restructuring and initiated a plan to return to profitability . Jerker Johansson , the head of the investment bank division , resigned in April 2009 and was replaced by Alex Wilmot @-@ Sitwell and Carsten Kengeter . At the same time , UBS announced the planned cut of 8 @,@ 700 jobs and had implemented a new compensation plan . Under the plan , no more than one @-@ third of any cash bonus would be paid out in the year it is earned with the rest to be held in reserve and stock @-@ based incentives that would vest after three years ; top executives would have to hold 75 % of any vested shares . Additionally , the bank 's chairman , Peter Kurer , would no longer receive any extra variable compensation , only a cash salary and a fixed allotment of shares that could not be sold for four years . In April 2009 , UBS announced that it agreed to sell its Brazilian financial services business , UBS Pactual , for approximately US $ 2 @.@ 5 billion to BTG Investments . UBS rejected proposals to break apart the bank and divest its investment banking division .
By the summer of 2009 , UBS was showing increased signs of stabilization . The Swiss government sold its CHF 6 billion stake in UBS in late 2008 at a large profit ; Switzerland had purchased convertible notes in 2008 to help UBS clear its balance sheets of toxic assets . Taking advantage of improved conditions in the stock market in mid @-@ 2009 , UBS placed US $ 3 @.@ 5 billion of shares with a small number of large institutional investors . Oswald Grübel announced , “ We are building a new UBS , one that performs to the highest standards and behaves with integrity and honesty ; one that distinguishes itself not only through the clarity and reliability of the advice and services it provides but in how it manages and executes . " Grübel reiterated plans to maintain an integrated business model of providing wealth management , investment banking , and asset management services .
In August 2010 , UBS launched a new advertising campaign featuring the slogan : “ We will not rest " and signed a global sponsorship agreement with Formula 1 .
On 26 October 2010 , UBS announced that its private bank recorded net new funds of CHF 900 million during the third quarter , compared to an outflow of CHF 5 @.@ 5 billion in second quarter . UBS 's third quarter net profit of US $ 1 @.@ 65 billion beat analyst estimates , continuing a string of profitability .
After the elimination of almost 5 @,@ 000 jobs , UBS announced on 23 August 2011 that it was further cutting another 3 @,@ 500 positions in order to " improve operating efficiency " and save CHF 1 @.@ 5 to CHF 2 billion a year . 45 percent of the job cuts would come from the investment banking unit , which continued to post dismal figures since the 2008 financial crisis , while the rest would come from the wealth management and asset management divisions . The firm has seen profits fall due to the rise of the Swiss franc .
On 30 October 2012 , UBS announced that it was cutting 10 @,@ 000 jobs worldwide in an effort to slim down its investment banking operations , of which 2 @,@ 500 would be in Switzerland , followed by the United States and Great Britain . This 15 @-@ percent staff cut would make overall staff count come down from 63 @,@ 745 to 54 @,@ 000 . ( For comparison , the peak employment level in 2007 before the 2008 financial crisis was 83 @,@ 500 . ) UBS also announced that the investment bank would focus on its traditional strengths and exit much of its fixed income trading business that was not economically profitable .
On 19 December 2012 , UBS was fined $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( $ 1 @.@ 2 billion to the United States Department of Justice and the Commodity Futures Trading Commission , £ 160 million to the UK Financial Services Authority , and CHF 60 million to the Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority ) for its role in the Libor scandal over accusations that it tried to rig benchmark interest rates . US Assistant Attorney General Lanny Breuer described the conduct of UBS as " simply astonishing " and declared the US would seek , as a criminal matter , the extradition of traders Tom Hayes and Roger Darin . The bank stated that these and other fines would probably result in a significant fourth @-@ quarter loss in 2012 . The fine levied by the FSA , although reduced due to the bank 's cooperation , was the largest in the agency 's history .
In November 2014 , regulators including the FCA and CFTC hit UBS with fines , along with other banks , for currency manipulation .
On 6 January 2014 , it was reported that UBS had become the largest private banker in the world , with $ 1 @.@ 7 trillion in assets .
In May 2015 , media reports revealed UBS is planning to sell its Australian private banking division to some of its management after a review of underperforming businesses was conducted at the company . After the first 2016 quartal results , UBS is planning to cut jobs in Switzerland and abroad to stay competitive . ,
= = = Acquisition history = = =
As it exists today , UBS represents a conglomeration of dozens of individual firms , many of which date back to the 19th century . Over the years , these firms merged to form the bank 's three major predecessors , Union Bank of Switzerland , Swiss Bank Corporation , and Paine Webber .
The following is a visual illustration of the company 's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors , although this is not necessarily a comprehensive list :
= = Corporate governance = =
= = = Board of Directors = = =
Chairman Marcel Ospel did not
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en Spurrier attributed to both Beiderbecke and Armstrong . " Louis departed greatly from all cornet players in his ability to compose a close @-@ knit individual 32 measures with all phrases compatible with each other " , Spurrier told the biographers Sudhalter and Evans , " so Bix and I always credited Louis as being the father of the correlated chorus : play two measures , then two related , making four measures , on which you played another four measures related to the first four , and so on ad infinitum to the end of the chorus . So the secret was simple — a series of related phrases . "
Beiderbecke plays piano on his recordings " Big Boy " ( October 8 , 1924 ) , " For No Reason at All in C " ( May 13 , 1927 ) , " Wringin ' and Twistin ' " ( September 17 , 1927 ) — all with ensembles — and his only solo recorded work , " In a Mist " ( September 8 , 1927 ) . Critic Frank Murphy argues that many of the same characteristics that mark Beiderbecke on the cornet mark him on the keyboard : the uncharacteristic fingering , the emphasis on inventive harmonies , and the correlated choruses . Those inventive harmonies , on both cornet and piano , eventually helped point the way to bebop , which abandoned melody almost entirely .
= = = Compositions = = =
Bix Beiderbecke wrote or co @-@ wrote six instrumental compositions during his career :
" Davenport Blues " ( 1925 )
" In a Mist ( Bixology ) " ( 1927 )
" For No Reason at All in C " ( 1927 ) with Frank Trumbauer
" Candlelights " ( 1930 )
" Flashes " ( 1931 )
" In the Dark " ( 1931 )
" Candlelights " , " Flashes " , and " In the Dark " are piano compositions transcribed with the help of Bill Challis but never recorded by Beiderbecke . Two additional compositions were attributed to him by two other jazz composers : " Betcha I Getcha " , attributed to Beiderbecke as a co @-@ composer by Joe Venuti , the composer of the song , and " Cloudy " , attributed to Beiderbecke by composer Charlie Davis as a composition from circa 1924 .
= = = Major recordings = = =
Bix Beiderbecke 's first recordings were as a member of the Wolverine Orchestra
" Fidgety Feet " / " Jazz Me Blues " , recorded on February 18 , 1924 , in Richmond , Indiana , and released as Gennett 5408
" Copenhagen " , recorded on May 6 , 1924 , and released as Gennett 5453B and Claxtonola 40336B
" Riverboat Shuffle " / " Susie ( Of the Islands ) " , recorded on May 6 , 1924 , and released as Gennett 5454
As Bix Beiderbecke and his Rhythm Jugglers
" Toddlin ' Blues " / " Davenport Blues " , recorded on January 26 , 1925 , in Richmond , Indiana , and released as Gennett 5654
With the Jean Goldkette Orchestra in 1926 – 1927
" My Pretty Girl " / " Cover Me Up with Sunshine " , recorded on February 1 , 1927 , in New York and released as Victor 20588
" Sunny Disposish " / " Fox Trot " from " Americana " , recorded on February 3 , 1927 , in New York and released as Victor 20493B
" Clementine " , recorded on September 15 , 1927 in New York and released on Victor 20994 " Jean Goldkette and his Orchestra " .
With Frankie Trumbauer and His Orchestra and guitarist Eddie Lang
" Clarinet Marmalade " / " Singin ' the Blues " , recorded on February 4 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 40772
" Riverboat Shuffle " / " Ostrich Walk " , recorded on May 9 , 1927 in New York and released as Okeh 40822
" I 'm Coming , Virginia " / " Way Down Yonder in New Orleans " , recorded on May 13 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 40843
" For No Reason at All in C " / " Trumbology " , recorded on May 13 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 40871 , Columbia 35667 , and Parlophone R 3419
" In a Mist " / " Wringin ' an ' Twistin ' " , recorded on September 9 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 40916 and Vocalion 3150
" Borneo " / " My Pet " , recorded on April 10 , 1928 , in New York and released as Okeh 41039
As Bix Beiderbecke and His Gang
" At the Jazz Band Ball " / " Jazz Me Blues " , recorded on October 5 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 40923
" Royal Garden Blues " / " Goose Pimples " , recorded on October 5 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 8544
" Sorry " / " Since My Best Gal Turned Me Down " , recorded on October 25 , 1927 , in New York and released as Okeh 41001
" Wa @-@ Da @-@ Da ( Everybody 's Doin ' It Now ) " , recorded on July 7 , 1928 in Chicago , Illinois and released as Okeh 41088
" Rhythm King " , recorded on September 21 , 1928 in New York and released as Okeh 41173
With the Paul Whiteman Orchestra
" Lonely Melody " [ Take 3 ] / " Mississippi Mud " [ Take 2 ] , with Bing Crosby , the Rhythm Boys , and Izzy Friedman , recorded on January 4 , 1928 , in New York and released as Victor 25366
" Ramona " , recorded on January 4 , 1928 in New York and released as Victor 21214 @-@ A. No. 1 for 3 weeks
" Ol ' Man River " ( From Show Boat ) , recorded on January 11 , 1928 in New York and released as Victor 21218 @-@ A and Victor 25249 with Bing Crosby on vocals . No. 1 for 1 week
" San " [ Take 6 ] , recorded on January 12 , 1928 in New York and released as Victor 24078 @-@ A
" Together " , recorded on January 21 , 1928 in New York and released as Victor 35883 @-@ A. No. 1 for 2 weeks
" Mississippi Mud " [ Take 3 ] / " From Monday On " [ Take 6 ] , with vocals by Bing Crosby , recorded on February 28 , 1928 , in New York and released as Victor 21274
" My Angel " , recorded on April 21 , 1928 in New York and released as Victor 21388 @-@ A. No. 1 for 6 weeks
" My Melancholy Baby " , recorded on May 15 , 1928 , in New York and released as Columbia 50068 @-@ D
" Sweet Sue " , recorded on September 18 , 1928 , in New York and released as Columbia 50103 @-@ D
As Bix Beiderbecke and His Orchestra
" I Don 't Mind Walking in the Rain " / " I 'll Be a Friend with Pleasure " , recorded on September 8 , 1930 , in New York and released as Victor 23008
With Hoagy Carmichael and His Orchestra
" Barnacle Bill , the Sailor " / " Rockin ' Chair " , with vocals by Carson Robison , recorded on May 21 , 1930 , in New York and released as Victor V @-@ 38139 and Victor 25371
" Georgia on My Mind " , with Hoagy Carmichael on vocals , recorded on September 15 , 1930 , in New York and released as Victor 23013
= = Grammy Hall of Fame = =
Bix Beiderbecke was posthumously inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have " qualitative or historical significance . "
= = Honors = =
1962 , inducted into Down Beat 's Jazz Hall of Fame , critics ' poll
1971 , Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Society established in Davenport , Iowa ; founded annual jazz festival and scholarship
1977 , Beiderbecke 's 1927 recording of " Singin ' the Blues " inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame
1979 , statue presented at LeClaire Park , in Davenport , Iowa
1979 , inducted into the Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame
1980 , Beiderbecke 's 1927 recording of " In a Mist " inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame
1989 , Asteroid 23457 Beiderbecke named after him .
1993 , inducted into the International Academy of Jazz Hall of Fame
2000 , statue dedicated in Davenport
2000 , ASCAP Jazz Wall of Fame
2004 , inducted into the inaugural class of the Lincoln Center 's Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame
2006 , the 1927 recording of " Singin ' the Blues " with Frankie Trumbauer and Eddie Lang was placed on the U.S. Library of Congress National Recording Registry .
2007 , inducted into the Gennett Records Walk of Fame in Richmond , Indiana
2014 , the 1930 recording of " Georgia on My Mind " by Hoagy Carmichael and His Orchestra , featuring Beiderbecke on cornet , inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame
= Voltaire P. Twombly =
Voltaire Paine Twombly ( February 21 , 1842 – February 24 , 1918 ) was a Union veteran of the American Civil War and a recipient of the Medal of Honor . He received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Battle of Fort Donelson on February 15 , 1862 , when he picked up and carried his company 's colors after three other members of his regiment were killed or incapacitated by Confederate fire while attempting to secure the flag . Twombly also participated in a number of other engagements in the Civil War , including the Siege of Corinth and Sherman 's March to the Sea .
After being mustered out of service in 1865 , Twombly attended business school and entered into a number of business ventures . In 1880 , he entered politics upon being selected to be the treasurer of Van Buren County , Iowa . He served as the mayor of Keosauqua , Iowa from 1884 to early 1885 , and as the treasurer of Iowa from 1885 to 1891 .
= = Early life = =
Twombly was born to Samuel Twombly and Dorothy Twombly ( nee Wilder ) on February 21 , 1842 , near Farmington , Van Buren County , Iowa Territory . His father died in September of 1842 , leaving Twombly 's mother responsible for raising him . While growing up , Twombly was educated at several common schools and at the Lane Academy of Keosauqua .
= = Civil War = =
Twombly enlisted in the Union Army on April 24 , 1861 , after President Abraham Lincoln had called for soldiers to counter the secessionist Confederate States . On May 27 , 1861 , he was mustered into Company F of the 2nd Iowa Volunteer Infantry Regiment as a private in Keokuk , Iowa . The 2nd Iowa Regiment left for Northern Missouri on June 13 , 1861 , and was stationed at St. Joseph , Missouri to protect the city 's railroad lines . On July 21 , 1861 , the 2nd Iowa regiment was transferred to Bird 's Point , Missouri . The regiment would continue to be transferred throughout Missouri during the remainder of the year , but saw little combat . In October , Twombly was promoted to the rank of corporal and assigned to the color guard . In February of 1862 , the Second Iowa Infantry Regiment was incorporated into the Army of the Tennessee , which was under the command of Major General Ulysses S. Grant .
On February 15 , 1862 , the Army of the Tennessee attacked Fort Donelson in Tennessee . During the battle , Twombly picked up and carried his company 's flag after the color sergeant and two other corporals had been killed or injured by the enemy . Twombly was knocked to the ground by cannon fire , but managed to carry the flag for the duration of the battle . For his actions during the battle , Twombly was promoted to sergeant and later awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor in 1897 . His citation reads :
Took the colors after 3 of the color guard had fallen , and although most instantly knocked down by a spent ball , immediately arose and bore the colors to the end of the engagement .
Twombly carried his company 's flag during the April 1862 Battle of Shiloh and participated in the Siege of Corinth , Mississippi as an acting second lieutenant . In October of 1862 , Twombly received a knee injury during the Second Battle of Corinth . He was hospitalized and placed on leave for six weeks to help him recover from the injury . In 1863 , Twombly 's regiment was formally stationed in Corinth , and engaged in numerous actions against the cavalry forces of Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest .
In October 1863 , Major General William Tecumseh Sherman replaced Grant as the commander of the Army of the Tennessee . In November of 1863 , Twombly and the Army of the Tennessee marched northeast into Tennessee ; his regiment spent the winter of 1863 – 1864 in Pulaski , Tennessee . Twombly went on to participate in the Atlanta Campaign and Sherman 's March to the Sea . He was promoted to first lieutenant in July of 1864 and to captain in November of 1864 . While stationed in Savannah , Georgia in January 1865 , Twombly was made the assistant inspector general of the Third Brigade of his division .
In early 1865 , Twombly and the Army of the Tennessee marched North through the Carolinas and fought Confederate forces in Columbia , South Carolina and Bentonville , North Carolina . Twombly reached Goldsboro , North Carolina by the end of March and was present at the surrender of Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston near Raleigh , North Carolina . Following the surrender , the Army of the Tennessee headed north to Washington , D.C. , where Twombly and the 2nd Iowa Infantry participated in the Grand Review of the Armies . Twombly was mustered out of service on July 12 in Louisville , Kentucky and formally discharged on July 20 in Davenport , Iowa .
= = Later life = =
From August to December 1865 , Twombly attended Bryant & Stratton 's Business College , a commercial school in Burlington , Iowa . After completing his education , he entered into a number of business ventures . From his graduation until December 1867 , Twombly worked as a flour merchant in Ottumwa , Iowa . He opened a milling company in Pittsburg , Van Buren County in January of 1868 , which he ran until April of 1876 . He later moved to Keosauqua , Iowa where he worked as a merchant until 1880 .
Twombly , who had consistently supported the Republican Party since reaching voting age , accepted the position of treasurer of Van Buren County in 1880 . He served in that position until 1884 , when Twombly became the Mayor of Keosauqua . In January 1885 , Twombly was elected the Treasurer of Iowa . He served three terms in the position before stepping down in January of 1891 .
After his term as Treasurer of Iowa had concluded , Twombly assisted with the creation of the Home Savings Bank of Des Moines . He became the director and president of the bank in June of 1891 , and maintained the two positions until January of 1901 . In October of 1891 , Twombly became the half @-@ owner of the Capital Hill Granite & Marble Works . Twombly stepped down from the position and retired from business in June of 1905 .
Twombly spent the last years of his life in retirement . He died in his home in Des Moines , Iowa on February 24 , 1918 , after having suffered from an illness for several months .
= = Personal life = =
Twombly married Chloe Funk on May 1 , 1866 . They had one daughter , Eva , on November 10 , 1878 .
Twombly had joined the Free Masons in 1866 , and remained a member for much of his life . He was also a member of the Grand Army of the Republic , and had served as the commander of his post .
Twombly worshipped in the Congregationalist Church .
= = Publications = =
Twombly , Voltaire ( 1897 ) . The Second Iowa Infantry at Fort Donelson , February 15 , 1862 : together with an outline history of the regiment from its organization at Keokuk , Iowa , May 27 , 1861 , to final discharge at Davenport , Iowa , July 20 , 1865 . Plain Talk Printing House .
= Sd.Kfz. 10 =
The Sd.Kfz. 10 ( Sonderkraftfahrzeug - special motorized vehicle ) was a German half @-@ track that saw very widespread use in World War II . Its main role was as a prime mover for small towed guns such as the 2 cm FlaK 30 , the 7 @.@ 5 cm leIG , or the 3 @.@ 7 cm PaK 36 anti @-@ tank gun . It could carry eight troops in addition to towing a gun or trailer .
The basic engineering for all the German half @-@ tracks was developed during the Weimar @-@ era by the Reichswehr 's Military Automotive Department , but final design and testing was farmed out to commercial firms with the understanding that production would be shared with multiple companies . Demag was chosen to develop the smallest of the German half @-@ tracks and spent the years between 1934 and 1938 perfecting the design through a series of prototypes .
The chassis formed the basis for the Sd.Kfz. 250 light armored personnel carrier . Approximately 14 @,@ 000 were produced between 1938 and 1945 , making it one of the most widely produced German tactical vehicles of the war . It participated in the Invasion of Poland , the Battle of France , the Balkans Campaign and fought on both the Western Front and the Eastern Front , in North Africa and in Italy .
= = Description = =
The Sd.Kfz. 10 was unique among German half @-@ track designs as it used a hull rather than a frame . Power was provided by a Maybach 6 @-@ cylinder , water @-@ cooled , 3 @.@ 791 litres ( 231 @.@ 3 cu in ) NL 38 TRKM gasoline engine of 90 horsepower ( 91 PS ) . It had a semi @-@ automatic Maybach Variorex @-@ transmission SRG 102128H ( Schaltreglergetriebe 102128H ) with seven forward and three reverse gears . The driver selected the desired gear and initiated the shift by depressing the clutch . It could attain 75 km / h ( 47 mph ) , but the driver was cautioned not to exceed 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . In 1942 the Luftwaffe limited its vehicles to a non @-@ tactical speed of only 30 km / h ( 19 mph ) to extend the life of the rubber track pads ( Gummipolster ) .
Both tracks and wheels were used for steering . The steering system was set up so that gentle turns used just the steerable front wheels , but brakes would be applied to the tracks the farther the steering wheel was turned . The drive sprocket had the track @-@ saving but more complicated rollers rather than the more common teeth . The rear suspension consisted of five double roadwheels , overlapping and interleaved in the Schachtellaufwerk layout , mounted on swing arms sprung by torsion bars . An idler wheel , mounted at the rear of the vehicle , was used to control track tension . The front wheels had transversely mounted leaf springs and shock absorbers , the only ones on the vehicle , to dampen impacts .
The upper body had a baggage compartment separating the driver 's compartment from the crew compartment . Bench seats on the sides of the vehicle , with under @-@ seat storage , could accommodate six men . The windshield could fold forward and was also removable . A convertible canvas top was mounted at the upper part of the rear body . It fastened to the windshield when erected . Four side pieces could be mounted to protect the crew from the weather .
= = Design and development = =
Preliminary design of all the German half @-@ tracks of the early part of the war was done by Dipl.Ing. Ernst Kniepkamp of the Military Automotive Department ( Wa Prüf 6 ) before the Nazis took power in 1933 . His designs were then turned over to commercial firms for development and testing . Demag was assigned to develop the " Liliput " Kleinster geländegängiger Kettenschlepper ( smallest cross @-@ country tracked towing vehicle ) with the first D ll 1 prototype produced in 1934 . It had a six @-@ cylinder , 28 horsepower ( 28 PS ) BMW Type 315 engine mounted in the rear and only had three roadwheels per side . The D ll 2 followed in 1935 and kept the same engine , but added an extra roadwheel . It weighed 2 @.@ 56 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 52 long tons ; 2 @.@ 82 short tons ) .
While the first two vehicles were only automotive prototypes , the 3 @.@ 4 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 3 long tons ; 3 @.@ 7 short tons ) D ll 3 had a 42 horsepower ( 43 PS ) BMW Type 316 engine mounted in the front , 5 roadwheels and a troop compartment that could fit six . The D 4 prototype never left the drawing board . There was no D 5 . It was succeeded by eight trial series ( Versuchs @-@ Serie ) D 6 prototypes in 1937 . This weighed 3 @.@ 85 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 79 long tons ; 4 @.@ 24 short tons ) , had a 83 horsepower ( 84 PS ) Maybach NL 38 TRK engine and a different transmission , but otherwise differed only in detail from the D ll 3 . Several D 6s and the D ll 3 were used as prototypes for the models intended for service with the Chemical Troops ( Nebeltruppen ) and the Air Defense Troops ( Luftschutztruppen ) . A series of 60 pre @-@ production ( 0 @-@ serie ) D 6s were ordered in 1937 from Demag , Adler and Mechanische Werke Cottbus ( MWC ) which differed only in details from the trial series . They were all delivered by November 1938 . On 17 March 1937 the vehicle was renamed as the leichter Zugkraftwagen 1 to ( Sd.Kfz. 10 ) ( light 1 ton semi @-@ tracked towing vehicle ) .
The D 7 was the mass @-@ production model and differed mainly from the D 6 by having different tracks and a NL 38 TRKM engine . The NL 38 TRK had proven to have too much compression for the 74 octane ( OZ 74 ) gasoline decreed for use after 1 October 1938 and had to be modified with new cylinder heads and shorter pistons than the TRKM , but this did not change the engine 's power . Deliveries began in October 1938 with one of the first machines off the production line demonstrated for the army on 11 October 1938 . Early machines had two fuel tanks , one of 58 litres ( 15 US gal ) and the other of 31 litres ( 8 @.@ 2 US gal ) , but they were replaced by a single 110 litres ( 29 US gal ) tank early in the production run . The NL 38 TRKM engine was replaced in late 1939 by the HL 42 TRKM which differed little other than it had been bored out to 4 @.@ 192 litres ( 255 @.@ 8 cu in ) to increase its power to 100 horsepower ( 100 PS ) . During 1940 the hull rear was reinforced to allow the vehicle to tow heavier loads like the 7 @.@ 5 cm PaK 40 anti @-@ tank gun , 15 cm
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sIG 33 infantry gun and the 10 @.@ 5 cm leFH 18 howitzer . An air compressor was added later for loads equipped with air brakes . These were designated as Model ( Ausführung - Ausf . ) B. In 1943 the semi @-@ automatic transmission was replaced by a manual transmission . During 1943 – 44 the original metal upper bodies were replaced with wood to conserve steel .
The D 7p chassis for the Sd.Kfz. 250 light armored personnel carrier was based on that of the D 7 with a shortened suspension , but actually shared very few components with it other than the engine .
Demag was contracted to design a new version of the Sd.Kfz. 10 in 1944 with ten road wheels , a strengthened front axle , a strengthened idler crank arm , an improved track tensioner and increased ground clearance . Three prototypes were completed ; two were delivered in September 1944 , but the third was retained at the factory . Development , however , did not proceed any further . Yet another new version of the Sd.Kfz. 10 was proposed in the Emergency Development Program ( Entwicklungs @-@ Notprogramm ) of 20 February 1945 with armored engine and driver 's compartments that was to have had its development completed in June 1945 .
= = Production = =
Seven factories assembled the various models of the Sd.Kfz. 10 . Demag built approximately 1 @,@ 075 from 1938 to November 1942 . Adlerwerke completed 3 @,@ 414 between 1938 and December 1943 . Büssing @-@ NAG built 750 between 1938 and December 1942 . MWC assembled 4750 between 1939 and November 1944 . Mühlenbau @-@ Industrie A.G. ( MIAG ) completed 324 between 1939 and 1941 . Maschinenfabrik Niedersachsen Hannover ( MNH ) built about 600 between 1939 and November 1942 . Osterreicher Saurerwerke completed about 3 @,@ 075 from 1940 to December 1943 . Both Demag and MWC were producing the D 7p chassis for the Sd.Kfz. 250 light APC in 1945 when a shortage of armored bodies meant that 276 had to be completed with wooden upper bodies . Eighty of these are known to have been delivered by 1 March 1945 . These numbers may include 310 chassis built for Sd.Kfz. 252 armored ammunition carriers and Sd.Kfz. 253 oberservation vehicles .
= = Variants = =
= = = Sd.Kfz. 10 / 1 = = =
The Sd.Kfz. 10 / 1 was a chemical detection vehicle . Before the outbreak of World War II only ninety were intended to be delivered in 1940 – 42 to equip the Chemical Troops ( Nebeltruppen ) , but the 3 May 1940 production plan mentions that was to be produced at a rate of thirty per month until a total of 400 have been built and thereafter at ten per month . The last mention is a report that MWC was to complete ten vehicles by 15 January 1943 . Production may have continued after that , but definitely not after 1943 .
= = = Sd.Kfz. 10 / 2 = = =
The Sd.Kfz. 10 / 2 was a chemical decontamination vehicle fitted with a 200 kg ( 440 lb ) capacity spreader and space for eight 50 kg ( 110 lb ) barrels of decontamination chemicals . This left room for only two crewmen who had a bench seat between the barrels in front of the rear chassis wall . Each barrel could cover an area 1 by 160 metres ( 1 @.@ 1 by 175 @.@ 0 yd ) . The barrels were stowed on platforms over the tracks with foldable outer rails . The 10 / 2 had a significant number of differences from the standard model , including two fuel tanks totaling 86 litres ( 23 US gal ) , one of which had a tunnel to accommodate the auxiliary driveshaft which powered the spreader . This reduced the road range to only 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) . The 10 / 2 was 4 @.@ 83 metres ( 15 @.@ 8 ft ) long , 1 @.@ 9 metres ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) wide , and 1 @.@ 95 – 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 6 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 6 ft ) high , depending if the top was up or down . It weighed 3 @,@ 890 kilograms ( 8 @,@ 580 lb ) empty and 4 @,@ 900 kilograms ( 10 @,@ 800 lb ) loaded . While spreading its top speed was only 10 – 20 km / h ( 6 @.@ 2 – 12 @.@ 4 mph ) . Sixty to seventy were built in 1938 – 39 .
= = = Sd.Kfz. 10 / 3 = = =
The Sd.Kfz. 10 / 3 was equipped with a 500 litres ( 130 US gal ) tank and spray system to lay down poison gas barriers . The spray nozzle swung back and forth to cover a width of 16 metres ( 52 ft ) . Approximately 67 were built in 1938 – 39 . On 15 April 1942 the Army High Command ( Oberkommando des Heeres - OKH ) ordered the tanks on the 65 vehicles in storage dismounted , the spray system disabled and the vehicles modified to carry 216 rounds of anti @-@ tank ammunition . The vehicles were to be issued to rebuilding Nebeltruppen units . By this stage of the war they were equipped with Nebelwerfer rocket launchers and had organic anti @-@ tank guns .
= = = Sd.Kfz. 10 / 4 and 10 / 5 = = =
The Sd.Kfz. 10 / 4 carried the 2 cm FlaK 30 mount on a special platform with fold @-@ down side and rear panels . This platform was specifically designed for the Flak 30 mount and could not readily accept a Flak 38 mount or vice versa . To accommodate the gun mount the vehicle was both wider and taller than normal , namely 2 @.@ 02 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide and 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and weighed 4 @,@ 075 kilograms ( 8 @,@ 984 lb ) empty . Four folding seats were fitted on the platform for the crew . Some of these gun mounts had a gun shield fitted . The ready ammunition bins fastened to the side and rear panels ( four on each side and two in the rear ) contained one 20 @-@ round magazine each . It usually towed an ammunition trailer ( Sd.Ah. 51 - Sonderanhänger — special single @-@ axle trailer ) with 640 more rounds , the gun 's sights and its rangefinder .
Vehicles built in 1940 ( only ) were fitted with removable loading ramps , cable rollers to act as pulleys , and a reinforced tail gate to allow a Flak 30 , mounted on a Sd.Ah. 51 trailer , to be quickly dismounted . From 1940 they were fitted with rifle racks over the front fenders and from 1942 these were given sheet metal covers as protection from the weather . Flak 38s were mounted on 10 / 4s beginning in 1941 although the platform wasn 't widened until later . As the war progressed the guns were more often fitted with gun shields .
The Sd.Kfz. 10 / 5 carried the 2 cm FlaK 38 whose mount was wider , and lighter , than that of the Flak 30 , and the platform was enlarged to accommodate it from 1942 . Vehicle width increased to 2 @.@ 156 metres ( 7 @.@ 07 ft ) , but the height returned to that of the normal vehicle . Initially , vehicles modified with the wider platform for the Flak 38 did not have a special designation , but they were given one sometime in 1943 . The earliest known use is 1 September 1943 , but the older name lingered until 1 December 1944 . The Luftwaffe ordered 293 sets of armor plate ( Behelfspanzerung ) for its vehicles in 1943 . These plates covered the radiator , windshield and both sides of the driver 's compartment and were fitted to both versions .
Production began in 1939 for deliveries to the Army and Luftwaffe , although the exact numbers will never be known as they were often not broken out separately in the production reports . At any rate Adler built 1054 between 1939 and February 1943 , although some of these were completed as 10 / 5s beginning in 1942 . MWC was awarded two contracts for 975 10 / 5s to be delivered in 1943 – 44 , but 13 of these were delivered as ordinary Sd.Kfz. 10s in 1944 .
= = = Field modifications = = =
Some vehicles were fitted with a 3 @.@ 7 cm PaK 36 or 5 cm PaK 38 anti @-@ tank gun . Sometimes they had the cab and engine compartment armored as well . The Pak 36 was usually carried complete , but the Pak 38 was usually mounted without its wheels on a pivot mount .
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win not battles and provinces , but order and tranquillity in our conduct . Our great and glorious masterpiece is to live properly " . In his famous Japanese travel journal Oku no Hosomichi ( Narrow Road to the Deep North ) composed of mixed haiku poetry and prose , Matsuo Basho ( 1644 – 94 ) in attempting to describe the eternal in this perishable world is often moved in conscience ; for example by a thicket of summer grass being all that remains of the dreams and ambitions of ancient warriors . Chaucer 's " Franklin 's Tale " in The Canterbury Tales recounts how a young suitor releases a wife from a rash promise because of the respect in his conscience for the freedom to be truthful , gentle and generous .
The critic A. C. Bradley discusses the central problem of Shakespeare 's tragic character Hamlet as one where conscience in the form of moral scruples deters the young Prince with his " great anxiety to do right " from obeying his father 's hell @-@ bound ghost and murdering the usurping King ( " is 't not perfect conscience to quit him with this arm ? " ( v.ii.67 ) ) .
Bradley develops a theory about Hamlet 's moral agony relating to a conflict between " traditional " and " critical " conscience : " The conventional moral ideas of his time , which he shared with the Ghost , told him plainly that he ought to avenge his father ; but a deeper conscience in him , which was in advance of his time , contended with these explicit conventional ideas . It is because this deeper conscience remains below the surface that he fails to recognise it , and fancies he is hindered by cowardice or sloth or passion or what not ; but it emerges into light in that speech to Horatio . And it is just because he has this nobler moral nature in him that we admire and love him " . The opening words of Shakespeare 's Sonnet 94 ( " They that have pow 'r to hurt , and will do none " ) have been admired as a description of conscience . So has John Donne 's commencement of his poem s : Goodfriday , 1613 . Riding Westward : " Let man 's soul be a sphere , and then , in this , Th ' intelligence that moves , devotion is ; "
Anton Chekhov in his plays The Seagull , Uncle Vanya and Three Sisters describes the tortured emotional states of doctors who at some point in their careers have turned their back on conscience . In his short stories , Chekhov also explored how people misunderstood the voice of a tortured conscience . A promiscuous student , for example , in The Fit describes it as a " dull pain , indefinite , vague ; it was like anguish and the most acute fear and despair ... in his breast , under the heart " and the young doctor examining the misunderstood agony of compassion experienced by the factory owner 's daughter in From a Case Book calls it an " unknown , mysterious power ... in fact close at hand and watching him . " Characteristically , Chekhov 's own conscience drove him on the long journey to Sakhalin to record and alleviate the harsh conditions of the prisoners at that remote outpost . As Irina Ratushinskaya writes in the introduction to that work : " Abandoning everything , he travelled to the distant island of Sakhalin , the most feared place of exile and forced labour in Russia at that time . One cannot help but wonder why ? Simply , because the lot of the people there was a bitter one , because nobody really knew about the lives and deaths of the exiles , because he felt that they stood in greater need of help that anyone else . A strange reason , maybe , but not for a writer who was the epitome of all the best traditions of a Russian man of letters . Russian literature has always focused on questions of conscience and was , therefore , a powerful force in the moulding of public opinion . "
E. H. Carr writes of Dostoevsky 's character the young student Raskolnikov in the novel Crime and Punishment who decides to murder a ' vile and loathsome ' old woman money lender on the principle of transcending conventional morals : " the sequel reveals to us not the pangs of a stricken conscience ( which a less subtle writer would have given us ) but the tragic and fruitless struggle of a powerful intellect to maintain a conviction which is incompatible with the essential nature of man . "
Hermann Hesse wrote his Siddhartha to describe how a young man in the time of the Buddha follows his conscience on a journey to discover a transcendent inner space where all things could be unified and simply understood , ending up discovering that personal truth through selfless service as a ferryman . J. R. R. Tolkien in his epic The Lord of the Rings describes how only the hobbit Frodo is pure enough in conscience to carry the ring of power through war @-@ torn Middle @-@ earth to destruction in the Cracks of Doom , Frodo determining at the end to journey without weapons , and being saved from failure by his earlier decision to spare the life of the creature Gollum . Conor Cruise O 'Brien wrote that Albert Camus was the writer most representative of the Western consciousness and conscience in its relation to the non @-@ Western world . Harper Lee 's To Kill a Mockingbird portrays Atticus Finch ( played by Gregory Peck in the classic film from the book ( see To Kill a Mockingbird ( film ) ) ) as a lawyer true to his conscience who sets an example to his children and community .
The Robert Bolt play A Man For All Seasons focuses on the conscience of Catholic lawyer Thomas More in his struggle with King Henry VIII ( " the loyal subject is more bounden to be loyal to his conscience than to any other thing " ) . George Orwell wrote his novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four on the isolated island of Jura , Scotland to describe how a man ( Winston Smith ) attempts to develop critical conscience in a totalitarian state which watches every action of the people and manipulates their thinking with a mixture of propaganda , endless war and thought control through language control ( double think and newspeak ) to the point where prisoners look up to and even love their torturers . In the Ministry of Love , Winston 's torturer ( O 'Brien ) states : " You are imagining that there is something called human nature which will be outraged by what we do and will turn against us . But we create human nature . Men are infinitely malleable " .
A tapestry copy of Picasso 's Guernica depicting a massacre of innocent women and children during the Spanish civil war is displayed on the wall of the United Nations building in New York City , at the entrance to the Security Council room , demonstrably as a spur to the conscience of representatives from the nation states . Albert Tucker painted Man 's Head to capture the moral disintegration , and lack of conscience , of a man convicted of kicking a dog to death .
The impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh wrote in a letter to his brother Theo in 1878 that " one must never let the fire in one 's soul die , for the time will inevitably come when it will be needed . And he who chooses poverty for himself and loves it possesses a great treasure and will hear the voice of his conscience address him every more clearly . He who hears that voice , which is God 's greatest gift , in his innermost being and follows it , finds in it a friend at last , and he is never alone ! ... That is what all great men have acknowledged in their works , all those who have thought a little more deeply and searched and worked and loved a little more than the rest , who have plumbed the depths of the sea of life . "
The 1957 Ingmar Bergman film Seventh Seal portrays the journey of a medieval knight ( Max von Sydow ) returning disillusioned from the crusades ( " what is going to happen to those of us who want to believe , but aren 't able to ? " ) across a plague @-@ ridden landscape , undertaking a game of chess with the personification of Death until he can perform one meaningful altruistic act of conscience ( overturning the chess board to distract Death long enough for a family of jugglers to escape in their wagon ) .
The 1942 Casablanca centers on the development of conscience in the cynical American Rick Blaine ( Humphrey Bogart ) in the face of oppression by the Nazis and the example of the resistance leader Victor Laszlo .
The David Lean and Robert Bolt screenplay for Doctor Zhivago ( an adaptation of Boris Pasternak 's novel ) focuses strongly on the conscience of a doctor @-@ poet in the midst of the Russian Revolution ( in the end " the walls of his heart were like paper " ) .
The 1982 Ridley Scott film Blade Runner focuses on the struggles of conscience between and within a bounty hunter ( Rick Deckard ( Harrison Ford ) ) and a renegade replicant android ( Roy Batty ( Rutger Hauer ) ) in a future society which refuses to accept that forms of artificial intelligence can have aspects of being such as conscience .
Johann Sebastian Bach wrote his last great choral composition the Mass in B minor ( BWV 232 ) to express the alternating emotions of loneliness , despair , joy and rapture that arise as conscience reflects on a departed human life . Here JS Bach 's use of counterpoint and contrapuntal settings , his dynamic discourse of melodically and rhythmically distinct voices seeking forgiveness of sins ( " Qui tollis peccata mundi , miserere nobis " ) evokes a spiraling moral conversation of all humanity expressing his belief that " with devotional music , God is always present in his grace " .
Ludwig van Beethoven 's meditations on illness , conscience and mortality in the Late String Quartets led to his dedicating the third movement of String Quartet in A Minor ( 1825 ) Op. 132 ( see String Quartet No. 15 ) as a " Hymn of Thanksgiving to God of a convalescent " . John Lennon 's work " Imagine " owes much of its popular appeal to its evocation of conscience against the atrocities created by war , religious fundamentalism and politics . The Beatles George Harrison @-@ written track " The Inner Light " sets to Indian raga music a verse from the Tao Te Ching that " without going out of your door you can know the ways of heaven ' . In the 1986 movie The Mission the guilty conscience and penance of the slave trader Mendoza is made more poignant by the haunting oboe music of Ennio Morricone ( " On Earth as it is in Heaven " ) The song Sweet Lullaby by Deep Forest is based on a traditional Baegu lullaby from the Solomon Islands called " Rorogwela " in which a young orphan is comforted as an act of conscience by his older brother . The Dream Academy song ' Forest Fire ' provided an early warning of the moral dangers of our ' black cloud ' ' bringing down a different kind of weather ... letting the sunshine in , that 's how the end begins . "
The American Society of Journalists and Authors ( ASJA ) presents the Conscience @-@ in @-@ Media Award to journalists whom the society deems worthy of recognition for demonstrating " singular commitment to the highest principles of journalism at notable personal cost or sacrifice " .
The Ambassador of Conscience Award , Amnesty International 's most prestigious human rights award , takes its inspiration from a poem written by Irish Nobel prize @-@ winning poet Seamus Heaney called " The Republic of Conscience . " Winners of the award have included : Malala Yousafzai , singer and social justice activist Harry Belafonte , musician Peter Gabriel ( 2008 ) , Nelson Mandela ( 2006 ) , the Irish rock band U2 ( 2005 ) , Mary Robinson and Hilda Morales Trujillo ( a Guatemalan women 's rights activist ) ( 2004 ) and the author and public intellectual Václav Havel ( 2003 ) .
= The Royal Opera =
The Royal Opera is a company based in central London , resident at the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden . Along with the English National Opera , it is one of the two principal opera companies in London . Founded in 1946 as the Covent Garden Opera Company , it was known by that title until 1968 . It brought a long annual season and consistent management to a house that had previously hosted short seasons under a series of impresarios . Since its inception , it has shared the Royal Opera House with the dance company now known as The Royal Ballet .
When the company was formed , its policy was to perform all works in English , but since the late 1950s most operas have been performed in their original language . From the outset , performers have comprised a mixture of British and Commonwealth singers and international guest stars , but fostering the careers of singers from within the company was a consistent policy of the early years . Among the many guest performers have been Maria Callas , Plácido Domingo , Kirsten Flagstad , Hans Hotter , Birgit Nilsson , Luciano Pavarotti and Elisabeth Schwarzkopf . Among those who have risen to international prominence from the ranks of the company are Geraint Evans , Joan Sutherland , Kiri Te Kanawa and Jon Vickers .
The company 's growth under the management of David Webster from modest beginnings to parity with the world 's greatest opera houses was recognised by the grant of the title " The Royal Opera " in 1968 . Under Webster 's successor , John Tooley , appointed in 1970 , The Royal Opera prospered , but after his retirement in 1988 , there followed a period of instability and the closure of the Royal Opera House for rebuilding and restoration between 1997 and 1999 . The 21st century has seen a stable managerial regime once more in place . The company has had six music directors since its inception : Karl Rankl , Rafael Kubelík , Georg Solti , Colin Davis , Bernard Haitink and Antonio Pappano .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
From the mid @-@ 19th century , opera had been presented on the site of Covent Garden 's Royal Opera House , at first by Michael Costa 's Royal Italian Opera company . After a fire , the new building opened in 1858 with The Royal English Opera company , which moved there from the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane . From the 1860s until the Second World War , various syndicates or individual impresarios presented short seasons of opera at the Royal Opera House ( so named in 1892 ) , sung in the original language , with star singers and conductors . Pre @-@ war opera was described by the historian Montague Haltrecht as " international , dressy and exclusive " . During the war , the Royal Opera House was leased by its owners , Covent Garden Properties Ltd , to Mecca Ballrooms who used it profitably as a dance hall . Towards the end of the war , the owners approached the music publishers Boosey and Hawkes to see if they were interested in taking a lease of the building and staging opera ( and ballet ) once more . Boosey and Hawkes took a lease , and granted a sub @-@ lease at generous terms to a not @-@ for @-@ profit charitable trust established to run the operation . The chairman of the trust was Lord Keynes .
There was some pressure for a return to the pre @-@ war regime of starry international seasons . Sir Thomas Beecham , who had presented many Covent Garden seasons between 1910 and 1939 confidently expected to do so again after the war . However , Boosey and Hawkes , and David Webster , whom they appointed as chief executive of the Covent Garden company , were committed to presenting opera all year round , in English with a resident company . It was widely assumed that this aim would be met by inviting the existing Sadler 's Wells Opera Company to become resident at the Royal Opera House . Webster successfully extended just such an invitation to the Sadler 's Wells Ballet Company , but he regarded the sister opera company as " parochial " . He was determined to set up a new opera company of his own . The British government had recently begun to give funds to subsidise the arts , and Webster negotiated an ad hoc grant of £ 60 @,@ 000 and an annual subsidy of £ 25 @,@ 000 , enabling him to proceed .
= = = Beginnings = = =
Webster 's first priority was to appoint a musical director to build the company from scratch . He negotiated with Bruno Walter and Eugene Goossens , but neither of those conductors was willing to consider an opera company with no leading international stars . Webster appointed a little @-@ known Austrian , Karl Rankl , to the post . Before the war , Rankl had acquired considerable experience in charge of opera companies in Germany , Austria and Czechoslovakia . He accepted Webster 's invitation to assemble and train the principals and chorus of a new opera company , alongside a permanent orchestra that would play in both operas and ballets .
The new company made its debut in a joint presentation , together with the Sadler 's Wells Ballet Company , of Purcell 's The Fairy @-@ Queen on 12 December 1946 . The first production by the opera company alone was Carmen , on 14 January 1947 . Reviews were favourable . The Times said :
It revealed in Mr. Karl Rankl a musical director who knew how to conduct opera . It conceded the claims of theatrical production without sacrificing the music . It proved that contrary to expectation English can even now be sung so that the words are intelligible . It confirmed what we knew already about the quality of the chorus .
All the members of the cast for the production were from Britain or the Commonwealth . Later in the season , one of England 's few pre @-@ war international opera stars , Eva Turner , appeared as Turandot . For the company 's second season , eminent singers from continental Europe were recruited , including Ljuba Welitsch , Elisabeth Schwarzkopf , Paolo Silveri , Rudolf Schock and Set Svanholm . Other international stars who were willing to re @-@ learn their roles in English for the company in its early years included Kirsten Flagstad and Hans Hotter for The Valkyrie . Nevertheless , even as early as 1948 , the opera in English policy was weakening ; the company was obliged to present some Wagner performances in German to recruit leading exponents of the main roles . At first Rankl conducted all the productions ; he was dismayed when eminent guest conductors including Beecham , Clemens Krauss and Erich Kleiber were later invited for prestige productions . By 1951 Rankl felt that he was no longer valued , and announced his resignation . In Haltrecht 's view , the company that Rankl built up from nothing had outgrown him .
In the early years , the company sought to be innovative and widely accessible . Ticket prices were kept down : in the 1949 season 530 seats were available for each performance at two shillings and sixpence . In addition to the standard operatic repertory , the company presented operas by living composers such as Britten , Vaughan Williams , Bliss , and , later , Walton . The young stage director Peter Brook was put in charge of productions , bringing a fresh and sometimes controversial approach to stagings .
= = = 1950s = = =
After Rankl 's departure the company engaged a series of guest conductors while Webster sought a new musical director . His preferred candidates , Erich Kleiber , John Barbirolli , Josef Krips , Britten and Rudolf Kempe , were among the guests but none would take the permanent post . It was not until 1954 that Webster found a replacement for Rankl in Rafael Kubelík . Kubelík announced immediately that he was in favour of continuing the policy of singing in the vernacular : " Everything that the composer has written should be understood by the audience ; and that is not possible if the opera is sung in a language with which they are not familiar " . This provoked a public onslaught by Beecham , who continued to maintain that it was
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impossible to produce more than a handful of English @-@ speaking opera stars , and that importing singers from continental Europe was the only way to achieve first @-@ rate results .
Despite Beecham 's views , by the mid @-@ 1950s the Covent Garden company included many British and Commonwealth singers who were already or were soon to be much sought after by overseas opera houses . Among them were Joan Carlyle , Marie Collier , Geraint Evans , Michael Langdon , Elsie Morison , Amy Shuard , Joan Sutherland , Josephine Veasey and Jon Vickers . Nevertheless , as Lords Goodman and Harewood put it in a 1969 report for the Arts Council , " [ A ] s time went on the operatic centre of British life began to take on an international character . This meant that , while continuing to develop the British artists , it was felt impossible to reach the highest international level by using only British artists or singing only in English " . Guest singers from mainland Europe in the 1950s included Maria Callas , Boris Christoff , Victoria de los Ángeles , Tito Gobbi and Birgit Nilsson . Kubelík introduced Janáček 's Jenůfa to British audiences , sung in English by a mostly British cast .
The verdict of the public on whether operas should be given in translation or the original was clear . In 1959 , the opera house stated in its annual report , " [ T ] he percentage attendance at all opera in English was 72 per cent ; attendance at the special productions marked by higher prices was 91 per cent … it is ' international ' productions with highly priced seats that reduce our losses " . The opera in English policy was never formally renounced . On this subject , Peter Heyworth wrote in The Observer in 1960 that Covent Garden had " quickly learned the secret that underlies the genius of British institutions for undisturbed change : it continued to pay lip service to a policy that it increasingly ignored " .
By the end of the 1950s , Covent Garden was generally regarded as approaching the excellence of the world 's greatest opera companies . Its sister ballet company had achieved international recognition and was granted a royal charter in 1956 , changing its title to " The Royal Ballet " ; the opera company was close to reaching similar eminence . Two landmark productions greatly enhanced its reputation . In 1957 , Covent Garden presented the first substantially complete professional staging at any opera house of Berlioz 's vast opera The Trojans , directed by John Gielgud and conducted by Kubelík . The Times commented , " It has never been a success ; but it is now " . In 1958 the present theatre 's centenary was marked by Luchino Visconti 's production of Verdi 's Don Carlos , with Vickers , Gobbi , Christoff , Gré Brouwenstijn and Fedora Barbieri , conducted by Carlo Maria Giulini . The work was then a rarity , and had hitherto been widely regarded as impossible to stage satisfactorily , but Visconti 's production was a triumph .
= = = 1960s = = =
Kubelík did not renew his contract when it expired , and from 1958 there was an interregnum until 1961 , covered by guest conductors including Giulini , Kempe , Tullio Serafin , Georg Solti and Kubelík himself . In June 1960 Solti was appointed musical director from the 1961 season onwards . With his previous experience in charge of the Munich and Frankfurt opera houses , he was at first uncertain that Covent Garden , not yet consistently reaching the top international level , was a post he wanted . Bruno Walter persuaded him otherwise , and he took up the musical directorship in August 1961 . The press gave him a cautious welcome , but there was some concern about a drift away from the company 's original policies :
[ A ] recent shift in policy towards engaging eminent singers and conductors from abroad , which is a reversion to what has been at once traditional and fatal to the establishment of a permanent organization , a kind of diffused grand season , has endangered the good work of the past fifteen years . ... The purpose of a subsidy from the Exchequer was to lay foundations for an English opera , such as is a feature of the culture of every other country in Europe .
Solti , however , was an advocate of opera in the vernacular , and promoted the development of British and Commonwealth singers in the company , frequently casting them in his recordings and important productions in preference to overseas artists . Among those who came to prominence during the decade were Gwyneth Jones and Peter Glossop . Solti demonstrated his belief in vernacular opera with a triple bill in English of L 'heure espagnole , Erwartung and Gianni Schicchi . Nevertheless , Solti and Webster had to take into account the complete opposition on the part of such stars as Callas to opera in translation . Moreover , as Webster recognised , the English @-@ speaking singers wanted to learn their roles in the original so that they could sing them in other countries and on record . Increasingly , productions were in the original language . In the interests of musical and dramatic excellence , Solti was a strong proponent of the stagione system of scheduling performances , rather than the traditional repertory system . By 1967 , The Times said , " Patrons of Covent Garden today automatically expect any new production , and indeed any revival , to be as strongly cast as anything at the Met in New York , and as carefully presented as anything in Milan or Vienna " .
The company 's repertory in the 1960s combined the standard operatic works and less familiar pieces . The five composers whose works were given most frequently were Verdi , Puccini , Wagner , Mozart and Richard Strauss ; the next most performed composer was Britten . Rarities performed in the 1960s included operas by Handel and Janáček ( neither composer 's works being as common in the opera house then as now ) , and works by Gluck ( Iphigénie en Tauride ) , Poulenc ( The Carmelites ) , Ravel ( L 'heure espagnole ) and Tippett ( King Priam ) . There was also a celebrated production of Schoenberg 's Moses and Aaron in the 1965 – 66 and 1966 – 67 seasons . In the mainstream repertoire , a highlight of the decade was Franco Zeffirelli 's production of Tosca in 1964 with Callas , Renato Cioni and Gobbi . Among the guest conductors who appeared at Covent Garden during the 1960s were Otto Klemperer , Pierre Boulez , Claudio Abbado and Colin Davis . Guest singers included Jussi Björling , Mirella Freni , Sena Jurinac , Irmgard Seefried and Astrid Varnay .
The company made occasional appearances away from the Royal Opera House . Touring within Britain was limited to centres with large enough theatres to accommodate the company 's productions , but in 1964 the company gave a concert performance of Otello at the Proms in London . Thereafter an annual appearance at the Proms was a regular feature of the company 's schedule throughout the 1960s . In 1970 , Solti led the company to Germany , where they gave Don Carlos , Falstaff and a new work by Richard Rodney Bennett . All but two of the principals were British . The public in Munich and Berlin were , according to the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , " beside themselves with enthusiasm " .
In 1968 , on the recommendation of the Home Secretary , James Callaghan , the Queen conferred the title " The Royal Opera " on the company . It was the third stage company in the UK to be so honoured , following the Royal Ballet and the Royal Shakespeare Company .
= = = 1970 to 1986 = = =
Webster retired in June 1970 . The music critic Charles Osborne wrote , " When he retired , he handed over to his successor an organization of which any opera house in the world might be proud . No memorial could be more appropriate " . The successor was Webster 's former assistant , John Tooley . One of Webster 's last important decisions had been to recommend to the board that Colin Davis should be invited to take over as musical director when Solti left in 1971 . It was announced in advance that Davis would work in tandem with Peter Hall , appointed director of productions . Peter Brook had briefly held that title in the company 's early days , but in general the managerial structure of the opera company differed markedly from that of the ballet . The latter had always had its own director , subordinate to the chief executive of the opera house but with , in practice , a great degree of autonomy . The chief executive of the opera house and the musical director exercised considerably more day @-@ to @-@ day control over the opera company Appointing a substantial theatrical figure such as Hall was an important departure . Hall , however , changed his mind , and did not take up the appointment , going instead to run the National Theatre . His defection , and the departure to Australian Opera of the staff conductor Edward Downes , a noted Verdi expert , left the company weakened on both production and musical sides .
Like his predecessors , Davis experienced hostility from sections of the audience in his early days in charge . His first production after taking over was a well @-@ received Le nozze di Figaro , in which Kiri Te Kanawa achieved immediate stardom , but booing was heard at a " disastrous " Nabucco in 1971 , and his conducting of Wagner 's Ring was at first compared unfavourably with that of his predecessor . The Covent Garden board briefly considered replacing him , but was dissuaded by its chairman , Lord Drogheda . Davis 's Mozart was generally admired ; he received much praise for reviving the little @-@ known La clemenza di Tito in 1974 . Among his other successes were The Trojans and Benvenuto Cellini .
Under Davis , the opera house introduced promenade performances , giving , as Bernard Levin wrote , " an opportunity for those ( particularly the young , of course ) who could not normally afford the price of stalls tickets to sample the view from the posher quarters at the trifling cost of £ 3 and a willingness to sit on the floor " . Davis conducted more than 30 operas during his 15 @-@ year tenure , but , he said , " people like [ Lorin ] Maazel , Abbado and [ Riccardo ] Muti would only come for new productions " . Unlike Rankl , and like Solti , Davis wanted the world 's best conductors to come to Covent Garden . He ceded the baton to guests for new productions including Der Rosenkavalier , Rigoletto and Aida . In The Times , John Higgins wrote , " One of the hallmarks of the Davis regime was the flood of international conductors who suddenly arrived at Covent Garden . While Davis has been in control perhaps only three big names have been missing from the roster : Karajan , Bernstein and Barenboim " . Among the high @-@ profile guests conducting Davis 's company were Carlos Kleiber for performances of Der Rosenkavalier ( 1974 ) , Elektra ( 1977 ) , La bohème ( 1979 ) and Otello ( 1980 ) , and Abbado conducting Un ballo in maschera ( 1975 ) , starring Plácido Domingo and Katia Ricciarelli .
In addition to the standard repertoire , Davis conducted such operas as Berg 's Lulu and Wozzeck , Tippett 's The Knot Garden and The Ice Break , and Alexander Zemlinsky 's Der Zwerg and Eine florentinische Tragödie .
Among the star guest singers during the Davis years were the sopranos Montserrat Caballé and Leontyne Price , the tenors Carlo Bergonzi , Nicolai Gedda and Luciano Pavarotti and the bass Gottlob Frick . British singers appearing with the company included Janet Baker , Heather Harper , John Tomlinson and Richard Van Allan . Davis 's tenure , at that time the longest in The Royal Opera 's history , closed in July 1986 not with a gala , but , at his insistence , with a promenade performance of Fidelio with cheap admission prices .
= = = 1987 to 2002 = = =
To succeed Davis , the Covent Garden board chose Bernard Haitink , who was then the musical director of the Glyndebourne Festival . He was highly regarded for the excellence of his performances , though his repertory was not large . In particular , he was not known as an interpreter of the Italian opera repertoire ( he conducted no Puccini and only five Verdi works during his music directorship at Covent Garden ) . His tenure began well ; a cycle of the Mozart Da Ponte operas directed by Johannes Schaaf was a success , and although a Ring cycle with the Russian director Yuri Lyubimov could not be completed , a substitute staging of the cycle directed by Götz Friedrich was well received . Musically and dramatically the company prospered into the 1990s . A 1993 production of Die Meistersinger , conducted by Haitink and starring John Tomlinson , Thomas Allen , Gösta Winbergh and Nancy Gustafson , was widely admired , as was Richard Eyre 's 1994 staging of La traviata , conducted by Solti and propelling Angela Gheorghiu to stardom .
For some time , purely musical considerations were overshadowed by practical and managerial crises at the Royal Opera House . Sir John Tooley retired as general director in 1988 , and his post was given to the television executive Jeremy Isaacs . Tooley later forsook his customary reticence and pronounced the Isaacs period a disaster , citing poor management that failed to control inflated manning levels with a consequent steep rise in costs and ticket prices . The uneasy relations between Isaacs and his colleagues , notably Haitink , were also damaging . Tooley concluded that under Isaacs " Covent Garden had become a place of corporate entertainment , no longer a theatre primarily for opera and ballet lovers " . Isaacs was widely blamed for the poor public relations arising from the 1996 BBC television series The House , in which cameras were permitted to film the day @-@ to @-@ day backstage life of the opera and ballet companies and the running of the theatre . The Daily Telegraph commented , " For years , the Opera House was a byword for mismanagement and chaos . Its innermost workings were exposed to public ridicule by the BBC fly @-@ on @-@ the @-@ wall series The House " .
In 1995 , The Royal Opera announced a " Verdi Festival " , of which the driving force was the company 's leading Verdian , Sir Edward Downes , by now returned from Australia . The aim was to present all Verdi 's operas , either on stage or in concert performance , between 1995 and the centenary of Verdi 's death , 2001 . Those operas substantially rewritten by the composer in his long career , such as Simon Boccanegra , were given in both their original and revised versions . The festival did not manage to stage a complete Verdi cycle ; the closure of the opera house disrupted many plans , but as The Guardian put it , " Downes still managed to introduce , either under his own baton or that of others , most of the major works and many of the minor ones by the Italian master . "
The most disruptive event of the decade for both the opera and the ballet companies was the closure of the Royal Opera House between 1997 and 1999 for major rebuilding . The Independent on Sunday asserted that Isaacs " hopelessly mismanaged the closure of the Opera House during its redevelopment " . Isaacs , the paper states , turned down the chance of a temporary move to the Lyceum Theatre almost next door to the opera house , pinning his hopes on a proposed new temporary building on London 's South Bank . That scheme was refused planning permission , leaving the opera and ballet companies homeless . Isaacs resigned in December 1996 , nine months before the expiry of his contract . Haitink , dismayed by events , threatened to leave , but was persuaded to stay and keep the opera company going in a series of temporary homes in London theatres and concert halls . A semi @-@ staged Ring cycle at the Royal Albert Hall gained superlative reviews and won many new admirers for Haitink and the company , whose members included Tomlinson , Anne Evans and Hildegard Behrens .
After Isaacs left , there was a period of managerial instability , with three chief executives in three years . Isaacs 's successor , Genista McIntosh , resigned in May 1997 after five months , citing ill @-@ health . Her post was filled by Mary Allen , who moved into the job from the Arts Council . Allen 's selection did not comply with the Council 's rules for such appointments , and following a critical House of Commons Select Committee report on the management of the opera house she resigned in March 1998 , as did the entire board of the opera house , including the chairman , Lord Chadlington . A new board appointed Michael Kaiser as general director in September 1998 . He oversaw the restoration of the two companies ' finances and the re @-@ opening of the opera house . He was widely regarded as a success , and there was some surprise when he left in June 2000 after less than two years to run the Kennedy Center in Washington , D.C.
The last operatic music to be heard in the old house had been the finale of Falstaff , conducted by Solti with the singers led by Bryn Terfel , in a joint opera and ballet farewell gala in July 1997 . When the house reopened in December 1999 , magnificently restored , Falstaff was the opera given on the opening night , conducted by Haitink , once more with Terfel in the title role .
= = = 2002 to date = = =
Following years of disruption and conflict , stability was restored to the opera house and its two companies after the appointment in May 2001 of a new chief executive , Tony Hall , formerly a senior executive at the BBC . The following year Antonio Pappano succeeded Haitink as music director of The Royal Opera . Following the redevelopment , a second , smaller auditorium , the Linbury Studio Theatre has been made available for small @-@ scale productions by The Royal Opera and The Royal Ballet , for visiting companies , and for work produced in the ROH2 programme , which supports new work and developing artists . The Royal Opera encourages young singers at the start of their careers with the Jette Parker Young Artists Programme ; participants are salaried members of the company and receive daily coaching in all aspects of opera .
In addition to the standard works of the operatic repertoire , The Royal Opera has presented many less well known pieces since 2002 , including Cilea 's Adriana Lecouvreur , Massenet 's Cendrillon , Prokofiev 's The Gambler , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's The Tsar 's Bride , Rossini 's Il turco in Italia , Steffani 's Niobe , and Tchaikovsky 's The Tsarina 's Slippers . Among the composers whose works were premiered were Thomas Adès , Harrison Birtwistle , Lorin Maazel , and Nicholas Maw .
Productions in the first five years of Pappano 's tenure ranged from Shostakovich 's Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk ( 2004 ) to Stephen Sondheim 's Sweeney Todd ( 2003 ) starring Thomas Allen and Felicity Palmer . Pappano 's Ring cycle , begun in 2004 and staged as a complete tetralogy in 2007 , was praised like Haitink 's before it for its musical excellence ; it was staged in a production described by Richard Morrison in The Times as " much derided for mixing the homely … the wacky and the cosmic " . During Pappano 's tenure , his predecessors Davis and Haitink have both returned as guests . Haitink conducted Parsifal , with Tomlinson , Christopher Ventris and Petra Lang in 2007 , and Davis conducted four Mozart operas between 2002 and 2011 , Richard Strauss 's Ariadne auf Naxos in 2007 and Humperdinck 's Hansel and Gretel in 2008 . In 2007 , Sir Simon Rattle conducted a new production of Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande starring Simon Keenlyside , Angelika Kirchschlager and Gerald Finley .
The company visited Japan in 2010 , presenting a new production of Manon and the Eyre production of La traviata . While the main company was abroad , a smaller company remained in London , presenting Niobe , Così fan tutte and Don Pasquale at Covent Garden .
In 2010 , the Royal Opera House received a government subsidy of just over £ 27m , compared with a subsidy of £ 15m in 1998 . This sum was divided between the opera and ballet companies and the cost of running the building . Compared with opera houses in mainland Europe , Covent Garden 's public subsidy has remained low as a percentage of its income – typically 43 % , compared with 60 % for its counterpart in Munich .
In the latter part of the 2000s The Royal Opera gave an average of 150 performances each season , lasting from September to July , of about 20 operas , nearly half of which were new productions . Productions in the 2011 – 12 season included a new opera ( Miss Fortune ) by Judith Weir , and the first performances of The Trojans at Covent Garden since 1990 , conducted by Pappano , and starring Bryan Hymel , Eva @-@ Maria Westbroek and Anna Caterina Antonacci . From the start of the 2011 – 12 season Kasper Holten became Director of The Royal Opera , joined by John Fulljames as Associate Director of Opera . At the end of the 2011 @-@ 12 season ROH2 , the contemporary arm of The Royal Opera House , was closed . Responsibility for contemporary programming was split between the Studio programmes of The Royal Opera and The Royal Ballet .
Since the start of the 2012 – 13 season The Royal Opera has continued to mount around 20 productions and around seven new productions each season . The 2012 – 13 season opened with a revival of Der Ring des Nibelungen , directed by Keith Warner ; new productions that season included Robert le diable , directed by Laurent Pelly , Eugene Onegin , directed by Holten , La donna del lago , directed by Fulljames , and the UK premiere of Written on Skin , composed by George Benjamin and directed by Katie Mitchell . Productions by the Studio Programme included the world premiere of David Bruce 's The Firework @-@ Maker 's Daughter ( inspired by Philip Pullman 's novel of the same name ) , directed by Fulljames , and the UK stage premiere of Gerald Barry 's The Importance of Being Earnest , directed by Ramin Gray .
New productions in the 2013 – 14 season included Les vêpres siciliennes , directed by Stefan Herheim , Parsifal , directed by Stephen Langridge , Don Giovanni , directed by Holten , Die Frau ohne Schatten , directed by Claus Guth , and Manon Lescaut , directed by Jonathan Kent , and in the Studio Programme the world premiere of Luke Bedford 's Through His Teeth , and the London premiere of Luca Francesconi 's Quartett ( directed by Fulljames ) . This season also saw the first production of a three @-@ year collaboration between The Royal Opera and Welsh National Opera , staging Moses und Aron in 2014 , Richard Ayre 's Peter Pan in 2015 and a new commission in 2016 to celebrate WNO 's 70th anniversary . Other events this season included The Royal Opera 's first collaboration with Shakespeare 's Globe , Holten directing L 'Ormindo in the newly opened Sam Wanamaker Playhouse . In The Guardian , Tim Ashley wrote , " A more exquisite evening would be hard to imagine " ; Dominic Dromgoole , director of the playhouse expressed the hope that the partnership with the Royal Opera would become an annual fixture . The production was revived in February 2015 .
= = Managerial and musical heads , 1946 to date = =
= E ( mathematical constant ) =
The number e is an important mathematical constant that is the base of the natural logarithm . It is approximately equal to 2 @.@ 71828 , and is the limit of ( 1 + 1 / n ) n as n approaches infinity , an expression that arises in the study of compound interest . It can also be calculated as the sum of the infinite series
<formula>
The constant can be defined in many ways . For example , e can be defined as the unique positive number a such that the graph of the function y
= ax has unit slope at x =
0 . The function f ( x )
= ex is called the exponential function , and its inverse is the natural logarithm , or logarithm to base e . The natural logarithm of a positive number k can also be defined directly as the area under the curve y =
1 / x between x
= 1 and x =
k , in which case e is the number whose natural logarithm is 1 . There are alternative characterizations .
Sometimes called Euler 's number after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler , e is not to be confused with γ , the Euler – Mascheroni constant , sometimes called simply Euler 's constant . The number e is also known as Napier 's constant , but Euler 's choice of the symbol e is said to have been retained in his honor . The constant was discovered by the Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli while studying compound interest .
The number e is of eminent importance in mathematics , alongside 0 , 1 , π and i . All five of these numbers play important and recurring roles across mathematics , and are the five constants appearing in one formulation of Euler 's identity . Like the constant π , e is irrational : it is not a ratio of integers . Also like π , e is transcendental : it is not a root of any non @-@ zero polynomial with rational coefficients . The numerical value of e truncated to 50 decimal places is
2 @.@ 71828182845904523536028747135266249775724709369995 ... ( sequence A001113 in the OEIS ) .
= = History = =
The first references to the constant were published in 1618 in the table of an appendix of a work on logarithms by John Napier . However , this did not contain the constant itself , but simply a list of logarithms calculated from the constant . It is assumed that the table was written by William Oughtred . The discovery of the constant itself is credited to Jacob Bernoulli , who attempted to find the value of the following expression ( which is in fact e ) :
<formula>
The first known use of the constant , represented by the letter b , was in correspondence from Gottfried Leibniz to Christiaan Huygens in 1690 and 1691 . Leonhard Euler introduced the letter e as the base for natural logarithms , writing in a letter to Christian Goldbach of 25 November 1731 . Euler started to use the letter e for the constant in 1727 or 1728 , in an unpublished paper on explosive forces in cannons , and the first appearance of e in a publication was Euler 's Mechanica ( 1736 ) . While in the subsequent years some researchers used the letter c , e was more common and eventually became the standard .
= = Applications = =
= = = Compound interest = = =
Jacob Bernoulli discovered this constant in 1683 by studying a question about compound interest :
An account starts with $ 1 @.@ 00 and pays 100 percent interest per year . If the interest is credited once , at the end of the year , the value of the account at year @-@ end will be $ 2 @.@ 00 . What happens if the interest is computed and credited more frequently during the year ?
If the interest is credited twice in the year , the interest rate for each 6 months will be 50 % , so the initial $ 1 is multiplied by 1 @.@ 5 twice , yielding $ 1 @.@ 00 × 1 @.@ 52
= $ 2 @.@ 25 at the end of the year . Compounding quarterly yields $ 1 @.@ 00 × 1 @.@ 254 =
$ 2 @.@ 4414 ... , and compounding monthly yields $ 1 @.@ 00 × ( 1 + 1 / 12 ) 12
= $ 2 @.@ 613035 ... If there are n compounding intervals , the interest for each interval will be 100 % / n and the value at the end of the year will be $ 1 @.@ 00 × ( 1 + 1 / n ) n .
Bernoulli noticed that this sequence approaches a limit ( the force of interest ) with larger n and , thus , smaller compounding intervals . Compounding weekly ( n =
52 ) yields $ 2 @.@ 692597 ... , while compounding daily ( n
= 365 ) yields $ 2 @.@ 714567 ... , just two cents more . The limit as n grows large is the number that came to be known as e ; with continuous compounding , the account value will reach $ 2 @.@ 7182818 .... More generally , an account that starts at $ 1 and offers an annual interest rate of R will , after t years , yield eRt dollars with continuous compounding . ( Here R is the decimal equivalent of the rate of interest expressed as a percentage , so for 5 % interest , R =
5 / 100 = 0 @.@ 05 )
= = = Bernoulli trials = = =
The number e itself also has applications to probability theory , where it arises in a way not obviously related to exponential growth . Suppose that a gambler plays a slot machine that pays out with a probability of one in n and plays it
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Medium
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wikitext-103-excerpt
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man . A report dated 23 December 1583 relates that , having given Ferdinand a rude reply , the defenders went back to lunch .
Ferdinand ordered 400 men to enter the saps ; these men would storm the castle once the mine had been detonated . The remainder of his cavalry and foot soldiers were to wait in the fields below . Some sources assert that the fuse was lit at around 1 : 00 pm , although the 19th @-@ century local historian Heinrich Joseph Floß argued that these sources are mistaken , and that the explosion clearly occurred in the morning . All sources agree that the explosion , with a dreadful crack , propelled chunks of the towers and walls high into the air . Almost half the Godesburg collapsed instantly . According to a newspaper report dated 13 January 1584 , debris raining on the valley below damaged several houses , and destroyed some of them completely .
Amidst the flames and rubble , Arenberg 's and Ferdinand 's troops tried to storm the castle , but found their way blocked by masses of debris created by their own explosives . Furthermore , although close to half of the garrison had perished in the explosion and subsequent collapse of the fortifications , those who remained offered staunch resistance by throwing rocks on the approaching attackers , causing a large number of casualties . In frustration , 40 or 50 of the attackers tied together two ladders and crawled through the sluice @-@ ways of the garderobe ( latrines ) that emptied on the hillside , thus gaining access to the interior of the castle . There they killed around 20 of the defenders in fierce fighting ; the remaining defenders , approximately 70 men , among them Buchner and Sudermann , the garrison commander and his lieutenant , sought refuge in the castle 's keep . In this way , Ferdinand 's infantry at last gained unopposed access to the fortress . Storming the castle had taken about two hours .
Out of options , Buchner opened negotiations , using those interned in the castle as hostages . Presenting them at the keep 's door , he made clear that they would be killed unless Ferdinand promised to spare his , his wife 's and Sudermann 's lives . Ferdinand acceded to Buchner 's demand ; some sources maintain that the Abbot of Heisterbach , one of the prisoners , had been treated decently by Buchner throughout his imprisonment in the castle and himself asked for Buchner 's life to be spared . The prisoners were released . With much difficulty , given the state of mind of the besiegers , Ferdinand and Arenberg brought the Buchners and Sudermann out of the castle alive . Once the Buchners , Sudermann , and the hostages were clear of the fortress , Ferdinand released his troops , who were in an ugly mood and hungry for blood and plunder . All those who remained in the keep — soldiers , men , women and children — were killed , some inside the keep , some in the courtyard below ; the slaughter lasted well into the night . The castle 's 178 dead were buried in two mass graves whose locations remain unknown . Among those who perished in the destruction and storming of the castle was also one of the prisoners , a vicar from Hildesheim . The Hildesheim suffragan , too , was not among the rescued prisoners ; he had died during his incarceration , a short while before the castle was stormed .
Gebhard lost an important stronghold in the Oberstift and Ernst 's forces had acquired a ruin . The residence was unusable , and the fortifications were mere rubble . The keep had survived the blast and various armies used it as a watch tower in the Thirty Years ' War . Ernst 's troops , under his brother 's command , saturated the region , and the 7 @.@ 3 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 5 mi ) between Godesberg and Bonn bore a greater resemblance to a military camp than to a road . Walloon riders and squadrons of Italian cavalry , paid for by the pope , galloped back and forth . Forty companies of infantry trudged toward Bonn , including Walloons and Bavarians . They looked forward to besieging Bonn , the Elector 's capital city , to which they laid siege on 21 December 1583 , and which they took on 28 January 1584 .
= = Aftermath = =
The siege of the Godesburg and its subsequent destruction were a mere taste of things to come . It was the first of many sieges in the Cologne War , and the castle 's fall eventually led to the fall not just of Bonn , but of several other principal towns and cities in the Electorate of Cologne : Hülchrath , Neuss and Werl . Several smaller fortified towns such as Gelsenkirchen , Unkel and Brühl were also either heavily damaged or destroyed before , during and after the siege . In addition to damage to the towns and cities , Ernst 's supporters managed to restrict imports and exports to and from the Electorate , not only crippling Gebhard 's financial resources but resulting in economic hardship for the inhabitants .
Advances in military architecture over the previous century had led to the construction or enhancement of fortresses that could withstand the pounding of cannonballs and mortar shells . For both Gebhard and Ernst , winning the war required mobilizing enough men to encircle a seemingly endless array of enemy artillery fortresses . These could be protected with relatively small garrisons , but taking them required both expensive artillery and enough men to storm the battlements . Furthermore , the victor had to maintain and defend all his possessions as they were acquired . Even the ruin of the Godesburg required a garrison and a defensive strategy ; as a strategic point on the north @-@ south road from Bonn to Koblenz , it came under siege in 1586 and again in 1588 . The Cologne War , similar to the Dutch Revolt , was not a war of assembled armies facing each other on a field , but a war of artillery sieges . It required men who could operate the machinery of war , which meant extensive economic resources for soldiers to build and operate the siege works , and a political and military will to keep the machinery of war operating .
The destruction of so prominent a fortress was also news . When Frans Hogenberg and Georg Braun compiled their Civitates Orbis Terrarum , a collection of important scenes and locales , they included Hogenberg 's engraving of its destruction as not only an important sight , but an important event ( see Info Box , top ) . Hogenberg lived in Bonn and Cologne in 1583 , and likely saw the site himself . After overwhelming the Godesburg , the Bavarians found a large marble slab in the ruins : the castle 's foundation stone , which had been displaced by the explosion . The stone is a block of black marble with a Latin inscription commemorating the construction of the fortress by Dietrich I von Hengebach in 1210 : ANNO · D ( OMI ) NI · M · C · C · X · GUDENSBERG · FUNDATUM · E ( ST ) · A · TEODERICO · EP ( ISCOP ) O · I ( N ) · DIE · MAUROR ( UM ) · M ( A ) R ( TYRUM ) . A gold inscription was added to the back of the stone , noting that it had been found " on the very top of the blasted wall . " Ferdinand took the stone to Munich , where it was kept in a museum beside a fresco painting in an arcade commemorating the siege . Today , the foundation stone is in the Rheinisches Landesmuseum in Bonn .
= = = Long @-@ term consequences = = =
Gebhard 's eventual defeat changed the balance of power in the Electoral College of the Holy Roman Empire . In 1589 , Ernst of Bavaria became uncontested Prince @-@ elector of Cologne , the first Wittelsbach to hold the position . Wittelsbach authority in northwestern German territories endured until the mid @-@ 18th century , with the election of a succession of Bavarian princes to the archbishop 's throne and to the Prince @-@ Elector 's seat . This gave the family two voices in the choice of imperial candidates , which had ramifications in the 18th century . In 1740 , Charles Albert , Duke of Bavaria , laid claim to the imperial title ; his brother Klemens August of Bavaria , then the Archbishop and Prince @-@ elector , cast his vote for Charles and personally crowned him at Frankfurt am Main . The shift of the emperor 's orb from the House of Habsburg to the Wittelsbach family , albeit a brief event , was only resolved by the ascension of Maximilian III Joseph who , with the Treaty of Füssen , eschewed any imperial pretensions .
Gebhard 's defeat also changed the religious balance in the northwestern states . Although the Peace of Augsburg ( 1555 ) had addressed earlier the problem of religious pluralism , the solution potentially converted simple , and usually local , legal disputes into dynastic and religious warfare , as the Cologne War itself demonstrated . The result of the Cologne War gave the Counter Reformation a foothold in the lower Rhine . Ernst was a product of Jesuit education . Once his position was secured , he invited Jesuits into the territory to help re @-@ establish Catholicism , a task which the Order approached zealously . They ejected Protestant pastors from parishes , sometimes by force , and re @-@ established catechism education and pastoral visitations . Even when communities appeared to be reconverted , the Jesuits maintained strict supervision to identify recalcitrant Protestants or backsliders . The Jesuit reintroduction of Catholicism postponed the solution of Germany 's religious problems for another half century .
Finally , the German tradition of local and regional autonomy created structural and cultural differences in the Holy Roman Empire , compared to the increasingly centralized authority of such other European states as France , England , and Spain . The unabashed intervention of Spanish , French , Italian , Dutch , English and Scots mercenaries in the war , as well as the influence of papal gold , changed the dynamic of internal German confessional and dynastic disputes . The great " players " of the Early Modern European political stage realized that they could enhance their own positions vis @-@ a @-@ vis one another by assisting , promoting or undermining local and regional competition among the German princes , as they did in the feud between Gebhard and Ernst . Conversely , German princes , dukes , and counts realized that they could acquire an edge over their competitors by promoting the interests of powerful neighbors .
The scale of involvement of such external mercenary armies as Spain 's Army of Flanders set a precedent that internationalized contests of local autonomy and religious issues in the German states , a problem not settled until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 . Despite that settlement , German states remained vulnerable to both external intervention and religious division , as they were in the Cologne War .
= Daniel Craig =
Daniel Wroughton Craig ( born 2 March 1968 ) is an English actor . Craig trained at the National Youth Theatre and graduated from the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in 1991 , before beginning his career on stage . His film debut was in the drama The Power of One ( 1992 ) . Other early appearances were in the Disney family film A Kid in King Arthur 's Court ( 1995 ) and the biographical film Elizabeth ( 1998 ) , as well as in the historical war drama television series Sharpe 's Eagle ( 1993 ) and the action @-@ adventure drama series Zorro . Cast as the fictional British secret agent James Bond in October 2005 , his first film in the role , Casino Royale , was released internationally in November 2006 .
Craig 's appearances in the British television film Love Is the Devil : Study for a Portrait of Francis Bacon ( 1998 ) , the indie war film The Trench ( 1999 ) , and the drama Some Voices ( 2000 ) attracted the film industry 's attention . This led to roles in bigger productions such as the action film Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( 2001 ) , the crime thriller Road to Perdition ( 2002 ) , the crime thriller Layer Cake ( 2004 ) , and the Steven Spielberg historical drama Munich ( 2005 ) . Craig achieved international fame when chosen as the sixth actor to play the role of Ian Fleming 's James Bond in the official film series , taking over from Pierce Brosnan in 2005 . Although his casting was initially greeted with scepticism , his debut was highly acclaimed and earned him a BAFTA award nomination , with Casino Royale becoming the highest @-@ grossing in the series at the time . Quantum of Solace followed two years later .
Craig 's third Bond film , Skyfall , premiered in 2012 and is currently the highest @-@ grossing film in the series , was the highest @-@ grossing film in the UK until 2015 and the twelfth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time . Craig 's fourth Bond film , Spectre , premiered in 2015 . In 2006 , he joined the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . Since taking the role of Bond , he has continued to star in other films , including the World War II film Defiance ( 2008 ) , science fiction Western Cowboys & Aliens ( 2010 ) , and the English @-@ language adaptation of Stieg Larsson 's mystery thriller The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 ) . Craig also made a guest appearance as Bond in the opening ceremony of the London 2012 Olympic Games , alongside Queen Elizabeth II .
= = Early life = =
Craig was born in Chester , Cheshire . His mother , Carol Olivia ( née Williams ) , was an art teacher , and his father , Timothy John Wroughton Craig , was the landlord of the pubs Ring o ' Bells in Frodsham , Cheshire and the Boot Inn in Tarporley , Cheshire , having served as a midshipman in the Merchant Navy . Both of Craig 's parents were of part Welsh descent . He also has distant French Huguenot ancestry . Huguenot minister Daniel Chamier is among his ancestors , as is Sir William Burnaby , 1st Baronet . Craig 's middle name , Wroughton , comes from his great @-@ great @-@ grandmother Grace Matilda Wroughton .
Raised on the Wirral Peninsula , Craig attended primary school in Frodsham and Hoylake , Merseyside . Later , he attended Hilbre High School in West Kirby , Merseyside , along with his older sister Lea ( born 1965 ) , after failing his Eleven plus . When his parents divorced , Craig and his sister lived with their mother , moving to Liverpool . Upon finishing his compulsory secondary school education at the age of 16 , he briefly joined Calday Grange Grammar School as a sixth form student . He played rugby union for Hoylake RFC .
Craig began acting in school plays at the age of six , and was introduced to serious acting by attending the Everyman Theatre in nearby Liverpool city centre with his mother . At the age of 16 , Craig was admitted to the National Youth Theatre , leaving school and moving to London , where he worked part @-@ time in restaurants to finance his training . Later on , after multiple attempts at auditioning for drama schools , he was accepted at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama at the Barbican , where he graduated in 1991 after three years of study under Colin McCormack .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Overview = = =
In Craig 's first screen role , he played an Afrikaner in The Power of One in 1992 . He then appeared as Joe in the Royal National Theatre 's production of Tony Kushner 's Angels in America in November 1993 . Also in 1993 , Craig was featured in an episode of Yorkshire Television 's Heartbeat , which aired 31 October 1993 . An early starring role was as ' Geordie ' in the BBC 's 1996 drama Our Friends in the North , with early film roles being as Angelina Jolie 's rival and love interest in Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( 2001 ) , before appearing in Sam Mendes 's movie Road to Perdition ( 2002 ) , with Tom Hanks and Paul Newman . Other leading film roles include Sword of Honour ( 2001 ) , The Mother ( 2003 ) with Anne Reid , Sylvia ( 2003 ) with Gwyneth Paltrow , Layer Cake ( 2004 ) with Sienna Miller , Enduring Love ( 2004 ) with Rhys Ifans , Steven Spielberg 's Munich ( 2005 ) with Eric Bana , Infamous and Casino Royale ( 2006 ) , The Golden Compass ( 2007 ) , Quantum of Solace , Defiance ( 2008 ) , Cowboys & Aliens ( 2011 ) , The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 ) , Dream House ( 2011 ) , Skyfall ( 2012 ) and Spectre ( 2015 ) . The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences extended a membership invitation to Craig in 2006 .
= = = James Bond ( 2005 – present ) = = =
In 2005 , Craig was contacted by Eon Productions to portray James Bond . He stated he " was aware of the challenges " of the Bond franchise which he considered " a big machine that makes a lot of money " . He aimed at bringing more " emotional depth " to the character . Born in 1968 , Craig is the first actor to portray James Bond to have been born after the Bond series started , and after the death of Ian Fleming , the novels ' writer . Significant controversy followed the decision , as it was doubted if the producers had made the right choice . Throughout the entire production period internet campaigns expressed their dissatisfaction and threatened to boycott the film in protest .
The 5 @-@ foot @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 178 cm ) blond Craig was not considered by some protesters to fit the tall , dark Bond portrayed by the previous Bond actors , and to which viewers had apparently become accustomed . Although the choice of Craig was controversial , numerous actors publicly voiced their support , most notably , four of the five actors who had previously portrayed Bond – Pierce Brosnan , Timothy Dalton , Sean Connery and Roger Moore – called his casting a good decision . George Lazenby has since voiced his approval of Craig also . Clive Owen , who had been linked to the role , also spoke in defence of Craig .
The first film , Casino Royale , premiered 14 November 2006 , and grossed a total of US $ 594 @,@ 239 @,@ 066 worldwide , which made it the highest @-@ grossing Bond film until the release of Skyfall . After the film was released , Craig 's performance was highly acclaimed . As production of Casino Royale reached its conclusion , producers Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli announced that pre @-@ production work had already begun on the 22nd Bond film .
After several months of speculation as to the release date , Wilson and Broccoli officially announced on 20 July 2006 , that the follow @-@ up film , Quantum of Solace , was to be released on 7 November 2008 , and that Craig would play Bond with an option for a third film . On 25 October 2007 , MGM CEO Harry Sloan revealed at the Forbes Meet II Conference that Craig had signed on to make four more Bond films , through to Bond 25 .
The planned 19 April 2010 release of Craig 's third Bond film ( the 23rd overall in the series ) was delayed , because of financial troubles with MGM , but the film ( Skyfall ) was released on 23 October 2012 , and was part of the year @-@ long celebration of the 50th anniversary of Dr. No . On 8 September 2012 , Bond producers announced Craig had signed on for two future Bond films , meaning he will star as 007 in at least five films , making him the third longest @-@ serving Bond after Roger Moore who starred in seven films , and Sean Connery who starred in six . Craig 's fourth Bond film , Spectre , began filming in December 2014 and was released on 26 October 2015 .
Craig has described his portrayal of Bond as an anti @-@ hero : " The question I keep asking myself while playing the role is , ' Am I the good guy or just a bad guy who works for the good side ? ' Bond 's role , after all , is that of an assassin when you come down to it . I have never played a role in which someone 's dark side shouldn 't be explored . I don 't think it should be confusing by the end of the film , but during the film you should be questioning who he is . " Craig has stated that his own favourite previous Bond actor is Sean Connery , but says , " I 'd never copy somebody else . I would never do an impression of anybody else or try and improve on what they did . That would be a pointless exercise for me . " His own favourite Bond film is From Russia with Love . On an episode of The South Bank Show , Connery divulged his thoughts on Craig 's casting as Bond , whom he described as " fantastic , marvelous in the part " . When told that Craig had taken particular note of his performances , Connery said that he was " flattered " and that Craig really gets the " danger element " to Bond 's character . Craig has remarked that Bond is " ... actually a misogynist ... A lot of women are drawn to him chiefly because he embodies a certain kind of danger and never sticks around for too long . "
= = = = Voice @-@ overs in James Bond video games = = = =
Craig lent his voice and likeness as James Bond for both the Wii game GoldenEye 007 , an enhanced remake of the 1997 game for the Nintendo 64 , and James Bond 007 : Blood Stone , an original game for Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , Nintendo DS , and Microsoft Windows .
= = = Other projects = = =
In 1999 , Craig starred as Richard in a TV drama called Shockers : The Visitor . He portrayed Lord Asriel in The Golden Compass , the 2007 film adaptation of Philip Pullman 's novel . Eva Green , who played Bond girl Vesper Lynd in Casino Royale , also starred in the film , although she did not appear in any scenes with Craig . In a stage version of the book , Asriel had previously been played by Timothy Dalton , one of Craig 's predecessors in the role of James Bond .
In early 2001 , Craig expressed an interest in being a part of the Star Trek franchise , professing his love of the series to the World Entertainment News Network and a desire to have a " stint in the TV show or a film . It 's been a secret ambition of mine for years . " On 16 March 2007 , Craig made a cameo appearance as himself in a sketch with Catherine Tate who appeared in the guise of her character Elaine Figgis from The Catherine Tate Show . The sketch was made for the BBC Red Nose Day 2007 fundraising programme .
In 2008 's Defiance , he played Tuvia Bielski , a Jewish resistance fighter in the forests of Belarus during World War II who saved 1 @,@ 200 people . In 2009 Del Monte Foods launched an ice pop moulded to resemble Craig emerging from the sea . He co @-@ starred with Hugh Jackman in a limited engagement of the drama A Steady Rain , on Broadway , which played from 10 September through 6 December 2009 at the Schoenfeld Theatre . His performance received praise from the New York Times , with the reviewer writing " Mr. Craig , a highly reputable stage actor in London ( “ Angels in America , ” “ A Number ” ) before he became the screen ’ s sixth James Bond , creates a more complete portrait as Joey . "
In August 2010 , Craig was cast as crusading journalist Mikael Blomkvist in David Fincher 's 2011 adaptation of Stieg Larsson 's novel The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo . In 2011 , he starred in Dream House , a psychological thriller directed by Jim Sheridan and co @-@ starring Rachel Weisz , Naomi Watts and Marton Csokas . It garnered mostly negative reviews and low box office results . Craig co @-@ starred with Harrison Ford and Olivia Wilde in Cowboys & Aliens , an American science fiction Western film , based on Scott Mitchell Rosenberg 's 2006 graphic novel of the same name .
Craig hosted the American late @-@ night live television sketch comedy Saturday Night Live on 6 October 2012 . He and his wife starred in the Broadway play titled Betrayal . It began performances in October 2013 , and continued until January 2014 . Despite mixed reviews , it grossed $ 17 @.@ 5 million , becoming the second highest broadway play of 2013 .
Craig was set to star in the courtroom drama The Whole Truth directed by Courtney Hunt . In April 2014 just a few days before filming was set to commence he dropped out of the project for unknown reasons replaced a month later by Keanu Reeves .
= = Personal life = =
In 1992 , Craig married actress Fiona Loudon , with whom he had a daughter , Ella . The marriage ended in divorce in 1994 .
After his divorce , he was in a seven @-@ year relationship with German actress Heike Makatsch , ending in 2001 . He subsequently dated film producer Satsuki Mitchell from 2005 until 2010 .
Craig and actress Rachel Weisz had been friends for many years , and worked together on the movie Dream House . They began dating in December 2010 and married on 22 June 2011 , in a private New York City ceremony , with four guests in attendance , including Craig 's 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter and Weisz 's 5 @-@ year @-@ old son , Henry .
In October 2008 , Craig paid £ 4 million for an apartment in a converted old house in Primrose Hill near Regent 's Park , London . He also has a house in Sunninghill outside Ascot . He is an avid fan of Premier League football club Liverpool F.C. , as well as a rugby fan and former player , having travelled to Australia in 2013 to watch the British & Irish Lions tour .
Daniel Craig made a unique place for himself in the history of Broadway Cares / Equity Fights AIDS fundraising 8 December 2009 , when it was announced that they had raised $ 1 @,@ 549 @,@ 953 in the 21st annual Gypsy of the Year competition , from six weeks of curtain appeals at their hit Broadway drama , A Steady Rain .
He is involved with multiple charities including S.A.F.E Kenya , which uses street theatre to address social issues . He is also involved with the Opportunity Network , which provides access to education for low @-@ income students in New York . In 2011 , he collaborated with Dame Judi Dench to highlight gender inequality for International Women 's Day . In August 2014 , he added his name to a letter to British broadcasters calling for better representation for ethnic minorities .
In April 2015 , the United Nations appointed Craig the first global advocate for the elimination of mines and explosive hazards . The role will involve raising awareness for the UN Mine Action Service ( UNMAS ) , and political and financial support for the cause . UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon told Craig : " You have been given a licence to kill , I 'm now giving you a licence to save . "
= = Filmography = =
= = Theatre performances = =
= Nordberg ( station ) =
Nordberg was a station on the Sognsvann Line of the Oslo Metro in Oslo , Norway . It was opened on 10 October 1934 , and was located between Østhorn and Holstein stations , in a level crossing with the steep road Borgestadveien . The station saw several accidents , and was closed on 5 May 1992 when the Sognsvann Line was upgraded to rapid transit standard . An underpass was constructed to allow pedestrians pass under the tracks .
= = History = =
Nordberg station opened on 10 October 1934 as a station on the Sognsvann Line . The line was built by the municipally owned company Akersbanerne . The line was double @-@ tracked from Majorstuen to Korsvoll , and single @-@ tracked from there to Sognsvann . In 1939 , the section Korsvoll – Sognsvann was upgraded to double track , and the station Korsvoll had its name changed to Østhorn .
Nordberg was part of Holmenkolbanen 's operating network until 1975 , when the municipality of Oslo bought all the company 's stock . In the early 1990s , the stations on the Sognsvann Line were upgraded to metro standard , which involves a heightening and lengthening of the platforms , installation of third rail power supply and a new signaling system . The third rail made it impossible to cross the line in @-@ grade , and under- or overpasses had to be built at all stations . The transport authorities decided to close Nordberg , arguing that the access roads to the station were steep and dangerous , and icy during the winter . The residents of Nordberg opposed the closure of the station , arguing that it had served the area well with its central position in the area . Nevertheless , the station was closed , along with the level crossing that formerly had allowed for car traffic to cross the tracks . An underpass for pedestrians was constructed .
= = Accidents = =
In 1951 , two young lads rode a sled over the station 's level crossing , and accidentally hit a truck that was parked on the other side of the station . In 1987 , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old man was attacked by a raging moose near the station . The man ran off to a shop 40 metres ( 130 ft ) away , and left the accident with broken ribs and a punctured lung . The reason for the moose 's rage is unknown , but it was seen a few days earlier with a calf , and it is assumed that the moose wanted to protect it from foreigners . The man was sent to Ullevål University Hospital shortly thereafter .
= = Location = =
Nordberg Station was located in the steep road named Borgestadveien , that passed the station in a level crossing . The station served the local senior center named Nordberghjemmet , and was the most used of all stations among residents living in Nordberg . After the 1992 closure , very little remains from the station , aside from a pedestrians ' underpass .
= Gubazes II of Lazica =
Gubazes II ( Georgian : გუბაზ II , Greek : Γουβάζης ) was king of Lazica ( modern western Georgia ) from circa 541 until his assassination in 555 . He was one of the central personalities of the Lazic War ( 541 – 562 ) . He originally ascended the throne as a vassal of the Byzantine Empire , but the heavy @-@ handed actions of the Byzantine authorities led him to seek the assistance of Byzantium 's main rival , Sassanid Persia . The Byzantines were evicted from Lazica with the aid of a Persian army in 541 , but the Persian occupation of the country turned out to be worse , and by 548 , Gubazes was requesting assistance from Byzantium . Gubazes remained a Byzantine ally during the next few years , as the two empires fought for control of Lazica , with the fortress of Petra as the focal point of the struggle . Gubazes eventually quarrelled with the Byzantine generals over the fruitless continuation of the war , and was assassinated by them .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Gubazes was of Byzantine descent through his mother , Valeriana . Tzathius ' marriage to Valeriana seems to be the earliest recorded marriage between the Lazic and Byzantine elites . The custom of marrying Byzantine women , usually from the senatorial aristocracy , was common among the Lazic royalty : his uncle , the " king " Opsites ( it is unknown when exactly he reigned ) , was married to a Byzantine noblewoman named Theodora . It is known that Gubazes had a younger brother , Tzath , who succeeded him on the throne , and an unnamed sister . Gubazes was married and had children , but neither the name of his wife nor of any of his offspring is known . The name of Gubazes 's father is not known from the ancient annals . Professor Cyril Toumanoff , a specialist in Caucasian history and genealogy , has hypothesized that Gubazes was a son and direct successor of the king Tzath I , and that Opsites , his uncle , never actually ruled as a king .
The exact date of Gubazes 's accession is unknown , but it must not have been much earlier than 541 , when he is first attested as king of the Lazi . It is very likely that before his accession he had lived for several years at the Byzantine capital , Constantinople , for he is recorded to have been a silentiarius , an influential position at the imperial palace ; alternatively , but less probably , he may have been given the title as an honorary appointment after his accession .
= = = Defection to Persia = = =
Lazica had been a Byzantine client state since 522 , when its king , Tzath I , had rejected Persian hegemony . However , during the rule of Emperor Justinian I ( reigned 527 – 565 ) , a series of heavy @-@ handed Byzantine measures made them unpopular . In particular , the establishment of a trade monopoly by the magister militum ( general ) John Tzibus , which was regulated from the newly constructed fortress of Petra , drove Gubazes to seek once again the protection of the Persian shah , Khosrau I ( r . 531 – 579 ) .
In 540 , Khosrau broke the " Eternal Peace " of 532 and invaded the Byzantine province of Mesopotamia . In spring 541 , Khosrau and his troops , led by Lazi guides , marched over the mountain passes into Lazica , where Gubazes submitted to him . The Byzantines under John Tzibus resisted valiantly from Petra , but Tzibus was killed , and the fortress fell soon after . Khosrau left a Persian garrison at Petra and departed the country , but soon , the Lazi grew discontented : as Christians , they resented the Persians ' Zoroastrianism , and they were greatly affected by the cessation of the Black Sea trade with Byzantium . The contemporary Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea reports that Khosrau , who was aware of Lazica 's strategic importance , intended to resettle the entire Lazi people and replace them with Persians . As a first step , the Persian ruler planned to assassinate Gubazes . Forewarned of Khosrau 's intentions , Gubazes switched his allegiance back to Byzantium .
= = = Return to Byzantine allegiance = = =
In 548 , Emperor Justinian dispatched 8 @,@ 000 men under Dagisthaeus , who together with a Lazic force set siege to the Persian garrison at Petra . As the Persians were well provisioned , the siege dragged on . Dagisthaeus had neglected to keep watch over the mountain passes that led into Lazica , and a far larger Persian relief force under Mihr @-@ Mihroe arrived and raised the siege . Yet , the Persians lacked sufficient supplies , and so , after strengthening the garrison at Petra and leaving further 5 @,@ 000 men under Phabrizus to secure its supply routes , Mihr @-@ Mihroe left . In the spring of the next year , Gubazes and Dagisthaeus combined their forces , destroyed Phabrizus 's army in a surprise attack , and pursued the survivors into Caucasian Iberia . In the same summer , they won another victory against a new Persian army , led by Khorianes . The allies failed , however , to prevent another Persian army from reinforcing
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El Ahuaca covers an area of about 120 hectares ( 300 acres ) , and the total population there may not contain more than a few dozen individuals . Except for some small outcrops close to the Cerro , no nearby habitat is suitable , but more populations may exist elsewhere in southern Ecuador or nearby northern Peru .
The species is threatened by fires , used to maintain crop fields in the vicinity , which frequently get out of control and destroy part of the viscacha 's habitat on the Cerro , and by competition for food with grazing cattle . However , the species is unknown to the local people and is not hunted . In view of its small range and population , Ledesma and colleagues recommended the species be assessed as " Critically Endangered " under the IUCN Red List criteria and recommended immediate conservation action to protect the Cerro El Ahuaca population and further research into its biology .
= Widest path problem =
In graph algorithms , the widest path problem is the problem of finding a path between two designated vertices in a weighted graph , maximizing the weight of the minimum @-@ weight edge in the path . The widest path problem is also known as the bottleneck shortest path problem or the maximum capacity path problem . It is possible to adapt most shortest path algorithms to compute widest paths , by modifying them to use the bottleneck distance instead of path length . However , in many cases even faster algorithms are possible .
For instance , in a graph that represents connections between routers in the Internet , where the weight of an edge represents the bandwidth of a connection between two routers , the widest path problem is the problem of finding an end @-@ to @-@ end path between two Internet nodes that has the maximum possible bandwidth . The smallest edge weight on this path is known as the capacity or bandwidth of the path . As well as its applications in network routing , the widest path problem is also an important component of the Schulze method for deciding the winner of a multiway election , and has been applied to digital compositing , metabolic pathway analysis , and the computation of maximum flows .
A closely related problem , the minimax path problem , asks for the path that minimizes the maximum weight of any of its edges . It has applications that include transportation planning . Any algorithm for the widest path problem can be transformed into an algorithm for the minimax path problem , or vice versa , by reversing the sense of all the weight comparisons performed by the algorithm , or equivalently by replacing every edge weight by its negation .
= = Undirected graphs = =
In an undirected graph , a widest path may be found as the path between the two vertices in the maximum spanning tree of the graph , and a minimax path may be found as the path between the two vertices in the minimum spanning tree .
In any graph , directed or undirected , there is a straightforward algorithm for finding a widest path once the weight of its minimum @-@ weight edge is known : simply delete all smaller edges and search for any path among the remaining edges using breadth first search or depth first search . Based on this test , there also exists a linear time algorithm for finding a widest s @-@ t path in an undirected graph , that does not use the maximum spanning tree . The main idea of the algorithm is to apply the linear @-@ time path @-@ finding algorithm to the median edge weight in the graph , and then either to delete all smaller edges or contract all larger edges according to whether a path does or does not exist , and recurse in the resulting smaller graph .
Fernandez , Garfinkel & Arbiol ( 1998 ) use undirected bottleneck shortest paths in order to form composite aerial photographs that combine multiple images of overlapping areas . In the subproblem to which the widest path problem applies , two images have already been transformed into a common coordinate system ; the remaining task is to select a seam , a curve that passes through the region of overlap and divides one of the two images from the other . Pixels on one side of the seam will be copied from one of the images , and pixels on the other side of the seam will be copied from the other image . Unlike other compositing methods that average pixels from both images , this produces a valid photographic image of every part of the region being photographed . They weight the edges of a grid graph by a numeric estimate of how visually apparent a seam across that edge would be , and find a bottleneck shortest path for these weights . Using this path as the seam , rather than a more conventional shortest path , causes their system to find a seam that is difficult to discern at all of its points , rather than allowing it to trade off greater visibility in one part of the image for lesser visibility elsewhere .
A solution to the minimax path problem between the two opposite corners of a grid graph can be used to find the weak Fréchet distance between two polygonal chains . Here , each grid graph vertex represents a pair of line segments , one from each chain , and the weight of an edge represents the Fréchet distance needed to pass from one pair of segments to another .
If all edge weights of an undirected graph are positive , then the minimax distances between pairs of points ( the maximum edge weights of minimax paths ) form an ultrametric ; conversely every finite ultrametric space comes from minimax distances in this way . A data structure constructed from the minimum spanning tree allows the minimax distance between any pair of vertices to be queried in constant time per query , using lowest common ancestor queries in a Cartesian tree . The root of the Cartesian tree represents the heaviest minimum spanning tree edge , and the children of the root are Cartesian trees recursively constructed from the subtrees of the minimum spanning tree formed by removing the heaviest edge . The leaves of the Cartesian tree represent the vertices of the input graph , and the minimax distance between two vertices equals the weight of the Cartesian tree node that is their lowest common ancestor . Once the minimum spanning tree edges have been sorted , this Cartesian tree can be constructed in linear time .
= = Directed graphs = =
In directed graphs , the maximum spanning tree solution cannot be used . Instead , several different algorithms are known ; the choice of which algorithm to use depends on whether a start or destination vertex for the path is fixed , or whether paths for many start or destination vertices must be found simultaneously .
= = = All pairs = = =
The all @-@ pairs widest path problem has applications in the Schulze method for choosing a winner in multiway elections in which voters rank the candidates in preference order . The Schulze method constructs a complete directed graph in which the vertices represent the candidates and every two vertices are connected by an edge . Each edge is directed from the winner to the loser of a pairwise contest between the two candidates it connects , and is labeled with the margin of victory of that contest . Then the method computes widest paths between all pairs of vertices , and the winner is the candidate whose vertex has wider paths to each opponent than vice versa . The results of an election using this method are consistent with the Condorcet method – a candidate who wins all pairwise contests automatically wins the whole election – but it generally allows a winner to be selected , even in situations where the Concorcet method itself fails . The Schulze method has been used by several organizations including the Wikimedia Foundation .
To compute the widest path widths for all pairs of nodes in a dense directed graph , such as the ones that arise in the voting application , the asymptotically fastest known approach takes time O ( n ( 3 + ω ) / 2 ) where ω is the exponent for fast matrix multiplication . Using the best known algorithms for matrix multiplication , this time bound becomes O ( n2.688 ) . Instead , the reference implementation for the Schulze method uses a modified version of the simpler Floyd – Warshall algorithm , which takes O ( n3 ) time . For sparse graphs , it may be more efficient to repeatedly apply a single @-@ source widest path algorithm .
= = = Single source = = =
If the edges are sorted by their weights , then a modified version of Dijkstra 's algorithm can compute the bottlenecks between a designated start vertex and every other vertex in the graph , in linear time . The key idea behind the speedup over a conventional version of Dijkstra 's algorithm is that the sequence of bottleneck distances to each vertex , in the order that the vertices are considered by this algorithm , is a monotonic subsequence of the sorted sequence of edge weights ; therefore , the priority queue of Dijkstra 's algorithm can be implemented as a bucket queue : an array indexed by the numbers from 1 to m ( the number of edges in the graph ) , where array cell i contains the vertices whose bottleneck distance is the weight of the edge with position i in the sorted order . This method allows the widest path problem to be solved as quickly as sorting ; for instance , if the edge weights are represented as integers , then the time bounds for integer sorting a list of m integers would apply also to this problem .
= = = Single source and single destination = = =
Berman & Handler ( 1987 ) suggest that service vehicles and emergency vehicles should use minimax paths when returning from a service call to their base . In this application , the time to return is less important than the response time if another service call occurs while the vehicle is in the process of returning . By using a minimax path , where the weight of an edge is the maximum travel time from a point on the edge to the farthest possible service call , one can plan a route that minimizes the maximum possible delay between receipt of a service call and arrival of a responding vehicle . Ullah , Lee & Hassoun ( 2009 ) use maximin paths to model the dominant reaction chains in metabolic networks ; in their model , the weight of an edge is the free energy of the metabolic reaction represented by the edge .
Another application of widest paths arises in the Ford – Fulkerson algorithm for the maximum flow problem . Repeatedly augmenting a flow along a maximum capacity path in the residual network of the flow leads to a small bound , O ( m log U ) , on the number of augmentations needed to find a maximum flow ; here , the edge capacities are assumed to be integers that are at most U. However , this analysis does not depend on finding a path that has the exact maximum of capacity ; any path whose capacity is within a constant factor of the maximum suffices . Combining this approximation idea with the shortest path augmentation method of the Edmonds – Karp algorithm leads to a maximum flow algorithm with running time O ( mn log U ) .
It is possible to find maximum @-@ capacity paths and minimax paths with a single source and single destination very efficiently even in models of computation that allow only comparisons of the input graph 's edge weights and not arithmetic on them . The algorithm maintains a set S of edges that are known to contain the bottleneck edge of the optimal path ; initially , S is just the set of all m edges of the graph . At each iteration of the algorithm , it splits S into an ordered sequence of subsets S1 , S2 , ... of approximately equal size ; the number of subsets in this partition is chosen in such a way that all of the split points between subsets can be found by repeated median @-@ finding in time O ( m ) . The algorithm then reweights each edge of the graph by the index of the subset containing the edge , and uses the modified Dijkstra algorithm on the reweighted graph ; based on the results of this computation , it can determine in linear time which of the subsets contains the bottleneck edge weight . It then replaces S by the subset Si that it has determined to contain the bottleneck weight , and starts the next iteration with this new set S. The number of subsets into which S can be split increases exponentially with each step , so the number of iterations is proportional to the iterated logarithm function , O ( log * n ) , and the total time is O ( m log * n ) . In a model of computation where each edge weight is a machine integer , the use of repeated bisection in this algorithm can be replaced by a list @-@ splitting technique of Han & Thorup ( 2002 ) , allowing S to be split into O ( √ m ) smaller sets Si in a single step and leading to a linear overall time bound .
= = Euclidean point sets = =
A variant of the minimax path problem has also been considered for sets of points in the Euclidean plane . As in the undirected graph problem , this Euclidean minimax path problem can be solved efficiently by finding a Euclidean minimum spanning tree : every path in the tree is a minimax path . However , the problem becomes more complicated when a path is desired that not only minimizes the hop length but also , among paths with the same hop length , minimizes or approximately minimizes the total length of the path . The solution can be approximated using geometric spanners .
In number theory , the unsolved Gaussian moat problem asks whether or not minimax paths in the Gaussian prime numbers have bounded or unbounded minimax length . That is , does there exist a constant B such that , for every pair of points p and q in the infinite Euclidean point set defined by the Gaussian primes , the minimax path in the Gaussian primes between p and q has minimax edge length at most B ?
= John S. Loisel =
Colonel John Simon Loisel ( May 21 , 1920 – January 20 , 2010 ) was an American air ace , credited with having shot down 11 Japanese aircraft during World War II . Loisel was born in Coeur d 'Alene , Idaho and joined the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) in 1941 . By age 25 , Loisel had spent more time in combat than any other American pilot in World War II , with over three years in the Pacific . Serving in the Pacific he quickly distinguished himself by first becoming an ace after achieving five kills in just a two @-@ month period , and then becoming a double ace .
He became a career Air Force officer . Loisel commanded Fighter Groups in both World War II and Korea , along with several peacetime commands . He retired from the Air Force as a colonel . Following his military career , Loisel taught high school physics for 15 years in the Plano Independent School District , Plano , Texas . He died of natural causes at age 89 in 2010 in Plano .
= = Early life = =
Loisel was born in Coeur d 'Alene , Idaho on May 21 , 1920 and moved with his family to Norfolk , Nebraska by 1922 . His parents , Simon M. and Lucille Loisel were first @-@ generation Americans of French @-@ Canadian parents . The elder Loisel worked as a commercial traveler in the lumber industry . Simon Loisel did well enough to keep a live @-@ in servant and to reside in an expensive house for the time . Prior to John being born , Lucille Loisel had been employed as a teacher at a Catholic school in Coeur d 'Alene . John Loisel was the eldest child , with six younger brothers and two sisters .
After graduating from high school , Loisel attended Wayne State Teacher 's College , Nebraska ( now Wayne State College ) and the University of Nebraska from 1938 to 1941 . He then entered the USAAF for flight training at Mather Field , California on March 10 , 1941 and received his pilot wings on October 31 , 1941 .
= = Military career = =
= = = World War II = = =
Upon receiving his wings and a commission as a second lieutenant , Loisel was initially posted for duties as a flight instructor while waiting for assignment . He was then posted to a unit in the Philippine Islands . When he was en route by ship , he learned of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . In late @-@ 1941 he was assigned as a Bell P @-@ 39 Airacobra fighter pilot with the 36th Fighter Squadron , 8th Fighter Group , based in New Guinea . By June 1943 , he had flown 83 combat missions in both the P @-@ 39D and the P @-@ 400 versions . Loisel was then selected as cadre for the newly formed 432nd Fighter Squadron , 475th Fighter Group , the first Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning fighter group formed in the USAAF .
Once assigned to the 432nd Fighter Squadron , Loisel began to quickly show his abilities once he started flying an aircraft that could compete with the top @-@ line Japanese fighters . Flying a P @-@ 38H , serial no . 42 @-@ 66682 , named the Screaming Kid , he shot down five Japanese fighters within his first two months of flying in the P @-@ 38s and earned a promotion to captain . On August 21 , 1943 , while escorting USAAF bombers near Wewak , New Guinea , he shot down two Kawasaki Ki @-@ 61 " Tony " fighters , his first two victories . Less than a month later , on September 22 , 1943 , he claimed a Mitsubishi A6M " Zero " fighter near Finschafen , New Guinea . Slightly less than two months later Loisel obtained " ace " status by downing two more Zeroes near Oro Bay , New Guinea .
In December , 1943 , he picked up two more kills , a Zero on the 15th and another Zero on the 21st , during the build @-@ up for the landings at Cape Gloucester . Loisel picked up his eighth victory on January 23 , 1944 over a Zero . On April 3 , 1944 , while escorting Douglas A @-@ 20 Havoc bombers near Hollandia , New Guinea , he shot down a Nakajima Ki @-@ 43 " Oscar " fighter and a Mitsubishi A6M3 " Hamp " fighter over Lake Sentani , giving him his ninth and tenth kills and making him a double ace . On January 22 , 1944 , he assumed command of the 432nd Fighter Squadron . This unit was tasked with striking targets in New Guinea and the Indonesian Spice Islands to support General Douglas MacArthur 's return to the Philippines . In August 1944 , Loisel returned to the United States as a major .
In January 1945 , Loisel returned to the 475th Fighter Group as the Operations Officer . After his return to combat following his assignment in the United States , Loisel had his eleventh and final aerial victory on March 28 , 1945 , when he shot down a Nakajima Ki @-@ 84 " Frank " fighter near Tree Island , Indochina ( Vietnam ) . On May 15 , 1945 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and on July 15 , 1945 he became the Commanding Officer of the 475th Fighter Group . He relinquished command on April 18 , 1946 and returned to the United States .
He had , by the age of 25 , become a lieutenant colonel , a fighter group commander , and earned the Silver Star . His assignment to the Pacific Theatre of Operations for over three years was longer than any other American fighter pilot served in combat , and he flew more than 875 hours in combat . Loisel was the fourth leading ace in the 475th Fighter Group , flying with notable aces Thomas McGuire ( 38 kills ) , Charles MacDonald ( 27 kills ) and Daniel T. Roberts , Jr . ( 15 kills ) . He was known for his aggressiveness , instructing his pilots to " Head for the main body of the enemy – disregard stragglers ... [ and ] plow into the largest bunch you see . "
= = = Korea = = =
On return to the United States in 1946 , he married Rachel ' Rae ' Hultman and re @-@ enrolled at the University of Nebraska to earn his bachelor 's degree in physics , graduating in 1949 . Beginning in May , 1947 , he served as the commanding officer of the 63rd Fighter Squadron ( an Air Defense – Interceptor unit ) , based at Selfridge Air Force Base , Michigan , where he led the transition of the unit to the Lockheed P @-@ 80 Shooting Star jet fighter . After a staff tour at Headquarters , Air Defense Command , Loisel returned to combat in Korea in May 1953 , having been promoted to full colonel on December 1 , 1951 . Once there , Loisel commanded the 474th Fighter Bomber Group , flying the Republic F @-@ 84 Thunderjet fighter . He flew an additional 22 combat missions . One of the subordinate squadrons under his command ( the 429th Fighter Bomber Squadron ) set an Air Force record for the number of combat sorties flown ( 80 in one day ) in June 1953 and the 474th Fighter Bomber Group set a Fifth Air Force record of 254 sorties on that same day .
= = = Post @-@ war career = = =
Following the Korean War , Loisel had assignments that included tours as the Commander , 83rd Fighter Group and Deputy Commander , 4th Tactical Fighter Wing . In 1970 , having achieved the rank of colonel , over 5 @,@ 500 flying hours , and 323 combat missions , he retired from the Air Force .
= = Later life = =
Following his retirement from the Air Force , Loisel attended North Texas State University ( now the University of North Texas ) , obtaining his master 's degree in physics in 1972 . Loisel then taught physics at Plano Senior High School in Plano , Texas from 1972 to 1985 . Loisel was an " avid golfer " and a member of the American Fighter Aces Association . Loisel was married to Rae Loisel for 63 years . They had a son , John S. Loisel , Jr . , and a daughter , Susan Bryan . He died of natural causes on January 20 , 2010 in Plano , Texas and is buried at the Dallas @-@ Fort Worth National Cemetery . He is survived by his wife , daughter , and two sisters , Mary Margaret Pappas and Anne Schueth . His son John , Jr. and his brothers predeceased him .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Silver Star
Legion of Merit
Distinguished Flying Crosses with three oak leaf clusters
Air Medal with two silver oak leaf clusters
Presidential Unit Citation with four oak leaf clusters
Republic of Korea Ulchi Medal with silver star
= = = Other honors = = =
Grand Marshal , Dallas Veteran 's Day Parade , Dallas , Texas , 2007
Nebraska Aviation Hall of Fame , inducted 1994
U.S. Air Force Gathering of Eagles , inducted 1991
= Peter Molydeux =
Peter Molydeux is a Twitter account presented as a parody of the game designer Peter Molyneux . Created by game artist Adam Capone in 2009 , it posts audacious game design ideas in the style of Molyneux . The account presents Molyneux as a tragicomic character with unrelenting , creative ideas that are continually received by an apathetic audience . Over time , the account evolved from a Molyneux @-@ based persona into a list of potential game concepts . A common theme of the tweets is the untapped potential of emotional game experiences . Molyneux came to appreciate the parody , and has since met Capone in person .
The account went viral in 2011 and led to the reinvigoration of Molyneux 's legacy . To many , the two became entwined . Molyneux 's reputation as a dreamer was reclaimed as a positive trait in light of growing opposition to conservative game design , and the parody account became a mouthpiece for that population . The tweets contributed to Molyneux 's decision to leave Microsoft Game Studios and pursue riskier game ideas . They also inspired a game jam , in which about 1 @,@ 000 game developers worldwide created about 300 games based on the tweets over the course of a weekend . The game jam also brought Molyneux fame within a burgeoning indie game movement . Notable games based on the parody account 's ideas include Donut County .
= = History = =
In June 2009 , Adam Capone created a Twitter account , @ PeterMolydeux , as a parody of the game designer Peter Molyneux and the audacious game design ideas for which he was known . The account became a touchpoint for people in the game industry interested in more adventurous game concepts . Capone was inspired by Molyneux 's games in his youth , particularly by the open choice structure of the 1994 simulation game Theme Park .
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Meyer , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Ron Hauge and Matt Selman participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " I 'm with Cupid " received generally positive reviews from critics . In 2007 , Simon Crerar of The Times listed Elton John 's performance as one of the thirty @-@ three funniest cameos in the history of the show . James Plath of DVD Town wrote that the episode is " funny " because " it has a plot we recognize from our own lives , " and Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News considered it to be one of the season 's best episodes . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide gave the episode a positive review as well , calling it " Very , very clever and funny , " and wrote " it 's executed stylishly and Homer wins in the end ; entirely by default of course , but maybe that 's his reward for not falling off the skywriting plane until the last minute ! " However , they also criticized the episode for being " a little tacky , " writing " After all , how nice are these people who want to ruin Apu and Manjula 's day just because they 're scared of looking bad ? "
Writing for IGN , Robert Canning described " I 'm with Cupid " as " very smart and very funny " and " a great episode representing one piece of Apu 's journey . " However , he disliked John 's guest appearance in the episode , describing it as " completely unnecessary " and " very tacked on , " and described John 's performance as " very flat . " Nevertheless , Canning gave the episode an 8 @.@ 8 rating and concluded his review by describing it as a " tightly written Valentine 's episode . " Giving the episode a more mixed review , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide criticized it for being to similar to an earlier episode , writing " Didn ’ t we already see that Flanders makes everyone else look like a jerk on Valentine ’ s Day ? Doesn ’ t that theme mean that ' Cupid ' is somewhat redundant ? " He added " Not that the show lacks any spark , as it throws out a reasonable number of laughs , " and concluded his review by writing that " it seems a little stale and not one of the year ’ s better programs . "
= 41 cm / 45 3rd Year Type naval gun =
The 41 cm / 45 3rd Year Type naval gun was a 41 @-@ centimeter ( 16 @.@ 1 in ) breech @-@ loading naval gun designed during World War I for the Imperial Japanese Navy . It served as the primary armament in the Nagato @-@ class dreadnoughts completed after the end of the war and in coast defense mountings . Two turrets and their guns were salvaged during the 1970s from the wreck of the Japanese battleship Mutsu and are currently on display in Japan .
= = Description = =
The gun was of wire @-@ wound construction and had an overall length of 18 @.@ 84 meters ( 61 ft 10 in ) with a bore 18 @.@ 294 meters ( 60 ft 0 @.@ 2 in ) long . It weighed 102 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 224 @,@ 872 lb ) , including the Wellin @-@ type breech . This used the Elswick three @-@ motion short @-@ arm mechanism , much like the British BL 18 inch Mk I naval gun designed around the same time . Chamber volume was 467 @.@ 11 litres ( 28 @,@ 505 cu in ) .
Initially the gun was fitted in twin @-@ gun turrets that had an elevation range of – 2 ° / + 35 ° . It was initially equipped with the Type 88 1 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) armor @-@ piercing , capped ( APC ) shell , that had a muzzle velocity of 790 m / s ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . This was superseded in 1931 by the Type 91 shell that weighed 1 @,@ 020 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 250 lb ) . It was fired at a muzzle velocity of 790 m / s ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) to a range of 30 @,@ 200 meters ( 33 @,@ 000 yd ) . Also available was a 936 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 064 lb ) high @-@ explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 805 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 640 ft / s ) . A special Type 3 Sankaidan incendiary shrapnel shell was developed in the 1930s for anti @-@ aircraft use . The gun 's firing cycle was one round every 24 seconds .
The turrets aboard the Nagato @-@ class ships were replaced in the mid @-@ 1930s , using the turrets stored from the unfinished Tosa @-@ class battleships . While in storage the turrets were modified to increase their range of elevation to – 3 ° / + 43 ° , which gave them a maximum range of 37 @,@ 900 meters ( 41 @,@ 400 yd ) , and their firing cycle was reduced to 21 @.@ 5 seconds .
The gun was only initially known as the 41 cm / 45 3rd Year Type naval gun before it was redesignated as the 40 cm / 45 3rd Year Type naval gun on 29 March 1922 to comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty which forbade guns larger than 40 @.@ 6 cm ( 16 in ) . Third year type refers to the Welin breech block on which design began in 1914 , the third year of the Taishō period . This breech block design was also used on the 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 inch ) , 15 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 1 inch ) , 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 inch ) , 12 @.@ 7 cm ( 5 inch ) , and 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 inch ) naval guns .
= = Service = =
The Nagato @-@ class dreadnoughts were the only ships to use this gun , although it would have been used by the Tosa @-@ class and Kii @-@ class dreadnoughts as well as the Amagi @-@ class battlecruisers had they not been cancelled due to the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . The gun was also deployed in three coast @-@ defense turrets intended to close off the Strait of Tsushima . One turret each was deployed on Iki and Tsushima Islands while the third was mounted in Pusan , Korea .
The two aft turrets from Mutsu 's wreck were salvaged in the 1970s ; No. 4 in July or August 1970 and No. 3 in September of the following year . Turret No. 4 and its guns were restored and were installed on the grounds of the former Imperial Japanese Naval Academy at Etajima , Hiroshima . One gun from Turret No. 3 is at the Kure Maritime Museum , popularly known as the Yamato Museum , in Kure , Hiroshima while the other is at the Museum of Maritime Science in Odaiba , Tokyo .
= = Shells into bombs = =
Obsolete Type 88 shells were modified in 1939 – 40 to create the Type 99 No. 80 Mk 5 armor @-@ piercing bomb used during the attack on Pearl Harbor . The armor @-@ piercing cap and windscreen were removed , the body was machined down and tapered to reduce weight and a new , thinner , base plug installed with two fuzes . The filling was replaced by 23 kilograms ( 50 lb ) of trinitroanisole and the bomb weighed 796 @.@ 8 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 757 lb ) .
Beginning in 1942 an improved version of the bomb was built . Its nose was much less thick and it contained 35 @.@ 7 kilograms ( 79 lb ) of trinitroanisole . It weighed 811 @.@ 2 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 788 lb ) .
= = = Weapons of comparable role , performance and era = = =
BL 16 inch Mk I naval gun : British equivalent
16 " / 45 caliber Mark 6 gun : American equivalent
40 @.@ 6 cm SK C / 34 gun : German equivalent
= M @-@ 109 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 109 is the designation of a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan that runs between Empire and Glen Arbor . The highway is a loop connected to M @-@ 22 at both ends that allows tourists access to Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore and the Pierce Stocking Scenic Drive located on a section of sandy forest land between Lake Michigan and Glen Lake . The trunkline traverses an area named the " Most Beautiful Place in America " by Good Morning America , the morning show on ABC . The highway was designated by 1929 and fully paved in 1939 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 109 starts at an intersection on M @-@ 22 north of Empire . The trunkline runs northward along Dune Highway past Maple Grove Cemetery and through woods in the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore . The area was named the " Most Beautiful Place in America " by Good Morning America in August 2011 ; the designation came after a social media campaign to capitalize on the show 's website poll . Further north , the highway passes the entrance to Pierce Stocking Scenic Drive before reunning along the western shore of Glen Lake . Near the northwestern corner of the lake , M @-@ 109 passes the entrance to the Dune Climb in an area that 's predominantly fields . The trunkline makes a 90 @-@ degree turn at the intersection with Glen Haven Road , the former M @-@ 209 , south of Glen Haven , a former logging town on the shores of Lake Michigan . M @-@ 109 turns easterly at the intersection to follow Harbor Highway . It runs through another wooded area between Glen Lake and Sleeping Bear Bay . The highway passes the D.H. Day Campground and enters Glen Arbor , following Western Avenue . At the intersection with M @-@
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the chart in 1964 ; in 2010 , it placed eighty singles on the Billboard Hot 100 , far outstripping the previous record . In February 2011 , Glee surpassed Elvis Presley as the act with the most songs placed on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , though fewer than one @-@ fourth of them have charted for more than one week . The cast performance of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " was certified gold on October 13 , 2009 , achieving over 500 @,@ 000 digital sales , and on March 16 , 2011 , received platinum certification for having sales of over a million . The series ' cover version had a positive effect on sales of Rihanna 's " Take a Bow " , which increased by 189 percent after the song was covered in the Glee episode " Showmance " .
However , there has also been critical condemnation of the cast performances . Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone commented that Matthew Morrison " couldn 't rap his way out of a 98 ° rehearsal " , and Allmusic 's Andrew Leahey wrote that Cory Monteith and Dianna Agron " can 't sing nearly as well as their co @-@ stars " . E ! Online 's Joal Ryan criticized the show for its " overproduced soundtrack " and complained that many songs rely too heavily on the pitch @-@ correcting software Auto @-@ Tune : " For every too @-@ brief moment of Lea Michele sounding raw — and lovely — on a " What a Girl Wants " , or Monteith singing a perfectly credible REO Speedwagon in the shower , there 's Michele and Monteith sounding like 1990s @-@ era Cher on " No Air " , or Monteith sounding like the Monteith XRZ @-@ 200 on the out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ shower version of " Can 't Fight This Feeling " .
During the second season , Rob Sheffield for Rolling Stone noted the Britney Spears and Rocky Horror tribute episodes as examples when he lauded Glee and its choice of music . He praised Murphy for his selection and resurrection of " forgotten " pop songs and compared the show 's uniqueness to " MTV in its prime " as the embodiment of popular culture .
Some artists , including Slash , Kings of Leon and Foo Fighters , have declined to have their songs used on the show . Murphy has been publicly critical of these refusals , which has led to exchanges in the press between him and a number of artists . A slated cover of Sir Mix @-@ a @-@ Lot 's " Baby Got Back " in the season four episode " Sadie Hawkins " has been criticized for blatantly copying a rendition of the song by Jonathan Coulton without his permission , without giving creative credit . Side @-@ by @-@ Side comparison shows the waveforms appear remarkably similar . Other artists have come forward with allegations of plagiarism in light of this development . It was reported that musician Prince had not given permission for Glee to cover his hit " Kiss " before filming the performance of the cover .
= = = Fandom = = =
Fans of Glee are commonly referred to as " gleeks " , a portmanteau of " glee " and " geek " . Fox ran a " Biggest GLEEK " competition , measuring fans ' Glee @-@ related activity on social networking websites such as Facebook and MySpace , and found that the growth of the fanbase outpaced the network 's science @-@ fiction shows . The cast 's Hot Topic tour was titled " The Gleek Tour " . Glee is one of the most tweeted @-@ about TV shows . In 2011 , it was the top trending US TV show . On IMDb , Glee is the seventh highest ranking TV series of the period 2002 – 2012 . Fans have recreated many of its musical numbers in tribute to the show , sharing them on YouTube . Based on this trend , show producers included instrumental versions of some songs on the show 's soundtracks .
Similarly , Glee fans have created portmanteaus of character couples , such as " Finchel " for Finn and Rachel , " Klaine " for Kurt and Blaine , and " Brittana " for Brittany and Santana . This fact has been referenced in various second season episodes , notably " Furt " , which is itself a coinage for the new stepbrothers Finn and Kurt , and " Rumours " .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Glee has received a number of awards and nominations . In 2009 , the series won five Satellite Awards : " Best Musical or Comedy TV Series " , " Best Actor " and " Actress in a Musical or Comedy TV Series " for Morrison and Michele , " Best Supporting Actress " for Lynch and " Special Achievement for Outstanding Guest Star " for Kristin Chenoweth . In 2010 , the show won a Golden Globe Award for " Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy " . Morrison , Michele and Lynch also received acting nominations . The series was nominated for two Writers Guild of America Awards , with screenplays nominated in the " Comedy Series " and " New Series " categories . It also won a Peabody Award in 2009 . The Glee cast won the " Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series " award at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards . Paris Barclay and Ryan Murphy both received nominations for " Outstanding Directing – Comedy Series " at the Directors Guild of America Awards for their work on Glee . In July 2010 , Glee received nineteen Emmy Award nominations , including " Outstanding Comedy Series " , " Outstanding Lead Actor – Comedy Series " for Morrison and " Outstanding Lead Actress – Comedy Series " for Michele ; it won four of these , including " Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series " for Lynch and " Outstanding Guest Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series " for Neil Patrick Harris . Paris Barclay was also nominated for a Primetime Emmy for Best Directing in a Comedy Series in 2010 for his episode " Wheels " .
On January 16 , 2011 the show won a Golden Globe for " Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy " and both Lynch and Colfer won Golden Globes for Best Supporting Actress and Best Supporting Actor in a Television Series , Miniseries , or TV Film . In July 2011 , Glee received twelve Emmy nominations and won two : Gwyneth Paltrow was named Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her portrayal of Holly Holliday , and the show won the Outstanding Casting for a Comedy Series category . It received three Emmy nominations in July 2012 , and four in July 2013 .
The cast was invited to sing at the White House by Michelle Obama in April 2010 for the annual Easter Egg Roll .
= = Film = =
Glee : The Concert Movie , a concert film based on the four @-@ week North American segment of the 2011 Glee Live ! In Concert ! tour and featuring the cast of the series in performance and backstage , was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on August 12 , 2011 , for a two @-@ week limited engagement . The film is directed by Kevin Tancharoen .
= = Related media = =
In January 2010 , it was announced that open auditions would be held for three new roles to be introduced in Glee 's second season . They were open to amateurs and professionals aged sixteen to twenty @-@ six , and were intended to be the subject of a multi @-@ part television special , set to air in the lead @-@ in to the second season premiere in fall 2010 , with the new cast members revealed in the first episode . Murphy commented : " Anybody and everybody now has a chance to be on a show about talented underdogs . We want to be the first interactive musical comedy on television . " On June 22 , 2010 , Josef Adalian of New York magazine revealed that the reality show would not go ahead , due to Murphy 's desire to concentrate on the main series , and fear that the distraction of the reality show may damage Glee . Adalian reported that the production team would still choose several winners from the entrants and invite them to appear on Glee for at least one episode . In June 2010 , it was announced that Oxygen would host a reality series set to air in June 2011 , featuring performers competing for a spot on Glee . The Glee Project started airing on June 12 , 2011 , and the final episode was broadcast on August 21 , 2011 . The winning prize was a seven @-@ episode guest @-@ starring role in Glee 's third season , which was awarded to two contestants , with a two @-@ episode role given to two other finalists .
On June 7 , 2010 , UK broadcaster Channel 4 aired Gleeful : The Real Show Choirs of America on its E4 station . The documentary explored the American show choir phenomenon which inspired Glee . Narrated by Nick Grimshaw , it went behind the scenes with real @-@ life glee clubs and detailed celebrity show choir alumni including Lance Bass , Ashton Kutcher , Blake Lively and Anne Hathaway . It was selected as recommended viewing by The Guardian , with the comment : " it 's a fascinating look at the real @-@ life New Directions , and it 's equally as crackers as its TV champion . " The newspaper 's Lucy Mangan reviewed the documentary positively , writing : " It will , one way or another , fill your heart to bursting " , and commenting that : " Glee , it turns out , is not a gloriously ridiculous , highly polished piece of escapism . It is cinéma vérité . " It was watched by 411 @,@ 000 viewers , a 2 @.@ 3 % audience share .
In summer 2010 , Channel 5 in the United Kingdom aired Don 't Stop Believing , a reality talent show inspired by Glee 's success . The series featured live shows in which established and new musical performance groups competed against each other , performing well @-@ known songs in new arrangements , with viewers voting on the winner . Solo singers were also sought to join a group to represent the United Kingdom on the American glee club circuit . Five 's controller Richard Woolfe stated : " There 's an explosion in musical performance groups and Don 't Stop Believing will tap into that exciting groundswell . " The show was hosted by Emma Bunton , who told The Belfast Telegraph that she is a " huge fan " of Glee . The show 's judges were former EastEnders actress Tamsin Outhwaite , Blue member Duncan James , singer Anastacia and High School Musical choreographer Charles " Chucky " Klapow .
= Pilot ( Smallville ) =
The pilot episode of the television series Smallville premiered on The WB on October 16 , 2001 . It was written by series developers Alfred Gough and Miles Millar , and directed by David Nutter . The Smallville pilot introduces the characters of Clark Kent , an orphaned alien with superhuman abilities , and his friends and family who live in the fictional town of Smallville , Kansas . It follows Clark as he first learns of his alien origins , and attempts to stop a vengeful student from killing Smallville High School students . The episode introduces many themes that were designed to run either the course of the season or the entire series , such as the triangular relationships of the main characters .
Production was set in Vancouver , Canada , used for its " middle America " landscape , with five months devoted to casting the right actors in the lead roles . Filming for the pilot officially began four days after the last actor was cast for the series . When time constraints would not allow the production crew to physically create the sets , computer @-@ generated imagery was used to digitally insert set pieces into a scene . When the series premiere was broadcast , it broke several of The WB 's viewership records . It was generally well received by critics , and was nominated for various awards , winning two .
= = Plot and themes introduced = =
The episode begins in 1989 when a meteor shower hits Smallville ; at the same time a small spacecraft , containing an alien boy , crashes in front of Jonathan and Martha Kent 's ( played by John Schneider and Annette O 'Toole ) truck . They adopt the superhumanly powerful child and name him Clark . Gough and Millar use this opening scene to establish that the three lead characters of the series , Clark , Lana and Lex , share a common bond — they are all without one or both parents : Clark is the only survivor of his homeworld ; Lana 's parents are killed in the meteor shower ; and Lex is alienated from his father , Lionel Luthor ( John Glover ) , after being rendered bald by the meteor blast .
The episode jumps forward twelve years to when Clark ( Tom Welling ) is trying to find his identity . He is unable to handle being told of his alien origins and runs away from home . Although he is attracted to Lana Lang ( Kristin Kreuk ) , he cannot get close to her without falling over in pain because she wears a necklace made of meteor rock ( kryptonite ) , which is a radioactive fragment of Clark 's destroyed homeworld . This was a concept Gough and Millar devised to establish a reason for Clark 's clumsiness . In other media , it is usually portrayed as an act he puts on to deceive people of his true identity . But Clark and Lana do share an intimate moment at a cemetery , where Lana is visiting the grave of her parents . In such scenes , Gough and Millar created a theme of loneliness through the life stories of Clark and Lana . Lana 's boyfriend , Whitney Fordman ( Eric Johnson ) , becomes jealous of Clark and Lana 's friendship and ties Clark to a scarecrow pole , using Lana 's necklace , indirectly , to subdue Clark . This image of Clark , in just his underwear and a red " S " painted on his chest , stretches back to Gough and Millar 's foundation for the series , which was about taking Clark down to the basic elements of the Superman character .
In the second strand of the story , Lex Luthor ( Michael Rosenbaum ) and Clark develop a " yin and yang " relationship . Clark first saves Lex from drowning when they get into a car accident ; at the end of the episode , Lex saves Clark when he is strung up in the cornfield and immobilized by kryptonite . Jeremy Creek ( Adrian McMorran ) — who was mutated by the meteor rocks , gaining special powers — puts the three former jocks , who tied him to a scarecrow pole during the meteor shower , into comas . He sets out to kill everyone attending the school 's dance , after witnessing Clark experience the same hazing he did , but Clark is able to arrive in time to stop him .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
Gough and Millar had five months for casting , but their primary focus was on finding an actor to play Clark Kent . They received Kristin Kreuk 's audition tape for the role of Lana Lang and liked it so much that they immediately showed her to the network . Tom Welling , after twice turning down the producers ' attempts to get him to audition for the role of Clark Kent , eventually accepted the opportunity to be part of the show . It was David Nutter who finally convinced Welling to read the script for the pilot , after finding Welling 's picture in a photo album at the casting director 's office . Welling 's manager did not want him to take the role because it could hurt his feature film career , but Welling liked the script and agreed to come in for an audition . Welling 's reason for turning down the role was because the producers were keeping quiet on what the show was really about , which left him with the impression the show was going to be " Superman in high school " , something he did not want to do . Nutter promised to let Welling read the script if he came in and auditioned . After auditioning , Welling was given the script to read , which he thought was " amazing " . For one of his auditions , he read the graveyard scene , from the pilot , with Kristin Kreuk ; the network thought they had " great chemistry " . No one could agree on which actors had the best audition for Lex Luthor . Michael Rosenbaum auditioned twice , and , believing he did not take his first audition seriously , outlined a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ page scene from the pilot . He indicated all the places to be funny , charismatic , or menacing , and performed so well that everyone agreed he was " the guy " .
John Schneider was brought in to play Jonathan Kent . Schneider was already well known as Bo Duke from The Dukes of Hazzard , and Gough believed Schneider 's experience from The Dukes of Hazzard added believability to the idea that he could have grown up running a farm . Cynthia Ettinger was originally cast as Martha Kent , but during filming it was generally agreed — Ettinger included — that she was not right for the role . Annette O 'Toole , who previously portrayed Lana Lang in Superman III , and who was fresh off the recent cancellation of her television series The Huntress , was cast in Ettinger 's place , reshooting the scenes Ettinger had filmed .
Eric Johnson , after auditioning for the roles of Lex and Clark , was cast as Lana Lang 's boyfriend Whitney Fordman . Johnson only spent one day filming his scenes for the pilot . Allison Mack toyed with the idea of auditioning for the role of Lana Lang but chose instead to audition for the role of Chloe Sullivan . The character was created just for the series and was intended to add ethnic diversity to the cast , but part of the reason Gough and Millar chose to cast Mack , against their initial intentions to give the character an ethnic background , was because they were impressed with Allison Mack 's " rare ability to deliver large chunks of expositionary [ sic ] dialogue conversationally " . Sam Jones III , who plays Pete Ross , was the last of the series regulars to be cast . Gough and Millar saw Jones four days before they began filming for the pilot . In the comics , Pete Ross is Caucasian , and the producers chose to cast Jones , who is African @-@ American , against the mythology .
= = = Filming = = =
Once Warner Bros. Television secured the rights to the show , Gough and Millar set out to write the script and find a director for the pilot . Gough and Millar were fans of director David Nutter 's previous work ; they considered him to be a " preeminent pilot director " . David Nutter joined the project because he wanted to make a pilot that respected the audience but that was still fun and smart . Nutter also believes in creating shows that appeal to a wide variety of audiences . He wanted the final scene for the pilot , in which Clark fantas
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02 . HAT @-@ P @-@ 9 b is the most recently confirmed exoplanet in Auriga , orbiting the star HAT @-@ P @-@ 9 . Unlike the other exoplanets in Auriga , detected by radial velocity measurements , HAT @-@ P @-@ 9 b was detected using the transit method in 2008 . It has a mass of 0 @.@ 67 Jupiter masses and orbits just 0 @.@ 053 AU from its parent star , with a period of 3 @.@ 92 days ; its radius is 1 @.@ 4 Jupiter radii , making it a hot Jupiter . Its parent star , HAT @-@ P @-@ 9 , is an F @-@ type star approximately 480 parsecs from Earth . It has a mass of 1 @.@ 28 solar masses and a radius of 1 @.@ 32 solar radii .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
The galactic anticenter is located about 3 @.@ 5 ° to the east of Beta Aurigae . This marks the point on the celestial sphere opposite the location of the Galactic Center ; hence , this region marks a less extensive and less luminous part of the dust band that forms the spiral arms of the Milky Way . Auriga has many open clusters and other objects because the Milky Way runs through it . The three brightest open clusters are M36 , M37 and M38 , all of which are visible in binoculars or a small telescope in suburban skies . A larger telescope resolves individual stars . Three other open clusters are NGC 2281 , lying close to ψ7 Aurigae , NGC 1664 , which is close to ε Aurigae , and IC 410 ( surrounding NGC 1893 ) , a cluster with nebulosity next to IC 405 , the Flaming Star Nebula , found about midway between M38 and ι Aurigae . AE Aurigae , a runaway star , is a bright variable star currently located within the Flaming Star Nebula .
M36 ( NGC 1960 ) is a young galactic open cluster with approximately 60 stars , most of which are relatively bright ; however , only about 40 stars are visible in most amateur instruments . It is at a distance of 3900 light @-@ years and has an overall magnitude of 6 @.@ 0 ; it is 14 light @-@ years wide . Its apparent diameter is 12 @.@ 0 arcminutes . Of the three open clusters in Auriga , M36 is both the smallest and the most concentrated , though its brightest stars are approximately 9th magnitude . It was discovered in 1749 by Guillaume Le Gentil , the first of Auriga 's major open clusters to be discovered . M36 features a 10 @-@ arcminute @-@ wide knot of bright stars in its center , anchored by Struve 737 , a double star with components separated by 10 @.@ 7 arcseconds . Most of the stars in M36 are B type stars with rapid rates of rotation . M36 's Trumpler class is given as both I 3 r and II 3 m . Besides the central knot , most of the cluster 's other stars appear in smaller knots and groups .
M37 ( NGC 2099 ) is an open cluster , larger than M36 and at a distance of 4200 light @-@ years . It has 150 stars , making it the richest cluster in Auriga ; the most prominent member is an orange star that appears at the center . M37 is approximately 25 light @-@ years in diameter . It is the brightest open cluster in Auriga with a magnitude of 5 @.@ 6 ; it has an apparent diameter of 23 @.@ 0 arcminutes . M37 was discovered in 1764 by Charles Messier , the first of many astronomers to laud its beauty . It was described as " a virtual cloud of glittering stars " by Robert Burnham , Jr. and Charles Piazzi Smyth commented that the star field was " strewed [ sic ] ... with sparkling gold @-@ dust " . The stars of M37 are older than those of M36 ; they are approximately 200 million years old . Most of the constituent stars are A type stars , though there are at least 12 red giants in the cluster as well . M37 's Trumpler class is given as both I 2 r and II 1 r . The stars visible in a telescope range in magnitude from 9 @.@ 0 to 13 @.@ 0 ; there are two 9th magnitude stars in the center of the cluster and an east to west chain of 10th and 11th magnitude stars .
M38 is a diffuse open cluster at a distance of 3900 light @-@ years , the least concentrated of the three main open clusters in Auriga ; it is classified as a Trumpler Class II 2 r or III 2 r cluster because of this . It appears as a cross @-@ shaped or pi @-@ shaped object in a telescope and contains approximately 100 stars ; its overall magnitude is 6 @.@ 4 . M38 , like M36 , was discovered by Guillaume Le Gentil in 1749 . It has an apparent diameter of approximately 20 arcseconds and a true diameter of about 25 light @-@ years . Unlike M36 or M37 , M38 has a varied stellar population . The majority of the population consists of A and B type main sequence stars , the B type stars being the oldest members , and a number of G type giant stars . One yellow @-@ hued G type star is the brightest star in M38 at a magnitude of 7 @.@ 9 . The brightest stars in M38 are magnitude 9 and 10 . M38 is accompanied by NGC 1907 , a smaller and dimmer cluster that lies half a degree south @-@ southwest of M38 ; it is at a distance of 4200 light @-@ years . The smaller cluster has an overall magnitude of 8 @.@ 2 and a diameter of 6 @.@ 0 arcminutes , making it about a third the size of M38 . However , NGC 1907 is a rich cluster , classified as a Trumpler Class I 1 m n cluster . It has approximately 12 stars of magnitude 9 – 10 , and at least 25 stars of magnitude 9 – 12 .
IC 410 , a faint nebula , is accompanied by the bright open cluster NGC 1893 . The cluster is thin , with a diameter of 12 arcminutes and a population of approximately 20 stars . Its accompanying nebula has very low surface brightness , partially because of its diameter of 40 arcminutes . It appears in an amateur telescope with brighter areas in the north and south ; the brighter southern patch shows a pattern of darker and lighter spots in a large instrument . NGC 1893 , of magnitude 7 @.@ 5 , is classified as a Trumpler Class II 3 r n or II 2 m n cluster , meaning that it is not very large and is somewhat bright . The cluster possesses approximately 30 stars of magnitude 9 – 12 . In an amateur instrument , IC 410 is only visible with an Oxygen @-@ III filter . NGC 2281 is a small open cluster at a distance of 1500 light @-@ years . It contains 30 stars in a crescent shape . It has an overall magnitude of 5 @.@ 4 and a fairly large diameter of 14 @.@ 0 arcseconds , classified as a Trumpler Class I 3 m cluster . The brightest star in the cluster is magnitude 8 ; there are approximately 12 stars of magnitude 9 – 10 and 20 stars of magnitude 11 – 13 .
NGC 1931 is a nebula in Auriga , slightly more than one degree to the west of M36 . It is considered to be a difficult target for an amateur telescope . NGC 1931 has an approximate integrated magnitude of 10 @.@ 1 ; it is 3 by 3 arcminutes . However , it appears to be elongated in an amateur telescope . Some observers may note a green hue in the nebula ; a large telescope will easily show the nebula 's " peanut " shape , as well as the quartet of stars that are engulfed by the nebula . The open cluster portion of NGC 1931 is classed as a I 3 p n cluster ; the nebula portion is classed as both an emission and reflection nebula . NGC 1931 is approximately 6000 light @-@ years from Earth and could easily be confused with a comet in the eyepiece of a telescope .
NGC 1664 is a fairly large open cluster , with a diameter of 18 arcminutes , and moderately bright , with a magnitude of 7 @.@ 6 , comparable to several other open clusters in Auriga . One open cluster with a similar magnitude is NGC 1778 , with a magnitude of 7 @.@ 7 . This small cluster has a diameter of 7 arcminutes and contains 25 stars . NGC 1857 , a small cluster , is slightly brighter at magnitude 7 @.@ 0 . It has a diameter of 6 arcminutes and contains 40 stars , making it far more concentrated than the similar @-@ sized NGC 1778 . Far dimmer than the other open clusters is NGC 2126 at magnitude 10 @.@ 2 . Despite its dimness , NGC 2126 is as concentrated as NGC 1857 , having 40 stars in a diameter of 6 arcminutes .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
Auriga is home to two meteor showers . The Aurigids , named for the entire constellation and formerly called the " Alpha Aurigids " , are renowned for their intermittent outbursts , such as those in 1935 , 1986 , 1994 , and 2007 . They are associated with the comet Kiess ( C / 1911 N1 ) , discovered in 1911 by Carl Clarence Kiess . The association was discovered after the outburst in 1935 by Cuno Hoffmeister and Arthur Teichgraeber . The Aurigid outburst on September 1 , 1935 prompted the investigation of a connection with Comet Kiess , though the 24 @-@ year delay between the comet 's return caused doubt in the scientific community . However , the outburst in 1986 erased much of this doubt . Istvan Teplickzky , a Hungarian amateur meteor observer , observed many bright meteors radiating from Auriga in a fashion very similar to the confirmed 1935 outburst . Because the position of Teplickzky 's observed radiant and the 1935 radiant were close to the position of Comet Kiess , the comet was confirmed as the source of the Aurigid meteor stream .
The Aurigids had a spectacular outburst in 1994 , when many grazing meteors — those that have a shallow angle of entry and seem to rise from the horizon — were observed in California . The meteors were tinted blue and green , moved slowly , and left trails at least 45 ° long . Because they had such a shallow angle of entry , some 1994 Aurigids lasted up to 2 seconds . Though there were only a few visual observers for part of the outburst , the 1994 Aurigids peak , which lasted less than two hours , was later confirmed by Finnish amateur radio astronomer Ilkka Yrjölä . The connection with Comet Kiess was finally confirmed in 1994 . The 2007 outburst of the Aurigids was predicted by Peter Jenniskens and was observed by astronomers worldwide . Despite some predictions that there would be no Alpha Aurigid outburst , many bright meteors were observed throughout the shower , which peaked on September 1 as predicted . Much like in the 1994 outburst , the 2007 Aurigids were very bright and often colored blue and green . The maximum zenithal hourly rate was 100 meteors per hour , observed at 4 : 15 am , California time ( 12 : 15 UTC ) by a team of astronomers flying on NASA planes .
The Aurigids are normally a placid Class II meteor shower that peaks in the early morning hours of September 1 , beginning on August 28 every year . Though the maximum zenithal hourly rate is 2 – 5 meteors per hour , the Aurigids are fast , with an entry velocity of 67 kilometres ( 42 mi ) / sec . The annual Aurigids have a radiant located about two degrees north of Theta Aurigae , a third @-@ magnitude star in the center of the constellation . The Aurigids end on September 4 . Some years , the maximum rate has reached 9 – 30 meteors per hour .
The other meteor showers radiating from Auriga are far less prominent and capricious than the Alpha Aurigids . The Zeta Aurigids are a weak shower with a northern and southern branch lasting from December 11 to January 21 . The shower peaks on January 1 and has very slow meteors , with a maximum rate of 1 – 5 meteors per hour . It was discovered by William Denning in 1886 and was discovered to be the source of rare fireballs by Alexander Stewart Herschel . There is another faint stream of meteors called the " Aurigids " , unrelated to the September shower . This shower lasts from January 31 to February 23 , peaking from February 5 through February 10 ; its slow meteors peak at a rate of approximately 2 per hour . The Delta Aurigids are a faint shower radiating from Auriga . It was discovered by a group of researchers at New Mexico State University and has a very low peak rate . The Delta Aurigids last from September 22 through October 23 , peaking between October 6 and October 15 . They may be related to the September Epsilon Perseids , though they are more similar to the Coma Berenicids in that the Delta Aurigids last longer and have a dearth of bright meteors . They too have a hypothesized connection to an unknown short period retrograde comet . The Iota Aurigids are a hypothesized shower occurring in mid @-@ November ; its parent body may be the asteroid 2000 NL10 , but this connection is highly disputed . The hypothesized Iota Aurigids may instead be a faint stream of Taurids .
= Prague Spring =
The Prague Spring ( Czech : Pražské jaro , Slovak : Pražská jar ) was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II . It began on 5 January 1968 , when reformist Alexander Dubček was elected First Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia ( KSČ ) , and continued until 21 August when the Soviet Union and other members of the Warsaw Pact invaded the country to halt the reforms .
The Prague Spring reforms were a strong attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens of Czechoslovakia in an act of partial decentralization of the economy and democratization . The freedoms granted included a loosening of restrictions on the media , speech and travel . After national discussion of dividing the country into a federation of three republics , Bohemia , Moravia @-@ Silesia and Slovakia , Dubček oversaw the decision to split into two , the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic . This was the only formal change that survived the end of Prague Spring , though the relative success of the nonviolent resistance undoubtedly prefigured and facilitated the peaceful transition to liberal democracy with the collapse of Soviet hegemony in 1989 .
The reforms , especially the decentralization of administrative authority , were not received well by the Soviets , who , after failed negotiations , sent half a million Warsaw Pact troops and tanks to occupy the country . A large wave of emigration swept the nation . A spirited non @-@ violent resistance was mounted throughout the country , involving attempted fraternization , painting over and turning street signs ( on one occasion an entire invasion force from Poland was routed back out of the country after a day 's wandering ) , defiance of various curfews , etc . While the Soviet military had predicted that it would take four days to subdue the country the resistance held out for eight months , and was only circumvented by diplomatic stratagems ( see below ) . There were sporadic acts of violence and several suicides by self @-@ immolation ( such as that of Jan Palach ) , but there was no military resistance . Czechoslovakia remained controlled until 1989 , when the velvet revolution ended pro @-@ Soviet rule peacefully , undoubtedly drawing upon the successes of the non @-@ violent resistance twenty years earlier . The resistance also became an iconic example of civilian @-@ based defense , which , along with unarmed civilian peacekeeping constitute the two ways that nonviolence can be and occasionally has been applied directly to military or paramilitary threats .
After the invasion , Czechoslovakia entered a period of normalization : subsequent leaders attempted to restore the political and economic values that had prevailed before Dubček gained control of the KSČ . Gustáv Husák , who replaced Dubček and also became president , reversed almost all of Dubček 's reforms . The Prague Spring inspired music and literature such as the work of Václav Havel , Karel Husa , Karel Kryl , and Milan Kundera 's novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being .
= = Background = =
The process of de @-@ Stalinization in Czechoslovakia had begun under Antonín Novotný in the late 1950s and early 1960s , but had progressed more slowly than in most other states of the Eastern Bloc . Following the lead of Nikita Khrushchev , Novotný proclaimed the completion of socialism , and the new constitution , accordingly , adopted the name Czechoslovak Socialist Republic . The pace of change , however , was sluggish ; the rehabilitation of Stalinist @-@ era victims , such as those convicted in the Slánský trials , may have been considered as early as 1963 , but did not take place until 1967 .
In the early 1960s , Czechoslovakia underwent an economic downturn . The Soviet model of industrialization applied poorly to Czechoslovakia . Czechoslovakia was already quite industrialized before World War II and the Soviet model mainly took into account less developed economies . Novotný 's attempt at restructuring the economy , the 1965 New Economic Model , spurred increased demand for political reform as well .
= = = 1967 Writers ' Congress = = =
As the strict regime eased its rules , the Union of Czechoslovak Writers cautiously began to air discontent , and in the union 's gazette , Literární noviny , members suggested that literature should be independent of Party doctrine .
In June 1967 , a small fraction of the Czech writer 's union sympathized with radical socialists , specifically Ludvík Vaculík , Milan Kundera , Jan Procházka , Antonín Jaroslav Liehm , Pavel Kohout and Ivan Klíma .
A few months later , at a party meeting , it was decided that administrative actions against the writers who openly expressed support of reformation would be taken . Since only a small part of the union held these beliefs , the remaining members were relied upon to discipline their colleagues . Control over Literární noviny and several other publishing houses was transferred to the Ministry of Culture , and even members of the party who later became major reformers — including Dubček — endorsed these moves .
= = Dubček 's rise to power = =
As President Antonín Novotný was losing support , Alexander Dubček , First Secretary of the regional Communist Party of Slovakia , and economist Ota Šik challenged him at a meeting of the Central Committee . Novotný then invited Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev to Prague that December , seeking support ; but Brezhnev was surprised at the extent of the opposition to Novotný and thus supported his removal as Czechoslovakia 's leader . Dubček replaced Novotný as First Secretary on 5 January 1968 . On 22 March 1968 , Novotný resigned his presidency and was replaced by Ludvík Svoboda , who later gave consent to the reforms .
Early signs of change were few . When the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia ( KSČ ) Presidium member Josef Smrkovský was interviewed in a Rudé Právo article , entitled " What Lies Ahead " , he insisted that Dubček 's appointment at the January Plenum would further the goals of socialism and maintain the working class nature of the Communist Party .
= = = Literární listy = = =
However , right after Dubček assumed power , the scholar Eduard Goldstücker became chairman of the Union of Czechoslovak Writers and thus editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the previously hard @-@ line communist weekly Literární noviny , which under Novotny had been filled with party loyalists . Goldstucker tested the boundaries of Dubček ’ s devotion to freedom of the press when he appeared on a television interview as the new head of the union . On 4 February , in front of the entire nation , he openly criticized Novotny , exposing all of Novotny ’ s previously unreported policies and explaining how they were preventing progress in Czechoslovakia .
Despite the official government statement that allowed for freedom of the press , this was the first trial of whether or not Dubček was serious about reforms . Goldstucker suffered no repercussions , and Dubček instead began to build a sense of trust among the media , the government , and the citizens . It was under Goldstücker that the journal 's name was changed to Literární listy , and on 29 February 1968 , the Writers ’ Union published the first copy of the censor @-@ free Literární listy . By August 1968 , Literární listy had a circulation of 300 @,@ 000 , making it the most published periodical in Europe .
= = Socialism with a human face = =
On the 20th anniversary of Czechoslovakia ’ s " Victorious February " , Dubček delivered a speech explaining the need for change following the triumph of socialism . He emphasized the need to " enforce the leading role of the party more effectively " and acknowledged that , despite Klement Gottwald 's urgings for better relations with society , the Party had too often made heavy @-@ handed rulings on trivial issues . Dubček declared the party 's mission was " to build an advanced socialist society on sound economic foundations ... a socialism that corresponds to the historical democratic traditions of Czechoslovakia , in accordance with the experience of other communist parties ... "
In April , Dubček launched an " Action Programme " of liberalizations , which included increasing freedom of the press , freedom of speech , and freedom of movement , with economic emphasis on consumer goods and the possibility of a multiparty government . The programme was based on the view that " Socialism cannot mean only liberation of the working people from the domination of exploiting class relations , but must make more provisions for a fuller life of the personality than any bourgeois democracy . " It would limit the power of the secret police and provide for the federalization of the ČSSR into two equal nations . The programme also covered foreign policy , including both the maintenance of good relations with Western countries and cooperation with the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc nations . It spoke of a ten @-@ year transition through which democratic elections would be made possible and a new form of democratic socialism would replace the status quo .
Those who drafted the Action Programme were careful not to criticize the actions of the post @-@ war Communist regime , only to point out policies that they felt had outlived their usefulness . For instance , the immediate post @-@ war situation had required " centralist and directive @-@ administrative methods " to fight against the " remnants
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) , which stings and paralyses cicadas high in the trees . Their victims drop to the ground where the cicada @-@ hunter mounts and carries them , pushing with its hind legs , sometimes over a distance of 100 m ( 330 ft ) . They are then shoved into the hunter 's burrow , where the helpless cicada is placed on a shelf in an often extensive ' catacomb ' , to form food @-@ stock for the wasp grub growing from the eggs deposited within .
= = In popular culture = =
The shells shed by the nymph , as with those of other cicada species , are often collected by children and sometimes attached to their clothing . Schoolchildren have been known to bring live adults into classrooms to startle the class with their " strident shrieking " , typically to the observable displeasure of teachers . Children often climb trees to collect them , and keep them temporarily as pets in shoeboxes . They cannot easily be kept for longer than a day or two , given that they need flowing sap for food . A poem dedicated to the floury baker appeared in the Catholic Press in 1930 , describing its life cycle to children .
= Serpens =
Serpens ( " the Serpent " , Greek Ὄφις ) is a constellation of the northern hemisphere . One of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd @-@ century astronomer Ptolemy , it remains one of the 88 modern constellations defined by the International Astronomical Union . It is unique among the modern constellations in being split into two non @-@ contiguous parts , Serpens Caput ( Serpent Head ) to the west and Serpens Cauda ( Serpent Tail ) to the east . Between these two halves lies the constellation of Ophiuchus , the " Serpent @-@ Bearer " . In figurative representations , the body of the serpent is represented as passing behind Ophiuchus between Mu Serpentis in Serpens Caput and Nu Serpentis in Serpens Cauda .
The brightest star in Serpens is the red giant star Alpha Serpentis , or Unukalhai , in Serpens Caput , with an apparent magnitude of 2 @.@ 63 . Also located in Serpens Caput are the naked @-@ eye globular cluster Messier 5 and the naked @-@ eye variables R Serpentis and Tau4 Serpentis . Notable extragalactic objects include Seyfert 's Sextet , one of the densest galaxy clusters known ; Arp 220 , the prototypical ultraluminous infrared galaxy ; and Hoag 's Object , the most famous of the very rare class of galaxies known as ring galaxies .
Part of the Milky Way 's galactic plane passes through Serpens Cauda , which is therefore rich in galactic deep @-@ sky objects , such as the Eagle Nebula ( IC 4703 ) and its associated star cluster Messier 16 . The nebula measures 70 light @-@ years by 50 light @-@ years and contains the Pillars of Creation , three dust clouds that became famous for the image taken by the Hubble Space Telescope . Other striking objects include the Red Square Nebula , one of the few objects in astronomy to take on a square shape ; and Westerhout 40 , a massive nearby star @-@ forming region consisting of a molecular cloud and an H II region .
= = History = =
In Greek mythology , Serpens represents a snake held by the healer Asclepius . Represented in the sky by the constellation Ophiuchus , Asclepius once killed a snake , but the animal was subsequently resurrected after a second snake placed a revival herb on it before its death . As snakes shed their skin every year , they were known as the symbol of rebirth in ancient Greek society , and legend says Asclepius would revive dead humans using the same technique he witnessed . Although this is likely the logic for Serpens ' presence with Ophiuchus , the true reason is still not fully known . Sometimes , Serpens was depicted as coiling around Ophiuchus , but the majority of atlases showed Serpens passing either behind Ophiuchus ' body or between his legs .
In some ancient atlases , the constellations Serpens and Ophiuchus were depicted as two separate constellations , although more often they were shown as a single constellation . One notable figure to depict Serpens separately was Johann Bayer ; thus , Serpens ' stars are cataloged with separate Bayer designations from those of Ophiuchus . When Eugène Delporte established modern constellation boundaries in the 1920s , he elected to depict the two separately . However , this posed the problem of how to disentangle the two constellations , with Deporte deciding to split Serpens into two areas — the head and the tail — separated by the continuous Ophiuchus . These two areas became known as Serpens Caput and Serpens Cauda , caput being the Latin word for head and cauda the Latin word for tail .
In Chinese astronomy , most of the stars of Serpens represented part of a wall surrounding a marketplace , known as Tianshi , which was in Ophiuchus and part of Hercules . Serpens also contains a few Chinese constellations . Two stars in the tail represented part of Shilou , the tower with the market office . Another star in the tail represented Liesi , jewel shops . One star in the head ( Mu Serpentis ) marked Tianru , the crown prince 's wet nurse , or sometimes rain .
There were two " serpent " constellations in Babylonian astronomy , known as Mušḫuššu and Bašmu . It appears that Mušḫuššu was depicted as a hybrid of a dragon , a lion and a bird , and loosely corresponded to Hydra . Bašmu was a horned serpent ( c.f. Ningishzida ) and roughly corresponds to the Ὄφις constellation of Eudoxus of Cnidus on which the Ὄφις ( Serpens ) of Ptolemy is based .
= = Characteristics = =
Serpens is the only one of the 88 modern constellations to be split into two disconnected regions in the sky : Serpens Caput ( the head ) and Serpens Cauda ( the tail ) . The constellation is also unusual in that it depends on another constellation for context ; specifically , it is being held by the Serpent Bearer Ophiuchus .
Serpens Caput is bordered by Libra to the south , Virgo and Boötes to the east , Corona Borealis to the north , and Ophiuchus and Hercules to the west ; Serpens Cauda is bordered by Sagittarius to the south , Scutum and Aquila to the east , and Ophiuchus to the north and west . Covering 636 @.@ 9 square degrees total , it ranks 23rd of the 88 constellations in size . It appears prominently in both the northern and southern skies during the Northern Hemisphere 's summer . Its main asterism consists of 11 stars , and 108 stars in total are brighter than magnitude 6 @.@ 5 , the traditional limit for naked @-@ eye visibility .
Serpens Caput 's boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a 15 @-@ sided polygon , while Serpens Cauda 's are defined by a 25 @-@ sided polygon . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of Serpens Caput 's borders lie between 15h 10.4m and 16h 22.5m , while the declination coordinates are between 25 @.@ 66 ° and − 03 @.@ 72 ° . Serpens Cauda 's boundaries lie between right ascensions of 17h 16.9m and 18h 58.3m and declinations of 06 @.@ 42 ° and − 16 @.@ 14 ° . The International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) adopted the three @-@ letter abbreviation " Ser " for the constellation in 1922 .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
= = = = Head stars = = = =
Marking the heart of the serpent is the constellation 's brightest star , Alpha Serpentis . Traditionally called Unukalhai , is a red giant of spectral type K2III located approximately 23 parsecs distant with a visual magnitude of 2 @.@ 630 ± 0 @.@ 009 , meaning it can easily be seen with the naked eye even in areas with substantial light pollution . A faint companion is in orbit around the red giant star , although it is not visible to the naked eye . Situated near Alpha is Lambda Serpentis , a magnitude 4 @.@ 42 ± 0 @.@ 05 star rather similar to the Sun positioned only 12 parsecs away . Another solar analog in Serpens is the primary of Psi Serpentis , a binary star located slightly further away at approximately 14 parsecs .
Beta , Gamma , and Iota Serpentis form a distinctive triangular shape marking the head of the snake , with Kappa Serpentis being roughly midway between Gamma and Iota . The brightest of the four with an apparent magnitude of roughly 3 @.@ 67 , Beta Serpentis is a white main @-@ sequence star roughly 160 parsecs distant . It is likely that a nearby 10th @-@ magnitude star is physically associated with Beta , although it is not certain . The Mira variable R Serpentis , situated between Beta and Gamma , is visible to the naked eye at its maximum of 5th @-@ magnitude , but , typical of Mira variables , it can fade to below magnitude 14 . Gamma Serpentis itself is an F @-@ type subgiant located only 11 parsecs distant and thus is quite bright , being of magnitude 3 @.@ 84 ± 0 @.@ 05 . The star is known to show solar @-@ like oscillations .
Delta Serpentis , forming part of the body of the snake between the heart and the head , is a multiple star system positioned around 70 parsecs from Earth . Consisting of four stars , the system has a total apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 79 as viewed from Earth , although two of the stars , with a combined apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 80 , provide nearly all the light . The primary , a white subgiant , is a Delta Scuti variable with an average apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 23 . Positioned very near Delta , both in the night sky and likely in actual space at an estimated distance of around 70 parsecs , is the barium star 16 Serpentis . Another notable variable star visible to the naked eye is Chi Serpentis , an Alpha ² Canum Venaticorum variable situated midway between Delta and Beta which varies from its median brightness of 5 @.@ 33 by 0 @.@ 03 magnitudes over a period of approximately 1 @.@ 5 days .
The two stars in Serpens Caput that form part of the Snake 's body below the heart are Epsilon and Mu Serpentis , both third @-@ magnitude A @-@ type main @-@ sequence stars . Both have a peculiarity : Epsilon is an Am star , while Mu is a binary . Located slightly northwest of Mu is 36 Serpentis , another A @-@ type main @-@ sequence star . This star also has a peculiarity ; it is a binary with the primary component being a Lambda Boötis star , meaning that it has solar @-@ like amounts of carbon , nitrogen , and oxygen , while containing very low amounts of iron peak elements . 25 Serpentis , positioned a few degrees northeast of Mu Serpentis , is a spectroscopic binary consisting of a hot B @-@ type giant and an A @-@ type main @-@ sequence star . The primary is a slowly pulsating B star , which causes the system to vary by 0 @.@ 03 magnitudes .
Serpens Caput contains many RR Lyrae variables , although most are too faint to be seen without professional photography . The brightest is VY Serpentis , only of 10th magnitude . This star 's period has been increasing by approximately 1 @.@ 2 seconds per century . A variable star of a different kind is Tau4 Serpentis , a cool red giant that pulsates between magnitudes 5 @.@ 89 and 7 @.@ 07 in 87 days . This star has been found to display an inverse P Cygni profile , where cold infalling gas on to the star creates redshifted hydrogen absorption lines next to the normal emission lines .
Several stars in Serpens have been found to have planets . The brightest , Omega Serpentis , located between Epsilon and Mu , is an orange giant with a planet of approximately 1 @.@ 7 Jupiter @-@ masses . NN Serpentis , an eclipsing post @-@ common @-@ envelope binary consisting of a white dwarf and a red dwarf , is very likely to have two planets causing variations in the period of the eclipses . Although it does not have a planet , the solar analog HD 137510 has been found to have a brown dwarf companion within the brown @-@ dwarf desert .
PSR B1534 + 11 is a system consisting of two neutron stars orbiting each other , one of which is a pulsar with a period of 37 @.@ 9 milliseconds . Situated approximately 1000 parsecs distant , the system was used to test Albert Einstein 's theory of general relativity , validating the system 's relativistic parameters to within 0 @.@ 2 % of values predicted by the theory . The X @-@ ray emission from the system has been found to be present when the non @-@ pulsar star intersects the equatorial pulsar wind of the pulsar , and the system 's orbit has been found to vary slightly .
= = = = Tail stars = = = =
The brightest star in the tail , Eta Serpentis , is similar to Alpha Serpentis ' primary in that it is a red giant of spectral class K. This star , however , is known to exhibit solar @-@ like oscillations over a period of approximately 2 @.@ 16 hours . The other two stars in Serpens Cauda forming its asterism are Theta and Xi Serpentis . Xi , where the asterism crosses over to Mu Serpentis in the head , is a triple star system located approximately 105 parsecs away . Two of the stars , with a combined apparent magnitude of around 3 @.@ 5 , form a spectroscopic binary with an angular separation of only 2 @.@ 2 milliarcseconds , and thus cannot be resolved with modern equipment . The primary is a white giant with an excess of strontium . Theta , forming the tip of the tail , is also a multiple system , consisting of two A @-@ type main @-@ sequence stars with a combined apparent magnitude of around 4 @.@ 1 separated by almost half an arcminute .
Lying near the boundary with Ophiuchus are Zeta , Nu , and Omicron Serpentis . All three are 4th @-@ magnitude main @-@ sequence stars , with Nu and Omicron being of spectral type A and Zeta being of spectral type F. Nu is a binary star with a 9th @-@ magnitude companion , while Omicron is a Delta Scuti variable with amplitude variations of 0 @.@ 01 magnitudes . In 1909 , the symbiotic nova RT Serpentis appeared near Omicron , although it only reached a maximum magnitude of 10 .
The star system 59 Serpentis , also known as d Serpentis , is a triple star system consisting of a spectroscopic binary containing an A @-@ type star and an orange giant and an orange giant secondary . The system shows irregular variations in brightness between magnitudes 5 @.@ 17 and 5 @.@ 2 . In 1970 , the nova FH Serpentis appeared just slightly north of 59 Serpentis , reaching a maximum brightness of 4 @.@ 5 . Also near 59 Serpentis in the Serpens Cloud are several Orion variables . MWC 297 is a Herbig Be star that in 1994 exhibited a large X @-@ ray flare and increased in X @-@ ray luminosity by five times before
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2004dk .
Hoag 's Object , located 600 million light @-@ years from Earth , is one of the most famous of a very rare class of galaxies known as ring galaxies . The outer ring is largely composed of young blue stars while the core is made up of older yellow stars . The predominant theory regarding its formation is that the progenitor galaxy was a barred spiral galaxy whose arms had velocities too great to keep the galaxy 's coherence and therefore detached . Arp 220 is another unusual galaxy in Serpens . The prototypical ultraluminous infrared galaxy , Arp 220 is somewhat closer than Hoag 's Object at 250 million light @-@ years from Earth . It consists of two large spiral galaxies in the process of colliding with their nuclei orbiting at a distance of 1 @,@ 200 light @-@ years , causing extensive star formation throughout both components . It possesses a large cluster of more than a billion stars , partially covered by thick dust clouds near one of the galaxies ' core . Another interacting galaxy pair , albeit in an earlier stage , consists of the galaxies NGC 5953 and NGC 5954 . In this case , both are active galaxies , with the former a Seyfert 2 galaxy and the latter a LINER @-@ type galaxy . Both are undergoing a burst of star formation triggered by the interaction .
Seyfert 's Sextet is a group of six galaxies , four of which are interacting gravitationally and two of which simply appear to be a part of the group despite their greater distance . The gravitationally bound cluster lies at a distance of 190 million light @-@ years from Earth and is approximately 100 @,@ 000 light @-@ years across , making Seyfert 's Sextet one of the densest galaxy group known . Astronomers predict that the four interacting galaxies will eventually merge to form a large elliptical galaxy . The radio source 3C 326 was originally though to emanate from a giant elliptical galaxy . However , in 1990 , it was shown that the source is instead a brighter , smaller galaxy a few arcseconds north . This object , designated 3C 326 N , has enough gas for star formation , but is being inhibited due to the energy from the radio galaxy nucleus .
A much larger galaxy cluster is the redshift @-@ 0 @.@ 0354 Abell 2063 . The cluster is thought to be interacting with the nearby galaxy group MKW 3s , based on radial velocity measurements of galaxies and the positioning of the cD galaxy at the center of Abell 2063 . The active galaxy at the center of MKW 3s — NGC 5920 — appears to be creating a bubble of hot gas from its radio activity . Near the 5th @-@ magnitude star Pi Serpentis lies AWM 4 , a cluster containing an excess of metals in the intracluster medium . The central galaxy , NGC 6051 , is a radio galaxy that is probably responsible for this enrichment . Similar to AWM 4 , the cluster Abell 2052 has central cD radio galaxy , 3C 317 . This radio galaxy is believed to have restarted after a period of inactivity less than 200 years ago . The galaxy has over 40 @,@ 000 known globular clusters , the highest known total of any galaxy as of 2002 .
Consisting of two quasars with a separation of less than 5 arcseconds , the quasar pair 4C 11 @.@ 50 is one of the visually closest pairs of quasars in the sky . The two have markedly different redshifts , however , and are thus unrelated . The foreground member of the pair ( 4C 11 @.@ 50 A ) does not have enough mass to refract light from the background component ( 4C 11 @.@ 50 B ) enough to produce a lensed image , although it does have a true companion of its own . An even stranger galaxy pair is 3C 321 . Unlike the previous pair , the two galaxies making up 3C 321 are interacting with each other and are in the process of merging . Both members appear to be active galaxies ; the primary radio galaxy may be responsible for the activity in the secondary by means of the former 's jet driving material onto the latter 's supermassive black hole .
A remarkable example of gravitational lensing is found in the radio galaxy 3C 324 . First thought to be a single overluminous radio galaxy with a redshift of z
= 1 @.@ 206 , it was found in 1987 to actually be two galaxies , with the radio galaxy at the aforementioned redshift being lensed by another galaxy at redshift z =
0 @.@ 845 . The first example of a multiply @-@ imaged radio galaxy discovered , the source appears to be an elliptical galaxy with a dust lane obscuring our view of the visual and ultraviolet emission from the nucleus . In even shorter wavelengths , the BL Lac object PG 1553 + 113 is a heavy emitter of gamma rays . This object is the most distant found to emit photons with energies in the TeV range as of 2007 . The spectrum is unique , with hard emission in some ranges of the gamma @-@ ray spectrum in stark contrast to soft emission in others . In 2012 , the object flared in the gamma @-@ ray spectrum , tripling in luminosity for two nights , allowing the redshift to be accurately measured as z
= 0 @.@ 49 .
Several gamma @-@ ray bursts ( GRBs ) have been observed in Serpens Caput , such as GRB 970111 , one of the brightest GRBs observed . An optical transient event associated with this GRB has not been found , despite its intensity . The host galaxy initially also proved elusive , however it now appears that the host is a Seyfert I galaxy located at redshift z =
0 @.@ 657 . The X @-@ ray afterglow of the GRB has also been much fainter than for other dimmer GRBs . More distant is GRB 060526 ( redshift z = 3 @.@ 221 ) , from which X @-@ ray and optical afterglows were detected . This GRB was surprisingly faint for a long @-@ duration GRB .
= = = = Tail objects = = = =
Part of the galactic plane passes through the tail , and thus Serpens Cauda is rich in deep @-@ sky objects within our own galaxy . The Eagle Nebula and its associated star cluster , Messier 16 lie 7 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from Earth in the direction of the galactic center . The nebula measures 70 light @-@ years by 50 light @-@ years and contains the Pillars of Creation , three dust clouds that became famous for the image taken by the Hubble Space Telescope . The stars being born in the Eagle Nebula , added to those with an approximate age of 5 million years have an average temperature of 45 @,@ 000 kelvins and produce prodigious amounts of radiation that will eventually destroy the dust pillars . Despite its fame , the Eagle Nebula is fairly dim , with an integrated magnitude of approximately 6 @.@ 0 . The star @-@ forming regions in the nebula are often evaporating gaseous globules ; unlike Bok globules they only hold one protostar .
North of Messier 16 , at a distance of approximately 2000 parsecs , is the OB association Serpens OB2 , containing over 100 OB stars . Around 5 million years old , the association appears to still contain star @-@ forming regions , and the light from its stars is illuminating the HII region S 54 . Within this HII region is the open cluster NGC 6604 , which is the same age as the surrounding OB association , and the cluster is now thought to simply be the densest part of it . The cluster appears to be producing a thermal chimney of ionized gas , caused by the interaction of the gas from the galactic disk with the galactic halo .
Another open cluster in Serpens Cauda is IC 4756 , containing at least one naked @-@ eye star , HD 172365 ( another naked @-@ eye star in the vicinity , HD 171586 , is most likely unrelated ) . Positioned approximately 440 parsecs distant , the cluster is estimated to be around 800 million years old , quite old for an open cluster . Despite the presence of the Milky Way in Serpens Cauda , one globular cluster can be found : NGC 6535 , although invisible to the naked eye , can be made out in small telescopes just north of Zeta Serpentis . Rather small and sparse for a globular cluster , this cluster contains no known RR Lyrae variables , which is unusual for a globular cluster .
MWC 922 is a star surrounded by a planetary nebula . Dubbed the Red Square Nebula due to its similarities to the Red Rectangle Nebula , the planetary nebula appears to be a nearly perfect square with a dark band around the equatorial regions . The nebula contains concentric rings , which are similar to those seen in the supernova SN 1987A . MWC 922 itself is an FS Canis Majoris variable , meaning that it is a Be star containing exceptionally bright hydrogen emission lines as well as select forbidden lines , likely due to the presence of a close binary . East of Xi Serpentis is another planetary nebula , Abell 41 , containing the binary star MT Serpentis at its center . The nebula appears to have a bipolar structure , and the axis of symmetry of the nebula has been found to be within 5 ° of the line perpendicular to the orbital plane of the stars , strengthening the link between binary stars and bipolar planetary nebulae . On the other end of the stellar age spectrum is L483 , a dark nebula which contains the protostar IRAS 18418 @-@ 0440 . Although classified as a class 0 protostar , it has some unusual features for such an object , such as a lack of high @-@ velocity stellar winds , and it has been proposed that this object is in transition between class 0 and class I. A variable nebula exists around the protostar , although it is only visible in infrared light .
The Serpens cloud is a massive star @-@ forming molecular cloud situated in the southern part of Serpens Cauda . Only two million years old and 420 parecs distant , the cloud is known to contain many protostars such as Serpens FIRS 1 and Serpens SVS 20 . The Serpens South protocluster was uncovered by NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope in the southern portion of the cloud , and it appears that star formation is still continuing in the region . Another site of star formation is the Westerhout 40 complex , consisting of a prominent HII region adjacent to a molecular cloud . Located around 500 parsecs distant , it is one of the nearest massive regions of star formation , but as the molecular cloud obscures the HII region , rendering it and its embedded cluster tough to see visibly , it is not as well @-@ studied as others . The embedded cluster likely contains over 600 stars above 0 @.@ 1 solar masses , with several massive stars , including at least one O @-@ type star , being responsible for lighting the HII region and the production of a bubble .
Despite the presence of the Milky Way , several active galaxies are visible in Serpens Cauda as well , such as PDS 456 , found near Xi Serpentis . The most intrinsically luminous nearby active galaxy , this AGN has been found to be extremely variable in the X @-@ ray spectrum . This has allowed light to be shed on the nature of the supermassive black hole at the center , likely a Kerr black hole . It is possible that the quasar is undergoing a transition from an ultraluminous infrared galaxy to a classical radio @-@ quiet quasar , but there are problems with this theory , and the object appears to be an exceptional object that does not completely lie within current classification systems . Nearby is NRAO 530 , a blazar that has been known to flare in the X @-@ rays occasionally . One of these flares was for less than 2000 seconds , making it the shortest flare ever observed in a blazar as of 2004 . The blazar also appears to show periodic variability in its radio wave output over two different periods of six and ten years .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
There are two daytime meteor showers that radiate from Serpens , the Omega Serpentids and the Sigma Serpentids . Both showers peak between December 18 and December 25 .
= ROH World Television Championship =
The ROH World Television Championship is a professional wrestling world television championship in the Ring of Honor ( ROH ) promotion . It is currently the third ranked championship in ROH . With the introduction of the ROH World Television Championship , the television type championship returned to national exposure .
There has been a total of eleven reigns shared between nine champions . The first champion was crowned on March 5 , 2010 , when Eddie Edwards defeated Davey Richards in the finals of a tournament .
The current champion is Bobby Fish , who is in his first reign . Jay Lethal 's second reign is the longest in the title 's history . During that reign , Lethal also won the ROH World Championship in a Title vs. Title match at Best in the World 2015 .
= = History = =
The creation of the ROH World Television Championship was announced via ROH 's official website on January 20 , 2010 . An eight @-@ man single elimination tournament was then planned to determine the inaugural champion . The tournament was to start on February 4 and conclude on February 6 , 2010 at The Arena in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania at the tapings of ROH 's television program Ring of Honor Wrestling . Regarding the new championship addition , ROH President Cary Silkin said , " We ’ ve been talking about adding a secondary championship for some time . Not only will this give the athletes of Ring of Honor another tremendous goal to work towards , it will also give our great partner , HDNet , a championship that is sure to be defended on the television program . We ’ re happy to publicly give thanks to HDNet for giving us the chance to add this title to the television show ... " .
It is ROH 's second secondary singles championship in their history . The ROH Pure Championship was used from February 14 , 2004 to August 12 , 2006 , prior its unification with the ROH World Championship . After the championship announcement , wrestling columnist James Caldwell gave his comments : " I like the idea . It gives mid @-@ card wrestlers on ROH 's roster something to fight for in the context of trying to win a wrestling match to " move up the company ladder . " Caldwell further remarked that " ROH bringing back the TV Title to national TV is consistent with ROH 's current marketing under Jim Cornette to " re @-@ capture an old @-@ school flavor " to their product . "
After the Ring of Honor Wrestling show was cancelled in March 2011 , the title became inactive . Although Daniels stopped defending it , he still carried the belt with him as part of his villainous character . With the sale of ROH to the Sinclair Broadcast Group and a new television show scheduled to air in September , ROH reinstated the title for June 's Best in The World event .
= = = Tournament = = =
The tournament was scheduled to span over a two @-@ day weekend , starting on February 5 and ending on February 6 at events recorded for later broadcast on Ring of Honor Wrestling . However , due to severe weather conditions in the Philadelphia area , the second day of taping was canceled . It was not until almost a month later , on March 5 , that ROH held the second recorded event , which closed out the tournament . The first four seeds of eight in the tournament were announced on January 22 , 2010 : Rhett Titus ( 8 ) , El Generico ( 7 ) , Eddie Edwards ( 6 ) , and Delirious ( 5 ) . The other four seeds were announced on January 26 , 2010 : Kevin Steen ( 1 ) , Kenny King ( 2 ) , Colt Cabana ( 3 ) , and Davey Richards ( 4 ) . The first round was determined at the first event on February 5 , with Steen , King , Richards , and Edwards all advancing to round two . On March 5 , Edwards and Richards both advanced to the finals , where Edwards defeat Richards to be crowned the first ROH World Television Champion . The matches were scheduled to span over six episodes of Ring of Honor Wrestling . The first match from round one that aired pitted Steen against Titus , which Steen won , on the March 8 episode . On the same episode , King versus El Generico was featured , with King advancing . Cabana versus Edwards was the third match from round one to air , when it was broadcast on the March 15 episode . Richards defeated Delirious in the final match from round one , which aired later in the same episode . The first match from round two , Steen versus Edwards , was featured on the April 12 episode , in which Edwards advanced to the finals . On the April 19 episode , Richards defeated King to advance to the finals . On the April 26 episode , Edwards defeated Richards in the finals of the tournament to become the first ROH World Television Champion .
Tournament Bracket
= = = Belt designs = = =
The championship belt was introduced on March 5 , 2010 , when it was given to the
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newly crowned inaugural champion Eddie Edwards . The physical championship belt was designed All Star Championship Belts d / b / a ASCB , LLC . The title 's base is a black leather strap that is covered with four small silver plates . The center of the title has one large silver plate . All plates have an inner blue covering . The two small outer plates have a caricature of the earth and a satellite in orbit . The middle plates have figures resembling a cameraman filming a television production . Underneath each figure , lies the ROH logo and the words " Ring of Honor Wrestling " . The central plate has the engravings of the ROH logo as well as the statement " World Television Wrestling Champion " hovering above the backdrop of a city , with a television lying on top of a globe with an overhead shot of a wrestling ring between them in front of the skyline . The design was changed again in November 2012 to its current design during the reign of Adam Cole . Longest reigning champion Jay Lethal modified the current design which emphasizes the " ROH Champion " portion of the title , claiming the championship is more prestigious than the ROH World Championship because he ( Lethal ) is the champion .
= = Champions = =
Overall , there has been 12 reigns by 10 wrestlers . The inaugural champion was Eddie Edwards , who defeated Davey Richards in the finals of an eight @-@ man tournament on March 5 , 2010 .
The current champion is Bobby Fish , who is in his first reign . He defeated Tomohiro Ishii on May 8 , 2016 , in Chicago Ridge , Illinois at the ROH / NJPW Global Wars supershow .
= = List of combined reigns = =
As of July 26 , 2016 .
= Septimus Heap =
Septimus Heap is a series of fantasy novels featuring a protagonist of the same name written by English author Angie Sage . In all , it features seven novels , entitled Magyk , Flyte , Physik , Queste , Syren , Darke and Fyre , the first ( Magyk ) in 2005 and the final ( Fyre ) in 2013 . A full colour supplement to the series , entitled The Magykal Papers , was published in June 2009 , and an online novella titled The Darke Toad is also available . A sequel trilogy , The TodHunter Moon Series , set seven years after the events of Fyre , began in October 2014 , with the second book released in October 2015 .
The series follows the adventures of Septimus Heap who , as a seventh son of a seventh son , has extraordinary magical powers . After he becomes an apprentice to the arch ( " ExtraOrdinary " ) wizard of the series , Marcia Overstrand , he must study for seven years and a day until his apprenticeship ends . In the first book , he is known as Young Army Expendable Boy 412 , until his great @-@ aunt , Zelda Zanuba Heap reveals his true identity . His adventures are placed in the context of the warmth and strength of his family , and developed alongside those of Jenna , his adoptive sister , who is heir to the throne of the Castle , the community where they live . The novels , set in an elaborate fantastic world , describe the many challenges that Septimus and his friends must overcome .
The books have appeared on national bestsellers lists and received worldwide critical acclaim ; Warner Bros. acquired the rights to produce a movie based on the first book . The series has been noted for the realism and richness of its characters , the compelling nature of their adventures , and its humour . It has been compared with Harry Potter and other works within the genre .
= = Development = =
Author Angie Sage has said that the character of Septimus Heap , his ultimate fate , and the world he inhabits , were fully formed in her imagination from the beginning , but she had not decided on the intermediate steps on his journey , nor on the characters he would meet . Sage described Septimus Heap 's world as a place where numerous creatures and people suddenly appear and become involved in events .
Commenting on the development of the Septimus Heap character , Sage has described him as someone in a strange and hostile world who has no idea of his real identity . The series gained momentum with the development of the character of Marcia Overstrand , which Sage credits as an inspiration . Septimus Heap is centred on the warmth and strength of the Heap family . In an interview Sage said :
I like their chaotic acceptance of life , and the fact that they don 't do what they are told by authority if they think it is wrong . Stuff happens to them that makes their life difficult at times but they don 't moan about things , they just get on and sort it out as best they can . They are remarkably accepting of other people , I think because they are so strong as a unit . They are also a family which becomes separated by circumstances- and I wanted to show that families can still be close to each other and care for each other even though they live apart . The family relationships develop as the books progress , and are central to the story .
Sage keeps a boat ( called Muriel ) in real life , as does the character Sally Mullin in Magyk . Other inspirations for the series included Sage 's love of history and the misty landscape of Cornwall , where she lived before starting the series . Another factor in the development of the series was her love of daydreaming : " Slowly ... lots of thinking , and daydreaming . I am a big fan of daydreaming and staring out of the window . Then keeping all my thoughts and ideas in a dog @-@ eared old envelope for ages . " With The Wilton Villager , Sage further expanded her inspiration behind the series .
It was an idea I had had for a very long time , and I waited a long time while it grew and developed . [ ... ] I try and write the books I would have loved to have read as a child and teenager . [ ... ] It all started with the spelling of the first title , ' Magyk . ' I felt the way that magic is normally spelled makes people think of conjuring tricks and stage magicians and I wanted to avoid that , but in the past , before spelling became standardized , people would spell words how they chose to , sometimes in different ways in the same sentence . Magic was often spelled magyck , so all I did was to change that a little . After that I carried on using archaic spelling for words associated with magic and the supernatural . It makes them look a little different , gives a different flavor to them .
= = The series and relating books = =
= = = Septimus Heap Heptalogy = = =
= = = = Magyk = = = =
The plot of the first book , entitled Magyk ( published in March 2005 ) , revolves around the pauper Heap family : Silas , Sarah and their seven children . The story begins when Silas finds Jenna in the snow . Septimus is born on the same day , but is declared dead by the midwife , who steals the baby and brings him to DomDaniel , an evil wizard . However , he is confused with the midwife 's own son and is sent to the Supreme Custodian to help start a boy army . On her tenth birthday , Jenna learns from ExtraOrdinary Wizard Marcia Overstrand that she is a princess , but that she — and the Heap family — are in danger . Jenna and Nicko Heap escape to their Aunt Zelda 's cottage . They are accompanied by a member of the Young Army called Boy 412 , who discovers his magic powers and a legendary ring while at Zelda 's . Marcia is imprisoned in DomDaniel ´ s boat , Vengeance , and nearly dies , but is rescued by Boy 412 , Jenna and Nicko after they find a flying Dragon Boat in a secret cavern by Zelda ´ s cottage . At the end of the novel , Boy 412 is revealed to be Septimus , and his family hears of his past .
= = = = Flyte = = = =
The second book , Flyte ( published in March 2006 ) , begins with Septimus ( now the apprentice to ExtraOrdinary Wizard Marcia ) witnessing the kidnapping of Jenna by her older brother Simon . After seeking help from Nicko and a friend from the Young Army , Septimus finds Jenna at The Port , but they are followed by Simon . They fly to The Castle in the Dragon Boat , engaging in aerial combat with Simon on the way . Marcia 's life is threatened by the reassembled bones of DomDaniel , but with Septimus 's help , she destroys him . The novel also features the discovery of the lost " Flyte " charm , which gives the book its title , and an egg that hatches into a dragon Septimus names Spit Fyre .
= = = = Physik = = = =
The antagonist of the third book , Physik ( published in March 2007 ) , is the 500 @-@ year @-@ old spirit of Queen Etheldredda , who is accidentally released by Silas Heap . She sends Septimus to her immortal son Marcellus Pye . He is transported back in time to become the apprentice of the young Marcellus Pye , an alchemist who teaches him about " Physik " . In the present timeline of the novel , the Castle is infected by a deadly plague and Queen Etheldredda has the plan to acquire eternal life . Jenna and Nicko meet a young trader Snorri Snorrelssen with whom they travel in time to bring Septimus back though Nicko and Snorri couldn 't escape . There , Jenna is taken to the living Queen Etheldredda , but she escapes with Septimus and they return to the present Castle . Marcia then destroys the substantial spirit of Etheldredda and Septimus brews an antidote to the plague using his knowledge of Physik .
= = = = Queste = = = =
The quest of the fourth book , Queste ( published in April 2008 ) , is a journey in time to the House of Foryx , in which " all times meet " , to bring back Nicko and Snorri , who were trapped there after the events of the third book . Septimus is sent on this mission for nefarious reasons by a ghost called Tertius Fume . Assisted by Jenna and his friend Beetle , among others , he pieces together a map to the House of Foryx . When they reach the house , Septimus meets Hotep @-@ Ra , the first ExtraOrdinary Wizard , while Jenna and Beetle find Nicko and Snorri . Marcia and Sarah Heap arrive outside the house on Spit Fyre , and they return together to their own time .
= = = = Syren = = = =
The fifth book , Syren ( published in September 2009 ) , continues from where Queste ended . Septimus decides to bring back his friends from the House of Foryx country and he , Jenna and Beetle get trapped in a mysterious island . There he meets a mysterious girl called Syrah Syara who tells him about a dangerous plot by Tertius Fume to destroy The Castle . Together with the help of the others and a safe @-@ charm jinnee sent to him by Aunt Zelda , Septimus stops the invasion of The Castle by Fume and his jinnee warriors and saves Syrah from a terrible enchantment of a malice ghost called the Syren .
= = = = Darke = = = =
The sixth book , Darke ( published in America in June 2011 and England in October 2011 ) , sees Septimus and his friends battling the Darke which has engulfed the Castle and everything and everyone in it . The only thing that is standing in between is Merrin Meredith and his gang of Things and his Darke Dragon . Alther Mella has been Banished ( together with Tertius Fume ) and Septimus wants to release him from the Darke Halls thinking he could help in undoing the Darke . When Marcia Overstrand , the ExtraOrdinary Wizard undoes the Darke spell with the help of the Paired Codes , all is well . Beetle becomes Chief Hermetic Scribe ; Simon is reunited with his family after leaving his past behind and Princess Jenna is happy that the Palace and Castle are back to normal .
= = = = Fyre = = = =
The seventh and final novel , Fyre ( published in April 2013 ) , sees the cast featuring the toughest challenges yet as Septimus nears the end of his ExtraOrdinary Wizard training . The dreaded Two @-@ Faced Ring has been captured , but remains a grave threat , and must be plunged into the Alchemical Fyre for it to be destroyed for good . The ring , however , holds a threat far greater than most realize , and the restarting of the Fyre is , in itself , quite dangerous .
= = = TodHunter Moon trilogy = = =
The TodHunter trilogy starts seven years after ' Fyre ' .
= = = = Pathfinder = = = =
First in the TodHunter Moon trilogy , Pathfinder ( published on October 14 , 2014 ) picks up the world of Septimus Heap seven years after the events of Fyre .
= = = = SandRider = = = =
Second in the TodHunter Moon trilogy ( published on October 13 , 2015 ) .
= = = = StarCatcher = = = =
Third in the TodHunter Moon trilogy ( slated for release in October 2016 ) .
= = = Relating books = = =
= = = = Relating to the Septimus Heap Heptalogy = = = =
= = = = = The Darke Toad = = = = =
The Darke Toad is an eBook novella for Amazon Kindle ( published in February 2013 ) . The novella features the return of DomDaniel as well as the Port Witch Coven , and is set between Magyk and Flyte . The eBook includes two chapters of Fyre , the final book in the series .
= = = = = Septimus Heap : The Magykal Papers = = = = =
Septimus Heap : The Magykal Papers ( published in June 2009 ) is a supplement to the series in a full @-@ colour larger format with illustrations by Mark Zug . Angie Sage said in an interview that she is enjoying the process of developing this guidebook and thinking about the book 's structure and all its characters . Bloomsbury said that this Septimus Heap encyclopedia is a dazzling cornucopia of information on every aspect of Septimus 's world and the creatures that inhabit it , including the secret files , the journal excerpts , charm theory , the seven basic spells , dispatches from the Message Rat Office , the history , and the maps .
= = Film adaptation = =
Warner Brothers bought the rights to produce a film version of the first book , Magyk . Karen Rosenfelt would produce the film , with Sage serving as an executive producer . According to Cinematical.com , the making of the movie would not start before the final Harry Potter movie was completed . Sage said that the screenplay will be developed after the writer 's strike was over .
It was announced on 17 July 2009 that the movie would be live action , with computer animated effects , and David Frankel as director and Rob Lieber to adapt Magyk . As of 2009 , a re @-@ write of the script was being done with screenwriter Mulroney and Warner Brothers were working with a studio to create some early conceptual design / look development . Sage commented : " It is very exciting to know that others are putting their creative input into my work — quite amazing really . [ ... ] I 'm really looking forward to seeing the whole Septimus world up there on the big screen coming to life . "
As of June 2015 , it seems the movie has been shelved .
= = Characters = =
The eponymous protagonist of the series is Septimus Heap . As the seventh son of a seventh son , the aptly named Septimus has exceptional magical powers . He shares his birthday with Jenna , his adoptive sister , but is presumed dead at birth by his family . For most of the first novel he appears as Boy 412 , a child from the Young Army , where he has spent the first ten years of his life after DomDaniel attempted to abduct him . Thereafter he is apprentice to the ExtraOrdinary Wizard Marcia Overstrand . He has a mop of curly hair , wears green apprentice robes and has a Dragon Ring on his right hand . In the second novel , he acquires a dragon called Spit Fyre as a pet . According to a review in the Manila Standard Today , the contrast between the caution he has learned from an early age and his longing for the love and affection of a family makes him an intriguing character .
Adopted by the Heap family as a baby in place of Septimus , Jenna Heap is the daughter of an assassinated queen . She is a small girl , with deep violet eyes and fair complexion ; she wears a deep red cloak and the gold circlet of the princess on her head . She is portrayed as loving and caring at heart , but sometimes very stubborn . In the first novel she has a pet rock called Petroc Trelawney ( presumably named after Petroc Trelawny ) , which she loses when the Marram Marshes are flooded ; she later acquires a pet duck called Ethel . The ambiguity of Jenna 's characterization has been questioned , with one critic commenting : " [ A ] s the Princess or Queenling , she comes from a turbulent past and is thrust into the anonymous world of ordinary society without any inkling of her royal background . The reader is therefore left guessing whether or not she has it in her to rise to the tenets of her position as ruler of the Castle . "
Marcia Overstrand is the powerful , ambitious and wilful ExtraOrdinary Wizard of the series . She is characterized as stern , bad @-@ tempered and intimidating , but with a good heart beneath . Her affection towards her apprentice Septimus is manifest in the novels , as is the responsibility she feels to protect him and his sister , even with her own life . She is described as a tall woman , with long , dark curly hair and deep @-@ green eyes , and generally wears a deep purple tunic with purple python @-@ skin boots . Her symbol and source of power , an Akhu @-@ Amulet , which makes her ExtraOrdinary Wizard , hangs around her neck . Her haughty and vain characterization has been praised as a " well @-@ written stand @-@ alone " .
The main antagonist of the first two novels is DomDaniel , a Necromancer and ex @-@ ExtraOrdinary Wizard who wants to regain control of the Wizard Tower from Marcia Overstrand . The antagonist of the third novel , is Queen Etheldredda . Several other characters appear regularly in the novels , including Septimus 's parents Silas and Sarah Heap , Septimus 's friend Beetle , and a trader called Snorri Snorrelssen .
= = Fictional setting = =
Like other fantasy novels , the Septimus Heap series is set in an imaginary world . Maps are provided in all of the books . Magyk contains a map of the Castle and its surroundings to the Port in the south . An enlarged map of the Castle is also included . Flyte has a map showing the Badlands and the Borderlands in the north . Physik has an enlarged map of the Castle with more details showing the Alchemie chambers . Queste has a map for the House of Foryx , drawn by Snorri for Marcellus . Syren keeps the past maps but adds the isles of Syren . The map in Syren also mentions that the country that Septimus lives in is called " The Small Wet Country Across the Sea " . Darke has a map similar to that in Magyk , however , instead of including Marram Marshes which are south of the castle , it includes a map of the Darke Halls , bleak creek and the bottomless whirlpool . It also includes an enlarged map of the castle . At the end of Fyre , Septimus writes in the snow that the date is July 4 , 12 @,@ 004 . The book ends with a quote form Arthur C Clarke : " Any Sufficiently Advanced Technology is Indistinguishable from Magyk " . , hinting that the series is set in the far future . This also hinted at by a dialogue between Lucy Gringe and Wolf Boy in Syren about the Red Tube . Wolf Boy says he has heard stories that people used to travel to the moon in things like that . Lucy dismisses this , however , it 's apparent they are talking about Apollo moon missions . Hints that the story is set in the future also reveal themselves when Septimus and the possessed Syrah enter a chamber that goes up and down with the press of a button , indicating that they used an elevator .
= = = The Castle
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idae , in the order Octopoda . The species was first discovered by Carl Chun in 1915 . It has two subspecies , Velodona togata togata — the subspecies originally identified by Chun in 1915 — and Velodona togata capensis , which was first described by Guy Coburn Robson in 1924 . The genus and species were named after the distinctive membranes on Velodona togata togata 's arms . Velo is Latin for " veil " and toga is Latin for " gown " or " mantle " .
= = Description = =
Chun described the first specimen he caught , a male , as looking similar to the genus Eledone , but with larger membranes , a differently shaped hectocotylus , and a differently shaped funnel organ ( siphon ) . The specimen had " a sac @-@ shaped body and very large eyes " , with arms that " are folded back and have very large membranes which enclose the whole animal " , and had a " characteristic pale coloration " . Reiterating Chun , Guy Robson summarized the differences between Eledone and V. togata as " the possession of ( a ) a funnel organ composed of two separate pieces , ( b ) a sigmoid bend in the hectocotylized arm , and ( c ) the development of extensive lateral membranes on the arms " . Robson , however , was not fully convinced that the shape of the hectocotylized arm was of value in identifying the species , positing that the curve could have been caused by a shrinkage of the membrane . In comparing the distinctive features of V. togata with other known octopus species , Robson found similarities between V. togata and species in the genera Moschites ( now considered a synonym for Pareledone and Eledone , both in the subfamily Eledoninae ) , and Polypus ( now considered a synonym for Enteroctopus , in the subfamily Octopodinae ) . He found V. togata closest to the southern species of Moschites , such as M. charcoti ( now Pareledone charcoti ) and M. brevis ( now Eledone massyae ) , due to having similar funnel organs and suckers as those species .
The specimen 's head , mantle , and dorsal arms were covered in warts of varying sizes . Chun measured the specimen 's mantle as being 99 millimeters wide and 80 millimeters long . The specimen 's head was as wide as the mantle , and was dominated by large eyes , which were measured as 38 millimeters wide and 53 millimeters long , with sickle @-@ shaped pupils . Chun described the arms as being " well developed " , and noted that the dorsal arms were the longest , and the arms got shorter as they moved to the ventral end . V. togata has a single line of suckers on each arm . Chun described the membranes on the arms in detail , stating that " The arms bear dorsal and ventral membranes . The ventral margins are unusually large and extend to the tip of all arms . They are not restricted to the ventral surface but also extend to the dorsal margin of the neighboring ventral arms , where they again continue to the tip , but are more weakly developed . " . The hectocotylus is on the third arm . V. togata contains an ink sac , but it is tiny and does not contain any ink , a common trait in cephalopods that live in deep water where there is little or no light .
Velodona togata capensis , the subspecies first described by Guy Coburn Robson in 1924 , differs from Velodona togata togata in three areas that Robson considered significant . Where the mantle of Chun 's specimen ( Velodona togata togata ) was significantly wider than it is long , the mantles of Robson 's specimens had a much smaller difference between width and length , with one specimen having a mantle with identical width and length . The length of the membrane that links the octopus 's arms — the umbrella — was shorter in Robson 's specimens than in Chun 's , and there were additional warts with papillates on his specimens that were not described in Chun 's specimen . Robson also noted a significant difference in the hectocotylus in Chun 's specimen and those in his specimens . He noted that while two of his specimens appeared to be fully sexually developed , their hectocotyli looked comparatively underdeveloped . Owing to the difference in overall size between Chun 's and Robson 's specimens , however , Robson conjectured that the difference in hectocotyli may be due to the specimens ' ages . Robson described the coloring of the specimens as " a rather deep reddish brown ( verging in a distinctly purple shade in one ) " for the males , with a " darker brown " for the female .
= = Reproduction = =
Little is known about the reproductive habits of V. togata . A 2009 study , the first to focus on V. togata , conjectured that " The high proportion of immature females obtained in the survey ( 76 % ) and the low proportion of mature females ( 10 % ) could indicate that the spawning season is finishing at the beginning of the autumn . Moreover , the wide size range of the sampled population , with a considerable number of small individuals ( possibly only a few days old ) , suggests the existence of an extended reproduction period . " . Analyzing the spermatophores and eggs of the captured specimens , the 2009 study found that V. togata had a low fecundity value , with females having large eggs and males producing a low number of large spermatophores ( the largest reported of any deep @-@ sea member of the suborder Incirrina ) . Despite this , the species was still one of the most fecund among " deep @-@ sea octopods that inhabit the Southern Ocean " .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The first specimen of Velodona togata ( Velodona togata togata ) was captured off the east coast of Africa at a depth of 749 meters below sea level . The four specimens described by Guy Robson as being members of a separate subspecies ( Velodona togata capensis ) were caught off the " Natal coast " ( modern KwaZulu @-@ Natal coast , South Africa ) at depths of between 220 fathoms ( 402 @.@ 3 meters ) and 250 fathoms ( 457 @.@ 2 meters ) . According to the Integrated Taxonomic Information System ( ITIS ) database , Velodona togata togata is possibly located in the waters north of Zanzibar , Tanzania , while Velodona togata capensis is located off of the " Natal coast , South Africa " .
In 2009 , a Spanish research vessel conducted a study of the cephalopod population off the coast of Mozambique . The study found populations of V. togata across the entire study area , which ran most of the coast of Mozambique , with especially high concentrations at the very southern end of the Mozambiquan coast , in the waters near the city of Maputo . The study performed trawls in four depth groups , 200 – 400 , 400 – 500 , 500 – 600 , and 600 – 700 meters below sea level . While V. togata was found in all four depth ranges , they were most abundant between 400 and 600 meters below sea level . The study also noted that males were most common in the shallower two groups , while females were more common in the deeper two groups .
= = Status = =
The conservation status of Velodona togata has not been assessed by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as of IUCN Red List version 2013 @.@ 2 .
= Order of the Thistle =
The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle is an order of chivalry associated with Scotland . The current version of the Order was founded in 1687 by King James VII of Scotland ( James II of England and Ireland ) who asserted that he was reviving an earlier Order . The Order consists of the Sovereign and sixteen Knights and Ladies , as well as certain " extra " knights ( members of the British Royal Family and foreign monarchs ) . The Sovereign alone grants membership of the Order ; he or she is not advised by the Government , as occurs with most other Orders .
The Order 's primary emblem is the thistle , the national flower of Scotland . The motto is Nemo me impune lacessit ( Latin for " No one provokes me with impunity " ) . The same motto appears on the Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom for use in Scotland and some pound coins , and is also the motto of the Royal Regiment of Scotland , Scots Guards , The Black Watch ( Royal Highland Regiment ) of Canada and Royal Scots Dragoon Guards . The patron saint of the Order is St Andrew .
Most British orders of chivalry cover the whole United Kingdom , but the three most exalted ones each pertain to one constituent country only . The Order of the Thistle , which pertains to Scotland , is the second @-@ most senior in precedence . Its equivalent in England , The Most Noble Order of the Garter , is the oldest documented order of chivalry in the United Kingdom , dating to the middle fourteenth century . In 1783 an Irish equivalent , The Most Illustrious Order of St Patrick , was founded , but has now fallen dormant .
= = History = =
James VII claimed that he was reviving an earlier Order , but this issue is marked by widely varying claims .
According to legend , Achaius , King of Scots ( possibly coming to the aid of Óengus mac Fergusa , King of the Picts ) , while engaged in battle at Athelstaneford with the Saxon King Æthelstan of East Anglia , saw in the heavens the cross of St Andrew . After he won the battle , Achaius is said to have established the Order of the Thistle , dedicating it to the saint , in 786 . The tale is not credible , because the two individuals purported to have fought each other did not even live in the same century . Another story states that Achaius founded the Order in 809 to commemorate an alliance with the Emperor Charlemagne . There is some credibility to this story given the fact that Charlemagne did employ Scottish bodyguards . There is , in addition , a tradition that the order was instituted , or re @-@ instituted , on the battlefield by Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn .
The earliest claim now taken seriously by historians is that James III , who adopted the thistle as the royal plant badge and issued coins depicting thistles , founded the Order during the fifteenth century . He allegedly conferred membership of the " Order of the Burr or Thissil " on King Francis I of France .
However , there is no conclusive evidence for a fifteenth @-@ century order . A French commentator writing in 1558 described the use of the crowned thistle and the cross of St Andrew on Scottish coins and war banners , and added that there was no Scottish order of knighthood . Similarly , John Lesley writing around 1578 , refers to the three foreign orders of chivalry carved on the gate of James V 's Linlithgow Palace with his ornaments of St Andrew , proper to this nation . Some Scottish order of chivalry may have existed during the sixteenth century , possibly founded by James V and called the Order of St. Andrew , but lapsed by the end of that century .
James VII issued letters patent " reviving and restoring the Order of the Thistle to its full glory , lustre and magnificency " on 29 May 1687 . Although the " restoration " in 1687 of the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle was accomplished by King James VII & II , the initiative for - essentially - founding this Scottish Royal Order can be attributed to John , 1st Earl and 1st Jacobite Duke of Melfort , then Secretary of State for Scotland , who together with his elder brother James , 4th Earl and 1st Jacobite Duke of Perth , then Lord Chancellor of Scotland , were among the eight Founding Knights . Eight knights , out of a maximum of twelve , were appointed , but the King was deposed in 1688 . His successors , the joint monarchs William and Mary , did not make any further appointments to the Order , which consequently fell into desuetude . In 1703 , however , Anne once again revived the Order of the Thistle , which survives to this day .
= = = Knights founder ( restored order ) = = =
James , Earl of Perth
George , Duke of Gordon
John , Marquis of Atholl
James , Earl of Arran
Kenneth , Earl of Seaforth
John , Earl of Melfort
George , Earl of Dumbarton
Alexander , Earl of Moray
= = Composition = =
The Kings of Scots — later the Kings of Great Britain and of the United Kingdom — have served as Sovereigns of the Order . When James VII revived the Order , the statutes stated that the Order would continue the ancient number of Knights , which was described in the preceding warrant as " the Sovereign and twelve Knights @-@ Brethren in allusion to the Blessed Saviour and his Twelve Apostles " . In 1827 , George IV augmented the Order to sixteen members . Women ( other than Queens regnant ) were originally excluded from the Order ; George VI created his wife Elizabeth Bowes @-@ Lyon a Lady of the Thistle in 1937 via a special statute , and in 1987 Elizabeth II allowed the regular admission of women to both the Order of the Thistle and the Order of the Garter .
From time to time , individuals may be admitted to the Order by special statutes . Such members are known as " Extra Knights " and do not count towards the sixteen @-@ member limit . Members of the British Royal Family are normally admitted through this procedure ; the first to be so admitted was Prince Albert . King Olav V of Norway , the first foreigner to be admitted to the Order , was also admitted by special statute in 1962 .
The Sovereign has historically had the power to choose Knights of the Order . From the eighteenth century onwards , the Sovereign made his or her choices upon the advice of the Government . George VI felt that the Orders of the Garter and the Thistle had been used only for political patronage , rather than to reward actual merit . Therefore , with the agreement of the Prime Minister ( Clement Attlee ) and the Leader of the Opposition ( Winston Churchill ) in 1946 , both Orders returned to the personal gift of the Sovereign .
Knights and Ladies of the Thistle may also be admitted to the Order of the Garter . Formerly , many , but not all , Knights elevated to the senior Order would resign from the Order of the Thistle . The first to resign from the Order of the Thistle was John , Duke of Argyll in 1710 ; the last to take such an action was Thomas , Earl of Zetland in 1872 . Knights and Ladies of the Thistle may also be deprived of their knighthoods . The only individual to have suffered such a fate was John Erskine , 6th Earl of Mar who lost both the knighthood and the earldom after participating in the Jacobite rising of 1715 .
The Order has five officers : the Dean , the Chancellor , the Usher , the Lord Lyon King of Arms and the Secretary . The Dean is normally a cleric of the Church of Scotland . This office was not part of the original establishment , but was created in 1763 and joined to the office of Dean of the Chapel Royal . The two offices were separated in 1969 . The office of Chancellor is mentioned and given custody of the seal of the Order in the 1687 statutes , but no @-@ one was appointed to the position until 1913 . The office has subsequently been held by one of the knights , though not necessarily the most senior . The Usher of the Order is the Gentleman Usher of the Green Rod ( unlike his Garter equivalent , the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod , he does not have another function assisting the House of Lords ) . The Lord Lyon King of Arms , head of the Scottish heraldic establishment and whose office predates his association with the Order serves as King of Arms of the Order . The Lord Lyon often — but not invariably — also serves as the Secretary .
= = Habit and insignia = =
For the Order 's great occasions , such as its annual service each June or July , as well for coronations , the Knights and Ladies wear an elaborate costume :
The mantle is a green robe worn over their suits or military uniforms . The mantle is lined with white taffeta ; it is tied with green and gold tassels . On the left shoulder of the mantle , the star of the Order ( see below ) is depicted .
The hat is made of black velvet and is plumed with white feathers with a black egret or heron 's top in the middle .
The collar is made of gold and depicts thistles and sprigs of rue . It is worn over the mantle .
The St Andrew , also called the badge @-@ appendant , is worn suspended from the collar . It comprises a gold enamelled depiction of St Andrew , wearing a green gown and purple coat , holding a white saltire . Gold rays of a glory are shown emanating from St Andrew 's head .
Aside from these special occasions
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places , and scenes were besmirched by fungus or lost altogether . To better preserve the film for future generations , SA Films arranged for Tiga Dara to be restored by the Bologna @-@ based L 'immagine Ritrovata Laboratory ; the film was the second of Ismail 's oeuvre to be restored , following Lewat Djam Malam ( After the Curfew , 1954 ) in 2012 . Restoration work , which included the reinsertion of lost scenes using extant copies of the film and the removal of dust and fungus , began in early 2015 and was completed on 8 October 2015 . This restoration — converted to 4K digital — is to be screened in Indonesia beginning on 11 August 2016 , with a DVD and Blu @-@ ray release the following year .
Several films have been remade or influenced by Tiga Dara . A remake , Tiga Dara Mencari Cinta ( Three Maidens Seek Love ) , was directed by Djun Saptohadi and released in 1980 . This comedy starred Ingrid Fernandez , Nana Riwayatie , and Winny Aditya Dewi as three sisters who live with their father and face the trials and tribulations of dating . Eight years later , when Teguh Karya was directing Pacar Ketinggalan Kereta ( Lover Left by the Train , 1989 ) , he insisted that the cast and crew watch Tiga Dara in an attempt to transcend it . In Tempo , the writer Putu Wijaya later described Pacar Ketinggalan Kereta as seemingly trying to recapture the family and musical dynamics of Ismail 's story . In 2004 a remake of Tiga Dara , to be directed by Rudi Soedjarwo and involve Dian Sastrowardoyo , Siti Nurhaliza , and Krisdayanti , was announced , though this production has not been realized .
Another updated retelling of the Tiga Dara story , Ini Kisah Tiga Dara ( This is the Story of Three Maidens ) , was shot between 23 February and 27 March 2016 in Maumere , Flores . In a press conference , the film 's director , Nia Dinata , stated that she had enjoyed watching Tiga Dara as a child and that she remained awed by the film 's beauty . She also said that her retelling , though it maintained the spirit of Ismail 's original , would feature a new plot as well as new songs by Titiek Puspa . Ini Kisah Tiga Dara , which stars Shanty , Tara Basro , and Tatyana Akman , is scheduled for a September 2016 release .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Two Fathers =
" Two Fathers " is the eleventh episode of the sixth season and the 128th episode overall of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States and Canada on February 7 , 1999 , on the Fox Network and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on Sky1 . It was written by executive producers Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz and directed by Kim Manners . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 5 and was viewed by a total of 18 @.@ 81 million viewers . The episode received mostly positive reviews .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . " Two Fathers " follows a story which would lead to the destruction of the Syndicate : with the unexpected return of Cassandra Spender and the alien rebels , members of the Syndicate prepare themselves for the final invasion .
" Two Fathers " was written in order to eliminate the Syndicate and relaunch the series ' mythology . With the series being shot in Los Angeles , many members of The X @-@ Files crew had to adjust scenes and filming techniques in order to achieve the " dark and gray feel " that had been a result of filming in Vancouver . The episode is the first of a two @-@ part episode and continues with the episode " One Son " .
= = Plot = =
In a train car , doctors in chemical suits are making incisions on an unseen patient 's stomach ; green fluid seeps out of the wounds , which heal themselves . When Dr. Eugene Openshaw arrives , he is informed that their twenty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old project is finally completed . Moments later , rebel aliens begin to appear and start burning all the doctors , the only survivor being Dr. Openshaw . The patient , Cassandra Spender , had been missing for over a year . Walter Skinner takes her son , Jeffrey Spender , to the scene , where he meets with his mother . Cassandra refuses to talk with Jeffrey about what happened to her because she knows that he won 't believe her . She asks for Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . Spender asks Mulder to join him to meet his mother , but Mulder sees it as an attempt to entrap him . Later on , Dr. Openshaw informs the Cigarette Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) about the completion of the project , saying he needs to kill his former wife since she is the first successful alien @-@ human hybrid . The Cigarette Smoking Man 's reaction leads to Dr. Openshaw 's death . Meanwhile one of the Syndicate elders is killed by an alien rebel , who takes on his form .
Mulder and partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) go over the crime scene photos from the train car incident and immediately recognize similarities to murders from a year earlier . Afterwards , Mulder and Scully visit Cassandra who informs them that the aliens are here to destroy all life on Earth , further stating that this alien threat moves through the Universe to colonize other planets . She claims that a rebel force of aliens are mutilating their faces to prevent infection by the black oil .
Alex Krycek reports to the Syndicate on the rebel 's recent attacks . The rebel , masquerading as the elder he killed , proposes that the Syndicate align themselves with the rebels . The Cigarette Smoking Man seems to recognize that the elder has opposed his own previous opinion- that siding with the rebels is suicide .
Mulder and Scully use the X @-@ Files office to find the Cigarette Smoking Man 's real identity , that he is Agent Spender 's father , C.G.B. Spender . Their unauthorized entry at the X @-@ Files office is discovered resulting in both agents ' immediate suspension from the FBI . Agent Spender reports to the Cigarette Smoking Man demanding the truth . Scully meets with Mulder , telling him that C.G.B. Spender is likely another alias and that the man is linked with Mulder 's father , William , who he had worked with on a secret state project . The Cigarette Smoking Man decides to give Agent Spender more responsibility by having him kill the alien rebel masquerading as a Syndicate elder . Spender fails in his task , but Krycek comes to his aid and finishes . Krycek reveals to Spender that his father was responsible for Cassandra 's abductions and that his role is to protect his father 's stake in the project , facts that upset Agent Spender .
The Cigarette Smoking Man reveals everything to Diana Fowley , who agrees to help him . Mulder tells Skinner that Cassandra is in danger because she is the first successful alien @-@ human hybrid ; Skinner goes to the hospital to check on Cassandra but finds her gone . Cassandra , having escaped from the hospital , arrives at Mulder 's apartment and demands that he shoot her because she is the embodiment of fifty years of work by the Syndicate — an alien @-@ human hybrid that will trigger colonization if the aliens learn of her existence .
= = Production = =
The plan to eliminate the Syndicate and relaunch the series ' mythology in a new direction was originally conceived in September 1998 . Director Kim Manners stated " I 've said for years that the show really resolved itself , if you will , by accident . The whole story line of the Syndicate and the bees and the aliens and the chips in the neck , they all seemed to just accidentally fall into place and create an intriguing , mysterious storyline that eventually got so mysterious and so intriguing that Chris had to blow it up , because he couldn 't deal with it anymore . " The original script featured various flashback sequences to the actors Peter Donat , William B. Davis and Veronica Cartwright , all from scenes around twenty @-@ to @-@ thirty years earlier in the show . They did various makeup jobs on the actors to make them look younger . However , the writers eventually came to the conclusion that it " just didn 't [ ... ] work " , so they cut out most of that storyline , which ultimately led to the creation of a whole new direction in which the Cigarette Smoking Man provided a monologue explaining the history of the project instead . The first scene was shot in Long Beach , California .
The scene in which Jeffrey Spender visited his mother , Cassandra Spender , was shot in Los Angeles . Those members of The X @-@ Files crew who had moved with the show from Vancouver to Los Angeles still had problems adjusting to the changes when filming an episode . They were forced to adjust to changes in the sunlight , since Vancouver had this " dark and gray feel " compared to California 's sunny atmosphere . Kim Manners said that it was difficult to get used to the new area of filming . This episode marks the first time new stock footage was used for the J. Edgar Hoover Building in over five years .
The Second Elder 's house was in a relatively expensive neighborhood in Los Angeles . Manners stated that he was " very nervous " when filming this scene because the crew needed to create a fire inside the house , which was done by Kelly Kerby and Bobby Calvert . When the faceless alien attacks the Second Elder , a special effects crew member can be seen behind a window " running with his rig " , according to Manners .
= = Release and reception = =
The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 5 , with a 16 share . It was viewed by a total of 18 @.@ 81 million viewers in the United States . The episode was the third highest rated episode of the sixth season . The episode debuted in the United States and Canada on February 7 , 1999 , at the Fox Network . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on May 16 , 1999 and received 0 @.@ 72 million viewers , making it the third most watched episode that week . Veronica Cartwright was nominated for an Emmy for " Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series " for her role in this episode and " One Son " , and the make @-@ up department was nominated for an Emmy award in the category " Outstanding Makeup for a Series " and won . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files wrote positively of the episode , saying it " wonderfully " developed the show 's characters as " it unveiled many of the answers to the questions that have been dangling about for some time with out using Mulder or Scully as conduits for many of these answers . " The main reason behind creating a resolution to the Syndicate arc was that Chris Carter thought the series was going to be cancelled by early 2000 . While promoting the episode , Carter said it would give many long @-@ waited answers but at the same time create new ones . Earl Cressey from DVD Talk named " Two Fathers , " along with its follow @-@ up " One Son , " as one of the " highlights of season six . " Joyce Millman from Salon magazine said the episode ( along with " One Son " ) was one " of the most coherent , [ ... ] almost unbearably tense , hours in the series ' run " . The Michigan Daily reviewer Melissa Runstrom said " Two Fathers " along with " One Son " and season finale " Biogenesis " were the highlights of the sixth season .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B – " rating . He concluded that the episode is an example of " propulsive fun " and applauded its myriad of attention @-@ grabbing sequences . However , he was critical of its plot , noting that " the series pretty much just picks Cassandra to be the answer to a lot of questions " concerning the show 's mythology . Not all reviews were so glowing . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris wrote positively of the episode 's filming , writing , " visually , the episode looks good [ … ] but the scenes in the hangar are eye @-@ poppers , with doors slowly opening and aliens walking forward , obscured by bright light . " However , she criticized the episode 's plot , noting that " Two Fathers " was " heading straight down a path already trodden by dozens of books , short stories , movies , and other television shows . "
= Kepler @-@ 9c =
Kepler @-@ 9c is one of the first seven extrasolar planets , exoplanets , discovered by NASA 's Kepler Mission , and one of at least two planets orbiting the star Kepler @-@ 9 . Kepler @-@ 9c and Kepler @-@ 9b were the first exoplanets confirmed to be transiting their star . The planet 's discovery was announced by the Kepler Mission team on August 26 , 2010 after its initial discovery by Kepler . At the time , it was one of 700 planetary candidates noted by Kepler .
Observations of the planet have suggested that it is a hydrogen – helium gas giant that is slightly smaller than Saturn , and that it orbits nearby its star at .225 AU . Kepler @-@ 9c and b are notable in that the planets share a pattern of orbital resonance , in which the orbit of each planet stabilizes the orbit of the other . During the time it was observed by the spacecraft , the planet 's orbit , which lasts on average approximately 38 days , shortened by 39 minutes every orbital period because of this effect . Its orbit , over time , oscillates slightly above and below a 2 : 1 ratio with planet b .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
As with most exoplanets , the name " Kepler @-@ 9c " denotes that it is the second planet discovered in the orbit of the star Kepler @-@ 9 . Kepler @-@ 9 itself was named after the Kepler Mission , a NASA project oriented towards discovering planets that are transiting their home stars .
The planet was one of 700 planetary candidates considered by Kepler in its first 43 days of operation . It was highlighted as a part of one of five star systems that seemed to hold multiple transiting planets . Kepler @-@ 9c and Kepler @-@ 9b were confirmed as the first planets discovered to transit the same star .
Initial estimates concerning Kepler @-@ 9c 's mass were refined by follow @-@ up observations made by the Keck 1 Telescope at the W.M. Keck Observatory at Mauna Kea , Hawaii . Keck was able to confirm that Kepler @-@ 9c and Kepler @-@ 9b were planets that were slightly smaller than planet Saturn .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 9c is a gas giant that is smaller and slightly less massive than planet Saturn . It is approximately 0 @.@ 171 MJ , or 17 % the mass of planet Jupiter . It also has a radius of 0 @.@ 823 RJ , which makes it slightly smaller ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) than Saturn . The planet is , on average , situated 0 @.@ 225 AU from the star .
It is probable that the planet is composed of hydrogen and helium . The planet orbits on the same plane as Kepler @-@ 9b , a second and larger gas giant located in the Kepler @-@ 9 system . While observing the planet , the Kepler team noticed that Kepler @-@ 9b and c orbited in a 1 : 2 ratio , where Kepler @-@ 9b orbits its star every 19 days and Kepler @-@ 9c orbits every 38 days . The gravitational pull that each planet has on the other , known as orbital resonance , keeps the planets in a stable orbit . This phenomenon is the first of its kind seen outside the Solar System . Every time Kepler @-@ 9c completed an orbit during the observation period , its orbital period decreased by about 39 minutes . At some point , however , this trend will reverse and its orbit will increase . The lengths of its orbit will oscillate slightly above and below the 2 : 1 ratio .
= Richard of Dover =
Richard ( died 1184 ) was a medieval Benedictine monk and Archbishop of Canterbury . Employed by Thomas Becket immediately before Becket 's death , Richard arranged for Becket to be buried in Canterbury Cathedral and eventually succeeded Becket at Canterbury in a contentious election . Much of Richard 's time as archbishop was spent in a dispute with Roger de Pont L 'Evêque , the Archbishop of York over the primacy of England , and with St Augustine 's Abbey in Canterbury over the archbishop 's jurisdiction over the abbey . Richard had better relations with King Henry II of England than Becket had , and was employed by the king on diplomatic affairs . Richard also had the trust of the papacy , and served as a judge for the papacy . Several of his questions to Pope Alexander III were collected into the Decretals , a collection of ecclesiastical laws , and his patronage of canon lawyers did much to advance the study of canon law in England .
= = Early life = =
Richard was born in Normandy and became a monk at Canterbury , and a chaplain to Theobald of Bec , the Archbishop of Canterbury . At some point , he received an education , but it is not known where or who he studied with . The first notice of him in history is as a monk at Christ Church . He was a colleague of Thomas Becket while they both worked for Theobald . In 1157 he was appointed prior of St. Martin 's priory in Dover . St. Martin 's was a Benedictine priory and a dependent house of Christ Church Cathedral Priory in Canterbury , the cathedral chapter of the archbishops of Canterbury . Right before Becket 's death Richard was employed by Becket to meet with Henry the Young King , but was unsuccessful in the attempt . After Becket 's death , Richard took charge of Becket 's body , and arranged for an immediate burial in Canterbury Cathedral .
= = Archbishop = =
In 1173 , more than two years after the murder of Becket , King Henry II of England decided to fill the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury ; there were two candidates : Richard , and Odo , prior of Canterbury . Previously , Roger , the abbot of Bec Abbey , had been elected , but refused the office . On 3 June 1173 , Richard was chosen , although the monks preferred Odo . Both sides appealed to Rome , and Richard journeyed to Rome with Reginald fitz Jocelin , who had recently been elected Bishop of Bath , to rebut the charges of simony , illegitimate birth , and swearing an oath to the king that had been raised . After hearing the charges , they were dismissed and the election was ratified on 2 April 1174 and on 7 April 1174 the new archbishop was consecrated at Anagni by Pope Alexander III . Richard returned to England at the close of the year bearing his pallium which he had received directly from the pope . He was also granted legatine powers by Alexander III .
Richard clashed with Roger de Pont L 'Evêque , the Archbishop of York , over the respective rights of the two sees throughout his time as archbishop . In 1175 , at a council held in London , there was a fight between their supporters . King Henry II managed to secure a truce for five years between the two archbishops but Richard was soon embroiled in another dispute . This one was with Roger , abbot of St Augustine 's Abbey in Canterbury and revolved around whether or not the abbey depended directly on the pope or if the archbishop had jurisdictional rights over the abbey . In the end , the papacy arranged a settlement that left the abbey dependent on the pope direct , but gave the archbishop spiritual authority over the churches of the Isle of Thanet , which had previously been held by the abbey .
Richard 's time as archbishop was much less stormy than Becket 's had been , and he seems to have had better relations with the king . Richard attended the royal councils , and more than once was with the king in Normandy . Richard was less dogmatic on the rights of the clergy than his great predecessor had been ; but his compromises were regarded by the monastic writers and the followers of Becket as a sign of weakness . Pope Alexander III took Richard to task when Richard acquiesced in the election of bishops taking place in the royal chapel . As part of his diplomatic efforts on the king 's behalf , Richard escorted Henry 's daughter Joan to Provence on her journey in 1176 to marry King William II of Sicily . Richard also spent part of 1177 in Flanders on diplomatic business for King Henry .
= = Patronage , death and legacy = =
Richard attracted canon lawyers to his household , including Gerard la Pucelle , Peter of Blois , and Henry Pium of Northampton , all of whom advised him on legal matters . At the Council of Westminster that Richard convened in May 1175 , nineteen canons were put forth , dealing with clerical marriage , the oversupply of ordained clergy , the behaviour of the clergy and their dress and tonsure , and simony . Another canon dealt with clandestine marriages and regulated child marriages . He was also heavily involved with trying judicial cases , both in the actual judgment as well as in the execution of judgments made by others . Four of his questions to Alexander III entered the Decretals and the other collections of canon law of the 13th century .
Richard died at Halling , Kent on 16 February 1184 of colic and was buried in his cathedral . A. L. Poole , the historian , felt that Richard was a " feeble and ineffective person . " Frank Barlow , another historian , calls him a " blameless mediocrity " . Richard of Ilchester , a fellow bishop , held that it was Richard of Dover 's defects that prevented the English Church from profiting more from Becket 's martyrdom . However , Richard did much to promote the use of canon law throughout England . Richard was also active in using his legatine powers to interfere in monastic affairs , deposing the abbot of Peterborough Abbey in 1175 and threatening to visit other monastic houses that were exempt from episcopal interference to regulate the monastic affairs . On a more domestic note , Richard was held to have been an able steward of the estates of Canterbury , very much interested in increasing production . He was held to be a pious and gentle man .
= Cryolophosaurus =
Cryolophosaurus ( / ˌkraɪoʊˌloʊfoʊˈsɔːrəs / or / kraɪˌɒloʊfoʊˈsɔːrəs / ; " CRY @-@ oh @-@ loaf @-@ oh @-@ SAWR @-@ us " ) is a genus of large theropods known from only a single species Cryolophosaurus ellioti , known from the early Jurassic period of Antarctica . It was about 6 @.@ 5 metres ( 21 @.@ 3 ft ) long and 465 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 025 lb ) in weight , making it one of the largest theropods of its time . Individuals of this species may have grown even larger , because the only known specimen probably represents a sub @-@ adult . Cryolophosaurus is known from a skull , a femur and other material , the skull and femur of which have caused its classification to vary greatly . The femur possesses many primitive characteristics that have classified Cryolophosaurus as a dilophosaurid or a neotheropod outside of Dilophosauridae and Averostra , where as the skull has many advanced features , leading the genus to be considered a tetanuran , an abelisaurid , a ceratosaur and even an allosaurid . Since its original description , the consensus is that Cryolophosaurus is either a primitive member of the Tetanurae or a close relative of that group .
Cryolophosaurus possessed a distinctive crest on its head that spanned the head from side to side , similar to a Spanish comb . Based on evidence from related species and studies of bone texture , it is thought that this bizarre crest was used for intra @-@ species recognition . The brain of Cryolophosaurus was also more primitive than those of other theropods .
Cryolophosaurus was first excavated from Antarctica 's Early Jurassic , Sinemurian to Pliensbachian aged Hanson Formation , formerly the upper Falla Formation , by paleontologist Dr. William Hammer in 1991 . It was the first carnivorous dinosaur to be discovered in Antarctica and the first non @-@ avian dinosaur from the continent to be officially named . The sediments in which its fossils were found have been dated at ~ 194 to 188 million years ago , representing the Early Jurassic Period .
= = Description = =
The holotype FMNH PR1821 is the only fully described specimen of Cryolophosaurus . The specimen consists of an incomplete skull and mandibles lacking most of their front half ; nine maxillary teeth ; a fragmentary sixth cervical centrum ; cervical vertebrae 7 @-@ 10 ; several posterior cervical ribs ; several anterior dorsal vertebrae ; most mid and posterior dorsal vertebrae ; several dorsal ribs ; the fifth sacral vertebrae ; three chevrons ; many partial and complete caudal vertebrae and centra ; two partial humeri ; a proximal radius ; a proximal ulna ; a partial ilium ; a proximal pubis ; both ischia , but only one distal ; two incomplete femora ; the distal end of a tibia ; the distal end of a fibula , and the astragalus and calcaneum . In 2013 , new material of Cryolophosaurus was unearthed in Antarctica . The description of this material has not yet been published in a non @-@ abstract form .
Cryolophosaurus was a large , well @-@ built theropod , one of the largest of its time . The genus has been described by Roger Benson and colleagues ( 2012 ) as a top predator in Antarctica . It had slender proportions . Cryolophosaurus was estimated as being 6 to 7 m ( 19 @.@ 7 to 23 @.@ 0 ft ) in length by William R. Hammer & William J. Hickerson ( 1999 ) . A 2007 study by Nathan Smith et al. revised the length to 6 @.@ 5 m ( 21 @.@ 3 ft ) . Its weight estimated at 465 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 025 lb ) . Based on these length and weight estimates , Cryolophosaurus is currently the largest known Early Jurassic theropod . Smith et al . ( 2007b ) and Benson et al . ( 2012 ) noted that the holotype individual probably represents a sub @-@ adult , so adults could have been larger .
= = = Skull = = =
The holotype of Cryolophosaurus consists of a high , narrow skull , which was discovered articulated with the rest of the skeleton . The skull is an estimated 65 centimetres ( 26 in ) long . It has a peculiar nasal crest that runs just over the eyes , where it rises up perpendicular to the skull and fans out . It is thin and highly furrowed , giving it a Spanish comb @-@ like appearance . The crest is an extension of the skull bones , near the tear ducts , fused on either side to orbital horns which rise from the eye sockets . While other theropods like the Monolophosaurus have crests , they usually run along the skull instead of across it .
An unpublished study conducted by Vernon Meidlinger @-@ Chin in 2013 suggested that previous studies lacked focus on endocranial details . The study found that the Cryolophosaurus fossil has a nearly complete , undistorted cranial cavity which is complete enough to give an approximate shape and size of the living brain . The endocast features clarified the dissimilarity of the skull with those of Allosauroids and Coelurosaurs giving Cryolophosaurus a basal position in Theropoda .
= = Classification = =
Classification of Cryolophosaurus is difficult because it has a mix of primitive and advanced characteristics . The femur has traits of early theropods , while the skull resembles much later species of the clade Tetanurae , like China 's Sinraptor and Yangchuanosaurus . This led Paul Sereno et al . ( 1994 ) to place Cryolophosaurus in the taxon Allosauridae . Originally , Hammer and colleagues suspected that Cryolophosaurus might be a ceratosaur or even an early abelisaur , with some traits convergent with those of more advanced tetanurans , but ultimately concluded that it was itself the earliest known member of the tetanuran group . While a subsequent study by Hammer ( along with Smith and Currie ) again recovered Cryolophosaurus as a tetanuran , a later ( 2007 ) study by the same authors found that it was more closely related to Dilophosaurus and Dracovenator . Sterling Nesbitt et al . ( 2009 ) , using the characters of Tawa found Cryolophosaurus to be a neither dilophosaurid nor averostran neotheropod but instead the sister group of a clade composed of dilophosaurids and averostrans . However , in 2012 , Matthew Carrano found that Cryolophosaurus was a tetanuran , related to Sinosaurus , but unrelated to Dilophosaurus .
The following family tree illustrates a synthesis of the relationships of the early theropod groups compiled by Hendrickx et al. in 2015 .
= = Discovery and naming = =
Cryolophosaurus originally was collected during the 1990 – 91 austral summer on Mount Kirkpatrick in the Beardmore Glacier region of the Transantarctic Mountains . The discovery was made by Hammer , a professor at Augustana College , and his team . The fossils were found in the siliceous siltstone of the Hanson Formation , formerly the upper Falla Formation , and dated to the Pliensbachian stage of the early Jurassic . Cryolophosaurus was the second dinosaur , and first theropod , to be discovered in Antarctica . It was discovered after Antarctopelta , but named earlier .
In 1991 , both Hammer and the Ohio State University geologist David Elliot excavated separate outcroppings near Beardmore Glacier , sharing logistical expenses . Elliot 's team first came across the remains of Cryolophosaurus in a rock formation around the altitude of 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) high and about 640 km ( 400 mi ) from the South Pole . When the discovery was made , they soon notified Hammer . Over the next three weeks , Hammer excavated 2 @,@ 300 kg ( 5 @,@ 100 lb ) of fossil @-@ bearing rock . The team recovered over 100 fossil bones , including those of Cryolophosaurus . The specimens were formally named and described in 1994 by Hammer and Hickerson , in the journal Science .
During the 2003 season , a field team returned and collected more material from the original site . A second locality was discovered about 30 metres ( 98 ft ) higher in the section on Mt . Kirkpatrick .
The name Cryolophosaurus ellioti is derived from the Greek words κρυος ( meaning ' cold ' or ' frozen ' , in reference to its discovery in Antarctica ) , λοφος ( meaning ' crest ' ) and σαυρος ( meaning ' lizard ' ) , thus " cold crest lizard " . Hammer and Hickerson named the species C. ellioti , after David Elliot , who had made the initial discovery of the fossils .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Cranial ornamentation = = =
Cranial display features , such as the one possessed by Cryolophosaurus , make sense in social , g
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, such as robbing graves or being in complete darkness ; it can be replenished through mentally stimulating activities , such as sleeping , picking flowers , and wearing " dapper " clothing . When hunger gets too low , it begins to chip away at health , which will eventually result in the player 's death . A large variety of creatures can attack the player , including giant one @-@ eyed birds , tree monsters , tentacles whose owners are not shown , and even small , weak frogs that will nonetheless try to accost the player and steal from them . Additionally , at low enough sanity , figments of the character 's imagination become corporeal and able to attack the player . Some creatures , such as pig @-@ like creatures often found in tribes , begin as neutral to the player ( Excluding the Reign of Giants character Webber ) , but the player 's actions may lead them to be allies or hostile foes .
The game 's bulk occurs in Sandbox Mode , but there is a second mode , Adventure , which the player can access by finding a landmark called " Maxwell 's Door . " Adventure serves as the game 's campaign , and consists of five levels that pit the player against Maxwell , the antagonist of Don 't Starve . The player loses all items and recipes upon entering , and can only pick four to keep upon completion of each chapter . Death or completion of all five chapters results in being returned intact to Sandbox Mode .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Wilson , a gentleman scientist , is the protagonist of Don 't Starve . While Wilson has no special abilities beyond growth of " a magnificent beard " , which slows the speed of freezing in winter , and accelerates overheating in summer , other playable characters do ; a few examples follow . Willow , a firestarter , is immune to fire damage and will start a small fire on the ground , which can set fire to nearby objects , when she has a low sanity level . A girl named Wendy receives visits from her deceased twin sister Abigail when summoned . A strongman named Wolfgang has higher health , offensive capabilities that grow the more his hunger meter is full , but starves faster and loses more sanity when near danger . WX78 is an android who nonetheless needs to eat , sleep , and stay mentally stimulated , but does not become ill from spoiled food , can increase its maximum health , hunger , and sanity with gears ( which are reset to the original maximum after dying and respawning , but the corpse leaves behind a portion of the used ones ) , and takes damage from rain . WX @-@ 78 also attracts lightning , being made of conductible material , that makes it surrounded by a glow , which gradually decreases with time as the charge wears off , refills health , and lowers sanity while continuing to speed the loss of it .
The game 's antagonist is named Maxwell . Maxwell is described as a puppet master who is " dapper " and " frail " in stature . He is part @-@ demon and transforms incrementally as his anger at the player increases over the five chapters of Adventure . He is the final unlockable character , obtained after completion of the story rather than with experience points . The character version of Maxwell starts with a Dark Sword , Night Armor , Purple Gem , 4 Nightmare Fuel and the Codex Umbra , a book that when activated , costing 2 Nightmare Fuel , depletes 15 health , lowers maximum sanity by 55 , and spawns a shadow clone of himself that aids him in battle , mining and wood chopping . The Shadow Puppet has 75 health and deals 40 damage with each attack . When it dies , it disappears and returns Maxwell 's lost maximum of sanity . A maximum of 3 puppets can be spawned at once , and each will disappear 2 @.@ 5 days after it is spawned .
= = = Story = = =
As the game itself opens with Maxwell snidely informing the player of their gaunt appearance and includes little further story , the game 's setup is told through its trailer . On a dark and stormy night , Wilson appears to be getting nowhere in a chemistry experiment until he is startled by his radio speaking to him . It reveals that it has noticed his trouble and has " secret knowledge " for him . When he eagerly agrees , a flurry of equations and diagrams encircle him and fill his head with this information . Using white rats , a typewriter , and his own blood , among other tools and materials , Wilson creates a giant machine . The radio commends his work and tells him to pull the machine 's switch . He hesitates , but at the radio 's insistence , he does it ; the machine rattles violently and a pair of ghostly arms whisk him into a different world while an apparition of Maxwell cackles .
As the player wakes up each morning during the Adventure mode , Maxwell appears over them and comments . At first he seems impressed at the player 's hardiness ; he then becomes irritated and urges the player to turn back . He offers the player a truce but then becomes completely enraged .
At the end of Adventure , the player reaches an island called Maxwell 's Island with a hall belonging to Maxwell on it . The player finds Maxwell trapped in a throne encircled by short stone pillars . The player is at first unable to free him , but finds a keyhole , as well as a key nearby . The player sets Maxwell free , but he turns into a skeleton and disintegrates as soon as he stands up . The ghostly arms from the trailer then grab the player and ensnare them in the throne . An epilogue implies that the player will take on a villainous role similar to Maxwell 's using newfound powers given by the throne , but will nonetheless be trapped forever .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception and design = = =
Don 't Starve was developed and published by indie studio Klei Entertainment . The game began development as part of a 48 @-@ hour game jam in 2010 . The team liked the idea but shelved it until two years later , when they had the time to flesh it out . Full development commenced in 2012 , while Klei was nearing the end of the development process of Mark of the Ninja . This was during the heat of an industry trend of creating games in which players are dropped into a world with few instructions and a goal of survival . The torch of this movement was held by the 2011 sandbox game Minecraft . Member Kevin Forbes stated in an interview that Minecraft was one of the team 's biggest influences , particularly its exploration elements . However , as the game was conceived as a " weird experiment " , the team 's main goal was to innovate in terms of gameplay and aesthetics , specifically by adding a layer of emphasis on characterization and themes . Another influence was the 2005 Nintendo DS title Lost in Blue , which contains similar supernatural elements and a day / night cycle .
The game 's dark and supernatural yet cartoonish art style was influenced by the work of filmmaker Tim Burton , to which it has been frequently compared , and by writers Edward Gorey and H.P. Lovecraft . Forbes noted the team 's ambition of creating something " dark and creepy . " After conception of the basic game setup , Forbes penned a backstory influenced by steampunk and horror , and lead creative director Jeff Agala added comic strip @-@ like art elements . To further the game 's atmosphere of loneliness and directionlessness , Klei decided firmly against multiplayer gameplay . However , in December of 2014 , after numerous requests , Klei finally released the multiplayer version of the game titled " Don 't Starve Together " on steam early access after an initial closed beta release . The game is still in beta .
Development was marked by a few changes to the game 's formula that would be reverted . Most notably , at one point during development , Klei wanted to add quests to the existing open gameplay . Klei shelved this idea when they realized that " having external goals is extremely counter to what is fun about the game . " Nevertheless , Klei co @-@ founder Jamie Cheng has emphasized that Klei values the freedom to try different approaches that being tied to a major publisher would not afford them .
Cheng related in an interview that Don 't Starve 's development taught Klei a considerable amount about the nature of the emergent gameplay that was endemic to its open and random world ; Klei tries to experiment with a new genre with each project and prefers not to create sequels to any of its games . These lessons would later be used to balance the mechanics of Klei 's upcoming project Invisible , Inc .
= = = Releases and updates = = =
Klei employees argued at length about whether to release Don 't Starve as a free @-@ to @-@ play game . Forbes stated that he " wouldn 't rule it out as a business model " but that the team was not ready to make such a decision . It was , however , free in the early days of beta testing .
Don 't Starve was released in beta form in 2012 , a move that Klei decided on to find out " what aspects of the game players are really responding to , and [ nip ] usability issues in the bud . " Klei 's Cory Rollins has stated that he finds that most developers ' beta periods simply serve as an early release of the game and result in few glitches being fixed , and wanted to make more use of the strategy . Added benefits the team discovered during beta testing were that it forced them to make important decisions about the game 's upcoming release well in advance , and that it solidified a player base . In addition , Klei added the ability for food to spoil during this time , inspired by a forum thread about such possibilities . Cheng found Don 't Starve to have " ended up a way better game because of the community . " It spent a few months in beta testing , and Klei continued to give updates for months after its release .
In June 2013 , shortly after the game 's main release , a PlayStation 4 version was announced ; it would not be released until January of the following year . In a January 2014 interview , Rollins mentioned internal discussions of creating a PlayStation Vita version of Don 't Starve , citing massive community interest in playing it on the PlayStation 4 remotely . An iOS edition was released in July 2014 . The company is also considering other mobile phone adaptations , as well as a potential sequel , but is not prioritizing them .
= = = = Don 't Starve : Reign of Giants = = = =
Don 't Starve : Reign of Giants , the game 's first paid downloadable content expansion , was announced on February 18 , 2014 . Three cryptic teasers were released , each named after a season of the year . The first , " Fall " , shows a badger @-@ like creature , while " Winter " adds an unlockable arachnid character named Webber and " Spring " a furry leg accompanied by a hatching egg . The expansion was made available as early access at the beginning of April and was released on April 30 . It contains new items , characters , and environments .
= = = = Don 't Starve Together = = = =
On May 7 , 2014 , Klei announced that a free multiplayer expansion , Don 't Starve Together , would be coming later that year . As they had initially decided not to create multiplayer , Klei clarified on their official forums that they originally had not been " confident that it would actually work both in concept and implementation " but had changed their minds in response to popular demand and bringing in new help .
Don 't Starve Together made its debut on Steam 's Early Access program on December 15 , 2014 . It supports up to six players at a time , who can be either existing friends or strangers and can play in public or private games . The expansion contains most , if not all , features of the single @-@ player game , but with ongoing balance patches being made for multiplayer . The game was officially released out of early access on April 21 , 2016 .
= = = = Don 't Starve : Giant Edition = = = =
A PlayStation Vita port of Don 't Starve titled Don 't Starve : Giant Edition was announced on August 25 , 2014 and was released on September 2 , 2014 in North America , and September 3 , 2014 in Europe . This was also announced to be released for the Wii U via the Nintendo eShop on March 4 , 2015 . Wii U Specific Features : Enjoy Off @-@ TV Mode ! Use companion map via the Wii U GamePad to navigate around the world “ Reign of Giants ” DLC available at launch . Giant Edition was released in North America on May 28 , 2015 and in Europe on June 4 , 2015 . A PlayStation 3 port was developed by Abstraction Games and released in North America on June 23 , 2015 , as well as in Europe on June 24 , 2015 . An Xbox One version was released on August 26 , 2015 .
= = = = Don 't Starve : Shipwrecked = = = =
Don 't Starve : Shipwrecked , co @-@ developed by Super Time Force studio Capybara Games , was released on PC on the first day of December 2015 in early access . This expansion includes new characters , biomes , creatures , and seasonal effects .
Don 't Starve : Pocket Edition
Don 't Starve : Pocket Edition was released on July 9 , 2015 , for iOS and includes the Reign of Giants DLC . An Android version is planned to be released in September 2016 .
= = Reception = =
Don 't Starve received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . The game sold one million copies by the end of 2013 . Don 't Starve was a finalist for the grand prize and " Excellence in Design " subcategory at the 2014 Independent Games Festival awards ceremony . It also received honorable mentions for " Excellence in Visual Art " and " Excellence in Audio . "
The game 's art style was critically acclaimed . Summarizing that the " distinct art style and atmosphere set a cool vibe , " GameSpot 's Nathan Meunier commended the atmosphere and visual design . Marty Sliva of IGN claimed an " immense appreciation for the paper @-@ cutout graphical style and whimsical presentation " , going on to praise the threatening qualities bestowed upon mundane objects by the " gothic @-@ inspired look . " Game Informer writer Jeff Marchiafava stated that " the cartoony art style makes exploring your massive , randomized world a joy . " Writing for the newspaper Toronto Sun , Steve Tilley called the art " whimsical and wonderful " and the presentation in general " captivating . " Reviewing the PlayStation 4 version specifically , Jordan Devore of Destructoid said that it looked and played very well on the console , though he did note some pixelation effects when the screen zooms in on the inventory . He also found that the gamepad controls , while less efficient than a keyboard , were similarly enjoyable .
The music was generally well received . Sliva compared it to carnival music and called it " immediately catchy " though lacking in variation . Giancarlo Saldana of GamesRadar called it " eerie [ yet ] calming " and praised its role in complementing the simultaneously lonesome and dangerous world .
Critics universally acknowledged , but gave mixed opinions on , the game 's high level of difficulty . This sentiment was epitomized by Sliva 's comment that " Don 't Starve will never , ever hold your hand , and I both love it and hate it for that . " For example , he felt some of his deaths were unfairly caused by the game 's camera system obscuring needed objects . Meunier stated that " survival doesn 't come easy , but there 's an undeniable thrill to the challenge , " but also placed the high difficulty in his list of the game 's cons . Leon Hurley of Official PlayStation Magazine claimed that " learning is half the fun and even the smallest victory makes you feel like you ’ re winning with a capital FU . " Reviewers also felt that players ' levels of satisfaction would depend heavily on their levels of commitment to survival .
The lack of a permanent saving mechanic and permanence of death were criticized . Marchiafava , while normally a fan of permadeath in games , found it problematic in Don 't Starve because , unlike other games such as The Binding of Isaac and Spelunky , Don 't Starve is much longer and so death felt like more of a loss . Meunier noted that the novelty and thrills of each new run wear off somewhat " when you 're stuck tackling the same menial tasks over and over again to regain lost ground . " Sliva expressed disappointment at being given " nearly no recognition from Don 't Starve itself " upon being killed by a frog , and reported being bored for roughly 30 minutes at the overly familiar starts of later playthroughs . Brown thought similarly , also calling the early game in particular " a bit dull . " Saldana , however , reasoned that " you at least gain some knowledge of how things work " and would thus make incremental , enjoyable progress .
The variety of unusual , numerous , and frequently placed ways for the player to die were singled out for praise . Focusing on the harm caused by subzero temperatures during winter , Meunier found that " these interesting wrinkles add depth and additional difficulty to the already challenging survival mechanics at play . " Jessica Conditt of Joystiq praised the high number of possible causes of death as well as the game 's efficient and easy @-@ to @-@ understand display of the player 's health , hunger , and mental stability . Saldana noted that the unfamiliarity of some monster designs would help to keep the player wary .
= Amenemhat IV =
See Amenemhat , for other individuals with this name .
Amenemhat IV ( also Amenemhet IV ) was the seventh and penultimate pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty of Egypt ( c . 1990 – 1800 BC ) during the late Middle Kingdom period ( c . 2050 – 1710 BC ) , ruling for over nine years in the late 19th century BC or the early 18th century BC .
Amenemhat IV may have been the son , grandson or step @-@ son of his predecessor , the powerful Amenemhat III . His reign started with a two @-@ year coregency with Amenemhat III and was seemingly peaceful . He undertook expeditions in the Sinai for turquoise , in Upper Egypt for amethyst and to the Land of Punt . He also maintained trade relations with Byblos as well as the Egyptian presence in Nubia . Amenemhat IV built some parts of the temple of Hathor at Serabit el @-@ Khadim in the Sinai and constructed the well @-@ preserved temple of Renenutet in Medinet Madi .
Amenemhat IV 's tomb has not been identified , although the Southern Mazghuna pyramid is a possibility . He was succeeded by Sobekneferu , possibly his sister or step @-@ sister , whose short reign marked the end of the 12th Dynasty and the beginning of the Middle Kingdom 's decline into the Second Intermediate Period .
= = Family = =
Amenemhat IV was the son of a woman named Hetepi . Hetepi 's only known attestation is an inscription on the wall of the temple of Renenutet at Medinet Madi where she is given the title of " King 's Mother " but not those of " King 's Wife " , " King 's Daughter " or " King 's Sister " . Consequently , her relation to Amenemhat III is unknown and she may have been non @-@ royal . The relation of Amenemhat IV to Amenemhat III is similarly uncertain ; the former could have been the son or grandson of the latter . Similarly , while Manetho states that he married his half @-@ sister Sobekneferu , this claim is not yet supported by archaeological evidence . In particular , Sobekneferu is not known to have borne the title of " King 's Wife " . Instead , the egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes that Amenemhat IV was adopted by Amenemhat III and thus became Sobekneferu 's step @-@ brother , thereby explaining the Manethonian tradition .
Amenemhat may have died without a male heir , which could explain why he was succeeded by Sobekneferu . However , some egyptologists , such as Aidan Dodson and Kim Ryholt , have proposed that the first two rulers of the 13th Dynasty , Sobekhotep I and Amenemhat Sonbef , were his sons . Amenenmhat IV may have been Sobeknefru 's spouse , but no evidence currently substantiates this hypothesis .
= = Reign = =
Amenemhat IV first came to power as a junior coregent of his predecessor Amenemhat III , whose reign marks the apex of the Middle Kingdom period . The coregency is well attested by numerous monuments and artefacts where the names of the two kings parallel each other . The length of this coregency is uncertain ; it could have lasted from one to seven years , although most scholars believe it was only two years long . The Turin Canon , a king list redacted during the early Ramesside period , records Amenemhat IV on Column 6 , Row 1 , and credits him with a reign of 9 years , 3 months and 27 days . Amenemhat IV is also recorded on Entry 65 of the Abydos King List and Entry 38 of the Saqqara Tablet , both of which date to the New Kingdom .
In spite of the Turin canon , the duration of Amenemhat 's reign is uncertain . It was given as eight years under the name Ammenemes in Manetho 's Aegyptiaca . In any case , Amenemhat 's rule seems to have been peaceful and uneventful . Amenemhat IV is well attested by contemporary artefacts , including a number of scarab- and cylinder @-@ seals .
= = = Expeditions and foreign relations = = =
Four expeditions to the turquoise mines of Serabit el @-@ Khadim in the Sinai are dated to his reign by in @-@ situ inscriptions . The latest took place in his ninth year on the throne and could be the last expedition of the Middle Kingdom , since the next inscription dates to Ahmose I 's reign , some 200 years later . In his Year 2 , Amenemhat IV sent another expedition to mine amethyst in the Wadi el @-@ Hudi in the south of Egypt . The leader of the expedition was the assistant treasurer Sahathor . Farther south , three Nile @-@ records are known from Kumna in Nubia that are explicitly dated to his Years 5 , 6 and 7 on the throne , showing that the Egyptian presence in the region was maintained during his lifetime .
Important trade relations must have existed during his reign with the city of Byblos , on the coast of modern @-@ day Lebanon , where an obsidian and gold chest as well as a jar lid bearing Amenemhat IV 's name have been found . A gold plaque showing Amenemhat IV offering to a god may also originate there .
Recently , continuing excavations at Wadi Gawasis on the Red Sea coast have produced two wooden chests and an ostracon inscribed with a hieratic text mentioning an expedition to the fabled Land of Punt in Year 8 of Amenemhat IV , under the direction of the royal scribe Djedy . Two fragments of a stela depicting him and dating to his Year 7 were found at Berenice on the Red Sea .
= = = Building activities = = =
Amenemhat IV completed the temple of Renenutet and Sobek at Medinet Madi started by Amenemhat III , which is " the only intact temple still existing from the Middle Kingdom " according to Zahi Hawass , a former Secretary @-@ General of Egypt 's Supreme Council of Antiquities ( SCA ) . The foundations of the temple , administrative buildings , granaries and residences were uncovered by an Egyptian archaeological expedition in early 2006 . Amenemhat IV possibly also built a temple in the northeastern Fayum at Qasr el @-@ Sagha .
Amenemhat IV is responsible for the completion of a shrine at the temple of Hathor in the Sinai and may also have undertaken works in Karnak where a pedestal for a sacred barque inscribed with Amenemhat III and IV names was found in 1924 .
= = = Legacy = = =
Less than 10 years after Amenemhat IV 's death , the 12th Dynasty came to an end and was replaced by the much weaker 13th Dynasty . Although the first two rulers of this dynasty may have been sons of Amenemhat IV , political instability quickly became prevalent and kings rarely ruled beyond a couple of years . The influx of Asiatic immigrants in the Nile Delta which had started during the reigns of Amenemhat IV 's predecessor accelerated under his own reign , becoming completely unchecked . Under the 13th Dynasty , the Asiatic population of the Delta founded an independent kingdom ruled by kings of Canaanite descent forming the 14th Dynasty and reigning from Avaris . Around 80 years after the reign of Amenemhat IV , " the administration [ of the Egyptian state ] seems to have completely collapsed " , marking the start of the Second Intermediate Period .
= = Tomb = =
The tomb of Amenemhat IV has not been identified . He is nonetheless often associated with the ruined Southern Mazghuna pyramid . No inscriptions have been found within the pyramid to ascertain the identity of its owner , but its architectural similarity with the second pyramid of Amenemhat III at Hawara led egyptologists to date the pyramid to the late 12th or early 13th Dynasty . Less likely , Amenemhat IV could have been interred in Amenemhat III 's first pyramid in Dashur , since his name has been found on an inscription in the mortuary temple .
At Dahshur , next to the pyramid of Amenemhat II , the remains of another pyramid dating to the Middle Kingdom were discovered during building works . The pyramid has not yet been excavated , but a fragment inscribed with the royal name " Amenemhat " has been unearthed . It is therefore possible that this pyramid belongs to Amenemhat IV , although there are also kings of the 13th Dynasty who bore the name Amenemhat and who could have built the pyramid . Alternatively , the relief fragment may originate ( come ) from the nearby pyramid of Amenemhat II .
= Rudolph Cartier =
Rudolph Cartier ( born Rudolph Kacser , renamed himself in Germany to Rudolph Katscher ; 17 April 1904 – 7 June 1994 ) was an Austrian television director , filmmaker , screenwriter and producer who worked predominantly in British television , exclusively for the BBC . He is best known for his 1950s collaborations with screenwriter Nigel Kneale , most notably the Quatermass serials and their 1954 adaptation of George Orwell 's dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four .
After studying architecture and then drama , Cartier began his career as a screenwriter and then film director in Berlin , working for UFA Studios . After a brief spell in the United States he moved to the United Kingdom in the 1930s , and began working for BBC Television in 1952 . He went on to produce and direct over 120 productions in the next 24 years , ending his television career with the play Loyalties in 1976 .
Active in both dramatic programming and opera , Cartier won the equivalent of a BAFTA in 1957 for his work in the former , and one of his operatic productions was given an award at the 1962 Salzburg Festival . The British Film Institute 's " Screenonline " website describes him as " a true pioneer of television " , while the critic Peter Black once wrote that : " Nobody was within a mile of Rudolph Cartier in the trick of making a picture on a TV screen seem as wide and as deep as CinemaScope . "
= = Early life and career = =
Born in Vienna , Austria @-@ Hungary ( now Austria ) , Cartier initially studied to become an architect , before changing career paths and enrolling to study drama at the Vienna Academy of Music and Dramatic Art . There he was taught by Max Reinhardt , who proved a major influence on Cartier . Reinhardt thought of a script as being similar to a musical score , which should be interpreted by a director in the same way as a musician interpreting a piece of music — an approach with which Cartier agreed .
Cartier became involved in the film industry in 1929 , when he successfully submitted a script to a company based in Berlin , Germany . He then became a staff scriptwriter for UFA Studios , the primary German film company of the era , for which he worked on crime films and thrillers .
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area , where the player must navigate through a maze and collect everything in sight . Once a bonus area is completed , it cannot be played again unless the level is replayed . After completing all five levels in a VR Hub , a sixth teleportation portal to a boss fight with Crunch will appear . By defeating the boss , the next VR Hub will become available for play . When all 25 Crystals are collected and Doctor Cortex and Crunch are defeated , the game is won .
Besides Crystals , Gems and Colored Gems can be collected for extra accomplishment . Gems are rewarded to the player if all of the crates in a level are broken open or if a secret area is completed . Colored Gems are found in special levels and lead to hidden areas . " Relics " can be won by re @-@ entering a level where the Crystal has already been retrieved . To obtain a Relic , the player must initiate the " Time Trial " mode and race through a level in the pre @-@ designated time displayed before entering a level . To begin a Time Trial run , the player must enter a level and activate the floating stopwatch near the beginning of the level to activate the timer ; if the stopwatch is not touched , the level can be played regularly . The player must then race through the level as quickly as possible . Scattered throughout the level are yellow crates with the numbers one , two , or three on them . When these crates are broken , the timer is frozen for the number of seconds designated by the box . As no lives are lost in the Time Trial mode , the level can be played through as often as the player desires . Sapphire , Gold and Platinum Relics can be won depending on how low the player 's final time is . The first five Relics the player receives unlocks access to a secret level . Every five Relics thereafter open up another level in the Secret Warp Room . The levels in the Secret Warp Room must be won before the game can be fully completed .
Crash and Coco Bandicoot start the game with four lives . Crash and Coco lose a life when they are struck by an enemy attack or suffer any other type of damage . More lives can be earned by collecting 100 " Wumpa Fruits " or break open a special crate to collect a life . Crash and Coco can be shielded from enemy attack by collecting an Aku Aku mask . Collecting three of these masks allows temporary invulnerability from all minor dangers . If Crash or Coco run out of lives , the game is over . However , the game can be continued by selecting " Continue " at the " Game over " screen .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Ten returning characters from previous Crash titles star in Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex along with five new characters . The protagonist of the game , Crash Bandicoot , is a genetically enhanced eastern barred bandicoot who must defeat the antagonist Doctor Neo Cortex and his new superweapon . Coco Bandicoot , Crash 's younger sister , is a highly intelligent computer expert with an interest in Hong Kong martial arts films . Aku Aku is an omnipotent witch doctor who guides and aids Crash and Coco in stopping the plans of Doctor Neo Cortex . Pura , Coco 's pet tiger cub , serves a very minor role and appears only in the introduction of the game .
The main antagonist of the series , Doctor Neo Cortex , is a mad scientist who created Crash Bandicoot among other characters and now seeks Crash 's elimination along with world domination . The controlling force behind Cortex 's plots for conquering the world is Uka Uka , the twin brother of Aku Aku . Four recurring villains from the series serve minor roles in the game : Doctor N. Gin , Cortex 's main assistant ; Doctor Nefarious Tropy , a scientist who specialises in time travel ; Tiny Tiger , a hulking and ferocious thylacine ; and Dingodile , a dingo @-@ crocodile hybrid armed with a flamethrower .
Five new characters in the series make their appearance in Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex , of which the most important is Doctor Cortex 's genetically enhanced superweapon Crunch Bandicoot , a bionic bandicoot created for the purpose of destroying Crash Bandicoot . Acting as Crunch 's power source are the Elementals , a group of destructive masks who control the elements of Earth , Water , Fire and Air . The Elementals consist of Rok @-@ Ko , a temperamental and rock @-@ headed earthbending mask who controls earthquakes and landslides , Wa @-@ Wa , a waterbending mask who controls thunderstorms and floods , Py @-@ Ro , an easily perturbed firebending mask who controls volcano eruptions , and Lo @-@ Lo , a joke @-@ cracking airbending mask who controls tornadoes .
= = = Story = = =
In a space station orbiting the Earth , Uka Uka , having called a convention of villains , berates Doctor Neo Cortex , Tiny Tiger , Dingodile , Dr. Nefarius Tropy and Dr. N. Gin for their low " track record for spreading evil " , and orders them to come up with a plan to eliminate Crash Bandicoot , their main opponent . Cortex comes forward with the announcement of a previously secret " genetically enhanced superweapon of unbelievable strength " , but reveals that it is missing a power source . Uka Uka then suggests using the Elementals , a group of renegade masks who had elemental power over earth , water , fire and air and used these elements to ravage the globe until they were imprisoned by The Ancients with the aid of special Crystals that put the masks in a state of hibernation . Cortex deduces that if they awaken the Elementals and harness their destructive power , they can bring his secret weapon to life and eliminate Crash Bandicoot forever .
Back on Earth , the world is suddenly terrorised by severe natural disasters , leading Aku Aku to conclude that Uka Uka is up to something . A confrontation with Uka Uka confirms his suspicions and nearly results in his destruction at the hands of the Elementals . Aku Aku returns to Crash and Coco Bandicoot and alerts them of the current situation , disclosing that the only way to stop the Elementals is to imprison them once more with the Crystals , which have been scattered across the Earth . Using Coco 's new Virtual Reality Hub System , Crash and Coco travel the world and gather the Crystals , fending off attacks from Cortex 's superweapon , Crunch Bandicoot , and the Elementals along the way . However , by the time the Crystals have been gathered and the Elementals have been put in their hibernation state , Crunch 's elemental powers have reached maximum capacity , forcing Crash to battle Crunch at full power in Cortex 's space station . Nevertheless , Crash defeats Crunch , which releases him from Cortex 's control . Infuriated by this failure , Uka Uka attacks Cortex with a fireball , only to have it hit a vital part of the space station , which causes a chain reaction that results in the space station 's self @-@ destruction . Crash , Aku Aku , and Crunch escape and return to the Bandicoot home on Coco 's space fighter ship , while Cortex and Uka Uka deploy an escape pod and end up landing somewhere in Antarctica , where Uka Uka furiously chases Cortex around a small ice floe .
= = Development = =
Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex was originally intended to be designed by Mark Cerny , who had designed all the games in the series thus far , and published by Sony Computer Entertainment . The game under Cerny 's direction was to be a free @-@ roaming title with puzzle elements that would see Crash travelling between different planets . In early 2000 , when Universal approached Traveller 's Tales to be the development team behind the game , they produced a 3 @-@ D rendered demo of Crash running through a volcanic level . Development of the game 's engine began in mid @-@ 2000 .
On September 21 , 2000 , Universal Interactive Studios and Konami announced that they had entered an agreement that would enable Konami to publish a Crash Bandicoot game for next @-@ generation game systems , with Universal Interactive handling the production of the games . The agreement served to break the Crash Bandicoot franchise 's exclusivity to Sony @-@ produced consoles and effectively made Crash Bandicoot a mascot character for Universal rather than Sony . After Universal fell out with Cerny and Sony , Traveller 's Tales was forced to alter the game from a free @-@ roaming title to a standard Crash title in the lieu of Warped , the third game in the series . Traveller 's Tales had to begin development of the game from scratch and were given only twelve months to complete the game .
The character Crunch Bandicoot was designed by Craig Whittle of Traveller 's Tales and Sean Krankel of Universal . The concept of battling mini @-@ bosses within the game 's levels was dropped to uphold the fast and frantic pace of the series ' gameplay . Multiplayer capability was also considered before being dropped . An earlier draft of the story featured an alternate version of the game 's climax and ending , which involved Crash battling Crunch in a mechanical robot suit . At the end of the fight , Crunch would destroy Crash 's suit with a bolt of electricity . The resulting debris would render Cortex unconscious , destroy the remote control device controlling Crunch and start an electrical fire in the space station . As the Bandicoots escape to resume their beach @-@ going vacation , the ruins of the space station would crash @-@ land onto the island of Cortex 's original settlement , conveniently allowing Cortex and Uka Uka to resume their world domination bids .
The majority of the characters and vehicles in the game were built and textured by Nicola Daly and animated by Jeremy Pardon . The main game systems and game code as a whole were coded by John Hodskinson . The game 's music is composed by Andy Blythe and Marten Joustra of Swallow Studios . A rearranged version of the original Crash Bandicoot theme by Mutato Muzika 's Josh Mancell also appears in the game . The game 's sound effects were created by Ron Horwitz , Tom Jaeger , John Robinson , and Harry Woolway of Universal Sound Studios . The game 's voice actors were cast and directed by Margaret Tang . Only two of the series ' original voice actors reprised their roles for the game : Clancy Brown voices the dual role of Doctor Neo Cortex and Uka Uka , while Mel Winkler provides the voice of Aku Aku . Debi Derryberry inherited the role of Coco Bandicoot from Hynden Walch , while Corey Burton voices the returning villains Doctor N. Gin and Doctor Nefarious Tropy , taking over for Brendan O 'Brien and Michael Ensign respectively . Kevin Michael Richardson provides the voice of new character Crunch Bandicoot , while the Elementals , consisting of Rok @-@ Ko , Wa @-@ Wa , Py @-@ Ro and Lo @-@ Lo , are voiced by Thomas F. Wilson , R. Lee Ermey , Mark Hamill , and Jess Harnell respectively .
Following the release of the PlayStation 2 edition on October 29 , 2001 , the Xbox version of the game was announced by Universal Interactive on January 31 , 2002 . The Xbox version features reduced loading times and improved graphics . On September 17 , 2002 , the game was released on the GameCube , initially in North America .
= = Reception = =
Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex received mixed to generally positive reviews , with some critics criticizing the game for making little changes to the formula established by its predecessors . Louis Bedigian of GameZone wrote a positive review , saying that " any Crash Bandicoot fan would be a fool not to go out and buy this game . I started playing at 2am one night and did not stop until three in the afternoon ! " Doug Perry of IGN described the game as " a decent playing and pretty looking Crash Bandicoot game . It 's nothing terribly special , but it 's not bad , not bad at all . " Official US PlayStation Magazine felt that " when the strongest feeling I get from a game is the desire to play its predecessors , something 's not quite right . " Game Informer criticized the " outrageously bad load times " , saying that they " keep the game from being average . " Star Dingo of GamePro cautioned that " if you were hoping the new management would give Crash a big kick in the pants , however , this is one pair of pants you will find quite unkicked . " Electronic Gaming Monthly criticised the trial @-@ and @-@ error gameplay , saying that " when forced to blindly jump , die , then discover what you missed , where I come from , that ’ s just cheating . "
Play Magazine noted that " they 've caressed the music to great effect , made the bosses a bit more challenging , [ and ] adhered to a massive replayability standard that would drive any developer to drink . " Game Informer felt that " every little morsel of platforming goodness in The Wrath of Cortex has already been done to death on the Playstation . " Carlos McElfish of GameZone warned that " if you are looking for an innovative and original experience that does justice to the series you ’ ll have to look elsewhere . " Official Xbox Magazine concluded that " this is a game for those who want what Crash has always had to offer – good graphics , jump @-@ and @-@ spin gameplay , and tons of collectible items . Nothing more , nothing less . " Hilary Goldstein felt that while Crash Bandicoot : The Wrath of Cortex was " a fun game for the most part , " " it fails in some areas , like proper game balance and correct use of surround sound . " Star Dingo of GamePro concluded that " love it or hate it , Wrath of Cortex Xbox is more of more of the same . " Electronic Gaming Monthly felt that " save for a few additions to WOC , like some cool hamster @-@ ball levels , it 's almost identical to its predecessors . "
The GameCube version rated the lowest among critics out of the three versions . Ben Kosmina of Nintendo World Report promised that " gamers experiencing the wacky mascot for the first time may enjoy it . " Michael Lafferty of GameZone described the game as " safe , sterile and redundant . " Matt Casamassina on IGN concluded that " at the end of the day this is the same Crash game I played so many years ago without any real innovations or evolutions . " Nintendo Power praised the " sheer variety " of the gameplay . Kilo Watt of GamePro said that " graphically , this version is slightly below the recent Xbox release but in line with the competent PlayStation 2 iteration . " Electronic Gaming Monthly agreed that " Wrath on the GC is much more polished here than on the PS2 , " while Play Magazine denounced the GameCube version as " a shell of the other two console versions , so I beg you to pass . "
Commercially , the PlayStation 2 version sold over 1 @.@ 95 million units in North America , and around 170 @,@ 000 copies in 2001 in Japan . As a result , the game was re @-@ released for the Platinum Range on October 11 , 2002 , for the Sony Greatest Hits line @-@ up on October 15 , 2002 , and for the Best line @-@ up on October 17 , 2002 . The " Greatest Hits " version of the game features quicker load times than those of the original version . The Xbox version was re @-@ released for the Xbox Classics line @-@ up on April 11 , 2003 , and the GameCube version was re @-@ released for the Player 's Choice line @-@ up in Europe on October 22 , 2004 .
= South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut =
South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut is a 1999 American adult animated musical comedy film based on the Comedy Central television series South Park . The film was directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and stars the regular television cast of Parker , Matt Stone , Mary Kay Bergman , and Isaac Hayes , with guest performances by George Clooney , Eric Idle , and Mike Judge . The plot follows the four boys — Stan Marsh , Kyle Broflovski , Eric Cartman , and Kenny McCormick — as they see a controversial R @-@ rated movie featuring Canadians Terrance and Phillip and begin cursing incessantly . Their parents pressure the United States to wage war against Canada for allegedly corrupting their children .
The film tackles issues of censorship and bad parenting and parodies the animated films of the Disney Renaissance as well as musicals such as the West End 's Les Misérables , and satirizes the controversy surrounding the show itself . The movie also heavily satirizes the Motion Picture Association of America ; Parker and Stone battled the MPAA throughout the production process and the movie received an R rating just two weeks prior to its release . A writing team consisting of Parker , Stone , and Pam Brady was assembled . They conceived numerous plot ideas , with Parker and Stone 's being the one developed into a film . The film features twelve original songs by Parker and Marc Shaiman with additional lyrics by Stone .
The film was released in theaters on June 30 , 1999 , and on home video on November 23 , 1999 . Produced on a $ 21 million budget , it went on to gross $ 83 @.@ 1 million worldwide in theaters , making it the highest @-@ grossing R @-@ rated animated film of all time . The song " Blame Canada " earned Parker and Marc Shaiman a nomination for Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 72nd Academy Awards . The song was performed by Robin Williams at the ceremony .
= = Plot = =
Stan Marsh , Kenny McCormick , Kyle Broflovski and Eric Cartman head to the local movie theater to see the new film Terrance and Phillip : Asses of Fire which stars the boys ' favorite Canadian comedy duo Terrance and Phillip ( " Mountain Town " ) , but when the boys get there , they are refused entry due to the film being rated R by the MPAA , so they pay a homeless man to accompany them . The boys learn obscene phrases from the movie ( " Asses of fire " ) which makes the other kids in town want to see the movie .
The following day , the kids begin swearing in class , and they are sent to see Counselor Mr. Mackey , who informs their mothers . Learning that the language was from the movie , their parents force the teachers to enforce a strict dress code banning all types of Terrance and Phillip clothing . While more drastic measures are being taken , Mr. Mackey abandons their previous lesson plans and run a rehabilitation center for the kids to get them to stop swearing ( " It 's Easy , M 'Kay " ) . Afterwards , the boys and the rest of the children go to see the movie again . Kenny bets Cartman $ 100 that he can set his fart on fire like Terrance did in the film . Kenny immolates himself and dies when the doctors accidentally replace his heart with a baked potato . Stan , Kyle , and Cartman are grounded for seeing the Terrance & Phillip movie again . Kenny is refused admission to Heaven and sent to Hell ( " Hell Isn 't Good " ) , where he is tormented by Satan and Saddam Hussein who are gay lovers . The parents of South Park organize a boycott against Canada and Terrance and Phillip ( " Blame Canada " ) , which is led by Kyle 's mother Sheila . The new group of angry mob - called " Mothers Against Canada " - has Terrance and Phillip arrested as war criminals , and when the United States refuses to release the duo , Canada retaliates by bombing the residence of the Baldwin brothers .
Sheila , now appointed as the " Secretary of Offense of the United States " , and President Bill Clinton announce that the United States will go to war with Canada and will have Terrance and Phillip executed at an upcoming USO show . After overhearing Cartman leading the kids in annoying Kyle with a song degrading herself and admonishing her ridiculous methods ( " Kyle 's Mom 's a Bitch " ) , she has Dr. Vosknocker forcibly implant a V @-@ Chip in Cartman . The device gives sharp violent electrical shock every time Cartman swears . Meanwhile , back in Hell , Satan declares that if the blood of the two innocent Canadians touches American soil , it will be time for him to rise up and rule the world . Saddam wants to come with him , but Satan is tired of being bossed around by Saddam ( " Up There " ) . Kenny tells Satan to break up with Saddam to which Satan initially agrees , but Saddam wins back Satan with a song ( " I Can Change " ) . Later , Kenny 's ghost visits Cartman to warn him of the consequences of executing Terrance and Phillip . After failing to convince their parents , the boys decide to take matters into their own hands ( " What Would Brian Boitano Do " ) . They have a secret meeting to talk about how they can save Terrance and Phillip . They form La Resistance and Gregory tells Stan to recruit a God @-@ hating French expert on covert operations named " The Mole " ( " La Resistance " ) .
While the troops , waiting for the execution of Terrance and Phillip , are being entertained by Big Gay Al ( " I 'm Super " ) , La Resistance and The Mole infiltrate the USO show , but The Mole is discovered by Sheila and the guards , and he is killed by the guard dogs after Cartman fails to deactivate the alarms ( " The Mole 's Reprise " ) . The remaining three boys attempt to warn their mothers and the army about what will happen if Terrance and Phillip are killed , but they instead laugh at them , and Mr. Garrison throws the switch to the electric chair . A large Canadian force attacks the base and a massive battle ensues between the two armies . In the confusion , the boys are able to free Terrance and Phillip , though Cartman 's V @-@ chip begins to malfunction from the electric shock . The other mothers , seeing the destruction their " Mothers Against Canada " movement has incited , decide to call it quits and head off to look for their children . After being stunned by an explosion , Stan has a hallucination and is visited by " The Clitoris " which tells him that all he needs is confidence if he wants to win Wendy 's heart and also reminds him about what 's more important : saving the world .
Stan leads the kids to find Terrance and Phillip who have been cornered by the US army . La Resistance forms a human shield while Kyle tries to persuade the army and his mother against killing the two , stating that he wants her to stop fighting everyone and deal with him . However , Sheila refuses and shoots Terrance and Phillip , which fulfills the prophecy and results in Satan , his minions , and Saddam rising from Hell and attacking both Canadian and United States armies . As a result , Sheila now regrets everything , even though she wanted " to make the world a better place for children " . Saddam immediately tries to usurp Satan 's authority , demanding homage and announcing his intent to rule the world himself . Cartman is able to hold Saddam off by using his malfunctioning V @-@ Chip to generate massive blasts of lightning every time he swears . With Kenny 's encouragement , Satan finally gets rid of Saddam by casting him back to Hell and getting impaled on a sharp stalagmite . Satan then grants Kenny a wish in repayment : Kenny asks for everything to return to how it was before the war , even though it means he 'll go back to Hell . He takes off his hood to say goodbye to his friends , revealing his face and voice for the first time . All the other deceased characters are brought back to life , the Canadians and Americans become friends again , Wendy becomes Stan 's girlfriend again and dumps Gregory ( she never really liked him ) , and everything returns to normal in South Park ( " Mountain Town ( reprise ) " ) . Instead of returning to Hell , Kenny ascends to Heaven due to his act of sacrifice , where naked angels are waiting for him and he is granted a halo and wings .
= = Cast = =
Trey Parker as Stan Marsh / Eric Cartman / Gregory / Satan / Mr. Garrison / Mr. Hat / Phillip Niles Argyle / Randy Marsh / Tom – News Reporter / Midget In A Bikini / Canadian Ambassador / Bombardiers / Mr. Mackey / Army General / Ned Gerblanski / Christophe – Ze Mole ( or The Mole ) / Big Gay Al ( singing voice ) / Additional Voices / Adolf Hitler
Matt Stone as Kyle Broflovski / Kenny McCormick / Saddam Hussein ( credited as " Himself " ) / Terrance Henry Stoot / Big Gay Al / Ticket Taker / Jimbo Kearn / Gerald Broflovski / Additional Voices
Mary Kay Bergman as Liane Cartman / Sheila Broflovski / Sharon Marsh / Carol McCormick / Wendy Testaburger / Clitoris / Additional Voices
Isaac Hayes as Chef Jerome McElroy
Jesse Howell , Anthony Cross @-@ Thomas & Franchesca Clifford as Ike Broflovski ( Franchesca Clifford was credited as " Francesca Clifford " )
Bruce Howell as Man In Theatre
Deb Adair as Woman In Theatre
Jennifer Howell as Bebe Stevens
George Clooney as Dr. Gouache
Brent Spiner as Conan O 'Brien
Minnie Driver as Brooke Shields
Dave Foley as the Baldwin brothers
Eric Idle as Dr. Vosknocker
Nick Rhodes as Canadian Fighter Pilot
Toddy E. Walters as Winona Ryder
Stewart Copeland as American Soldier # 1
Stanley G. Sawicki as American Soldier # 2
Mike Judge as Kenny 's Goodbye
Howard McGillin as Gregory ( singing voice ) ( uncredited )
= = Themes = =
South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut is a cautionary tale on the dangers of censorship . It uses the execution of Terrance and Phillip as the Seventh Sign in a parody of the Apocalypse . Cartman 's use of foul language helps to avert the disaster . Parents and " lazy child rearing " come in for particularly sharp criticism . On their way to see Terrance and Phillip , the boys sing that " movies teach us what our parents don 't have time to say ! " During " Blame Canada " a couple are seen abandoning their baby in their enthusiasm to join Mothers Against Canada . The song ends with : " We must blame them and cause a fuss / Before somebody thinks of blaming us ! " Much of the film 's satire and many of the songs are concerned with the refusal of people to accept responsibility for failure and their tendency to look for scapegoats ( Some of the songs are also parodies of musical theatre , but this is usually secondary to furthering the satire ) . Movies , government , society , foreigners , and Satan are all blamed leading Kyle to remark : " whenever I get in trouble , you go off and blame everybody else . But I 'm the one to blame . Deal with me . " The movie is also self @-@ reflective in nature . The enthusiasm the kids display for seeing the Terrence and Phillip movie reflects the creators ' anticipation of the real world enthusiasm many people , including those under age , would experience to see the movie .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Developmental stages began for the film midway through the series ' first season production in January 1998 . Co @-@ creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone signed a deal with Comedy Central in April 1998 that contracted the duo to producing South Park episodes until 1999 , gave them a slice of the lucrative spinoff merchandising the show generated within its first year , as well as an unspecified seven @-@ figure cash bonus to bring the show to the big screen , in theaters . A large part of Parker and Stone 's conditions attached to any potential movie project was that it must at least be R @-@ rated , to keep in touch with the series ' humor and its roots , the short The Spirit of Christmas . Parker stated that their desire was to approach the film from a much more creative perspective and do something other than a simple movie @-@ length version of a regular episode . Despite alleged pressure from Paramount Pictures officials to keep the movie toned down , the two won the battle for a more mature rating . " They really wanted to be able to go beyond the South Park television show , " said Comedy Central spokesman Tony Fox to TV Guide at the time . " They really fought hard for and won the right to make an R @-@ rated movie . " Paramount executives went as far to prepare graphs displaying how much more money a PG @-@ 13 @-@ rated South Park feature would perhaps accumulate . The William Morris Agency , which represented Parker and Stone , pushed for movie production to begin as soon as possible , while public interest was still high , instead of several years into its run , as was done with Beavis and Butt @-@ head Do America , possibly because Beavis and Butt @-@ head and South Park were owned by Viacom Music and Entertainment Group , a unit of the Viacom Media Networks division of Viacom after Van Toffler left Viacom Media Networks on February 17 , 2015 .
= = = Casting = = =
The cast of South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut is mostly carried over faithfully from the television series . Co @-@ creator Trey Parker voices the characters of Eric Cartman and Stan Marsh , and Satan , Clyde Donovan , Mr. Garrison , Phillip Niles Argyle , Randy Marsh , Mr. Mackey , Ned Gerblanski , the singing voice of Big Gay Al , the speaking voice of Gregory , The Mole , and President Bill Clinton , as well as multiple other background characters . Matt Stone portrays Kyle Broflovski and Kenny McCormick , as well as Saddam Hussein ( even though during the end credits it says that he was voiced by himself ) , Terrance Henry Stoot , Big Gay Al , Jimbo Kearn , Gerald Broflovski , Bill Gates , and additional voices . Mary Kay Bergman voices Wendy Testaburger , the core mothers of the film ( Sheila Broflovski , Sharon Marsh , Liane Cartman , and Carol McCormick ) , Shelley Marsh , and the clitoris . Isaac Hayes reprised his role from the series as Chef , and voice clips of staff children Jesse Howell , Anthony Cross @-@ Thomas , and Franchesca Clifford make up Ike Broflovski . Guest voices for the film included George Clooney as Dr. Gouache , Brent Spiner as Conan O 'Brien , Minnie Driver as Brooke Shields , Eric Idle as Dr. Vosnocker , and Dave Foley provides the combined voices of Alec , Billy , Daniel , and Stephen Baldwin .
Michael McDonald as himself ( the track " Eyes of a Child " ) and as Satan 's high notes in " Up There " , and Howard McGillin provides Gregory 's singing voice in " La Resistance ( Medley ) " . Stewart Copeland , former drummer for The Police , guests as an American soldier . Mike Judge , creator and voices of Beavis and Butt @-@ head , King of the Hill and The Goode Family , provides Kenny 's voice in his sole speaking appearance at the end of the film . Although initially denied by Paramount , Metallica lead singer James Hetfield said in 2001 that he provides vocals for the track " Hell Isn 't Good " .
= = = Writing = = =
The season one episode " Death " heavily influenced the film 's screenplay . The plot and theme of both scripts revolves heavily around the parents of South Park protesting about Terrance and Phillip due to the perceived negative influence it has over their children . Parker said , " After about the first year of South Park , Paramount already wanted to make a South Park movie , and we sort of thought this episode would make the best model just because we liked the sort of pointing at ourselves kind of
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time , Germany appropriated six captured Dornier Do 17K bombers , which were then supplied to Bulgaria . Romania received six ex @-@ VVKJ Hawker Hurricanes , as well as six Bristol Blenheims , whilst Finland received 20 half @-@ completed Blenheims , together with manufacturing tools and production equipment , as well as a huge variety of spare parts .
During the middle part of 1941 , some of the ZNDH 's man @-@ power capacity ( one fighter squadron and one medium bomber squadron ) was sent to the Eastern Front as part of the Luftwaffe , the Croatian Air Force Legion ( Croatian : Hrvatska Zrakoplovna Legija ; HZL ; German : Kroatische Luftwaffen Legion ) . Most of the Croatian Air Force Legion 's personnel were back on NDH territory by late 1942 ( bomber squadron ) / early 1944 ( fighter squadron ) to help counter the growing Allied air threat .
The personnel of the ZNDH took over and re @-@ activated the airfields at Zagreb , Sarajevo , Mostar , Banja Luka and Zemun , where the Ikarus and Zmaj aircraft plants were located . By June 1941 , the Germans had begun to pass on to the ZNDH various captured VVKJ aircraft , including eight Bristol Blenheim I and five Potez 25 bombers . These and most of the 211 ex @-@ VVKJ aircraft received by the ZNDH had first to be repaired and / or overhauled at the Ikarus plant in Zemun .
= = = The first missions : 1941 = = =
In late 1941 the ZNDH had 95 aircraft distributed in four groups and eight squadrons . Fighting the Yugoslav Partisans from the air had begun already in late June 1941 , when Breguet 19 and Potez 25 bombers had proved most suitable . The Breguets could carry a bomb load of up to 400 kilograms ( 880 lb ) using 24 12 @-@ kilogram ( 26 lb ) bombs , whilst the Potez 25s could carry about half that amount . Both types were also armed with three 7 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 30 in ) machine guns . Altogether the ZNDH eventually came to possess 50 Breguet 19s and 45 Potez 25s . The operational use of these light bombers was not limited to fighting the Partisans ; the aircraft were also used to supply isolated or surrounded army strong points .
The emblem of the ZNDH was to be the red and white chequerboard insignia , ( Croatian : Šahovnica ) , derived from the Croat coat of arms , dating back to the 10th century , carried on the fin . In January 1945 this was replaced by the black and white trefoil cross of King Zvonimir .
As well as the Breguet and Potez aircraft , which were the most numerous types in the ZNDH inventory , Zmaj Fizir FP @-@ 2 light biplane trainers were also converted to carry six 12 kilograms ( 26 lb ) bombs . These aircraft were used to bomb and strafe Partisan troops and positions in northern Bosnia but they also faced anti @-@ aircraft fire . The first missions cost the ZNDH a Breguet and a Potez aircraft , both of which crash landed after being hit by Partisan ground fire . The ZNDH crews had little chance of survival after being hit , as flying suits , helmets and parachutes were not available at the time - hence their desperate crash @-@ landings .
Similar actions continued throughout 1941 . The ZNDH flew many missions in support of Army troops in limited scale operations against the Partisans mostly over eastern and western Bosnia , as well as over other parts of the NDH . By September , the ZNDH introduced larger aircraft for bombing Partisan forces and territory . Two bombers , an Avia Fokker F.IX derived F.39 and a Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.79 were available for operations and had the added advantage of being able to carry 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) bombs . They were extensively used for bombing villages and road communications . However it was soon established that the vintage biplane Breguet 19 and Potez 25 aircraft were ideally suited for missions against Partisan troop concentrations . Although they were outdated and certainly their use would be out of the question on any other front , their performance and armament made them very dangerous for an ill @-@ armed enemy . The Partisans were scattered in villages , forests and mountains and their positions could only be detected by a slow moving aircraft . Visual reconnaissance missions using hand @-@ held cameras were also flown . Aerial reconnaissance supplied the army with vital data about Partisan movements and positions and about the situation in Partisan territory in general . This was all the more important because the army desperately lacked radio equipment of all kinds . Light aircraft were frequently used for liaison duties , particularly connecting the surrounding army garrisons and higher command . Often the Army requested one or two aircraft to be temporarily attached to particular army units to closely co @-@ operate with ground troops .
The ZNDH 's fighter force was poorly equipped in every respect , consisting of 12 ex @-@ VVKJ machines including four Ikarus IK @-@ 2s , seven ancient Avia BH @-@ 33 Es and one Hawker Fury II . Fortunately for this ill @-@ equipped force , there was no aerial opposition and some more modern fighter aircraft were received from 1942 onwards .
Colder October and November weather limited aerial activities over the NDH . The Partisan operations spread to eastern Serbian territory and the squadrons based at Sarajevo airfield made their appearance on the Bosnian @-@ Serbian border area . The Partisans were trying to secure and expand their territory in the eastern part of Yugoslavia , which they had liberated in the autumn of 1941 . The ZNDH flew daily supply missions with their Avia @-@ Fokker F.39 and due to the lack of other aircraft also used the venerable Breguets and Potez . These could land on hastily prepared strips and performed very well in airlifting supplies to the surrounded garrison of Višegrad .
= = = Expansion : 1942 = = =
In 1942 , fighting with the Partisans intensified . Not only had they liberated a substantial territory in the eastern part of Yugoslavia , but they encouraged rebellion all over the country . The German , Italian and NDH governments were aware of this danger and they used every means available to destroy the Partisan forces . They planned several large @-@ scale operations for this purpose in which air support played a very important role .
The first half of 1942 was marked by several deliveries of new or refurbished aircraft from Germany and Italy , aside from those received from Ikarus in Zemun . First of all the ZNDH received 10 brand new Caproni Ca.311 M medium bombers from Italy . These aircraft had been ordered and paid for by the Yugoslav Government for service in the VVKJ , but the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia prevented delivery . The ZNDH also purchased 20 AVIA F.L.3 basic trainers , nine Fiat G.50bis fighters and one Fiat G.50B two @-@ seat fighter trainer . The Fiat aircraft were to provide the ZNDH 's fighter pilots with some operational training on more modern aircraft .
Other batches of overhauled ex @-@ VVKJ aircraft also arrived from the Ikarus aircraft plant in Zemun , including 11 Dornier Do @-@ 17K , three Bristol Blenheim Mk I and one Caproni Ca.310 bombers , 15 Rogožarski PVT and 11 Rogožarski R @-@ 100 attack aircraft , which had been fitted with bomb racks to carry 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) bombs , plus a few Breguet 19s , Potez 25s , Zmaj Fizir FNs and Zmaj Fizir FP @-@ 2s . From Prague in Czechoslovakia ( under German occupation ) , the ZNDH received seven Avia Fokker F.7 transports , one Avia Fokker F.9 and one Avia Fokker F.18. Of these , the F.7s and F.18 were pre @-@ war Czech airliners . As the ZNDH suffered from a total lack of transport aircraft , these were immediately pressed into service , after only minor adjustments . Some were even used to provide scheduled air @-@ line services .
The nine Fiat G.50bis fighters took off from Turin @-@ Fiat Aviazione on 12 June 1942 , but before crossing the border they were stopped by an order from Capo di Stato Maggiore Cavallero , that was afraid the ZNDH pilots could defect with the new Fiat aircraft . The G.50 aircraft had to wait until 25 June before being delivered to the 16th Squadron at Banja Luka , but during the course of 1942 , five were transferred to the 1st Squadron stationed in Zagreb in order to strengthen the defence of the NDH capital . Their deployment between the two squadrons was aimed to further familiarise the ZNDH fighter pilots with more sophisticated aircraft . Until that time , the only fighters available in numbers were the seven ancient Avia BH @-@ 33E biplanes and four Ikarus IK @-@ 2 gull wing fighters ( for which there were very few spares ) , as well as 11 Rogožarski R @-@ 100 parasol wing fighter @-@ trainers .
Thanks to this extended aircraft park the ZNDH could now form new units : in January the 1st Group , comprising the 1st , 2nd , 3rd and 19th Squadrons was formed at Zagreb , and then the 2nd Group with the 4th , 5th and 6th squadrons and the 3rd Group with the 7th , 8th and 9th Squadrons at Sarajevo 's Rajlovac airfield , whilst the 6th Group was formed at Banja Luka 's Zaluzani airfield in June 1942 to cover operations in central Croatia and western Bosnia .
These reinforcements came just in time to participate in a large German offensive against the Partisan forces in eastern Bosnia . Initially , the Regia Aeronautica also participated in this campaign , but after a tragic incident where an Italian bomber mistakenly attacked German positions near Vlasenica , the German command assigned the ZNDH the responsibility for providing the entire aerial support mission for formations on the ground . At this time there were no significant Luftwaffe forces based in Yugoslavian territory . In support of the ground forces , the ZNDH flew 121 combat missions in January , 100 missions in February and 350 in March . Although the Axis ground forces generally succeeded in their operations in January and February , in March they were forced to release the pressure as other Partisan units attacked several solitary NDH garrisons , threatening to destroy them .
Aside from constant bombing sorties , Potez 25 and Breguet 19 aircraft were also used for daily supply missions to the besieged army garrison at Rogatica . They would land under fire at a small improvised grass landing strip , unloading ammunition and other supplies while keeping their engines running and taking off as soon as was possible . On 23 March , a ZNDH Potez 25 was shot down by the Partisans and the crew were killed . Three days later an Avia Fokker F.9 was damaged whilst dropping ammunition to Rogatica but managed to return to base safely . As a result of the determined re @-@ supply effort by the ZNDH , the Rogatica garrison succeeded in holding out until relieved by German @-@ NDH forces on 17 April .
As the weather improved towards the summer , flying activity intensified . Some 325 missions were flown during April , with a further 350 sorties during May , including direct combat support , reconnaissance and supply missions , as well as leaflet dropping . Most of the missions were performed by the 2nd and 3rd Group 's squadrons based at Sarajevo , which was the strongest operational base at that time . The Zagreb air base was principally employed in attacking Partisan positions in western Slavonia and Bosnia .
The 10 new Caproni Ca.311Ms were tried out during the successive attacks on Partisan territory . They were equally divided between 3rd Squadron ( Zagreb ) and 7th Squadron ( Rajlovac ) . During September and October Blenheims from 8th Squadron and the Dornier Do 17Ks from 3rd and 9th Squadrons were extensively used to attack Partisan positions in Bihać , Bugojno , Livno and Duvno and Bosnia . Owing to the availability of increased numbers of aircraft , the 6th Group was formed at Banja Luka comprising the 13th , 16th , 17th and 18th Squadrons . Not only did this medium bomber force fly reconnaissance and bombing missions against Partisan forces , but also flew deep into territory under Partisan control and attacked railway stations , road traffic , agricultural depots and food stocks . The Partisan forces were aware of the threat to their operations that the ZNDH provided and were constantly trying to improve their anti @-@ aircraft defence , which relied mainly on machineguns .
December 1942 also saw the return of the HZL bomber squadron to Croatia from service on the Eastern Front , where they had flown more than 1 @,@ 500 sorties . Upon its return the squadron was redesignated 1 . / ( Kroat . ) KG after having flown its nine Dornier Do 17Z bombers from Russia back to the NDH . The Dorniers proved a welcome addition to the strike power of the Axis forces fighting the Partisans in Yugoslavian territory right up to the end of 1944 . In late 1943 , a second squadron , 2 . / ( Kroat . ) KG was formed to provide operational training . It was equipped with Italian designed and built CANT Z.1007 and Fiat BR.20 medium bombers .
During the course of 1942 , the ZNDH flew some 4 @,@ 800 sorties , of which 30 % were combat missions , with 35 aircraft being lost . Of these losses , 19 were to Partisan ground fire , 12 to accidents and four deserted . By the end of the year the ZNDH aircraft park consisted of 191 aircraft , formed into 14 squadrons .
1942 had seen the first desertions of aircraft from the ZNDH , the first on 23 May when a Breguet and a Potez had defected to the Partisan forces . The army conducted an intensive search for the aircraft and in response the Partisans produced two decoy scale @-@ model aircraft , made of wood and canvas , which were duly destroyed by ZNDH bombers . Both " destroyed " aircraft were able to perform a number of attacks on army units ( armed with hand @-@ made pipe bombs ) before either being shot down ( the Breguet on 4 June ) or destroyed on the ground ( the Potez on 6 July ) . The two other defections occurred in July and October , with a Blenheim bomber in each case flying to Turkey .
= = = = ZNDH paratroops = = = =
In January 1942 , the ZNDH formed a parachute unit , known as the 1st Light Infantry Parachute Company ( Croatian : 1 Padobranski lovački sat , 1 PLS ) . It had a strength of 120 men and was based in the northern town of Koprivnica , near the border with Hungary . An Avia Fokker F.7 tri @-@ motor transport aircraft was assigned to the unit on a permanent basis , with other transports assigned as required . The paratroops were equipped with rifles , sub @-@ machine guns , light machine guns and light mortars . After a period of training , 1 PLS made a demonstration mass tactical jump on 6 July 1943 at Borongaj airfield , Zagreb . Forty five paratroopers made a successful jump from three Avia Fokker transports .
On 6 November 1943 , three brigades of the Partisans , supported by artillery and heavy machine @-@ guns mounted an attack on the town of Koprivnica , which they took on 9 November . The paratroops of 1 PLS held out at their base for three days before withdrawing into Hungary and continuing the battle with other NDH and German defending forces until 29 November . They received direct air support from ZNDH Dornier Do 17Ks , as well as supplies from light aircraft , but were unable to prevent the loss of their base , together with 20 men , all of their parachute equipment and their transport aircraft . The ZNDH also lost a Dornier Do 17K bomber and a Bücker Bü 131 biplane shot down during this period .
The unit was re @-@ deployed in 1944 to Borongaj airfield in Zagreb and in June 1944 grew in strength with the addition of three further companies and was re @-@ designated as the 1st Light Infantry Parachute Battalion ( Croatian : 1 Padobranska lovačka bojna , 1 PLB ) . They were responsible for the ground defence of this important air base and also performed ceremonial guard duties in Zagreb itself . By late January 1945 the unit was equipped with white winter jackets for camouflage and attached to the NDH Motorized Brigade , seeing its first action on this new sector , south of Zagreb . 1 PLB remained in constant action against the advancing Partisans until the last unit surrendered in Austria on 14 May 1945 , one week after the official end of World War II .
= = = 1943 = = =
At the beginning of 1943 the Axis forces had complete control of the airspace over Yugoslavian territory . No aerial opposition of any kind was expected and that was the primary reason that the bomber force could operate without any fighter cover , notwithstanding the fact that there was a total lack of any serious fighter force in the ZNDH 's squadrons . However , the situation started to change by the beginning of 1943 . The Headquarters ( HQ ) of the ZNDH had plans to re @-@ arm at least one Group with more modern aircraft of German or Italian origin . The Italians refused to supply the requested Macchi C.200 and Macchi C.202 fighters , as the Regia Aeronautica needed every aircraft to fill its own squadrons in the beginning of 1943 .
This was because the situation began to change in favour of the Allies . They had landed in North Africa while the Soviets were undertaking their great winter offensive , endangering , and eventually defeating , the German 6th Army around Stalingrad .
The Partisan movement in Yugoslavia , aside from some smaller territories , established a large liberated territory extending west of the rivers Neretva and Bosna , in the direction of the cities of Zagreb and Rijeka . The Partisan force had grown stronger – it had more than 60 @,@ 000 armed fighters in this so @-@ called " Tito 's State " who were both well trained and supported by artillery . On 20 January 1943 , the German HQ in Yugoslavia launched an offensive codenamed Case White ( German : Fall Weiss ) , intending to regain the lost territory . The attack was supported by aircraft from the Luftwaffe , Regia Aeronautica and the ZNDH . Aircraft from the 2nd and 3rd Groups from Sarajevo and the 6th Group from Banja Luka were involved in bombing raids as well as leaflet dropping missions .
The Banja Luka air base was reinforced by a newly formed 5th Group after the end of Case White . The ZNDH now consisted of three air bases with six Groups and 14 squadrons . During 1943 new aircraft continued to arrive , with 30 overhauled Dornier Do 17E bombers delivered from Germany and divided between the 3rd Squadron ( Zagreb ) , and the 13th and 15th Squadrons ( Banja Luka ) . From Italy came 34 long promised ex @-@ VVKJ Bücker Bü 131 Jungmans and 25 Saiman 200 light biplane trainers and liaison aircraft , which were dispatched to all three air bases . They were also used to deliver mail and fresh meat to isolated / surrounded towns and garrisons .
Although the ZNDH had a brief role in the subsequent anti @-@ Partisan offensive , Case Black ( German : Fall Schwarz ) in mid @-@ 1943 , its main involvement was on the front in the central NDH . As always , the Partisan resistance displayed frustrating survivability and effectiveness and new events started to influence the fighting in Yugoslavia . The Partisan forces were well aware of the constant threat of air attack posed by the ZNDH 's medium bomber force and on 10 August 1943 undertook a devastating night attack by a brigade on Sarajevo 's Rajlovac airfield . The three and a half hour assault on the airfield left 10 ZNDH bombers , plus another five Luftwaffe bombers and transports , destroyed , with another 17 aircraft damaged . Although some aircrews returned fire from the machine @-@ gun turrets of their aircraft , Partisan losses were less than 20 . Afterwards ZNDH Command complained that the German ordered dispersal of aircraft around the airfield 's perimeter , in case of air attack , made the aircraft especially vulnerable to just this type of ground attack .
By mid @-@ 1943 , following the capture of southern Italy , Allied aircraft started to appear over the Balkans . NDH military command was aware of this danger and was trying to persuade the Germans to provide at least two squadrons of Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters to the ZNDH . However , instead of Bf 109s , the only reinforcement fighters that came from Germany were the first of a batch of 36 overhauled captured French Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 fighters in October , plus another dozen which arrived in December . The Germans also supplied 25 Beneš @-@ Mráz Beta @-@ Minor sporting two seater monoplanes , which were dispatched between the squadrons for liaison duty , as the lack of radio communications equipment at squadron level was still evident .
Mid @-@ September 1943 saw the dismissal of Kren from command of the ZNDH . He was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Adalbert Rogulja , who initiated a major reorganisation .
Following the capitulation of Italy in September 1943 , around 60 Regia Aeronautica aircraft were found at Mostar and Zadar airfields and 33 machines were incorporated into the ZNDH . This number included further Fiat G.50 fighters , as well as six Fiat CR.42 biplane fighters . Some CANT Z.1007 and Fiat BR.20 bombers were also added into the ZNDH . The Luftwaffe subsequently also supplied the HZL fighter squadron with about 20 @-@ 25 Fiat G.50s captured by German troops on Regia Aeronautica airfields in the Balkans .
The capitulation of Italy also brought with it the real threat of an invasion by the Allies of the Dalmatian coast . As a result , on 9 September , orders were received by 1 . / ( Kroat . ) KG to execute two coastal reconnaissance sorties over the central and south Adriatic each morning and afternoon . On 10 October one of its Dornier Do 17Zs was intercepted by eight Spitfire Mk.VIII fighters of No. 92 Squadron RAF near the coast of Italy . All of the fighters made firing passes on the Dornier , which was shot down , the crew bailing out . One Spitfire was hit by return fire and crashed into the sea , killing its pilot . After this , reconnaissance sorties were confined to the vicinity of the Dalmatian coast .
Attacks on Partisan forces continued , and on 3 October seven Dornier Do @-@ 17Zs caught 2 @.@ bataljon of Brigada Braća Radić ( 2nd battalion of the Radić Brothers Brigade ) on the move at Šemovac , on the Varaždin @-@ Ludbreg road . In over one hour 's concentrated aerial bombardment , the battalion sustained some 60 casualties , including 42 dead .
Although the ZNDH was now able to mount a credible threat against the insurgents , by then a new menace was arriving from the other side of the Adriatic . On 30 June 1943 , the first Allied reconnaissance flights were reported , followed by the first USAAF bombers , when 61 B @-@ 24 Liberators of IX Bomber Command overflew the NDH on a deep penetration raid on the Austrian city of Wiener Neustadt on 13 August . The ZNDH 's 3rd Flak Group , defending Brod na Savi ( Slavonski Brod ) , managed to shoot down a single bomber en route to its target . The best aircraft that the ZNDH could put up to defend its homeland at the end of 1943 were 20 Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406s , 10 Fiat G.50s , six Fiat CR.42s , five Avia BH @-@ 33s and two Ikarus IK @-@ 2 fighters – aircraft that had been obsolete in 1940 .
By the end of 1943 the ZNDH was 9 @,@ 775 strong and equipped with 295 aircraft , having lost 61 shot down , destroyed on the ground , in accidents and five desertions .
= = = 1944 = = =
With the capitulation of Italy , the ZNDH lost an important source of new aircraft and the tide turned significantly when Allied air raids on targets in the Balkans became a reality . The Luftwaffe fighter squadrons stationed in Ljubljana , Zagreb , southern Austria and northern Italy fought heavy battles to stop the American USAAF heavy bomber armada . The ZNDH was also included in the defence with the newly formed 11th Fighter Group ( Croatian : 11 lovačka skupina ) consisting of the 21st , 22nd and 23rd Fighter Squadrons ( Croatian : Lovačka jata ) equipped with Morane @-@ Saul
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ades Article 14 " , the equivalent of Singapore 's Article 12 . With that as a starting point , he went on to assert that " the procedure ... must be right and just and fair and not arbitrary " . The judge in Maneka Gandhi therefore spoke for a dynamic approach to equality , one that should not be " subjected to a narrow , pedantic or lexicographic approach " . This more liberal approach , which accords courts the latitude to deal with legislation backed by arbitrary or unreasonable objectives , was cited with approval in Malaysia by the learned Judge of the Court of Appeal Gopal Sri Ram in Tan Tek Seng v. Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Pendidikan ( 1996 ) . It is unclear , though , if this test will be applied in Singapore due to a dearth of case law on the matter .
= = = = = Over- and under @-@ inclusiveness = = = = =
Another problem encountered when applying the rational nexus test is that of over- and under @-@ inclusiveness . Under @-@ inclusiveness occurs when the legislative classification fails to embrace all persons within the ambit of the objective sought to be achieved by the law . On the other hand , over @-@ inclusiveness occurs when the classification not only embraces persons within the ambit of the legislative objective , but also persons outside it . Both over- and under @-@ inclusiveness are currently tolerated in Singapore under the rational nexus test , as a classification can still bear a rational relation to the legislative objective notwithstanding that it embraces more or less persons than its object requires .
It has been argued that this results in the different treatment of persons in like situations , and thus violates Article 12 ( 1 ) . Although a rational connection exists between the classification adopted and the legislative object , the effect of an under @-@ inclusive classification is to accord different treatment to persons similarly placed . However , the courts have often justified under @-@ inclusiveness on the ground that the legislature is free to recognize degrees of harm , to confine its restrictions to cases where the need is felt to be the greatest , and to advance its policies step by step . Despite this , resort to legislative wisdom to justify under @-@ inclusiveness , if used indiscriminately , may result in the watering down of the equal protection guarantee provided by Article 12 ( 1 ) .
Similarly , where an over @-@ inclusive classification is concerned , a rational relation still exists between the differentia adopted and the legislative object . Thus , it is tolerated under the rational nexus test in Singapore . While the effect of an over @-@ inclusive classification may be to accord similar treatment to persons differently placed , courts have nonetheless justified it on the ground that the exigencies of the situation require such classification . The US Supreme Court case Hirabayashi v. United States ( 1943 ) is an example of this principle . Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 , President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued an executive order requiring , among other things , all persons of Japanese ancestry within a designated military area to be " within their place of residence between the hours of 8 p.m. and 6 a.m. " and to report to the authorities to register for removal from the military area . The defendant , Gordon Hirabayashi , was convicted of violating the curfew and the registration requirement . The order was arguably over @-@ inclusive as it did not distinguish between Japanese Americans who were loyal to the US and those in respect of which there was evidence of disloyalty . Although the Court noted that distinctions between citizens solely on the basis of ancestry " are , by their very nature , odious to a free people whose institutions are founded upon the doctrine of equality " , because the US was at war with Japan the race @-@ based classification bore a rational relation to the aim of the order , which was to protect from sabotage war materials and utilities in areas believed to be in danger of Japanese invasion and air attack . The Court said : " We cannot close our eyes to the fact , demonstrated by experience , that , in time of war , residents having ethnic affiliations with an invading enemy may be a greater source of danger than those of a different ancestry . "
In Taw Cheng Kong , the High Court was of the view that section 37 ( 1 ) of the Prevention of Corruption Act was both under- and over @-@ inclusive . It did not apply to non @-@ Singapore citizens such as permanent residents and foreigners working for the Government who received bribes for acts which would be done in Singapore . On the other hand , it would catch a Singapore citizen now a foreign permanent resident employed in a foreign country by a foreign government who received a bribe in relation to a transaction that had nothing to do with Singapore . For this reason , Karthigesu J. found section 37 ( 1 ) to be unconstitutional since the nexus between the classification and section 37 ( 1 ) ' s objective was not reasonable enough to justify derogating from Article 12 ( 1 ) . The High Court 's decision was reversed by the Court of Appeal , which held that the under @-@ inclusiveness was not fatal because of the " overriding need to observe international comity " . In any case , " [ t ] he enactment of a provision need not be seamless and perfect to cover every contingency . Such a demand would be legislatively impractical , if not impossible . " The over @-@ inclusiveness of section 37 ( 1 ) was deemed irrelevant to the constitutional issue because the provision applied equally to all Singapore citizens .
= = = = Applications of the rational nexus test = = = =
The rational nexus test was applied in Mohamed Emran bin Mohamed Ali v. Public Prosecutor ( 2008 ) , in which the High Court was faced with the issue of whether the failure to prosecute drug enforcement authorities in an entrapment case amounted to discrimination against the persons eventually charged with drug trafficking . The Court found that there was a " perfectly rational nexus between entrapment operations and the socially desirable and laudable objective of containing the drug trade " as convicting state agents who carried out covert operations would result in illicit drug suppliers prospering and flourishing while enforcement agencies would " wither and perish " . Further , the exercise of the Attorney @-@ General 's prosecutorial discretion was an executive act which satisfied the rational nexus test and was therefore not in contravention of Article 12 of the Constitution .
In Yong Vui Kong v. Public Prosecutor ( 2010 ) , the Court of Appeal had to determine the validity of a differentiating factor prescribed by the legislature for distinguishing between different classes of offenders for sentencing purposes . In that case , the differentiating factor was found in the Misuse of Drugs Act ( " MDA " ) , which stipulated that an accused trafficking in more than 15 grams ( 0 @.@ 53 oz ) of diamorphine ( heroin ) would result in him or her facing a mandatory death penalty upon conviction . Following its previous decision in Nguyen Tuong Van v. Public Prosecutor ( 2005 ) , which had applied Ong Ah Chuan , the Court applied the rational nexus test and found that the 15 @-@ gram differentia bore a reasonable relation to the social object of the MDA . The Court also noted that the " quantity of addictive drugs trafficked is not only broadly proportionate to the quantity of addictive drugs brought onto the illicit market , but also broadly proportionate to the scale of operations of the drug dealer and , hence , broadly proportionate to the harm likely to be posed to society by the offender 's crime . " Although Taw Cheng Kong was not cited in this case , the test applied was substantially similar to that which it enunciated in Taw Cheng Kong .
= = = = Alternatives to the rational nexus test = = = =
In other jurisdictions , courts have applied standards of judicial review more exacting than the rational nexus test in Singapore when deciding if a law is unconstitutional . It remains to be seen whether any of these approaches will be adopted locally .
= = = = = Three @-@ tiered scrutiny = = = = =
In footnote 4 of United States v. Carolene Products Co . ( 1938 ) , Justice Harlan F. Stone opined that where legislation was aimed at " discrete and insular minorities " who lack the normal protections of the political process , a more exacting standard of judicial review with no presumption of constitutionality should be applied .
At present in the United States there are three different levels of scrutiny . Firstly , if a law categorizes on the basis of race or national origin ( which are regarded as suspect classifications ) , or infringes a fundamental right , strict scrutiny is applied . Accordingly , the law is unconstitutional unless it is narrowly tailored to serve a compelling government interest . In addition , there should not be a less restrictive alternative available to achieve that compelling interest . Secondly , if the law categorizes on the basis of gender , legitimacy or similar quasi @-@ suspect classifications , intermediate scrutiny is applied – the law is unconstitutional unless it is substantially related to an important government interest . Finally , the traditional rational basis review is applied if the law categorizes on some other , non @-@ suspect , basis . In this case , the law is constitutional so long as it is reasonably related to a legitimate government interest .
In Malaysian Bar v. Government of Malaysia ( 1987 ) , the Supreme Court of Malaysia referred to the strict scrutiny approach but asserted that in reality it was not very different from the traditional rational nexus standard , which it then proceeded to apply . The Court 's endorsement of strict scrutiny was much less ambiguous in Government of Malaysia v. V.R. Menon ( 1990 ) . It held that the impugned Act was concerned with economic and social welfare and not fundamental rights , and therefore the trial judge had erred in applying a stricter standard of review . As such , the court implicitly endorsed the application of the strict scrutiny test in cases concerning fundamental rights in Malaysia .
There are several criticisms of the three @-@ tiered scrutiny analysis , the most compelling reason against its adoption arguably being that it does not control judicial discretion : the identification of classifications as suspect , quasi @-@ suspect or non @-@ suspect involves unconstrained balancing of public and private interests , and political and social interests .
= = = = = Test of proportionality = = = = =
The test of proportionality in English law , which is applied to determine whether a fundamental right is appropriately restricted by legislation , has three limbs :
The legislative objective must be sufficiently important to justify limiting the fundamental right .
The measures designed to meet the legislative objective must be rationally connected to it .
The means used to impair the right must be no more than is necessary to accomplish the objective .
It has been suggested that a proportionality analysis better safeguards equality compared to the American three @-@ tiered scrutiny approach . The third limb of the proportionality test may also serve to strike down over @-@ inclusive classifications which are currently tolerated under the rational nexus test .
= = = = = Test of reasonableness = = = = =
In Maneka Gandhi , Bhagwati J. appeared to suggest that the rational nexus test should not be applied to Article 14 of the Indian Constitution , which guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of the law , because it led to a narrow and pedantic interpretation of the provision . He held that Article 14 should not be construed too narrowly as it was the pillar on which the foundation of the Indian Democratic Republic rested . In his view , the principle of reasonableness was an essential element of equality or non @-@ arbitrariness , and it pervaded Article 14 " like a brooding omnipresence " .
A test of reasonableness was applied to Article 8 ( 1 ) of the Malaysian Constitution in some cases , but it was later rejected by the Federal Court in Danaharta Urus Sdn . Bhd. v. Kekatong Sdn . Bhd . ( 2004 ) . The Court noted that in cases subsequent to Maneka Gandhi the reasonable classification test had been applied , even by Bhagwati J. himself . Furthermore , equality under Article 8 ( 1 ) does not mean absolute equality , but only assures the right to equal treatment with other individuals in similar circumstances . The rational nexus test is needed to determine if a law applies equally to all persons in the same group , and is therefore an " integral part " of Article 8 ( 1 ) .
= = Discriminatory application of laws = =
The traditional Taw Cheng Kong rational nexus test is inappropriate where the issue is not the existence of discriminatory classification in a statute , but discriminatory application of a neutral statute . This is because the statute would inevitably pass the test as the answer to whether the legislation in question differentiates between different classes of persons ( stage 1 of the Taw Cheng Kong test ) will always be in the negative . In Eng Foong Ho v. Attorney @-@ General ( 2009 ) , Judge of Appeal Andrew Phang , delivering the judgment of the Court of Appeal , applied a modified form of the Taw Cheng Kong test , holding that " [ t ] he question is whether there is a reasonable nexus between the state action and the objective to be achieved by the law " .
Phang J.A. relied on the principles set out in the Privy Council cases Howe Yoon Chong v. Chief Assessor ( 1980 ) and Howe Yoon Chong v. Chief Assessor ( 1990 ) , drawing the following salient points from them :
An executive act may be unconstitutional if it amounts to intentional and arbitrary discrimination . Thus , an intentional systematic undervaluation of property would breach Article 12 ( 1 ) of the Constitution , though " something less might perhaps suffice " .
However , absolute equality is not attainable and inequalities arising from " the application of a reasonable administrative policy " or " mere errors of judgement " are not sufficient to constitute a violation of Article 12 ( 1 ) . Inequalities due to " inadvertence or inefficiency " need to be on " a very substantial scale " to violate the Article .
Thio Li @-@ ann has expressed the view that Phang J.A. ' s approach in Eng Foong Ho leaves room for judicial clarification . An important question is whether the " intentional and arbitrary discrimination " test , which implies the lack of any rationality , is the sole test for proving that an executive act violates Article 12 , or only one possible test . If it is the only test , then the need to prove the absence of rationality is excessively onerous for the plaintiff to satisfy , compared to the " reasonable classification " test . She posits that it is preferable for both the " intentional and arbitrary discrimination " test and the " reasonable classification " test to apply to executive acts .
= = Restrictions on the right to equality and equal protection = =
Article 12 ( 3 ) of the Constitution provides that Article 12 does not invalidate or prohibit any provision regulating personal law ; or any provision or practice restricting office or employment connected with the affairs of any religion , or of an institution managed by a group professing any religion , to persons professing that religion .
Personal law is the law governing a person 's family matters . In Shafeeg bin Salim Talib v. Fatimah binte Abud bin Talib ( 2009 ) , the High Court identified a number of personal laws , including the Intestate Succession Act which does not apply to Muslims ; and regulations 103 ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) of the Prisons Regulations , which respectively state that Jewish prisoners can claim an exemption against working on Saturdays and may observe certain festival days as may be allowed by the Government , and that Muslim prisoners may fast during Ramadan and have their work reduced during this period .
A number of private Acts establishing religious organizations expressly confine membership of their governing boards to persons professing the respective religions . For instance , a person may only be appointed to the Hindu Endowments Board , which administers Hindu religious and charitable endowments , if he or she is Hindu . Similarly , one may only be a member of the Central Sikh Gurdwara Board , which manages gurdwaras ( Sikh temples ) in Singapore , if one professes the Sikh faith .
Article 149 ( 1 ) immunizes the Internal Security Act from invalidity due to inconsistency with five of the fundamental liberty provisions in the Constitution , including Article 12 . The reference to Article 12 in Article 149 ( 1 ) was enacted by Parliament in 1989 to reverse the effect of Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1988 ) , in which the Court of Appeal expressed the view that sections 8 and 10 of the Act violated Article 12 ( 1 ) .
= = Other constitutional provisions = =
Article 16 ( 1 ) of the Constitution prohibits discrimination against citizens of Singapore on the ground only of religion , race , descent or place of birth in the administration of public educational institutions ( and , in particular , as regards the admission of students or the payment of fees ) , and in providing financial aid from public funds for the maintenance or education of students in any educational institution . This provision is stated to be " [ w ] ithout prejudice to the generality of Article 12 " . Article 16 ( 2 ) declares that religious groups have the right to establish and maintain institutions for the education of children and to provide them religious instruction in those institutions , but there must not be any discrimination on the ground only of religion in laws relating to such institutions or the administration of such laws .
Article 154 states that all persons who are in the same Government service grade must be treated impartially regardless of their race , subject to the terms and conditions of their employment and to other provisions of the Constitution .
The Constitution also establishes a procedure for ensuring that statutes do not contain " differentiating measures " , that is , measures which discriminate against any racial or religious community . Most bills that have been passed by Parliament must be scrutinized by a non @-@ elected advisory body called the Presidential Council for Minority Rights ( PCMR ) , which must report to the Speaker of Parliament if it is of the view that any clause in a bill contains a differentiating measure . If the PCMR submits an adverse report , Parliament can either make amendments to the bill and resubmit it to the Council for approval , or decide to present the bill for the President 's assent nonetheless provided that a Parliamentary motion for such action has been passed by at least two @-@ thirds of all Members of Parliament . The PCMR has not rendered any adverse reports since it was set up in 1970 .
= = = Cases = = =
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India [ 1978 ] INSC 16 , A.I.R. 1978 S.C. 597 , Supreme Court ( India ) .
Ong Ah Chuan v. Public Prosecutor [ 1980 ] UKPC 32 , [ 1981 ] A.C. 648 , [ 1979 – 1980 ] S.L.R. ( R. ) [ Singapore Law Reports ( Reissue ) ] 710 , Privy Council ( on appeal from Singapore ) .
Malaysian Bar v. Government of Malaysia [ 1987 ] 2 M.L.J. [ Malayan Law Journal ] 165 at 170 , Supreme Court ( Malaysia ) .
Tan Tek Seng v. Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Pendidikan [ 1996 ] 1 M.L.J. 261 , Court of Appeal ( Malaysia ) .
Taw Cheng Kong v. Public Prosecutor [ 1998 ] 1 S.L.R. ( R. ) 78 , High Court ( Singapore ) .
Public Prosecutor v. Taw Cheng Kong [ 1998 ] SGCA 37 , [ 1998 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) 489 , Court of Appeal ( Singapore ) , archived from the original on 13 April 2009 .
Eng Foong Ho v. Attorney @-@ General [ 2009 ] SGCA 1 , [ 2009 ] 2 S.L.R. 542 , C.A. ( Singapore ) .
Lim Meng Suang v. Attorney @-@ General [ 2013 ] SGHC 73 , [ 2013 ] 3 S.L.R. 118 , H.C. ( Singapore ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( 1999 Reprint ) .
Baker , Aaron ( 2008 ) , " Proportional , Not Strict , Scrutiny : Against a U.S. ' Suspect Classifications ' Model under Article 14 ECHR in the U.K. " , American Journal of Comparative Law 56 : 847 – 894 , doi : 10 @.@ 5131 / ajcl.2007.0030 .
Huang @-@ Thio , S [ u ] M [ ien ] ( 1963 ) , " Equal Protection and Rational Classification " , Public Law : 412 – 440 .
Tussman , Joseph ; tenBroek , Jacobus ( 1949 ) , " The Equal Protection of the Laws " , California Law Review 37 ( 3 ) : 341 – 381 , doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 3477801 , JSTOR 3477801 .
= = = Articles = = =
Groves , Harry E. ( 1963 ) , " Equal Protection of the Laws in Malaysia and India " , American Journal of Comparative Law 12 ( 3 ) : 385 – 396 , JSTOR 838895 .
Lee , Jack Tsen @-@ Ta ( 1996 ) , " Equal Protection and Sexual Orientation " , Singapore Law Review 16 : 228 – 285 .
Low , Fatt Kin Kelvin ; Loi , Chit Fai Kelry ; Wee , Ai Yin Serene ( 1998 ) , " Towards a Maintenance of Equality ( Part I ) : A Study of the Constitutionality of Maintenance Provisions that Sexually Discriminate " , Singapore Law Review 19 : 45 – 76 .
Low , Fatt Kin Kelvin ; Loi , Chit Fai Kelry ; Wee , Ai Yin Serene ( 1999 ) , " Towards a Maintenance of Equality ( Part II ) : The Effects of Unconstitutionality " , Singapore Law Review 20 : 103 – 133 .
G. Moganasundram ( 1962 ) , " Equal Protection in Malaya – A Comparative Study " , Me Judice 5 : 56 .
Yap , Po Jen ( 2005 ) , " Four Models of Equality " , Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review 27 : 63 – 100 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 28 December 2013 .
Yap , Po Jen ( September 2013 ) , " Section 377A and Equal Protection in Singapore : Back to 1938 ? " , Singapore Academy of Law Journal 25 : 630 – 640 .
= = = Books = = =
Huang , S [ u ] M [ ien ] ( 1963 ) , Equality before the Law : Article 8 : Constitution of the Federation of Malaya [ unpublished LL.M. thesis ] , Singapore : Faculty of Law , University of Singapore .
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ( 2011 ) , " Fundamental Liberties II : Slavery & Forced Labour • Equality • Protection against Retrospective Criminal Laws • Double Jeopardy " , An Introduction to Singapore 's Constitution ( rev. ed . ) , Singapore : Talisman Publishing , pp. 166 – 185 at 178 – 185 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 08 @-@ 6456 @-@ 9 .
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ; Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2010 ) , " The Right to Equality & Equal Protection " , Constitutional Law in Malaysia and Singapore ( 3rd ed . ) , Singapore : LexisNexis , pp. 871 – 970 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 236 @-@ 795 @-@ 2 .
Thio Li @-@ ann ( 2012 ) , " Equality before the Law " , A Treatise on Singapore Constitutional Law , Singapore : Academy Publishing , pp. 691 – 745 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 07 @-@ 1515 @-@ 1 .
= Better Out Than In =
Better Out Than In was a residency undertaken by pseudonymous graffiti artist and political activist Banksy in New York City during October 2013 . Banksy unveiled at least one work of art daily , documenting it on both a dedicated website and an Instagram account . The majority of the works were stencil graffiti and chiefly political , a distinctive characteristic of Banksy . Other pieces and multimedia exhibits toyed with dark humor and satire .
The unpredictability of the show and Banksy 's elusive nature stirred excitement amongst fans , while defacement from competing street artists and vandals became an imminent problem . While Banksy 's works were inherently illegal , no official complaints were reported to the police ; most property owners praised the art and some took measures to protect it . The month @-@ long residency drew controversy amongst some locals for its more politically strong pieces , and received mixed reviews from critics . In 2014 , a documentary film called Banksy Does New York came out regarding the whole ' residency ' .
= = Background = =
On 1 October 2013 , Banksy announced on his website that he would be attempting to host a show in New York City for the entire month . This came after posters promoting an October event started showing up in Los Angeles .
The title Better Out Than In is a reference to a quote by impressionist Paul Cézanne , " All pictures painted inside , in the studio , will never be as good as those done outside . "
In an interview with The Village Voice , Banksy said " New York calls to graffiti writers like a dirty old lighthouse . We all want to prove ourselves here , " and that he chose it for the high foot traffic and hiding places .
= = Works = =
The works Banksy has included in Better Out Than In primarily consist of stencil graffiti , much of which are political in nature . His first installment , which he captioned " the street is in play " , depicted a child reaching for a bottle of spray paint on a sign reading " graffiti is a crime " . The sign was stolen and later replaced by Queens @-@ based graffiti group Smart Crew with a new sign that read " street art is a crime " . Like most of his other works , the piece has audio accompaniment that can be heard either on the website or by calling a toll @-@ free 800 number .
On 2 October , Banksy stenciled a piece in Chelsea that read " This is my New York accent " in the traditional typography of New York street art and below in a more typical handwriting style read , " ... normally I write like this " . Allowing for the ironic abstraction between traditional graffiti style and regular writing .
In south Midtown Manhattan on 3 October , Banksy produced a piece that depicts the symbiotic relationship between a dog and a hydrant . This stencil artwork depicts a dog urinating on a hydrant with a thought bubble saying , " you complete me " .
On 4 October Banksy added " the musical " below seemingly already existing graffiti in the Lower East Side , Williamsburg , and Bushwick . Making them read " Occupy ! The Musical " , " Dirty underwear The Musical " and " Playground Mob The Musical " .
In the East Village , Banksy 's fifth work was housed in a delivery truck as a " mobile garden , " which included theatrical property showing a rainbow , waterfall and butterflies . The following day Banksy posted a photo of a tracking device he found under the vehicle .
Banksy 's installments are located all across the five boroughs , with some being purely multimedia exhibits . On 6 October , as a way to have made an installment in Dumbo , Brooklyn , a primary arts district of the city , Banksy posted a video featuring the Walt Disney character Dumbo being shot down by Syrian rebels , the meaning behind which puzzled many .
On 7 October Banksy unveiled a piece in Red Hook that stood out from his typical stencils . The piece was a beautifully shaded red heart balloon patched up with band @-@ aids . An homage to a piece he had done previously in response to the Syrian conflict which depicted a heart shaped balloon floating away from a little girl .
On 8 October , Banksy 's piece in Greenpoint was simply a quote , " I have a theory that you can make any sentence seem profound by writing the name of a dead philosopher at the end of it -Plato " .
On 9 October , Banksy unveiled one of the more elaborate and politically strong pieces of the series . It featured armed soldiers and horses spray @-@ painted on a car and trailer in an empty lot in the Lower East Side . Instead of commentary about the work , the accompanying audio was that of a classified video from the July 12 , 2007 Baghdad airstrike . After being dismantled , the car was towed away to prevent further defacement .
In East New York on 10 October a Banksy piece was found depicting a stenciled beaver who seemingly caused a street sign to fall . Indicative of people 's greed there were soon men charging the people to view and take pictures of the artwork .
Day 11 saw an elaborate political display questioning the " casual cruelty " of the meat industry . Entitled Sirens of the Lambs , Banksy drove around a military @-@ style cargo truck filled with squealing , stuffed animatronic livestock . The truck fittingly made its debut in Meatpacking District , Manhattan , but toured the rest of the city in the following weeks .
On 12 October the ' Concrete Confessional ' piece was done on 7th Street near the Cooper Union , depicting a religious figure framed by a hole in the concrete wall standing in front of it .
On 13 October , Banksy made headlines when it was revealed that the art an older man was selling outside Central Park was actually authentic , signed Banksy canvases , sold for only $ 60 each . Having not announced this beforehand , tourists and park goers were unaware of the value the paintings had , which the BBC estimated could be upwards of $ 32 @,@ 000 each . Banksy posted a video on his website chronicling the surprise sale , which revealed that a total of seven paintings were sold for $ 420 taking .
On day 14 Banksy made a piece in Queens depicting a stenciled cleaner wiping a quote from the movie Gladiator " What we do in life echoes in Eternity " .
Banksy unveiled one of his most controversial pieces of the series on 15 October , with a depiction of the Lower Manhattan skyline featuring the former Twin Towers , with a burnt @-@ orange chrysanthemum in place where one of the hijacked airplanes struck the North Tower . The silhouette appeared on the side of a building in TriBeCa , with an identical depiction along the Brooklyn Heights Promenade , facing the downtown skyline . The Brooklyn Heights piece was eventually buffed out by the city , requiring chemicals and a high @-@ powered pressure washer . The removal followed a taunt Banksy had directed toward the city on his website . Meanwhile , the sister piece in TriBeCa served as a shrine , people placing flowers next to it and as well as a letter asking no one to touch the painting . Acrylic glass was eventually installed to protect the piece , before someone painted over it .
Banksy extended his work beyond the canvas and city street with other political statements , including on 16 October , when he crafted a giant fiberglass sculpture of Ronald McDonald , with a real live Banksy assistant shining its shoes . It was unveiled in the Bronx but was moved outside of a different McDonald 's restaurant across the city around lunch time for several days . The work criticized the " heavy labor required to sustain the polished image of a mega @-@ corporation " , as the narrator of the audio accompaniment put it .
On 17 October in East Williamsburg , Banksy 's Japanese Bridge piece was revealed and graffitied over .
On 18 October there was a pair of paintings Banksy collaborated on with Os Gemeos depicting a single soldier amongst masked citizens and vice versa . " The audio commentary Banksy provided suggests that this piece functions both as situational criticism of the art world as well as a tribute to the Occupy movement . Yet it also recognizes that the installation may be unsuccessful at actually advancing any agenda " .
On 19 October Banksy released another video for his tour of New York potentially to convey the movement in nature that we are blind to but it is truly just a vagina with ants crawling out of it .
On 20 October in the Upper West Side , Banksy stencilled a picture of a young boy with a hammer swinging down towards a fire hydrant . This piece was one of the few from the Better Out Than In project that was preserved . The owners of the store on which this piece was placed put a fiberglass pane in order to protect and preserve the piece .
Banksy 's second trip to the South Bronx was on 21 October and resulted in a piece depicting a child spray @-@ painting the words " Ghetto 4 Life " on a wall , while a butler waited on him with a platter of spray paints . The work immediately drew a crowd from fans , despite angering many residents , who found the message offensive . The piece may insinuate appreciation of graffiti art by high society .
The Sphinx sculpture appeared on a worksite in Willets Point on 22 October and was quickly swarmed by eager Banksy fans . The attention caught the workers interest and onlookers watched as it was loaded into a truck and taken away . The fate of this piece was heavily chronicled by the HBO documentary Banksy Does New York . The piece was taken from its original site , kept in a garage and ultimately sold in an art show for hundreds of thousands if not millions .
The 23rd installment was cancelled due to police activity , according to Banksy 's official website , which stirred rumors that he had come under arrest . That same day , an outlined canvas with the caption " Better Out Than In # AnonymousGuestbook " appeared on a building in Red Hook . The idea of an open @-@ canvas collaborative piece was presented to Banksy two weeks prior by a community art director . The story then lead many to believe the " anonymous guestbook " was outlined by Banksy himself , however this was later debunked to have been the work of a group under the name Anonymous Guestbook .
" Waiting in Vain " was the show 's 24th installment . Located outside a strip club in Hell 's Kitchen , it illustrated a man in a tuxedo holding flowers , presumably jilted by his date . After some of the club 's entertainers posed in front of the piece , the owner had it carefully cut from the shutter gate before vandals could deface it . It is planned to go on permanent display inside the club .
The 25th piece came suitably Halloween @-@ themed
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a combination of high precipitation , steep slopes , and landslides , which can result in earthflows .
= = History = =
Humans have lived in the Chetco River watershed since approximately 1 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 years ago . The first inhabitants were perhaps ancestors of the Chetco Indians and other Native American tribes , themselves descendants of the first humans who traveled across the Bering land bridge from Siberia over 10 @,@ 000 years ago . At least nine separate villages were constructed along the Chetco River , including two on either side of its mouth . The Native Americans named the river " chit taa @-@ ghii ~ -li ~ ’ " .
The first European American to visit the area may have been Sir Francis Drake on June 5 , 1579 , during his circumnavigation of the world . The Vancouver Expedition also explored the area in 1792 . In June 1828 Jedediah Smith and his company of fur traders camped on the south bank of the river near a Native American village . Between 1853 and 1855 , many Native Americans were killed and their villages destroyed in skirmishes occurring around the same time as the nearby Rogue River Wars . On July 9 , 1856 , the remaining Chetco were marched north to the Siletz Reservation .
Oregon — and therefore the Chetco watershed — was jointly occupied by the United Kingdom and the United States after the Treaty of 1818 was signed . The Oregon Treaty was ratified in 1846 , giving the United States ownership of Oregon . Soon after , the Oregon Territory was established , and Oregon became a U.S. state on February 14 , 1859 .
The discovery of gold and other precious metals in the watershed brought settlers to the region in the 1840s and 1850s . Nickel , cobalt , and chromium were also mined . The town of Harbor was founded on the south bank of the Chetco River in 1891 , and a ferry service across the river opened in 1904 . It was shut down in 1915 when the Chetco Bridge opened . In 1912 , the Brookings Lumber & Box Company moved north from the San Bernardino Mountains in southern California to the southern Oregon coast region . The company constructed a sawmill in 1914 , and founded the town of Brookings . Brookings was not incorporated until 1951 . The region remained relatively isolated due to its mountainous terrain until 1924 , when Highway 101 was extended from Crescent City , California , to Brookings . In 1932 , the Isaac Lee Patterson Bridge was completed over the Rogue River to the north , connecting the region to the rest of the Oregon coast . In 1917 , a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 366 m ) wharf was built at the mouth of the river . Jetties were constructed on either side of its mouth by the United States Army Corps of Engineers in 1957 .
The Siskiyou National Forest was created on October 5 , 1906 , protecting the entire upper portion of the Chetco watershed . The nearby Rogue River National Forest was combined with it in 2004 , creating the nearly 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 728 @,@ 000 ha ) Rogue River – Siskiyou National Forest . In 1964 , the United States Congress set aside over 80 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 ha ) of the eastern Chetco River watershed and surrounding regions to create the Kalmiopsis Wilderness . The wilderness was expanded several times in the 1970s , and now encompasses over 180 @,@ 000 acres ( 72 @,@ 800 ha ) .
On October 28 , 1988 , a 44 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 71 @.@ 6 km ) stretch of the Chetco River was designated a National Wild and Scenic River , from its headwaters to the boundary of the Rogue River – Siskiyou National Forest . In a court case in 1994 , the Chetco was determined to be navigable . In 2002 , over 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 202 @,@ 000 ha ) of the eastern portion of the watershed and surrounding regions were destroyed in the Biscuit Fire . Originally five separate fires , it was caused by several lightning strikes between July 12 and 15 . By August 17 , all five had burned together , creating one massive fire . It burned for over five months and was not fully extinguished until December 31 .
In 2002 , 45 acres ( 18 ha ) of land on the Little Chetco River were sold to Washington real estate developer David Rutan , only several months after the Biscuit Fire tore through the region . He opened a gold mining camp on the site in 2007 , flying in customers by helicopter . Curry County officials soon stated that the camp violated zoning and sanitation laws , but inspections were stymied because of the area 's inaccessibility . Rutan bought several more claims in the Wild and Scenic section of the Chetco River in the following years , beginning 6 miles ( 10 km ) inside the Kalmiopsis Wilderness , and ending 24 miles ( 39 km ) downstream . Despite environmentalists ' concerns , he proposed mining the Chetco riverbed for gold and minerals via commercial suction dredges , permitted by the General Mining Act of 1872 . In 2010 , the Chetco River was identified as the seventh most endangered river in America by advocacy organization American Rivers , facing a threat of " motorized instream mining " . Oregon 's governor , Ted Kulongoski , two senators , Ron Wyden and Jeff Merkley , and congressman Peter DeFazio all asked the United States Department of Agriculture to withdraw the Chetco River from the 1872 Mining Act , thus preventing mineral mining on the river . However , Rutan forfeited his claims by not paying his annual filing fees to the Bureau of Land Management in 2011 .
= = Pollution = =
The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) has monitored the Chetco River for eight different parameters that affect water quality : temperature , oxygen saturation , pH , nutrients , bacteria , chemical contaminants such as pesticides and metals , turbidity , and alkalinity . Streams that exceed the standard level are then placed on the DEQ 303d list in accordance with the Clean Water Act . The Chetco from Box Canyon Creek to its mouth exceeded the standard level for temperature and turbidity . The North Fork , South Fork , and other tributaries were also listed for temperature and turbidity . All tributaries of the Chetco usually exceed the 64 ° F ( 18 ° C ) temperature standard . Water temperatures range from 62 @.@ 6 ° F ( 17 @.@ 0 ° C ) at Bosley Creek to 76 ° F ( 24 ° C ) at Willow Bar . High turbidity levels in the Chetco River watershed are usually caused by landslides , various forms of erosion , and plugged road culverts .
On the Oregon Water Quality Index ( OWQI ) used by DEQ , water quality scores can vary from 10 ( worst ) to 100 ( ideal ) . The average for the Chetco River at RM 10 @.@ 8 ( RK 17 @.@ 4 ) between 1998 and 2007 was 95 ( excellent ) in the summer and 90 in the fall , winter , and spring . These scores are comparable to the 1986 to 1995 results of 94 and 93 . Despite the excellent ratings , the Chetco River actually ranks as the second most polluted stream in Curry County , after nearby Floras Creek , a tributary of the New River .
= = Recreation = =
Fishing , four @-@ wheel driving , swimming , boating , camping , sightseeing , and picnicking are the primary recreational activities in the watershed . Whitewater kayaking is also popular in the winter months when water levels are high . Several trails are maintained throughout the Kalmiopsis Wilderness , as well as other regions in the watershed . Eight boat launches are located on the river between its confluence with the south fork and its mouth . Alfred A. Loeb State Park , located on the banks of the Chetco , has three cabins and 48 camping sites .
Several large parks are located in Brookings . The 33 @-@ acre ( 13 ha ) Azalea Park in Brookings features five species of wild azaleas . The park was designated an Oregon State Park in 1939 , but was given to Brookings in 1993 . It hosts the American Music Festival from June until September . The Nature 's Coastal Holiday light show is displayed in Azalea Park every December . Chetco Point Park , located near the wharf , has several fire rings and picnic tables , as well as views of the river , the Pacific Ocean , and the Port of Brookings Harbor . It is home to the rare Wolf 's Evening Primrose .
= Ken Livingstone =
Kenneth Robert " Ken " Livingstone ( born 17 June 1945 ) is an English politician who served as the Leader of the Greater London Council ( GLC ) from 1981 until the council was abolished in 1986 , and as Mayor of London from the creation of the office in 2000 until 2008 . He also served as the Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Brent East from 1987 to 2001 . A suspended member of the Labour Party , he was on the party 's hard left , ideologically identifying as a democratic socialist .
Born in Lambeth , South London , to a working @-@ class family , Livingstone joined Labour in 1968 and was elected to represent Norwood at the GLC in 1973 , Hackney North and Stoke Newington in 1977 , and Paddington in 1981 , when he was elected leader of the GLC by Labour members . Attempting to reduce London Underground fares , his plans were challenged in court and declared unlawful ; more successful were his schemes to benefit women and underprivileged minorities , despite stiff opposition . Livingstone was heavily criticised in the mainstream media for supporting controversial issues like republicanism , LGBT rights , and a United Ireland , and given the moniker " Red Ken " . Livingstone was a vocal opponent of the Conservative Party government of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , which in 1986 abolished the GLC . Elected as MP for Brent East in 1987 , he became closely associated with anti @-@ racist campaigns . He unsuccessfully stood for Labour Party leader on a leftist platform in 1992 and 1994 , and became a vocal critic of Tony Blair 's New Labour project that pushed the party to the centre .
After failing to become Labour 's candidate in the 2000 London mayoral election , Livingstone successfully contested the election as an independent candidate . In his first term as Mayor of London , he introduced the congestion charge , Oyster card , and articulated buses , and unsuccessfully opposed the government 's privatisation of London Underground . Despite his opposition to Blair 's government on issues like the Iraq War , Livingstone was invited to stand for re @-@ election as Labour 's candidate and was re @-@ elected in 2004 , expanding his transport policies , introducing new environmental regulations , and enacting civil rights policies . Initiating and overseeing London 's winning bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics and ushering in a major redevelopment of the city 's East End , his leadership after the 7 July 2005 London bombings was widely praised . He stood unsuccessfully as Labour candidate in London 's mayoral elections of 2008 and 2012 , losing both to the Conservative candidate Boris Johnson .
Characterised as " the only truly successful Left @-@ wing British politician of modern times " , Livingstone is a highly controversial figure in British politics . Supporters lauded his efforts to improve rights for women , LGBT people , and ethnic minorities in London , but critics accused him of cronyism and antisemitism and lambasted his connections to Islamists , Marxists , and Irish republicans .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood and young adulthood : 1945 – 1967 = = =
Livingstone was born in his grandmother 's house in Lambeth , south London , on 17 June 1945 . His family was working class ; his mother , Ethel Ada ( née Kennard , 191
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rise buildings , with the southbound direction passing to the east of the Delaware College of Art and Design north of 6th Street . Further north , the route comes to a junction with the southern terminus of DE 52 , which follows 11th Street eastbound and 12th Street westbound , near Rodney Square . At the north end of downtown , northbound US 13 Bus. turns west on 16th Street to rejoin the southbound direction .
From here , US 13 Bus. heads north of four @-@ lane undivided North Market Street and crosses the Brandywine Creek . After the bridge , the road curves northeast and becomes a three @-@ lane road with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes , passing urban residential and commercial development as it comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of DE 202 ( Concord Avenue ) . The route becomes a two @-@ lane road and passes more urban areas along with a couple cemeteries .
US 13 Bus. widens to four lanes again as it heads out of Wilmington and heads into suburban Brandywine Hundred , with the name of the road changing to Philadelphia Pike . Here , the business route intersects DE 3 near Bellefonte and forms a concurrency with that route . The two routes pass suburban homes and businesses , crossing Marsh Road before DE 3 splits from US 13 Bus. by heading to the northwest . US 13 Bus. passes to the southeast of Bellevue State Park and continues northeast through residential neighborhoods with scattered businesses , heading through Holly Oak before it reaches Claymont . At Harvey Road , the road narrows to two travel lanes and a center turn lane until the business route intersects US 13 and reaches its northern terminus , with Philadelphia Pike continuing northeast as part of US 13 .
The portion of the route between A Street and DE 9 ( 4th Street ) in Wilmington is part of the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Byway , a Delaware Byway . US 13 Bus. has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 30 @,@ 948 vehicles at A Street in Wilmington to a low of 8 @,@ 384 vehicles at the DE 3 intersection near Bellefonte . US 13 Bus. is a part of the National Highway System between the southern terminus and DE 202 in Wilmington .
= = History = =
In 1813 , the Wilmington and Philadelphia Turnpike Company was chartered to build a turnpike running from the Brandywine Bridge in Wilmington northeast to the Pennsylvania border , where the roadway would continue to Philadelphia . A 3 @.@ 75 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 04 km ) long portion of the road near Wilmington was finished in 1816 with the remainder completed in 1823 . With the Federal Aid Road Act of 1916 , the Philadelphia Pike was to be improved by the state . The Philadelphia Pike was upgraded to a state highway by 1920 .
In 1925 , recommendations were made to improve the South Market Street Causeway over the Christina River in Wilmington , which included a new bridge over the river . Construction on the drawbridge began in May 1926 . In 1927 , the new drawbridge , the four @-@ lane South Market Street Bridge , opened over the Christina River on South Market Street in Wilmington , replacing a previous drawbridge that was only two lanes wide .
With the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , US 13 was routed to head through Wilmington along Market Street and to the northeast of Wilmington along Philadelphia Pike . In 1926 , the Delaware State Highway Department suggested the Philadelphia Pike be widened . US 13 was widened along the Philadelphia Pike between Shellpot Park and Bellevue Quarry in 1927 . In 1928 , the widening of Philadelphia Pike was completed .
By 1932 , US 13 was split into the one @-@ way pair of French Street northbound and Market Street southbound in the downtown area . Both directions of the route was shifted to use French Street by 1936 . On July 18 , 1938 , the grade crossing with the Reading Railroad ( now abandoned ) and the Pennsylvania Railroad ( now Norfolk Southern 's Shellpot Branch ) on South Market Street in Wilmington was eliminated with the opening of a bridge over the railroad tracks .
In 1952 , a new bridge over the Christina River , the Walnut Street Bridge , was proposed to link Walnut Street in the downtown area with the Dupont Parkway section of US 13 south of the city . Under this plan , the Walnut Street Bridge would be used for northbound traffic while the South Market Street Bridge would be used for southbound traffic . By this time , US 13 was routed on a one @-@ way pair in the downtown area , using Walnut Street northbound and French Street southbound . A year later , the Walnut Street Bridge project was under contract . Construction on the project began in 1955 . Construction of the Walnut Street Extension , which included the drawbridge , approach roads , and a new bridge under the Pennsylvania Railroad ( now Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor ) , was completed in 1957 . As a result , US 13 was split into the one @-@ way pair of South Walnut Street northbound and South Market Street southbound between the south end of the city and downtown .
Plans were made to widen the Philadelphia Pike to a four @-@ lane road between Bellevue Road and Claymont in 1954 . The widening project was completed in 1956 . US 13 Bus. was established in 1970 , replacing the former alignment of US 13 through Wilmington that was shifted to bypass the city along the former US 13 Alt . By 1976 , southbound US 13 Bus. was shifted to use King Street instead of French Street through downtown Wilmington .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Most Wanted ( Hilary Duff album ) =
Most Wanted is the first compilation album of American singer Hilary Duff . It was released on August 10 , 2005 , by Hollywood Records . The album comprises ten previously released tracks ( three of which are in a remixed form ) , and three new recordings : " Wake Up " , " Beat of My Heart " , and " Break My Heart " . A deluxe edition of the album , subtitled The Collector 's Signature Edition , was also released , containing additional remixes and another new recording " Supergirl " . At first , Duff was concerned about the reaction of fans to the new songs , since they carry a " totally different sound " and are more dance @-@ oriented than her previous music .
Following its release , Most Wanted received mostly negative reviews from critics , who deemed the release as premature , stating that Duff did not have enough material to warrant a compilation . However , the Dead Executives @-@ produced tracks received favorable comments ; critics wrote that they stood out from the rest of the album . In the United States , the album debuted atop the Billboard 200 chart , becoming Duff 's second number one album there . It was later certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Elsewhere , it debuted at number one in Canada , and reached the top ten in Australia , Ireland , Italy , Japan and New Zealand .
Four singles were released from the album . The lead single , " Wake Up " , was released in August 2005 , and peaked within the top ten in countries including Italy , Norway and the United Kingdom . In the United States , the song reached number 29 and was certified Gold by the RIAA . The accompanying music video features Duff portraying styles from cities over the world like London and Tokyo . The second single , " Beat of My Heart " , peaked in the top 20 in countries such as Australia , Italy and Spain . " Supergirl " was released in February 2006 exclusively to the iTunes Store as the album 's third single and " Fly " , originally released as the lead single from Hilary Duff , was released throughout Europe as the fourth and final single from Most Wanted . Duff embarked on the worldwide Still Most Wanted Tour in support of the album ; the tour ran from July 2005 through September 2006 .
= = Background and development = =
Following Hollywood 's reported disappointment in the lack of sales longevity of the Hilary Duff album and the chart performance of " Fly " , all further single releases from Hilary Duff in the United States were cancelled and the Most Wanted project was quickly conceived . On May 20 , 2005 , MTV News reported that Duff would be releasing a new album in August , comprising previously released tracks and four new recordings . It was also announced that preceding the album 's release , Duff would begin a 32 @-@ date summer concert tour in support of the album . Four days later , on May 24 , the album 's title was revealed to be Most Wanted , and the album 's release date was announced to be August 16 , 2005 . The following month , in an interview with MTV News , Duff said that she had been working with brothers Joel and Benji Madden , of the American rock band Good Charlotte , and Jason Epperson ( together known under the production name the Dead Executives ) to write and produce new songs for the compilation . She said that " ... they 're three of my favorite songs I 've ever done . ... It was really fun being in the studio with them . " Described by Duff as the first time when " all the responsibility was on [ her ] " , she went into the recording studio without the guidance of her record label or management . According to Duff , she did not tell anyone at her record label that she was working with the Dead Executives . Joel , whom Duff had been dating at the time , was aware that she needed new material for a compilation album , and knew that she wanted a " totally different sound " . Together , the Dead Executives went into the recording studio and worked on new music for Duff , before bringing her into the studio to collectively work on them .
Duff described working with them as pleasant , and the music as a new milestone in her career , stating that working with " people you 're close with makes a world of difference when you 're recording and being creative . " At the same time , Duff was also nervous about how her fans would react to the new music . Duff recorded four tracks for the album , three of which appear on the standard edition of the album — " Wake Up " , " Beat of My Heart " and " Break My Heart " — while the fourth appears only on the deluxe edition : " Supergirl " . The song was penned by Duff alongside Kara DioGuardi and Greg Wells . The track listing for Most Wanted was revealed on July 12 , 2005 , and the album was released on August 16 , 2005 in the United States and Canada . The Japanese standard edition of the album features the same track listing as The Collector 's Signature Edition , with additional remixes of " Wake Up " by DJ Kaya , and was released on August 10 , 2005 . Another version with a bonus DVD including music videos to selected songs and " making of " clips was also released in the same region . In the US , the iTunes digital version includes an interview with Duff . A deluxe edition of the album , subtitled The Collector 's Signature Edition , was also released , containing an acoustic version of " Who 's That Girl ? " , an alternate version of " Jericho " and a remix of " Party Up " along with " Supergirl " . The pressing features a different album art and was packed with four autographed photo cards and a wristband . Most Wanted also contains 10 previously released tracks from Metamorphosis ( 2003 ) and Hilary Duff ( 2004 ) , as well as songs from soundtracks of Duff 's films : The Lizzie McGuire Movie ( 2003 ) and A Cinderella Story ( 2004 ) , three of which — " Come Clean " , " Rock This World " and " Why Not " — are in a remixed form .
= = New material = =
" Wake Up " , the opening track , is a mid @-@ tempo number backed by dance , pop and electronic beats , and has " a more mature pop @-@ techno sound " than Duff 's previous work . Its instrumentation includes a guitar , bass and drums . Kelefa Anneth of The New York Times noted that the song contains musical influences of The Go @-@ Go 's . The lyrics of the song speak about having fun . Duff initially sings about the consequences of her fame and how people think they know " everything about [ me ] " ( " There 's people talking / They talk about me / They know my name / They think they know everything / But they don 't know anything about me " ) . As the chorus draws near , the song takes on a " party anthem " approach , where Duff discusses the " struggle " for joy and self @-@ confidence : " I know I make mistakes / I 'm living life day to day / It 's never really easy but it 's OK ... " According to Duff , the song " makes you want to forget about all the pressure of dealing with your boss , or your teacher , or your mom , or [ whoever ] , " and lyrically discusses " getting out and not forgetting to have some fun . " Duff has also said the song also " talks about being in all [ my ] favorite places in the world , which is Tokyo and Paris and London and New York . " " Beat of My Heart " , the third track on the album , is inspired by the new wave genre . The song also draws influences from the bubblegum pop and dance genres . It carries a " soft electronic pop " sound and has the heart beat sound as its base . According to Chuck Taylor of Billboard magazine , the word ' beat of my heart ' is repeated forty @-@ four times in the song .
The next new track and the ninth track on the album , " Break My Heart " is another dance @-@ inspired number incorporating pop punk elements , and was described as a " highly produced four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor rocker . " The song interpolates " slick and clean ' punk ' guitars and a chugging rhythm " . " Break My Heart " leans more towards the rock genre and was compared to the works of Good Charlotte . The lyrics describe the feelings faced by the protagonist , following her heartbreak . Bill Lamb of About.com observed that " Beat of My Heart " and " Break My Heart " were " cookie cutter copies " of Avril Lavigne 's " Sk8er Boi " ( 2002 ) . " Come Clean " , " Why Not " and " Rock This World " are featured as club remixes in Most Wanted . According to Spence D. of IGN , " Come Clean " , remixed by Chris Cox exhibits elements of house music , while " Rock This World " displays " Kid Rock @-@ meets @-@ Aerosmith rock blitz " . He classified the remix of " Why Not " as a " hyperkinetic pop " sped @-@ up to a " level of sugar high bounce " . Another remix , of the Diane Warren @-@ penned " I Am " , is included as a hidden track , with added synths to give it a ' 80s indie feel . The version of " Girl Can Rock " featured on the album , according to Anthony Miccio of Baltimore City Paper has a chord progression similar to the song " Cherry Pie " by American band Warrant . The song displays elements of country music and the lyrics are a " statement of purpose " . Duff sings the chorus , backed by a guitar : " It ain 't no shock / The girl can rock " .
= = Critical response = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic gave a mixed review of Most Wanted , stating that " hardcore fans will be hard @-@ pressed for a reason to add this to their collection " and that the new songs — " Wake Up " , " Beat of My Heart " and " Break My Heart " — " sound a bit like leftovers " . Although he wrote that Most Wanted " isn 't a terrible album by any means , it 's not particularly a good one , since Duff 's two pop albums [ Metamorphosis ( 2003 ) and Hilary Duff ( 2004 ) ] have distinctive personalities that don 't necessarily mesh together [ ... ] , and are both more fun than this . " Bill Lamb of About.com noted that the three new songs " seem to be marking time instead of finding a new direction " but said that " [ the ] remaining bulk of this collection is strong . " Anthony Miccio , from the Baltimore City Paper , wrote that the album " doesn 't signify the closure of a brief career " but is " meant to satisfy an audience that won 't be offended by the opportunity to buy their favorite songs again and again . " He noted that Duff 's voice was not strong enough and stated that the " rock tracks are surprisingly sluggish . " Talia Kraines of BBC Music commented that " ... there isn 't enough here to warrant a purchase if you 're already the owner of her back catalogue . But if you 're after your first taste of Duff @-@ flavoured pop to listen to in the background as you do your homework , then this album can do no harm . "
Spence D. of IGN stated that " the only draw for this album are the three new tracks and the three remixes . " He further commented that Most Wanted is a " filler album " and that " [ T ] he new songs that are served up still show Duff chasing trends rather than setting them and actively searching for her own voice and image . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine was critical of the album writing he " literally laughed out loud when I heard the Duffster was releasing a best @-@ of album titled Most Wanted . " He praised the Dead Executives produced tracks and concluded the review by writing that " apparently there aren 't even enough bearable moments in Duff 's recording career to fill one CD " . Gabriel Leong of MTV Southeast Asia started the review by writing " A greatest hits album seems a tad flagrant when you 've only had two albums so far . So let 's call this one a compilation album instead . " Leong noted that the title fitted the album perfectly and that it proves " its innocuous appeal of infectious bubblegum pop . " David Hiltbrand of The Philadelphia Inquirer commented that it was " a little early in the career " to release a greatest hits album and that it showcased that " Duff is more product than talent . " Aidin Vaziri of San Francisco Chronicle also commented that it was premature as it was too early in Duff 's career to release a greatest hits compilation . He commended the new tracks produced by the Dead Executives writing that they " help alleviate the feeling that this is a total cash grab . " In 2006 , Rolling Stone included the album in their Lamest Greatest Hits Albums Ever list .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Most Wanted debuted at number one , with sales of over 208 @,@ 000 units . It became her first album to debut at the top , and her second album to top the chart after Metamorphosis ( 2003 ) . It stayed at the same position in its second week of release , after a 40 % drop in sales . In September 2005 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIIA ) for shipments of over one million copies . By January 13 , 2007 , the album had sold over 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In Canada , the album became Duff 's third consecutive album to debut at number one , selling 45 @,@ 000 units in its initial week . In December 2005 , it was certified two times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for shipments of over 200 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , the album debuted at number three and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of over 70 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , it debuted at number 17 and two weeks later , peaked at number 10 becoming Duff 's first and only top 10 entry in New Zealand , to date . As of July 27 , 2014 , the album had sold 1 @,@ 489 @,@ 000 million copies in the United States .
Overseas , in the United Kingdom , Most Wanted debuted at number 31 , with first @-@ week sales of 10 @,@ 661 copies , and stayed on the chart for a total of five weeks . It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies in January 2006 . The album peaked at number eight on the Irish Albums Chart and stayed on the charts for eighteen weeks , with its final appearance on the chart at number sixty @-@ nine . It was certified gold by the Irish Recorded Music Association ( IRMA ) denoting sales / shipments of 7 @,@ 500 copies . In Japan , the album debuted at number three on the Oricon charts , with sales of 38892 units . It stayed on the chart for fourteen weeks and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . Most Wanted also peaked within the top 10 in Italy and Ireland , and the top fifty in Mexico and Spain . Due to its appearance on many European charts , it peaked at number 59 on the European Albums Chart , as compiled by Billboard 's Music & Media .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Singles = = =
" Wake Up " was released as the lead single from Most Wanted . It was serviced to US mainstream radio on July 12 , 2005 , and was physically released on August 26 , 2005 . The song was met with generally mixed reviews from critics ; a few noted that the Madden @-@ produced track was a standout on the album . Chuck Taylor of Billboard called the song " an easy ace " and deemed it " a summer beach staple " . He also commended Duff 's vocal style in the song and remarked that it would " put her singing career on par with her hyperactive acting endeavors . " Stephen Thomas Erlwine of Allmusic commented that it sounded like " leftovers " Commercially , " Wake Up " peaked within the top 10 in Italy , Ireland , Norway , Spain and the United Kingdom . In the United States , the song reached number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Duff 's highest peak at the time . The accompanying music video for the song , directed by Marc Webb , portrays Duff in several different looks , representing styles from Tokyo , London , Paris and New York City .
" Beat of My Heart " was released as the second single from Most Wanted on December 12 , 2005 . The song received generally negative reviews from critics , who labelled it repetitive . Chuck Taylor of Billboard wrote : " Pop music is always appreciated , but this is a kiddie anthem , plain and simple , so repetitive and childlike [ ... ] that is hardly a contender for contemporary radio . " The song failed to chart in the US , but was a moderate success elsewhere , peaking within the top 10 in Italy , and the top @-@ twenty in Australia and Spain . The song 's accompanying music video , directed by Phil Harder ,
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the equilibrium of the complex . Due to the delay in the docking of Kristall , EO @-@ 6 was extended by 10 days to permit the activation of the module ’ s systems and to accommodate an EVA to repair the loose thermal blankets on Soyuz TM @-@ 9 .
Kristall contained furnaces for use in producing crystals under microgravity conditions ( hence the choice of name for the module ) . The module was also equipped with biotechnology research equipment , including a small greenhouse for plant cultivation experiments which was equipped with a source of light and a feeding system , in addition to equipment for astronomical observations . The most obvious features of the module , however , were the two Androgynous Peripheral Attach System ( APAS @-@ 89 ) docking ports designed to be compatible with the Buran spacecraft . Although they were never used in a Buran docking , they were useful later during the Shuttle @-@ Mir programme , providing a berthing location for U.S Space Shuttles .
The EO @-@ 7 relief crew arrived aboard Soyuz TM @-@ 10 on 3 August 1990 . The new crew arrived at Mir with quail for Kvant @-@ 2 's cages , one of which laid an egg en route to the station . It was returned to Earth , along with 130 kg of experiment results and industrial products , in Soyuz TM @-@ 9 . Two more expeditions , EO @-@ 8 and EO @-@ 9 , continued the work of their predecessors whilst tensions grew back on Earth .
= = = = Post @-@ Soviet period = = = =
The EO @-@ 10 crew , launched aboard Soyuz TM @-@ 13 on 2 October 1991 , was the last crew to launch from the USSR and continued the occupation of Mir through the fall of the Soviet Union . The crew is notable for having launched as Soviet citizens and returning to earth as Russians . The newly formed Russian Federal Space Agency ( Roskosmos ) was unable to finance the unlaunched Spektr and Priroda modules , instead putting them into storage and ending Mir 's second expansion .
The first manned mission flown from an independent Kazakhstan was Soyuz TM @-@ 14 , launched on 17 March 1992 , which carried the EO @-@ 11 crew to Mir , docking on 19 March before the departure of Soyuz TM @-@ 13 . On 17 June , Russian President Boris Yeltsin and U.S. President George H. W. Bush announced what would later become the Shuttle @-@ Mir programme , a cooperative venture which proved useful to the cash @-@ strapped Roskosmos ( and led to the eventual completion and launch of Spektr and Priroda ) . EO @-@ 12 followed in July , alongside a brief visit by French astronaut Michel Tognini . The following crew , EO @-@ 13 , began preparations for the Shuttle @-@ Mir programme by flying to the station in a modified spacecraft , Soyuz TM @-@ 16 ( launched on 26 January 1993 ) , which was equipped with an APAS @-@ 89 docking system rather than the usual probe @-@ and @-@ drogue , enabling it to dock to Kristall and test the port which would later be used by U.S. space shuttles . The spacecraft also enabled controllers to obtain data on the dynamics of docking a spacecraft to a space station off the station 's longitudinal axis , in addition to data on the structural integrity of this configuration via a test called Rezonans conducted on 28 January . Soyuz TM @-@ 15 , meanwhile , departed with the EO @-@ 12 crew on 1 February .
Throughout the period following the collapse of the USSR , crews on Mir experienced occasional reminders of the economic chaos occurring in Russia . The initial cancellation of Spektr and Priroda was the first such sign , followed by the reduction in communications as a result of the fleet of tracking ships being withdrawn from service by Ukraine . The new Ukrainian government also vastly raised the price of the Kurs docking systems , manufactured in Kiev – the Russians ' attempts to reduce their dependence on Kurs would later lead to accidents during TORU tests in 1997 . Various Progress spacecraft had parts of their cargoes missing , either because the consumable in question had been unavailable , or because the ground crews at Baikonur had , in desperation , looted them . The problems became particularly obvious during the launch of the EO @-@ 14 crew aboard Soyuz TM @-@ 17 in July ; shortly before launch there was a black @-@ out at the pad , and the entire power supply to the nearby city of Leninsk failed an hour after launch . Nevertheless , the spacecraft launched on time and arrived at the station two days later . All of Mir 's ports , however , were occupied , and so Soyuz TM @-@ 17 had to station @-@ keep 200 metres away from the station for half an hour before docking whilst Progress M @-@ 18 vacated the core module 's front port and departed .
The EO @-@ 13 crew departed on 22 July , and soon after Mir passed through the annual Perseid meteor shower , during which the station was hit by several particles . A spacewalk was conducted on 28 September to inspect the station 's hull , but no serious damage was reported . Soyuz TM @-@ 18 arrived on 10 January 1994 carrying the EO @-@ 15 crew ( including Valeri Polyakov , who was to remain on Mir for 14 months ) , and Soyuz TM @-@ 17 left on 14 January . The undocking was unusual , however , in that the spacecraft was to pass along Kristall in order to obtain photographs of the APAS to assist in the training of space shuttle pilots . Due to an error in setting up the control system , the spacecraft struck the station a glancing blow during the manoeuvre , scratching the exterior of Kristall .
On 3 February 1994 , Mir veteran Sergei Krikalev became the first Russian cosmonaut to launch on a U.S. spacecraft , flying on Space Shuttle Discovery during STS @-@ 60 .
The launch of Soyuz TM @-@ 19 , carrying the EO @-@ 16 crew , was delayed due to the unavailability of a payload fairing for the booster that was to carry it , but the spacecraft eventually left Earth on 1 July 1994 and docked two days later . They stayed only four months to allow the Soyuz schedule to line up with the planned space shuttle manifest , and so Polyakov greeted a second resident crew in October , prior to the undocking of Soyuz TM @-@ 19 , when the EO @-@ 17 crew arrived in Soyuz TM @-@ 20 .
= = = = Shuttle – Mir = = = =
The 3 February launch of Space Shuttle Discovery , flying STS @-@ 63 , opened operations on Mir for 1995 . Referred to as the " near @-@ Mir " mission , the mission saw the first rendezvous of a space shuttle with Mir as the orbiter approached within 37 feet ( 11 m ) of the station as a dress rehearsal for later docking missions and for equipment testing . Five weeks after Discovery 's departure , the EO @-@ 18 crew , including the first U.S. cosmonaut Norman Thagard , arrived in Soyuz TM @-@ 21 . The EO @-@ 17 crew left a few days later , with Polyakov completing his record @-@ breaking 437 @-@ day spaceflight . During EO @-@ 18 , the Spektr science module ( which served as living and working space for American astronauts ) was launched aboard a Proton rocket and docked to the station , carrying research equipment from America and other nations . The expedition 's crew returned to Earth aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis following the first Shuttle – Mir docking mission , STS @-@ 71 . Atlantis , launched on 27 June 1995 , successfully docked with Mir on 29 June becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to dock with a Russian spacecraft since the ASTP in 1975 . The orbiter delivered the EO @-@ 19 crew and returned the EO @-@ 18 crew to Earth . The EO @-@ 20 crew were launched on 3 September , followed in November by the arrival of the docking module during STS @-@ 74 .
The two @-@ man EO @-@ 21 crew was launched on 21 February 1996 aboard Soyuz TM @-@ 23 and were soon joined by U.S. crew member Shannon Lucid , who was brought to the station by Atlantis during STS @-@ 76 . This mission saw the first joint U.S. spacewalk on Mir take place deploying the Mir Environmental Effects Payload package on the docking module . Lucid became the first American to carry out a long @-@ duration mission aboard Mir with her 188 @-@ day mission , which set the U.S. single spaceflight record . During Lucid 's time aboard Mir , Priroda , the station 's final module , arrived as did French visitor Claudie Haigneré flying the Cassiopée mission . The flight aboard Soyuz TM @-@ 24 also delivered the EO @-@ 22 crew of Valery Korzun and Aleksandr Kaleri .
Lucid 's stay aboard Mir ended with the flight of Atlantis on STS @-@ 79 , which launched on 16 September . This , the fourth docking , saw John Blaha transferring onto Mir to take his place as resident U.S. astronaut . His stay on the station improved operations in several areas , including transfer procedures for a docked space shuttle , " hand @-@ over " procedures for long @-@ duration American crew members and " ham " amateur radio communications , and also saw two spacewalks to reconfigure the station 's power grid . Blaha spent four months with the EO @-@ 22 crew before returning to Earth aboard Atlantis on STS @-@ 81 in January 1997 , at which point he was replaced by physician Jerry Linenger . During his flight , Linenger became the first American to conduct a spacewalk from a foreign space station and the first to test the Russian @-@ built Orlan @-@ M spacesuit alongside Russian cosmonaut Vasili Tsibliyev , flying EO @-@ 23 . All three crew members of EO @-@ 23 performed a " fly @-@ around " in Soyuz TM @-@ 25 spacecraft . Linenger and his Russian crewmates Vasili Tsibliyev and Aleksandr Lazutkin faced several difficulties during the mission , including the most severe fire aboard an orbiting spacecraft ( caused by a malfunctioning Vika ) , failures of various systems , a near collision with Progress M @-@ 33 during a long @-@ distance TORU test and a total loss of station electrical power . The power failure also caused a loss of attitude control , which led to an uncontrolled " tumble " through space .
Linenger was succeeded by Anglo @-@ American astronaut Michael Foale , carried up by Atlantis on STS @-@ 84 , alongside Russian mission specialist Elena Kondakova . Foale 's increment proceeded fairly normally until 25 June when during the second test of the Progress manual docking system , TORU , Progress M @-@ 34 collided with solar arrays on the Spektr module and crashed into the module 's outer shell , puncturing the module and causing depressurisation on the station . Only quick actions on the part of the crew , cutting cables leading to the module and closing Spektr 's hatch , prevented the crews having to abandon the station in Soyuz TM @-@ 25 . Their efforts stabilised the station 's air pressure , whilst the pressure in Spektr , containing many of Foale 's experiments and personal effects , dropped to a vacuum . In an effort to restore some of the power and systems lost following the isolation of Spektr and to attempt to locate the leak , EO @-@ 24 commander Anatoly Solovyev and flight engineer Pavel Vinogradov carried out a risky salvage operation later in the flight , entering the empty module during a so @-@ called " intra @-@ vehicular activity " or " IVA " spacewalk and inspecting the condition of hardware and running cables through a special hatch from Spektr 's systems to the rest of the station . Following these first investigations , Foale and Solovyev conducted a 6 @-@ hour EVA outside Spektr to inspect the damage .
After these incidents , the U.S. Congress and NASA considered whether to abandon the programme out of concern for the astronauts ' safety , but NASA administrator Daniel Goldin decided to continue . The next flight to Mir , STS @-@ 86 , carried David Wolf aboard Atlantis . During the orbiter 's stay , Titov and Parazynski conducted a spacewalk to affix a cap to the docking module for a future attempt by crew members to seal the leak in Spektr 's hull . Wolf spent 119 days aboard Mir with the EO @-@ 24 crew and was replaced during STS @-@ 89 with Andy Thomas , who carried out the last U.S. expedition on Mir . The EO @-@ 25 crew arrived in Soyuz TM @-@ 27 in January 1998 before Thomas returned to Earth on the final Shuttle – Mir mission , STS @-@ 91 .
= = = = Final days and deorbit = = = =
Following the 8 June 1998 departure of Discovery , the EO @-@ 25 crew of Budarin and Musabayev remained on Mir , completing materials experiments and compiling a station inventory . On 2 July , Roskosmos director Yuri Koptev announced that , due to a lack of funding to keep Mir active , the station would be deorbited in June 1999 . The EO @-@ 26 crew of Gennady Padalka and Sergei Avdeyev arrived on 15 August in Soyuz TM @-@ 28 , alongside physicist Yuri Baturin , who departed with the EO @-@ 25 crew on 25 August in Soyuz TM @-@ 27 . The crew carried out two spacewalks , one inside Spektr to reseat some power cables and another outside to set up experiments delivered by Progress M @-@ 40 , which also carried a large amount of propellant to begin alterations to Mir 's orbit ready for the station 's decommissioning . 20 November 1998 saw the launch of Zarya , the first module of the International Space Station , but delays to the new station 's service module Zvezda had led to calls for Mir to be kept in orbit past 1999 . Roskosmos , however , confirmed that it would not fund Mir past the set deorbit date .
The crew of EO @-@ 27 , Viktor Afanasyev and Jean @-@ Pierre Haigneré , arrived in Soyuz TM @-@ 29 on 22 February 1999 alongside Ivan Bella , who returned to Earth with Padalka in Soyuz TM @-@ 28 . The crew carried out three EVAs to retrieve experiments and deploy a prototype communications antenna on Sofora . On 1 June it was announced that the deorbit of the station would be delayed by six months to allow time to seek alternative funding to keep the station operating . The rest of the expedition was spent preparing the station for its deorbit ; a special analog computer was installed and each of the modules , starting with the docking module , was mothballed in turn and sealed off . The crew
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of focus on the first Southern primary state of South Carolina as a strategy . While speaking to rural audiences Biden noted that the war in Iraq continued to be an important facet of his campaign agenda . He said that he would talk to Independent voters to convince them to propel him to the nomination stating that if " the Democratic nominee cannot attract independents , Democrats cannot win " . Biden would later drop out of the race before the South Carolina primary would take place .
= = = Second @-@ quarter 2007 = = =
In April 2007 Biden criticized Republican presidential candidate John McCain calling him " fundamentally wrong " for his support of the surge policy in Iraq . Biden wrote an opinion column to the Sacramento Bee , which called the surge a " failed policy " . He conceded that violence was down in Iraq but that the " militia ... simply waiting out the surge " accounted for the downward trend . Biden argued that no political change had occurred as there had been " no trust of the government by the [ Iraqi ] people . " He later described his plan which calls for a system of federalism .
As the debate stage of the election began , Biden participated in the first presidential debate of the election on April 26 , 2007 in South Carolina . He was the second to respond to a question originally posed to Senator Hillary Clinton on whether Senator Harry Reid 's assessment that the war in Iraq was " lost " is factual . Biden responded by stating the war is not a " game show " or a " football game " , which can be lost . He went on to argue that the real question that should be asked is , " Are we going to be able to leave Iraq ... and leave behind something other than chaos ? " He elaborated on this statement revealing his belief in the need for a change in the strategy for Iraq , declaring that the United States has to " change the fundamental premise of this engagement , and that is ... to decentralize Iraq ... give the regions control over their own destiny ... "
After the South Carolina debate , Biden campaigned in California to begin May 2007 attending events in San Francisco . Later in the month after President George W. Bush enacted economic sanctions against Sudan to pressure the government to end the genocide in Darfur , Biden momentarily shifted focus from Iraq to the crisis in Darfur . He released a statement on the campaign trail that expressed his belief that Bush was right to enact the sanctions . However , Biden argued that it was not enough , calling for a No @-@ Fly Zone over the region and a possible commitment of United States forces to the nation .
On June 3 , Biden participated in the second Democratic Debate featured on CNN , and set in the first primary state of New Hampshire . Biden discussed the War in Iraq , his recent vote to continue the funding of the troops and briefly about illegal immigration . On immigration Biden stated that it would cost too much money to send all 14 million illegal immigrants back to their native countries . He stated that those who commit crimes should be sent back and the rest should be given a pathway to citizenship . His statement : " Folks , being commander in chief requires you to occasionally be practical . " drew some laughter from the audience . Later in the debate Biden addressed his opposition to the " Don 't ask , don 't tell " policy of the military and touched on the situation in Darfur .
Later in June , Biden participated in another debate , this time featured on PBS and set at Howard University in Washington D.C. At the debate the candidates discussed issues pertinent to African @-@ Americans including education , civil rights and reproductive safety . Biden stated that to prevent the spread of AIDS public servants have to communicate to " black men ... [ that ] it is not unmanly to wear a condom , getting women to understand they can say no , getting people in the position where testing matters . I got tested for AIDS . I know Barack [ Obama ] got tested for AIDS . "
= = = Third @-@ quarter 2007 = = =
The next month Biden participated in two debates : The July 12 Debate in Detroit , Michigan and most notably the July 23 YouTube debate in Charleston , South Carolina featured on CNN . In this debate when asked what Republican he would pick as a running mate if forced , Biden answered , " I would pick Chuck Hagel , and I 'd consider asking Dick Lugar to be secretary of state . " In regards to Iraq , Biden stated that it was unrealistic to say that all troops would be redeployed . He instructed those who used that rhetoric to " Tell the truth for a change . " When he discussed education Biden declared that he " would scrap " the No Child Left Behind Act . He concluded his participation in the debate after being asked to say something he didn 't like about the candidate to his left , Dennis Kucinich . Biden replied , " I don 't like a damn thing about him ... only kidding . "
The next month Biden was not able to participate in two debates , the August 4 debate sponsored by the DailyKos and the August 9 LGBT Debate featured on the gay network Logo . He participated in the August 7 AFL @-@ CIO Debate and the August 19 Iowa debate featured on ABC . On August 20 Biden aired his first campaign advertisement in the first caucus state of Iowa . In the 30 @-@ second ad a voiceover states that Biden has a plan to end the Iraq War , and that " We ( America ) must end this war in a way that doesn 't require us to send their ( soldiers ) grandchild back . " It continues by declaring , " Joe Biden is the only candidate with a plan to get us out of Iraq and keep us out . "
As September began , while on the campaign trail in Iowa , Biden confided to the Associated Press that he was " counting on Iowa a lot " . He hoped to come in " first , second or an indistinguishable third " and if not he would leave the campaign trail and return to Washington . His early statements seemed to mirror the future as he would ultimately drop out of the race after finishing lower than third in the Iowa Caucus . The results also presented a refutation of what he stated in September 2007 when he said that the campaign was " gaining some traction [ in Iowa ] . " The September 2007 assessments made by University of Iowa professor Bruce Gronbeck and Drake University professor Dennis Goldford displayed more merit at the end of the race after Gronbeck stated that Biden was not gaining traction in the race and with Goldford adding that " [ Biden ] talks like a senator , not a president " . Democratic strategist Ron Parker argued in September that Biden still had a chance but just had to sell his case to the American people .
On September 9 , two days before the Iraq commanding General David Petraeus addressed the Senate , Biden stated that , " I really respect him , and I think he 's dead flat wrong [ about the War in Iraq ] " . He criticized the president , arguing , " This president has no plan – how to win and / or how to leave " . During the September 11 testimony by the General , Biden stated that the question to be asked to determine progress was " Are we any closer to a lasting political settlement in Iraq at the national level today than we were when the surge began eight months ago ? " He answered his own question by stating " In my judgment , I must tell you , based on my experience and my observation here , as well as in @-@ country , the answer to ... [ the ] questions is no . " After the testimony concluded , Biden and other Democrats were criticized for their conduct during the deliberations . In the following weeks Biden would continue with these arguments while campaigning .
At the September 26 MSNBC debate , Biden explained how he would allow for Social security to last . He said that in the 1980s he had a meeting with prominent members of Congress and the solution they came up with was the raise the cap level , he stated that now the same solution would apply and that unity between the two parties was also necessary , " It was Joe Biden , Pat Moynihan , Bob Dole ... [ and ] George Mitchell when we made that deal [ to reform social security ] . I 'll never forget Bob Dole turning to Pat Moynihan and saying , ' we all got to jump in this boat at the same time . ' So the bottom line here is , you can 't do it by growing the economy alone . So I would raise the cap . " Later in the debate Biden was one of three participants ( along with Dodd and Richardson ) who said they would ban smoking in public places .
= = = Fourth @-@ quarter 2007 = = =
On October 23 Biden revealed his health care plan . It called for expanded coverage for children and adults but stops short of mandates for complete universal coverage . It aimed to encourage wellness and modernization of treatment . Biden stated it would cost between $ 80 billion and $ 110 billion per year . He said it could have been paid with a rollback of tax cuts of the richest 1 % bracket , capital gains and dividends and the elimination of tax loopholes for hedge fund managers and private equity partners . The plan would also had increased the SCHIP program to include children 300 % above the poverty level .
At the October 30 , 2007 debate in Philadelphia and the November 15 debate in Las Vegas , Biden was noted for some one @-@ liners that drew some laughter from the audience . First , when speaking about Rudy Giuliani at the Philadelphia debate , Biden stated , " There 's only three things he mentions in a sentence : a noun , and a verb and 9 / 11 . " At the Las Vegas debate Biden seemed to attack all his opponents when he stated , " I know there 's more to say , Campbell . I appreciate you asking me the question and I 'm sorry I answered it . I know you 're not supposed to answer questions , based on what I 've heard . "
In his final debate before the Iowa Caucus , Biden participated in the December 13 forum sponsored by The Des Moines Register . His most notable part came when asked to respond to allegations that he was " uncomfortable " speaking about race since making remarks earlier in the year when he referred to Barack Obama using the adjectives " clean " and " articulate " . Biden answered the question remarking that anyone who has known him knew of this commitment to civil rights and race relations . Barack Obama came to his defense , saying : " Joe is on the right side of the issues and is fighting every day for a better America . "
Following the debate and subsequent assassination of former Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto , Biden shifted focus of his campaign to the issue of relations toward the nation of Pakistan . He stated that the country was " the most dangerous nation on the planet " and that he had made that assertion on previous occasions . The event marked an opportunity for a candidate such as Biden with past foreign policy experience to gain momentum in the opinion polls with the looming Iowa Caucus less than a week away . Biden finished off the year 's campaigning trying to improve his standing in the race by speaking of the events surrounding the situation in Pakistan and particularly his solution of protecting the nuclear weapons of the nation .
= = = Withdrawal = = =
After a finishing fifth place in the Iowa Caucus on January 3 , 2008 , garnering only one percent of the total vote , Biden ended his presidential bid . In a tearful rally with family and friends by his side , Biden declared , " I ain 't going away . I 'll be going back to the Senate as the chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee and I will continue to make the case I 've been making ... " The end of this campaign marked the end of all presidential campaigns for Biden who stated that this run would be his last .
= = Financials = =
According to the Federal Elections Commission Biden took in $ 4 @,@ 013 @,@ 090 , sixth among Democrats and spent $ 1 @,@ 174 @,@ 174 . Most of his support came from New York and all of his support came from Northeastern States . Biden raised $ 2 @,@ 343 @,@ 639 in the second quarter . He spent $ 2 @,@ 517 @,@ 654 which left $ 2 @,@ 772 @,@ 442 cash on hand . The most support came from the state of New York which donated $ 571 @,@ 800 . Biden raised nearly $ 2 million in the third quarter . This was fourth among Democrats . Biden has qualified for matching funds for his primary campaign but did not decide whether or not to accept them . According to the Center for Responsive Politics , Joe Biden raised $ 8 @,@ 215 @,@ 739 for his presidency campaign . Individual contributors gave $ 6 @,@ 087 @,@ 885 toward his campaign , PACs gave $ 101 @,@ 475 , and $ 2 @,@ 026 @,@ 379 has come from his Senate Re @-@ election Fund . 66 % of the PAC contributions came from business groups , 19 % from labor groups , and the final 16 % from ideological organizations . 19 @.@ 3 % of his finances had been disclosed , while 80 @.@ 7 % had not . When he withdrew , Biden had $ 1 @,@ 886 @,@ 340 on hand , spent $ 6 @,@ 329 @,@ 324 , and had a total of $ 128 @,@ 210 in debts .
= = Public perceptions = =
= = = Endorsements = = =
= = = Polling = = =
Perhaps the biggest problem Biden faced was the fact that voters did not know about him and his candidacy . An April 2 – 5 poll conducted by Gallup found that 38 % of the public had never heard of Joe Biden and 17 % had no opinion at all about him . In contrast , 0 % of the public had never heard of Hillary Clinton and only 3 % had no opinion according to a June 1 – 3 poll by Gallup . A September poll conducted by Clemson University found that 36 % of the public had never heard of Joe Biden and only 44 % had a favorable opinion of him . However , this was the highest awareness rating in the Democratic field outside of the frontrunners ( Clinton , Obama , and Edwards ) and non @-@ declared but highly discussed Al Gore . A September 18 poll found that 56 % of respondents had not heard enough about Biden to form an opinion about him .
Biden had remained low in the opinion polls when compared to other candidates . A Rasmussen survey taken September 19 – 24 put him in fourth place among his Democratic opponents at 4 % , trailing Hillary Clinton , Barack Obama , John Edwards . In the American Research Group , Biden was fourth at 5 % behind Hillary Clinton , Barack Obama , and John Edwards , for the month of October 2007 . In head @-@ to @-@ head matchups with Republican candidates , Biden trailed Senator John McCain on January 10 , 2007 38 % to 46 % . On July 17 , Biden trailed former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani 37 % to 46 % . The closest Biden came to a GOP candidate in a head to head matchup was against former Senator Fred Thompson , trailing him 38 % to 40 % on July 17 , 2007 .
= = = Experience vs. change = = =
Biden spoke of the fact that he had spent 34 years in the Senate and had been active in many congressional committees including being the chairman of the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations and formerly holding the post as chairman of the Judiciary Committee . On the campaign trail he touted his years of foreign policy experience particularly in regard to the conflict in Bosnia , which he feels he played a role in ending . Biden stated earlier in his campaign that " [ he ] truly believe [ s ] the American public is waiting for leaders to come along who have the experience to say what they will do to restore America 's leadership in the world . " At times during his campaign he believed his experience would help him win the Democratic nomination , but when Barack Obama 's campaign began to surge with the candidate 's emphasis on change , Biden shifted his focus from his experience in politics to his ability for action . He stated during a November 2007 debate , " This [ election ] is not about experience . It 's not about change . It 's about action . Who among us is going to be able to , on Day 1 , step in and end the war ? "
= = = Plan for Iraq = = =
Earlier in his campaign the most important issue for Biden was the Conflict in Iraq . In November 2006 , Biden and Leslie Gelb , President Emeritus of the Council on Foreign Relations , released a comprehensive strategy to end sectarian violence in Iraq . Rather than continuing the present approach or withdrawing , the plan calls for " a third way " : federalizing Iraq and giving Kurds , Shiites , and Sunnis " breathing room " in their own regions . With public approval of the handling of the conflict decreasing considerably since the invasion in
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ic performance , particularly Foster 's " guileless show of shops " and Fortune 's woodwind playing , which he deemed the best on a Davis album from this decade . Henry Kaiser called Agharta the best ensemble performance of jazz 's electric era , and Steve Holtje , writing in MusicHound Jazz ( 1998 ) , credited Davis with conducting the album 's " heroes " to sculpt " moments of shattering beauty and soul @-@ rending vehemence " .
Despite being one of Davis ' lesser @-@ known records , Agharta belonged to a period in his career that influenced artists in British jazz , new wave , and punk rock , including guitarists Robert Quine and Tom Verlaine . It inspired a generation of musicians to focus on cathartic playing rather than precise instrumentation and composition . Quine was particularly fascinated by Cosey 's electric guitar sounds ; Lester Bangs , who attended his performance with the Voidoids in 1977 , claimed " he steals from Agharta ! And makes it work ! " Other writers later lauded the quality and originality of Cosey 's playing on the album , viewing it as a standard for guitar mastery and compositional contrast . Down Beat critic Bill Milkowski credited his excursive style for " spawning an entire school of ' sick ' guitar playing " and said the combination of Fortune 's acerbic sax lines atop Foster , Henderson , and Lucas ' syncopated grooves were 10 years ahead of Steve Coleman and Greg Osby 's M @-@ Base experiments . Tingen found Cosey 's solos amazingly revealing and still ahead of their time when heard decades later : " Sometimes growling , scurrying around all corners like a caged tiger , sometimes soaring like a bird , sometimes deliriously abstract , sometimes elegantly melodic and tender , his electric guitar concept is one of the most original to have been devised on the instrument . " In Christgau 's opinion , " the noises he produced for the second half of side one comprise some of the greatest free improvisations ever heard in a ' jazz ' - ' rock ' context . "
According to Nicholson , Agharta and other jazz @-@ rock recordings such as Emergency ! ( 1970 ) by the Tony Williams Lifetime suggested the genre was progressing toward " a whole new musical language ... a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before " . This development dwindled with the commercialism of jazz in the 1980s , he said , although Agharta remained a pivotal and influential record through the 1990s , especially on artists in the experimental rock genre . Along with On the Corner , it was also a major influence on the Beastie Boys ' 1994 hip hop album Ill Communication . In 1998 , composer and bandleader David Sanford completed his dissertation on Agharta as a doctoral student in composition at Princeton University . In it , he argued that the album demonstrated how jazz has utilized a variety of external influences " to evolve or modernize itself " . In an interview several years later , Sanford said it was an important work that had gone to the " fringes of jazz " and a place most other music has not explored since . In the All Music Guide to Jazz ( 2002 ) , Thom Jurek considered it to be inarguably the " greatest electric funk @-@ rock jazz record ever " and declared " there is simply nothing like Agharta in the canon of recorded music . "
= = Track listing = =
= = = 1975 double LP = = =
Side one
" Prelude ( Part 1 ) " – 22 : 34
Side two
" Prelude ( Part 2 ) " / 3 . " Maiysha " – 23 : 01
Side three
" Interlude " – 26 : 17
Side four
" Theme from Jack Johnson " – 25 : 59
= = = Track notes = = =
All tracks were credited to Miles Davis as the composer .
According to Paul Tingen , track one of the Master Sound edition contains the following compositions performed at the noted times : " Tatu " ( 0 : 00 ) and " Agharta Prelude " ( 22 : 01 ) ; track three contains " Right Off " ( 0 : 00 ) , " So What " ( 16 : 42 ) , " Ife " ( 17 : 23 ) , and " Wili ( = For Dave ) " ( 43 : 11 ) .
According to Brian Priestley 's discography , appended to Ian Carr 's Miles Davis : A Biography ( 1982 ) , the track titles " Interlude " and " Theme from Jack Johnson " were reversed on the disc label 's track listing and liner notes for all editions of Agharta ; " Theme from Jack Johnson " was meant to refer to side three , and " Interlude " to side four .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Musicians = = =
Pete Cosey – guitar , percussion , synthesizer
Miles Davis – organ , trumpet
Sonny Fortune – alto saxophone , flute , soprano saxophone
Al Foster – drums
Michael Henderson – bass
Reggie Lucas – guitar
James Mtume – congas , percussion , rhythm box , water drum
= = = Production = = =
Takaaki Amano – assistant engineering
Shigeo Anzai – photography
John Berg – artwork ( North American release )
Mitsuru Kasai – assistant engineering
Kiyoshia Koyama – liner notes
Yoshihiro Kumagai – liner notes
Teo Macero – production
Tadayuki Naitoh – photography
Keiichi Nakamura – album direction
Tamoo Suzuki – engineering
Tadanori Yokoo – artwork
= = Charts = =
= Nothing Important Happened Today =
" Nothing Important Happened Today " is the collective name for the ninth season premiere and the 183rd and 184th episodes of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . Part 1 first aired on November 11 and Part 2 aired on November 18 , 2001 on Fox in the United States . The episodes were written by executive producers Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz . " Nothing Important Happened Today I " was directed by Kim Manners and " Nothing Important Happened Today II " was directed by Tony Wharmby . The episode helped to explore the series ' overarching mythology and earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 5 and was viewed by 10 @.@ 6 million viewers , whereas the second part earned a rating of 5 @.@ 9 and was viewed by 9 @.@ 4 million viewers . Critical reception to the episode was largely mixed .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . " Nothing Important Happened Today " is a storyline milestone for the series . It introduced both the story arc about baby William which would continue to develop throughout the ninth season and AD Brad Follmer , a recurring character for the show 's ninth season . Part 1 deals with the investigation of Deputy Director Alvin Kersh by special agent John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Doggett 's related investigation into the death of EPA official Carl Wormus . In Part 2 , Scully , Reyes , and Doggett are led to a ship , where they find evidence of experimentation on human embryos .
The episode was supposed to mark the first appearance of recurring regular Lucy Lawless as Shannon McMahon , a female Super Soldier , but Lawless ' high @-@ risk pregnancy prevented her from returning to the show after these episodes . These episodes marked , however , the first appearance of recurring regular , Cary Elwes as Brad Follmer , an FBI Assistant Director . The phrase " Nothing Important Happened Today " comes from King George III 's supposed diary entry on 4 July 1776 , the same day that America declared Independence from Britain .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part 1 = = =
Carl Wormus , an EPA official , picks up a beautiful woman , Shannon McMahon ( Lucy Lawless ) , in a Baltimore bar . While he is driving her home , she forces the car off a bridge and holds Wormus underwater until he drowns . Later , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) meets FBI Assistant Director Brad Follmer ( Cary Elwes ) in his office , where he hands her two videotapes from the night Dana Scully 's ( Gillian Anderson ) son was born . The tapes show no evidence of the paranormal events John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) has reported . Doggett goes to Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) apartment to consult him , but finds it empty . Meanwhile , McMahon surfaces at a water reclamation plant and drowns a worker there .
Scully refuses to disclose Mulder 's whereabouts to Doggett , Meanwhile AD Skinner urges him to drop his investigation of Deputy Director Alvin Kersh 's ( James Pickens , Jr . ) actions against the X @-@ Files . Doggett tries to contact some of his old friends from the Marine Corps to find out what happened to Knowle Rohrer ( Adam Baldwin ) ; one of them turns out to be McMahon . Meanwhile , at FBI headquarters , an unseen figure slips Wormus ' obituary to Reyes . Scully 's baby causes the mobile of his crib to spin without touching it . Scully is shocked , contacts Doggett , and retracts her request , telling him to continue his investigation . Scully also performs an autopsy on Wormus ' body , where she finds fingerprints on his ankle . After leaving , Scully and Reyes see McMahon , who removes the body from the morgue . Follmer , whom Kersh has ordered to rein in Doggett , arrives at the scene and accuses Scully and Reyes of moving the body .
The Lone Gunmen find that Wormus had been receiving data from Roland McFarland , the drowned reclamation worker . Doggett breaks into McFarland 's office with Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and finds files on chloramine , a mutation @-@ inducing chemical , but Follmer arrives . Doggett slips into a filtration tank to hide , but is pulled deep underwater by McMahon .
= = = Part 2 = = =
The Captain ( Ryan Cutrona ) of a navy ship delivers a communication to Doctor Nordlinger ( Jeff Austin ) , who orders the ship 's captain to return the vintage WWII vessel to its base . Follmer leaves the water reclamation facility after failing to spot Doggett , who is still underwater ; Shannon McMahon keeps him alive by passing air from her lungs into his . Back at FBI headquarters , Reyes is warned by Follmer to distance herself from Doggett and his investigation of Kersh . Reyes believes that Follmer simply wants to get Doggett out of the FBI and storms out of the office . Doggett wakes up at his home to find McMahon , who tells him that both she and Knowle Rohrer are Super Soldiers , and that they cannot be killed , part of a military program . Doggett calls Dana Scully to his house , and McMahon tells them that the program is to be expanded by adding chloramine to the water supply . The navy ship is now docked in Baltimore and the Captain leaves the ship against security rules to call Carl Wormus , who was previously drowned by McMahon . Upon The Captain 's return to the ship , Knowle Rohrer approaches him , informing him that he is now second @-@ in @-@ command . He later queries The Captain as to the vessel 's mission . The body of the original officer is found in the water nearby .
Scully examines McMahon and finds her to be physically normal , Doggett thinks that they may be onto something whilst Reyes remains skeptical . Doggett is then suspended by Kersh and Follmer . Reyes tries to find out more about McMahon 's history and learns that she is a Department of Justice employee and had been contacted by Wormus and McFarland in their attempts to expose the plans to contaminate the water supply . The Lone Gunmen intercept a call from the captain to Wormus , who tells him to contact the FBI , Knowle Rohrer is nearby eavesdropping . The captain then pulls a gun on the Navy Seal guarding the entrance to the lab , demanding that Nordlinger surrender the project 's data . He does not notice Rohrer creeping up behind him . After hearing Reyes ' findings , Scully , Reyes and Doggett go to the ship . They expect to meet the captain , but instead find Rohrer . Just as Rohrer is about to crush Doggett 's skull , he is decapitated by McMahon . Rohrer is presumed dead , but soon awakens and stabs McMahon . Both bodies tumble into the water . The three agents board the ship , which is abandoned , and find the captain 's decapitated body . Scully gains access to the now empty lab and finds evidence of manipulation of ova . However , she is forced to leave when Doggett finds a time bomb on the bridge . The agents narrowly escape the explosion .
Later , Doggett confronts Kersh , who was not implicated in the conspiracy . Kersh explains to Doggett that he left the evidence that helped Doggett , and that he had told Mulder to flee , but ultimately it was Scully who actually convinced Mulder to do so . Meanwhile , Scully dreams of McMahon 's and Rohrer 's lifeless bodies below the harbor . Suddenly , she sees McMahon 's eyes snap open . Scully wakes up and the episode cuts to William 's mobile ; it begins to move on its own accord .
= = Production = =
The style of the opening credits in " Nothing Important Happened Today " were changed from the original credits , which , more or less , had been the same for the previous eight seasons . The credits included new graphics as well as new cards for Annabeth Gish and Mitch Pileggi . As Pileggi was absent from the following episode , " Dæmonicus " , the opening titles were altered and only featured Gillian Anderson , Robert Patrick and Gish . This version was used for all the episodes in the season without Pileggi .
The phrase " Nothing Important Happened Today " comes from King George III 's supposed diary entry on 4 July 1776 , the same day that America declared Independence from Britain . The first part of the episode marks the first appearance of Assistant Director Brad Follmer , who was named after Chris Carter 's writing assistant . Five different actors portrayed Baby William : Rikki Held , Rowdy Held , Ashley Knutson , James Riker and Travis Riker . The tagline for Part 2 is " Nothing Important Happened Today " , replacing the usual phrase " The Truth is Out There " .
After learning about the 2001 cancellation of Xena Warrior Princess , Lawless was approached by the producers of The X @-@ Files for a spot on the show . According to Lawless , one reason why she made an appearance on the show was that her daughter was a " mad X @-@ Files fan " . She further commented that she knew about the show and based her character Xena on Fox Mulder .
Originally , Shannon McMahon was to be a recurring character and was due to be featured in " The Truth " , the series finale of The X @-@ Files . However , Lawless , who has a history of miscarriages , became pregnant shortly after part two of these episodes was filmed ; her high @-@ risk pregnancy prevented her returning to the series for future episodes . Carter called Lawless " hot stuff " , saying it was " fun " having a female Super Soldier , something that had never occurred to him or to the show 's production crew .
In the first underwater scene , most of which was shot at the water tank at Universal , Lawless had to be seat @-@ belted into a car that was supposed to be submerged thirteen feet . In actuality , the water tank was four feet deep . Lawless , being six feet tall , had to kneel and breathe into a hookah while filming the scene . For the special effects team , one of the hardest parts of the episode was to hide the fact that Lawless was wearing a swimming suit .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Nothing Important Happened Today , Part 1 " earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 5 share , meaning that it was seen by 6 @.@ 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 10 @.@ 6 million viewers and ranked number 55 for the week ending November 11 and subsequently became the second most watched episode of the ninth season behind the series finale " The Truth " . Part 2 earned a rating of 5 @.@ 9 . The episode was viewed by 9 @.@ 4 million viewers ranked number 63 for the week ending November 18 . The first part of the episode , which aired on Sunday , November 11 , competed with Saving Private Ryan which aired on ABC . The second part of the episode earned the lowest rating on the night of November 18 , receiving lower ratings and viewership numbers than The Simpsons and Malcolm in the Middle . When talking about the ninth season , Carter stated , " We lost our audience on the first episode . It 's like the audience had gone away , and I didn 't know how to find them . I didn 't want to work to get them back because I believed what we are doing deserved to have them back " .
The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Daryl H. Miller of Los Angeles Times wrote positively of the episode , claiming it is " craftily written , solidly acted and moodily photographed " . Michael R. Farkash of The Hollywood Reporter gave the first part of the episode a largely positive review . Farkash called it " entertaining and appealing " and noted its " suspenseful plot twists and fascinating visuals " . An unnamed staff writer of Airlock Alpha was mostly positive about the episode , with the exception of Cary Elwes as Brad Follmer , calling Elwes ' acting " forced " . Rob Lowman from the Los Angeles Daily News said that Carter had been able to " breathe new life " into the series mythology arc , and had a positive view of Lucy Lawless ' performance . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a B + . Starpulse named the changed credits the " Most Shocking Moment " in the series run , writing that the most drastic moment " came with the opening credits for season nine , a complete re @-@ design that saw Annabeth Gish and Mitch Pileggi added to the opening sequence and the familiar graphics totally scrapped . These credits looked like they belonged to a different series and at that point , it was . "
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the first part a " C " , and the second part a " C – " . He argued that the series was unable to figure both out how to re @-@ situate itself after the events of September 11 , and deal with the permanent departure of Duchovny . Ultimately , he wrote that the episodes as a whole represent " a limp piece of storytelling that has maybe enough good ideas for three @-@ quarters of an episode but is stretched across two for no particular reason . " M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , was highly critical of the script , arguing it was difficult " to pinpoint any significant moments that occur during either episode " , but he did praise the production team 's execution of " some impressive set @-@ pieces . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated both episodes one star out of five . In a review of the first part , the two noted that " this isn 't quite the dullest season opener to The X @-@ Files [ but ] this episode [ … ] has all the passion of a wet Monday morning . " In a review of the second half , the two noted , " there is at least the semblance of drama here , but this second episode isn 't significantly better than the first . " Marisa Guthrie from the Boston Herald felt that Gillian Anderson 's character , Dana Scully had been " rendered impotent " .
= Alan Charlesworth =
Air Vice Marshal Alan Moorehouse Charlesworth , CBE , AFC ( 17 September 1903 – 21 September 1978 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Born in Tasmania , he graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon , and served with the 2nd Light Horse Regiment in Queensland before transferring to the Air Force in 1925 . Most of his pre @-@ war flying career was spent with No. 1 Squadron at RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria . In 1932 he undertook a series of survey flights around Australia , earning the Air Force Cross . Charlesworth 's early wartime commands included No. 2 Squadron at Laverton , and RAAF Station Pearce in Western Australia . Appointed Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Eastern Area in December 1943 , he was promoted temporary air commodore the following year and took over as AOC North @-@ Western Area in Darwin , Northern Territory .
Charlesworth 's control of air operations during the North @-@ Western Area Campaign led to his appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire following the end of World War II . Retaining his wartime rank , he took charge of the newly formed School of Land / Air Warfare from 1947 until 1949 , when he assumed command of RAAF Station Williamtown , New South Wales . He was posted to Japan later that year as Chief of Staff , British Commonwealth Occupation Force , and organised support for RAAF units involved in the Korean War . Returning to Australia in 1951 , he was raised to acting air vice marshal and became AOC Southern Area . Charlesworth 's final appointment before retiring from the Air Force was commanding RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London , in 1954 – 55 . After leaving the military he served as Director of Recruiting in the late 1950s , and later as a judge 's associate at the Supreme Court of Victoria . He died at his home in Glen Iris , Victoria , in 1978 .
= = Early career = =
Born in Lottah , Tasmania , on 17 September 1903 , Alan Charlesworth was the son of a storeman , Edwin Charlesworth , and his wife Louisa . The youth attended Lottah Public School and St Virgil 's College , Hobart , before entering the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1920 . He won the Silver Boomerang trophy , awarded to the college 's champion athlete , three years running in 1921 – 23 . In 1923 he was appointed company sergeant major at Duntroon , and received the Sword of Honour upon graduating as a lieutenant later that year . Following service as adjutant and quartermaster with the 2nd Light Horse Regiment in Queensland , Charlesworth transferred to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as a flying officer on 27 January 1925 . Among his classmates on the 1925 pilots ' course at Point Cook , Victoria , was fellow Duntroon graduate Frederick Scherger . During a training flight on 25 March , Charlesworth 's Avro 504K stalled and spun into a field , injuring him and killing his instructor . Recovering , he was subsequently involved in an accident with future lieutenant general and Governor of New South Wales Eric Woodward , when their plane flipped on landing and came to rest upside down on a fence ; neither man was badly hurt .
Charlesworth graduated as a pilot in July 1925 , and was posted to No. 1 Squadron at RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria . In January 1926 , he took part in experiments to test parachutes by attaching them to dummies and throwing them out of aircraft in flight . His secondment to the Air Force was made permanent in January 1928 , and he was promoted to flight lieutenant the following month . On 30 April , Charlesworth married Edith Bennett at All Saints Anglican Church , St Kilda ; the couple had a daughter . The next month , he was posted to the United Kingdom on attachment to the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . He attended the RAF School of Photography at Farnborough , before serving with the RAF Survey Flight in British Somaliland during 1929 – 30 . Returning to Australia he was again posted to No. 1 Squadron , taking command of a round @-@ Australia aerial survey conducted in three phases during 1932 in association with the Commonwealth Geologist , Doctor Walter Woolnough . Charlesworth 's study in Britain and his experience in Somaliland had made him the RAAF 's leading expert in photographic reconnaissance , which was to be utilised in the search for potential oil fields .
The first phase of the survey took place in January – February , employing two Westland Wapitis and seven other Air Force personnel from Nos. 1 and 3 Squadrons to photograph sites in southern Queensland . Despite both aircraft being damaged in a gale at Bourke in northern New South Wales while returning to base , the expedition was considered a success . For the second phase , lasting from July to September , Charlesworth and his team journeyed around the whole of Australia from New South Wales to Queensland , thence to the Northern Territory and Western Australia , before returning to Laverton . The final phase in December explored Tasmania . Charlesworth was awarded the Air Force Cross ( AFC ) for his leadership of the survey , described as a " milestone " in the country 's exploration . Following his survey work , Charlesworth was appointed Staff Officer Photography at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . In 1934 he returned to Laverton to take up his third and final posting with No. 1 Squadron . By September 1937 , he had been raised to Squadron Leader and was in temporary command of the unit . He had overall charge of a training flight in November – December that ended in disaster , when a Hawker Demon crashed near Cootamundra , New South Wales , and its pilot burned to death ; this was one of a spate of incidents during the year that led to serious questions being raised about the level of flying safety in the RAAF . In March 1939 , Charlesworth was raised to wing commander and took command of No. 2 Squadron , operating Avro Ansons out of Laverton .
= = World War II = =
As part of the RAAF 's reorganisation following the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , No. 2 Group was formed in Sydney on 20 November ; Charlesworth was appointed its Senior Air Staff Officer ( SASO ) . He continued to serve in this position when the group was re @-@ formed as Central Area in March 1940 . Posted to Western Australia to take command of RAAF Station Pearce in August , he was promoted to temporary group captain on 1 September 1940 . He became Senior Administration Officer at the newly established Western Area , Perth , in January the following year . In September 1942 , Charlesworth took over No. 2 Bombing and Gunnery School in Sale , Victoria . He handed over to Group Captain Charles " Moth " Eaton in August 1943 , before briefly taking charge of RAAF Headquarters Forward Echelon in Brisbane . Charlesworth was appointed Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Eastern Area , headquartered at Bradfield Park , Sydney , in December 1943 . Eastern Area was responsible for maritime patrol and anti @-@ submarine warfare off the coast of New South Wales and southern Queensland . Japanese submarine activity had decreased in the months prior to Charlesworth taking command , and he was concerned that Allied ships were becoming complacent . He observed " a general slackening off in procedure ; ships are seldom where they should be , and a minority of merchant ships identify themselves to aircraft " . The RAAF 's patrols had also settled into a predictable pattern that would have been easy for an observant submarine captain to avoid .
Charlesworth was promoted to temporary air commodore on 1 August 1944 . The following month he was appointed AOC North @-@ Western Area ( NWA ) in Darwin , Northern Territory , replacing Air Vice Marshal Adrian " King " Cole . By this stage of the war , the Allies were advancing north and the tempo of operations in the Darwin area had decreased . Charlesworth immediately raised concerns regarding No. 80 Wing , which operated three squadrons of Spitfire fighters , warning higher command that its morale could drop if it was not either given a more active role in the war or transferred to southern Australia for rest . By October , the wing had received orders to depart NWA for the forward base of Morotai to join the RAAF 's main mobile strike force , First Tactical Air Force ; this move would leave Charlesworth with twelve squadrons at his disposal , including one B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bomber unit and three other Spitfire squadrons . In the meantime , NWA supported the assault on Leyte with attacks on enemy ports , oil facilities , and shipping in the Dutch East Indies using Beaufighters , B @-@ 25 Mitchells , and Liberators . These operations continued through November – December . In April 1945 , Charlesworth sent Mitchells and Liberators against a Japanese convoy led by the cruiser Isuzu ; the bombers damaged the cruiser , and it was subsequently sunk by Allied submarines . The same month , NWA 's Liberators attacked targets in Java in the lead @-@ up to the Battle of Tarakan that commenced on 1 May . By July , Charlesworth 's area command had been denuded of much of its strength as two of its bomber wings were transferred to First Tactical Air Force .
= = Postwar career = =
Among a small coterie
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0 draw . Swindon Town were the opposition for Argyle 's penultimate friendly . A goal from Marcel Seip after 57 minutes set the visitors on their way to a 2 – 0 victory at manager Paul Sturrock 's old club . Argyle 's final pre @-@ season match took place on 3 August 2009 against Tiverton Town . A young team containing only two senior professionals , Yoann Folly and Simon Walton , secured a 1 – 0 win at Ladysmead .
= = = Results = = =
Colours : Green
= Plymouth Argyle win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = Squad = =
= = = Players = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Statistics = = =
= = = Discipline = = =
= = = Awards = = =
= = Transfers = =
= = = Permanent = = =
= = = = In = = = =
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= = = Loan signings = = =
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= Mariano Moreno =
Mariano Moreno ( September 23 , 1778 – March 4 , 1811 ) was an Argentine lawyer , journalist , and politician . He played a decisive role in the Primera Junta , the first national government of Argentina , created after the May Revolution .
Moreno was born in Buenos Aires in 1778 . His father was Manuel Moreno y Argumosa , born in Santander , Spain , who arrived in the city in 1776 and married María del Valle . Mariano was the firstborn of the Moreno family , and had thirteen brothers . During his youth he studied Latin , logic , and philosophy at San Carlos Royal College , followed by college studies of law at Chuquisaca . During these studies , he learned the new ideas of the Spanish Enlightenment . He married María Guadalupe Cuenca and returned to Buenos Aires , becoming a prominent lawyer for the Cabildo . Unlike most other criollos , he rejected the Carlotist project and the administration of Santiago de Liniers , joining instead the ill @-@ fated mutiny of Álzaga against him . He worked for the next viceroy , Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros . He wrote the economic paper The Representation of the Landowners , which persuaded the viceroy to open trade with Britain .
Although he was not prominently involved in the May Revolution that deposed Cisneros , he was appointed as secretary of war of the new government , the Primera Junta . Along with Juan José Castelli , he promoted harsh policies against the supporters of the former government and the strengthening of the new one . These policies were detailed at a secret document , the Operations plan ; some historians dispute its authorship . Moreno organized military campaigns to Paraguay and Upper Peru , and ensured the execution of Santiago de Liniers after the defeat of his counter @-@ revolution . He established the first Argentine newspaper , La Gazeta de Buenos Ayres , and translated Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's The Social Contract into Spanish .
When the Junta achieved the first military victories , President Cornelio Saavedra opposed Moreno , favoring moderate policies instead . Allied with Gregorio Funes , Saavedra expanded the number of members of the Junta to leave Morenism in a minority . With disputes still going on , Moreno was appointed to a diplomatic mission to Britain , but died at sea on the way there . His brother Manuel Moreno alleged that he was poisoned . His supporters were still an influential political party for some years after his death . Historians hold several perspectives about the role and historical significance of Moreno , from hagiography to repudiation . He is considered the precursor of Argentine journalism .
= = Birth and studies = =
Mariano Moreno was the son of poor parents , Manuel Moreno y Argumosa and Ana Maria Valle , he had fourteen siblings . He studied at Colegio Grande de San Carlos , but without living in it , as his family could not afford the price . He graduated with an honor diploma . He met influential people within the literary field , who helped him to continue his studies at the University of Chuquisaca , even when his father could not afford the cost . This was the only big university in South America at the time . He studied the books of Montesquieu , Voltaire , Denis Diderot , Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , and other European philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment . He studied English and French languages as well , to understand authors from Britain and France . This allowed him to work as a translator , and he spent several years working with Rousseau 's The Social Contract . Moreno was convinced that society could be changed by the power of intelligence and reason .
He also studied philosophical texts of the Spanish Enlightenment under the tutelage of the priest Terrazas , and aspired to implement the new ideas in his country . He wrote a thesis with strong criticism of the native slavery at the mines of Potosí , influenced by the Spanish jurist Juan de Solorzano Pereira , the foremost publisher of Indian Law , and Victoria Villalva , fiscal of the Audiencia of Charcas and defender of the indigenous cause .
He started his professional career between 1803 and 1804 , in the office of Augustine Gascón , officiating as labour counselor for Indians . As a result , he confronted powerful people like the mayors of Cochabamba and Chayanta . He left the city after being threatened , and returned to Buenos Aires in 1805 with his wife Maria Guadalupe Cuenca and their newborn son . Once in the city , he became a reporter of the hearings of the Royal Audiencia , a local appeal court . The Buenos Aires Cabildo , the local council , hired him as an advisor as well . He defended Melchor Fernández , aggrieved by Bishop Benito Lue y Riega , in one of his first cases . In another of his early disputes he backed the Cabildo in denying the appointment as an ensign of the young Bernardino Rivadavia .
A British army invaded Buenos Aires in 1806 , starting the British invasions of the Río de la Plata . Although Moreno was not actively involved with the military counter @-@ offensive which drove them out , he opposed the British presence in Buenos Aires . He wrote a diary that noted all the events , so that , in the future , his countrymen would know the circumstances that allowed such an invasion . The British made a new attack in 1807 , this time invading Montevideo . They published a bilingual English – Spanish newspaper known as " The Southern Star " or " La estrella del sur " ( the newspaper used both names in conjunction ) . It advocated free trade , a British goal , and promoted American independence under British protection . The Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires banned the newspaper and requested Moreno to write articles refuting those of the British publication . Moreno refused because , although he did not accept British rule , he agreed with some of their criticisms of the Spanish government . Fearing a new attack to Buenos Aires , Moreno left the city with his whole family and relocated in the countryside . His house in Buenos Aires , left unoccupied , was used to keep prisoner William Carr Beresford , the British commander of the first invasion . Several friends of Moreno helped Beresford to escape and move to Montevideo , but it is unknown if Moreno was aware of the plan .
= = First political activities = =
Although Mariano Moreno was a criollo , a Spanish citizen born in the Americas , he did not work with the other criollos of Buenos Aires who sought to promote political changes against the privileges of the Spanish @-@ born . Unlike the criollo politicians Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli , he did not support viceroy Liniers or the Carlotist project , which sought the coronation of Carlota of Spain in the Americas . He joined mayor Martín de Álzaga instead , which allowed him to serve as legal adviser of the Cabildo . In that capacity , he wrote a petition to the King of Spain , so that the Buenos Aires Cabildo was named Protector of the Cabildos of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . As a result , all petitions from local cabildos to the King or the Viceroy would be channeled through the Cabildo at the capital .
Martín de Álzaga organized a mutiny on January 1 , 1809 , and Moreno joined it . Álzaga aspired to replace Viceroy Santiago de Liniers with a government Junta , after learning of the capture of the Spanish King Ferdinand VII during the Peninsular War and the creation of the Junta of Seville . If it prevailed , Mariano Moreno would have been part of the new Junta . The mutiny was defeated by the swift reaction of Cornelio Saavedra , in command of the Regiment of Patricians , who dispersed the crowd and persuaded Liniers not to abdicate . It is disputed by historians whenever the mutiny had similar or opposite goals to those of the May Revolution that would take place a year later . The historians who support the latter perspective try to make attempts to excuse or justify Moreno 's involvement ; those who support the former consider instead that Moreno was a revolutionary a year before most other Argentines . Moreno was Álzaga 's lawyer in the trial that followed , which was labeled a trial for " independentism " . Liniers did not extend the trial to Moreno himself , for reasons unknown .
Liniers was succeeded by Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros a few months later , who pardoned the mutineers to reduce political conflicts . Cisneros allowed free trade as well , as instructed by the Junta of Seville , which benefited British merchants ; Britain was allied with Spain in the Peninsular War . The agents of the Consulate of Cadiz asserted that this would hurt the local economy , moral values , social usages , religious practices , and the loyalty to Spain and its monarchy . As a result , Cisneros closed trade again , restoring the Spanish monopsony . A group of hacendados ( owners of haciendas ) , who did not feel adequately represented at the Cabildo , asked Moreno to defend them . Moreno wrote The Representation of the Landowners , a report that represented the export interest of the landowners , encouraged free trade , and condemned the privileges of the merchants benefited from the monopsony . It is considered the most comprehensive economic report from the time of the viceroyalty . It represented the new European economic ideas , and noted that the legal monopsony with Spain did not prevent British goods from being smuggled . Several authors have questioned Moreno 's authorship of the paper , considering it instead an update of another , previously drafted by Manuel Belgrano , Secretary of the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires , written to make a similar request to the former viceroy Liniers . This report , as well as Moreno 's prestige in the colonial society , helped him gain the confidence of Cisneros . Yet secretly , Moreno supported the plan to dismiss the Viceroy .
= = Primera Junta = =
Mariano Moreno had several contacts with groups seeking the removal of Cisneros , but was not strongly involved with the May Revolution , which considered the fall of the Junta of Seville a reason to depose the viceroy and create a local junta . At the time , Moreno was still loyal to Álzaga . He attended the May 22 open Cabildo , but according to the father of Vicente Fidel López and the father @-@ in @-@ law of Bartolomé Mitre ( both direct witness ) he stayed silent at one side and did not join the debate . He voted for Saavedra 's proposal : to remove viceroy Cisneros and replace him with a Junta . Manuel Hermenegildo Aguirre , captain of hussars , proposed that the Cabildo take the reins of government , with five men appointed as counselors , Moreno among them . However , nobody else voted for that proposal , and it was the only one that included him . Moreno felt betrayed when the Cabildo twisted the results of the open Cabildo and created a Junta that would be headed by Cisneros . He refused any further contacts with the revolutionaries and stayed home during the remaining events . The definitive members of the Junta came from a popular petition signed on May 25 , which was given to the Cabildo . The reasons of Moreno 's inclusion in the list are unclear , as with all other members of the Junta . A commonly accepted theory considers it to be a balance between Carlotists and Alzaguists .
The Junta faced strong opposition from the beginning : it was resisted locally by the Cabildo and the Royal Audiencia , still loyal to the absolutist factions ; the nearby plazas of Montevideo and Paraguay did not recognize it ; and Santiago de Liniers organized a counter @-@ revolution at Córdoba . Mariano Moreno , an unimportant politician up to that point , became the leader of the most radical supporters of the Junta . He was supported by the popular leaders Domingo French and Antonio Beruti , Dupuy , Donado , Orma , and Cardozo ; and priests like Grela and Aparicio . Historian Carlos Ibarguren described that Morenist youths roamed the streets preaching new ideas to each pedestrian they found , turned the " Marcos " coffee shop into a political hall , and proposed that all social classes should be illustrated . Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli supported Moreno within the Junta , and French was promoted to Colonel of the regiment " América " . This regiment , also known as " The Star " because of a star that they wore on their sleeves , was composed of radical youths led by French during the riots of the May Revolution .
Moreno established the official newspaper Gazeta de Buenos Ayres through a June 2 decree , and managed its contents . The first newspapers were available to the public five days later . He issued a freedom of the press decree , which allowed the press to publish anything that did not offend public morals or attack the Revolution or the government . Moreno published some works of Gaspar de Jovellanos , and his translation of Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's The Social Contract . In this later work he skipped the chapter about religion , suggesting that the author " has raved in religious matters " . This was done to prevent religious disputes among patriots . This publication was criticized by conservatives such as Tomás de Anchorena , who said that it could generate popular unrest . As with the Junta itself , Moreno 's writings maintained loyalty to Ferdinand VII . It is unclear to historians whether he was concealing pro @-@ independence ambitions , or was truly loyal to the deposed king . However , he made specific references to independentism as early as November , 1810 . In reference to the Courts of Cádiz that would write a Constitution , he said that the Congress " may establish an absolute disposal of our beloved Ferdinand " , meaning that the right of self @-@ determination would allow even that . He did not think the monarchical authority to be absolute , but subject to popular sovereignty , so that a monarch may lose his authority if he worked against the common good of the people . He also considered that if Ferdinand VII returned to the throne , he would not be able to challenge a Constitution written in his absence . However , he wrote that as a hypothetical scenario , to describe the strength of a Constitution , not as a likely possibility .
Moreno issued several decrees during his first days in government . He ordered punishment for anyone attempting to generate disputes , and for those concealing conspiracies against the Junta or other people . The military bodies of " Pardos " and " Morenos " , composed of indigenous peoples , were reformed to have military ranks similar to those of the Spanish military bodies . He did this invoking the rulings of the Catholic Monarchs during the early Spanish colonization of the Americas .
= = = Actions against royalists = = =
Although the Junta of Seville was defeated , a new one was created afterwards , the Regency Council . The Primera Junta did not swear loyalty to it , but the Royal Audiencia did so in defiance of the local authority . The Junta summoned them , along with former viceroy Cisneros , and exiled them to Spain with the pretext that there was a threat to their lives . The Junta appointed new members for the Audiencia loyal to the revolution . Moreno wrote in the Gazeta that the Audiencia attacked the good faith of the government , and that the Junta left their usual moderation for the safety of the people .
The Junta was rejected in Montevideo , as was the exile of Cisneros and the former Audiencia . Moreno reacted immediately , replying to the Montevidean concerns . He supported the legitimacy of the Primera Junta by criticizing the Regency Council and stating that the overseas Spanish territories were equally capable of creating Juntas , as it was debated during the open cabildo . He also called for unity and support of the metropolis , and that both cities recognize Ferdinand VII as their legitimate monarch . He argued that the Junta treated the exiles initially with moderation , but their obstinacy , particularly on the part of Cisneros , generated popular discontent . Matías Irigoyen told the same thing to the British Lord Strangford in Río de Janeiro .
Moreno organized two military expeditions to counter the threat of the plazas that resisted the Junta . The first one , headed by Francisco Ortiz de Ocampo , would move to Córdoba and attack the counter @-@ revolution organized by the former viceroy Santiago de Liniers ; they next went to Upper Peru . Ocampo 's initial orders were to capture the counter @-@ revolutionary leaders and send them to Buenos Aires , so that they could be judged . When the counter @-@ revolution became stronger Moreno called the Junta and , with support from Castelli and Paso , proposed that the enemy leaders should be shot as soon as they were captured instead of brought to trial . The Junta accepted the new proposal , and delivered it to Ocampo . The counter @-@ revolution was defeated the following August , but Ocampo did not execute his prisoners . Gregorio Funes , head of the patriotic party of Córdoba , persuaded him to spare them , because the prisoners were popular in Córdoba and the people would not support their deaths . Besides Liniers , the prisoners included the governor of Córdoba and the bishop of the city . Ocampo stuck to the initial orders and delivered the prisoners to the city . Moreno did not accept it , and told Ocampo that a general should simply obey orders . He called a new meeting of the Junta , and produced a paper left at his home which said , " If Liniers does not die , LET HIM LIVE ! " ( note : the second part was written in capital letters in the original ) . The Junta agreed to fire Ocampo and replace him with Castelli , with Nicolás Rodríguez Peña as secretary and Domingo French leading the escort . They intercepted the convoy at Cabeza de Tigre and executed them , except for Bishop Orellana , because of his religious endowment . The Auxiliary Army , commanded by Ocampo and Castelli , was renamed as the Army of the North , and launched the First Alto Perú campaign . Moreno gave harsh new instructions for it : monitor the activities of the rich ; kill Goyeneche , Nieto , Paula Sanz and the bishop on sight ; and allow soldiers to pillage the enemies at the first patriot victory , to generate terror . The context was not favourable : only Cochabamba and Charcas made a genuine support of the revolution , and some indigenous people hesitated in joining , fearing the consequences of a possible royalist counter @-@ attack . The Morenist projects for Upper Peru , which included the emancipation of the indigenous peoples and the nationalization of the mines of Potosi , were resisted by the local populations that were benefiting from the system already in force . Castelli proposed to advance the military campaign even closer to Lima , but Moreno asked him to stay at his position .
The other military expedition moved to Paraguay , commanded by Manuel Belgrano . Following instructions from Moreno , he helped the natives at the missions in Corrientes , on his way to Paraguay . He gave them full civil and political rights , granted lands , authorized commerce with the United Provinces , removed taxes for ten years , abolished any type of torture , and lifted restrictions on taking public or religious office .
Moreno promoted stronger measures against the royalists . In July , he gave orders to the neighboring mayors to prevent the creation of secret groups , or activities that could promote alienation . He promoted a new decree of the Junta that called for trial and confiscation of goods for anyone that left the city without authorization , kept military weapons in secret , promoted popular alienation or discontent against the government , or wrote letters to people in other cities for such a purpose . Serious cases were usually punished with execution or exile . Some rich people exiled by this decree were Francisco Beláustegui , Olaguer Reynals , Norberto de Quirno y Echeandía , and Pablo Villariño . Manuel Andrés Arroyo y Pinedo , another rich man , blamed Moreno for these actions , accusing him of equaling disagreement with antipatriotism , and felt that the ideas of egalitarianism would only cause great evils . Those measures were also criticized by moderate supporters of the revolution , such as Gregorio Funes from Córdoba , who rejected the lack of proper trials , or Dámaso Uriburu , from Salta , who compared Moreno , Castelli , and Vieytes with the French Jacobins .
By this time , Moreno thought that the only way to secure the Revolution would be if it was successful throughout the continent . However , he considered that Latin American integration should be achieved peacefully among equals , and not as the result of a conquest campaign . He wrote at the Gazeta that " even as pure as our intentions may be , it would be dangerous if the freedom of America was just our own work . Such a circumstance could lead to a real despotism and the Peruvian peoples would not improve having porteño oppressors instead of European ones . " He made positive comments about the rebellions at Cochabamba and Chile .
= = = Operations plan = = =
Following a proposal of Manuel Belgrano , the Junta wrote a political platform setting broad goals and procedures to follow to achieve its objectives . The creation of this document , whose name is often summarized simply as the " Operations plan " , was trusted to Mariano Moreno . There have been disputes about the authenticity of this document . Some historians like Paul Groussac suspect that the document was a literary forgery , prepared by a Spaniard at the Court of Portugal to discredit the Junta . Supporters of the truthfulness of the document like Norberto Piñeiro , allege that the content would be consistent with government actions taken by the Primera Junta .
The document states the need to defeat the royalist forces and therefore proposes many possible actions similar to those employed by Jacobins during the Reign of Terror of the French Revolution . It rejected the use of political moderation , considering that it would be dangerous during revolutionary times
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limited to two or three songs , increasing his frustration , and significantly contributing to the band 's break @-@ up . Harrison 's last recording session with the Beatles was on 4 January 1970 , when he , McCartney and Starr recorded the Harrison song " I Me Mine " .
= = Solo career : 1968 – 87 = =
= = = Early solo work : 1968 – 69 = = =
Before the Beatles ' break @-@ up , Harrison had already recorded and released two solo albums : Wonderwall Music and Electronic Sound , both of which contain mainly instrumental compositions . Wonderwall Music , a soundtrack to the 1968 film Wonderwall , blends Indian and Western instrumentation , while Electronic Sound is an experimental album that prominently features a Moog synthesizer . Released in November 1968 , Wonderwall Music was the first solo album by a Beatle and the first LP released by Apple Records . Indian musicians Aashish Khan and Shivkumar Sharma performed on the album , which contains the experimental sound collage " Dream Scene " , recorded several months before Lennon 's " Revolution 9 " .
In December 1969 , Harrison participated in a brief tour of Europe with the American group Delaney & Bonnie and Friends . During the tour that included Clapton , Bobby Whitlock , drummer Jim Gordon and band leaders Delaney and Bonnie Bramlett , Harrison began to write " My Sweet Lord " , which became his first single as a solo artist . Delaney Bramlett inspired Harrison to learn slide guitar , significantly influencing his later music .
= = = All Things Must Pass : 1970 = = =
After years of being restricted in his songwriting contributions to the Beatles ' albums , Harrison released All Things Must Pass , a triple album , with two discs of his songs and the third of recordings of Harrison jamming with friends . Regarded by many as his best work , the album topped the charts on both sides of the Atlantic . The LP produced the number @-@ one hit single " My Sweet Lord " and the top @-@ ten single " What Is Life " . The album was co @-@ produced by Phil Spector using his " Wall of Sound " approach , and the musicians included Starr , Clapton , Gary Wright , Preston , Klaus Voormann , the whole of Delaney and Bonnie 's Friends band and the Apple group Badfinger . On release , All Things Must Pass was received with critical acclaim ; Ben Gerson of Rolling Stone described it as being " of classic Spectorian proportions , Wagnerian , Brucknerian , the music of mountain tops and vast horizons " . Author and musicologist Ian Inglis considers the lyrics of the album 's title track " a recognition of the impermanence of human existence ... a simple and poignant conclusion " to Harrison 's former band . In 1971 Bright Tunes sued Harrison for copyright infringement over " My Sweet Lord " owing to its similarity to the 1963 Chiffons hit " He 's So Fine " . When the case was heard in the United States district court in 1976 , he denied deliberately plagiarising the song , but lost the case as the judge ruled that he had done so subconsciously .
In 2000 Apple Records released a thirtieth anniversary edition of the album and Harrison actively participated in its promotion , giving an interview during which he reflected on the work : " It 's just something that was like my continuation from the Beatles , really . It was me sort of getting out of the Beatles and just going my own way ... it was a very happy occasion . " He commented on the production : " Well , in those days it was like the reverb was kind of used a bit more than what I would do now . In fact , I don 't use reverb at all . I can 't stand it ... You know , it 's hard to go back to anything thirty years later and expect it to be how you would want it now . "
= = = The Concert for Bangladesh : 1971 = = =
Responding to a request from Ravi Shankar , Harrison organised a charity event , the Concert for Bangladesh , which took place on 1 August 1971 , drawing over 40 @,@ 000 people to two shows in New York 's Madison Square Garden . The goal of the event was to raise money to aid starving refugees during the Bangladesh Liberation War . Shankar opened the show , which featured popular musicians such as Dylan , Clapton , Leon Russell , Badfinger , Preston and Starr .
A triple album , The Concert for Bangladesh , was released by Apple Corps that year , followed by a concert film in 1972 . Tax troubles and questionable expenses later tied up many of the proceeds , but Harrison commented : " Mainly the concert was to attract attention to the situation ... The money we raised was secondary , and although we had some money problems ... they still got plenty ... even though it was a drop in the ocean . The main thing was , we spread the word and helped get the war ended . " The event has been described as an innovative precursor for the large @-@ scale charity rock shows that followed , including Live Aid .
= = = Living in the Material World to George Harrison : 1973 – 79 = = =
Harrison would not again release an album that matched the critical and commercial achievements of All Things Must Pass ; however , his next solo album , 1973 's Living in the Material World , held the number one spot on the Billboard album chart for five weeks , and the album 's single , " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " , also reached number one in the US . In the UK , the LP achieved number two , spending 12 weeks on the charts with the single peaking at number 8 . The album was lavishly produced and packaged , and its dominant message was Harrison 's Hindu beliefs . In Greene 's opinion it " contained many of the strongest compositions of his career " . Stephen Holden , writing in Rolling Stone , felt the album was " vastly appealing " and " profoundly seductive " , and that it stood " alone as an article of faith , miraculous in its radiance . " Other reviewers were less enthusiastic , describing the release as awkward , sanctimonious and overly sentimental , a reaction that left Harrison despondent .
In November 1974 Harrison began his 45 @-@ date Dark Horse Tour , becoming the first ex @-@ Beatle to tour North America . In addition to performances by Harrison with an ensemble of musicians such as Preston , Tom Scott , Willie Weeks , Andy Newmark and Jim Horn , the tour also included traditional and contemporary Indian music performed by " Ravi Shankar , Family and Friends " . Despite numerous positive reviews the consensus reaction to the tour was negative , with complaints about the content , structure , and length ; the show 's duration of two and a half hours was seen as excessive at the time . Some fans found Shankar 's significant presence a bizarre disappointment , having expected to see only Harrison perform , and many were affronted by what Inglis described as Harrison 's " sermonizing " . Further , he reworked the lyrics to several Beatles songs , and some of the substitutions were seen as " gratuitously offensive " . His laryngitis @-@ affected vocals also disappointed fans and critics , who began calling the tour " dark hoarse " . Harrison was so deeply bothered by the caustic backlash that he did not tour again until the 1990s . The author Robert Rodriguez commented : " While the Dark Horse tour might be considered a noble failure , there were a number of fans who were tuned @-@ in to what was being attempted . They went away ecstatic , conscious that they had just witnessed something so uplifting that it could never be repeated . " Leng called the tour " groundbreaking " and " revolutionary in its presentation of Indian Music " .
In December Harrison released Dark Horse , an album that earned him the least favourable reviews of his career . Rolling Stone called it " the chronicle of a performer out of his element , working to a deadline , enfeebling his overtaxed talents by a rush to deliver a new ' LP product ' , rehearse a band , and assemble a cross @-@ country tour , all within three weeks " . The album reached number 4 on the Billboard chart and the single " Dark Horse " reached number 15 , but they failed to make an impact in the UK . The music critic Mikal Gilmore described Dark Horse as " one of Harrison 's most fascinating works – a record about change and loss " .
Harrison 's final studio album for EMI and Apple Records was the soul music @-@ inspired Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) ( 1975 ) . He considered it the least satisfactory of the three he had recorded since All Things Must Pass . Leng identified " bitterness and dismay " in many of the album 's tracks ; his long @-@ time friend Klaus Voormann commented : " He wasn 't up for it ... It was a terrible time because I think there was a lot of cocaine going around , and that 's when I got out of the picture ... I didn 't like his frame of mind " . He released two singles from the LP : " You " , which reached the Billboard top 20 , and " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " , Apple 's final original single release .
Thirty Three & 1 / 3 ( 1976 ) , Harrison 's first album release on his own Dark Horse Records label , produced the hit singles " This Song " and " Crackerbox Palace " , both of which reached the top 25 in the US . The surreal humour of " Crackerbox Palace " reflected Harrison 's association with Monty Python 's Eric Idle , who directed a comical music video for the song . With an emphasis on melody and musicianship , and a more subtle subject matter than the pious message of his earlier works , Thirty Three & 1 / 3 earned Harrison his most favourable critical notices in the US since All Things Must Pass .
In 1979 , following his second marriage and the birth of his son Dhani , he released George Harrison . The album and the single " Blow Away " both made the Billboard top 20 . The album marked the beginning of Harrison 's gradual retreat from the music business , and the fruition of ideas introduced on All Things Must Pass . In 1978 the death of his father in May and the birth of his son in August had influenced his decision to devote more time to his family than to his career . Leng described the album as " melodic and lush ... peaceful ... the work of a man who had lived the rock and roll dream twice over and was now embracing domestic as well as spiritual bliss " .
= = = Somewhere in England to Cloud Nine : 1980 – 87 = = =
The murder of Lennon on 8 December 1980 disturbed Harrison and reinforced his decades @-@ long concerns about stalkers . It was also a deep personal loss , although unlike McCartney and Starr , Harrison had had little contact with Lennon in the years before his death . Following the murder , Harrison commented : " After all we went through together I had and still have great love and respect for John Lennon . I am shocked and stunned . "
Harrison modified the lyrics of a song he had written for Starr to make it a tribute song to Lennon . " All Those Years Ago " , which included vocal contributions from Paul and Linda McCartney , as well as Starr 's original drum part , peaked at number two in the US charts . The single was included on the album Somewhere in England in 1981 . Harrison did not release any new albums for five years after 1982 's Gone Troppo received little notice from critics or the public .
During this period he made several guest appearances , including a 1985 performance at a tribute to Carl Perkins titled Blue Suede Shoes : A Rockabilly Session . In March 1986 he made a surprise appearance during the finale of the Birmingham Heart Beat Charity Concert , an event organised to raise money for the Birmingham Children 's Hospital . The following year , he appeared at The Prince 's Trust concert at London 's Wembley Arena , performing " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " and " Here Comes the Sun " . In February 1987 he joined Dylan , John Fogerty and Jesse Ed Davis on stage for a two @-@ hour performance with the blues musician Taj Mahal . Harrison recalled : " Bob rang me up and asked if I wanted to come out for the evening and see Taj Mahal ... So we went there and had a few of these Mexican beers – and had a few more ... Bob says , ' Hey , why don 't we all get up and play , and you can sing ? ' But every time I got near the microphone , Dylan comes up and just starts singing this rubbish in my ear , trying to throw me . "
In November 1987 Harrison released the platinum album Cloud Nine . Co @-@ produced with Jeff Lynne of Electric Light Orchestra , the LP included Harrison 's rendition of James Ray 's " Got My Mind Set on You " , which went to number one in the US and number two in the UK . The accompanying music video received substantial airplay , and another single , " When We Was Fab " , a retrospective of the Beatles ' career , earned two MTV Music Video Awards nominations in 1988 . Recorded at his estate in Friar Park , Harrison 's slide guitar playing featured prominently on the album , which included several of his long @-@ time musical collaborators , including Clapton , Jim Keltner , and Jim Horn , who recalled Harrison 's relaxed and friendly demeanour during the sessions : " George made you feel at home , in his home ... He once had me sit on a toilet and play my soprano sax , and they miked it at the end of the hall for a distant sound . I thought they were kidding ... Another time he stopped me in the middle of a sax solo and brought me 3 p.m. tea — again I thought he was kidding . " Cloud Nine reached number eight and number ten on the US and UK charts respectively , and several tracks from the album achieved placement on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock chart – " Devil 's Radio " , " This Is Love " and " Cloud 9 " .
= = Later career : 1988 – 96 = =
= = = The Traveling Wilburys : 1988 – 1990 = = =
In 1988 Harrison formed the Traveling Wilburys with Jeff Lynne , Roy Orbison , Bob Dylan and Tom Petty . The band had gathered in Dylan 's garage to record a song for a Harrison European single release . Harrison 's record company decided the track , " Handle with Care " , was too good for its original purpose as a B @-@ side and asked for a full album . The LP , Traveling Wilburys Vol . 1 , was released in October 1988 and recorded under pseudonyms as half @-@ brothers , supposed sons of Charles Truscott Wilbury , Sr. Harrison 's pseudonym on the first album was " Nelson Wilbury " ; he used the name " Spike Wilbury " for their second album .
After Orbison 's death in December 1988 the group recorded as a four @-@ piece . Their second release , issued in October 1990 , was mischievously titled Traveling Wilburys Vol . 3 . According to Lynne , " That was George 's idea . He said , ' Let 's confuse the buggers . ' " It reached number 14 in the UK , where it went platinum with certified sales of more than 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units . The Wilburys never performed live and the group did not record together again following the release of their second album .
In 1989 Harrison and Starr appeared in the music video for Tom Petty 's song " I Won 't Back Down " . Starr is filmed playing the drums , but did not play on the track ; Harrison played acoustic guitar and provided backing vocals . In December 1991 , Harrison joined Clapton for a tour of Japan . It was Harrison 's first since 1974 and no others followed . On 6 April 1992 , Harrison held a benefit concert for the Natural Law Party at the Royal Albert Hall , his first London performance since the Beatles ' 1969 rooftop concert . In October 1992 he performed at a Bob Dylan tribute concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City , playing alongside Dylan , Clapton , McGuinn , Petty and Neil Young .
= = = The Beatles Anthology : 1995 – 96 = = =
In 1994 Harrison began a collaboration with McCartney , Starr and producer
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Jeff Lynne for the Beatles Anthology project . This included the recording of two new Beatles songs built around solo vocal and piano tapes recorded by Lennon as well as lengthy interviews about the Beatles ' career . Released in December 1995 , " Free as a Bird " was the first new Beatles single since 1970 . In March 1996 , they released a second single , " Real Love " . Harrison refused to participate in the completion of a third song . He later commented on the project : " I hope somebody does this to all my crap demos when I 'm dead , make them into hit songs . "
Following the Anthology project , Harrison collaborated with Ravi Shankar on the latter 's Chants of India . Harrison 's final television appearance was a VH @-@ 1 special to promote the album , taped in May 1997 . In January 1998 , Harrison attended Carl Perkins 's funeral in Jackson , Tennessee , performing a brief rendition of Perkins 's song " Your True Love " . In June 1998 , he attended the public memorial service for Linda McCartney , and appeared on Starr 's album Vertical Man , playing guitar on two tracks .
= = Later life and death : 1997 – 2001 = =
In 1997 , Harrison was diagnosed with throat cancer and treated with radiotherapy , which was thought at the time to be successful . He publicly blamed years of smoking for the illness . On 30 December 1999 , Harrison and his wife were attacked at their home , Friar Park . A 36 @-@ year @-@ old , Michael Abram , broke in and attacked Harrison with a kitchen knife , puncturing a lung and causing head injuries before Olivia Harrison incapacitated the assailant by striking him repeatedly with a poker and a lamp . Following the attack , Harrison was hospitalised with more than forty stab wounds . He released a statement soon after regarding his assailant : " [ he ] wasn 't a burglar , and he certainly wasn 't auditioning for the Traveling Wilburys . "
In May 2001 , it was revealed that he had undergone an operation to remove a cancerous growth from one of his lungs , and in July , it was reported that he was being treated for a brain tumour at a clinic in Switzerland . While in Switzerland , Starr visited him , but had to cut his stay short to travel to Boston , where his daughter was undergoing emergency brain surgery , prompting Harrison to quip : " Do you want me to come with you ? " In November 2001 , he began radiotherapy at Staten Island University Hospital in New York City for non @-@ small cell lung cancer that had spread to his brain . When the news was publicised , Harrison bemoaned his physician 's breach of privacy , and his estate later claimed damages . On 12 November , in New York , Harrison , Starr , and McCartney came together for the last time . Three weeks later , on 29 November 2001 , Harrison died at a friend 's home in Los Angeles , aged 58 . He was cremated at Hollywood Forever Cemetery , his funeral was held at the Self @-@ Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine in the Pacific Palisades , California , and his ashes were scattered in the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers near Varanasi , India , by his close family in a private ceremony according to Hindu tradition . He left almost £ 100 million in his will .
Harrison 's final album , the posthumously released Brainwashed ( 2002 ) , was completed by his son Dhani and Jeff Lynne . Included in the album 's liner notes is a quotation from the Bhagavad Gita : " There never was a time when you or I did not exist . Nor will there be any future when we shall cease to be . " A media @-@ only single , " Stuck Inside a Cloud " , which Leng described as " a uniquely candid reaction to illness and mortality " , achieved number 27 on Billboard 's Adult Contemporary chart . The single " Any Road " , released in May 2003 , reached number 37 on the UK Singles Chart . " Marwa Blues " went on to receive the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Performance , while " Any Road " was nominated for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance .
= = Musicianship = =
= = = Songwriting = = =
George Harrison wrote his first song , " Don 't Bother Me " , while sick in a hotel bed in Bournemouth during August 1963 , as " an exercise to see if I could write a song " , as he remembered . " Don 't Bother Me " appeared on the band 's second album , With the Beatles , later that year , then on Meet the Beatles ! in the US in early 1964 . In 1965 , he contributed " I Need You " and " You Like Me Too Much " to the album Help !
Harrison 's songwriting ability improved throughout the Beatles ' career , but his material did not earn full respect from Lennon , McCartney and producer George Martin until near the group 's break @-@ up . In 1969 , McCartney told Lennon : " Until this year , our songs have been better than George 's . Now this year his songs are at least as good as ours " . Harrison often had difficulty getting the band to record his songs . Most Beatles albums from 1965 onwards contain at least two Harrison compositions ; three of his songs appear on Revolver , " the album on which Harrison came of age as a songwriter " , according to Inglis .
Of the 1967 Harrison song " Within You Without You " , author Gerry Farrell claimed that Harrison had created a " new form " , calling the composition " a quintessential fusion of pop and Indian music " . Lennon called the song one of Harrison 's best : " His mind and his music are clear . There is his innate talent , he brought that sound together . " Beatles biographer Bob Spitz described " Something " as a masterpiece , and " an intensely stirring romantic ballad that would challenge ' Yesterday ' and ' Michelle ' as one of the most recognizable songs they ever produced " . According to Kenneth Womack , " Harrison comes into his own on Abbey Road ... ' Here Comes the Sun ' is matched – indeed , surpassed – only by ' Something ' , his crowning achievement " . Inglis considered Abbey Road a turning point in Harrison 's development as a songwriter and musician . He described Harrison 's contributions to the LP as " exquisite " , declaring them equal to any previous Beatles songs . During the album 's recording , Harrison asserted more creative control than before , proactively rejecting suggestions for changes to his music or lyrics , particularly from McCartney .
His interest in Indian music proved a strong influence on his songwriting and contributed to his innovation within the Beatles . According to Mikal Gilmore of Rolling Stone , " Harrison 's openness to new sounds and textures cleared new paths for his rock and roll compositions . His use of dissonance on ... ' Taxman ' and ' I Want to Tell You ' was revolutionary in popular music – and perhaps more originally creative than the avant @-@ garde mannerisms that Lennon and McCartney borrowed from the music of Karlheinz Stockhausen , Luciano Berio , Edgard Varèse and Igor Stravinsky ... " In 1997 , Gerry Farrell commented : " It is a mark of Harrison 's sincere involvement ... that , nearly thirty years on , the Beatles ' ' Indian ' songs remain the most imaginative and successful examples of this type of fusion . "
= = = Guitar work = = =
Harrison 's guitar work with the Beatles was varied and flexible ; although not fast or flashy , his lead guitar playing was solid and typified the more subdued lead guitar style of the early 1960s ; his rhythm guitar playing was as innovative , such as using a capo to shorten the strings on an acoustic guitar , as on the Rubber Soul album and " Here Comes the Sun " , to create a bright , sweet sound . Eric Clapton felt that Harrison was " clearly an innovator " as he was " taking certain elements of R & B and rock and rockabilly and creating something unique " . Rolling Stone founder Jann Wenner described Harrison as " a guitarist who was never showy but who had an innate , eloquent melodic sense . He played exquisitely in the service of the song " . Harrison 's friend and former bandmate Tom Petty agreed : " He just had a way of getting right to the business , of finding the right thing to play . " The guitar picking style of Chet Atkins and Carl Perkins influenced Harrison , giving a country music feel to many of the Beatles ' recordings . He identified Chuck Berry as an early influence and Ry Cooder as an important later influence .
In 1961 the Beatles recorded " Cry for a Shadow " , a blues @-@ inspired instrumental co @-@ written by Lennon and Harrison , who is credited with composing the song 's lead guitar part , building on unusual chord voicings and imitating the style of other English groups such as the Shadows . The musicologist Walter Everett noted that while early Beatles compositions typically held close to the conventional patterns in rock music at the time , he also identified significant variations in their rhythm and tonal direction . Harrison 's liberal use of the diatonic scale in his guitar playing reveals the influence of Buddy Holly , and his interest in Berry inspired him to compose songs based on the blues scale while incorporating a rockabilly feel in the style of Perkins . Within this framework he often utilised syncopation , as during his guitar solos for the Beatles ' covers of Berry 's " Roll Over Beethoven " and " Too Much Monkey Business " . Another of Harrison 's musical techniques was the use of guitar lines written in octaves , as on " I 'll Be on My Way " . He was the first person to own a Rickenbacker 360 / 12 , a guitar with twelve strings , the low eight of which are tuned in pairs , one octave apart ; the higher four being pairs tuned in unison . The Rickenbacker is unique among twelve @-@ string guitars in having the lower octave string of each of the first four pairs placed above the higher tuned string . This , and the naturally rich harmonics produced by a twelve @-@ string guitar provided the distinctive overtones found on many of the Beatles ' recordings . His use of this guitar during the recording of A Hard Day 's Night helped to popularise the model , and the jangly sound became so prominent that Melody Maker termed it the Beatles ' " secret weapon " .
Harrison wrote the chord progression of his first published song , " Don 't Bother Me " ( 1963 ) , almost exclusively in the Dorian mode , demonstrating an interest in exotic tones that eventually culminated in his embrace of Indian music . The dark timbre of his guitar playing on the track was accentuated by his use of uncomplicated yet effective C + 9 chord voicings and a solo in the minor pentatonic scale . By 1964 he had begun to develop a distinctive personal style as a guitarist , writing parts that featured the use of nonresolving tones , as with the ending chord arpeggios on " A Hard Day 's Night " . In 1965 he used an expression pedal to control his guitar 's volume on " I Need You " , creating a syncopated flautando effect with the melody resolving its dissonance through tonal displacements . He used the same volume @-@ swell technique on " Yes It Is " , applying what Everett described as " ghostly articulation " to the song 's natural harmonics .
Of Rubber Soul 's " If I Needed Someone " , Harrison said : " it 's like a million other songs written around the D chord . If you move your fingers about , you get various little melodies ... it amazes me that people still find new permutations of the same notes . " His other contribution to the album , " Think for Yourself " , features what Everett described as " ambiguous tonal coloring " , utilising chromaticism in G major with a " strange " mixture of the Dorian mode and the minor pentatonic ; he called it a " tour de force of altered scale degrees " . In 1966 Harrison contributed innovative musical ideas to Revolver . He played backwards guitar on Lennon 's composition " I 'm Only Sleeping " and a guitar counter @-@ melody on " And Your Bird Can Sing " that moved in parallel octaves above McCartney 's bass downbeats . His guitar playing on " I Want to Tell You " exemplified the pairing of altered chordal colours with descending chromatic lines and his guitar part for Sgt Pepper 's " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " mirrors Lennon 's vocal line in much the same way that a sarangi player accompanies a khyal singer in a Hindu dev
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's Holiday ( 1918 ) , a collection of essays called Conversations in Ebury Street ( 1924 ) and a play , The Making of an Immortal ( 1927 ) . Moore also spent considerable time revising and preparing his earlier writings for new editions .
Partly due to Maurice 's pro @-@ treaty activity , Moore Hall was burnt by anti @-@ treaty forces in 1923 , during the final months of the Irish Civil War . Moore eventually received compensation of £ 7 @,@ 000 from the government of the Irish Free State . By this time George and Maurice had become estranged , mainly because of an unflattering portrait of the latter which appeared in Hail and Farewell . Tension also arose as a result of religious differences : Maurice frequently made donations to the Roman Catholic Church from estate funds . Moore later sold a large part of the estate to the Irish Land Commission for £ 25 @,@ 000 .
Moore was friendly with many members of the expatriate artistic communities in London and Paris , and had a long @-@ lasting relationship with Maud , Lady Cunard . Moore took a special interest in the education of Maud 's daughter , the well @-@ known publisher and art patron , Nancy Cunard . It has been suggested that Moore , rather than Maud 's husband , Sir Bache Cunard , was Nancy 's father , but this is not generally credited by historians , and it is not certain that Moore 's relationship with Nancy 's mother was ever more than platonic . Moore was believed by some to be impotent and was described as " one who told but didn 't kiss " . Moore 's last novel , Aphroditis in Aulis , was published in 1930 .
He died at his home at Ebury Street in the London district of Pimlico in early 1933 , leaving a fortune of £ 70 @,@ 000 . He was cremated in London at a service attended by Ramsay MacDonald among others . An urn containing his ashes was interred on Castle Island in Lough Carra in view of the ruins of Moore Hall .
= = Works = =
Flowers of Passion London : Provost & Company , 1878
Martin Luther : A Tragedy in Five Acts London : Remington & Company , 1879
Pagan Poems London : Newman & Company , 1881
A Modern Lover London : Tinsley Brothers , 1883
A Mummer 's Wife London : Vizetelly & Company , 1885
Literature at Nurse London : Vizetelly & Company , 1885
A Drama in Muslin London : Vizetelly & Company , 1886
A Mere Accident London : Vizetelly & Company , 1887
Parnell and His Island London ; Swan Sonnenshein Lowrey & Company , 1887
Confessions of a Young Man Swan Sonnenshein Lowrey & Company , 1888
Spring Days London : Vizetelly & Company , 1888
Mike Fletcher London : Ward & Downey , 1889
Impressions and Opinions London ; David Nutt , 1891
Vain Fortune London : Henry & Company , 1891
Modern Painting London : Walter Scott , 1893
The Strike at Arlingford London : Walter Scott , 1893
Esther Waters London : Walter Scott , 1894
Celibates London : Walter Scott , 1895
Evelyn Innes London : T. Fisher Unwin , 1898
The Bending of the Bough London : T. Fisher Unwin , 1900
Sister Theresa London : T. Fisher Unwin , 1901
The Untilled Field London : T. Fisher Unwin , 1903
The Lake London : William Heinemann , 1905
Memoirs of My Dead Life London : William Heinemann , 1906
The Apostle : A Drama in Three Acts Dublin : Maunsel & Company , 1911
Hail and Farewell London : William Heinemann , 1911 , 1912 , 1914
The Apostle : A Drama in Three Acts Dublin : Maunsel & Company , 1911
Elizabeth Cooper Dublin : Maunsel & Company , 1913
Muslin London : William Heinemann , 1915
The Brook Kerith : A Syrian Story London : T. Warner Laurie , 1916
Lewis Seymour and Some Women New York : Brentano 's , 1917
A Story @-@ Teller 's Holiday London : Cumann Sean @-@ eolais na hÉireann ( privately printed ) , 1918 . This work contains the story later re @-@ published in the collection Celibate Lives , 1927 , as the short story " The Singular Life of Albert Nobbs " which was made into a 2011 movie , Albert Nobbs , starring Glenn Close .
Avowals London : Cumann Sean @-@ eolais na hÉireann ( privately printed ) , 1919
The Coming of Gabrielle London : Cumann Sean @-@ eolais na hÉireann ( privately printed ) , 1920
Heloise and Abelard London : Cumann Sean @-@ eolais na hÉireann ( privately printed ) , 1921
In Single Strictness London : William Heinemann , 1922
Conversations in Ebury Street London : William Heinemann , 1924
Pure Poetry : An Anthology London : Nonesuch Press , 1924
The Pastoral Loves of Daphnis and Chloe London : William Heinemann , 1924
Daphnis and Chloe , Peronnik the Fool New York : Boni & Liveright , 1924
Ulick and Soracha London : Nonesuch Press , 1926
Celibate Lives London : William Heinemann , 1927 ( This collection and his previous work A Story @-@ Teller 's Holiday both include the short story " The Singular Life of Albert Nobbs " which was made into a movie , with Glenn Close . )
The Making of an Immortal New York : Bowling Green Press , 1927
The Passing of the Essenes : A Drama in Three Acts London : William Heinemann , 1930
Aphrodite in Aulis New York : Fountain Press , 1930
A Communication to My Friends London : Nonesuch Press , 1933
Diarmuid and Grania : A Play in Three Acts Co @-@ written with W.B. Yeats , Edited by Anthony Farrow , Chicago : De Paul , 1974
Letters
Moore Versus Harris Detroit : privately printed , 1921
Letters to Dujardin New York : Crosby Gaige , 1929
Letters of George Moore Bournemouth : Sydenham , 1942
Letters to Lady Cunard Ed . Rupert Hart @-@ Davis . London : Rupert Hart @-@ Davis , 1957
George Moore in Transition Ed . Helmut E. Gerber , Detroit : Wayne State University Press , 1968
= Presto ( film ) =
Presto is a 2008 American Pixar computer @-@ animated short film shown in theaters before their feature @-@ length film WALL @-@ E. The short is about a magician trying to perform a show with his uncooperative rabbit and is a gag @-@ filled homage to classic cartoons such as Tom and Jerry and Looney Tunes . Presto was directed by veteran Pixar animator Doug Sweetland , in his directorial debut .
The original idea for the short was a magician who incorporated a rabbit into his act who suffered from stage fright . This was considered to be too long and complicated , and the idea was reworked . To design the theater featured in Presto , the filmmakers visited several opera houses and theaters for set design ideas . Problems arose when trying to animate the theater 's audience of 2 @,@ 500 patrons ; this was deemed too expensive , and was solved by showing the back of the audience .
Reaction to the short was positive , and reviewers of WALL @-@ E 's home media release considered it to be an enjoyable special feature . Presto was nominated for an Annie Award and Academy Award . It was included in the Animation Show of Shows in 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Vaudeville @-@ era magician Presto DiGiotagione is famous for a hat trick wherein he pulls his rabbit Alec Azam out of his top hat . An unfed and irritated Alec is locked in a cage , unable to reach his carrot . After Presto returns from eating a meal , he begins practicing his act with Alec , revealing that his top hat is magically connected to a wizard 's hat kept backstage with Alec , so that when Presto reaches into the top hat , his hand appears out of the wizard 's hat , allowing him to grab Alec and pull him out of the top hat . He intends to feed Alec the carrot , but realizes that he is late for the show and rushes off to the stage without doing so , much to Alec 's anger . Presto tries to start the performance , but Alec becomes reluctant to cooperate until he is given the carrot . Presto then spends the rest of the show trying to catch Alec through the opening between his top hat and the wizard 's hat .
Alec cleverly turns the hat 's magic against his master in multiple humiliating ways , each of which elicits increasing applause from the audience , which believe is part of Presto 's act . Presto 's finger is stuck in a mouse trap and is hit in the face by an egg , caused by a backfired attempt to aggravate Alec . Presto responds by antagonizing Alec , turning the carrot into a flower . Angered , Alec sucks Presto 's head into a ventilation pipe offstage , which spikes Presto 's hair and turns his face red . When Presto lunges at Alec through the hats , Alec directs Presto 's hand into the podium 's drawer and closes the drawer , painfully restraining the hand while he looks through Presto 's sleeve for the carrot . Presto runs toward Alec , but instead is poked in the eye by his own hand . Presto drops his hat , and when he grabs the wizard hat , he accidentally strips his slacks down to underwear , much to Alec 's amusement . Furious , Presto tries to attack Alec , but in an act to defend himself , Alec puts an offstage ladder into the wizard hat , and Presto is hit between his legs . Presto attempts to hit Alec with it , but the plan backfires when it misses and hits a backstage door , and Presto is sent hitting his chin on the ladder . Presto antagonizes Alec again , covering the carrot with a cloth before smashing it into a pulp with a piece of the ladder . Alec then furiously retaliates by aiming the opening of the wizard 's hat towards an electrical socket which Presto 's fingers go into , shocking Presto into dancing wildly to bluegrass music .
Now at his wit 's end , Presto storms backstage to catch Alec , but he accidentally releases a weight holding down some stage props , and his foot gets caught in a rope that lifts him up to the fly space above the stage . When his foot comes loose from the rope , he falls , along with suspended scenery . Alec , remorseful that Presto will be crushed , uses the magic hat to save him , earning the audience 's wild approval for both himself and Presto . Presto gives Alec the apparently restored carrot , as well as second billing on the posters advertising the show and they are rewarded for each show they do , with roses and carrots for Presto and Alec respectively .
= = Production = =
Doug Sweetland made his directorial debut with Presto . Sweetland provides the dialogue @-@ free voice acting for both of the movie 's characters . He pitched the film at the start of 2007 and began production late in the year , completing it in May 2008 . Presto 's gag @-@ based format was heavily influenced by classic cartoons . Looney Tunes cartoons directed by Tex Avery were a major influence , with Alec being easily compared to Bugs Bunny . Other influences include Tom and Jerry , the Marx Brothers , and Charlie Chaplin . The character design for Presto was based on William Powell .
The original scenario for the short involved a magician who incorporates an autograph @-@ seeking rabbit into his act after his previous rabbit leaves him . Complications arise as the new rabbit suffers from stage fright . Sweetland compared it to the plot of A Star Is Born . The idea was reworked due to being too long and complicated , taking an estimated three minutes longer to tell .
To achieve the highly formal environment , the filmmakers looked at the Royal Opera House in London , the Paris Opera House and classic vaudeville theaters like the Geary in San Francisco — which the crew took a tour through — for set design ideas . Animating the theater 's audience of
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1956 Melbourne Olympics = =
Having arrived in Melbourne , O 'Halloran was rested — along with Rose and Henricks — in the heats of the relay . Devitt , Chapman , Graham Hamilton and Garretty finished third in their heat behind Great Britain and the Soviet Union , and qualified fifth fastest behind Japan and the United States . Australia led from the start and reached the midpoint of the race with a lead of 4 @.@ 5 s . Hamilton swam a very slow third leg of 2 min 15 @.@ 4 s and conceded 8 @.@ 8 s to the British .
Australia 's final quartet was much stronger , with Rose winning the 400 m freestyle , and Henricks and Devitt winning the gold and silver medals respectively in the 100 m freestyle . Devitt had forced his way into the team with his heat swim of 2 min 7 @.@ 5 s , which was the second fastest among all of the swimmers in the heats . With four of the five fastest individual swimmers in the calendar year for the event , Australia was heavily favoured to win the relay ; Sports Illustrated predicted a world record and a victory margin of around 14 metres .
O 'Halloran 's inclusion at the expense of Chapman was the subject of controversy , because Chapman had won bronze in the 100 m event and was the national 220 yd freestyle champion . O 'Halloran 's selection also broke up the team of Devitt , Rose , Chapman and Henricks , which had won the relay for New South Wales at the Australian Championships . O 'Halloran led off and put Australia in the lead with an Olympic record time of 2 min 6 @.@ 8 s , opening a gap of 0 @.@ 7 s over the Soviet Union and 1 @.@ 2 s over the United States . The fourth @-@ placed Italians were already a full three seconds in arrears . Australia never relinquished the lead and steadily increased it , as Devitt , Rose and Henricks set the three fastest splits in the race , quicker than all the non @-@ Australian swimmers . O 'Halloran 's split was the fifth fastest in the race ; the Soviet anchor swimmer was the only non @-@ Australian to swim faster , and only by 0 @.@ 1 s despite having the benefit of a flying start . This resulted in Australia winning gold in a world record time of 8 min 23 @.@ 6 s , almost eight seconds ahead of the second @-@ place Americans and 13 ahead of the Soviets . The win made O 'Halloran the first Western Australian to win any Olympic medal .
In his only individual event , O 'Halloran qualified for the 400 m final , having won his heat in a time of 4 min 36 @.@ 8 s , 0 @.@ 5 s ahead of Japan 's Koji Nonoshita . However , his heat was relatively slow , meaning that he was the sixth fastest qualifier . Swimming from lane seven , O 'Halloran cut almost 4 s off his personal best to lose the bronze medal to the United States ' George Breen by 0 @.@ 4 s , in a race won by Rose . O 'Halloran reduced Breen 's margin by 1 @.@ 3 s in the last 100 m , but it was not enough as he finished in a time of 4 min 32 @.@ 9 s . O 'Halloran returned to Perth after the Olympics to be welcomed by a motorcade and a civic reception . He was named as one of the five Western Australian Sportspeople of the Year in recognition of his winning performance . Despite his achievements , the state government ignored calls for Western Australia to build an Olympic standard swimming pool , until constructing one for the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth .
= = Later years = =
In 1958 , O 'Halloran 's parents traveled across the continent to watch him swim at the Australian Championships in Sydney , but a recurring ear infection hindered his performances . He missed selection for the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Cardiff and retired after the long car journey back across the Nullarbor . Upon arriving in Kojonup , O 'Halloran was reported to have said , " I 've had enough " . O 'Halloran then worked full @-@ time on the family property .
In 1976 , his body was discovered next to a rifle , near a fence on the property ; he had tripped as he climbed through the fence , and accidentally shot himself . O 'Halloran had never married . The 50 m pool at Kojonup was named the Kevin O 'Halloran Memorial Pool in his honour , and he was posthumously inducted into the Western Australian Hall of Champions .
= To My Surprise ( album ) =
To My Surprise is the only album by American alternative rock band To My Surprise . Released on October 7 , 2003 by Roadrunner Records , it was the only album that the band released before disbanding in 2006 . The album was intended to be self produced by Shawn Crahan and Brandon Darner , but after producer Rick Rubin was sent demos by Crahan , Rubin invited the band to Los Angeles where he assumed the role of executive producer . Following the release of the album , a music video was released for the song " In The Mood " on December 1 .
The album was generally well received by critics who remarked on its diversity and significantly different musical style to that of drummer Crahan 's other band Slipknot . They noted that it features music inspired by The Beatles , Led Zeppelin , Pink Floyd and Weezer , among others . However the album did not appear on any sales charts .
= = History = =
In June 2002 , band members Shawn Crahan , Brandon Darner and Stevan Robinson began working on an album together . Drummer Crahan told MTV that working on this album " made [ him ] find [ his ] voice " and that with his other band Slipknot he had been " hurting for a long time for a musical voice " . In an interview with Launch , he said that writing the track " The World 's Too Small " was his " most magical musical experience " because " [ he ] was giving more than on just one or two simple ideas . " In 2003 Crahan sent producer Rick Rubin two songs that he and Darner had written , primarily to receive an opinion on the songs . However , Rubin invited the band to Cello Studios in Los Angeles to work on an album . It was there that the album featuring 11 tracks was self @-@ produced by Crahan and Darner , with Rubin as executive producer .
On October 7 , 2003 , To My Surprise was released through Roadrunner Records . An animated music video for the track " In The Mood " was produced by BoingBoing , which was premiered on MTV 's Extreme show on December 1 . Also , the track " Get It To Go " was featured on the soundtrack for the video game MVP Baseball 2004 . To My Surprise did not tour in 2003 to promote the album because Crahan was working with Slipknot on their third album . However , they did perform a limited number shows in North America the following year .
= = Musical style = =
Prior to the release of the album , drummer Crahan touted To My Surprise as " a hybrid of folk , ' 70s rock fuzz and schizophrenic grooves " . Neil Strauss of The New York Times stated that each song has a unique sound , concluding that they sound like " pop songs that have been pushed off balance " . In another article Strauss includes They Might Be Giants , Weezer and Faith No More as bands with similar sounding " elements " . Rowan Shaeffer of Counterculture , commented on the album 's diversity , saying " to say that the [ album ] is eclectic would be a gross understatement , " citing Pink Floyd and Mr. Bungle as evident influences . The Calgary Sun 's Mike Bell cited " glam , new wave , Beatles pop and country rock " as the sounds the album presents . In his review for Allmusic Robert L. Doerschuk noted that the track " Sunday " makes musical references to the single " Pleasant Valley Sunday " by The Monkees , giving the " happy , strumming guitars and skippy rhythms " as similarities . He also said that they quote " one of the darker verses in the Jim Morrison songbook " .
= = Reception = =
To My Surprise was met with generally favorable critical reviews , but did not appear on any sales charts . One point which was generally drawn upon was the significant difference between their musical style to that of Crahan 's other band Slipknot . Reviewer Neil Strauss opens his review with a reference to the title of the album , saying , " And , truly , it is a surprise " , and then going on to say that the album " is commendable not just because [ it is ] different but because [ it is ] good " . Robert L. Doerschuk of Allmusic declares that the album — aside from the track " Say Goodbye " — " maintains a buoyant and unsubtle approach " . He also noted Crahan 's " muscular style " as a notable element to the album saying that " [ it ] transplants well into this setting , which probably should not have been a surprise after all " . The vocals on the album were praised by the reviewers at babysue , saying " the vocals [ are ] masculine yet right on key " . When reviewing for Calgary Sun , Mike Bell highlighted their eclectic nature and in conclusion said the album is " fittingly , fun and surprising " . However Rowan Shaeffer of Counterculture said that their diversity was ultimately their strength and weakness ; he suggested that they relied too heavily on their influences by creating songs of other bands , saying that " the only [ song ] left out was the To My Surprise song " .
= = Track listing = =
" The World 's Too Small " – 3 : 37
" Get It To Go " – 3 : 12
" In The Mood " – 3 : 31
" Blue " – 3 : 59
" Say Goodbye " – 3 : 33
" Easy Or Not " – 2 : 54
" Turn It Back Around " – 3 : 25
" This Life " – 5 : 34
" Come With Me " – 3 : 47
" Sunday " – 3 : 22
" Who 's To Say " – 4 : 23
= = Personnel = =
= Cumberland Island horse =
The Cumberland Island horses are a band of feral horses living on Cumberland Island in the state of Georgia . Popular myth holds that horses arrived on the island some time in the 16th century with the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors . However , it is unlikely that any horses left by the Spanish survived , and more likely the current population descends from horses brought to the island in the 18th century by the English . Cumberland Island became part of the Cumberland Island National Seashore in 1972 , when the National Park Service ( NPS ) took over its management . These horses are similar to the bands of horses living on the islands of Chincoteague and Assateague . There is estimated to be a population of between 150 and 200 horses on the island . Horses on Cumberland Island have a relatively short life expectancy , due to pest infestations , disease and their rugged environment . In 2000 a behavioral study found that instability marks the bands , with large numbers of co @-@ dominant stallions , early dispersal of juveniles , and frequent band @-@ changing among mares .
The herd has been studied periodically since the late 1980s , with researchers recommending various management strategies depending on the focus of their study . Current herd levels have been shown to have a negative effect on their environment , and researchers focused on environmental issues recommend a severe reduction in herd numbers . Other researchers , looking at genetic variability , state that a herd size nearly as large as current is necessary to prevent inbreeding , but also state the herd is not genetically unique enough to warrant special preservation . The National Park Service has no current management plan for the horses , and their one effort to create one was blocked by Jack Kingston , a Georgia member of the US House of Representatives .
= = History = =
Horses are not native to Cumberland Island . Popular myth states they were brought to the island by the Spanish in the 16th century . However , it is believed that these first horses more than likely did not survive due to the lack of visits made by the Spanish and the local Native Americans on the island finding them of little practical use . In the 18th century , the English began settling Cumberland Island . The horses seen there today are most likely descendants of horses brought by these settlers , as this is when a large majority of the horses began to roam freely and revert to their natural state , becoming feral . During the 19th century , efforts were made to capture and make use of the horses . The first attempts were made by the island plantation owner Robert Stafford , who allowed visitors to purchase and capture the horses , which Stafford called " marsh tackies , " for their own personal use . The horses were next used as cavalry animals during the American Civil War . After the war , records suggest that people from Jekyll Island captured some of the horses for horse meat . Around 1881 , Thomas M. Carnegie bought two plantations on the island and introduced Tennessee Walking Horses , Paso Finos , and Arabians into the feral horse population in an attempt to improve the animals . Carnegie received a small amount of income from the buying and selling of these animals . Later , many island residents began introducing additional breeds into the herds on the island , further diversifying the bands of horses . In 1921 , a large number of horses were brought onto the island from Globe , Arizona , all of which had been running wild on western rangeland .
The National Park Service ( NPS ) acquired the island in 1972 and declared it the Cumberland Island National Seashore . Since then , few new horses have been introduced to the island , though four Arabians were introduced in the early 1990s in the hopes of diversifying and bettering the existing population . Since 1981 , the NPS has been monitoring the horses and tracking their impact on the environment . In 1991 , an outbreak of eastern equine en
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biographer , Paolo Coletta , suggests that Bryan may have played a part in inciting the silver men 's departure ; he was in close contact with Silver Republicans such as Teller and South Dakota Senator Richard Pettigrew . Historian James Barnes wrote of Bryan 's preparations :
The Nebraskan merely understood the political situation better than most of those who might have been his rivals , and he took advantage in a legitimate and thoroughly honorable manner of the existing conditions . He knew that hard work could turn the discontent of the people into a revolt against the gold wing of the party , and no group of individuals ever labored more diligently to gain their political ends than did the silver men in the [ Democratic Party ] between 1893 and 1896 . Bryan sensed the possibility of becoming the nominee long before 1896 ; his ambition was fully matured several months prior to the convention , and there is evidence that his hopes were becoming tinged with certainty before he left for Chicago .
= = = Convention = = =
In the run up to the Democratic National Convention , set to begin at the Chicago Coliseum on July 7 , 1896 , no candidate was seen as an overwhelming favorite for the presidential nomination . The leading candidates were former Missouri congressman Richard P. Bland and former Iowa governor Horace Boies . " Silver Dick " Bland was seen as the elder statesman of the silver movement ; he had originated the Bland @-@ Allison Act of 1878 , while Boies ' victories for governor in a normally Republican state made him attractive as a candidate who might compete with McKinley in the crucial Midwest . Both had openly declared their candidacies , and were the only Democrats to have organizations seeking to obtain pledged delegates . Neither candidate had much money to spend on his campaign . In addition to the frontrunners , other silver men were spoken of as candidates . These included Vice President Adlai Stevenson of Illinois , Senator Joseph C. Blackburn of Kentucky , Indiana Governor Claude Matthews , and Bryan . Illinois Governor Altgeld , a leader of the silver movement , was ineligible because he was not a natural @-@ born U.S. citizen as required for the presidency in the Constitution . When Senator Teller walked out of the Republican convention in protest over the currency plank , he immediately became another possible candidate for the Democratic nomination for president . However , he was deemed unlikely to succeed , as many Democrats feared that if elected , he might fill some patronage jobs with Republicans . President Cleveland spent the week of the convention fishing , and had no comment about the events there ; political scientist Richard Bensel attributes Cleveland 's political inaction to the President 's loss of influence in his party .
Bryan 's Nebraska delegation left Lincoln by train on July 5 . Carrying some 200 people , the train bore signs on each of its five cars , such as " The W.J. Bryan Club " and " Keep Your Eye on Nebraska . " Bryan 's strategy was simple : maintain a low profile as a candidate until the last possible moment , then give a speech that rallied the silver forces behind him and bring about his nomination . He was utterly confident that he would succeed , believing " the logic of the situation , " as he later put it , dictated his selection . He explained to Champ Clark , the future Speaker of the House , that Bland and others from southern states would fall because of prejudice towards the old Confederacy , that Boies could not be nominated because he was too little @-@ known , and all others would fail due to lack of support — leaving only himself .
Coletta noted the problems faced by Bryan in obtaining the nomination , and how his groundwork helped overcome them :
The maneuver that paid Bryan highest dividends was his fifteen months of missionary work in behalf of silver and cultivation of the Chicago delegates . He knew personally more delegates than did any other candidate ... and he was on the ground to supervise his strategy . When he spoke of himself as the nominee , some reacted as [ journalist ] Willis J. Abbot did and doubted his mental capacity . How could a boy in appearance , one not yet admitted to the convention , without a single state behind him , dare claim the nomination ? The answer was simple , Bryan told Abbot — he had prepared a speech that would stampede the convention .
Bryan stayed at the Clifton House , a modest hotel adjoining the opulent Palmer House . A large banner outside the Clifton House proclaimed the presence of Nebraska 's delegation headquarters , but did not mention Bryan 's campaign , which was run from Nebraska 's rooms . The main candidates headquartered at the Palmer House , their rooms often crowded as they served free alcoholic drinks . The Coliseum was located in a " dry " district of Chicago but the hotels were not .
Just before the convention , the Democratic National Committee ( DNC ) made initial determinations of which delegations were to be seated — once convened , delegates would make the final determination after the convention 's Credentials Committee reported . The DNC seated a rival , pro @-@ gold Nebraska delegation , and recommended New York Senator David B. Hill as the convention 's temporary chairman , each by a vote of 27 — 23 . Bryan was present when it was announced that his delegation would not be initially seated ; reports state he acted " somewhat surprised " at the outcome . Since the DNC action meant Bryan would not have a seat at the start of proceedings , he could not be the temporary chairman ( who would deliver the keynote address ) ; the Nebraskan began looking for other opportunities to make a speech at the convention . Historian James A. Barnes deemed the DNC 's vote immaterial ; once the convention met on July 7 , it quickly elected a silver man , Virginia Senator John Daniel , as temporary chairman and appointed a committee to review credentials friendly to the silver cause .
As the committees met , the convention proceeded , though in considerable confusion . Many of the silver men had not attended a national convention before , and were unfamiliar with its procedures . Members of the Committee on Resolutions ( also called the Platform Committee ) intended to elect California Senator Stephen M. White as chairman ; they found that he had already been co @-@ opted as permanent chairman of the convention . Bryan had been widely supported as a candidate for permanent chairman by the silver men , but some western delegates on the Committee on Permanent Organization objected , stating that they wanted the chance to support Bryan for the nomination ( the permanent chairman was customarily ruled out as a candidate ) .
Delegates spent most of the first two days listening to various speeches by silver supporters . The first report from the Credentials Committee , on the afternoon of July 8 , recommended the seating of Bryan 's delegation . This was a matter of intense interest for the silver delegates : Bryan had written to large numbers of delegates urging them to support his men over their gold rivals ; once in Chicago , he and his fellow Nebraskans had spoken with many others about the dispute . The convention , by voice vote , seated the silver Nebraskans , who arrived in the convention hall a few minutes later , accompanied by a band . Soon afterwards , the delegates , bored , shouted for a speech from Bryan , but he was not to be found .
Once seated , Bryan went to the Platform Committee meeting at the Palmer House , displacing the Nebraska gold delegate on the committee . The proposed platform was pro @-@ silver ; Senator Hill had offered an amendment backing the gold standard , which had been defeated by committee vote . As Hill was determined to take the platform fight to the full convention , the committee discussed who should speak in the debate , and allocated 75 minutes to each side . South Carolina Senator Benjamin Tillman , a silver supporter , wanted an hour to address the convention , and to close the debate . When both Hill and Bryan ( who was selected as the other pro @-@ silver speaker ) objected to such a long closing address , Tillman settled for 50 minutes and for opening the debate rather than closing it ; Bryan was given 25 minutes to close . Bryan later asked the Platform Committee chairman , Arkansas Senator James K. Jones why he was given such a crucial role as closing the platform debate ; Senator Jones responded that he had three reasons : Bryan 's long service in the silver cause , the Nebraskan was the only major speaker not to have addressed the convention , and that Jones had a sore throat . That evening , Bryan dined with his wife and with friends . Looking upon the loud Boies and Bland supporters , Bryan commented , " These people don 't know it , but they will be cheering for me just this way tomorrow night . "
= = = Speech = = =
On the morning of July 9 , 1896 , thousands of people waited outside the Coliseum , hoping to hear the platform debate . The galleries were quickly packed , but the delegates , slowed by fatigue from the first two days and the long journey from the downtown hotels , were slower to arrive . It was not until 10 : 45 am , three @-@ quarters of an hour late , that Chairman White called the convention to order . Bryan arrived during the delay ; he was greeted with a musical tribute from one of the convention bands , which then returned to playing a medley of Irish melodies . Once White started the proceedings , he turned over the gavel to Senator Jones , who read the proposed platform to great applause from silver delegates , and hissing from gold men . The minority report attracted the opposite reaction .
Senator Tillman , a fiery speaker who wore a pitchfork on his lapel , began the debate . His speech , set as the only one besides Bryan 's in favor of silver , portrayed silver as a sectional issue pitting the poorer folk of the South and West against gold @-@ supporting New York and the rest of the Northeast . It was badly received even by silver delegates , who wished to think of silver as a patriotic , national issue . Senator Jones felt compelled to spend five minutes ( granted by the gold side ) , stating that the silver issue crossed sectional lines . New York Senator Hill was next : the leading spokesman for gold , both gold and silver delegates quieted to hear him . He was followed by Senator William Vilas of Wisconsin and former Massachusetts Governor William D. Russell . Each made their cases for gold , and likely changed few votes . Only Bryan was left to speak , and no one at the convention had yet effectively championed the silver cause . The New York Times described the setting :
There never was such a propitious moment for such an orator than that which fell to Bryan . The minority [ gold faction ] had just been pleased and the majority had just been depressed and mortified by the appearance , as the champion of free silver , of Tillman ... The minority had indicated its position . The majority felt exposed , crestfallen , and humiliated .
Writer Edgar Lee Masters , who witnessed Bryan 's speech , remembered , " Suddenly I saw a man spring up from his seat among the delegates and with the agility and swiftness of an eager boxer hurry to the speaker 's rostrum . He was slim , tall , pale , raven @-@ haired , beaked of nose . " The Nebraska delegation waved red handkerchiefs as Bryan progressed to the podium ; he wore an alpaca sack suit more typical of Lincoln and the West than of Chicago . There was loud cheering as Bryan stood at the lectern ; it took him a full minute to gain silence . He began :
I would be presumptuous , indeed , to present myself against the distinguished gentlemen to whom you have listened if this were a mere measuring of abilities ; but this is not a contest between persons . The humblest citizen in all the land , when clad in the armor of a righteous cause , is stronger than all the hosts of error . I come to speak to you in defense of a cause as holy as the cause of liberty — the cause of humanity .
Bryan , with this declaration , set the theme of his argument , and as it would prove , his campaign : that the welfare of humanity was at stake with the silver issue . According to his biographer Michael Kazin , " Bryan felt he was serving his part in a grander conflict that began with Christ and showed no sign of approaching its end . " From the start , Bryan had his audience : when he finished a sentence , they would rise , shout and cheer , then quiet themselves to ready for the next words ; the Nebraskan later described the convention as like a trained choir . He dismissed arguments that the business men of the East favored the gold standard :
We say to you that you have made the definition of a business man too limited in its application . The man who is employed for wages is as much a business man as his employer ; the attorney in a country town is as much a business man as the corporation counsel in a great metropolis ; the merchant at the cross @-@ roads store is as much a business man as the merchant of New York ; the farmer who goes forth in the morning and toils all day , who begins in spring and toils all summer , and who by the application of brain and muscle to the natural resources of the country creates wealth , is as much a business man as the man who goes upon the Board of Trade and bets upon the price of grain ; the miners who go down a thousand feet into the earth , or climb two thousand feet upon the cliffs , and bring forth from their hiding places the precious metals to be poured into the channels of trade are as much business men as the few financial magnates who , in a back room , corner the money of the world . We come to speak of this broader class of business men .
Many of the elements of the speech had appeared in prior Bryan addresses . However , the business man argument was new , though he had hinted at it in an interview he gave at the Republican convention . Bryan always regarded that argument as the speech 's most powerful part , despite the fame its conclusion would gain . He responded to an argument by Senator Vilas that from silver forces might arise a Robespierre . Bryan affirmed that the people could be counted on to prevent the rise of a tyrant , and noted , " What we need is an Andrew Jackson to stand , as Jackson stood , against the encroachments of organized wealth . " He continued :
Upon which side will the Democratic Party fight ; upon the side of " the idle holders of idle capital " or upon the side of " the struggling masses " ? That is the question which the party must answer first , and then it must be answered by each individual hereafter . The sympathies of the Democratic Party , as shown by the platform , are on the side of the struggling masses , who have ever been the foundation of the Democratic Party .
Bryan concluded the address , seizing a place in American history :
Having behind us the producing masses of this nation and the world , supported by the commercial interests , the laboring interests , and the toilers everywhere , we will answer their demand for a gold standard by saying to them : " You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns ; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold . "
As he spoke his final sentence , he brought his hands to his head , fingers extended in imitation of thorns ; amid dead silence in the Coliseum , he extended his arms , recalling with words and posture the Crucifixion of Jesus , and held that position for several seconds . He then lowered his arms , and began the journey back to his seat in the silence .
Bryan described the stillness as " really painful " ; his anxieties that he might have failed were soon broken by pandemonium . The New York World reported , " The floor of the
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Souders and Brian Peterson , and directed by Greg Beeman . The series follows the adventures of the young Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) in the town of Smallville , Kansas , before he becomes Superman . In this episode , Clark reveals his secret to Lana Lang ( Kristin Kreuk ) , but there are consequences . Jonathan Kent ( John Schneider ) and Lex Luthor ( Michael Rosenbaum ) learn the results of the senatorial election and the life of someone Clark loves is taken from him .
There were originally two potential plotlines for the episode before it was decided that one of the main characters would be killed . This concept was positively received by studio executives . Schneider compared his departure to that of John Wayne in The Cowboys . The theme of the episode was that Clark had to accept the consequences of his decisions . To keep the identity of the imminently deceased secret , the script was given to fewer people and the network issuing promotional trailers that featured the possible deaths of both Lana and Jonathan .
Upon its premiere , " Reckoning " earned a Nielsen household rating of 2 @.@ 2 , and was watched by approximately 6 @.@ 28 million viewers in the United States ; along with an estimated 375 @,@ 000 viewers in the United Kingdom . The episode received generally positive reviews from commentators , who felt that Jonathan 's death was both emotional and pivotal . One faction of fans was unhappy with the choice of Jonathan , preferring that Lana would have been killed instead .
= = Plot = =
Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) sits in his loft holding a piece of coal , waiting for Lana Lang ( Kristin Kreuk ) to arrive . He then takes her to the Kawatche Caves , where they are transported to the Fortress of Solitude . Lana is in shock as she looks around at the Fortress . Clark expresses fear that Lana is drifting away because of his secret , so he decides to reveal his powers to her . Clark then uses the coal to make a diamond ring and proposes marriage . Afterward , Clark reveals what he did to his parents , Jonathan and Martha Kent ( John Schneider and Annette O 'Toole ) , who tell him that he is old enough to make decisions on his own without the advice of his father . After some initial doubt , Lana returns to the Kent farm to accept Clark 's proposal .
Lois Lane ( Erica Durance ) holds an election party for Jonathan at the Talon , where his supporters learn that he defeated Lex Luthor ( Michael Rosenbaum ) in the Kansas State Senate race . Lana gets a call from Lex and meets him at his mansion . After seeing Lana 's engagement ring , Lex realizes that Lana knows Clark 's secret and reacts aggressively . Lana leaves , but Lex follows in an attempt to apologize . Distracted , she does not see the school bus as it hits her car and she is killed . Clark realizes that Lana 's life is the price that Jor @-@ El ( Terence Stamp ) promised to collect when he resurrected Clark in " Hidden " . Jor @-@ El provides a crystal that will allow Clark to reset the day , but warns him that the universe will find someone else 's life to exchange for hers . When Clark takes the crystal , he is sent back to the moment that Lana appeared in his barn . This time , Clark decides not to reveal his secret , which causes Lana to break up with him . Upset , Clark goes to Metropolis and tells Chloe Sullivan ( Allison Mack ) everything , including how he had already lived the day , and his proposal to Lana . Chloe promises to keep an eye on Lana to prevent the accident .
At the election party , Lana arrives with Chloe , but she leaves again when Lex calls . This time Lex kisses her when he learns of her break up , which causes Lana to leave . Lex pursues Lana again , but this time Clark arrives in time to stop the bus . Jonathan goes to the farm after receiving a mysterious call during the party , and is greeted by Lionel Luthor ( John Glover ) . Lionel insinuates he knows Clark 's secret and shows a picture to Jonathan , which causes Jonathan to begin punching Lionel in anger . Jonathan dismisses Lionel and laboriously walks into the yard , breathing heavily . Martha and Clark drive up and catch him as he stumbles to the ground . After taking a final look at his family , Jonathan dies in the arms of Martha and Clark . At Jonathan 's funeral , all of Clark 's close friends attend , as well as the Luthors . Clark is the last person at the grave site as everyone leaves . He picks up a handful of dirt to sprinkle into his father 's grave .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Originally , the writers developed two potential plotlines for the episode : Clark and Lana would get married and one of Clark 's parents would die . The producers eventually chose only to kill one of the parents . The producers also debated the idea of other characters dying , but realized that none would have as much resonance as one of Clark 's parents . Once the basic plot was decided , a group of Smallville writers used whiteboards to flesh out the story . The story went into development , and the details were arranged . After the main story line was developed , the supervising producers presented it to several of the executive vice presidents at The WB Television Network . The executives enjoyed the story : Michael Roberts , a senior executive , called the episode 's plot " great " and noted that " the conceit is really cool " .
Writers Kelly Souders and Brian Peterson explained that the title , " Reckoning " , had been decided on before the script was finalized . Peterson explained that the theme revolved around the idea that " you reap what you sow " . The idea was an expansion from " Hidden " , in which Clark was resurrected by his biological father Jor @-@ El , who also informed Clark that the life of someone he loves would be exchanged in the future as payment for bringing Clark back . Peterson expounded further that the plot of the episode would show that " Clark is not God " . Jonathan Kent 's death had been requested by executive producers Alfred Gough and Miles Millar at the " beginning of the season " according to Souders . The idea was specifically chosen to be featured in the show 's 100th episode .
Gough explained that the reason Jonathan Kent was chosen to die was because " going into season five , this is the year the boy becomes the man , so at some point the mentor / father figure has to die , in order for Clark to ultimately step up and really embrace his destiny . " Schneider was happy with the way Jonathan Kent was killed . He argued that his character exited the show " like a hero " . Furthermore , he drew comparisons to John Wayne , finding it " An empowering death . " Originally , a scene had been shot featuring Clark bringing his father 's dead body to the Fortress of Solitude . However , the scene was ultimately cut because , according to Gough , " It was something that sounded great on paper , but it felt like a bit of a stutter step in the episode . " Gough later called the scene " morbid " .
Once the rough script was formulated it was sent to Gough and Millar for additional notes . Next , drafts were sent to the production studio and the network , who also made notes . Finally , Souders and Peterson re @-@ wrote the episode ; the script went through 10 drafts . The final version was finished " two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half [ to ] three weeks " before production began . Normally a script for a Smallville episode would go to about 40 different people , including " sets , props , and wardrobe " , but because the episode featured the death , the production staff and writers kept it " top secret " . In fact , the script for the episode was printed on red paper in an attempt to keep it " under wraps " .
= = = Filming = = =
Director Greg Beeman found shooting the episode difficult , because his father had recently died . Beeman noted , " I left from his funeral to go to Vancouver to direct the episode , so the emotions were very poignant for me . " During filming , artificial snow had to be continuously shoveled on the sets because the cast and crew kept trampling through it . Steve Oben , the costume set supervisor for the series , jokingly called the Fortress of Solitude the " Fortress of Styrofoam " and explained that a huge hurdle for the scenes in the fortress was to make sure that the synthetic snow would not stick to the actors during filming .
Souders stated that the production staff wanted the climactic scene of Lana 's death to be a " big event " . Originally , staff wanted the car accident to be caused by a train . However , the show was not able to afford the special effects to pull the scene off , and so , the sequence was re @-@ written to feature a bus crash . Souders noted that if the show had been unable to afford the bus wreck , it would have been re @-@ written into a " little car wreck " . The Lana 's entire sequence death was choreographed by Christopher Sayour — series stunt coordinator and Welling 's stunt double . Sayour described the scene as " important to me and important to a lot of people " . The car crash was a collage of several different shots . First , Kreuk was filmed driving a car on a process trailer with a mounted camera . A separate shot was filmed with a stunt double driving a lead car that was attached to a dummy car driving down a road at high speed . A bus was then driven in a perpendicular direction . The dummy car was attached with a detonator so that when the bus hit it , it would detach and not pull the lead car with it . The timing for the crash was practiced several times during rehearsals . After the car was smashed by the bus , Kreuk was positioned on the ground to give the effect that she was actually in the car wreck .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Reckoning " originally aired in the United States on January 26 , 2006 on The WB . The network promoted the episode with videos of " snowy coffins " suggesting that either Lana or Jonathan would die . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 2 , meaning that roughly 2 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 6 @.@ 28 million viewers and ranked as the seventy @-@ first most – watched episode of the week . The episode was the second @-@ most watched fifth season episode , after the earlier entry , " Aqua " , which was seen by 6 @.@ 40 million viewers . It aired in the United Kingdom on E4 on March 27 , 2006 and reached 375 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the fourth most – watched program that week .
" Reckoning " received mostly positive reviews from commentators . Various critics felt that the death of Jonathan Kent was a poignantly emotional choice , although others expressed their preference that Lang would have died . This was especially true for fans , who angrily opined their views on various Smallville fan sites . Michael Ausiello from TV Guide wrote , " Watch [ ' Reckoning ' ] because it 's one of the best hours of TV this season — and I 'm not even a big Smallville fan . " Vic Holtreman from Screenrant gave the episode a largely positive review and called it " a great episode overall " . He called the scenes leading up to the funeral " quite moving " and noted that the loss of Jonathan Kent was a blow , not only for the emotional state of the series ' main characters , but also for the audience . However , Holtreman mocked the " old moon @-@ pie eye ’ d Clark / Lana situation " and the fact that " Lana didn 't die " . Omar Gallaga from Television Without Pity gave the episode a B – and noted that the death of Jonathan Kent " still stings " . Chris Carabott from TV Fanatic named the episode the second best Smallville episode , coming after ninth season entry " Absolute Justice " . He wrote that " The death of Jonathan Kent is one of the most pivotal moments of Smallville . " Carabott noted that the ramifications of the episode helped to " shape [ Clark into ] the man he has become " . Michael Duffy , in the chapter " Sacrifice or Salvation ? Smallville 's Heroic Survival amid Changing Television Trends " of the book called The Smallville Chronicles : Critical Essays on the Television Series , called the episode " momentous " and noted that the presence of clips at Jonathan 's funeral from " Reckoning " in the eighth season premiere " Odyssey " helped to " subtly resituate and creatively reboot the Smallville universe " during the show 's later life .
The production staff for Smallville were very happy with the finished result . Gough and Millar wrote that the episode was a " tour de force of writing , directing , and acting . " They jokingly noted that if , by the end of the episode , the audience was not " weeping " , then " shame on you " . Allison Mack called the entry " thrilling and exciting " . Welling noted that Schneider 's departure from the series was " bittersweet " . Producer Rob Maier was particularly proud of the final cut , noting , " The highlight of season five was the hundredth episode [ ' Reckoning ' ] . It was a remarkable show . "
= Gila monster =
The Gila monster ( Heloderma suspectum , / ˈhiːlə / HEE @-@ lə ) is a species of venomous lizard native to the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexican state of Sonora . A heavy , slow @-@ moving lizard , up to 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) long , the Gila monster is the only venomous lizard native to the United States and one of only two known species of venomous lizards in North America , the other being its close relative , the Mexican beaded lizard ( H. horridum ) . Though the Gila monster is venomous , its sluggish nature means it represents little threat to humans . However , it has earned a fearsome reputation and is sometimes killed despite being protected by state law in Arizona .
= = Description , taxonomy and etymology = =
In this species , the largest extant lizard native to North America north of the Mexican border ( non @-@ natives like green iguanas are larger ) , snout @-@ to @-@ vent length is from 26 to 36 cm ( 10 to 14 in ) . The tail is about 20 % of the body size and the largest specimens may reach 51 to 56 cm ( 20 to 22 in ) in total length . Body mass is typically in the range of 350 to 700 g ( 0 @.@ 77 to 1 @.@ 54 lb ) , with 11 males having been found to average 468 g ( 1 @.@ 032 lb ) . Reportedly , the very heaviest , largest specimens can weigh as much as 2 @,@ 300 g ( 5 @.@ 1 lb ) .
The Gila monster has one close living relative , the beaded lizard ( H. horridum ) , as well as many extinct relatives in the Helodermatidae , the evolutionary history of which may be traced back to the Cretaceous period . The genus Heloderma has existed since the Miocene , when H. texana lived , and fragments of osteoderms from the Gila monster have been found in late Pleistocene ( 10 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 000 years ago ) deposits near Las Vegas , Nevada . Because the helodermatids have remained relatively unchanged morphologically , they are occasionally regarded as living fossils . Although the Gila monster appears closely related to the monitor lizards ( varanids ) of Africa , Asia and Australia , their wide geographical separation and the unique features not found in the varanids indicate the Gila monster is better placed in a separate family .
The name " Gila " refers to the Gila River Basin in the U.S. states of New Mexico and Arizona , where the Gila monster was once plentiful . Heloderma means " studded skin " , from the Ancient Greek words helos ( ἧλος ) , " the head of a nail or stud " , and derma ( δέρμα ) , " skin " . Suspectum comes from the describer , paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope , who suspected the lizard might be venomous due to the grooves in the teeth .
= = Distribution and habitats = =
The Gila monster is found in the Southwestern United States and Mexico , a range including Sonora , Arizona , parts of California , Nevada , Utah , and New Mexico ( potentially including Baja California ) . They inhabit scrubland , succulent desert , and oak woodland , seeking shelter in burrows , thickets , and under rocks in locations with ready access to moisture . In fact , Gila monsters seem to like water and can be observed immersing themselves in puddles of water after a summer rain . They avoid living in open areas such as flats and farmland .
= = Ecology = =
Gila monsters spend 90 % of their time underground in burrows or rocky shelters . They are active in the morning during the dry season ( spring and early summer ) ; later in the summer , they may be active on warm nights or after a thunderstorm . They maintain a surface body temperature of about 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . Gila monsters are slow in sprinting ability , but they have relatively high endurance and maximal aerobic capacity ( VO2 max ) for a lizard . They are preyed upon by coyotes and raptors .
= = = Diet = = =
The Gila monster eats small birds , mammals , frogs , lizards , insects , and carrion . The Gila monster feeds primarily on bird and reptile eggs , and eats infrequently ( only five to ten times a year in the wild ) , but when it does feed , it may eat up to one @-@ third of its body mass . It uses its extremely acute sense of smell to locate prey , especially eggs . Its sense of smell is so keen , it can locate and dig up chicken eggs buried 15 cm ( 6 in ) deep and accurately follow a trail made by rolling an egg .
Prey may be crushed to death if large or eaten alive if small , swallowed head @-@ first , and helped down by muscular contractions and neck flexing . Unusually , after food has been swallowed , the Gila monster immediately resumes tongue flicking and search behavior , probably as a result of a history of finding clumped prey such as eggs and young in nests . Gila monsters are able to climb trees and cacti in search of eggs .
= = Venom = =
= = = Pioneer beliefs = = =
In the Old West , the pioneers believed a number of myths about the Gila monster , including that the lizard had foul or toxic breath and that its bite was fatal . The Tombstone Epitaph of Tombstone , Arizona , wrote about a Gila monster that a local person caught on May 14 , 1881 :
This is a monster , and no baby at that , it being probably the largest specimen ever captured in Arizona . It is 27 inches long and weighs 35 lb . It was caught by H. C. Hiatt on the road between Tombstone and Grand Central Mill and was purchased by Messrs. Ed Baker and Charles Eastman , who now have it on exhibition at Kelley 's Wine House , next door above Grand Hotel , Allen Street . Eastern people who have never seen one of these monsters should not fail to inspect his Aztecship , for they might accidentally stumble upon one some fine day and get badly frightened , except they know what it is .
On May 8 , 1890 , southeast of Tucson , Arizona Territory , Empire Ranch owner Walter Vail captured and thought he had killed a Gila monster . He tied it to his saddle and it bit the middle finger of his right hand and wouldn 't let go . A ranch hand pried open the lizard 's mouth with a pocketknife , cut open his finger to stimulate bleeding , and then tied saddle strings around his finger and wrist . They summoned Dr. John C. Handy of Tucson , who took Vail back to Tucson for treatment , but Vail experienced swollen and bleeding glands in his throat for sometime afterward .
Dr. Handy 's friend , Dr. George Goodfellow of Tombstone , was among the first to research the actual effects of Gila monster venom . Scientific American reported in 1890 that " The breath is very fetid , and its odor can be detected at some little distance from the lizard . It is supposed that this is one way in which the monster catches the insects and small animals which form a part of its food supply — the foul gas overcoming them . " Goodfellow offered to pay local residents $ 5 @.@ 00 for Gila monster specimens . He bought several and collected more on his own . In 1891 he purposefully provoked one of his captive lizards into biting him on his finger . The bite made him ill and he spent the next five days in bed , but he completely recovered . When Scientific American ran another ill @-@ founded report on the lizard 's ability to kill people , he wrote in reply and described his own studies and personal experience . He wrote that he knew several people who had been bitten by Gila monsters but had not died from the bite .
Goodfellow published articles about rattlesnake and Gila monster bites in Scientific American and Southern California Practitioner .
= = = Delivery = = =
The Gila monster produces venom in modified salivary glands in its lower jaw , unlike snakes , whose venom is produced in the upper jaw . The Gila monster lacks the musculature to forcibly inject the venom ; instead , the venom is propelled from the gland to the tooth by chewing . Capillary action brings the venom out of the tooth and into the victim . The teeth are loosely anchored , which allows them to be broken off and replaced throughout life . Gila monsters have been observed to flip over while biting the victim , presumably to aid the flow of the venom into the wound . Because the Gila monster 's prey consists mainly of eggs , small animals , and otherwise " helpless " prey , the Gila monster 's venom is thought to have evolved for defensive rather than for hunting use . A defensive use would explain the Gila monster 's bright warning coloration .
= = = Toxicity = = =
Although the venom is a neurotoxin as toxic as that of a coral snake , H. suspectum produces only small amounts . The Gila monster 's bite is not fatal to healthy adult humans . No reports of fatalities have been confirmed after 1939 , and those recorded prior to that year are possibly iatrogenic , or resulting from attempts to treat the bite itself . The Gila monster can bite quickly ( especially by swinging its head sideways ) and hold on tenaciously and painfully . If bitten , the victim may need to fully submerge the attacking lizard in water to break free from its bite . Symptoms of the bite include excruciating pain , edema , and weakness associated with a rapid drop in blood pressure .
More than a dozen peptides and other substances have been isolated from the Gila monster 's venom , including hyaluronidase , serotonin , phospholipase A2 , and several kallikrein @-@ like glycoproteins responsible for the pain and edema caused by a bite . Four potentially lethal toxins have been isolated from the Gila monster 's venom , including horridum venom , which causes hemorrhage in internal organs and exophthalmos ( bulging of the eyes ) , and helothermine , which causes lethargy , partial paralysis of the limbs , and hypothermia in rats . Most are similar in form to vasoactive intestinal peptide ( VIP ) , which relaxes smooth muscle and regulates water and electrolyte secretion between the small and large intestines . These bioactive peptides are able to bind to VIP receptors in many different human tissues . One of these , helodermin , has been shown to inhibit the growth of lung cancer .
The constituents of the lizard 's venom that have received the most attention from researchers are the bioactive peptides , including helodermin , helospectin , exendin @-@ 3 , and exendin @-@ 4 . Exendin @-@ 4 has formed the basis of a class of medications for the treatment of type 2 diabetes , known as Glucagon @-@ like peptide @-@ 1 agonists . Exenatide was the first product in the class to reach the market and was launched in 2005 .
= = = Drug research = = =
In 2005 , the US Food and Drug Administration approved the drug exenatide ( marketed as Byetta ) for the management of type 2 diabetes . It is a synthetic version of a protein , exendin @-@ 4 , derived from the Gila monster 's saliva . In a three @-@ year study with people with type 2 diabetes , exenatide led to healthy sustained glucose levels and progressive weight loss . The effectiveness is because the lizard protein is about 50 % identical to glucagon @-@ like peptide @-@ 1 analog ( GLP @-@ 1 ) , a hormone released from the human digestive tract that helps to regulate insulin and glucagon . The lizard protein remains effective much longer than the human hormone , helping diabetics keep their blood sugar levels under control . Exenatide slows the emptying of the stomach and causes a decrease in appetite , contributing to weight loss . The saliva of the Gila monster contains many chemicals which can be deadly . One of these has been shown to affect memory . Several companies have been researching the abilities of this chemical to help memory loss due to various diseases such as Alzheimer ’ s disease , schizophrenia , and ADHD . Gilatide , derived from exendin @-@ 4 , has been shown to dramatically heighten memory in a study with mice . Gilatide is likely to be researched further to provide help to Alzheimer ’ s patients .
= = Life history = =
The Gila monster emerges from hibernation in January or February and mates in May and June . The male initiates courtship by flicking his tongue to search for the female 's scent . If the female rejects his advances , she will bite him and crawl away . When successful , copulation has been observed to last from 15 minutes to as long as two and a half hours . The female lays eggs in July or August , burying them in sand 5 in ( 13 cm ) below the surface . The clutch consists of two to 12 eggs : five is the average . The incubation lasts nine months , as the hatchlings emerge during April through June the following year . The hatchlings are about 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) long and can bite and inject venom upon hatching . The juveniles typically have larger bands of pink scales than adults , although the banded Gila monster ( H. s. cinctum ) has a tendency to retain the band pattern . H. suspectum sexually matures at three to five years old . After egg @-@ laying , adult Gila monsters gradually spend less time on the surface to avoid the hottest part of the summer ( although they may be active in the evening ) , eventually starting their hibernation around November .
Little is known about the social behavior of H. suspectum , but they have been observed engaging in male @-@ male combat , in which the dominant male lies on top of the subordinate one and pins it with its front and hind limbs . Both lizards arch their bodies , pushing against each other and twisting around in an effort to gain the dominant position . A wrestling match ends when the pressure exerted forces them to separate , although bouts may be repeated one after the other . These bouts are typically observed just before the mating season . Those with greater strength and endurance are thought to win more often and enjoy greater reproductive success . Although the Gila monster has a low metabolism and one of the lowest lizard sprint speeds , it has one of the highest aerobic scope values ( the increase in oxygen consumption from rest to maximum metabolic exertion ) among lizards , allowing them to engage in intense aerobic activity for a sustained period of time . Males have been observed to have higher aerobic scopes than females , presumably because of sexual selection for a trait advantageous in prolonged combat . The Gila monster may live up to 20 years in the wild , or 30 in captivity .
= = Conservation status = =
Urban sprawl and habitat destruction has adversely affected Gila monster numbers . In 1952 , they became the first venomous animal to be given legal protection . Gila monsters are listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN . In 1963 , the San Diego Zoo became the first zoo to successfully breed Gila monsters in captivity .
= = = Relationship with humans = = =
Though the Gila monster is venomous , its laggard movement means it poses little threat to humans . However , it has earned a fearsome reputation and is often killed by humans because of fear . Among Native American tribes , the Gila monster had a mixed standing . The Apache believed its breath could kill a man , and the Tohono O 'Odham and the Pima believed it possessed a spiritual power that could cause sickness . In contrast , the Seri and the Yaqui believed the Gila monster 's hide had healing properties . The Gila monster has even starred as a monster in a B movie , The Giant Gila Monster ( though the titular monster was actually portrayed by a Mexican beaded lizard ) . It played a minor role in the motion picture The Treasure of the Sierra Madre . Myths about the animal include that the animal 's breath is toxic enough to kill humans , that it can spit venom and that it can leap several feet in the air to attack . Another myth held that the Gila monster did not have an anus and therefore expelled waste from its mouth , the source of its venom and " fetid breath " . The official mascot of Eastern Arizona College located in Thatcher , Arizona is Gila Hank , a gun @-@ toting , cowboy hat @-@ wearing Gila monster . A similar character as an old western outlaw was seen in 2011 animated film Rango , called Bad Bill ; the character was voiced by Ray Winstone .
= = Gallery = =
= ACC Championship Game =
The Dr Pepper ACC Football Championship Game is an American college football game held on the first Saturday in December by the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) each year to determine its football champion . The game pits the champion of the Coastal Division against the champion of the Atlantic Division in a game that follows the conclusion of the regular season . The game 's corporate sponsor is Dr Pepper . The current champion are the Clemson Tigers of the Atlantic Division .
= = History = =
Before the 2004 college football season , the Atlantic Coast Conference determined its champion via round @-@ robin play during the course of the regular season and there was no conference championship game . In 2004 , the Atlantic Coast conference added two teams — Virginia Tech and Miami — expanding the league to 11 teams . At the time , college football teams were limited by the NCAA to 11 regular @-@ season games , three or four of which typically featured teams outside the home team 's conference . Following the 2004 season , the league added a 12th team — Boston College — and became eligible to hold a championship game at the conclusion of the 2005 season .
The conference was divided into two divisions of six teams each . The team with the best conference record in each division is selected to participate in the championship game . In the inaugural championship game , which took place at the end of the 2005 college football season , the Florida State Seminoles defeated Virginia Tech 27 – 22 at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida . In the 2006 game , two other teams faced off as Georgia Tech played Wake Forest . Wake defeated Georgia Tech 9 – 6 . For the 2007 game , Jacksonville was awarded a one @-@ year extension as host , and the game remained in Jacksonville . Virginia Tech returned to the ACC Football Championship game and faced off against Boston College . Tech won the game , 30 – 16 , and returned to the championship in 2008 to defeat Boston College again 30 – 12 . In 2009 , Georgia Tech defeated Clemson , 39 – 34 , but was forced to vacate the ACC championship by the NCAA .
Following the 2007 game the Gator Bowl Committee — organizers of the ACC Football Championship game in Jacksonville — announced they would not seek another contract extension due to falling attendance . With Jacksonville 's withdrawal from future site selection , the ACC selected Tampa , Florida and Charlotte , North Carolina as future sites of the game . The 2008 and 2009 games were held in Tampa , while the 2010 and 2011 games were held in Charlotte . In 2008 , the Coastal Division champion was the designated " home " team .
= = Conference expansion = =
In 1990 , the eight @-@ team Atlantic Coast Conference added Florida State to the league , creating a new nine @-@ team ACC . Though Florida State was the only school added to the conference , some league officials discussed offering one or more other schools — Navy , Pittsburgh , Syracuse , South Carolina , Miami , West Virginia , Boston College , Rutgers , or Virginia Tech — an offer to join the league . For various reasons , however , no other team was extended an offer . Throughout the 1990s , the Atlantic Coast Conference remained at nine members . Ironically , South Carolina was a charter member of the ACC that left in 1971 .
The nearby Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) , which also encompasses college football teams in the American South , also expanded in 1990 . Instead of adding one team , as did the ACC , the then 10 @-@ team SEC added two — the University of Arkansas and the University of South Carolina . The expansion made the SEC the first 12 @-@ school football conference and thus the first eligible to hold a conference championship game under NCAA rules ( the first game was held in 1992 ) . The SEC enjoyed increased television ratings and revenue through the 1990s and by 2003 was earning over $ 100 million annually , with revenues shared out among member schools .
Officials of other leagues took note of the financial boon that followed SEC expansion to twelve teams . Atlantic Coast Conference representatives began discussing expansion to twelve schools in the first years of the new century , who began publicly pursuing the possibility of expansion anew in 2003 . On May 13 , 2003 , representatives voted in favor of extending invitations to three schools . The only certain school was the University of Miami , while the other two spots were still being debated . Initially , the league favored admitting Miami , Syracuse University , and Boston College . After a month of debate , however , the ACC elected to extend formal invitations to Miami , Boston College , and Virginia Tech , which joined after initially being overlooked . This came years after these schools were considered for ACC membership in the early 1990s but nothing had ever came to fruition . Pittsburgh and Syracuse would also
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eventually join the ACC after rejections in 1990 and 2003 , becoming members in 2013 .
Miami and Virginia Tech began official ACC play with the 2004 college football season . After the league settled a lawsuit resulting from the departure of the three former Big East Conference teams , Boston College began ACC play in the 2005 season . With the league officially at 12 teams , it became eligible to hold a conference championship football game .
= = Site selection = =
Even before the announcement proclaiming the ACC 's expansion to 12 teams , several cities and sports organizations were preparing bids to host the ACC Football Championship Game . The prospect of tens of thousands of visitors could provide a multimillion @-@ dollar economic boost for a host city and region while requiring few , if any , additional facilities . One early contender was the city of Charlotte , North Carolina . Even before Virginia Tech , Miami , and Boston College were chosen as the ACC 's picks to expand , Carolinas Stadium Corporation , the owner and operator of Charlotte 's Ericsson Stadium ( as it was called then ) lobbied heavily for Charlotte 's selection . Other early options included Orlando , Tampa , Atlanta , and Jacksonville .
Shortly after negotiations for the location of the game began during the spring of 2004 , the ACC announced that it had signed a new , seven @-@ year television contract with ABC @-@ TV and ESPN . As part of the deal , the ACC would earn over $ 40 million in revenue a year in exchange for the networks ' exclusive right to televise the ACC Football Championship Game along with several high @-@ profile regular season games . Revenues would be divided among the 12 ACC member schools .
In July 2004 the ACC began deliberations about which bid to accept . On August 19 , 2004 , league officials announced that Jacksonville would host the game in 2005 and 2006 . The league would then have the option to re @-@ select Jacksonville for an additional one or two @-@ year contract . Charlotte was the first runner @-@ up in the competition .
For its first three years , the championship game was held at EverBank Field ( known as Alltel Stadium in 2005 and 2006 and Jacksonville Municipal Stadium in 2007 ) . That contract expired after the 2007 season . In December 2007 , the ACC awarded the next four games to Tampa ( first two ) and Charlotte ( next two ) . Raymond James Stadium was the venue for the Tampa games in 2008 and 2009 , while the Bank of America Stadium provided the venue for the Charlotte games in 2010 and 2011 . Charlotte hosted the game again in 2012 and 2013 . In February 2014 it was announced that Charlotte would continue to host the game through at least 2019 .
= = Team selection = =
Following the absorption of Virginia Tech and Miami into the ACC , questions arose about how an 11 @-@ team league could fairly select participants in the conference championship game . A divisional structure involving two six @-@ team divisions competing for two championship @-@ game slots would not be possible . In addition , the ACC could not continue to select its champion via round @-@ robin play since there were now 11 teams and only seven or eight conference games available per team . Even the NCAA 's addition of a 12th game to the regular season did little to relieve the conference 's problem . Prior to the 2004 college football season , the ACC requested a waiver to the NCAA 's rule requiring conferences to have 12 @-@ plus teams before having a conference championship game . Before the season began , however , the NCAA rejected the ACC 's application , and the league had to use a semi @-@ round @-@ robin format to select a champion during the 2004 football season . After that season , the inclusion of Boston College as the ACC 's 12th team solved the problem of enabling the ACC to have a championship football game .
On October 18 , 2004 , the ACC announced its new football structure with two divisions . Each six @-@ team division plays a round @-@ robin schedule within the division and a rotation of three conference games against teams from the opposing division . The two teams with the best conference records in each division earn places to the championship game . In the event of a tie in records within one division , divisional records and the results of head @-@ to @-@ head games are considered .
Also , in the games between the two divisions , each team has a permanent rival team that is played every year . Hence , every year , there are these football games : Georgia Tech vs. Clemson ; North Carolina vs. North Carolina State ; Louisville vs. Virginia ; Syracuse vs. Pittsburgh ; Duke vs. Wake Forest ; Florida State vs. Miami ; and Boston College vs. Virginia Tech .
Notre Dame joined the conference as a non @-@ divisional member in 2014 and , while playing five ACC teams each season , is not eligible for the championship game .
= = = Divisions = = =
Non @-@ divisional :
Notre Dame
= = Results = =
Winners are listed in bold . Rankings are from the Coaches Poll released prior to the game .
* Georgia Tech was forced to vacate this win due to NCAA violations .
= = Results by team = =
* Georgia Tech appeared in four ACC Football Championship Games , but the Yellow Jackets ' one win was later vacated .
Louisville , Miami , North Carolina State , Pittsburgh , Syracuse , and Virginia have yet to make an appearance in an ACC Football Championship Game .
= 1986 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1986 Giro d 'Italia was the 69th running of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours races . The Giro started in Palermo , on 12 May , with a 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) prologue and concluded in Merano , on 2 June , with a 108 @.@ 6 km ( 67 @.@ 5 mi ) mass @-@ start stage . A total of 171 riders from nineteen teams entered the 22 @-@ stage race , that was won by Italian Roberto Visentini of the Carrera – Inoxpran team . The second and third places were taken by Italian riders Giuseppe Saronni and Francesco Moser , respectively .
Swiss rider Urs Freuler was the first rider to wear the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) . The race lead was passed between five riders across the first five days of racing . Saronni gained the overall lead after the conclusion of the sixth stage and maintained an advantage through the fifteenth day of racing . As the race crossed several Alpine passes in the sixteenth stage , Visentini gained the race lead due to his strong performance on the stage . Visentini then defended the race lead until the race 's conclusion on 2 June .
Amongst the other classifications that the race awarded , Guido Bontempi of Carrera – Inoxpran won the points classification , Pedro Muñoz of Fagor won the mountains classification , and Gis Gelati @-@ Oece 's Marco Giovannetti completed the Giro as the best neo @-@ professional in the general classification , finishing eighth overall . Supermercati Brianzoli finishing as the winners of the team classification , ranking each of the twenty teams contesting the race by lowest cumulative time .
= = Teams = =
A total of nineteen teams were invited to participate in the 1986 Giro d 'Italia . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , which meant that the race started with a peloton of 171 cyclists . The presentation of the teams – where each team 's roster and manager are introduced in front the media and local dignitaries – took place at the Palazzo dei Normanni on 11 May . From the riders that began this edition , 143 made it to the finish in Merano .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The starting peloton did not include the 1985 winner , Bernard Hinault . An El Mundo Deportivo writer believed LeMond , Moser , and Saronni to be the favorites to win the overall crown . In addition , the writer felt that Pedro Muñoz had the best chances to win the race , out of all the Spanish riders entering the event . Atala @-@ Ofmega sports director Franco Criblori believed that Saronni 's results would depend on what form he could maintain in the mountains . In addition , Criblori thought Dutchman Johan van der Velde and Swiss rider Niki Rüttimann were two foreigners to consider for a high place in the general classification .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 1986 edition of the Giro d 'Italia was revealed to the public on television by head organizer Vincenzo Torriani on 8 February 1986 . It contained four time trials , three of which were individual and one of which was a team event . There were twelve stages containing categorized climbs , of which three had summit finishes : stage 14 , to Sauze d 'Oulx ; stage 16 , to Foppolo ; and stage 19 , to Peio . The organizers chose to include no rest days . Torriani did not want to interfere with the World Cup being held in Mexico . When compared to the previous year 's race , the race was 140 km ( 87 mi ) shorter , contained two less rest days , and the same amount of time trials . In addition , this race contained the same amount of stages , but one less set of half stages .
l 'Unita writer Gino Sala believed the route to be more challenging than the routes within the past few years . He criticized the route for the stage three team time trial for going over
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thought to be repaired by the RecF pathway . Both the RecBCD and RecF pathways include a series of reactions known as branch migration , in which single DNA strands are exchanged between two intercrossed molecules of duplex DNA , and resolution , in which those two intercrossed molecules of DNA are cut apart and restored to their normal double @-@ stranded state . Homologous recombination occurs in several groups of viruses . In DNA viruses such as herpesvirus , recombination occurs through a break @-@ and @-@ rejoin mechanism like in bacteria and eukaryotes . In bacteria , branch migration is facilitated by the RuvABC complex or RecG protein , molecular motors that use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to move the junction . The junction must then be resolved into two separate duplexes , restoring either the parental configuration or a crossed @-@ over configuration . Resolution can occur in either a horizontal or vertical fashion during homologous recombination , giving patch products ( if in same orientation during double strand break repair ) or splice products ( if in different orientations during double strand break repair ) . RuvA and RuvB are branch migration proteins , while RuvC is a junction @-@ resolving enzyme .
There is evidence for recombination in some RNA viruses , specifically positive @-@ sense ssRNA viruses like retroviruses , picornaviruses , and coronaviruses . There is controversy over whether homologous recombination occurs in negative @-@ sense ssRNA viruses like influenza .
= = = Resolution = = =
In budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Holliday junctions can be resolved by four different pathways that account for essentially all Holliday junction resolution in vivo . The pathway that produces the majority of crossovers in S. cerevisiae budding yeast , and possibly in mammals , involves proteins EXO1 , MLH1 @-@ MLH3 heterodimer ( called MutL gamma ) and SGS1 ( ortholog of Bloom syndrome helicase ) . The MLH1 @-@ MLH3 heterodimer binds preferentially to Holliday junctions . It is an endonuclease that makes single @-@ strand breaks in supercoiled double @-@ stranded DNA . The MLH1 @-@ MLH3 heterodimer promotes the formation of crossover recombinants . While the other three pathways , involving proteins MUS81 @-@ MMS4 , SLX1 and YEN1 , respectively , can promote Holliday junction resolution in vivo , absence of all three nucleases has only a modest impact on formation of crossover products .
Double mutants deleted for both MLH3 ( major pathway ) and MMS4 ( minor pathway ) showed dramatically reduced crossing over compared to wild @-@ type ( 6- to 17 @-@ fold ) ; however spore viability was reasonably high ( 62 % ) and chromosomal disjunction appeared mostly functional .
Although MUS81 is a component of a minor crossover pathway in the meiosis of budding yeast , plants and vertebrates , in the protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila , MUS81 appears to be part of an essential , if not the predominant crossover pathway . The MUS81 pathway also appears to be the predominant crossover pathway in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe .
The MSH4 and MSH5 proteins form a hetero @-@ oligomeric structure ( heterodimer ) in yeast and humans . In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae MSH4 and MSH5 act specifically to facilitate crossovers between homologous chromosomes during meiosis . The MSH4 / MSH5 complex binds and stabilizes double Holliday junctions and promotes their resolution into crossover products . An MSH4 hypomorphic ( partially functional ) mutant of S. cerevisiae showed a 30 % genome wide reduction in crossover numbers , and a large number of meioses with non exchange chromosomes . Nevertheless , this mutant gave rise to spore viability patterns suggesting that segregation of non @-@ exchange chromosomes occurred efficiently . Thus in S. cerevisiae proper segregation apparently does not entirely depend on crossovers between homologous pairs .
= = Use in DNA nanotechnology = =
DNA nanotechnology is the design and manufacture of artificial nucleic acid structures as engineering materials for nanotechnology rather than as the carriers of genetic information in living cells . The field uses branched DNA structures as fundamental components to create more complex , rationally designed structures . Holliday junctions are thus components of many such DNA structures . As isolated Holliday junction complexes are too flexible to assemble into large ordered arrays , structural motifs with multiple Holliday junctions are used to create rigid " tiles " that can then assemble into larger " arrays " .
The most common such motif is the double crossover ( DX ) complex , which contains two Holliday junctions in close proximity to each other , resulting in a rigid structure that can self @-@ assemble into larger arrays . The structure of the DX molecule forces the Holliday junctions to adopt a conformation with the double @-@ helical domains directly side @-@ by @-@ side , in contrast to their preferred angle of about 60 ° . The complex can be designed to force the junctions into either a parallel or antiparallel orientation , but in practice the antiparallel variety are more well @-@ behaved , and the parallel version is rarely used .
The DX structural motif is the fundamental building block of the DNA origami method , which is used to make larger two- and three @-@ dimensional structures of arbitrary shape . Instead of using individual DX tiles , a single long scaffold strand is folded into the desired shape by a number of short staple strands . When assembled , the scaffold strand is continuous through the double @-@ helical domains , while the staple strands participate in the Holliday junctions as crossover strands .
Some tile types that retain the Holliday junction 's native 60 ° angle have been demonstrated . One such array uses tiles containing four Holliday junctions in a parallelogram arrangement . This structure had the benefit of allowing the junction angle to be directly visualized via atomic force microscopy . Tiles of three Holliday junctions in a triangular fashion have been used to make periodic three @-@ dimensional arrays for use in X @-@ ray crystallography of biomolecules . These structures are named for their similarity to structural units based on the principle of tensegrity , which utilizes members both in tension and compression .
= = History = =
Robin Holliday proposed the junction structure that now bears his name as part of his model of homologous recombination in 1964 , based on his research on the organisms Ustilago maydis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae . The model provided a molecular mechanism that explained both gene conversion and chromosomal crossover . Holliday realized that the proposed pathway would create heteroduplex DNA segments with base mismatches between different versions of a single gene . He predicted that the cell would have a mechanism for mismatch repair , which was later discovered . Prior to Holliday 's model , the accepted model involved a copy @-@ choice mechanism where the new strand is synthesized directly from parts of the different parent strands .
In the original Holliday model for homologous recombination , single @-@ strand breaks occur at the same point on one strand of each parental DNA . Free ends of each broken strand then migrate across to the other DNA helix . There , the invading strands are joined to the free ends they encounter , resulting in the Holliday junction . As each crossover strand reanneals to its original partner strand , it displaces the original complementary strand ahead of it . This causes the Holliday junction to migrate , creating the heteroduplex segments . Depending on which strand was used as a template to repair the other , the four cells resulting from meiosis might end up with three copies of one allele and only one of the other , instead of the normal two of each , a property known as gene conversion .
Holliday 's original model assumed that heteroduplex DNA would be present on both chromosomes , but experimental data on yeast refuted this . An updated model by Matt Meselson and Charley Radding in 1975 introduced the idea of branch migration . Further observations in the 1980s led to the proposal of alternate mechanisms for recombination such as the double @-@ strand break model ( by Jack Szostak , Frank Stahl , and others ) and the single @-@ strand annealing model . A third , the synthesis @-@ dependent strand annealing model , did not involve Holliday junctions .
The first experimental evidence for the structure of the Holliday junction came from electron microscopy studies in the late 1970s , where the four @-@ arm structure was clearly visible in images of plasmid and bacteriophage DNA . Later in the 1980s , enzymes responsible for initiating the formation of , and binding to , Holliday junctions were identified , although as of 2004 the identification of mammalian Holliday junction resolvases remained elusive ( however , see section " Resolution of Holliday junctions , " above for more recent information ) . In 1983 , artificial Holliday junction molecules were first constructed from synthetic oligonucleotides by Nadrian Seeman , allowing for more direct study of their physical properties . Much of the early analysis of Holliday junction structure was inferred from gel electrophoresis , FRET , and hydroxyl radical and nuclease footprinting studies . In the 1990s , crystallography and nucleic acid NMR methods became available , as well as computational molecular modelling tools .
Initially , geneticists assumed that the junction would adopt a parallel rather than antiparallel conformation , because that would place the homologous duplexes in closer alignment to each other . Chemical analysis in the 1980s showed that the junction actually preferred the antiparallel conformation , a finding that was considered controversial , and Robin Holliday himself initially doubted the findings . The antiparallel structure later became widely accepted due to X @-@ ray crystallography data on in vitro molecules , although as of 2004 the implications for the in vivo structure remained unclear , especially the structure of the junctions is often altered by proteins bound to it .
The conceptual foundation for DNA nanotechnology was first laid out by Nadrian Seeman in the early 1980s . A number of natural branched DNA structures were known at the time , including the DNA replication fork and the mobile Holliday junction , but Seeman 's insight was that immobile nucleic acid junctions could be created by properly designing the strand sequences to remove symmetry in the assembled molecule , and that these immobile junctions could in principle be combined into rigid crystalline lattices . The first theoretical paper proposing this scheme was published in 1982 , and the first experimental demonstration of an immobile DNA junction was published the following year . Seeman developed the more rigid double @-@ crossover ( DX ) motif , suitable for forming two @-@ dimensional lattices , demonstrated in 1998 by him and Erik Winfree . In 2006 , Paul Rothemund first demonstrated the DNA origami technique for easily and robustly creating folded DNA structures of arbitrary shape . This method allowed the creation of much larger structures than were previously possible , and which are less technically demanding to design and synthesize . The synthesis of a three @-@ dimensional lattice was finally published by Seeman in 2009 , nearly thirty years after he had set out to achieve it .
= Power : A New Social Analysis =
Power : A New Social Analysis by Bertrand Russell ( 1st imp . London 1938 , Allen & Unwin , 328 pp . ) is a work in social philosophy written by Bertrand Russell . Power , for Russell , is one 's ability to achieve goals . In particular , Russell has in mind social power , that is , power over people .
The volume contains a number of arguments . However , four themes have a central role in the overall work . The first theme given treatment in the analysis is that the lust for power is a part of human nature . Second , the work emphasises that there are different forms of social power , and that these forms are substantially interrelated . Third , Power insists that " organisations are usually connected with certain kinds of individuals " . Finally , the work ends by arguing that " arbitrary rulership can and should be subdued " .
Throughout the work , Russell 's ambition is to develop a new method of conceiving the social sciences as a whole . For him , all topics in the social sciences are merely examinations of the different forms of power – chiefly the economic , military , cultural , and civil forms ( Russell 1938 : 4 ) . Eventually , he hoped that social science would be robust enough to capture the " laws of social dynamics " , which would describe how and when one form of power changes into another . ( Russell 1938 : 4 – 6 ) As a secondary goal of the work , Russell is at pains to reject single @-@ cause accounts of social power , such as the economic determinism he attributes to Karl Marx . ( Russell 1938 : 4 , 95 )
= = The work = =
The new social analysis examines at least four general topics : the nature of power , the forms of power , the structure of organisations , and the ethics of power .
= = = Nature of power = = =
Russell 's view of human nature , like that of Thomas Hobbes , is somewhat pessimistic . By Russell 's account , the desire to empower oneself is unique to human nature . No other animals besides Homo sapiens , he argues , are capable of being so unsatisfied with their lot , that they should try to accumulate more goods than meet their needs . The " impulse to power " , as he calls it , does not arise unless one 's basic desires have been sated . ( Russell 1938 : 3 ) Then the imagination stirs , motivating the actor to gain more power . In Russell 's view , the love of power is nearly universal among people , although it takes on different guises from person to person . A person with great ambitions may become the next Caesar , but others may be content to merely dominate the home . ( Russell 1938 : 9 )
This impulse to power is not only " explicitly " present in leaders , but also sometimes " implicitly " in those who follow . It is clear that leaders may pursue and profit from enacting their own agenda , but in a " genuinely cooperative enterprise " , the followers seem to gain vicariously from the achievements of the leader . ( Russell 1938 : 7 – 8 )
In stressing this point , Russell is explicitly rebutting Friedrich Nietzsche 's infamous " master @-@ slave morality " argument . Russell explains :
" Most men do not feel in themselves the competence required for leading their group to victory , and therefore seek out a captain who appears to possess the courage and sagacity necessary for the achievement of supremacy ... Nietzsche accused Christianity of inculcating a slave @-@ morality , but ultimate triumph was always the goal . ' Blessed are the meek , for they shall inherit the earth . ' " ( Russell 1938 : 9 , emphasis his ) .
The existence of implicit power , he explains , is why people are capable of tolerating social inequality for an extended period of time ( Russell 1938 : 8 ) .
However , Russell is quick to note that the invocation of human nature should not come at the cost of ignoring the exceptional personal temperaments of power @-@ seekers . Following Adler ( 1927 ) — and to an extent echoing Nietzsche – he separates individuals into two classes : those who are imperious in a particular situation , and those who are not . The love of power , Russell tells us , is probably not motivated by Freudian complexes , ( i.e. , resentment of one 's father , lust for one 's mother , drives towards Eros and Thanatos ( Love and Death drives , which constitute the basis of all human drives , etc . , ) but rather by a sense of entitlement which arises from exceptional and deep @-@ rooted self @-@ confidence . ( Russell 1938 : 11 )
The imperious person is successful due to both mental and social factors . For instance , the imperious tend to have an internal confidence in their own competence and decisiveness which is relatively lacking in those who follow . ( Russell 1938 : 13 ) In reality , the imperious may or may not actually be possessed of genuine skill ; rather , the source of their power may also arise out of their hereditary or religious role . ( Russell 1938 : 11 )
Non @-@ imperious persons include those who submit to a ruler , and those who withdraw entirely from the situation . A confident and competent candidate for leadership may withdraw from a situation when they lack the courage to challenge a particular authority , are timid by temperament , simply do not have the means to acquire power by the usual methods , are entirely indifferent to matters of power , and / or are moderated by a well @-@ developed sense of duty . ( Russell 1938 : 13 – 17 )
Accordingly , while the imperious orator will tend to prefer a passionate crowd over a sympathetic one , the timid orator ( or subject ) will have the opposite preferences . The imperious orator is interested mostly in a mob that is more given to rash emotion than to reflection . ( Russell 1938 : 18 ) The orator will try to engineer two ' layers ' of belief in his crowd : " a superficial layer , in which the power of the enemy is magnified so as to make great courage seem necessary , and a deeper layer , in which there is a firm conviction of victory " ( Russell 1938 : 18 ) . By contrast , the timid will seek a sense of belonging , and " the reassurance which is felt in being one of a crowd who all feel alike " ( Russell 1938 : 17 ) .
When any given person has a crisis in confidence , and is placed in a terrifying situation , they will tend to behave in a predictable way : first , they submit to the rule of those who seem to have greater competence in the most relevant task , and second , they will surround themselves with that mass of persons who share a similarly low level of confidence . Thus , people submit to the rule of the leader in a kind of emergency solidarity . ( Russell 1938 : 9 – 10 )
= = = Forms of power = = =
To begin with , Russell is interested in classifying the different ways in which one human being may have power over another — what he calls the " forms of power " . The forms may be subdivided into two : influence over persons , and the psychological types of influence . ( Russell 1938 : 24 @,@ 27 )
To understand how organisations operate , Russell explains , we must first understand the basic methods by which they can exercise power at all — that is , we must understand the manner in which individuals are persuaded to follow some authority . Russell breaks the forms of influence down into three very general categories : " the power of force and coercion " ; the " power of inducements " , such as operant conditioning and group conformity ; and " the power of propaganda and / or habit " ( Russell 1938 : 24 ) .
To explain each form , Russell provides illustrations . The power of mere force is like the tying of a rope around a pig 's belly and lifting it up to a ship while ignoring its cries . The power of inducements is likened to two things : either conditioning , as exemplified by circus animals which have been trained to perform this @-@ or @-@ that trick for an audience , or group acquiescence , as when the leader among sheep is dragged along by chains to get the rest of the flock to follow . Finally , the power of propaganda is akin to the use of carrot and stick to influence the behaviour of a donkey , in the sense that the donkey is being persuaded that making certain actions ( following the carrot , avoiding the stick ) would be more or less to their benefit . ( Russell 1938 : 24 )
Russell makes a distinction between traditional , revolutionary , and naked forms of psychological influence . ( Russell 1938 : 27 ) These psychological types overlap with the forms of influence in some respects : for instance , " naked power " can be reduced to coercion alone . ( Russell 1938 : 63 ) But the other types are distinct units of analysis , and require separate treatments .
= = = = Naked and economic power = = = =
When force is used in the absence of other forms , it is
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magazines since his entering Trinity College , especially in Kottabos and the Dublin University Magazine . In mid @-@ 1881 , at 27 years old , Poems collected , revised and expanded his poetic efforts . The book was generally well received , and sold out its first print run of 750 copies , prompting further printings in 1882 . It was bound in a rich , enamel , parchment cover ( embossed with gilt blossom ) and printed on hand @-@ made Dutch paper ; Wilde presented many copies to the dignitaries and writers who received him over the next few years . The Oxford Union condemned the book for alleged plagiarism in a tight vote . The librarian , who had requested the book for the library , returned the presentation copy to Wilde with a note of apology . Richard Ellmann argues that Wilde 's poem " Hélas ! " was a sincere , though flamboyant , attempt to explain the dichotomies he saw in himself :
To drift with every passion till my soul
Is a stringed lute on which all winds can play
Punch was less enthusiastic , " The poet is Wilde , but his poetry 's tame " was their verdict .
= = = America : 1882 = = =
Aestheticism was sufficiently in vogue to be caricatured by Gilbert and Sullivan in Patience ( 1881 ) . Richard D 'Oyly Carte , an English impresario , invited Wilde to make a lecture tour of North America , simultaneously priming the pump for the US tour of Patience and selling this most charming aesthete to the American public . Wilde journeyed on the SS Arizona , arriving 2 January 1882 , and disembarking the following day . Originally planned to last four months , it continued for almost a year due to the commercial success . Wilde sought to transpose the beauty he saw in art into daily life . This was a practical as well as philosophical project : in Oxford he had surrounded himself with blue china and lilies , and now one of his lectures was on interior design . When asked to explain reports that he had paraded down Piccadilly in London carrying a lily , long hair flowing , Wilde replied , " It 's not whether I did it or not that 's important , but whether people believed I did it " . Wilde believed that the artist should hold forth higher ideals , and that pleasure and beauty would replace utilitarian ethics .
Wilde and aestheticism were both mercilessly caricatured and criticised in the press ; the Springfield Republican , for instance , commented on Wilde 's behaviour during his visit to Boston to lecture on aestheticism , suggesting that Wilde 's conduct was more a bid for notoriety rather than devotion to beauty and the aesthetic . T.W. Higginson , a cleric and abolitionist , wrote in " Unmanly Manhood " of his general concern that Wilde , " whose only distinction is that he has written a thin volume of very mediocre verse " , would improperly influence the behaviour of men and women . Though his press reception was hostile , Wilde was well received in diverse settings across America ; he drank whiskey with miners in Leadville , Colorado and was fêted at the most fashionable salons in every city he visited .
= = = London life and marriage = = =
His earnings , plus expected income from The Duchess of Padua , allowed him to move to Paris between February and mid @-@ May 1883 . Whilst there he met Robert Sherard , whom he entertained constantly . " We are dining on the Duchess tonight " , Wilde would declare before taking him to a fancy restaurant . In August he briefly returned to New York for the production of Vera , his first play , after it was turned down in London . He reportedly entertained the other passengers with " Ave Imperatrix ! , A Poem on England " , about the rise and fall of empires . E.C. Stedman , in Victorian Poets describes this " lyric to England " as " manly verse – a poetic and eloquent invocation " . The play was initially well received by the audience , but when the critics wrote lukewarm reviews attendance fell sharply and the play closed a week after it had opened .
Wilde was left to return to England and lecturing on topics including Personal Impressions of America , The Value of Art in Modern Life , and Dress .
In London , he had been introduced in 1881 to Constance Lloyd , daughter of Horace Lloyd , a wealthy Queen 's Counsel . She happened to be visiting Dublin in 1884 , when Wilde was lecturing at the Gaiety Theatre . He proposed to her , and they married on 29 May 1884 at the Anglican St. James Church in Paddington in London . Constance 's annual allowance of £ 250 was generous for a young woman ( equivalent to about £ 23 @,@ 500 in current value ) , but the Wildes had relatively luxurious tastes , and they had preached to others for so long on the subject of design that people expected their home to set new standards . No. 16 , Tite Street was duly renovated in seven months at considerable expense . The couple had two sons , Cyril ( 1885 ) and Vyvyan ( 1886 ) . Wilde became the sole literary signatory of George Bernard Shaw 's petition for a pardon of the anarchists arrested ( and later executed ) after the Haymarket massacre in Chicago in 1886 .
Robert Ross had read Wilde 's poems before they met , and was unrestrained by the Victorian prohibition against homosexuality , even to the extent of estranging himself from his family . By Richard Ellmann 's account , he was a precocious seventeen @-@ year @-@ old " so young and yet so knowing , was determined to seduce Wilde " . According to Daniel Mendelsohn , Wilde , who had long alluded to Greek love , was " initiated into homosexual sex " by Ross , while his " marriage had begun to unravel after his wife 's second pregnancy , which left him physically repelled " .
= = Prose writing : 1886 – 91 = =
= = = Journalism and editorship : 1886 – 89 = = =
Criticism over artistic matters in the Pall Mall Gazette provoked a letter in self @-@ defence , and soon Wilde was a contributor to that and other journals during the years 1885 – 87 . He enjoyed reviewing and journalism ; the form suited his style . He could organise and share his views on art , literature and life , yet in a format less tedious than lecturing . Buoyed up , his reviews were largely chatty and positive . Wilde , like his parents before him , also supported the cause of Irish Nationalism . When Charles Stewart Parnell was falsely accused of inciting murder Wilde wrote a series of astute columns defending him in the Daily Chronicle .
His flair , having previously only been put into socialising , suited journalism and did not go unnoticed . With his youth nearly over , and a family to support , in mid @-@ 1887 Wilde became the editor of The Lady 's World magazine , his name prominently appearing on the cover . He promptly renamed it The Woman 's World and raised its tone , adding serious articles on parenting , culture , and politics , keeping discussions of fashion and arts . Two pieces of fiction were usually included , one to be read to children , the other for the ladies themselves . Wilde worked hard to solicit good contributions from his wide artistic acquaintance , including those of Lady Wilde and his wife Constance , while his own " Literary and Other Notes " were themselves popular and amusing .
The initial vigour and excitement he brought to the job began to fade as administration , commuting and office life became tedious . At the same time as Wilde 's interest flagged , the publishers became concerned anew about circulation : sales , at the relatively high price of one shilling , remained low . Increasingly sending instructions to the magazine by letter , he began a new period of creative work and his own column appeared less regularly . In October 1889 , Wilde had finally found his voice in prose and , at the end of the second volume , Wilde left The Woman 's World . The magazine outlasted him by one volume .
If Wilde 's period at the helm of the magazine was a mixed success from an organizational point of view , one can also argue that it played a pivotal role in his development as a writer and facilitated his ascent to fame . Whilst Wilde the journalist supplied articles under the guidance of his editors , Wilde the editor is forced to learn to manipulate the literary marketplace on his own terms .
= = = Shorter fiction = = =
Wilde published The Happy Prince and Other Tales in 1888 , and had been regularly writing fairy stories for magazines . In 1891 he published two more collections , Lord Arthur Savile 's Crime and Other Stories , and in September A House of Pomegranates was dedicated " To Constance Mary Wilde " . " The Portrait of Mr. W. H. " , which Wilde had begun in 1887 , was first published in Blackwood 's Edinburgh Magazine in July 1889 . It is a short story , which reports a conversation , in which the theory that Shakespeare 's sonnets were written out of the poet 's love of the boy actor " Willie Hughes " , is advanced , retracted , and then propounded again . The only evidence for this is two supposed puns within the sonnets themselves .
The anonymous narrator is at first sceptical , then believing , finally flirtatious with the reader : he concludes that " there is really a great deal to be said of the Willie Hughes theory of Shakespeare 's sonnets . " By the end fact and fiction have melded together . Arthur Ransome wrote that Wilde " read something of himself into Shakespeare 's sonnets " and became fascinated with the " Willie Hughes theory " despite the lack of biographical evidence for the historical William Hughes ' existence . Instead of writing a short but serious essay on the question , Wilde tossed the theory amongst the three characters of the story , allowing it to unfold as background to the plot . The story thus is an early masterpiece of Wilde 's combing many elements that interested him , conversation , literature and the idea that to shed oneself of an idea one must first convince another of its truth . Ransome concludes that Wilde succeeds precisely because the literary criticism is unveiled with such a deft touch .
Though containing nothing but " special pleading " , it would not , he says " be possible to build an airier castle in Spain than this of the imaginary William Hughes " we continue listening nonetheless to be charmed by the telling . " You must believe in Willie Hughes , " Wilde told an acquaintance , " I almost do , myself . "
= = = Essays and dialogues = = =
Wilde , having tired of journalism , had been busy setting out his aesthetic ideas more fully in a series of longer prose pieces which were published in the major literary @-@ intellectual journals of the day . In January 1889 , The Decay of Lying : A Dialogue appeared in The Nineteenth Century , and Pen , Pencil and Poison , a satirical biography of Thomas Griffiths Wainewright , in the Fortnightly Review , edited by Wilde 's friend Frank Harris . Two of Wilde 's four writings on aesthetics are dialogues : though Wilde had evolved professionally from lecturer to writer , he retained an oral tradition of sorts . Having always excelled as a wit and raconteur , he often composed by assembling phrases , bons mots and witticisms into a longer , cohesive work .
Wilde was concerned about the effect of moralising on art , he believed in art 's redemptive , developmental powers : " Art is individualism , and individualism is a disturbing and disintegrating force . There lies its immense value . For what it seeks is to disturb monotony of type , slavery of custom , tyranny of habit , and the reduction of man to the level of a machine . " In his only political text , The Soul of Man Under Socialism , he argued political conditions should establish this primacy , and concluded that the government most amenable to artists was no government at all . Wilde envisions a society where mechanisation has freed human effort from the burden of necessity , effort which can instead be expended on artistic creation . George Orwell summarised , " In effect , the world will be populated by artists , each striving after perfection in the way that seems best to him . "
This point of view did not align him with the Fabians , intellectual socialists who advocated using state apparatus to change social conditions , nor did it endear him to the monied classes whom he had previously entertained . Hesketh Pearson , introducing a collection of Wilde 's essays in 1950 , remarked how The Soul of Man Under Socialism had been an inspirational text for Tsarist revolutionaries in Russia but laments that in the Stalinist era " it is doubtful whether there are any uninspected places in which it could now be hidden " .
Wilde considered including this pamphlet and The Portrait of Mr. W.H. , his essay @-@ story on Shakespeare 's sonnets , in a new anthology in 1891 , but eventually decided to limit it to purely aesthetic subjects . Intentions packaged revisions of four essays : The Decay of Lying , Pen , Pencil and Poison , The Truth of Masks ( first published 1885 ) , and The Critic as Artist in two parts . For Pearson the biographer , the essays and dialogues exhibit every aspect of Wilde 's genius and character : wit , romancer , talker , lecturer , humanist and scholar and concludes that " no other productions of his have as varied an appeal " . 1891 turned out to be Wilde 's annus mirabilis , apart from his three collections he also produced his only novel .
= = = The Picture of Dorian Gray = = =
The first version of The Picture of Dorian Gray was published as the lead story in the July 1890 edition of Lippincott 's Monthly Magazine , along with five
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" , meaning he had acted in a cowardly way . Though trying to remain calm , Wilde saw that he was becoming ensnared in a brutal family quarrel . He did not wish to bear Queensberry 's insults , but he knew to confront him could lead to disaster were his liaisons disclosed publicly .
= = = The Importance of Being Earnest = = =
Wilde 's final play again returns to the theme of switched identities : the play 's two protagonists engage in " bunburying " ( the maintenance of alternative personas in the town and country ) which allows them to escape Victorian social mores . Earnest is even lighter in tone than Wilde 's earlier comedies . While their characters often rise to serious themes in moments of crisis , Earnest lacks the by @-@ now stock Wildean characters : there is no " woman with a past " , the principals are neither villainous nor cunning , simply idle cultivés , and the idealistic young women are not that innocent . Mostly set in drawing rooms and almost completely lacking in action or violence , Earnest lacks the self @-@ conscious decadence found in The Picture of Dorian Gray and Salome .
The play , now considered Wilde 's masterpiece , was rapidly written in Wilde 's artistic maturity in late 1894 . It was first performed on 14 February 1895 , at St James 's Theatre in London , Wilde 's second collaboration with George Alexander , the actor @-@ manager . Both author and producer assiduously revised , prepared and rehearsed every line , scene and setting in the months before the premiere , creating a carefully constructed representation of late @-@ Victorian society , yet simultaneously mocking it . During rehearsal Alexander requested that Wilde shorten the play from four acts to three , which the author did . Premieres at St James 's seemed like " brilliant parties " , and the opening of The Importance of Being Earnest was no exception . Allan Aynesworth ( who played Algy ) recalled to Hesketh Pearson , " In my fifty @-@ three years of acting , I never remember a greater triumph than [ that ] first night . " Earnest 's immediate reception as Wilde 's best work to date finally crystallised his fame into a solid artistic reputation . The Importance of Being Earnest remains his most popular play .
Wilde 's professional success was mirrored by an escalation in his feud with Queensberry . Queensberry had planned to insult Wilde publicly by throwing a bouquet of rotting vegetables onto the stage ; Wilde was tipped off and had Queensberry barred from entering the theatre . Fifteen weeks later Wilde was in prison .
= = Trials = =
= = = Wilde v. Queensberry = = =
On 18 February 1895 , the Marquess left his calling card at Wilde 's club , the Albemarle , inscribed : " For Oscar Wilde , posing somdomite " [ sic ] . Wilde , encouraged by Douglas and against the advice of his friends , initiated a private prosecution against Queensberry for libel , since the note amounted to a public accusation that Wilde had committed the crime of sodomy .
Queensberry was arrested on a charge of criminal libel , a charge carrying a possible sentence of up to two years in prison ( Libel Act of 1843 ) . Under the Act , Queensberry could avoid conviction for libel only by demonstrating that his accusation was in fact true , and furthermore that there was some " public benefit " to having made the accusation openly . Queensberry 's lawyers thus hired private detectives to find evidence of Wilde 's homosexual liaisons to prove the fact of the accusation . They decided on a strategy of portraying Wilde as a depraved older man who habitually enticed naive youths into a life of vicious homosexuality to demonstrate that there was some public interest in making the accusation openly , ostensibly to warn off other youths who might otherwise have become entrapped by Wilde .
Wilde 's friends had advised him against the prosecution at a Saturday Review meeting at the Café Royal on 24 March 1895 ; Frank Harris warned him that " they are going to prove sodomy against you " and advised him to flee to France . Wilde and Douglas walked out in a huff , Wilde saying " it is at such moments as these that one sees who are one 's true friends " . The scene was witnessed by George Bernard Shaw who recalled it to Arthur Ransome a day or so before Ransome 's trial for libelling Douglas in 1913 . To Ransome it confirmed what he had said in his 1912 literary book on Wilde ; that Douglas 's rivalry for Wilde with Robbie Ross and his arguments with his father had resulted in Wilde 's public disaster ; as Wilde wrote in De Profundis . Douglas lost his case . Shaw included an account of the argument between Harris , Douglas and Wilde in the preface to his play The Dark Lady of the Sonnets .
The libel trial became a cause célèbre as salacious details of Wilde 's private life with Taylor and Douglas began to appear in the press . A team of private detectives had directed Queensberry 's lawyers , led by Edward Carson QC , to the world of the Victorian underground . Wilde 's association with blackmailers and male prostitutes , cross @-@ dressers and homosexual brothels was recorded , and various persons involved were interviewed , some being coerced to appear as witnesses since they too were accomplices to the crimes of which Wilde was accused .
The trial opened on 3 April 1895 amid scenes of near hysteria both in the press and the public galleries . The extent of the evidence massed against Wilde forced him to declare meekly , " I am the prosecutor in this case " . Wilde 's lawyer , Sir Edward George Clarke , opened the case by pre @-@ emptively asking Wilde about two suggestive letters Wilde had written to Douglas , which the defence had in its possession . He characterised the first as a " prose sonnet " and admitted that the " poetical language " might seem strange to the court but claimed its intent was innocent . Wilde stated that the letters had been obtained by blackmailers who had attempted to extort money from him , but he had refused , suggesting they should take the £ 60 ( equal to £ 6 @,@ 300 today ) offered , " unusual for a prose piece of that length " . He claimed to regard the letters as works of art rather than something of which to be ashamed .
Carson , a fellow Dubliner who had attended Trinity College , Dublin at the same time as Wilde , cross @-@ examined Wilde on how he perceived the moral content of his works . Wilde replied with characteristic wit and flippancy , claiming that works of art are not capable of being moral or immoral but only well or poorly made , and that only " brutes and illiterates , " whose views on art " are incalculably stupid " , would make such judgements about art . Carson , a leading barrister , diverged from the normal practice of asking closed questions . Carson pressed Wilde on each topic from every angle , squeezing out nuances of meaning from Wilde 's answers , removing them from their aesthetic context and portraying Wilde as evasive and decadent . While Wilde won the most laughs from the court , Carson scored the most legal points . To undermine Wilde 's credibility , and to justify Queensberry 's description of Wilde as a " posing ... somdomite " , Carson drew from the witness an admission of his capacity for " posing " , by demonstrating that he had lied about his age on oath . Playing on this , he returned to the topic throughout his cross @-@ examination .
Carson then moved to the factual evidence and questioned Wilde about his acquaintances with younger , lower @-@ class men . Wilde admitted being on a first @-@ name basis and lavishing gifts upon them , but insisted that nothing untoward had occurred and that the men were merely good friends of his . Carson repeatedly pointed out the unusual nature of these relationships and insinuated that the men were prostitutes . Wilde replied that he did not believe in social barriers , and simply enjoyed the society of young men . Then Carson asked Wilde directly whether he had ever kissed a certain servant boy , Wilde responded , " Oh , dear no . He was a particularly plain boy – unfortunately ugly – I pitied him for it . " Carson pressed him on the answer , repeatedly asking why the boy 's ugliness was relevant . Wilde hesitated , then for the first time became flustered : " You sting me and insult me and try to unnerve me ; and at times one says things flippantly when one ought to speak more seriously . "
In his opening speech for the defence , Carson announced that he had located several male prostitutes who were to testify that they had had sex with Wilde . On the advice of his lawyers , Wilde dropped the prosecution . Queensberry was found not guilty , as the court declared that his accusation that Wilde was " posing as a Somdomite " [ sic ] was justified , " true in substance and in fact . " Under the Libel Act 1843 , Queensberry 's acquittal rendered Wilde legally liable for the considerable expenses Queensberry had incurred in his defence , which left Wilde bankrupt .
= = = Regina v. Wilde = = =
After Wilde left the court , a warrant for his arrest was applied for on charges of sodomy and gross indecency . Robbie Ross found Wilde at the Cadogan Hotel , Knightsbridge , with Reginald Turner ; both men advised Wilde to go at once to Dover and try to get a boat to France ; his mother advised him to stay and fight . Wilde , lapsing into inaction , could only say , " The train has gone . It 's too late . " Wilde was arrested for " gross indecency " under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 , a term meaning homosexual acts not amounting to buggery ( an offence under a separate statute ) . At Wilde 's instruction , Ross and Wilde 's butler forced their way into the bedroom and library of 16 Tite Street , packing some personal effects , manuscripts , and letters . Wilde was then imprisoned on remand at Holloway where he received daily visits from Douglas .
Events moved quickly and his prosecution opened on 26 April 1895 . Wilde pleaded not guilty . He had already begged Douglas to leave London for Paris , but Douglas complained bitterly , even wanting to give evidence ; he was pressed to go and soon fled to the Hotel du Monde . Fearing persecution , Ross and many others also left the United Kingdom during this time . Under cross examination Wilde was at first hesitant , then spoke eloquently :
Charles Gill ( prosecuting ) : What is " the love that dare not speak its name " ?
Wilde : " The love that dare not speak its name " in this century is such a great affection of an elder for a younger man as there was between David and Jonathan , such as Plato made the very basis of his philosophy , and such as you find in the sonnets of Michelangelo and Shakespeare . It is that deep spiritual affection that is as pure as it is perfect . It dictates and pervades great works of art , like those of Shakespeare and Michelangelo , and those two letters of mine , such as they are . It is in this century misunderstood , so much misunderstood that it may be described as " the love that dare not speak its name , " and on that account of it I am placed where I am now . It is beautiful , it is fine , it is the noblest form of affection . There is nothing unnatural about it . It is intellectual , and it repeatedly exists between an older and a younger man , when the older man has intellect , and the younger man has all the joy , hope and glamour of life before him . That it should be so , the world does not understand . The world mocks at it , and sometimes puts one in the pillory for it .
This response was counter @-@ productive in a legal sense as it only served to reinforce the charges of homosexual behaviour . The trial ended with the jury unable to reach a verdict . Wilde 's counsel , Sir Edward Clarke , was finally able to get a magistrate to allow Wilde and his friends to post bail . The Reverend Stewart Headlam put up most of the £ 5 @,@ 000 surety required by the court , having disagreed with Wilde 's treatment by the press and the courts . Wilde was freed from Holloway and , shunning attention , went into hiding at the house of Ernest and Ada Leverson , two of his firm friends . Edward Carson approached Frank Lockwood QC , the Solicitor General and asked " Can we not let up on the fellow now ? " Lockwood answered that he would like to do so , but feared that the case had become too politicised to be dropped .
The final trial was presided over by Mr Justice Wills . On 25 May 1895 Wilde and Alfred Taylor were convicted of gross indecency and sentenced to two years ' hard labour . The judge described the sentence , the maximum allowed , as " totally inadequate for a case such as this , " and that the case was " the worst case I have ever tried " . Wilde 's response " And I ? May I say nothing , my Lord ? " was drowned out in cries of " Shame " in the courtroom .
= = Imprisonment = =
Wilde entered prison on 25 May 1895 , and was released on 18 May 1897 .
He first entered Newgate Prison in London for a week for processing , then was moved to Pentonville Prison , where the " hard labour " to which he had been sentenced consisted of many hours of walking a treadmill and picking oakum ( separating the fibres in scraps of old navy ropes ) , and where prisoners were allowed to read only the Bible and The Pilgrim 's Progress . Prisoners were not allowed to speak to each other , and , when out of their cells , were required to wear a cap with a thick veil so they would not be recognised by other prisoners .
A few months later he was moved to Wandsworth Prison in London . Inmates there also followed the regimen of " hard labour , hard fare and a hard bed " , which wore harshly on Wilde 's delicate health . In November he collapsed during chapel from illness and hunger . His right ear drum was ruptured in the fall , an injury that later contributed to his death . He spent two months in the infirmary .
Richard B. Haldane , the Liberal MP and reformer , visited Wilde and had him transferred in November to Reading Gaol , 30 miles ( 48 km ) west of London on 23 November 1895 . The transfer itself was the lowest point of his incarceration , as a crowd jeered and spat at him on the railway platform . Here , he spent the remainder of his sentence , and was assigned the third cell on the third floor of C ward – and thereafter was addressed and identified only by " C33 " – the number of his cell , the third cell on the third floor of C ward .
About five months after Wilde arrived at Reading Gaol , Charles Thomas Wooldridge , a trooper in the Royal Horse Guards , was brought to Reading to await his trial for murdering his wife on 29 March 1896 ; on 17 June Wooldridge was sentenced to death and returned to Reading for his execution , which took place on Tuesday , 7 July 1896 – the first hanging at Reading in 18 years . From Wooldridge 's hanging , Wilde later wrote The Ballad of Reading Gaol .
Wilde was not , at first , even allowed paper and pen but Haldane eventually succeeded in allowing access to books and writing materials . Wilde requested , among others : the Bible in French ; Italian and German grammars ; some Ancient Greek texts , Dante 's Divine Comedy , Joris @-@ Karl Huysmans 's new French novel about Christian redemption En Route , and essays by St Augustine , Cardinal Newman and Walter Pater .
Between January and March 1897 Wilde wrote a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ word letter to Douglas . He was not allowed to send it , but was permitted to take it with him upon release . In reflective mode , Wilde coldly examines his career to date , how he had been a colourful agent provocateur in Victorian society , his art , like his paradoxes , seeking to subvert as well as sparkle . His own estimation of himself was : one who " stood in symbolic relations to the art and culture of my age " . It was from these heights that his life with Douglas began , and Wilde examines that particularly closely , repudiating him for what Wilde finally sees as his arrogance and vanity : he had not forgotten Douglas 's remark , when he was ill , " When you are not on your pedestal you are not interesting . " Wilde blamed himself , though , for the ethical degradation of character that he allowed Douglas to bring about in him and took responsibility for his own fall , " I am here for having tried to put your father in prison . " The first half concludes with Wilde forgiving Douglas , for his own sake as much as Douglas 's . The second half of the letter traces Wilde 's spiritual journey of redemption and fulfilment through his prison reading . He realised that his ordeal had filled his soul with the fruit of experience , however bitter it tasted at the time .
... I wanted to eat of the fruit of all the trees in the garden of the world ... And so , indeed , I went out , and so I lived . My only mistake was that I confined myself so exclusively to the trees of what seemed to me the sun @-@ lit side of the garden , and shunned the other side for its shadow and its gloom .
Wilde was released from prison on 18 May 1897 and sailed immediately for France . He would never return to Britain or to Ireland .
On his release , he gave the manuscript to Ross , who may or may not have carried out Wilde 's instructions to send a copy to Douglas ( who later denied having received it ) . De Profundis was partially published in 1905 , its complete and correct publication first occurred in 1962 in The Letters of Oscar Wilde .
= = Decline : 1897 – 1900 = =
= = = Exile = = =
Though Wilde 's health had suffered greatly from the harshness and diet of prison , he had a feeling of spiritual renewal . He immediately wrote to the Society of Jesus requesting a six @-@ month Catholic retreat ; when the request was denied , Wilde wept . " I intend to be received into the Catholic Church before long " , Wilde told a journalist who asked about his religious intentions .
He spent his last three years in impoverished exile . He took the name " Sebastian Melmoth " , after Saint Sebastian , and the titular character of Melmoth the Wanderer ; a Gothic novel by Charles Maturin , Wilde 's great @-@ uncle . Wilde wrote two long letters to the editor of the Daily Chronicle , describing the brutal conditions of English prisons and advocating penal reform . His discussion of the dismissal of Warder Martin for giving biscuits to an anaemic child prisoner , repeated the themes of the corruption and degeneration of punishment that he had earlier outlined in The Soul of Man Under Socialism .
Wilde spent mid @-@ 1897 with Robert Ross in the seaside village of Berneval @-@ le @-@ Grand in northern France , where he wrote The Ballad of Reading Gaol , narrating the execution of Charles Thomas Wooldridge , who murdered his wife in a rage at her infidelity ; it moves from an objective story @-@ telling to symbolic identification with the prisoners as a whole . No attempt is made to assess the justice of the laws which convicted them , but rather the poem highlights the brutalisation of the punishment that all convicts share . Wilde juxtaposes the executed man and himself with the line " Yet each man kills the thing he loves " . Wilde too was separated from his wife and sons . He adopted the proletarian ballad form , and the author was credited as " C33 " , Wilde 's cell number in Reading Gaol . He suggested that it be published in Reynold 's Magazine , " because it circulates widely among the criminal classes – to which I now belong – for once I will be read by my peers – a new experience for me " . It was an immediate roaring commercial success , going through seven editions in less than two years , only after which " [ Oscar Wilde ] " was added to the title page , though many in literary circles had known Wilde to be the author . It brought him a little money .
Although Douglas had been the cause of his misfortunes , he and Wilde were reunited in August 1897 at Rouen . This meeting was disapproved of by the friends and families of both men . Constance Wilde was already refusing to meet Wilde or allow him to see their sons , though she sent him money – a meagre three pounds a week . During the latter part of 1897 , Wilde and Douglas lived together near Naples for a few months until they were separated by their families under the threat of cutting off all funds .
Wilde 's final address was at the dingy Hôtel d 'Alsace ( now known as L 'Hôtel ) , on rue des Beaux @-@ Arts in Saint @-@ Germain @-@ des @-@ Prés , Paris . " This poverty really breaks one 's heart : it is so sale [ filthy ] , so utterly depressing , so hopeless . Pray do what you can " he wrote to his publisher . He corrected and published An Ideal Husband and The Importance of Being Earnest , the proofs of which , according to Ellmann , show a man " very much in command of himself and of the play " , but he refused to write anything else : " I can write , but have lost the joy of writing " .
He wandered the boulevards alone , and spent what little money he had on alcohol . A series of embarrassing encounters with English visitors , or Frenchmen he had known in better days , drowned his spirit . Soon Wilde was sufficiently confined to his hotel to joke , on one of his final trips outside , " My wallpaper and I are fighting a duel to the death . One of us has got to go . " On 12 October 1900 he sent a telegram to Ross : " Terribly weak . Please come . " His moods fluctuated ; Max Beerbohm relates how their mutual friend Reginald ' Reggie ' Turner had found Wilde very depressed after a nightmare . " I dreamt that I had died , and was supping with the dead ! " " I am sure " , Turner replied , " that you must have been the life and soul of the party . " Turner was one of the very few of the old circle who remained with Wilde right to the end , and was at his bedside when he died .
= = = Death = = =
By 25 November Wilde had developed cerebral meningitis . Robbie Ross arrived on 29 November and sent for a priest , and Wilde was conditionally baptised into the Catholic Church by Fr Cuthbert Dunne , a Passionist priest from Dublin ( the sacrament being conditional because of the doctrine that one may be baptised only once ) , Wilde having been baptised in the Church of Ireland , and having moreover a recollection of Catholic baptism as a child , a fact later attested to by the minister of the sacrament , Fr Lawrence Fox . Fr Dunne recorded the baptism :
As the voiture rolled through the dark streets that wintry night , the sad story of Oscar Wilde was in part repeated to me ... Robert Ross knelt by the bedside , assisting me as best he could while I administered conditional baptism , and afterwards answering the responses while I gave Extreme Unction to the prostrate man and recited the prayers for the dying . As the man was in a semi @-@ comatose condition , I did not venture to administer the Holy Viaticum ; still I must add that he could be roused and was roused from this state in my presence . When roused , he gave signs of being inwardly conscious ... Indeed I was fully satisfied that he understood me when told that I was about to receive him into the Catholic Church and gave him the Last Sacraments ... And when I repeated close to his ear the Holy Names , the Acts of Contrition , Faith , Hope and Charity , with acts of humble resignation to the Will of God , he tried all through to say the words after me .
Wilde died of cerebral meningitis on 30 November 1900 . Different opinions are given as to the cause of the meningitis : Richard Ellmann claimed it was syphilitic ; however , Merlin Holland , Wilde 's grandson , thought this to be a misconception , noting that Wilde 's meningitis followed a surgical intervention , perhaps a mastoidectomy ; Wilde 's physicians , Dr Paul Cleiss and A 'Court Tucker , reported that the condition stemmed from an old suppuration of the right ear ( from the prison injury , see above ) treated for several years ( une ancienne suppuration de l 'oreille droite d 'ailleurs en traitement depuis plusieurs années ) and made no allusion to syphilis .
= = = Burial = = =
Wilde was initially buried in the Cimetière de Bagneux outside Paris ; in 1909 his remains were disinterred and transferred to Père Lachaise Cemetery , inside the city . His tomb there was designed by Sir Jacob Epstein , It was commissioned by Robert Ross , who asked for a small compartment to be made for his own ashes , which were duly transferred in 1950 . The modernist angel depicted as a relief on the tomb was originally complete with male genitalia , which have since been vandalised ; their current whereabouts are unknown . In 2000 , Leon Johnson , a multimedia artist , installed a silver prosthesis to replace them .
In 2011 the tomb was cleaned of the many lipstick marks left there by admirers , and a glass barrier was installed to prevent further marks or damage .
The epitaph is a verse from The Ballad of Reading Gaol :
And alien tears will fill for him
Pity 's long @-@ broken urn ,
For his mourners will be outcast men ,
And outcasts always mourn .
= = Biographies = =
Wilde 's life continues to fascinate , and he has been the subject of numerous biographies since his death . The earliest were memoirs by those who knew him : often they are personal or impressionistic accounts which can be good character sketches , but are sometimes factually unreliable . Frank Harris , his friend and editor , wrote a biography , Oscar Wilde : His Life and Confessions ( 1916 ) ; though prone to exaggeration and sometimes factually inaccurate , it offers a good literary portrait of Wilde . Lord Alfred Douglas wrote two books about his relationship with Wilde . Oscar Wilde and Myself ( 1914 ) , largely ghost @-@ written by T.W.H. Crosland , vindictively reacted to Douglas 's discovery that De Profundis was addressed to him and defensively tried to distance him from Wilde 's scandalous reputation . Both authors later regretted their work . Later , in Oscar Wilde : A Summing Up ( 1939 ) and his Autobiography he was more sympathetic to Wilde . Of Wilde 's other close friends , Robert Sherard , Robert Ross , his literary executor ; and Charles Ricketts variously published biographies , reminiscences or correspondence . The first more or less objective biography of Wilde came about when Hesketh Pearson wrote Oscar Wilde : His Life and Wit ( 1946 ) . In 1954 Vyvyan Holland published his memoir Son of Oscar Wilde , which recounts the difficulties Wilde 's wife and children faced after his imprisonment . It was revised and updated by Merlin Holland in 1989 .
Oscar Wilde , a critical study by Arthur Ransome was published in 1912 . The book only briefly mentioned Wilde 's life , but subsequently Ransome ( and The Times Book Club ) were sued for libel by Lord Alfred Douglas . The trial in April 1913 was in a way a re @-@ run of the trial ( s ) of Oscar Wilde . The trial resulted from Douglas 's rivalry with Robbie Ross for Wilde ( and his need of money ) . Douglas lost ; De Profundis which was read in part at the trial disproved his claims ( Ross had shown Ransome the full text of it ) .
Wilde 's life was still waiting for independent , true scholarship when Richard Ellmann began researching his 1987 biography Oscar Wilde , for which he posthumously won a National ( USA ) Book Critics Circle Award in 1988 and a Pulitzer Prize in 1989 . The book was the basis for the 1997 film Wilde , directed by Brian Gilbert and starring Stephen Fry as the title character .
Neil McKenna 's 2003 biography , The Secret Life of Oscar Wilde , offers an exploration of Wilde 's sexuality . Often speculative in nature , it was widely criticised for its pure conjecture and lack of scholarly rigour . Thomas Wright 's Oscar 's Books ( 2008 ) explores Wilde 's reading from his childhood in Dublin to his death in Paris . After tracking down many books that once belonged to Wilde 's Tite Street library ( dispersed at the time of his trials ) , Wright was the first to examine Wilde 's marginalia .
Wilde 's charm also had a lasting effect on Parisian literati , who produced several original biographies and monographs on him . André Gide , on whom Wilde had such a strange effect , wrote , In Memoriam , Oscar Wilde ; Wilde also features in his journals . Thomas Louis , who had earlier translated books on Wilde into French , produced his own L 'esprit d 'Oscar Wilde in 1920 . Modern books include Philippe Jullian 's Oscar Wilde , and L 'affaire Oscar Wilde , ou , Du danger de laisser la justice mettre le
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comedy album parodying Ugandan dictator Idi Amin , released in 1975 on Transatlantic Records . Performed by John Bird and written by Alan Coren , it was based on columns he wrote for Punch magazine
= New York University =
New York University ( NYU ) is a private , nonsectarian American research university based in New York City . Founded in 1831 , NYU is one of the largest private non @-@ profit institutions of American higher education . University rankings compiled by U.S. News and World Report , Times Higher Education and the Academic Ranking of World Universities all rank NYU among the top 34 universities in the world . NYU is organized into more than 20 schools , colleges , and institutes , located in six centers throughout Manhattan and Downtown Brooklyn . NYU 's main campus is located at Greenwich Village in Lower Manhattan with institutes and centers on the Upper East Side , academic buildings and dorms down on Wall Street , and the Brooklyn campus located at MetroTech Center in Downtown Brooklyn . The University also established NYU Abu Dhabi , NYU Shanghai and maintains 11 other Global Academic Centers in Accra , Berlin , Buenos Aires , Florence , London , Madrid , Paris , Prague , Sydney , Tel Aviv and Washington , D.C.
NYU was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1950 . NYU counts 36 Nobel Prize winners , four Abel Prize winners , four Turing Award winners , four Fields Medal winners , over 30 National Medals for Science , Technology and Innovation , Arts and Humanities recipients , over 30 Pulitzer Prize winners , over 30 Academy Award winners , as well as several Russ Prize , Gordon Prize and Draper Prize winners , and dozens of Emmy , Grammy , and Tony Award winners among its faculty and alumni . NYU also has many MacArthur and Guggenheim Fellowship holders as well as hundreds of National Academy of Sciences , National Academy of Engineering and American Academy of Arts and Sciences members , and a plethora of members of the United States Congress and heads of state of countries all over the world , among its past and present graduates and faculty . The alumni of NYU are among the wealthiest in the world , and include seventeen living billionaires .
NYU 's sports teams are called the Violets , the colors being the trademarked hue " NYU Violet " and white ; the school mascot is the bobcat . Almost all sporting teams participate in the NCAA 's Division III and the University Athletic Association .
= = History = =
Albert Gallatin , Secretary of Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison , declared his intention to establish " in this immense and fast @-@ growing city ... a system of rational and practical education fitting for all and graciously opened to all " . A three @-@ day @-@ long " literary and scientific convention " held in City Hall in 1830 and attended by over 100 delegates debated the terms of a plan for a new university . These New Yorkers believed the city needed a university designed for young men who would be admitted based upon merit rather than birthright , status , or social class . On April 18 , 1831 , an institution was established , with the support of a group of prominent New York City residents from the city 's landed class of merchants , bankers , and traders . Albert Gallatin was elected as the institution 's first president . On April 21 , 1831 , the new institution received its charter and was incorporated as the University of the City of New York by the New York State Legislature ; older documents often refer to it by that name . The university has been popularly known as New York University since its beginning and was officially renamed New York University in 1896 . In 1832 , NYU held its first classes in rented rooms of four @-@ story Clinton Hall , situated near City Hall . In 1835 , the School of Law , NYU 's first professional school , was established . Although the impetus to found a new school was partly a reaction by evangelical Presbyterians to what they perceived as the Episcopalianism of Columbia College , NYU was created non @-@ denominational , unlike many American colleges at the time .
It became one of the nation 's largest universities , with an enrollment of 9 @,@ 300 in 1917 . NYU had its Washington Square campus since its founding . The university purchased a campus at University Heights in the Bronx because of overcrowding on the old campus . NYU also had a desire to follow New York City 's development further uptown . NYU 's move to the Bronx occurred in 1894 , spearheaded by the efforts of Chancellor Henry Mitchell MacCracken . The University Heights campus was far more spacious than its predecessor was . As a result , most of the university 's operations along with the undergraduate College of Arts and Science and School of Engineering were housed there . NYU 's administrative operations were moved to the new campus , but the graduate schools of the university remained at Washington Square . In 1914 , Washington Square College was founded as the downtown undergraduate college of NYU . In 1935 , NYU opened the " Nassau College @-@ Hofstra Memorial of New York University at Hempstead , Long Island " . This extension would later become a fully independent Hofstra University .
In 1950 , NYU was elected to the Association of American Universities , a nonprofit organization of leading public and private research universities .
In the late 1960s and early 1970s , financial crisis gripped the New York City government and the troubles spread to the city 's institutions , including NYU . Feeling the pressures of imminent bankruptcy , NYU President James McNaughton Hester negotiated the sale of the University Heights campus to the City University of New York , which occurred in 1973 . In 1973 , the New York University School of Engineering and Science merged into Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn , which eventually merged into NYU in 2014 forming the present Tandon School of Engineering . After the sale of the Bronx campus , University College merged with Washington Square College . In the 1980s , under the leadership of President John Brademas , NYU launched a billion @-@ dollar campaign that was spent almost entirely on updating facilities . The campaign was set to complete in 15 years , but ended up being completed in 10 . In 2003 President John Sexton launched a $ 2 @.@ 5 billion campaign for funds to be spent especially on faculty and financial aid resources .
In 2009 , the university responded to a series of New York Times interviews that showed a pattern of labor abuses in its fledgling Abu Dhabi location , creating a statement of labor values for Abu Dhabi campus workers . A 2014 follow @-@ up article in The Times found that while some conditions had improved , contractors for the multibillion @-@ endowment university were still frequently subjecting their workers to third @-@ world labor conditions . The article documented that these conditions included confiscation of worker passports , forced overtime , recruitment fees and cockroach @-@ filled dorms where workers had to sleep under beds . According to the article , workers who attempted to protest the NYU contractors ' conditions were promptly arrested . The university responded the day of the article with an apology to the workers . Another report was published and it maintains that those who were on strike were arrested by police who then promptly abused them in a police station . Many of those who were not local were then deported to their country . A 2014 follow @-@ up article in The Times found that some conditions had improved . In 2015 , NYU compensated thousands of migrant workers on its Abu Dhabi complex .
NYU was the founding member of the League of World Universities , an international organization consisting of rectors and presidents from urban universities across six continents . The league and its 47 representatives gather every two years to discuss global issues in education . L. Jay Oliva formed the organization in 1991 just after he was inaugurated president of New York University .
NYU 's board of trustees is currently one of the largest and most powerful in American academia .
= = = University logo = = =
The university logo , the upheld torch , is derived from the Statue of Liberty , signifying NYU 's service to New York City . The torch is depicted on both the NYU seal and the more abstract NYU logo , designed in 1965 by renowned graphic designer Tom Geismar of the branding and design firm Chermayeff & Geismar . There are at least two versions of the possible origin of the university color , violet . Some believe that it may have been chosen because violets are said to have grown abundantly in Washington Square and around the buttresses of the Old University Building . Others argue that the color may have been adopted because the violet was the flower associated with Athens , the center of learning in ancient Greece .
= = = Cultural setting = = =
Washington Square and Greenwich Village have been hubs of cultural life in New York City since the early 19th century . Much of this culture has intersected with NYU at various points in its history . Artists of the Hudson River School , the United States ' first prominent school of painters , settled around Washington Square . Samuel F.B. Morse , a noted artist who also pioneered the telegraph and created the Morse Code , served as the first chair of Painting and Sculpture . He and Daniel Huntington were early tenants of the Old University Building in the mid @-@ 19th century . ( The University rented out studio space and residential apartments within the " academic " building . ) As a result , they had notable interaction with the cultural and academic life of the university .
In the 1870s , sculptors Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens and Daniel Chester French lived and worked near the Square . By the 1920s , Washington Square Park was nationally recognized as a focal point for artistic and moral rebellion . As such , the Washington Square campus became more diverse and bustled with urban energy , contributing to academic change at NYU . Famed residents of this time include Eugene O 'Neill , John Sloan , and Maurice Prendergast . In the 1930s , the abstract expressionists Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning , and the realists Edward Hopper and Thomas Hart Benton had studios around Washington Square . In the 1960s the area became one of the centers of the beat and folk generation , when Allen Ginsberg and Bob Dylan settled there . This led to tension with the university , which at the time was in the midst of an aggressive facilities expansion phase . In 1975 , the university opened The Grey Art Gallery at 100 Washington Square East , housing the NYU art collection and featuring museum quality exhibitions .
= = = Budget and fundraising = = =
NYU has successfully completed a seven @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 5 billion campaign , surpassing expectations by raising more than $ 3 billion over the seven @-@ year period . Started in 2001 , this campaign was the university 's largest in its history , in which they planned to " raise $ 1 million per day for scholarships and financial aid , faculty building , new academic initiatives , and enhancing NYU 's physical facilities " . The campaign included a $ 50 million gift from the Tisch family ( after which one building and the art school are named ) and a $ 60 million gift from six trustees called " The Partners Fund " , aimed at hiring new faculty . On October 15 , 2007 the university announced that the Silver family donated $ 50 million to the School of Social Work , which will be renamed as a result . This is the largest donation ever to a school of social work in the United States .
The 2007 – 2008 academic year was the most successful fundraising year to date for NYU , with the school raising $ 698 million in only the first 11 months of the year , representing a 70 % increase in donations from the prior year . The University also recently announced plans for NYU 's Call to Action , a new initiative to ask alumni and donors to support financial aid for students at NYU .
The university has announced a 25 @-@ year strategic development plan , scheduled to coincide with its bicentennial in 2031 . Included in the " NYU 200 " plans are increasing resident and academic space , hiring additional exemplary faculty , and involving the New York City community in a transparent planning process . Additionally , NYU hopes to make their buildings more environmentally friendly , which will be facilitated by an evaluation of all campus spaces . As a part of this plan , NYU purchased 118 million kilowatt @-@ hours of wind power during the 2006 – 2007 academic year – the largest purchase of wind power by any university in the country and any institution in New York City . For 2007 , the university expanded its purchase of wind power to 132 million kilowatt @-@ hours . As a result , the EPA ranked NYU as one of the greenest colleges in the country in its annual College & University Green Power Challenge .
NYU consistently ranks as one of the top fundraising institutions in the country , raising $ 449 @.@ 34 million in 2013 and $ 455 @.@ 72 million in 2014 . NYU is also the 19th wealthiest university in America with $ 5 @.@ 3 billion in cash and investments in fiscal year 2014 .
= = Campus = =
Most of NYU 's buildings in Manhattan are located across a roughly 230 @-@ acre ( 930 @,@ 000 m2 ) area bounded by Houston Street to the south , Broadway to the east , 14th Street to the north , and Sixth Avenue ( Avenue of the Americas ) to the west . The core of NYU consists of buildings that surround Washington Square Park .
With approximately 11 @,@ 000 undergraduate and graduate residents , NYU had the seventh @-@ largest university housing system in the U.S. as of 2007 , and one of the largest among private schools .
= = = Washington Square campus = = =
Since the late 1970s , the central part of NYU has been its Washington Square campus in the heart of Greenwich Village . The Washington Square Arch is an unofficial symbol of NYU . Until 2007 , NYU had held its commencement ceremonies in Washington Square Park , but moved the ceremonies to Yankee Stadium in 2008 because of renovations to Washington Square .
In the 1990s , NYU became a " two square " university by building a second community around Union Square , in close proximity to Washington Square . NYU 's Union Square community primarily consists of the priority residence halls of Carlyle Court , Palladium Residence Hall , Alumni Hall , Coral Tower , Thirteenth Street Hall , University Hall , Third North Residence Hall , and Founders Hall .
NYU operates theaters and performance facilities that are often used by the university 's music conservatory and Tisch School of the Arts . External productions are also occasionally held in NYU 's facilities . The largest performance accommodations at NYU are the Skirball Center for Performing Arts ( 850 seats ) at 566 LaGuardia Place , just south of Washington Square South , and the Eisner @-@ Lubin Auditorium ( 560 seats ) in the Kimmel Center . Recently , the Skirball Center hosted important speeches on foreign policy by John Kerry and Al Gore . The Skirball Center is the largest performing arts facility south of 42nd Street .
= = = = Bobst Library = = = =
The Elmer Holmes Bobst Library , built between 1967 and 1972 , is the largest library at NYU and one of the largest academic libraries in the United States . Designed by Philip Johnson and Richard Foster , the 12 @-@ story , 425 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 39 @,@ 500 m2 ) structure sits on the southern edge of Washington Square Park ( at 70 Washington Square South ) and is the flagship of an eight @-@ library , 4 @.@ 5 million @-@ volume system . Bobst Library offers one Multidisciplinary Reference Center , a Research Commons , 28 miles ( 45 km ) of open @-@ stacks shelving , and approximately 2 @,@ 000 seats for student study . The library is visited by more than 6 @,@ 800 users each day , and circulates more than one million books annually .
Bobst 's Avery Fisher Center for Music and Media is one of the world 's largest academic media centers , where students and researchers use more than 95 @,@ 000 audio and video recordings per year . The Digital Studio offers a constantly evolving , leading @-@ edge resource for faculty and student projects and promotes and supports access to digital resources for teaching , learning , research and arts events .
Bobst Library is also home to significant special collections . The Fales Collection houses one of the finest collections of English and American fiction in the United States , the unique Downtown Collection , documenting the New York literary avante @-@ garde arts scene from the 1970s to the present , and the Food and Cookery Collection , which documents American food history with a focus on New York City . Bobst Library also houses the Tamiment Library , one of the finest collections in the world for scholarly research in labor history , socialism , anarchism , communism , and American radicalism . Tamiment includes the Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives , the Archives of Irish America , the Center for the Cold War and the U.S. , and the Frederic Ewen Academic Freedom Center .
= = = = New facilities = = = =
Since the early 2000s , NYU has developed new facilities on and around its Washington Square Campus . The Kimmel Center for University Life was built in 2003 as the primary location for the university 's student services offices . It also houses the Skirball Center for the Performing Arts , the Rosenthal Pavilion , the Eisner & Lubin Auditorium , and the Loeb Student Center . The School of Law built Furman Hall in 2004 , incorporating elements of two historic buildings into the new facade , one of which had been occupied by poet Edgar Allan Poe .
In 2005 , NYU announced the development of a new life science facility on Waverly Place , the first new NYU science building since the opening of Meyer Hall in 1971 . In November 2005 , NYU announced plans to build a 26 @-@ floor , 190 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 18 @,@ 000 m2 ) residence hall on 12th Street . The residence hall , named " Founders Hall " , accommodates approximately 700 undergraduates and contains a host of other student facilities . It is currently the tallest building in the East Village .
= = = Brooklyn campus = = =
NYU 's Brooklyn campus is located at MetroTech Center , an urban academic @-@ industrial research park , and is only a few subway stops from the Washington Square campus . It houses the School of Engineering , the Center for Urban Science and Progress and also several of Tisch School of the Arts and Steinhardt School of Culture , Education , and Human Development 's degree programs . The Brooklyn campus also houses NYU 's Game Center Open Library , which is the largest collection of games held by any university in the world . In 2014 , NYU Langone Medical Center acquired a 125 @,@ 000 square feet ( 11 @,@ 600 m2 ) healthcare facility in Brooklyn . The NYU shuttle bus system connects the Brooklyn campus with the Washington Square campus .
= = = Other campuses and facilities = = =
The New York University School of Medicine is situated near the East River waterfront at 550 First Avenue between East 30th and 34th Streets . The campus hosts the medical school , Tisch Hospital , and the Rusk Institute of Rehabilitation Medicine . Other NYU Centers across the city include NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases and the Bellevue Hospital Center . NYU 's Silver School of Social Work ( formerly Ehrenkranz School of Social Work ) manages branch campus programs in Westchester County at Manhattanville College , in Rockland County at St. Thomas Aquinas College , and on Staten Island at the City University of New York 's College of Staten Island .
In Sterling Forest , near Tuxedo , NYU has a research facility that contains institutes , in particular the Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine . The Midtown Center at 11 West 42nd Street is home to the NYU Schack Institute of Real Estate . The Woolworth Building in the financial district is home to NYU 's professional studies and education programs .
NYU has two units located on the Upper East Side . The Institute for the Study of the Ancient World , a discrete entity within NYU , independent of any other school or department of the university , is located on East 84th Street , while the New York University Institute of Fine Arts , a graduate school of art history and fine arts , is located at the James B. Duke Building at 1 East 78th Street .
The Tandon School of Engineering has locations in Brooklyn and Manhattan . It is one of the oldest private engineering schools in the United States .
NYU has international houses on its Manhattan campus , including the Deutsches Haus , La Maison Française , Casa Italiana Zerilli Marimò , the Glucksman Ireland House , the King Juan Carlos I of Spain Center , the Hagop Kevorkian Center , an Africa House and a China House .
= = = = Campuses abroad = = = =
Tisch School of the Arts , Asia was NYU 's first branch campus abroad . The result of a partnership between Tisch School of the Arts and the Singapore Government , it offered Master of Fine Arts degrees in animation and digital arts , dramatic writing , film and international media producing . The campus opened in fall 2007 with the intention to enroll approximately 250 students . Anticipated enrolment figures were not achieved , financial irregularities were alleged and President Pari Sara Shirazi was dismissed from her post by NYU in November 2011 . She subsequently announced her intention to commence legal proceedings against NYU alleging wrongful termination and defamation . In a letter to the Tisch Asia community dated November 8 , 2012 , Dean Mary Schmidt Campbell announced that the campus would close after 2014 with recruitment and admission of new students suspended with immediate effect .
NYU has a host of foreign facilities used for study abroad programs , referred to as Global Academic Centers . As of 2012 , NYU operates 14 academic sites – both degree @-@ granting research university campuses and study abroad sites – in Africa , Asia and the Middle East , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America , including undergraduate academic @-@ year and summer study abroad programs in New York City , Florence , London , Paris , Prague , Berlin , Accra , Madrid , Shanghai , Buenos Aires , Tel Aviv , Abu Dhabi , Sydney , and Washington , D.C. One of the most noteworthy is the 57 @-@ acre ( 230 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus of NYU Florence Villa LaPietra in Italy , bequeathed by the late Sir Harold Acton to NYU in 1994 .
In fall 2010 , NYU Abu Dhabi ( NYUAD ) opened as the university 's first overseas " Portal Campus " with an inaugural class of 150 students . Unlike NYU 's other study abroad centers , NYUAD functions as a separate liberal arts college within a university , offering complete degree programs to students admitted directly to NYUAD . NYUAD recruits students from all over the world and describes itself as the " World 's Honor College " . The main campus for NYUAD is under construction on Saadiyat Island and is scheduled to open in 2014 . Until then the school operates from a campus located in downtown Abu Dhabi . The campus construction and operational costs are entirely funded by the Abu Dhabi government .
In 2011 , NYU announced plans to open another portal campus , New York University Shanghai , for the fall semester of 2013 . It was set to have about 3
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, three @-@ pound gummi bear covered in fake sugar blood – which has the added attraction of drawing real flies . " Through repeated takes , Clarke did have to eat much of the sugary heart . She said that it tasted of bleach and was made tough and gristly by the addition of valves made from " something like dried pasta . " Clarke did not have to act in the shots at the end of the scene in which Daenerys almost throws up the last bit of heart , as she was indeed close to vomiting at that point .
The book of lineages that helps Ned realize the truth about Joffrey 's father was prepared by Bryan Cogman , who in addition to writing episode four ( " Cripples , Bastards , and Broken Things " ) also served as the show 's " lore master " and authored the background content concerning the history of Westeros that is to be included in the first season 's DVD and Blu @-@ ray release . Cogman wrote two pages ' worth of text detailing the lineage of four noble houses . The text concerning house Umber was shown in episode four , and the Baratheon text appears in episode six . Cogman also wrote text for the houses of Targaryen and Royce , but the corresponding scenes were removed from the final script for " Cripples , Bastards , and Broken Things " but the Targaryen page was shown in " A Golden Crown " . Cogman said that he drew on the novels and the fan @-@ created website Wiki of Ice and Fire for reference , and invented what could not be sourced , including even some Internet fan message board names as in @-@ jokes .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
For the first time since the premiere of the show the ratings decreased in relation to the previous weeks . The first airing brought 2 @.@ 4 million viewers , compared to the 2 @.@ 6 million gathered by the previous episode . With the second airing the differences shrank , bringing the total of the night to 3 @.@ 2 million , one hundred thousand viewers below the previous week 's 3 @.@ 3 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" A Golden Crown " received positive reviews from critics . Todd VanDerWerff from the A.V. Club gave it an A- , and Maureen Ryan from AOL TV rated it with a 70 out of 100 . HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall titled his review " The rules get upended in a terrific episode . " Both Elio Garcia from westeros.org and Jace Lacob from Televisionary considered it the best episode of the series so far . In the words of reviewer Jace Lacob , the episode " revolves around changes both great and small , about the way the scales can fall from our eyes and we can see the truth that has been standing in front of us for so long . For Eddard , it 's a realization of just why Jon Arryn died , of the terrible secret he had gleaned from the book of royal lineages , and just what this could mean for the throne ... and for the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros . For Dany , it 's the brutal truth of her brother 's real nature , of his insatiable thirst for power and the twisted quality of his rampant heart . "
The Dothraki scenes that culminate with the " crowning " of Viserys Targaryen were acclaimed by the critics . Writing for Time , James Poniewozik highlighted an acting of " touching self @-@ recognition by Harry Lloyd , who did an outstanding job humanizing a villain , " and Maureen Ryan congratulated the actor for his " excellent job of showing the human side of this impetuous , cruel aristocrat " and " keeping Viserys just this side of sane in all his scenes . " The acting of Emilia Clarke , closing her arc initiated in the first episode from a frightened girl to an empowered woman was also praised . VanDerWerff commented on the difficulty to adapt such an evolution from page to screen , but concluded that " Clarke and Lloyd more than seal the deal here . " IGN 's Matt Fowler also praised Clarke and noted that Daenerys ' choice to watch Viserys die was " powerful " and an important shift in her character .
Another aspect of the show that was widely discussed among commentators was the moral dilemma presented in the episode between a pragmatic approach to ruling or remaining true to the ideals of justice and honor , exemplified in the scene where Eddard summons Tywin Lannister to the court to answer for the crimes of his bannerman Gregor Clegane . Poniewozik states that Eddard " doesn 't seem to consider that he has options : he is left to rule in the king 's place , an injustice has been committed , the law requires one path to justice and he chooses it . This makes his decision easy , but it may make his life , and others ' , difficult . " According to The Atlantic 's Scott Meslow , " Ned 's principles are , as always , admirable , and he 's clearly interested in justice . But the sad truth is that the lack of guile that makes him honorable also makes him a pretty poor king . It 's a terrible idea to order the arrest of the man who is single @-@ handedly financing your kingdom . " Myles McNutt , writing for Cultural Learnings , agreed with Meslow and concluded that " the only thing more dangerous than a reckless man asserting their [ sic ] power in Westeros is an honorable man doing the same , as it threatens the delicate framework which has propped up King Robert for so long . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The episode received three Emmy nominations in 2011 , for Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series , Miniseries , Movie or a Special ; Outstanding Hairstyling for a Single @-@ Camera Series ; and Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series .
= Ruddy shelduck =
The ruddy shelduck ( Tadorna ferruginea ) , known in India as the Brahminy duck , is a member of the family Anatidae . It is a distinctive waterfowl , 58 to 70 cm ( 23 to 28 in ) in length with a wingspan of 110 to 135 cm ( 43 to 53 in ) . It has orange @-@ brown body plumage with a paler head , while the tail and the flight feathers in the wings are black , contrasting with the white wing @-@ coverts . It is a migratory bird , wintering in the Indian subcontinent and breeding in southeastern Europe and central Asia , though there are small resident populations in North Africa . It has a loud honking call .
The ruddy shelduck mostly inhabits inland water @-@ bodies such as lakes , reservoirs and rivers . The male and female form a lasting pair bond and the nest may be well away from water , in a crevice or hole in a cliff , tree or similar site . A clutch of about eight eggs is laid and is incubated solely by the female for about four weeks . The young are cared for by both parents and fledge about eight weeks after hatching .
In central and eastern Asia , populations are steady or rising , but in Europe they are generally in decline . Altogether , the birds have a wide range and large total population , and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed their conservation status as being of " least concern " .
= = Taxonomy = =
The ruddy shelduck ( Tadorna ferruginea ) is a member of the shelduck genus Tadorna ; in the wildfowl family Anatidae . The bird was first described in 1764 by the German zoologist and botanist Peter Simon Pallas who named it Anas ferruginea , but later it was transferred to the genus Tadorna with the other shelducks . Some authorities place it in the genus Casarca along with the South African shelduck ( T. cana ) , the Australian shelduck ( T. tadornoides ) and the Paradise shelduck ( T. variegata ) . Phylogenetic analysis shows that it is most closely related to the South African shelduck . In captivity , the ruddy shelduck has been known to hybridise with several other members of Tadorna , with several members of the dabbling duck genus Anas , and with the Egyptian goose ( Alopochen aegyptiaca ) . No subspecies are recognised .
The genus name Tadorna comes from the French " tadorne " , the common shelduck , and may originally derive from a Celtic word meaning " pied waterfowl " . The English name " sheld duck " dates from around 1700 and means the same . The species name ferruginea is Latin for " rusty " and refers to the colour of the plumage .
= = Description = =
The ruddy shelduck grows to a length of 58 to 70 cm ( 23 to 28 in ) and has a 110 – 135 cm ( 43 – 53 in ) wingspan . The male has orange @-@ brown body plumage and a paler , orange @-@ brown head and neck , separated from the body by a narrow black collar . The rump , flight feathers , tail @-@ coverts and tail feathers are black and there are iridescent green speculum feathers on the inner surfaces of the wings . Both upper and lower wing @-@ coverts are white , this feature being particularly noticeable in flight but hardly visible when the bird is at rest . The bill is black and the legs are dark grey . The female is similar but has a rather pale , whitish head and neck and lacks the black collar , and in both sexes , the colouring is variable and fades as the feathers age . The birds moult at the end of the breeding season and the male loses the black collar , but a further partial moult between December and April restores it . Juveniles are similar to the female but are a darker shade of brown .
The call is a series of loud , nasal honking notes , it being possible to discern the difference between those produced by the male and the female . The calls are made both on the ground and in the air , and the sounds are variable according to the circumstances in which they are uttered .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
There are very small resident populations of this species in north west Africa and Ethiopia , but the main breeding area of the bird is from southeast Europe across central Asia to Lake Baikal , Mongolia , and western China . Eastern populations are mostly migratory , wintering in the Indian subcontinent . This species has colonised the island of Fuerteventura in the Canary Islands , first breeding there in 1994 , and reaching a population of almost fifty pairs by 2008 . The ruddy shelduck is a common winter visitor in India where it arrives by October and departs by April . Its typical breeding habitat is large wetlands and rivers with mud flats and shingle banks , and it is found in large numbers on lakes and reservoirs . It breeds in high altitude lakes and swamps in Jammu and Kashmir . Outside the breeding season it prefers lowland streams , sluggish rivers , ponds , flooded grassland , marshes and brackish lagoons .
Although becoming quite rare in southeast Europe and southern Spain , the ruddy shelduck is still common across much of its Asian range . It may be this population which gives rise to vagrants as far west as Iceland , Great Britain and Ireland . However , since the European population is declining , it is likely that most occurrences in western Europe in recent decades are escapes or feral birds . Although this bird is observed in the wild from time to time in eastern North America , no evidence has been found that this is a genuine case of vagrancy .
This shelduck mostly frequents open locations on inland bodies of water such as lakes , reservoirs and rivers . It is seldom seen in forested areas but does occur in brackish water and saline lagoons . Though more common in the lowlands , it also inhabits higher altitudes and in central Asia is one of the few waterbirds , along with the bar @-@ headed goose ( Anser indicus ) , to be found on lakes at 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) .
= = Behaviour = =
The ruddy shelduck is a mainly nocturnal bird . It is omnivorous and feeds on grasses , the young shoots of plants , grain and water plants as well as both aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates . On land it grazes on the foliage , in the water it dabbles in the shallows , and at greater depths , it up @-@ ends , but it does not dive .
The ruddy shelduck is usually found in pairs or small groups and rarely forms large flocks . However , moulting and wintering gatherings on chosen lakes or slow rivers can be very large . Gatherings of over four thousand birds have been recorded on the Koshi Barrage and in the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve in Nepal , and over ten thousand at Lake Gölü in Turkey .
The birds arrive at their main breeding locations in central Asia in March and April . There is a strong pair bond between the male and female and it is thought they pair for life . In their breeding quarters , the birds are very aggressive towards their own kind and towards other species . The female in particular approaches intruders with head lowered and neck outstretched , uttering anger calls . If the intruder stands its ground , the female returns to the male and runs round him , inciting him to attack . He may or may not do so . Mating takes place on the water after a brief courtship ritual involving neck stretching , head dipping and tail raising . The nesting site is often far away from water in a hole in a tree or ruined building , a crevice in a cliff , among sand @-@ dunes or in an animal burrow . The nest is constructed by the female using feathers and down and some grasses .
A clutch of about eight eggs ( range six to twelve ) is laid between late April and early June . These have a dull gloss and are creamy @-@ white , averaging 68 by 47 mm ( 2 @.@ 68 by 1 @.@ 85 in ) . Incubation is done by the female while the male stands in attendance nearby . The eggs hatch after about twenty @-@ eight days and both parents care for the young , which fledge in a further fifty @-@ five days . After breeding the adults moult , losing the power of flight for about a month while they do so . Before moulting they move to large water bodies where they can more easily avoid predation while they are flightless . The family may stay together as a group for some time ; the autumn migration starts around September and the young may mature in their second year . North African birds breed about five weeks earlier , and their breeding success is greater in wet summers .
= = Status = =
Buddhists regard the ruddy shelduck as sacred and this gives the birds some protection in central and eastern Asia , where the population is thought to be steady or even rising . The Pembo Black @-@ necked Crane Reserve in Tibet is an important wintering area for ruddy ducks , and here they receive protection . In Europe on the other hand , populations are generally declining as wetlands are drained and the birds are hunted . However , they are less vulnerable than some other waterfowl because of their adaptability to new habitats such as reservoirs .
The ruddy shelduck has a very wide range and an estimated total population size of 170 @,@ 000 to 225 @,@ 000 individuals . The overall population trend is unclear as some local populations are increasing while others are decreasing . The bird does not appear to meet the higher criteria necessary to be considered threatened , and the International Union for Conservation of Nature assesses that its conservation status is of " least concern " . It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) applies .
= First Crusade =
The First Crusade ( 1095 – 1099 ) was the first of a number of crusades that attempted to recapture the Holy Lands , called by Pope Urban II in 1095 . It started as a widespread pilgrimage in western Christendom and ended as a military expedition by Roman Catholic Europe to regain the Holy Lands taken in the Muslim conquests of the Levant ( 632 – 661 ) , ultimately resulting in the recapture of Jerusalem in 1099 .
It was launched on 27 November 1095 by Pope Urban II with the primary goal of responding to an appeal from Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos , who requested that western volunteers come to his aid and help to repel the invading Seljuk Turks from Anatolia . An additional goal soon became the principal objective — the Christian reconquest of the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and the freeing of the Eastern Christians from Muslim rule .
During the crusade , knights , peasants and serfs from many regions of Western Europe travelled over land and by sea , first to Constantinople and then on towards Jerusalem . The Crusaders arrived at Jerusalem , launched an assault on the city , and captured it in July 1099 , massacring many of the city 's Muslim and Jewish inhabitants . They also established the crusader states of the Kingdom of Jerusalem , the County of Tripoli , the Principality of Antioch , and the County of Edessa .
The First Crusade was followed by the Second to the Ninth Crusades . It was also the first major step towards reopening international trade in the West since the fall of the Western Roman Empire . Due to the First Crusade being largely concerned with Jerusalem , a city which had not been under Christian dominion for 461 years , and that the crusader army , on seizure of lands , had refused to honour a brokered promise before the seizure to return gained lands to the control of the Byzantine Empire , the status of the First Crusade as defensive or aggressive in nature remains unanswered and controversial . The majority view is that it had elements of both in its nature .
= = Origin = =
The origin of the Crusades in general , and particularly that of the First Crusade , is widely debated among historians . The confusion is partially due to the numerous armies in the first crusade , and their lack of direct unity . The similar ideologies held the armies to similar goals , but the connections were rarely strong , and the unity broke down often . The Crusades are most commonly linked to the political and social situation in 11th @-@ century Europe , the rise of a reform movement within the papacy , and the political and religious confrontation of Christianity and Islam in Europe and the Middle East . Christianity had spread throughout Europe , Africa , and the Middle East in Late Antiquity , but by the early 8th century Christian rule had become limited to Europe and Anatolia after the Muslim conquests .
The Umayyad Caliphate had conquered Syria , Egypt , and North Africa from the predominantly Christian Byzantine Empire , and Hispania from the Visigothic Kingdom . In North Africa , the Umayyad empire eventually collapsed and a number of smaller Muslim kingdoms emerged , such as the Aghlabids , who attacked Italy in the 9th century . Pisa , Genoa , and the Principality of Catalonia began to battle various Muslim kingdoms for control of the Mediterranean Basin , exemplified by the Mahdia campaign and battles at Majorca and Sardinia .
Essentially , between the years 1096 and 1101 the Byzantine Greeks experienced the crusade as it arrived at Constantinople in three separate waves .
In the early summer of 1096 , the first large unruly group arrived on the outskirts of Constantinople . This wave was reported to be undisciplined and ill @-@ equipped as an army as noted in the People ’ s Crusade . This first group is often called the Peasants ’ or People ’ s Crusade . It was led by Peter the Hermit and Walter Sans Avoir and had no knowledge of or respect for the wishes of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Comnenus .
The second wave was also not under the command of the Emperor and was made up of a number of armies with their own commanders . Together , this group and the first wave numbered an estimated 60 @,@ 000 .
The second wave was led by Hugh I , Count of Vermandois , the brother of King Philip I of France . Also among the second wave were Raymond IV , Count of Toulouse and the army of Provençals . " It was this second wave of crusaders which later passed through Asia Minor , captured Antioch in 1098 and finally took Jerusalem 15 July 1099 . ”
The third wave , composed of contingents from Lombardy , France , and Bavaria , arrived in Jerusalem in the early summer of 1101 .
= = Situation in Europe = =
At the western edge of Europe and of Islamic expansion , the Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula was well underway by the 11th century . It was intermittently ideological , as evidenced by the Codex Vigilanus compiled in 881 . Increasingly in the 11th century foreign knights , mostly from France , visited Iberia to assist the Christians in their efforts . Shortly before the First Crusade , Pope Urban II had encouraged the Iberian Christians to reconquer Tarragona , using much of the same symbolism and rhetoric that was later used to preach the crusade to the people of Europe .
The heart of Western Europe had been stabilized after the Christianization of the Saxon , Viking , and Hungarian peoples by the end of the 10th century . However , the breakdown of the Carolingian Empire gave rise to an entire class of warriors who now had little to do but fight among themselves . The random violence of the knightly class was regularly condemned by the church , and in response it established the Peace and Truce of God to prohibit fighting on certain days of the year . At the same time , the reform @-@ minded papacy came into conflict with the Holy Roman Emperors , resulting in the Investiture Controversy . Popes such as Gregory VII justified the subsequent warfare against the Emperor 's partisans in theological terms . It became acceptable for the Pope to utilize knights in the name of Christendom , not only against political enemies of the Papacy , but also against Al @-@ Andalus , or , theoretically , against the Seljuq dynasty in the east .
To the east of Europe lay the Byzantine Empire , composed of Christians who had long followed a separate Orthodox rite ; the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches had been in schism since 1054 . Historians have argued that the desire to impose Roman church authority in the east may have been one of the goals of the crusade , although Urban II , who launched the First Crusade , never refers to such a goal in his letters on crusading . The Seljuq Turks had taken over almost all of Anatolia after the Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 ; however , their conquests were piecemeal and led by semi @-@ independent warlords , rather than by the sultan . A dramatic collapse of the empire 's position on the eve of the Council of Clermont brought Byzantium to the brink of disaster . By the mid @-@ 1090s , the Byzantine Empire was largely confined to Balkan Europe and the northwestern fringe of Anatolia , and faced Norman enemies in the west as well as Turks in the east . In response to the defeat at Manzikert and subsequent Byz
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antine losses in Anatolia in 1074 , Pope Gregory VII had called for the milites Christi ( " soldiers of Christ " ) to go to Byzantium 's aid . This call was largely ignored and even opposed . The reason for this was that while the defeat at Manzikert was shocking , it had limited significance and did not lead to major difficulties for the Byzantine empire , at least in the short term .
= = Situation in the Middle East = =
Until the crusaders ' arrival the Byzantines had continually fought the Seljuqs and other Turkish dynasties for control of Anatolia and Syria . The Seljuqs , who were orthodox Sunni Muslims , had formerly ruled the Great Seljuq Empire , but by the time of the First Crusade it had divided into several smaller states after the death of Malik @-@ Shah I in 1092 .
Malik @-@ Shah was succeeded in the Anatolian Sultanate of Rum by Kilij Arslan I , and in Syria by his brother Tutush I , who died in 1095 . Tutush 's sons Fakhr al @-@ Mulk Radwan and Duqaq inherited Aleppo and Damascus respectively , further dividing Syria amongst emirs antagonistic towards each other , as well as Kerbogha , the atabeg of Mosul .
Egypt and much of Palestine were controlled by the Arab Shi 'ite Fatimid Caliphate , which was significantly smaller since the arrival of the Seljuqs . Warfare between the Fatimids and Seljuqs caused great disruption for the local Christians and for western pilgrims . The Fatimids , under the nominal rule of caliph al @-@ Musta 'li but actually controlled by vizier al @-@ Afdal Shahanshah , had lost Jerusalem to the Seljuqs in 1073 ( although some older accounts say 1076 ) ; they recaptured it in 1098 from the Artuqids , a smaller Turkish tribe associated with the Seljuqs , just before the arrival of the crusaders .
= = Historiography = =
It is now impossible to assess exactly why the First Crusade occurred , although many possible causes have been suggested by historians , most recently Jay Rubenstein . The historiography of the Crusades reflects attempts made by different historians to understand the Crusades ' complex causes and justifications . An early theory , the so @-@ called " Erdmann thesis " , developed by German historian Carl Erdmann , directly linked the Crusades to the 11th @-@ century reform movements . This first theory claimed that the exportation of violence to the east , and the assistance to the struggling Byzantine Empire were the Crusaders ' primary goals , and that the conquest of Jerusalem was more a secondary , popular goal .
Generally , subsequent historians have either followed Erdmann , with further expansions upon his thesis , or rejected it . Some historians , such as Speros Vryonis , have emphasized the influence of the rise of Islam generally , and the impact of the recent Seljuq onslaught specifically . Steven Runciman argued that the crusade was motivated by a combination of theological justification for holy war and a " general restlessness and taste for adventure " , especially among the Normans and the " younger sons " of the French nobility who had no other opportunities .
Runciman even implies that there was no immediate threat from the Islamic world , arguing that " in the middle of the 11th century the lot of the Christians in Palestine had seldom been so pleasant " . However , Runciman makes his argument only in reference to Palestine under the Fatimids c . 1029 – 1073 , not under the Seljuqs . Moreover , the source of his generally positive view of Palestinian Christians ' lot in the later 11th century is unclear , as there were very few contemporary Christian sources from Palestine writing in this period , and surviving Christian sources deriving directly from Seljuq Palestine are virtually non @-@ existent .
In opposition to Runciman 's argument , and on the basis of contemporary Jewish Cairo Geniza documents , as well as later Muslim accounts , Moshe Gil argues that the Seljuq conquest and occupation of Palestine ( c . 1073 – 1098 ) was a period of " slaughter and vandalism , of economic hardship , and the uprooting of populations " . Indeed , drawing upon earlier writers such as Ignatius of Melitene , Michael the Syrian had recorded that the Seljuqs subjected Coele @-@ Syria and the Palestinian coast to " cruel destruction and pillage " .
Thomas Asbridge argues that the First Crusade was Pope Urban II 's attempt to expand the power of the church , and reunite the churches of Rome and Constantinople , which had been in schism since 1054 . Asbridge , however , provides little evidence from Urban 's own writings to bolster this claim , and Urban 's four extant letters on crusading do not seem to express such a motive . According to Asbridge , the spread of Islam was unimportant because " Islam and Christendom had coexisted for centuries in relative equanimity " . Asbridge , however , fails to note that the recent Turkish conquests of Anatolia and southern Syria had shattered the tense but relatively stable balance of power that a somewhat revived Byzantine Empire had gradually developed with earlier Islamic powers over the course of the 10th and early 11th century .
Following the defeat at Manzikert in 1071 , Muslims had taken half of the Byzantine Empire 's territory , and such strategically and religiously important cities as Antioch and Nicaea had only fallen to Muslims in the decade before the Council of Piacenza . Moreover , the harrowing accounts of the Turkish invasion and conquest of Anatolia recorded by such Eastern Christian chroniclers as John Skylitzes , Michael Attaleiates , Matthew of Edessa , Michael the Syrian and others , which are summarized by Vryonis , seem to contradict Asbridge 's broad picture of equanimious " coexistence " between the Christian and Muslim worlds in the second half of the 11th century .
Thomas Madden represents a view almost diametrically opposed to that of Asbridge ; while the crusade was certainly linked to church reform and attempts to assert papal authority , he argues that it was most importantly a pious struggle to liberate fellow Christians , who , Madden claims , " had suffered mightily at the hands of the Turks " . This argument distinguishes the relatively recent violence and warfare that followed the conquests of the Turks from the general advance of Islam , the significance of which is dismissed by Runciman and Asbridge . Christopher Tyerman incorporates both arguments in his thesis ; namely , that the Crusade developed out of church reform and theories of holy war as much as it was a response to conflicts with the Islamic world throughout Europe and the Middle East . In Jonathan Riley @-@ Smith 's view , poor harvests , overpopulation , and a pre @-@ existing movement towards colonizing the frontier areas of Europe also contributed to the crusade ; however , he also takes care to say that " most commentators then and a minority of historians now have maintained that the chief motivation was a genuine idealism " .
Peter Frankopan has argued that the First Crusade has been fundamentally distorted by the attention paid by historians to western ( Latin ) sources , rather than Greek , Syriac , Armenian , Arabic and Hebrew material from the late 11th and 12th centuries . The expedition to Jerusalem , he argues , was conceived of not by the Pope but by the Emperor Alexios I Komnenos , in response to a dramatic deterioration of Byzantium 's position in Asia Minor and also as a result of the a state of near anarchy at the imperial court where plans to depose Alexios or even murder him were an open secret by 1094 . The appeal to Pope Urban II was a desperate move to shore up Emperor and Empire . Frankopan goes further , showing that the Crusade 's primary military targets in Asia Minor - Nicaea and Antioch - required large numbers of men with experience of siege warfare ; precisely the sort recruited by Urban during his preaching in France in 1095 @-@ 6 .
The idea that the crusades were a response to Islam dates back as far as 12th @-@ century historian William of Tyre , who began his chronicle with the fall of Jerusalem to Umar . Although the original Islamic conquests had taken place centuries before the First Crusade , more recent events would have been fresh in the minds of the European Christians of the time . For example , in 1009 the Church of the Holy Sepulchre had been destroyed by the Fatimid Caliph al @-@ Hakim bi @-@ Amr Allah ; Pope Sergius IV supposedly called for a military expedition in response , and in France , many Jewish communities were even attacked in a misdirected retaliation . Despite the Church 's rebuilding after al @-@ Hakim 's death , and pilgrimages resuming , including the Great German Pilgrimage of 1064 – 1065 , pilgrims continued to suffer attacks from local Muslims . In addition , the even more recent Turkish incursions into Anatolia and northern Syria were certainly viewed as devastating by Eastern Christian chroniclers , and it is plausible they were presented as such by the Byzantines to the Pope in order to solicit the aid of European Christians .
= = Council of Clermont = =
While the Crusades had causes deeply rooted in the social and political situations of 11th @-@ century Europe , the event actually triggering the First Crusade was a request for assistance from Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos . Alexios was worried about the advances of the Seljuqs , who had reached as far west as Nicaea , not far from Constantinople . In March 1095 , Alexios sent envoys to the Council of Piacenza to ask Pope Urban II for aid against the Turks .
Urban responded favourably , perhaps hoping to heal the Great Schism of forty years earlier , and to reunite the Church under papal primacy by helping the Eastern churches in their time of need . Alexios and Urban had previously been in close contact in 1089 and after , and had discussed openly the prospect of the ( re ) union of the Christian church . There were signs of considerable co @-@ operation between Rome and Constantinople in the years immediately before the Crusade .
In July 1095 , Urban turned to his homeland of France to recruit men for the expedition . His travels there culminated in the Council of Clermont in November , where , according to the various speeches attributed to him , he gave an impassioned sermon to a large audience of French nobles and clergy , graphically detailing the fantastical atrocities being committed against pilgrims and eastern Christians . There are five versions of the speech recorded by people who may have been at the council ( Baldric of Dol , Guibert of Nogent , Robert the Monk , and Fulcher of Chartres ) or who went on crusade ( Fulcher and the anonymous author of the Gesta Francorum ) , as well as other versions found in later historians ( such as William of Malmesbury and William of Tyre ) . All of these versions were written after Jerusalem had been captured . Thus it is difficult to know what was actually said and what was recreated in the aftermath of the successful crusade . The only contemporary records are a few letters written by Urban in 1095 .
All five versions of the speech differ widely from one another in regard to particulars . All versions , except that in the Gesta Francorum , generally agree that Urban talked about the violence of European society and the necessity of maintaining the Peace of God ; about helping the Greeks , who had asked for assistance ; about the crimes being committed against Christians in the east ; and about a new kind of war , an armed pilgrimage , and of rewards in heaven , where remission of sins was offered to any who might die in the undertaking . They do not all specifically mention Jerusalem as the ultimate goal . However , it has been argued that Urban 's subsequent preaching reveals that he expected the expedition to reach Jerusalem all along . According to one version of the speech , the enthusiastic crowd responded with cries of Deus vult ! ( " God wills it ! " ) . However , other versions of the speech do not include this detail .
= = = Recruitment = = =
Urban 's speech had been well @-@ planned : he had discussed the crusade with Adhemar of Le Puy and Raymond IV , Count of Toulouse , and instantly the expedition had the support of two of southern France 's most important leaders . Adhemar himself was present at the Council and was the first to " take the cross " . During the rest of 1095 and into 1096 , Urban spread the message throughout France , and urged his bishops and legates to preach in their own dioceses elsewhere in France , Germany , and Italy as well . However , it is clear that the response to the speech was much greater than even the Pope , let alone Alexios , expected . On his tour of France , Urban tried to forbid certain people ( including women , monks , and the sick ) from joining the crusade , but found this nearly impossible . In the end , most who took up the call were not knights , but peasants who were not wealthy and had little in the way of fighting skills , in an outpouring of a new emotional and personal piety that was not easily harnessed by the ecclesiastical and lay aristocracy . Typically , preaching would conclude with every volunteer taking a vow to complete a pilgrimage to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre ; they were also given a cross , usually sewn onto their clothes .
As Thomas Asbridge wrote , " Just as we can do nothing more than estimate the number of thousands who responded to the crusading ideal , so too , with the surviving evidence , we can gain only a limited insight into their motivation and intent . " Previous generations of scholars argued that the crusaders were motivated by greed , hoping to find a better life away from the famines and warfare occurring in France , but as Asbridge notes , " This image is ... profoundly misleading . " He argues that greed was unlikely to have been a major factor because of the extremely high cost of travelling so far from home , and because almost all of the crusaders eventually returned home after completing their pilgrimage rather than trying to carve out possessions for themselves in the Holy Land . It is difficult or impossible to assess the motives of the thousands of poor for whom there is no historical record , or even those of important knights , whose stories were usually retold by monks or clerics . As the secular medieval world was so deeply ingrained with the spiritual world of the church , it is quite likely that personal piety was a major factor for many crusaders .
Despite this popular enthusiasm , however , Urban ensured that there would be an army of knights , drawn from the French aristocracy . Aside from Adhemar and Raymond , other leaders he recruited throughout 1096 included Bohemond of Taranto , a southern Italian ally of the reform popes ; Bohemond 's nephew Tancred ; Godfrey of Bouillon , who had previously been an anti @-@ reform ally of the Holy Roman Emperor ; his brother Baldwin of Boulogne ; Hugh I , Count of Vermandois , brother of the excommunicated Philip I of France ; Robert Curthose , brother of William II of England ; and his relatives Stephen II , Count of Blois and Robert II , Count of Flanders . The crusaders represented northern and southern France , Flanders , Germany , and southern Italy , and so were divided into four separate armies that were not always cooperative , though they were held together by their common ultimate goal .
The motives of the nobility are somewhat clearer than those of the peasants ; greed was apparently not a major factor . It is commonly assumed , for example by Runciman as mentioned above , that only younger members of a family went on crusade , looking for wealth and adventure elsewhere , as they had no prospects for advancement at home . Riley @-@ Smith has shown that this was not always the case . The crusade was led by some of the most powerful nobles of France , who left everything behind , and it was often the case that entire families went on crusade at their own great expense . For example , Robert of Normandy loaned the Duchy of Normandy to his brother William II of England , and Godfrey sold or mortgaged his property to the church . According to Tancred 's biographer , he was worried about the sinful nature of knightly warfare , and was excited to find a holy outlet for violence . Tancred and Bohemond , as well as Godfrey , Baldwin , and their older brother Eustace III , Count of Boulogne , are examples of families who crusaded together . Riley @-@ Smith argues that the enthusiasm for the crusade was perhaps based on family relations , as most of the French crusaders were distant relatives . Nevertheless , in at least some cases , personal advancement played a role in Crusaders ' motives . For instance , Bohemond was motivated by the desire to carve himself out a territory in the east , and had previously campaigned against the Byzantines to try to achieve this . The Crusade gave him a further opportunity , which he took after the Siege of Antioch , taking possession of the city and establishing the Principality of Antioch .
= = People 's Crusade = =
The great French nobles and their trained armies of knights , however , were not the first to undertake the journey towards Jerusalem . Urban had planned the departure of the first crusade for 15 August 1096 , the Feast of the Assumption , but months before this , a number of unexpected armies of peasants and petty nobles set off for Jerusalem on their own , led by a charismatic priest called Peter the Hermit . Peter was the most successful of the preachers of Urban 's message , and developed an almost hysterical enthusiasm among his followers , although he was probably not an " official " preacher sanctioned by Urban at Clermont .
A century later he was already a legendary figure ; William of Tyre believed that it was Peter who had planted the idea for the crusade in Urban 's mind ( which was taken as fact by historians until the 19th century ) . It is commonly believed that Peter led a massive group of untrained and illiterate peasants who did not even have any idea where Jerusalem was , but indeed there were many knights among the peasants , including Walter Sans Avoir , who was lieutenant to Peter and led a separate army .
Lacking military discipline , in what likely seemed to the participants a strange land ( Eastern Europe ) , Peter 's fledgling army quickly found itself in trouble despite the fact they were still in Christian territory . The army led by Walter fought with the Hungarians over food at Belgrade , but otherwise arrived in Constantinople unharmed . Meanwhile , the army led by Peter , which marched separately from Walter 's army , also fought with the Hungarians , and may have captured Belgrade . At Nish the Byzantine governor tried to supply them , but Peter had little control over his followers and Byzantine troops were needed to quell their attacks . Peter arrived at Constantinople in August , where his army joined with the one led by Walter , which had already arrived , as well as separate bands of crusaders from France , Germany , and Italy . Another army of Bohemians and Saxons did not make it past Hungary before splitting up .
This unruly mob began to attack and pillage outside the city in search of supplies and food , prompting Alexios to hurriedly ferry the gathering across the Bosporus one week later . After crossing into Asia Minor , the crusaders split up and began to pillage the countryside , wandering into Seljuq territory around Nicaea . The greater experience of the Turks was overwhelming ; most of this group of the crusaders were massacred . Some Italian and German crusaders were defeated and killed at Xerigordon at the end of August . Meanwhile , Walter and Peter 's followers , who , although for the most part untrained in battle but led by about 50 knights , fought a battle against the Turks at Civitot in October . The Turkish archers destroyed the crusader army , and Walter was among the dead . Peter , who was absent in Constantinople at the time , later joined the main crusader army , along with the few survivors of Civetot .
= = = Attacks on Jews in the Rhineland = = =
At a local level , the preaching of the First Crusade ignited violence against Jews , which some historians have deemed " the first Holocaust " . At the end of 1095 and beginning of 1096 , months before the departure of the official crusade in August , there were attacks on Jewish communities in France and Germany . In May 1096 , Emicho of Flonheim ( sometimes incorrectly known as Emicho of Leiningen ) attacked the Jews at Speyer and Worms . Other unofficial crusaders from Swabia , led by Hartmann of Dillingen , along with French , English , Lotharingian and Flemish volunteers , led by Drogo of Nesle and William the Carpenter , as well as many locals , joined Emicho in the destruction of the Jewish community of Mainz at the end of May . In Mainz , one Jewish woman killed her children rather than see them killed ; the chief rabbi , Kalonymus Ben Meshullam , committed suicide in anticipation of being killed .
Emicho 's company then went on to Cologne , and others continued on to Trier , Metz , and other cities . Peter the Hermit may have been involved in violence against the Jews , and an army led by a priest named Folkmar also attacked Jews further east in Bohemia . Emicho 's army eventually continued into Hungary but was defeated by the army of Coloman of Hungary . His followers dispersed ; some eventually joined the main armies , although Emicho himself went home .
Many of the attackers seem to have wanted to force the Jews to convert , although they were also interested in acquiring money from them . Physical violence against Jews was never part of the church hierarchy 's official policy for crusading , and the Christian bishops , especially the Archbishop of Cologne , did their best to protect the Jews . A decade before , the Bishop of Speyer had taken the step of providing the Jews of that city with a walled ghetto to protect them from Christian violence and given their chief Rabbis the control of judicial matters in the quarter . Nevertheless , some also took money in return for their protection . The attacks may have originated in the belief that Jews and Muslims were equally enemies of Christ , and enemies were to be fought or converted to Christianity . Godfrey of Bouillon was rumoured to have extorted money from the Jews of Cologne and Mainz , and many of the Crusaders wondered why they should travel thousands of miles to fight non @-@ believers when there were already non @-@ believers closer to home . The attacks on the Jews were witnessed by Ekkehard of Aura and Albert of Aix ; among the Jewish communities , the main contemporary witnesses were the Mainz Anonymous , Eliezer ben Nathan , and Solomon bar Simson .
= = Princes ' Crusade = =
The four main crusader armies left Europe around the appointed time
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use the AN / AAQ @-@ 28 ( v ) " LITENING " targeting pod and 37 of these systems were purchased ; this phase was completed in 2007 .
The third stage of the Hornet Upgrade Program sought to rectify airframe damage . HUG Phase 3 @.@ 1 involved minor structural work to all aircraft as they passed through other phases of the program . The centre fuselages of the ten Hornets assessed as suffering the greatest amount of structural damage were replaced in HUG Phase 3 @.@ 2 . It was originally intended that all the RAAF 's Hornets would receive new centre fuselages , but the scope of this phase of the program was reduced after it was found that the number of man @-@ hours needed to upgrade each aircraft was much greater than originally estimated . The ten aircraft were upgraded at an L @-@ 3 Communications facility in Canada , and all were returned to service by June 2010 .
The long @-@ running HUG process has complicated the RAAF 's management of its fleet of F / A @-@ 18s . At any one time , the capabilities of individual aircraft have differed considerably depending on their upgrades . Accordingly , the long @-@ standing arrangement where aircraft were almost permanently assigned to each squadron was replaced by a system where they are pooled . Attempts to allocate Hornets with similar levels of modifications from the common pool to each squadron have not been successful .
= = Armament = =
The RAAF 's Hornets have been fitted with several different types of air @-@ to @-@ air weapons . The aircraft are equipped with an internal M61A1 cannon for use against air and ground targets ; 578 rounds can be carried for this weapon . During the initial years of the Hornet 's service , the aircraft were equipped with AIM @-@ 9M Sidewinder short range air @-@ to @-@ air missiles and AIM @-@ 7M Sparrow medium @-@ range air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . The Sparrows were replaced by the AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM in 2002 , and in 2004 the Sidewinders were replaced by ASRAAMs . The older missiles are occasionally used in training exercises , however .
The AGM @-@ 65 Maverick air @-@ to @-@ ground tactical missile ( AGM ) can be used for close air support . A variety of unguided and guided weapons can also be used against ground targets . The Hornets carry Mark 82 , Mark 83 and Mark 84 bombs , as well as GBU @-@ 10 , GBU @-@ 12 and GBU @-@ 16 Paveway II laser @-@ guided bombs . In addition , the aircraft have operated bombs fitted with JDAM guidance kits since 2008 . The long @-@ ranged JDAM @-@ ER variant of these bombs were ordered in 2011 and will begin to enter service in 2015 . During exercises the Hornets carry BDU @-@ 33 and BDU @-@ 57 LGTR training bombs . Since November 2011 , the RAAF 's Hornets have also been equipped with AGM @-@ 158 JASSM cruise missiles . The F / A @-@ 18s main weapon in the maritime strike role is the Harpoon anti @-@ ship missile ; the RAAF initially operated the Block IC variant of this missile , but purchased Block II variants in 2003 . In addition to these weapons , the Hornets can also be fitted with 330 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 1 @,@ 200 L ) drop tanks to extend their range .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Introduction into service = = =
Four RAAF units converted to the Hornet between 1985 and 1988 . The first 14 Hornets were allocated to No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit ( 2OCU ) at RAAF Base Williamtown , and were used to train the pilots and instructors needed to convert the RAAF 's three fighter squadrons to the aircraft . 2OCU 's first Hornet operational conversion course began on 19 August 1985 . In addition to the unit 's training activities , 2OCU aircraft travelled widely around Australia and South East Asia during 1985 and 1986 to showcase the new aircraft . No. 3 Squadron was the first fighter unit to convert from the Mirage III , and became operational with the Hornet in August 1986 . It was followed by No. 77 Squadron in June 1987 and No. 75 Squadron in May 1988 . No. 81 Wing , whose headquarters is located at Williamtown , has commanded these four units since they converted to the F / A @-@ 18 . As of 2012 , 2OCU , No. 3 and No. 77 Squadrons are stationed at Williamtown and No. 75 Squadron is located at Tindal . In addition , two Hornets are allocated to the Aircraft Research and Development Unit at RAAF Base Edinburgh in South Australia .
The RAAF 's Mirage III pilots generally found the process of converting to the Hornet to be straightforward . While the F / A @-@ 18 was considered to be easier to fly , its more sophisticated avionics and weapons systems required improved cockpit workload management skills . The Hornets have also proven to be mechanically reliable and easy to maintain , though shortages of spare parts reduced availability rates during the early years of their service with the RAAF . The updates installed as part of the HUG process have further simplified maintenance procedures . In recent years , however , the aging aircraft have required much more servicing than was the case in the past .
To extend the Hornet 's range , four of the RAAF 's six Boeing 707 transport aircraft were converted to tankers in the early 1990s ; the first Boeing 707 tanker entered service in 1990 . The tankers were operated by No. 33 Squadron and supported the Hornet units until the 707s were retired in 2008 . These aircraft were replaced with KC @-@ 30A tanker @-@ transports in 2011 .
The RAAF has at times suffered from shortfalls of Hornet @-@ qualified pilots . The service began to experience shortages of F / A @-@ 18 and F @-@ 111 fast @-@ jet pilots in the mid @-@ 1980s due to competition from commercial airlines and relatively low recruitment rates . By June 1999 the three operational Hornet @-@ equipped squadrons had only 40 pilots , which was less than the number of aircraft allocated to these units . The RAAF claimed that the squadrons were able to meet their readiness targets , however . To overcome this shortfall , the RAAF gave its fast jet units a higher priority for aircrew , implemented measures to reduce separation rates , and recruited pilots from other countries . These reforms coincided with reduced demand for civil pilots following the 11 September attacks , and by late 2003 the RAAF 's fast @-@ jet units were at near full strength . A 2010 article in the magazine Australian Aviation stated that No. 3 Squadron typically had " about 18 pilots on strength " at any point in time . At this time the total strength of the squadron , including air and ground crew , was around 300 personnel .
= = = Training = = =
As the Hornets are multi @-@ role fighters , their pilots practice a wide range of tasks during peacetime training . Each year the three Hornet squadrons rotate between four @-@ month training " blocks " focused on air @-@ to @-@ air combat , air @-@ to @-@ ground tactics and Australian Defence Force support tasks . The units undertake the air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ ground " blocks " before assuming responsibility for Australian Defence Force support ( which involves operating with the Australian Army and Royal Australian Navy ) . No. 81 Wing 's headquarters oversees this training program and monitors adherence to common standards and procedures . Training sorties may include such tasks as defending air bases , infrastructure and shipping from enemy aircraft , attacking naval and ground targets , and practicing in @-@ flight refueling . More unusual tasks such as dropping naval mines have also been practiced at times . Major exercises often involve other RAAF units and aircraft , as well as units from the Army and Navy and contingents from other countries .
As part of their regular training activities , F / A @-@ 18 Hornets operate in different parts of Australia and the Asia @-@ Pacific region . Regular deployments are made to Singapore and RMAF Butterworth in Malaysia as part of Integrated Air Defence System exercises . In addition , RAAF F / A @-@ 18s have participated in exercises in the Philippines , Thailand and the United States . These deployments have seen Australian fighter squadrons range as far afield as Eielson Air Force Base in Alaska , where they took part in Red Flag – Alaska exercises in 2008 and 2011 .
Four of the RAAF 's Hornets were destroyed in flying accidents during the late 1980s and early 1990s . A21 @-@ 104 was the first aircraft to be lost when it crashed at Great Palm Island in Queensland on 18 November 1987 ; its pilot was killed . The next loss occurred on 2 August 1990 when two No. 75 Squadron Hornets ( A21 @-@ 29 and A21 @-@ 42 ) collided . A21 @-@ 42 crashed , killing the unit 's commanding officer ; the other aircraft was damaged but managed to return to base . On 5 June 1990 A21 @-@ 41 crashed 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) north @-@ east of Weipa , Queensland , killing its pilot . A21 @-@ 106 was the fourth aircraft to be lost when it crashed inland from Shoalwater Bay in Queensland on 19 May 1992 – its pilot and a passenger from the Defence Science and Technology Organisation died . As of February 2016 , all of the remaining 71 F / A @-@ 18s were still in service .
= = = Deployments = = =
In late 1990 consideration was given to deploying a squadron of F / A @-@ 18s to the Middle East as part of an expanded Australian contribution to the Gulf War . The Department of Defence
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final meters , ultimately placing fourth . In the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni was narrowly beaten for the gold and the world record by two one @-@ hundredths ( 0 @.@ 02 ) of a second by Russian swimmer Yuliya Yefimova .
For her performance at the World Championships , she was named the American Swimmer of the Year by Swimming World Magazine .
= = = = 2009 Duel in the Pool = = = =
Soni then competed at the 2009 Duel in the Pool , a short course meet held in December at Manchester . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni broke Leisel Jones ' world record with a time of 2 : 14 @.@ 57 . One day later , Soni swam a 1 : 02 @.@ 70 in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke to break Jones ' world record of 1 : 03 @.@ 00 .
= = = 2010 = = =
= = = = 2010 National Championships = = = =
At the 2010 National Championships , Soni qualified to compete at the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in the 100 and 200 @-@ meter breaststroke . In the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni won in a time of 1 : 05 @.@ 73 . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni easily won with a time of 2 : 21 @.@ 60 , almost five seconds ahead of second @-@ place finisher Amanda Beard .
= = = = 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships = = = =
At the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships , Soni won a total of three gold medals . In the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni recorded the third fastest time in history and the fastest time recorded in a textile suit with a 1 : 04 @.@ 93 to win the gold medal ahead of Australians Leisel Jones and Sarah Katsoulis . Her time was also the fastest ever recorded in a textile swimsuit . Two days after the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni then competed in the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke and the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni dominated the field with a time of 2 : 20 @.@ 69 . Leisel Jones came in second in 2 : 23 @.@ 23 and world record holder Annamay Pierse came in third with a time of 2 : 23 @.@ 65 . Less than an hour after the event , Soni competed in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay with Natalie Coughlin , Dana Vollmer and Jessica Hardy . Performing the breaststroke leg , Soni recorded a time of 1 : 05 @.@ 35 , the fastest in the field ; the American team went on to win the gold in a time of 3 : 55 @.@ 23 .
For her performance at the Pan Pacific Swimming Championships , Soni was named the World Swimmer of the Year and American Swimmer of the Year by Swimming World Magazine .
= = = = 2010 Short Course World Championships = = = =
At the end of 2010 , Soni competed at the 2010 World Short Course Championships in Dubai , where she won three gold medals and one silver . Soni swept all the breaststroke events and individually set four championship records .
= = = 2011 = = =
= = = = 2011 World Aquatics Championships = = = =
Soni won her first gold medal in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke . After posting the top times in the heats ( 1 : 05 @.@ 54 ) and semi @-@ finals ( 1 : 04 @.@ 91 ) , Soni recorded a time of 1 : 05 @.@ 05 in the final for the win . Her winning time was over a second ahead of second @-@ place finisher Leisel Jones . In her second event , the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni won with a time of 2 : 21 @.@ 47 , her first gold medal in the event at a long course World Championships . However , her time in the final was slightly slower than her semi @-@ final time of 2 : 21 @.@ 03 . In the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , Soni won gold with Natalie Coughlin , Dana Vollmer , and Missy Franklin with a time of 3 : 52 @.@ 36 , over three seconds ahead of second @-@ place finisher China . Swimming the breaststroke leg , Soni had a split of 1 : 04 @.@ 71 . The final time of 3 : 52 @.@ 36 for the medley relay was the second @-@ fastest effort of all time , just behind the Chinese @-@ owned world record of 3 : 52 @.@ 19 . In her last event , the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni finished in third place behind Jessica Hardy and Yuliya Yefimova .
At the year 's end , Soni was named the World Swimmer of the Year and American Swimmer of the Year by Swimming World Magazine , and defended her titles from 2010 .
= = = 2012 = = =
= = = = 2012 Olympic Trials = = = =
At the 2012 United States Olympic Trials , the U.S. qualifying meet for the Olympics , Soni qualified for the U.S. Olympic team by finishing second in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke and first in the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke . Her second @-@ place finish in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke also ensured her a spot on the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . In her first event , the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni placed second behind Breeja Larson , a Texas A & M swimmer , with a time of 1 : 05 @.@ 99 , only losing by seven one @-@ hundredths ( 0 @.@ 07 ) of a second . In the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , Soni placed first with a time of 2 : 21 @.@ 13 , winning by almost two seconds .
= = = = 2012 Summer Olympic Games = = = =
At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , Soni won her first medal , a silver , in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , finishing 0 @.@ 08 seconds behind 15 @-@ year @-@ old Lithuanian Rūta Meilutytė and repeating her result from the 2008 Olympics . After topping the heats of the 200 @-@ metre breaststroke with a time of 2 : 21 @.@ 40 , and breaking Annamay Pierse 's world record in the semi @-@ finals with a time of 2 : 20 @.@ 00 , Soni won a gold medal in the final of the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke with a time of 2 : 19 @.@ 59 , breaking her own world record and becoming the first woman ever to break 2 minutes 20 seconds in the event . With her win , Soni became the first female to successfully defend her title in the event . In her final event , the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , she won gold with Missy Franklin , Dana Vollmer and Allison Schmitt . Swimming the breaststroke leg , she recorded a time of 1 : 04 @.@ 82 , and the U.S. team went on to set a new world record with a time of 3 : 52 @.@ 05 , bettering the previous Chinese @-@ owned record of 3 : 52 @.@ 19 set in 2009 .
= = = 2013 = = =
Soni took the year off to recover from a back injury , but returned to the 2013 World Aquatics Championships as a spectator . At the World Championships , her 200 @-@ meter breaststroke world record was broken by Denmark 's Rikke Møller Pedersen in the semi @-@ finals .
= = Personal bests = =
As of August 2 , 2012 .
= = World records = =
a Record set in a short course pool .
b Short course record with Natalie Coughlin , Dana Vollmer , and Missy Franklin .
c The first woman to swim in under 2 minutes 20 seconds in the event .
d Record set with Missy Franklin , Dana Vollmer , and Allison Schmitt .
= HMS York ( 90 ) =
HMS York was the first of two York @-@ class heavy cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the late 1920s . She mostly served on the North America and West Indies Station before World War II . Early in the war the ship escorted convoys in the Atlantic and participated in the Norwegian Campaign in 1940 . York was transferred to the Mediterranean theatre in late 1940 where she escorted convoys and the larger ships of the Mediterranean Fleet . She was wrecked in an attack by Italian explosive motorboats of the 10th Flotilla MAS at Suda Bay , Crete in March 1941 . The ship 's wreck was salvaged in 1952 and scrapped in Bari .
= = Design and description = =
York 's design was based on the earlier County classes but was intended to be smaller and cheaper , although better armoured . She was easily distinguishable from her sister ship , Exeter , as the latter had straight masts and funnels , while those of York were angled to the rear . In addition , York also had a very tall bridge designed to clear the aircraft catapult originally planned to be carried on the superfiring ( ' B ' ) gun turret forward .
York displaced 8 @,@ 250 long tons ( 8 @,@ 380 t ) at standard load and 10 @,@ 620 long tons ( 10 @,@ 790 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 575 feet ( 175 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 57 feet ( 17 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 20 feet 3 inches ( 6 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving four shafts , which developed a total of 80 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 32 @.@ 25 knots ( 59 @.@ 73 km / h ; 37 @.@ 11 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by eight Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . York carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 900 long tons ( 1 @,@ 900 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 13 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 24 @,@ 600 km ; 15 @,@ 300 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 628 officers and men .
The ship mounted six 50 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns in three twin turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of four QF 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk V anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in single mounts . York mounted two single 2 @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) light AA guns ( " pom @-@ poms " ) . The ship carried two triple torpedo tube above @-@ water mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes .
York lacked a full waterline armor belt . The sides of her boiler and engine rooms were protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armour and sides of the magazines were protected by 4 @.@ 375 inches ( 111 @.@ 1 mm ) of armour . The transverse bulkheads at the end of her machinery rooms were 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) thick . The top and ends of the magazines were three inches thick . The lower deck over the machinery spaces and steering gear had a thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) . Space and weight was reserved for one catapult and its seaplane , but they were not fitted until after she was completed . A second catapult , intended to be mounted on ' B ' turret , was deleted from the design during construction .
= = Service = =
York was laid down by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company , Jarrow , on 18 May 1927 , launched on 17 July 1928 and was completed on 1 May 1930 . She became the flagship of the 2nd Cruiser Squadron of the Home Fleet upon commissioning . Between 1931 and 1934 she was commanded by Captain Richard Bevan . She served with the 8th Cruiser Squadron on the North America and West Indies Station , and was detached to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1935 and 1936 for the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War , before returning to the American Station until the outbreak of war in September 1939 .
The ship was transferred to Halifax , Nova Scotia that same month for convoy escort duties . In October 1939 , York was assigned to Force F at Halifax , which was active in hunting for commerce raiders and protecting convoys . She was briefly refitted in Bermuda between 31 October and 22 November before she returned to Great Britain for a more thorough refit in December . Upon its completion on 9 February York was assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron of Home Fleet . On 3 March 1940 the ship intercepted the German blockade runner Arucas in the Denmark Strait near Iceland , but she was scuttled by her own crew before she could be captured .
In early April 1940 , York , and the rest of her squadron , were assigned to carry troops under Plan R 4 , the British plan to invade Norway . The troops were disembarked on 8 April when the British learned of the imminent German invasion of Norway and the squadron , under the command of Vice @-@ Admiral John Cunningham , joined the bulk of the Home Fleet already at sea . On 10 April the destroyer HMS Eclipse was badly damaged by air attack and York was detailed to tow her to Lerwick for repairs . The ship , and the light cruisers HMS Manchester and HMS Birmingham , ferried the 1st Battalion of the Green Howards and other troops from Rosyth to Åndalsnes and Molde on 24 – 25 April . York returned home on 26 April . York was one of the ships used to evacuate British and French troops from Namsos , along with three French transports and a number of British destroyers , on the evening of 1 / 2 May .
= = = In the Mediterranean = = =
In August 1940 York was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , joining the 3rd Cruiser Squadron in Alexandria in late September , after escorting a convoy around the Cape of Good Hope . Two days later she participated in Operation MB.5 , where the Mediterranean Fleet escorted the light cruisers HMS Liverpool and HMS Gloucester as they ferried troops to Malta . During the Battle of Cape Passero , York sank the disabled and abandoned destroyer Artigliere on 13 October after the destroyer 's engagement with the light cruiser HMS Ajax the previous evening . A month later York and the Mediterranean Fleet executed Operation MB8 , a complex series of manoeuvers , including Operation Judgement , where the ship escorted the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious as her aircraft attacked the Italian Fleet at Taranto on the evening of 11 / 12 November . A few days later York ferried British troops from Alexandria , Egypt to Piraeus , Greece . On 26 November , York , and the rest of the 3rd Cruiser Squadron , covered a small convoy to Malta .
The Mediterranean Fleet , including York , sortied on 16 December to conduct air strikes on Italian shipping , airbases on Rhodes and to bombard Valona . In early January 1941 the ship escorted the tanker RFA Brambleleaf and four Flower @-@ class corvettes to Suda Bay , Crete and covered operations in the Eastern Mediterranean during Operation Excess . She arrived back at Alexandria on 16 January . York returned to Suda Bay in early February for operations against Italian shipping . During Operation Lustre in March , she protected troop convoys from Egypt to Greece .
= = = Fate = = =
York was disabled at Suda Bay in Crete by two Italian explosive motorboats of the Italian Regia Marina assault Flotilla Decima Flottiglia MAS , launched by the destroyers Crispi and Sella on 26 March 1941 ; the two old destroyers were fitted with special cranes to operate assault craft . Six motorboats entered the bay , led by Tenente di vascello Luigi Faggioni , and attacked three targets in pairs ; the first was York , second the tanker Pericles and last another ship at anchor . Three of the attacking boats had various problems , either mechanical or human , due to the extreme temperature conditions , but the other three successfully attacked their targets . Two motorboats , packed with 330 @-@ kilogram ( 730 lb ) charges in the bows , struck York amidships , flooding both boiler rooms and one engine room . Two British seamen were killed . All Italian sailors survived the attack and fell into British hands . The ship was run aground to prevent her from sinking . The submarine HMS Rover was used to supply electrical power to operate the cruiser 's guns for anti @-@ aircraft defence , but she was later severely damaged by air attack and had to be towed away for repairs . On 18 May , further damage was inflicted by German bombers and the ship was damaged beyond repair . Her main guns were wrecked by demolition charges on 22 May 1941 when the Allies began to evacuate Crete . York 's wreck was salvaged in February 1952 and towed to Bari to be broken up , beginning on 3 March .
= Cabernet Sauvignon =
Cabernet Sauvignon ( French : [ kabɛʁnɛ soviˈɲɔ ̃ ] ) is one of the world 's most widely recognized red wine grape varieties . It is grown in nearly every major wine producing country among a diverse spectrum of climates from Canada 's Okanagan Valley to Lebanon 's Beqaa Valley . Cabernet Sauvignon became internationally recognized through its prominence in Bordeaux wines where it is often blended with Merlot and Cabernet Franc . From France , the grape spread across Europe and to the New World where it found new homes in places like California 's Santa Cruz Mountains , Napa Valley , New Zealand 's Hawkes Bay , Australia 's Margaret River and Coonawarra regions and Chile 's Maipo Valley and Colchagua . For most of the 20th century , it was the world 's most widely planted premium red wine grape until it was surpassed by Merlot in the 1990s .
Despite its prominence in the industry , the grape is a relatively new variety , the product of a chance crossing between Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon blanc during the 17th century in southwestern France . Its popularity is often attributed to its ease of cultivation — the grapes have thick skins and the vines are hardy and naturally low yielding , budding late to avoid frost and resistant to viticultural hazards such as rot and insects — and to its consistent presentation of structure and flavours which express the typical character ( " typicity " ) of the variety . Familiarity and ease of pronunciation have helped to sell Cabernet Sauvignon wines to consumers , even when from unfamiliar wine regions . Its widespread popularity has also contributed to criticism of the grape as a " colonizer " that takes over wine regions at the expense of native grape varieties .
The classic profile of Cabernet Sauvignon tends to be full @-@ bodied wines with high tannins and noticeable acidity that contributes to the wine 's aging potential . In cooler climates , Cabernet Sauvignon tends to produce wines with blackcurrant notes that can be accompanied by green bell pepper notes , mint and cedar which will all become more pronounced as the wine ages . In more moderate climates the blackcurrant notes are often seen with black cherry and black olives notes while in very hot climates the current flavors can veer towards the over @-@ ripe and " jammy " side . In parts of Australia , particularly the Coonawarra wine region of South Australia , Cabernet Sauvignon wines tend to have a characteristic eucalyptus or menthol notes .
= = History and origins = =
For many years , the origin of Cabernet Sauvignon was not clearly understood and many myths and conjectures surrounded it . The word " Sauvignon " is believed to be derived from the French sauvage meaning " wild " and to refer to the grape being a wild Vitis vinifera vine native to France . Until recently the grape was rumored to have ancient origins , perhaps even being the Biturica grape used to make ancient Roman wine and referenced by Pliny the Elder . This belief was widely held in the 18th century , when the grape was also known as Petite Vidure or Bidure , apparently a corruption of Biturica . There was also belief that Vidure was a reference to the hard wood ( French vigne dure ) of the vine , with a possible relationship to Carménère which was once known as Grand Vidure . Another theory was that the grapevine originated in the Rioja region of Spain .
While the period when the name Cabernet Sauvignon became more prevalent over Petite Vidure is not certain , records indicate that the grape was a popular Bordeaux planting in the 18th century Médoc region . The first estates known to have actively grown the variety ( and the likely source of Cabernet vines for other estates ) were Château Mouton and Château d 'Armailhac in Pauillac .
The grape 's true origins were discovered in 1996 with the use of DNA typing at the UC Davis Department of Viticulture and Enology , by a team led by Dr. Carole Meredith . The DNA evidence determined that Cabernet Sauvignon was the offspring of Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc and was most likely a chance crossing that occurred in the 17th century . Prior to this discovery , this origin had been suspected from the similarity of the grapes ' names and the fact that Cabernet Sauvignon shares similar aromas with both grapes — such as the blackcurrant and pencil box aromas of Cabernet franc and the grassiness of Sauvignon blanc .
= = = Offspring and White Cabernet = = =
While not as prolific in mutating as Pinot noir , nor as widely used in production of offspring , Cabernet Sauvignon has been linked to other grape varieties . In 1961 , a cross of Cabernet Sauvignon and Grenache produced the French wine grape Marselan . Cygne blanc is a white @-@ berried seedling of Cabernet Sauvignon that was discovered in 1989 growing in a garden in Swan Valley , Western Australia . Cabernet blanc is a crossing of Cabernet Sauvignon and an unknown hybrid grape variety that was discovered in Switzerland in the late 20th century .
In 1977 a vine producing ' bronze ' grapes was found in the vineyards of Cleggett Wines in Australia . They propagated this mutant , registered it under the name of Malian , and sold pale red wines under that name . In 1991 one of the Bronze Cabernet vines started producing white grapes . Cleggett registered this " White Cabernet " under the name of Shalistin . Compared to its Cabernet parent , Malian appears to lack anthocyanins in the subepidermal cells but retains them in the epidermis , whereas Shalistin has no anthocyanins in either layer . The team that went on to discover the VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2 genes that control grape color have suggested that a gene involved in anthocyanin production has been deleted in the subepidermis of Malian , and then subepidermal cells invaded the epidermis to produce Shalistin .
During a series of trials between 1924 and 1930 , the pollen of Cabernet Sauvignon was used to fertilize Glera vines ( the white wine grape used to make the sparkling wine Prosecco ) to create the red Italian wine grape Incrocio Manzoni 2 @.@ 15 .
In 1983 , Cabernet Sauvignon was crossed with the white German wine grape Bronner to create the white wine grape Souvignier gris .
= = Viticulture = =
While Cabernet Sauvignon can grow in a variety of climates , its suitability as a varietal wine or as a blend component is strongly influenced by the warmth of the climate . The vine is one of the last major grape varieties to bud and ripen ( typically 1 – 2 weeks after Merlot and Cabernet franc ) and the climate of the growing season affects how early the grapes will be harvested . Many wine regions in California give the vine an abundance of sunshine with few problems in ripening fully , which increases the likelihood of producing varietal Cabernet wines . In regions like Bordeaux , under the threat of inclement harvest season weather , Cabernet Sauvignon is often harvested a little earlier than ideal and is then blended with other grapes to fill in the gaps . In some regions , climate will be more important than soil . In regions that are too cool , there is a potential for more herbaceous and green bell pepper flavours from less than ideally ripened grapes . In regions where the grape is exposed to excess warmth and over @-@ ripening , there is a propensity for the wine to develop flavours of cooked
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in 1925 . Critics of the movement saw it as an anachronism or of stripping rural handicrafts of their original charm through commercialism ; Kanae saw movement as motivated by a desire to keep creative vitality alive , and not by a sense of nostalgia or desire to preserve older ways .
The police suspected Kanae of socialist sympathies as he had brought the idea from Russia . The police so harassed him that he asked Un 'ichi Hiratsuka , who was teaching frame @-@ making there , to give up wearing his Russian @-@ style jacket and to cut his long hair . Kanae 's initial enthusiasm dwindled over the next five years — funding shrank , finding other patrons was wearying , the village mayor went bankrupt , and his attempts to find ways for the farmers to make money off their artwork found little success . After five years the venture went bankrupt .
Kanae turned his focus from printmaking to painting . He was a founding member in 1922 of the Shunyōkai association for painters who wished to maintain connections with Japanese traditions in the face of the Westernization of academic painting in Japan . He was editor of the association 's members ' magazine Atorie . He continued to promote the work of print artists and the legitimacy of prints as art . In 1928 the magazine devoted an issue to sōsaku hanga , and from the same year Shunyōkai included a prize in the print category in its annual exhibitions .
In 1924 Kanae travelled to Taiwan for a month to observe local folk craft and advise the government on how to develop the industry . The utilitarian craftwork of the aboriginal Taiwanese people impressed him beyond his expectations . Taiwanese authorities thought to promote the production of bamboo and rattan craftwork , but Kanae thought they could not compete with similar products from Japan and promoted instead the production of products both traditional and new with a distinctive local flavour using traditional designs for sale as souvenirs and exports .
After the 1919 show , Kanae passed the leadership of the Nihon Sōsaku @-@ Hanga Kyōkai to Kōshirō Onchi . In 1931 it became the more comprehensive Nihon Hanga Kyōkai ( " Japan Print Cooperative Society " ) . The same year the Seiwadō printing company went out of business .
= = = Return to painting and final years ( 1935 – 1946 ) = = =
In 1935 Kanae settled in Tokyo and returned to painting full @-@ time . He produced a number of oils and watercolours that were exhibited in January 1940 at the Mitsukoshi gallery . The show was well received and attended , and in a dinner that followed Kanae proclaimed , " I shall live until May of my eighty @-@ fifth year . Therefore , I am going to sit back now , and drink sake , and paint to my heart 's content . "
While at by Lake Haruna in Gunma Prefecture in 1942 Kanae suffered a cerebral hemorrhage which partially paralyzed him and hindered his ability to paint . He continued to paint as much as he could for the rest of his life , hindered by war shortages , and turned to watercolour when oil painting was too demanding under his disability . In spring 1943 he moved to Ueda in Nagano where he spent his remaining years . He died on 8 October 1946 undergoing surgery for a volvulus at the Nisshindō hospital in Ueda .
= = Style = =
In his prints , Kanae 's primary tool was a curved @-@ blade chisel ; in ukiyo @-@ e this tool was normally for clean up and a straight chisel for the main carving . His carving followed the Western approach of carving out planes and lines to appear in white , whereas the traditional Japanese technique was to carve around the lines to be printed .
Prints by Kanae Yamamoto
Paintings by Kanae Yamamoto
= = Legacy = =
When an idea excited him he would bury himself in it . Sacrifice meant nothing . It was the same with creative hanga , his school , and his free @-@ art movement . He was a selfless man , a passionate man , a man of great sensitivity . I guess if I had to describe him in one word it would be — artist .
Kanae 's European work had an immediate effect on artists of his generation . In them Kōshirō Onchi saw the potential of the woodcut medium , though his style owes more to European artists . Un 'ichi Hiratsuka came to believe " a real artist ... must cut his own blocks and do his own printing " as " Dürer and Bewick worked " . Sōsaku @-@ hanga artists followed Kanae 's lead in using a curved chisel to carve out planes rather than to define lines as in Japanese tradition .
The dating of most of Kanae 's work is uncertain . It is believed that the works he signed in Roman characters were made after he returned to Japan from Europe . The number of copies of Kanae 's prints is unknown ; it is supposed the subscription prints he made in Europe numbered around 25 to 50 . Kanae made few printings of the Fisherman print — perhaps only one or two — and none have survived . The Ishiis discovered the block in their house decades later , and Oliver Statler had Hashimoto Okiie make forty copies of a commemorative edition in 1960 .
Modern Japanese thought on art education begins with Kanae 's Free Drawing Education approach . His stature in the history of child art and art education is similar to that of Franz Cižek 's in the West . Elementary schools teachers took to his ideas quickly in the wake of their dissatisfaction with the New Textbooks of Drawing textbooks the government had mandated in 1910 that emphasized copying and neglected personal expression . Yamamoto 's was the first public criticism of the textbooks , and his methods led to a sharp decline in their use in the 1920s . Yamamoto encouraged teachers to take children outdoors to sketch , a practice that continues to be common in Japanese elementary schools . Though Japanese militarism put his ideas on hold from the late 1920s educators revived and expanded them beginning in the 1950s .
The municipal Kanae Yamamoto Memorial Museum in Ueda in Nagano Prefecture dates from 1962 . It houses 1 @,@ 800 items , including artwork and documents by Kanae and early examples of peasant crafts and children 's artwork done under his instruction .
= Tropical Storm Bertha ( 2002 ) =
Tropical Storm Bertha was a minimal tropical storm that made landfall twice along the Gulf Coast of the United States in August 2002 . The second tropical storm of the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season , Bertha developed in the northern Gulf of Mexico out of a trough of low pressure that extended into the Atlantic on August 4 . It quickly organized and reached tropical storm strength before making landfall on southeastern Louisiana . Bertha turned to the southwest over the state , and re @-@ entered the Gulf of Mexico on August 7 . It remained disorganized due to proximity to land , and after making landfall on south Texas , Bertha dissipated on August 9 .
Bertha was one of only three tropical cyclones to make landfall on both Louisiana and Texas ; the others being Allison in 2001 and Fern in 1971 . Heavy surf killed one person in Florida . The storm dropped moderate amounts of rainfall along its path , peaking at over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) in eastern Louisiana and southern Mississippi . Damage was light , totaling to only $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD , $ 240 @,@ 000 2008 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A non @-@ tropical trough at the surface extended from the northern Gulf of Mexico across Florida into the western Atlantic Ocean . On August 3 , the western portion developed into a low pressure area . The eastern portion slowly organized and ultimately developed into Tropical Storm Cristobal . The low pressure area in the Gulf of Mexico steadily organized , and late on August 4 the circulation was organized enough for the National Hurricane Center to classify it as Tropical Depression Two while located 40 miles ( 65 km ) east of Port Eads , Louisiana . Northeasterly wind shear initially prevented organization of the cloud pattern , though the depression was able to strengthen to become Tropical Storm Bertha about five hours after it formed .
Outflow became much better organized as Bertha became a tropical storm , and well @-@ defined banding features persisted to the north of the storm . Though convection waned , forecasters predicted the friction between land and the warm atmosphere to redevelop more deep convection , potentially resulting in further strengthening . However , the storm failed to intensify , and Bertha made landfall near Boothville , Louisiana as a minimal tropical storm early on August 5 . It slowly weakened over the swampy portions of southeastern Louisiana , and degenerated to a tropical depression later on the 5th after crossing Lake Ponchartrain . Initially it was expected that a ridge of high pressure to its north would keep Bertha moving to the west and result in it slowly dissipating . However , it turned to the southwest , and reached the Gulf of Mexico again on August 7 . The circulation persisted over land , and Tropical Depression Bertha quickly redeveloped convection . Though the environment was not unfavorable , its proximity to land prevented re @-@ strengthening to tropical storm status . Though the system showed periods of increased organization as it moved southwestward , Bertha remained a weak tropical depression until making landfall on south Texas to the east of Kingsville on August 9 . Bertha weakened quickly over land , and dissipated over southern Texas ten hours after making landfall .
= = Preparations = =
The National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning from Pascagoula , Mississippi to the mouth of the Mississippi River as Bertha became a tropical storm . The warning occurred 90 minutes before the storm made landfall . All warnings were discontinued when Bertha weakened to a tropical depression over Louisiana . No watches or warnings were required for Texas , due to the improbability of it re @-@ intensifying .
The National Weather Service advised boats along the Gulf coast to remain at port . The service also issued a coastal flood watch from Alabama through the Florida Panhandle . A flood watch was issued for portions of eastern Louisiana and southwestern Mississippi .
= = Impact = =
The area of low pressure preceding the development of Bertha produced rough surf and rip currents along the Florida coastline . In Perdido Key State Recreation Area , two children were swimming in an unguarded area when they swept away by the currents . Their grandfather attempted to rescue them , but drowned in the rough waters . Another family rescued the two children . The large circulation of Bertha produced light rainfall across Florida , with Pensacola and Destin reporting 2 @.@ 75 inches . Extreme southern portions of Alabama received over 3 inches ( 75 mm ) of rain from the storm , while western Dauphin Island reported over 5 inches ( 125 mm ) .
Upon making landfall , Waveland , Mississippi recorded a peak storm surge of 4 @.@ 12 feet ( 1 @.@ 26 m ) . Sustained winds there peaked at 31 mph ( 50 km / h ) , and a peak gust of 41 mph ( 66 km / h ) . Tropical Storm Bertha produced moderate to heavy precipitation across southern Mississippi , including a total of 10 @.@ 25 inches ( 260 @.@ 35 mm ) in Pascagoula . In Moss Point , the rainfall resulted in flooding which entered 15 to 20 houses and several cars . The rainfall also flooded roadways and streets . Damage in Mississippi totaled to $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD , $ 60 @,@ 000 2008 USD ) .
The storm dropped heavy rainfall in Louisiana , which peaked at 10 @.@ 25 inches in Norwood . Storm tides were generally 1 to 2 feet ( .3 to .6 m ) above normal , while the mouth of the Bayou Dupre recorded a storm tide of 3 @.@ 79 feet ( 1 @.@ 16 m ) . The rainfall led to flash flooding in places , and also a few overflowed rivers in St. Tammany Parish . The flooding covered several roadways and bridges , and entered a few businesses and houses in East Feliciana Parish . Damage in Louisiana totaled to $ 150 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD , $ 180 @,@ 000 2008 USD ) .
In Texas , Bertha produced a storm tide of 3 feet ( .9 m ) at Baffin Bay . Only light rainfall occurred in the state , with a few isolated areas receiving over 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of precipitation .
= SMS Kaiser Barbarossa =
SMS Kaiser Barbarossa ( His Majesty 's Ship Emperor Barbarossa ) was a German pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Kaiser Friedrich III class . The ship was built for the Imperial Navy , which had begun a program of expansion at the direction of Kaiser Wilhelm II . She was constructed at Schichau , in Danzig . Kaiser Barbarossa was laid down in August 1898 , launched on 24 April 1900 , and commissioned in June 1901 , at the cost of 20 @,@ 301 @,@ 000 Marks . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in two twin gun turrets .
Kaiser Barbarossa served with the German navy from her commissioning in 1901 , though her active career was limited by two lengthy stays in dry @-@ dock . The first was for repairs following damage to her rudder in 1903 , which lasted until early 1905 , and the second for a major modernization , which began immediately after the conclusion of repair work in 1905 and lasted until late 1907 . She returned to service for another two years , before being decommissioned in 1909 and placed in the reserve division . She continued to participate in fleet training exercises for the next three years .
Following the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Kaiser Barbarossa and her sisters were mobilized as coastal defense ships in the V Battle Squadron and assigned to the North and Baltic Seas . She saw no combat during the war , and due to a shortage of crews , the ships were withdrawn from active duty in February 1915 and relegated to secondary duties . Kaiser Barbarossa was briefly used as a torpedo target ship for most of 1915 and thereafter spent the remainder of the war as a prison ship in Wilhelmshaven . Following the end of the war in 1918 , Kaiser Barbarossa was decommissioned and sold for scrap metal . The ship was broken up in 1919 – 20 .
= = Design = =
Kaiser Barbarossa was 125 @.@ 3 m ( 411 ft 1 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 4 m ( 66 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 89 m ( 25 ft 11 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 25 m ( 27 ft 1 in ) aft . She displaced up to 11 @,@ 785 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 599 long tons ) at full load . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one screw propeller . Steam was provided by four Thornycroft boilers and eight cylindrical boilers , all of which burned coal . Kaiser Barbarossa 's powerplant was rated at 13 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 12 @,@ 820 ihp ; 9 @,@ 560 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) . The ship had a cruising radius of 3 @,@ 420 nmi ( 6 @,@ 330 km ; 3 @,@ 940 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a normal crew of 39 officers and 612 enlisted men .
The ship 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) SK L / 40 guns , twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns all mounted in casemates , and twelve 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) machine cannon in single mounts . The armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all in above @-@ water swivel mounts . The ship 's belt armor was 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick , and the deck was 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armor plating , and the secondary casemates received 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) of armor protection .
= = Service history = =
Kaiser Wilhelm II , the Emperor of Germany , believed that a strong navy was necessary for the country to expand its influence outside continental Europe . As a result , he initiated a program of naval expansion in the late 1880s ; the first battleships built under this program were the four Brandenburg @-@ class ships . These were immediately followed by the five Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class battleships , of which Kaiser Barbarossa was a member . Kaiser Barbarossa 's keel was laid down on 3 August 1898 , at the Schichau @-@ Werke in Danzig , under construction number 640 . She was ordered under the contract name " A " as an addition to the fleet . Kaiser Barbarossa was launched on 21 April 1900 . The then @-@ Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Alfred von Tirpitz , the State Secretary of the Reichsmarineamt ( RMA — Imperial Navy Office ) , gave the launching speech , and the new battleship was christened by Princess Luise Sofie of Prussia , Wilhelm II 's sister @-@ in @-@ law . Sea trials began on 4 May 1901 , during which two tests were recorded : a 50 @-@ hour endurance test and a 6 @-@ hour speed test . The former produced a sustained speed of 15 @.@ 5 knots ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) , while the latter saw a maximum speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) , and on 10 June she was commissioned into the fleet in Kiel . The final cost of the vessel was 20 @,@ 301 @,@ 000 marks .
Following her commissioning , Kaiser Barbarossa was assigned to the I Squadron of the Heimatflotte ( Home Fleet ) , which shortly thereafter went on a cruise to Spain . While moored in Cadiz , the ships met the four Brandenburg @-@ class ships , which were returning from their expedition to suppress the Boxer Rebellion in China . From 22 August to 21 September , Kaiser Barbarossa participated in the annual autumn maneuvers of the entire fleet . While in the Danzig Bay , the fleet conducted a naval review for the visiting Tsar Nicholas II of Russia . The winter cruise in December went to southern Norway . In April and May 1902 , the squadron went on a training cruise to Britain , followed by a tour of the Kiel Week sailing regatta in late June . The ships then took part in another training cruise to Norway in July and then the autumn maneuvers , which began in the Baltic and concluded in the North Sea with a fleet review in the Jade . During the exercise , which lasted from 17 August to 18 September , Kaiser Barbarossa and the rest of I Squadron were assigned to play the roles of both the German fleet and hostile forces . The usual winter cruise went to Bergen , Norway , that year .
In 1903 , the fleet , which was composed of only one squadron of modern battleships , was reorganized as the " Active Battle Fleet . " Kaiser Barbarossa remained in the I Squadron along with her sister ships and the newest Wittelsbach @-@ class battleships , while the older Brandenburg @-@ class ships were placed in reserve in order to be rebuilt . The first quarter of 1903 followed the usual pattern of training exercises . The squadron went on a training cruise in the Baltic , followed by a voyage to Spain that lasted from 7 May to 10 June . The ship suffered some damage to her rudder , which necessitated temporary repairs at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Kiel from the end of July to 21 August . She thereafter took part in the autumn maneuvers and the winter cruise in the eastern Baltic and the Skagerrak . The autumn maneuvers consisted of a blockade exercise in the North Sea , a cruise of the entire fleet first to Norwegian waters and then to Kiel in early September , and finally a mock attack on Kiel . The exercises concluded on 12 September . The winter training cruise began on 23 November in the eastern Baltic and continued into the Skagerrak in early December . On 15 December , Kaiser Barbarossa was decommissioned for permanent repairs to her rudder , which lasted until January 1905 . She did not return to service , however , and instead began a major reconstruction .
During the modernization , four of her 15 cm guns were removed and two 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were added . All twelve 1 @-@ pounder guns were removed , as was the ship 's stern @-@ mounted torpedo tube . Kaiser Barbarossa 's superstructure was also cut down to reduce the ship 's tendency to roll excessively and her military masts were replaced with lighter pole masts . The ship 's funnels were also lengthened . Kaiser Barbarossa 's modernization was completed by 1 October 1907 , when she was recommissioned for service . By that time , the newest Deutschland @-@ class battleships were coming into service ; along with the Braunschweig @-@ class battleships , these provided enough modern battleships to create two full battle squadrons . Consequently , the Heimatflotte was renamed the Hochseeflotte ( High Seas Fleet ) . Kaiser Barbarossa returned to her place in the I Squadron and she participated in the normal routine of divisional , squadron , and fleet maneuvers and cruises without incident over the next year . The summer fleet cruise in May that year went to the Azores and returned to Kiel on 13 August . The autumn maneuvers lasted from 27 August to 7 September . Divisional exercises in the Baltic immediately followed from 7 to 13 September .
On 17 September 1909 , Kaiser Barbarossa was decommissioned and assigned to the Reserve Division in the Baltic Sea . By that time , the new dreadnought battleships , which rendered Kaiser Barbarossa and her sister ships thoroughly obsolete , were beginning to come into service with the fleet . In early 1910 , Kaiser Barbarossa was assigned to the Training Squadron , which operated in the Baltic in April . She was reactivated to participate in the autumn maneuvers that year in the provisional III Squadron ; after the conclusion of the exercises on 10 September , she was placed back in reserve . More modernization work was done at the Kaiserliche Werft in Kiel . From 31 July to 15 September , she was reactivated again to take part in the autumn maneuvers in the III Squadron . She thereafter returned to the Reserve Division in early 1912
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participant in a drug @-@ dealing enterprise into a man more comfortable with a life of crime who embraces his darker side and becomes more proactively violent and dangerous . This development began during the latter episodes of the third season and would continue to be a major theme throughout the fourth season . The episode also introduced the ongoing theme of Jesse 's moral decline and self guilt over his killing of Gale . Aaron Paul said of this , " Jesse 's much more raw this season . He 's very distant , and he 's turned to just utter chaos and destruction to keep his mind busy . When he 's left alone in his own thoughts , that 's when things can get kind of dangerous and scary for Jesse . "
The scene when Walter pleads with Gus demonstrates the paternal sense of protectiveness Walter has developed for Jesse . During that scene , Walter tells Gus , " You kill me , you have nothing . You kill Jesse , you don 't have me . " Jesse is visibly moved by the statement , which Aaron Paul described as " the first moment that Jesse realizes that Walt 's loyalty is to Jesse . " " Box Cutter " also illustrated Skyler 's growing involvement in Walter 's illegal activities through the subplot in which she lies to a locksmith to break into Walter 's house , going so far as to use her baby as a prop in her facade . After Skyler breaks in to Walter 's apartment , she finds the plastic eyeball of a teddy bear that has been part of the series since the second season . The eye has long been used as a symbol to identify Walter 's gradual descent into a life of crime , and Skyler 's discovery of it symbolizes her own similar descent .
Jeremiah Bitsui sprained his ankle during filming of the scene when Walter and Jesse shoved his corpse into a barrel to dispose of it with hydrofluoric acid . Following that scene , Jesse lifts the barrel with a forklift and it is lit in a way that the barrel can be seen through . This was accomplished by back @-@ lighting the barrel and tying monofilament to the bottom of it , which staff members then moved and twisted outside of the view of the camera to create the lighting effect .
= = Cultural references = =
During a scene when Gale 's neighbor calls police to report his murder , a clock in Gale 's apartment reads 10 : 13 . This is a deliberate reference to the number 1013 , which frequently appeared in The X @-@ Files , where Vince Gilligan worked as a writer and producer and Bryan Cranston as an actor . It refers to the name of X @-@ Files creator Chris Carter 's production company Ten Thirteen Productions , which in turn is a reference to Chris Carter 's birthday , October 13 . A copy of Everything 's Eventual , a collection of short stories by Stephen King , can be seen in Gale 's apartment . After Walter and Jesse are released by Gus , they eat lunch at Denny 's , a coffee shop and family restaurant chain . During this scene , they are wearing matching T @-@ shirts with country music singer Kenny Rogers on them . The T @-@ shirts are deliberately not explained in the episode , but Vince Gilligan said he believed Mike simply bought the first articles of clean clothing he could find for Walter and Jesse after their clothes were soaked with Victor 's blood . During the final scene of " Box Cutter " , when Walter walks back to his condominium , the Alex Ebert song " Truth " plays in the background .
= = Reception = =
= = = Initial screening and ratings = = =
" Box Cutter " was first publicly shown on June 28 , 2011 , at the Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood . During the scene when Gus killed Victor , Bryan Cranston 's daughter Taylor fainted in her seat inside the theater at the sight of all the blood . This prompted theater officials to briefly interrupt the screening and ask for a doctor in the audience , causing a brief panic among the crowd . The violent scenes in " Box Cutter " proved so bloody that AMC included a disclaimer warning about the violence at the start of the episode and after the commercial break halfway through the episode .
In its original American broadcast , " Box Cutter " was seen by an estimated 2 @.@ 58 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It was the most watched Breaking Bad episode in the series and the second highest rated season premiere for any AMC show , falling behind only the series premiere of The Walking Dead , which drew 5 @.@ 3 million household viewers . It was also a 32 percent increase in viewership compared to the third season premiere , " No Mas " . " Box Cutter " performed especially strong with men between ages 18 and 34 , among whom viewership was up 67 percent compared to the third season premiere . The episode was seen by 1 @.@ 4 million household viewers in both the 18 to 49 and the 25 to 54 age groups , a 21 percent increase in the former group and a 26 percent increase in the latter .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Box Cutter " received critical acclaim . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said the episode demonstrated how effective the creators of Breaking Bad are at manipulating the emotions of their viewers . Sepinwall described the story as " remarkably simple " but the execution as extremely effective , and he called the amount of screen time dedicated to Gus calmly changing his clothes before and after killing Victor " a move so ballsy and so brilliant I actually started giggling the second time they did it " . Time magazine writer James Poniewozik said the episode demonstrated how effective Breaking Bad can be even with a minimal amount of dialogue , such as Gus ' silence during his scene in the lab , and Jesse 's wordlessness throughout the episode as he processed what he had done to Gale . He also praised the color scheme of the blood @-@ red meth lab as an illustrator of Walter and Jesse 's descent into hell . Entertainment Weekly writer Ken Tucker said of the episode , " Its eloquent silences , its breath @-@ taking pictorial compositions ... these are pleasures that transcend 98 % of television 's usual attempts at dirty realism or fashionable pessimism " . Kim Potts of TV Squad called Gus ' killing of Victor " one of the more jarring scenes in Breaking Bad history " . The Faster Times writer Craig McQuinn called it " one of the most intense episodes I 've ever seen " , and said it solidified Gus ' standing as " one of the greatest TV antagonists I 've ever seen " . Matt Zoller Seitz of Salon.com compared the filmmaking in " Box Cutter " to that of works by Alfred Hitchcock and the Coen brothers , and called the best example of television 's ability to " take an elastic approach to narrative and let certain incidents or moments expand to fill up most or all of an episode " since " The Suitcase " , an episode of the television series Mad Men .
Seth Amitin of IGN called it a minimalist , deliberately paced episode but said it was never boring due to the excellent acting , dialogue and suspense which illustrates " just how quickly this show lost its innocence " . He also said the subplots involving Skyler , Hank and Marie kept the episode 's pace well . Los Angeles Times writer Todd VanDerWerff praised the performance of Aaron Paul despite his almost complete lack of dialogue throughout the episode , and felt the script raised interesting contrasts between Walt , who acts impulsively and rash while captured , and Gus , who seems calm and in control . However , he said it felt like Victor was killed rather than Walter or Jesse simply because the writers could not kill the two main protagonists . Michael Arbeiter of Hollywood.com called it a " great and intriguing way to start the season " and particularly praised Aaron Paul , who he said was " phenomenal " despite barely speaking any dialogue in the episode . However , he had " mixed feelings " about the Gus character 's evolution from a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes criminal to a hands @-@ on killer . Jessica Johnson of Time Out Chicago called it an " exquisite exercise in tension " that builds a " slow crescendo of what looks to be an impressively strong season " . Andy Vineberg of the Bucks County Courier Times called it " a great start for a show that just keeps getting better " . He praised the dark humor that kept the tension of the show balanced , and particularly complimented the pre @-@ credits scene and the ramifications it had for the show and its characters . RedEye writer Curt Wagner found that the cinematography , pacing and tension were so effective in " Box Cutter " , that " I think I broke a sweat just watching " . Paste magazine writer Brent Koepp praised the transformation of Walter , and said few other shows would risk making their protagonist so unlikeable . Koepp called the climactic scene with Gus " brilliant " and complimented the script for taking its time in building the tension .
Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic praised the episode for its effectiveness in scenes featuring little dialogue , particularly with Jesse and Gus , claiming , " No show does silence like Breaking Bad . " He also complimented Cranston 's desperate monologue while trying to convince Gus not to kill him , claiming it provided a deep insight into Walt 's character and his inability to accept responsibility for his actions . Zap2it writer Rick Porter called the scene with Gus killing Victor a " master class in building tension " due to the strong writing , direction and acting , particularly by Esposito . Scott Wampler of Collider.com called it " a fantastic , bloody , shocking season premiere , one of the best in the show 's history " . He particularly praised Esposito 's performance and suggested it could make the actor worthy of contention for an Emmy Award . BlackBook magazine writer Chris Mohney strongly praised Esposito 's performance , and described his silence and calm during the climactic scene as " one of the great recent moments of TV menace " . June Thomas of Slate magazine called it a " fine opening episode " that did not advance the plot significantly but " served as an artful reminder of where the characters stand psychologically " . Thomas said she believed the episode demonstrated that Walter is in fact a weak man , comparing his useless pleas to Gus to his ineffective attempts to mislead Skyler about his drug @-@ manufacturing activities in earlier seasons . Not all reviews were positive . Jessica Grose , also of Slate magazine , said while she prefers episodes that mixed its darker aspects with black humor , " Box Cutter " was " all claustrophobia and fear " . The Philadelphia Inquirer columnist David Hiltbrand condemned the violent scene with Victor 's death , which he called " totally gratuitous ... serv [ ing ] no plot or character purpose " .
= William Walker ( Australian cricketer ) =
William Holden Walker ( 16 December 1835 – 14 June 1886 ) was an English @-@ born Australian cricketer . As captain of the Tasmanian cricket team , Walker was one of Tasmania 's leading cricketers of his time . Known for his all @-@ round capabilities , he was a right @-@ handed batsman and an underarm bowler , as well as keeping wicket . Walker was named in the Cricket Tasmania Premier League 's " Team of the Decade " for the decade spanning 1866 – 67 to 1875 – 76 .
= = Early life and professional career = =
Walker was born in Islington in 1835 , the son of Holden and Mary Waldegrave Walker . During his early years in England , when Walker started playing cricket , his team came to be known as the Walker team . From England , Walker moved to Tasmania in 1859 , and then to Launceston in 1862 , where he became an employee of the soliciting firm Messrs Douglas & Collins . In 1866 , he became the Council Clerk and Clerk of Petty Sessions for the town of Fingal . Subsequently , he was employed with solicitors Messrs Gill and Ball , Messrs Dobson and Mitchell and later became an accountant at Messrs Elliston and Featherstone .
= = Cricketing career = =
Walker was a right @-@ handed batsman and right @-@ arm underarm bowler . One of Tasmania 's leading cricketers of his time , his score of 60 in an 1860 North versus South Tasmania game set a record of being the highest individual score in such matches . In his profile of Walker for ESPNcricinfo , the sports writer Thomas Rose said : " He impressed in representative games and was often the shining light of a rather dismal Tasmanian side ... "
After moving to Launceston , Walker made cricket famous in the city , captaining the Northern Tasmania cricket team . During the 1860s and 1870s , Walker also played for two clubs – Derwent and Wellington – under the then Tasmanian Cricket Association , standing out by scoring a century in one of his appearances .
Walker 's first @-@ class cricketing career spanned six years , from 1872 to 1878 . He played two first @-@ class cricket matches as captain of the Tasmanian cricket team during that period , scoring 73 runs and taking five wickets . During Cricket Tasmania 's 150th anniversary celebrations , Walker was named as a member of the Cricket Tasmania Premier League 's Team of the Decade for the decade 1866 / 67 – 1875 / 76 for having scored one of the only two centuries in Tasmania by any cricketer for the decade 1866 – 1875 .
Walker took 60 wickets in the 1875 – 76 domestic season at an average of 8 @.@ 47 runs per wicket , the best for all bowlers of the season . Walker was also a highly skilled wicket @-@ keeper . Despite his all @-@ round capabilities , Walker was best recognised and remembered for his impressive contributions as an inspirational captain , coming out as the best player in many matches irrespective of his team 's performance .
= = Death = =
At the age of 50 , after suffering a very short illness , Walker died on 14 June 1886 , at Pressland House , Hobart , Tasmania , with his funeral being held two days later . The Mercury wrote in its obituary on 15 June 1886 : " Cricketers will learn with regret of the death , after a very short illness , of Mr. William Holden Walker , one of the oldest votaries of this thoroughly English game in the colony ... Mr. Walker , who previous to his departure from England , was a member of the well @-@ known Walker Team , brought cricketing into great prominence in Launceston ... His efforts in the cause of cricket are so well known that they require no comment , but his sudden demise will cause a pang among the many friends who admired his genial and gentlemanly temperament . "
Around a month after his death , on 13 July 1886 , an amount of £ 590 from his estate was issued over as probate .
= Nafaanra =
Nafaanra ( sometimes written Nafaara , pronounced [ nafãːra ] ) is a Senufo language spoken in northwest Ghana , along the border with Ivory Coast , east of Bondoukou . It is spoken by approximately 61 @,@ 000 people . Its speakers call themselves Nafana ; others call them Banda or Mfantera . Like other Senufo languages , Nafaanra is a tonal language . It is somewhat of an outlier in the Senufo language group , with the geographically closest relatives , the Southern Senufo Tagwana – Djimini languages , approximately 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) to the west , on the other side of Comoé National Park .
The basic word order is subject – object – verb , similar to Latin and Japanese . Like other Niger – Congo languages it has a noun class system where nouns are classified according to five different genders , which also affects pronouns , adjectives and copulas . The phonology features a distinction between the length of vowels and whether they are oral or nasal ( as in French or Portuguese ) . There are also three distinct tones , a feature shared with the other Senufo languages . Nafaanra grammar features both tense and aspect which are marked with particles . Numbers are mainly formed by adding cardinal numbers to the number 5 and by multiplying the numbers 10 , 20 and 100 .
= = Geography and demography = =
Nafaanra is bordered by Kulango languages to the west , while Deg ( a Gur language ) and Gonja ( Kwa ) are found to the north and east . The closest eastern neighbour is the Mande language Ligbi , whose speakers are also called Banda ) which , like Nafaanra , is an outlier to its own family . Southeast and south of Nafaanra and Ligbi , the Akan language Abron ( also Bron or Brong ) is spoken .
The Nafana people live in the north @-@ west corner of the Brong @-@ Ahafo Region of Ghana , concentrated mainly in Sampa ( capital of the Jaman North district ) and Banda . There are two dialectal variants of Nafaanra : Pantera of Banda , and Fantera of Sampa . Bendor @-@ Samuel gives a 79 % cognate relationship on the Swadesh list between the two dialects , meaning that they have many basic words in common . The Banda dialect is considered central . The terms " Fantera " and " Pantera " come from other peoples and are considered pejorative by the Nafana .
The Nafana people say that they come from a village called Kakala in Ivory Coast . Their oral history says that some of their people are still there , and if they go back they will not be allowed to leave again . They arrived in the Banda area after the Ligbi people , who came from Begho ( Bigu , Bighu ) to the area in the early 17th century .
Many Nafana are bilingual in Twi , the regional lingua franca , to some extent . According to SIL , 50 % of the people are able to " satisfy routine social demands and limited requirements in other domains " , while 20 % are able to speak Twi " with sufficient structural accuracy and vocabulary to participate effectively in most formal and informal conversations on practical , social , and occupational topics " . The remaining 30 % are either able to maintain only very simple face @-@ to @-@ face conversations on familiar topics ( 15 % ) or unable to speak Twi at all ( 15 % ) . 15 – 25 % of the Nafana people are literate in Twi , whereas only 1 – 5 % are literate in Nafaanra .
Nafaanra is the second language of the approximately 70 Dompo people living in the close vicinity of Banda . Dompo is their first language , thought to be extinct until a field work trip of Blench in 1998 proved the contrary .
= = = Classification = = =
Maurice Delafosse was the first linguist to mention Nafaanra , calling it " a much dispersed Senufo tribe " in 1904 . Westermann in his classification of West @-@ African languages , also grouped Nafaanra with Senufo , apparently based on the word list found in Rapp . This classification is confirmed by Bendor @-@ Samuel , who bases his internal Senufo classification on the comparative word lists in Swadesh et al .
It is less clear which particular Senufo branch Nafaanra is related to most closely . Bendor @-@ Samuel gives a 60 % cognate relationship on the Swadesh list with " Tenere " ( a western Senari dialect ) , 59 % with " Central Senari " ( the Senari dialect spoken around Korhogo ) , and 43 % with the non @-@ Senufo languages Mo ( or Deg ) , Kabre ( or Kabiye ) , and Dogon . The relatively low scores of about 60 % point to a rather distant relationship . Likewise , Mensah and Tchagbale establish an intercomprensibility factor of 38 % with " Tyebaara " ( Senari ) , concluding that Nafaanra is only distantly related to this dialect . Nafaanra has been tentatively linked to Palaka ( Kpalaga ) by Manessy , whereas Mills suggests a relation with the southern Tagwana – Djimini branch .
= = Sounds = =
= = = Vowels = = =
Nafaanra has seven oral and five nasalized vowels . A difference in vowel length can make a difference in meaning , as in sɛ , " to go " , vs. sɛɛ , " fetish " or o , " we " vs. oo , " we will " . Similarly , the phonemic contrastiveness of nasalization can be seen in sii , " to be giving birth , " vs. sĩĩ , " to build " . The vowel system closely resembles that of other Senufo languages . It is like the two Northern Senufo languages Supyire and Mamara in having only five nasal against seven oral vowels . In the orthography , nasalization of vowels is marked by adding the letter " n " after the vowel .
= = = Consonants = = =
In the table below , orthographic symbols are included between brackets if they differ from the IPA symbols . Note especially the use of " j " for IPA [ ɟ ] and the use of " y " for IPA [ j ] , common in African orthographies .
The consonant system of Nafaanra is fairly similar to that of other Senufo languages . Nafaanra has only one attested palatal fricative , / ç / , occupying an intermediate position between the Northern Senufo languages ( Mamara , Supyire ) that have both / ç / and its voiced counterpart / ʝ / , and the Central and Southern Senufo languages ( e.g. Karaboro , Senari , Djimini ) that have no palatal fricatives at all .
= = = Tone = = =
Like the other Senufo languages , Nafaanra has three contrastive tones : High , Mid and Low . Tone is normally not marked in the Nafaanra orthography . Examples are :
kúfɔ ̀ " yam " ( High @-@ Low )
dama " two pesewas ( coin ) " ( Mid )
màŋà " rope " ( Low )
The Mid tone sometimes has a rising feature , the High tone sometimes is subject to downstep ( a tonal process resulting in a High tone being realised lower than a preceding High tone ) , and an upstep is also found . The " rising feature " of Mid may be related to the fact that two different Mid tones are found in some other Senufo languages ( e.g. Sucite and Supyire ) . The High tone downstep ( signified by a raised exclamation mark ) occurs in the following context :
we ! sɛ ( he FUT go ) " he will go " .
It is likely that the tonal lowering seen in this particular example is related to the low tone nasal prefix found in future tense constructions in some other Senufo languages . In fact , Supyire shows a similar phenomenon in future tense constructions with a direct object ( in other future tense constructions , a low tone nasal is found ) . In general however , downstep is more widespread than in Supyire ; a similar phenomenon is found in Palaka , Tagwana , and Djimini .
An upstep is found in the imperative tense of high tone verbs :
ki tɔ ( it close ) " close it ! "
= = Grammar = =
The Nafaanra syllable comprises a vowel and a maximum of three consonants . A nasal consonant may occur as a syllable on its own , in which case it is called a syllabic nasal . The basic syllable structure can be rendered as ( C1 ) ( C2 ) V ( C3 ) , with a preference for CV and CVV . Position C1 may contain any consonant , although word @-@ initial / r / does not occur . Position C2 may contain only trills ( / r / ) or approximants ( / w , l , j / ) . Position C3 may contain only nasals ( / m n ɲ ŋ / ) , in which case the syllable as a whole is nasalized .
Senufo languages have a typical Niger – Congo noun class ( or gender ) system . Suffixes on nouns mark membership of one of the five noun genders . Pronouns , adjectives and copulas reflect the noun gender of the nominal they refer to . Although none of the sources on Nafaanra provides any details , it can be inferred from a brief word list given by Jordan that the Nafaanra noun class system resembles that of other Senufo languages .
The basic word order in Nafaanra is subject – object – verb , as can be seen in the following sentence :
bibilɛ ná pé nya ( boys PAST them see ) " The boys saw them "
= = = Personal pronouns = = =
Jordan lists the following list of pronouns , commenting , " Although the pronoun system appears quite simple , it becomes complicated because all the tenses are shown by a combination of pronoun plus particle . "
= = = Tense and aspect = = =
Tense and aspect in Nafaanra are generally encoded in two places : in preverbal particles and on the verb form . Nafaanra has past , recent past , and future tenses and continuative aspect . In a simple sentence , the order of the various constituents can be rendered as follows : SUBJECT • ( NEGATION ) • ( TENSE ) • ( ASPECT ) • VERB . When the negative suffix -n is present , no fusing of preverbal particles takes place . Nafaanra additionally expresses some tense / aspect matters by use of certain time adverbs and auxiliary verbs .
Past tense is marked by the preverbal particle ná ( high tone , as opposed to the low tone continuative particle ) . Future tense is marked by the particle wè . Simple sentences without a preverbal tense particle are interpreted as recent past ( sometimes called immediate ) . If aspect marking is absent , simple sentences are generally interpreted as completive .
kòfí ná sɛ ́ ( Kofi PAST go @-@ completive ) " Kofi went " — PAST
kòfí wè sɛ ́ ( Kofi FUTURE go @-@ completive ) " Kofi will go " — FUTURE
kòfí sɛ ́ ( Kofi go @-@ completive ) " Kofi just went " — RECENT PAST ( no marking )
Continuative aspect ( sometimes called progressive ) denotes an action that is ongoing or repetitive . Continuative aspect is usually marked both by a preverbal particle nà ( low tone ) and by a change of the verb form . The verb sɛ ́ , " go " used in the sentences below has the continuative form síé . In sentences where both past tense particle ná and continuative particle nà are present , they combine to give the fused particle náà . In sentences in the recent past tense , the preverbal continuative particle is omitted and continuative aspect is shown only on the verb .
kòfí náà síé ( Kofi PAST + CONT go @-@ CONT ) " Kofi was going " — CONT + PAST
kòfí wè nà síé ( Kofi FUT CONT go @-@ CONT ) " Kofi will be going " — CONT + FUTURE
kòfí síé ( Kofi go @-@ CONT ) " Kofi is going " — CONT + RECENT PAST
Two classes of verbs can be differentiated on the basis of their behaviour in aspectually marked sentences . One class of verbs has two aspectually distinct forms , as seen in the above example sentences . Another class of verbs does not distinguish aspect — one and the same form shows up in both completive and continuative aspect . In sentences in the recent past tense , this gives rise to ambiguity since the preverbal continuative particle is omitted there . Thus , the sentence kòfí blú can be interpreted in the following two ways :
kòfí blú ( Kofi swim @-@ CONT ) " Kofi is swimming " — CONT + RECENT PAST
kòfí blú ( Kofi swim @-@ completive ) " Kofi just swam " — RECENT PAST ( no marking )
Considerable fusion takes place between pronominal subjects and the preverbal particles . For example , ná " PAST " fuses with pé , " they " , to produce prá sɛ ́ ( they @-@ PAST go @-@ completive ) , " they went " , and wè " FUTURE " fuses with pé in píè sɛ ́ ( they @-@ FUTURE go @-@ completive ) , " they will go " .
= = = Questions = = =
Questions can be formed in several ways in Nafaanra . Basic yes – no questions are constructed by adding a sentence @-@ final question marker rá . Constituent questions ( sometimes called Wh @-@ questions or question word questions ) are doubly marked . They contain a sentence @-@ initial question word and are marked with a sentence @-@ final question marker hin .
u pan rá ( he come Q ) " Has he come ? " — basic yes – no @-@ question
ŋgi wra nya hin ( what he + PAST see Q ) " What did he see ? " — constituent question
= = = Numbers = = =
The cardinal numbers without tonal marking are presented below ; where possible , the tone pattern is added based on the list in Rapp . Some Supyire correlates are given for comparison . Numbers six to nine are derived by adding the numbers one to four to kɔɔ , " five " , by means of the conjunction na .
The numbers 11 – 19 are formed by adding 1 – 9 to 10 by means of the conjunction mbɔ , e.g. kɛmbɔnunu , " eleven " , kɛmbɔkunɔ , " fifteen " . In the tens and higher , the Nafaanra and Supyire systems diverge . Multiplication of fulo , " twenty , " and addition of kɛ , " ten " , ( by means of the conjunction ná ) is used to form the 30 – 90 tens . Perhaps surprisingly , there are considerable differences between Rapp ( 1933 ) and Jordan ( 1980 ) here . In Rapp 's 60 , 70 and 80 , féle seems to be used to mark ten , which conjoined with 6 , 7 and 8 forms 60 , 70 and 80 .
Rapp ( 1933 ) compares the Nafaanra numerals for three ( táárɛ ) and hundred ( lafaa ) with eta and ke @-@ lafa from Mpre , a hitherto unclassified language from Ghana . It should be noted however that Mpre eta is Kwa @-@ like ( cf . Brong esã , Ga etɛ ) , whereas the Nafaanra form táárɛ is transparently related to the forms found in the other ( non @-@ Kwa ) Senufo languages ( e.g. Supyire tàànrè ) . Nafaanra lafaa " hundred " is a typical Kwa numeral and is most probably borrowed from one of the surrounding Kwa languages ( cf . Dangme làfá , Gonja kì @-@ làfá , Ewe alafá ) . Rapp 's implication of affinity between Mpre and Nafaanra seems therefore unwarranted at this level .
Morphophonological alternations occur here and there , most notably the reduction of kúnɔ , " five " to kɔ ́ ɔ ̀ ( preserving the tone pattern ) and the change from lafaa to lafɛɛ in the hundreds .
= = = Colour words = = =
The three basic colour words of Nafaanra are : wɔɔ , " black " , finge , " white " , and ɲiɛ , " red " . As with adjectives in Senufo languages , the form of the colour words reflects the noun class of the noun that is modified .
wɔɔ — ki wɔ " it is black "
finge — ki fninge " it is white "
ɲiɛ — ki ɲina " it is red "
The cognate forms in closely related Supyire are -ɲyɛ- , " red ; warm colored " , and -fyìn- , " white ; light colored " , in Supyire . These adjectives are related to the respective verbs fíníŋɛ ́ , " be white ; whiten " and ɲááŋá , " be red ; redden " , which in turn are causative forms of the now defunct verbs fini , " be white " and ɲana , " be red " .
= = Sample sentences = =
Sample Nafaanra sentences from the SIL :
mùùrà kà ní čàà mè gbú mè é nyìè tɛ ́ ɛ ́ mè kí lóó
story some I want and @-@ FUTURE beat and @-@ FUTURE your ear put and @-@ FUTURE it hear
" I want to tell a story for you to hear . "
yɛ ́ ngè nà kòmó ǹdrá
true that hyena hide @-@ completive
" It 's true that the hyena hid himself . "
ké bĺè kà kpáhù wá
it day some frog not @-@ there
" On a certain day the frog wasn 't here . "
ẃrè ǹnà pè kúú
he not @-@ CONT them kill @-@ CONT
" He wasn 't killing them . "
ná múúrò ḿnà kàà mà ná yo mà
if fish you @-@ PAST @-@ CONT chew @-@ CONT you @-@ not past say @-@ completive that
" If you had been
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. Miami was made an archdiocese by Pope Paul VI , and was named Metropolitan See for all of Florida . Carroll became an archbishop on March 2 , 1968 . He participated in the church reforms of Vatican II as one of the Council Fathers . During the civil rights struggles of the 60 's , Carroll was influential in stemming threatened racial riots in Miami and in desegregating Catholic schools roughly 10 years before the rest of the State . He became a founder of the Community Relations Board which worked to " quell waves of misunderstanding , discrimination and discontent which often threatened to flood South Florida 's multi @-@ ethnic community . "
Upon the death of Carroll on July 26 , 1977 , Bishop Edward Anthony McCarthy was appointed as Miami 's archbishop . McCarthy oversaw the construction of the Pastoral Center for the archdiocese and restructured most senior operational divisions . He established the Office of Lay Ecclesial Ministry , the Office of Evangelization and the Permanent Diaconate program . In 1980 , he offered support and assistance during the Mariel Boat Lift . The following year , he supported the rights of Haitian immigrants who were detained under the Wet Foot , Dry Foot policy . Responding to the needs of this new immigration , he opened the Pierre Toussaint Haitian Catholic Center . McCarthy retired in 1994 at the required age of 75 .
On November 3 , 1994 , Pope John Paul II appointed John C. Favalora as the third archbishop of Miami . During his tenure , he built two new high schools and nine grade schools . Favalora also initiated the Vision 2000 campaign , a five @-@ year fundraising campaign that created an endowment fund to support Catholic education and outreach institutions in the archdiocese . The effort raised $ 90 million ( USD ) . On July 11 , 2003 , Pope John Paul II appointed Miami auxiliary bishop Thomas Gerard Wenski to lead the Roman Catholic Diocese of Orlando . With substantial immigration of predominantly Catholic South and Central Americans to the South Florida area , the Catholic population there is 25 % of the total population . Waves of immigrants from other parts of the world , including Asian and African countries , have led to Mass being celebrated in over a dozen different languages in parishes throughout the archdiocese .
In 2009 , Father Fernando Isern , of Our Lady of Lourdes , Kendall , was named the next bishop of Pueblo . He is the 11th priest from the archdiocese to be so designated since its creation in 1958 .
On April 20 , 2010 , Pope Benedict XVI accepted the resignation of Archbishop John Favalora eight months early and appointed Bishop Thomas Wenski of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Orlando as his successor . On June 1 , 2010 , Archbishop Wenski was installed as the fourth archbishop of the Archdiocese of Miami at the Cathedral of Saint Mary .
= = Education = =
= = = Schools = = =
As of 2008 , the Archdiocese of Miami provides a parochial school education to almost 40 @,@ 000 students in 60 elementary / middle schools , 13 high schools and two non @-@ residential schools for the disabled located throughout Broward , Miami @-@ Dade and Monroe counties .
The high schools supported by the archdiocese are :
The archdiocese offers religious education classes in all of its 111 parishes for children who attend public and other non @-@ religious schools . According to the 2007 Official Catholic Directory , there were 95 @,@ 837 students enrolled in these classes . This same source lists as teachers 2760 laity , 58 religious sisters , and 43 priests and religious brothers . Religious education classes are also offered to adults throughout the archdiocese . In 1997 , Archbishop Favalora adopted a policy requiring all volunteers , employees , teachers and priests to be fingerprinted and have a background check before they could work with children . Several years later , this policy was enshrined and adopted by all U.S. Bishops in the Charter for Protection of Young People .
= = = Universities = = =
The Archdiocese of Miami oversees and administers the Catholic university of St. Thomas University in Miami . St. Thomas University offers Bachelor of Arts , Master of Arts , Master 's degree , Master of Business Administration , M.Acc. , Doctor of Education , and Doctor of Philosophy. programs through its college and various schools . It offers several joint degree programs and an accelerated B.A. / J.D. as well . The School of Law at St. Thomas was fully accredited by the American Bar Association in February 1995 , and offers the Juris Doctor degree ( J.D. ) as well as the Masters of Law ( LL.M ) .
= = = Seminaries = = =
St. John Vianney College Seminary and St. Vincent de Paul Regional Seminary serve priestly formation needs . Candidates to the Catholic priesthood must have a college degree plus another four to five years of seminary formation . This formation includes not only academic classes but also human , spiritual and pastoral education . St. John Vianney Seminary , which is located in Miami , states as its fundamental purpose " to provide an undergraduate education for students whose stated objective is to serve the Catholic Church as priests " , but it also offers education to lay ministers and to " others who may be enriched by its services " . St. Vincent de Paul Regional Seminary , located in Boynton Beach , offers a master 's degree in Theology and Theological Studies and a First Professional Degree in Divinity and Ministry . Priests serving in the Archdiocese of Miami are required to speak both Spanish and English , and these two seminaries are the only bilingual seminaries in the United States . As of August 2007 , there are 126 seminarians in priestly formation at both seminaries .
= = Catholic Charities of the Archdiocese of Miami = =
Catholic Charities of the Archdiocese of Miami is a separate non @-@ profit organization operated by the Archdiocese of Miami . It is part of a national network of organizations that are operated in each U.S. diocese . This organization claims to be the largest nongovernmental provider of services to the needy in South Florida . It began in 1931 during the Great Depression with four Miami @-@ area pastors and lay members of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul . It employs over 600 staff and operates on an annual budget of over $ 38 million . In 2006 , it served over 17 @,@ 000 families in the tri @-@ county area of Broward , Miami @-@ Dade and Monroe Counties . Some of these services include transitional housing , homeless shelters , elderly day care , child day care , addiction recovery , HIV / AIDS programs , family and school counseling , meals for the elderly and various immigrant and refugee help programs among others .
= = Catholic Health Services = =
Archdiocese of Miami Catholic Health Services operates 26 facilities in Broward and Miami @-@ Dade Counties . According to the 2007 Archdiocese of Miami Official Catholic Directory , the two Catholic hospitals , Mercy Hospital in Miami and Holy Cross Hospital in Ft . Lauderdale , served 1 @,@ 278 @,@ 516 people ; three CHS health care centers served 7 @,@ 896 ; three homes for the aged assisted 2 @,@ 578 senior citizens ; two residential care centers for children served 376 ; seven day @-@ care centers served 1 @,@ 885 ; two specialized homes assisted 383 ; twelve special centers for social services served 81 @,@ 320 ; and eleven other institutions served 1 @,@ 432 people in 2007 . Catholic Hospice Care is a partnership between the Archdiocese of Miami and Mercy Hospital . It provides end of life care to terminally ill patients and their families throughout Miami @-@ Dade and Monroe counties . Catholic Health Services also operates two Catholic cemeteries , Our Lady Queen of Heaven in Broward County and Our Lady of Mercy in Miami @-@ Dade .
= = Outreach = =
= = = Lay movements and ministries = = =
Over 60 movements and ministries are run by laity ( those who are not ordained priests or religious brothers and sisters ) , " There may be hundreds more ... " according to Miami auxiliary bishop Felipe Estevez . There are 17 categories of ministries listed under the archdiocese Office of Lay Apostolate are : Airport Ministry , Apostleship of the Sea , Ascending Life , Campus ministry , Charismatic Renewal , Courage Ministry ( " Ministry to Persons With Same @-@ Sex Attraction " ) , Council of Catholic Women , Cursillo , Family Life , Knights of Columbus , Lay ministry , Lay movements , Marian movements , Missions , Prison ministry , Respect Life , and Youth Ministries . Some other lay movements and ministries include various prayer and support groups , an Emmaus , and groups which provide worship , social and religious formation for men , women and teenagers . Some parishes provide groups for single Catholics , divorced or separated people , drug and alcohol addiction help , learning Spanish or English as a second language and parish outreach services to the poor and needy through parish pantries and need @-@ specific donor drives .
The archdiocese also supports , in conjunction with other Christian communities , two pro @-@ life crisis pregnancy centers which provide aid to pregnant women and encourage them not to have abortions . A post @-@ abortion counseling program called Project Rachel is also provided .
= = = Retreats = = =
Morning Star Renewal Center is a retreat house operated by lay people with the support of the archdiocese . The center provides facilities for group retreats and offers spiritual formation activities year round . Facilities include a 60 guest capacity , a conference room , a chapel , and overnight and cafeteria accommodations .
= = = Charities = = =
Several Charities are run by the archdiocese and staffed by both employees and volunteers . These include Camillus House , Catholic Legal Services , an HIV / AIDS shelter , the Missionaries of Charity , Society of Saint Vincent de Paul , and social advocacy groups .
= = Media = =
The archdiocese uses several types of media to fulfill its evangelization efforts :
= = = Radio ministry = = =
Radio Paz is a Spanish @-@ language radio ministry of the Archdiocese of Miami founded in December 1990 . In South Florida , it is broadcast on WACC 830 AM . Radio Peace — the sister station of Radio Paz — is an English @-@ language radio ministry founded in January 1993 and broadcast on WLVJ 1040 AM . These stations also broadcast over the Internet at RadioPeace.org. The stations were founded by Archdiocese of Miami priest Fr . Federico Capdepon , who envisioned a radio station " to respond to the call of Pope John Paul II to evangelize through the media . "
= = = Newspaper = = =
A localized version of the Florida Catholic newspaper is published 26 times a year . Each issue contains a message from the Archbishop , spiritual reflections on the scripture readings for the week , news reporting on various events happening around the archdiocese and the world , and a digest of upcoming events featured around the archdiocese among other features . The newspaper is also published online . A series produced for the Miami edition entitled " Building the City of God " which profiles the personal side of priests won a Communicator Award of Distinction for print media " Marketing / Promotion / Campaign " .
= = = Television = = =
One part of Communications office of the archdiocese is television and video production . English and Spanish masses air Sundays on local television stations . Additionally , the television center produces content for the internet and video . One video , entitled " Walking in the Light of Christ , " received a Videographer Award of Excellence from the Association of Marketing and Communication Professionals .
= = Leadership = =
= = = Archbishops = = =
Bishop ( later Archbishop ) Coleman Carroll ( 1958 – 1977 )
Archbishop Edward Anthony McCarthy ( 1977 – 1994 )
Archbishop John Favalora ( 1994 – 2010 )
Archbishop Thomas Wenski ( since 2010 )
= = = Auxiliary bishops = = =
Bishop Norbert Dorsey ( 1986 – 1990 ) ; appointed Bishop of Orlando
Bishop Felipe Estévez ( 2004 @-@ 2011 ) ; appointed Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine , Florida , on Wednesday , April 27 , 2011
Bishop Gilberto Fernandez ( 1997 @-@ 2002 ) ; resigned
Bishop John Fitzpatrick ( 1968 – 1971 ) ; appointed Bishop of Brownsville
Bishop René Gracida ( 1968 – 1975 ) ; appointed Bishop of Pensacola @-@ Tallahassee
Bishop John Nevins ( 1979 – 1984 ) ; appointed Bishop of Venice , Florida
Bishop John Noonan ( 2005 @-@ 2010 ) ; appointed Bishop of Orlando
Bishop Agustin Roman ( 1979 @-@ 2013 ) ; retired
Bishop Thomas Wenski ( 1997 – 2003 ) ; appointed Coadjutor Bishop of Orlando ; served as Bishop of Orlando before returning in 2010 as Archbishop of Miami
Bishop Peter Baldacchino ( 2014 – present )
= = = Priests of the diocese who became bishops = = =
Ambrose De Paoli appointed nuncio , and titular Archbishop , in 1983
Fernando Isern appointed Bishop of Pueblo in 2009
Robert Nugent Lynch appointed Bishop of Saint Petersburg , Florida in 1996
= Thomas F. Bayard =
Thomas Francis Bayard ( October 29 , 1828 – September 28 , 1898 ) was an American lawyer , politician , and diplomat from Wilmington , Delaware . A Democrat , he served three terms as United States Senator from Delaware and made three unsuccessful bids for the Democratic nomination for President of the United States . In 1885 , President Grover Cleveland appointed him Secretary of State . After four years in private life , he returned to the diplomatic arena as Ambassador to the United Kingdom .
Born in Delaware to a prominent family , Bayard learned politics from his father , James A. Bayard , Jr . , who also served in the Senate . In 1869 , the Delaware legislature elected Bayard to the Senate upon his father 's retirement . A Peace Democrat during the Civil War , Bayard spent his early years in the Senate in opposition to Republican policies , especially the Reconstruction of the defeated Confederacy . His conservatism extended to financial matters , as he became known as a staunch supporter of the gold standard and an opponent of greenbacks and silver coinage , which he believed would cause inflation . Bayard 's conservative politics made him popular in the South and with Eastern financial interests , but never popular enough to obtain the Democratic nomination for President , which he attempted to win in 1876 , 1880 , and 1884 .
In 1885 , President Cleveland appointed Bayard Secretary of State . Bayard worked with Cleveland to promote American trade in the Pacific while avoiding the acquisition of colonies at a time when many Americans clamored for them . He sought increased cooperation with Great Britain , working to resolve disputes over fishing and seal @-@ hunting rights in the American @-@ Canadian border waters . As ambassador , Bayard continued to strive for Anglo @-@ American friendship . This brought him into conflict with his successor at the State Department , Richard Olney , when Olney and Cleveland demanded more aggressive diplomatic overtures than Bayard wished in the Venezuela Crisis of 1895 . His term at the American embassy ended in 1897 , and he died the following year .
= = Early life and family = =
Thomas F. Bayard was born in Wilmington , Delaware in 1828 , the second son of James A. Bayard , Jr. and Anne née Francis . The Bayard family was prominent in Delaware : Bayard 's father would be elected to the United States Senate in 1851 . Among Thomas Bayard 's ancestors were his grandfather , James A. Bayard , also a Senator ; and great @-@ grandfather , Richard Bassett , who served as Senator from , and Governor of , Delaware . Several other relatives served in high office , including Bayard 's uncle , Richard H. Bayard , another Delaware Senator , and his great @-@ great @-@ uncle , Nicholas Bayard , who was Mayor of New York City . On his mother 's side , Bayard descended from Philadelphia lawyer and financier Tench Francis , Jr .
Thomas Bayard was educated in private academies in Wilmington and , after his father moved to New York City for business reasons , in Flushing , New York . James Bayard returned to Delaware in 1843 , but Thomas remained in New York , working as a clerk in the mercantile firm of his brother @-@ in @-@ law , August Schermerhorn . In 1846 , his father secured him a job in a banking firm in Philadelphia , and Bayard worked there for the next two years . Bayard was unsatisfied with his progress at the firm , and returned to Wilmington to read law at his father 's office .
Bayard was admitted to the bar in 1851 , the year his father was elected to the United States Senate . Thomas took on greater responsibilities in the family law office , and rose quickly in the legal profession . In 1853 , after the election of a Democratic president , Franklin Pierce , Thomas Bayard was appointed United States Attorney for Delaware . He spent only a year in the position before moving to Philadelphia to open a practice with his friend William Shippen , a partnership that lasted until Shippen 's death in 1858 . While in Philadelphia , Bayard met Louise Lee , whom he married in October 1856 . The marriage produced twelve children .
= = Civil War and Reconstruction = =
Thomas Bayard 's return to Wilmington in 1858 brought greater involvement in the political scene . James Bayard was a delegate to the 1860 Democratic National Convention , and Thomas attended with him . The elder Bayard supported Robert M. T. Hunter of Virginia for the nomination . When the convention deadlocked and the Southern Democrats split from the main party , James Bayard adhered to the regular Democrats , but told Thomas that he thought the nominee , Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois , was untrustworthy . The subsequent election of Republican Abraham Lincoln and secession of the seven states of the Deep South led both Bayards to fear for the future of the Union , and the elder Bayard to propose a convention of all the states to resolve their differences . In the meantime , as four more Southern states seceded , James Bayard encouraged his son to help organize an independent militia unit , the Delaware Guard ; Thomas Bayard was commissioned as its First Lieutenant .
In 1860 , Delaware occupied an unusual position in the free state @-@ slave state divide ; nominally a slave state , Delaware 's slave population had been in steep decline for decades and represented just 1 @.@ 6 % of the state 's people . Opinion on secession was mixed in Delaware , but the Bayards were Peace Democrats and leaned to the Southern perspective . They blamed the war on abolitionist Republicans and believed that secession , while unwise , should not be suppressed with military force . Thomas Bayard spoke at a public meeting in Dover in June 1861 , saying that " with this secession , or revolution , or rebellion , or by whatever name it may be called , the State of Delaware has naught to do . " Even after the Civil War 's first battles erupted in Virginia , Bayard continued to hope for peace . By early 1862 , the Delaware Guard came under suspicion of Southern sympathies , and Major General Henry du Pont , commander of the state militia , ordered it disarmed . When Bayard refused to comply , he was briefly arrested before being released on parole .
Bayard 's father was reelected to the Senate in 1862 , but resigned shortly thereafter in protest of the new oath of office , which demanded that Senators swear they had never borne arms against the United States nor given aid and encouragement to its enemies . Bayard and his father continued in private law practice through the war . Both were pleased with the Democrats ' peace platform in 1864 , but disappointed in the choice of nominee , Major General George B. McClellan , a War Democrat . In 1866 , Thomas Bayard successfully represented four South Carolinians in habeas corpus cases against the military . The following year , Senator George R. Riddle died and the legislature elected James Bayard to fill the remainder of the term , which ended in 1869 .
Thomas Bayard became more politically active , speaking at a public meeting in September 1867 against constitutional proposals for ending racial discrimination in voting rights . The following year , he condemned the impeachment proceedings against President Andrew Johnson , who had succeeded to the presidency in 1865 after Lincoln 's assassination and had threatened the Republican Congress 's plans for Reconstruction of the Southern states . Both Bayards attended the 1868 Democratic National Convention and , although they were unenthusiastic about the nominee , Horatio Seymour , supported the unsuccessful ticket that fall .
= = United States Senator = =
= = = Reaction to Reconstruction = = =
James Bayard retired from the Senate when his term ended in 1869 , and the legislature elected his son to the seat with little opposition . Thomas Bayard entered a Senate in which his fellow Democrats were greatly outnumbered by Republicans ; the new president , Ulysses S. Grant , was also a Republican . In the Reconstruction Era , Bayard took up the cause of the defeated South , speaking against the continued military rule of the conquered states and advocating a return to civilian ( and conservative ) government . He protested the requirement that readmitted Southern states ratify the Fourteenth Amendment , which guaranteed equal protection of the laws to all Americans . Bayard also inveighed against the continued presence of federal troops in the South . He spoke against each of the three Enforcement Acts , which increased the federal government 's power to protect black Southerners ' civil and political rights in the face of rising violence by the Ku Klux Klan and other groups .
Although his protests were to little effect , Bayard continued to voice opposition to the majority party 's plans for reconstructing the South . In 1871 , he was named to a joint committee sent by Congress to investigate conditions in the South . The committee , like the Congress , had a Republican majority , and their report detailed many of the Klan 's outrages against the newly freed slaves . Bayard dissented , questioning the veracity of the witnesses ' testimony and stating that there were few incidents of lawlessness and that the South was generally at peace . The majority disagreed , and their findings were the basis for the Third Enforcement Act later that year .
As more Democrats returned to the Senate , and as Republican goals shifted elsewhere , Bayard 's ideas gained some traction , but were still largely in vain . In 1873 , the Senate passed a resolution he introduced that demanded that Grant disclose how much government money was being expended in enforcing Reconstruction laws in the South , and to whom it was paid ; the President ignored the resolution . The next year , Bayard opposed a Republican bill authorizing federal supervision of the upcoming election in Louisiana , attacking the Republican administration there as corrupt ; he was unsuccessful , and the election was supervised by federal troops . He spoke forcefully against the proposed Civil Rights Act of 1875 , which was to be the last such act for nearly a century . Again , he was unsuccessful and the bill , which guaranteed equal treatment in public accommodations regardless of race , passed Congress and became law . Although ultimately unsuccessful , Bayard 's actions endeared him to his conservative constituents , and he was elected to another six @-@ year term in 1874 .
= = = Specie resumption = = =
From the start of his congressional career , Bayard was an advocate of hard money , i.e. , a dollar backed by gold . During the Civil War , Congress had authorized a new form of currency , redeemable not in specie ( gold or silver coin ) but in 6 % government bonds . These United States Notes , popularly known as " greenbacks , " had helped to finance the war when the government 's gold supply did not keep pace with the expanding costs of maintaining the armies . When the crisis had passed , many in Congress ( including Bayard ) wanted to return the nation 's currency to a gold standard as soon as possible . The process of retiring the greenbacks had already begun when Bayard was elected , but stopped when many congressmen thought the fiscal contraction too severe , and likely to be harmful to the economy . In 1869 , Congress passed the Public Credit Act of 1869 , which required that the government pay its bond holders in gold , not greenbacks . Bayard thought the bill not strong enough , since it did not require removing greenbacks from circulation , and he voted against it .
In 1873 , a business depression ( known as the Panic of 1873 ) , increased the pressure for retaining greenbacks , as some in Congress believed that inflating the currency would ease the economic problems . Grant 's Treasury Secretary , William Adams Richardson , reissued $ 26 million of the redeemed greenbacks , reversing the administration 's previous policy of removing them from circulation . This ignited a four @-@ month debate in the Senate over whether and when the government should return to backing all of its currency with gold — including the remaining greenbacks . The majority , including Bayard , favored resumption , but in wording the resolution that passed the Senate , Republican John Sherman of Ohio left vague the exact timing ; Bayard feared it would be put off indefinitely . The Sherman bill also proposed to remove greenbacks from circulation by exchanging them for bonds payable in gold ; in response , Bayard proposed an amendment limiting the amount of debt the government could incur . When the amendment was rejected , Bayard voted against the bill ( known as the Specie Payment Resumption Act , ) believing that it was likely to cause inflation .
= = = Election of 1876 = = =
Bayard 's popularity with his party had grown during his time in the Senate , and by 1875 he was seen as a contender for the presidency . His advocacy of hard money had won him friends in some of the Northern cities , and his stance against Reconstruction made him popular throughout the South . Competing for those same factions of the Democratic party was New York governor Samuel J. Tilden , who had gained national fame for fighting the political corruption of William M. Tweed 's Tammany Hall machine in New York City . Other contenders included Governor Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana and Major General Winfield Scott Hancock . Tilden 's wealth and national renown helped gather delegates to his cause , and in June 1876 , he entered the convention with 404 ½ votes ; Bayard placed fifth with 33 . Tilden was nominated on the second ballot .
Displeased with the result , Bayard nonetheless supported the Democratic nominee against Governor Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio , the Republican candidate , speaking to large crowds in cities across the North and Midwest . On election day , the vote was close , but appeared to favor a Tilden victory . Three days later , Tilden looked to have won 184 electoral votes , one short of a majority , while Hayes appeared to have 166 votes , with the votes of Florida , Louisiana , and South Carolina still in doubt . Each party sent their people to observe the vote in the disputed states . Abram Hewitt , chairman of the Democratic National Committee , asked Bayard to travel to Louisiana along with several others , but Bayard refused to go .
The counts of the disputed ballots were inconclusive , with each state producing two sets of returns , one signed by Democratic officials , the other by Republicans , each claiming victory for their man . There was debate about which person or house of Congress was authorized to decide between the competing slates of electors , with the Republican Senate and the Democratic House each claiming priority . By January 1877 , with the question still unresolved , Congress and President Grant agreed to submit the matter to a bipartisan Electoral Commission , which would be authorized to determine the fate of the disputed electoral votes . Bayard supported the idea , and visited Tilden in New York to convince him that it was the only alternative to stalemate and possible renewed civil war . The bill passed , with Bayard 's vote , and provided for a commission of five representatives , five senators , and five Supreme Court justices . To ensure partisan balance , there would be seven Democrats and seven Republicans ; the fifteenth member was to be a Supreme Court justice chosen by the other four on the commission ( themselves two Republicans and two Democrats ) . Justice David Davis , an independent respected by both parties , was expected to be their choice . Bayard was among the seven Democrats chosen .
Davis upset the careful planning by accepting election to the Senate by the state of Illinois and refusing to serve on the commission . The remaining Supreme Court justices were all Republicans and , with the addition of Justice Joseph P. Bradley to the place intended for Davis , the commission had an 8 @-@ 7 Republican majority . The commission met and considered all of the disputed ballots , awarding each to Hayes by an 8 @-@ 7 party @-@ line vote . Bayard and his fellow Democrats were outraged , and the Democratic majority in the House threatened to filibuster to prevent the results from being accepted . As the March 4 inauguration day approached , leaders of both parties met at Wormley 's Hotel in Washington to negotiate a compromise . Republicans promised that , in exchange for Democratic acquiescence in the Committee 's decision , Hayes would order federal troops to withdraw from the South and accept the election of Democratic governments in the remaining " unredeemed " states there . The Democrats agreed and the filibuster ended . Tilden later blamed Bayard , among others , for his role in creating the Electoral Commission , but Bayard defended his position , believing that the only alternative to the result was civil war .
= = = Gold standard = = =
In 1873 , Congress had passed a Coinage Act that regulated which coins were legal tender . The list of legal coins duplicated that of the previous coinage act , leaving off only the silver dollar and three smaller coins . The rationale in the Treasury report accompanying the draft bill was that to mint a gold dollar and a silver dollar with different intrinsic values was problematic ; as the silver dollar did not circulate and the gold did , it made sense to drop the unused coin . The bill passed easily , with Bayard 's support , but quickly thereafter became unpopular . Opponents of the bill would later call this omission the " Crime of ' 73 , " and would mean it literally , circulating tales of bribery of Congressmen by foreign agents .
Over the next few years , pressure to reintroduce silver coinage grew , and cut across party lines . In 1877 , Republican Senator Stanley Matthews of Ohio introduced a resolution to pay the national debt in silver instead of gold . Bayard joined several Republicans in speaking and voting against the measure , calling it " folly , " but it passed the Senate 42 to 20 . Meanwhile , Democrat Richard P. Bland of Missouri furthered the silver cause from the House , proposing a free silver bill that would require the United States buy as much silver as miners could sell the government and strike it into coins , a system that would increase the money supply and aid debtors . In short , silver miners would sell the government metal worth fifty to seventy cents , and receive back a silver dollar . William B. Allison , a pro @-@ silver Republican from Iowa , offered an amendment in the Senate requiring the purchase of two to four million dollars per month of silver , but not allowing private deposit of silver at the mints . Thus , the seignorage , or difference between the face value of the coin and the worth of the metal contained within it accrued to the government 's credit , not private citizens . Bayard saw the whole effort as the path to inflation and economic ruin . Again , he spoke against the bill , but like the Matthews resolution , the Bland – Allison Act passed both houses of Congress in 1878 . President Hayes shared Bayard 's fear of inflation , and vetoed the bill , but Congress mustered the two @-@ thirds vote necessary to overturn the veto , and it became law .
= = = Clashes with Hayes = = =
The elections of 1878 returned control of both houses of Congress to the Democrats for the first time since before the Civil War . The new Democratic majority passed an army appropriation bill in 1879 with a rider that repealed the Enforcement Acts . Those Acts , passed during Reconstruction , made it a crime to prevent someone from voting because of his race and allowed the use of federal troops to supervise elections . Bayard supported the effort , which passed both houses and sent to the President . Hayes was determined to preserve the law to protect black voters , and he vetoed the appropriation . Bayard spoke in favor of the bill , believing the time had come to end the military 's involvement in Southern politics . The Democrats did not have enough votes to override the veto , but they passed a new bill with the same rider . Hayes vetoed this as well , and the process was repeated three times more . Finally , Hayes signed an appropriation without the rider , but Congress refused to pass another bill to fund federal marshals , who were vital to the enforcement of the Force Acts . The election laws remained in effect , but the funds to enforce them were cut off .
Bayard also clashed with Hayes on the issue of Chinese immigration . In 1868 , the Senate had ratified the Burlingame Treaty with China , allowing an unrestricted flow of Chinese immigrants into the country . As the economy soured after the Panic of 1873 , Chinese immigrants were blamed for depressing workmen 's wages . During the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 , anti @-@ Chinese riots broke out in San Francisco , and a third party , the Workingman 's Party , was formed with an emphasis on stopping Chinese immigration . Bayard favored some restriction on Chinese immigration and voted in favor of a Chinese Exclusion Act in 1879 , which passed both houses that year . Hayes vetoed the bill , believing that the United States should not abrogate treaties without negotiation . The veto drew praise among eastern liberals , but Hayes was bitterly denounced in the West . After the veto , Assistant Secretary of State Frederick W. Seward suggested that both countries work together to reduce immigration . Congress passed a new law to that effect , the Chinese Exclusion Act , in 1882 . Bayard supported this new act , which became law with President Chester A. Arthur 's signature that year .
= = = Election of 1880 = = =
As the election of 1880 drew near , Bayard was again regarded as a likely candidate . Hayes had pledged himself to a one @-@ term presidency , which meant the Republicans would not have the advantage of incumbency . On the Democratic side , Tilden was regarded as the natural choice , as many Democrats were still convinced he had been robbed of the office in 1876 . Tilden 's supporters saw Bayard as a rival , and sought to smear him by suggesting he had colluded with Republicans to defeat Tilden in 1876 . Meanwhile , in the House , Tilden supporter Clarkson Nott Potter of New York began an investigation into the 1876 election , hoping that evidence of Republican malfeasance would harm that party 's candidate in 1880 . In fact , the Potter committee 's investigation had the opposite effect , uncovering telegrams from Tilden 's nephew , William Tilden Pelton , that offered bribes to Southern Republicans in the disputed states to help Tilden claim their votes . The telegrams doomed Tilden 's hopes for the nomination , and boosted Bayard 's chance among the erstwhile Tilden supporters .
As Tilden 's star began to fade , many Democrats looked to Bayard . He remained popular in the Eastern cities for his conservatism and hard money beliefs , but many in the South , including Senator Augustus Hill Garland of Arkansas , advised Bayard to embrace silver to help halt the defections of Southern and Western Democrats to the new Greenback Party . Bayard declined to do so . He was also reluctant to strike a deal with John Kelly of New York , whose
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the band 's obsessed — and only — fan . Meanwhile , Murray ( Rhys Darby ) , the band 's manager , helps the band film their first music video , although they cannot afford decent costumes or proper video equipment .
" Sally " received largely positive reviews from critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Sally " drew over 1 @.@ 2 million viewers . Several of the songs from the episode , most notably " Robots " , " Not Crying " , and " Most Beautiful Girl ( In the Room ) " received positive critical acclaim . All three songs were released on the band 's EP The Distant Future , although " Robots " appeared in a live form . " Robots " later was re @-@ recorded and released on the band 's debut album Flight of the Conchords , along with " Most Beautiful Girl ( In the Room ) . " The latter was later nominated for an Emmy award for Outstanding Original Music And Lyrics .
= = Plot = =
Jemaine ( Jemaine Clement ) and Bret ( Bret McKenzie ) attend a party thrown by their friend Dave ( Arj Barker ) . In the crowd Jemaine spots a beautiful woman , Sally ( Rachel Blanchard ) , inspiring him to sing " Most Beautiful Girl ( In the Room ) " . Jemaine and Sally leave the party and eventually go back to the band 's apartment , but just as they begin kissing , Bret disturbs them by turning on the light , and an embarrassed Sally leaves . The next morning , Jemaine blames her departure on " the whole situation with the light " . However , Bret suggests it was because he used to date her himself .
Bret and Jemaine go to a band meeting with their manager Murray ( Rhys Darby ) in his office in the New Zealand Consulate . Murray criticizes Jemaine for dating his bandmate 's ex , and discusses the need to increase the group 's fan base , which currently consists of only one person : the obsessive Mel ( Kristen Schaal ) . Bret suggests they film a music video . However , unable to afford real video equipment and robot costumes like Daft Punk , they are forced to rely on a camera phone and disappointing cardboard costumes made by Murray . Regardless , they manage to film a video for " Robots " .
Over the following week , Jemaine spends more time with Sally , leaving Bret feeling lonely and neglected . When Bret suggests hanging out sometime , Jemaine invites him along on a dinner date with Sally , but they all feel a " bit weird " and Bret leaves early . On the way home , Mel tries to cheer him up but fails miserably . Immediately after dinner , Sally breaks up with Jemaine , leading him to sing " Not Crying " with Bret .
= = Production = =
" Sally " was written by series co @-@ creators James Bobin , Jemaine Clement , and Bret McKenzie , the latter two starring as the titular Flight of the Conchords . Bobin directed the episode . The episode is the first of the series to feature Rachel Blanchard as Sally . The character returns to disrupt Bret and Jemaine 's lives in the fifth episode , " Sally Returns " . In " Sally " , the character Mel shows Bret that she carries around a picture of Jemaine 's lips in her wallet . This was inspired by an incident that happened to the band during the filming of their documentary A Texan Odyssey which covered their trip to the 2006 South by Southwest ( SXSW ) festival in Austin , Texas . The incident was caught on camera and is included in the documentary . Judah Friedlander has a cameo appearance in this episode , playing the role of the man who tries to sell Dave a cake .
The episode contains several cultural references . Murray is wearing a New Zealand All Blacks rugby shirt when the band is in Dave 's pawn shop obtaining a camera . In the same scene , Murray and Bret have a conversation about the band Fleetwood Mac and their album " Rumours " . Rhys Darby , who played Murray , later asked Mick Fleetwood , the drummer for the band , if he heard the joke and whether or not he enjoyed it . Fleetwood admitted that he " appreciate [ d ] " the joke . During the filming of the video for " Robots " , Jemaine tells Murray that he wanted robot costumes " like Daft Punk " rather than the amateur versions hand @-@ crafted by Murray . Murray replies with a characteristic lack of musical knowledge : " I don 't know who he is . "
= = = Songs = = =
The first song featured in the episode is " The Most Beautiful Girl ( In the Room ) . " The song , also known as " Part @-@ Time Model " , was based on the conceit of a man " who 's not very good at compliments . " The song begins after Jemaine sees Sally from across the room at Dave 's party . Jemaine details his seduction of Sally , describing her as being so beautiful she could be a " part @-@ time model " . This song was voted number 60 in the 2008 Triple J Hottest 100 . Later , the song was nominated for an Emmy award for Outstanding Original Music And Lyrics .
The second song featured in the episode is " Robots " . The song , also known as " Humans Are Dead " , is sung by both Bret and Jemaine . It is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic " distant future " , humorously stated to be the year 2000 , where all humans are dead and robots have taken over the world . Within the context of the plot of the show , it is the band 's first music video . Since the band has very limited funds , Murray constructs the robot costumes himself and films the video using a cell phone .
The third and final song featured is " Not Crying " . The song begins as Sally breaks up with Jemaine . Jemaine denies that he is crying by offering excuses such as " it 's just been raining on my face " . All three of the songs were released on The Distant Future EP in 2007 , however , " The Most Beautiful Girl ( In the Room ) " and " Robots " appeared in live form . The two were subsequently re @-@ recorded in studio form for the band 's debut album , Flight of the Conchords in 2008 .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Sally " debuted on the internet , a month before the show premiered on HBO . The network , in conjunction with MySpace , iTunes , Yahoo ! TV , Movielink , Comcast.net and Roadrunner.com , allowed a promotional version of the episode to be streamed as part of an online marketing campaign to build up word @-@ of @-@ mouth for the series . On television , " Sally " debuted on the HBO in the United States at 10 : 30 PM on Sunday , June 17 , 2007 in the time slot preceded by Entourage , and vacated by the last episode of the final season of The Sopranos . The episode received over 1 @.@ 2 million viewers .
The episode received largely positive reviews from critics . IGN , in an advanced review of the episode , awarded " Sally " an " amazing " 9 @.@ 2 out of 10 rating and called the series " The funniest show you haven 't seen yet . " The review noted that , " Flight of the Conchords deserves the buzz it is slowly building . This is a very funny show . " Blogcritics reviewer Daniel J. Stasiewski noted that the series was different for HBO , writing , " Flight of the Conchords isn ’ t Entourage or Sex in the City or even Extras . It ’ s different . And sometimes different is just good . " Stasiewski , however , did note that the availability of the band 's music on video sites like YouTube meant that watching the series was not worth the cost of a cable subscription . Further more , Stasiweski noted that while " the fun , quirky music videos that pop @-@ up can make this long half @-@ hour worth watching [ ... ] the 10 or so minutes in between numbers aren ’ t groundbreaking comedy . " Chris Schonberger from Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a largely positive review . He called the new series " the funniest hour of comedy on television " and noted that the performance of Rhys Darby as Murray Hewitt was excellent , calling his character " scene @-@ stealing " . Finally , Schonberger positively compared the episode to the 2004 comedy film Napoleon Dynamite , writing , " Indeed , the whole pilot vaguely reminded me of Napoleon in the way that the characters just sort of lurk around and pour their limited energy into absurd activities " .
= History of Liverpool F.C. ( 1892 – 1959 ) =
The history of Liverpool Football Club from 1892 to 1959 covers the period from the club 's foundation , through their first period of success from 1900 to the 1920s , to the appointment of Bill Shankly as manager .
Liverpool Football Club was formed on 15 March 1892 following a disagreement between the directors of Everton Football Club and its president , John Houlding , who owned the club 's ground , Anfield . A dispute over rent resulted in Everton moving to Goodison Park , which left Houlding with an empty stadium . Thus , he founded Liverpool F.C. , and they joined the Lancashire League . After winning the league title in their first season , Liverpool were accepted into the Football League for the 1893 – 94 season , following the resignations of Accrington and Bootle .
The appointment of Tom Watson as the club 's manager in 1896 led to the club 's first period of sustained success . Liverpool consolidated their position in the Football League following promotion to the First Division , and won their first League championship in 1901 . A further championship followed in 1906 , and in 1914 the club reached their first FA Cup final , losing to Burnley . Watson died suddenly in 1915 of pneumonia after the outbreak of the First World War . The club won two further championships in 1922 and 1923 when football resumed after the war .
An expansion to the Spion Kop terracing in the 1920s increased Anfield 's capacity . Liverpool 's fortunes declined during the inter @-@ war years , when the club often finished in midtable . Liverpool became League champions again in 1947 , in the first season after the Second World War , but following a slow downturn in performance the club was relegated to the Second Division in 1954 . By the time of Shankly 's appointment in 1959 , Liverpool had been in the Second Division for five seasons .
= = Formation = =
Liverpool 's origins lie with their neighbours Everton . Founded in 1878 , Everton moved to Anfield in 1884 , a facility owned by the club 's president , John Houlding , a former Lord Mayor of Liverpool . In 1892 a dispute arose between Houlding and the Everton board of directors , over the club 's tenancy of the ground . The annual rent had risen from £ 100 in 1884 to £ 250 in 1892 ; Houlding wanted to sell the ground to the club , which in turn wished to agree a long @-@ term rental . Houlding would only agree to this on the basis of a rent at a level unacceptable to the club . Negotiations having failed , the directors decided to leave Anfield and find another ground , leaving Houlding with an empty stadium . His response was to form a new football club to occupy the stadium . He attempted to retain the team name " Everton " by registering the name " Everton Football Club and Athletic Grounds Company , Limited " with Companies House , but the Football League decided that the name belonged to the departed Everton club , which acquired new premises at Goodison Park . Houlding therefore adopted the name " Liverpool Football Club " for his new venture .
Having established his new club , Houlding applied for membership of the First Division of the Football League , rather than the newly formed Second Division . The League , unimpressed with this premature application , refused to admit the club , which instead joined the Lancashire League . Liverpool played their first match on 1 September 1892 , a pre @-@ season friendly match against Rotherham Town , which they won 7 – 1 . The team Liverpool fielded against Rotherham was composed entirely of Scottish players – manager John McKenna had recruited the players after a scouting trip to Scotland – so they became known as the " team of Macs " . Liverpool 's first match in the Lancashire League , which they won 8 – 0 , was against Higher Walton . 200 spectators attended the match , but as the twenty @-@ two match season proceeded , and Liverpool continued to win , attendances increased . Approximately 2 @,@ 000 people watched Liverpool defeat South Shore in the penultimate match of the season at Anfield .
Liverpool 's first season was successful , as the club narrowly won the Lancashire League title on goal average , over Blackpool . They also won the Liverpool District Cup by defeating Everton . The subsequent theft of the league and cup trophies cost the club £ 130 to replace them . Following their success , Liverpool reapplied to the Football League . This application was successful , mainly because of the resignations of Accrington and Bootle from the Second Division . Liverpool 's original strip had been blue and white chequered shirts and white shorts , similar to those of their neighbours Everton . From 1894 they changed to red shirts and white shorts .
The club 's first match in the Football League was against Middlesbrough Ironopolis on 2 September 1893 , which they won 2 – 0 , with Malcolm McVean scoring Liverpool 's first goal in League football . Liverpool 's first season in the Football League saw them unbeaten in 28 matches , 22 of which they won . They finished at the top of the Second Division , but as at that time there was no automatic promotion to the First Division , they were entered into the test match system . This involved a knockout match with the bottom team in the First Division , Newton Heath ( later renamed Manchester United ) . Liverpool won , and took their place in the First Division . Their stay in the division lasted only a season , as they finished in bottom position , with seven wins from thirty matches . They were relegated to the Second Division , after facing Bury in the test match and losing 1 – 0 , despite Bury playing most of the match with ten men after their goalkeeper was sent off .
= = Consolidation = =
As more people began to watch Liverpool , the ground capacity was expanded . The Main Stand was built , which helped to bring regular attendances of around 20 @,@ 000 . Liverpool 's stay in the Second Division was brief , as they secured promotion to the First Division during the 1895 – 96 season – twelve wins in their final fourteen matches gave them a first @-@ place finish , followed by success in the test matches over Small Heath ( later renamed Birmingham City ) and West Bromwich Albion . The club reached the semi @-@ final of the FA Cup for the first time in the 1896 – 97 season ; they were drawn against Aston Villa , and with Everton in the other semi @-@ final , there was the prospect of a first all @-@ Merseyside cup final . However , while Everton won their tie , Liverpool were defeated 3 – 0 . After winning promotion , the club appointed Tom Watson , who was managing Sunderland , as their new manager . Watson 's record of three League championships in four seasons with Sunderland convinced Houlding to make Watson the highest @-@ paid manager in England , with a yearly salary of £ 300 . Following Watson 's appointment , McKenna remained at the club as an administrator .
During the next two seasons Liverpool consolidated their place in the First Division , with fifth and ninth @-@ place finishes . Performances improved in the 1898 – 99 season , when the club went into their final game with a chance of winning their first League championship . They faced Aston Villa , with whom they were level on points , although Villa 's goal average advantage of 0 @.@ 02 meant that they only needed to draw the match to win the League title . In the event , Villa won 5 – 0 , to leave Liverpool as the runners @-@ up . Liverpool also reached the FA Cup semi @-@ final , where they faced Sheffield United . The match finished in a 2 – 2 draw ; the first replay at Burnden Park also finished with the sides equal at 4 – 4 , and a second replay at the small Fallowfield Stadium was abandoned when overcrowding caused fans to spill onto the pitch . The tie was finally decided at the Baseball Ground , which Sheffield United won 1 – 0 .
Liverpool won their first League championship in 1901 . Integral to their success were their captain Alex Raisbeck , and striker Sam Raybould . Raisbeck , a centre @-@ half , had been signed from Hibernian in 1898 . He became club captain a year later , and was often the focal point of the team , as an important defensive player and the instigator of many of Liverpool 's attacks . Raybould was signed from local club New Brighton Tower , and in the 1899 – 1900 season scored seven times as the club won nine of their last eleven matches , to finish in tenth place . He would go on to score 128 goals in 226 matches for Liverpool . Success in the 1900 – 01 season looked unlikely in February , at which point Liverpool had lost eight games and conceded 31 goals . However , they won nine and drew three of their next twelve matches , while only conceding four goals , to achieve their first League title . They were less successful in the following two seasons , finishing in eleventh and fifth places respectively . The 1903 – 04 season saw the club relegated to the Second Division ; like the previous relegation it was only for one year as they won the division the following season . On their return in the 1905 – 06 season they became the first team to win the Second and First Division in successive seasons . They also reached the semi @-@ final of the FA Cup , where they faced Everton and lost 2 – 0 .
Houlding died in 1902 , and in 1905 the ownership of the club was restructured . Of the existing 3 @,@ 000 shares , 2 @,@ 000 were held by the Houlding family . The club owed a debt of £ 10 @,@ 000 to Houlding , and a further £ 5 @,@ 000 bank overdraft was guaranteed by his family . The family offered to give up the 2 @,@ 000 shares and wipe out the debt , if the club relieved them of the bank loan guarantee . The board agreed , and a new share issue was released in 1906 with 15 @,@ 000 shares available for £ 1 each . Following the share issue , McKenna became chairman of the club .
Following the club 's successes , a new stand was erected along the Walton Breck Road end of the ground . The stand became known as the Spion Kop – it was originally given this name by local journalist Ernest Edwards , the sports editor of the Liverpool Daily Post and the Echo , after a famous hill in South Africa , where a local regiment had suffered heavy losses during the Boer War . More than 300 men had died , many of them from Liverpool , as the British army attempted to capture the strategic hilltop .
In the seasons following their second league title , Liverpool enjoyed limited success , generally finishing in midtable . They finished in second place behind Aston Villa in the 1909 – 10 season , the last for their captain , Raisbeck , who returned to his native Scotland to play for Partick Thistle . Liverpool 's form declined after his departure , with their best performance in the League a 12th @-@ place finish in the 1912 – 13 season . There was improvement in 1914 when the club reached their first FA Cup final , which they lost 1 – 0 to Burnley at Crystal Palace.The following season four Liverpool players were implicated in the 1915 British football betting scandal , which involved a match with Manchester United . A 2 – 0 victory for United was required to win the bet , in which players from both sides were involved . With the score at 2 – 0 , Liverpool 's Fred Pagnam hit the crossbar with a shot , at which several of his teammates gestured angrily towards him . Subsequently , Tom Fairfoul , Tom Miller , Bob Pursell and Jackie Sheldon were found guilty by a Football Association ( FA ) enquiry of conspiring with three Manchester United players ( Sandy Turnbull , Arthur Whalley and Enoch West ) to fix a United win . All the players involved were banned for life . Following the end of the First World War , in which Turnbull was killed at the Battle of Arras in 1917 , the FA lifted the surviving players ' bans in recognition of their service in the conflict .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
Three weeks after visiting his hometown of Newcastle to celebrate his 56th birthday , Liverpool 's manager Tom Watson developed a severe chill , which developed into pneumonia . He died on 6 May 1915 ; Raisbeck and two other former Liverpool stars , Ned Doig and Arthur Goddard , were pallbearers at the funeral .
During the First World War , with normal Football League activity suspended , Liverpool competed in a regional league , the Lancashire Section . The competition was split into two parts : " Principal Tournament " and the " Supplementary Competition " . Liverpool won the former in the 1916 – 17 season , and the latter in the 1917 – 18 and 1918 – 19 seasons . A number of Liverpool players fought in the war , including Philip Bratley , Robert Crawford and Wilfred Bartrop . Bartrop was the only one to be killed , dying on 7 November 1918 while fighting in Belgium .
When football resumed after the war for the 1919 – 20 season , Watson 's post as manager was taken by David Ashworth . Liverpool finished in fourth place . During the season George V became the first reigning monarch to watch a League match , when Liverpool played Manchester City . Liverpool repeated their fourth @-@ place finish in 1920 – 21 , before regaining the League championship in the 1921 – 22 season . Liverpool had looked certain title winners , before the loss of three of their last six games put their chances in doubt . A 4 – 1 victory over West Bromwich Albion in the last match of the season was enough to secure Liverpool 's third League championship .
Ashworth left Liverpool midway through the following season , to manage Oldham Athletic – he wished to be closer to his wife and daughter , who lived in nearby Stockport . His replacement was the former Liverpool player Matt McQueen , a club director . McQueen was intended as a temporary appointment , but he kept the job as Liverpool retained the League championship . This success owed much to the form of their goalkeeper Elisha Scott , who conceded only 31 goals during the season , a league record at the time . Liverpool 's total of 60 points in the season equalled the record set by West Bromwich Albion three seasons earlier . Following their successive championships , Liverpool 's fortunes declined as their side aged . Some of the players had begun their careers before the war ; goalkeeper Scott had been in the side since 1912 . The club began the 1923 – 24 season aiming to win three league titles in a row , but finished in twelfth place . They achieved fourth place the following season , which was to be their best finish until after the Second World War . Changes to the offside rule in the 1925 – 26 season resulted in an increase in the number of goals scored during matches . Liverpool contributed to this , with big victories over Manchester United and Newcastle United , but could only manage a seventh @-@ place finish .
In 1920 , the Kop had been redesigned and extended to hold 30 @,@ 000 spectators , all standing . At the time , the Kop was the biggest football stand in the country , able to hold more spectators than the entire capacity of some grounds . The increase in spectators did not fully restore Liverpool 's fortunes ; they scored 90 goals during the 1928 – 29 season , striker Gordon Hodgson scoring thirty of them , yet finished in fifth place . McQueen was unable to replicate his early triumphs with the club , and retired in 1928 after his leg was amputated following a road accident . He was replaced as manager by club secretary George Patterson . The club 's fortunes did not improve under Patterson 's leadership ; they generally finished midtable . Their results were inconsistent ; in September 1930 , they lost 7 – 0 at West Ham United , yet nine days later they beat Bolton Wanderers 7 – 2 at Anfield .
During the 1930s Liverpool 's form continued to deteriorate , and they avoided relegation in the 1933 – 34 season by only four points . Scott left the club at the end of what had been a poor season for the veteran goalkeeper . In ten matches from the start of 1934 , Liverpool won only once with Scott in goal , and after a 9 – 2 defeat against Newcastle United , he was replaced by Arthur Riley . The change of goalkeepers brought an upturn in form , with a 6 – 2 victory over Birmingham City and a 4 – 1 win against Middlesbrough . Scott , who joined Belfast Celtic after 24 years at Liverpool , remains the club 's longest @-@ serving player . As they became used to finishing in the lower part of the league table , Liverpool began to lose their best players . Hodgson , who had scored 233 goals in 358 league games , was sold to Aston Villa in 1936 and the club struggled to replace him . They finished 19th in the season following his departure . Also in 1936 , Patterson resigned as manager for health reasons , and resumed his role as the club 's secretary . His replacement , Southampton manager George Kay , did not initially fare much better ; Liverpool narrowly avoided relegation in the 1936 – 37 season , and finished in 11th place in each of the following two seasons . By the outbreak of the Second World War , Liverpool had become accustomed to finishing midtable .
Soon after the outbreak of war in 1939 , the 1939 – 40 season was cancelled and all first @-@ class football in Britain temporarily suspended . When matches resumed , competitions were played on a regional basis as in the previous war , and teams often did not complete a full season . Liverpool participated in the Football League North , which they won in the 1942 – 43 season . Many footballers served in the armed forces , away from their clubs for long periods , and would often appear as " guests " for other clubs . Two Liverpool players were decorated for their wartime service ; Berry Nieuwenhuys received the
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Czech Medal of Merit , and Bill Jones was awarded the Military Medal after rescuing wounded comrades under fire .
= = Post @-@ war decline = =
League football in England resumed in the 1946 – 47 season , after seven seasons ' suspension due to the war . Before the resumption , Liverpool embarked on an eight @-@ week tour of the United States and Canada , scoring 70 goals in the ten matches played . In escaping from post @-@ war food rationing while on tour , the Liverpool players were able to eat more , and by the end of the trip had gained in weight an average of 7 pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 kg ) a man . The New York Times reporter who followed the team on the tour noted the " perceptible gain in strength on the playing field . "
The first game played at Anfield after the war was against Middlesbrough , on 4 September 1946 , which Liverpool lost 1 – 0 before a crowd of 34 @,@ 140 . Despite this defeat , Liverpool finished the 1946 – 47 season as League champions . Vital to this success were their attacking players ; after a 5 – 0 defeat to Manchester United the club bought Albert Stubbins from Newcastle United , to augment the attack alongside Jack Balmer and Billy Liddell . Balmer typified this new attacking strength by scoring hat @-@ tricks in three successive matches . However , the club were unable to match this success in the two seasons that followed , and finished in 11th and 12th places respectively . The 1949 – 50 season brought another disappointing league campaign . The season started well , as the club was unbeaten in their first 19 matches and was top of the league at the turn of the year . Their form declined thereafter , and they finished eighth . This did not hinder their progress in the FA Cup , as they reached their second final ( their first at Wembley ) , against Arsenal . They were unable to win their first FA Cup ; two goals from Arsenal striker Reg Lewis meant Liverpool lost 2 – 0 .
After their FA Cup final appearance , Liverpool 's fortunes declined steadily . Kay resigned through ill @-@ health , and was replaced by Don Welsh . Welsh 's first season did not go smoothly , as Liverpool were knocked out of the FA Cup in the third round by Norwich City of the Third Division South . The following year , 61 @,@ 905 spectators watched Liverpool beat Wolverhampton Wanderers 2 – 1 in the fourth round of the FA Cup , the biggest attendance ever recorded at Anfield . Under Welsh 's stewardship the club gradually slipped further down the table , and were relegated to the Second Division in the 1953 – 54 season , after finishing in bottom place . Their relegation came after 50 uninterrupted years in the top division of English football . The side 's decline did not prevent John Moores , owner of retail company Littlewoods , from investing in the club with a 51 % stake .
Liverpool 's first season in the Second Division in 1954 – 55 brought them an 11th @-@ place finish . During this season the club suffered the biggest defeat in its history , a 9 – 1 loss to Birmingham City . Although in the following season they improved to third place , it was not enough for Welsh to keep his job and he was sacked at the end of the season . His replacement was Phil Taylor , a former captain of the club and a member of the coaching staff . Taylor signed players such as Ronnie Moran , Alan A 'Court and Jimmy Melia , who would become mainstays of the club for seasons to come , but was unable to guide Liverpool back to the First Division . The Liverpool board persisted with him , despite the club 's loss to non @-@ League side Worcester City in the third round of the FA Cup in January 1959 . His tenure ended during the 1959 – 60 season ; after a good start , their form began to tail off mid @-@ season , and after a defeat to Huddersfield Town , Taylor resigned . The man who replaced him was Huddersfield 's manager , Bill Shankly .
= Lambert – Eaton myasthenic syndrome =
Lambert – Eaton myasthenic syndrome ( LEMS , also Lambert – Eaton syndrome , or Eaton – Lambert syndrome ) is a rare autoimmune disorder that is characterized by muscle weakness of the limbs . It is the result of an autoimmune reaction in which antibodies are formed against presynaptic voltage @-@ gated calcium channels , and likely other nerve terminal proteins , in the neuromuscular junction ( the connection between nerves and the muscle that they supply ) . The prevalence is 3 @.@ 4 cases per million . Around 60 % of those with LEMS have an underlying malignancy , most commonly small cell lung cancer ; it is therefore regarded as a paraneoplastic syndrome ( a condition that arises as a result of cancer elsewhere in the body ) .
LEMS usually occurs in people over 40 years of age , but it may occur any age . The diagnosis is usually confirmed with electromyography and blood tests ; these also distinguish it from myasthenia gravis ( MG ) , a related autoimmune neuromuscular disease .
If the disease is associated with cancer , direct treatment of the cancer often relieves the symptoms of LEMS . Other treatments often used are steroids , azathioprine , which suppress the immune system , intravenous immunoglobulin , which outcompetes autoreactive antibody from Fc receptors and pyridostigmine and 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine , which enhance the neuromuscular transmission . Occasionally , plasma exchange is required to remove the antibodies .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The weakness from LEMS typically involves the muscles of the proximal arms and legs ( the muscles closer to the trunk ) . In contrast to myasthenia gravis , the weakness affects the legs more than the arms . This leads to difficulties climbing stairs and rising from a sitting position . Weakness is often relieved temporarily after exertion or physical exercise . High temperatures can worsen the symptoms . Weakness of the bulbar muscles ( muscles of the mouth and throat ) is occasionally encountered . Weakness of the eye muscles is uncommon . Some may have double vision , drooping of the eyelids and difficulty swallowing , but generally only together with leg weakness ; this too distinguishes LEMS from myasthenia gravis , in which eye signs are much more common . In the advanced stages of the disease , weakness of the respiratory muscles may occur . Some may also experience problems with coordination ( ataxia ) .
Three quarters of people with LEMS also have disruption of the autonomic nervous system . This may be experienced as a dry mouth , constipation , blurred vision , impaired sweating , and orthostatic hypotension ( falls in blood pressure on standing , potentially leading to blackouts ) . Some report a metallic taste in the mouth .
On neurological examination , the weakness demonstrated with normal testing of power is often less severe than would be expected on the basis of the symptoms . Strength improves further with repeated testing , e.g. improvement of power on repeated hand grip ( a phenomenon known as " Lambert 's sign " ) . At rest , reflexes are typically reduced ; with muscle use , reflex strength increases . This is a characteristic feature of LEMS . The pupillary light reflex may be sluggish .
In LEMS associated with lung cancer , most have no suggestive symptoms of cancer at the time , such as cough , coughing blood and unintentional weight loss . It has been suggested that LEMS associated with lung cancer is more severe .
= = Causes = =
LEMS is often associated with lung cancer ( 50 – 70 % ) , specifically small @-@ cell carcinoma , making LEMS a paraneoplastic syndrome . Of the people with small cell lung cancer , 1 – 3 % have LEMS . In most of these cases , LEMS is the first symptom of the lung cancer , and it is otherwise asymptomatic .
LEMS may also be associated with autoimmune diseases , such as hypothyroidism ( an underactive thyroid gland ) or diabetes mellitus type 1 . Myasthenia gravis , too , may happen in the presence of tumors ( thymoma , a tumor of the thymus in the chest ) ; people with MG without a tumor and people with LEMS without a tumor have similar genetic variations that seem to predispose them to these diseases . HLA @-@ DR3 @-@ B8 ( an HLA subtype ) , in particular , seems to predispose to LEMS .
= = Mechanism = =
In normal neuromuscular function , a nerve impulse is carried down the axon ( the long projection of a nerve cell ) from the spinal cord . At the nerve ending in the neuromuscular junction , where the impulse is transferred to the muscle cell , the nerve impulse leads to the opening of voltage @-@ gated calcium channels ( VGCC ) , the influx of calcium ions into the nerve terminal , and the calcium @-@ dependent triggering of synaptic vesicle fusion with plasma membrane . These synaptic vesicles contain acetylcholine , which is released into the synaptic cleft and stimulates the acetylcholine receptors on the muscle . The muscle then contracts .
In LEMS , antibodies against VGCC , particularly the P / Q @-@ type VGCC , decrease the amount of calcium that can enter the nerve ending , hence less acetylcholine can be released from the neuromuscular junction . Apart from skeletal muscle , the autonomic nervous system also requires acetylcholine neurotransmission ; this explains the occurrence of autonomic symptoms in LEMS . P / Q voltage @-@ gated calcium channels are also found in the cerebellum , explaining why some experience problems with coordination . The antibodies bind particularly to the part of the receptor known as the " domain III S5 – S6 linker peptide " . Antibodies may also bind other VGCCs . Some have antibodies that bind synaptotagmin , the protein sensor for calcium @-@ regulated vesicle fusion . Many people with LEMS , both with and without VGCC antibodies , have detectable antibodies against the M1 subtype of the acetylcholine receptor ; it is thought that their presence participates in a lack of compensation for the weak calcium influx .
Apart from the decreased calcium influx , there is also a disruption of active zone vesicle release sites , which is also thought to be antibody @-@ dependent since people with LEMS have antibodies to components of these active zones ( including voltage @-@ dependent calcium channels ) . Together , these abnormalities lead to the decrease in muscle contractility . Repeated stimuli over a period of about 10 seconds eventually lead to sufficient delivery of calcium , and an increase in muscle contraction to normal levels , which can be demonstrated using an electrodiagnostic medicine study called needle electromyography by increasing amplitude of repeated compound muscle action potentials .
It has been shown that the antibodies found in LEMS associated with lung cancer also bind to calcium channels in the cancer cells , and it is presumed that the antibodies originally develop as a reaction to these cells . It has been suggested that the immune reaction to the cancer cells suppresses their growth and improves the prognosis from the cancer .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis is usually made on electromyography ( EMG ) , which is one of the standard tests in the investigation of otherwise unexplained muscle weakness . This involves the insertion of small needles into the nerves supplying several muscles , administering small electrical impulses through these needles , and measuring the electrical response of the muscle in question . Two EMG investigations can be characteristic in LEMS : compound motor action potentials ( CMAP ) and single @-@ fiber examination .
CMAP shows small amplitudes but normal latency and conduction velocities . If repeated impulses are administered ( two per second or 2 Hz ) , it is normal for CMAP amplitudes to become smaller as the acetylcholine in the motor end plate is depleted . In LEMS , this decrease is larger than
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Return to Washington , D.C. and service with Dean Acheson = =
Upon his return from Europe and exit from the Army Air Force , Fisher served as Solicitor for the U.S. Department of Commerce from 1947 to 1948 . Thereafter , Fisher became general counsel of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1948 @-@ 49 . He then served as legal advisor ( with the rank of Assistant Secretary of State ) to the Department of State ( serving in the office of Secretary of State Dean Acheson ) from 1949 to 1953 . During 1952 , Mr. Fisher also served as legal advisor to the U.S. Delegation to the United Nations in Paris .
In 1952 , Fisher was also appointed by President Harry S. Truman as an original commissioner to the President 's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization . The Commission was established in the Executive Office of the President by Executive Order 10392 " Establishing the President 's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization " . The specific context for the 1952 commission was the enactment of the McCarren @-@ Walter Act , which was passed over President Truman 's veto . Truman 's main disagreement with the Act was its retention of the quota system that began in 1924 . After Congress passed the Act over his veto , he formed the Commission and charged it with looking into new options for immigration and naturalization policy .
Secretary of State Acheson 's appointment of Fisher as the State Department 's Legal Adviser was unique at the time , because of the closeness of the Acheson / Fisher professional relationship . Fisher 's role as Acheson 's legal adviser was explained by Michael H. Cordozo , the State Department 's Assistant Legal Adviser for Economic Affairs , 1950 @-@ 52 :
( Acheson ) insisted on having , as a legal adviser , a lawyer whose ability as a lawyer and whose judgment in politics and statesmanship could be greatly respected . He got Adrian Fisher for that , and he involved him in all of the political and other activities that he himself was involved in . The Secretary of State always is involved in a lot of controversial things , and here we had the McCarthy era , the attack on the whole concept of Foreign Service and the State Department , and a terrific controversy over what to do about China , who had " lost China . " Fisher was always at Acheson 's right hand when he was dealing with other people about these things . Wherever he went , Fisher 's office was backstopping him , getting all the necessary background information so he 'd be prepared for any kind of question that came up . Of course , Acheson 's own approach to being Secretary of State was such that when you took an agreement to him to be signed , his chief question was " By what authority do I sign this ? " And whoever brought it to him to get it signed , had to be ready with the answer that would satisfy a lawyer -- " by what legal authority " -- as well as what it provides and so forth .
= = = Building the H @-@ bomb = = =
In late 1949 , President Truman asked Dean Acheson to concentrate on the question of whether the United States should develop the hydrogen bomb . Acheson formed a working group under the United States National Security Council ( NSC ) executive secretary Sidney Souers , consisting of R. Gordon Arneson , Paul Nitze and Fisher , who served as the State Department 's legal adviser on the project . It was Arneson 's view that each member of the working group were of one mind . He said , " The four principals in the State Department were Acheson , Nitze , Fisher and myself . I don 't think it was necessary for any one of us to persuade anybody else ; we all were of a mind that there really wasn 't any choice . "
Fisher was part of this same working group which recommended that an internal NSC study be conducted on the overall U.S. foreign policy as it pertained to the newly developing Cold War . This classified study ( declassified in 1977 ) called NSC @-@ 68 , was the blueprint for the Truman Doctrine for containment of communism , which provided the overall policy concepts for the U.S. participation in the Cold War throughout the 1950s .
= = = Congressional Hearings on the firing of General Douglas MacArthur = = =
On April 11 , 1951 , President Truman announced the dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur from his duties as Allied Commander of United Nations forces in the Far East . Following MacArthur 's firing and the subsequent public outcry , the Joint Committee on Armed Services and Foreign Relations of the United States Senate conducted an inquiry into removal of MacArthur . Fisher was assigned the responsibility for the coordination of the State Department Congressional testimony regarding the firing of General MacArthur .
= = = Fisher and the Acheson Capitol Hill fist @-@ fight = = =
In August 1950 , Fisher was involved in an incident between Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Senator Kenneth S. Wherry , Nebraska Republican and minority whip of the United States Senate , during a hearing before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee . During the hearing , Senator Wherry began to harangue Acheson about events in Korea . Suddenly , Acheson jumped out of his chair towards Wherry , with fists raised . Fisher was required to physically hold Acheson back from striking Wherry . As the incident was told by eye @-@ witness John H. Ohly , then the Assistant Director , Office of International Security Affairs , Department of State ,
" The next day the administration threw in its big guns -- Secretary Acheson , Louis Johnson , and , from ECA , William Foster . This time the going was really rough from the Republican side of the table and Acheson consciously lost his temper over some of Wherry 's remarks and got up and tried to slug him . Adrian Fisher , State Department Legal Adviser and a close friend of Acheson , caught his arm , fortunately , because Acheson would have missed Wherry by about three feet and probably fallen flat on his face on the floor . It was a great show . "
This scene was portrayed in the film " The Manchurian Candidate " , with Frank Sinatra ( as Major Marco ) taking on Fisher 's role of restraining ( in that instance ) the United States Secretary of Defense .
= = Nuclear arms control and disarmament activities = =
From 1961 to 1968 , Fisher served as the Deputy Director of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency in which he took a primary negotiations role during the Atomic Test Ban Treaty of 1963 between the U.S. and the Soviet Union . At that time he was Deputy to John J. McCloy , Adviser to the President on Disarmament . In 1968 , Fisher served as one of the chief U.S. negotiators of the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty , which was signed by the United States , the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union , and 59 other countries on July 1 , 1968 . A collection of letters from Adrian Fisher to President Johnson and Secretary of State Dean Rusk regarding his perception and activities on arms control and disarmament is maintained by the Federation of American Scientists .
= = Return to private law practice and academics = =
In 1968 , Fisher re @-@ entered private law practice , again with Covington & Burling ( during the Dwight D. Eisenhower Administration ( 1953 – 60 ) Fisher joined the Covington firm , with Dean Acheson , for the first time ) and became General Counsel to the Washington Post . Fisher 's connection with the Washington Post arose because of his close friendship with the Post 's then @-@ owner Phillip Graham since his early days in Washington , D.C. Both Fisher and Graham had clerked for Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter and had shared a rented house ( belonging to future Secretary of State Dean Acheson ) , together with Donald Hiss ( brother of Alger Hiss ) . From 1969 to 1975 , Fisher served as Dean of Georgetown University Law Center , Washington , D.C. According to a report in the Georgetown student newspaper " The Hoya " , Fisher was not solicited as a candidate for the position , but simply submitted his own name . " I heard they were looking around for a new person , so I called up and asked to be considered . " Dean Fisher was installed as the first occupant of the Francis Cabell Brown Chair in International Law of the center on January 25 , 1977 , and served as law professor from 1977 to 1980 .
= = U.S. Disarmament Representative = =
President Jimmy Carter nominated Fisher for the rank of Ambassador while serving as the U.S. Representative to the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament in 1977 , where he served through 1981 . With the United States represented by Fisher , the first Special Session on Disarmament of the United Nations General Assembly was held in 1978 and led to the established in 1979 of the U.N. Conference on Disarmament as the single multilateral disarmament negotiating forum of the international community .
= = Return to academics = =
In 1981 , Fisher joined the faculty of George Mason University School of Law in Arlington , Virginia , teaching various seminars on negotiation tactics . The George Mason Law Review named its annual award for best student article in honor of Mr. Fisher . From 1981 to 1982 , Mr. Fisher also served as an advisor to John J. McCloy during the hearings of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians ( established by Congress in 1980 ) . This commission reviewed the impact of Executive Order 9066 on Japanese @-@ Americans and determined that they were the victims of discrimination by the Federal government . Fisher died on March 18 , 1983 , aged 69 , from cancer at his home in Washington , D.C.
= Gliese 581 d =
Gliese 581 d / ˈɡliːzə / ( often shortened to Gl 581 d or GJ 581 d ) is a possible extrasolar planet orbiting the star Gliese 581 approximately 20 @.@ 4 light @-@ years away in the constellation of Libra . It is the third planet claimed in the system and ( assuming a six @-@ planet model ) the fifth in order from the star .
Though not confirmed to be a terrestrial planet and significantly more massive than Earth ( at 6 @.@ 98 Earth masses ) , the Super @-@ Earth is the first exoplanet of terrestrial mass proposed to orbit within the habitable zone of its parent star .
Assuming its existence , computer climate simulations have confirmed the possibility of the existence of surface water and these factors combine to a relatively high measure of planetary habitability .
= = Discovery = =
A team of astronomers led by Stéphane Udry of the Geneva Observatory used the HARPS instrument on the European Southern Observatory 3 @.@ 6 meter telescope in La Silla , Chile to discover the planet in 2007 . Udry 's team employed the radial velocity technique , in which the mass of a planet is determined based on the small perturbations it induces in its parent star ’ s orbit via gravity .
= = = Formerly disputed = = =
In September 2012 , Roman Baluev filtered out the " red noise " from the Keck data and concluded that this planet 's existence is probable only to 2 @.@ 2 standard deviations .
That same year , however , a team from the USNO confirmed the existence of the planet with a much higher probability .
A study in 2014 concluded that Gliese 581 d is " an artifact of stellar activity which , when incompletely corrected , causes the false detection of planet g . " In 2015 , a study by Dr Guillem Anglada @-@ Escudé concluded that the planet could exist .
= = Orbital characteristics = =
Gliese 581 d orbits Gliese 581 at 0 @.@ 21847 AU , approximately a fifth of the distance that the Earth orbits the Sun , though its orbital eccentricity has not been confirmed . There are currently two models for its orbit , a circular one like Earth 's , and an eccentric one like Mercury 's . These are based on the four planet and six planet model for the Gliese 581 system , respectively . Under the four planet model Gliese 581 d would most probably be in a spin @-@ orbit resonance of 2 : 1 , rotating twice for each orbit of its parent star . Therefore , the day on Gliese 581 d should approximately be 67 Earth days long .
The orbital distance places it at the outer limits of the habitable zone , the distance at which it is believed possible for water to exist on the surface of a planetary body . At the time of its discovery , the planet 's orbit was originally thought to be farther out . However , in late April 2009 the original discovery team revised its original estimate of the planet 's orbital parameters , finding that it orbits closer to its star than originally determined with an orbital period of 66 @.@ 87 days . They concluded that the planet is within the habitable zone where liquid water could exist . Moreover , the data also suggested that the proposed exoplanet could have at least one or more large oceans .
= = Possible confirmation = =
The planet 's existence has been disputed due to inaccurate analysis from stellar activity , but later reanalysis of data suggests planet Gliese 581 d could really exist , despite stellar variability , exciting astronomers .
= = Physical characteristics = =
The motion of the parent star indicates a minimum mass for Gliese 581 d of 5 @.@ 6 Earth masses ( earlier analyses
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in his leadership , was now more than willing to join a flotilla that included his old commodore as ship 's pilot . Selkirk served as a mate aboard the Duke , and was later given command of one of the prize ships taken by the expedition .
After leaving Juan Fernandez on 14 February 1709 , the expedition captured and looted a number of small vessels , and launched an attack on the town of Guayaquil , today located in Ecuador . When Rogers attempted to negotiate with the governor , the townsfolk secreted their valuables . Rogers was able to get a modest ransom for the town , but some crew members were so dissatisfied that they dug up the recently dead hoping to find items of value . This led to sickness on board ship , of which six men died . The expedition lost contact with one of the captured ships , which was under the command of Simon Hatley . The other vessels searched for Hatley 's ship , but to no avail — Hatley and his men were captured by the Spanish . On a subsequent voyage to the Pacific , Hatley would emulate Selkirk by becoming the centre of an event which would be immortalised in literature . His ship beset by storms , Hatley shot an albatross in the hope of better winds , an episode memorialised by Samuel Taylor Coleridge .
The crew of the vessels became increasingly discontented , and Rogers and his officers feared another mutiny . This tension was dispelled by the expedition 's capture of a rich prize off the coast of Mexico : the Spanish vessel Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación y Desengaño . Rogers sustained a wound to the face in the battle . While Duke and Duchess were successful in capturing that vessel , they failed to capture Encarnación 's companion , a well @-@ armed galleon , Nuestra Señora de Begoña , which made its escape after damaging both vessels . Rogers only reluctantly agreed to giving the inexperienced Captain Dover command of Encarnación , a decision that may have been eased by naming Selkirk as its sailing master . The privateers , accompanied by their two prizes , limped across the Pacific Ocean . The expedition was able to resupply at Guam , which , though governed by the Spanish , extended a cordial welcome to the privateers .
= = = Homeward voyage = = =
The ships then went to the Dutch port of Batavia in what is now Indonesia , where Rogers underwent surgery to remove a musket ball from the roof of his mouth , and the expedition disposed of the less seaworthy of the two Spanish prizes . Dealing with the Dutch there constituted a violation of the British East India Company 's monopoly . When the ships finally dropped anchor in the Thames River on 14 October 1711 , a legal battle ensued , with the investors paying the East India Company £ 6 @,@ 000 ( about £ 806 @,@ 000 at today 's values ) as settlement for their claim for breach of monopoly , about four percent of what Rogers brought back . The investors approximately doubled their money , while Rogers gained £ 1 @,@ 600 ( now worth perhaps £ 214 @,@ 900 ) from a voyage which disfigured him and cost him his brother , who was killed in a battle in the Pacific . The money was probably less than he could have made at home , and was entirely absorbed by the debts his family had incurred in his absence . However , the long voyage and the capture of the Spanish ship made Rogers a national hero . Rogers was the first Englishman , in circumnavigating the globe , to have his original ships and most of his crew survive .
After his voyage , he wrote an account of it , titled A Cruising Voyage Round the World . While Edward Cooke , an officer aboard Duchess , also wrote a book , and beat Rogers to print by several months , Rogers ' book was much more successful , with many readers fascinated by the account of Selkirk 's rescue , which Cooke had slighted . Among those interested in Selkirk 's adventure was Daniel Defoe , who appears to have read about it , and fictionalised the story as Robinson Crusoe .
While Rogers ' book enjoyed financial success , it had a practical purpose — to aid British navigators and possible colonists . Much of Rogers ' introduction is devoted to advocacy for the South Seas trade . Rogers notes that had there been a British colony in the South Seas , he would not have had to worry about food supplies for his crew . A third of Rogers ' book is devoted to detailed descriptions of the places that he explored , with special emphasis on " such [ places ] as may be of most use for enlarging our trade " . He describes the area of the River Plate in detail because it lay " within the limits of the South Sea Company " , whose schemes had not yet burst into financial scandal . Rogers ' book was carried by such South Pacific navigators as Admiral George Anson and privateering captains John Clipperton and George Shelvocke .
= = Governor and later life = =
= = = Financial difficulties and the Bahamas proposal = = =
Rogers encountered financial problems on his return . Sir William Whetstone had died , and Rogers , having failed to recoup his business losses through privateering , was forced to sell his Bristol home to support his family . He was successfully sued by a group of over 200 of his crew , who stated that they had not received their fair share of the expedition profits . The profits from his book were not enough to overcome these setbacks , and he was forced into bankruptcy . His wife gave birth to their fourth child a year after his return — a boy who died in infancy — and Woodes and Sarah Rogers soon permanently separated .
Rogers decided the way out of his financial difficulty was to lead another expedition , this time against pirates . In 1713 , Rogers led what was ostensibly an expedition to purchase slaves in Madagascar and take them to the Dutch East Indies , this time with the permission of the British East India Company . However , Rogers ' secondary purpose was to gather details on the pirates of Madagascar , hoping to destroy or reform them , and colonise Madagascar on a future trip . Rogers collected information regarding pirates and their vessels near the island . Finding that a large number of the pirates had gone native , he persuaded many of them to sign a petition to Queen Anne asking her for clemency . While Rogers ' expedition was profitable , when it returned to London in 1715 , the British East India Company vetoed the idea of a colonial expedition to Madagascar , believing a colony was a greater threat to its monopoly than a few pirates . Accordingly , Rogers turned his sights from Madagascar to the West Indies . His connections included several of the advisers to the new king , George I , who had succeeded Queen Anne in 1714 , and Rogers was able to forge an agreement for a company to manage the Bahamas , which were infested with pirates , in exchange for a share of the colony 's profits .
At the time , according to the Governor of Bermuda , the Bahamas were " without any face or form of Government " and the colony was a " sink or nest of infamous rascals " . Until Rogers obtained his commission , the islands had been nominally governed by absentee Lords Proprietor , who did little except appoint a new , powerless governor when the position fell vacant . Under the agreement that underlaid Rogers ' commission , the Lords Proprietor leased their rights for a token sum to Rogers ' company for twenty @-@ one years .
On 5 January 1718 , a proclamation was issued announcing clemency for all piratical offences , provided that those seeking what became known as the " King 's Pardon " surrendered not later than 5 September 1718 . Colonial governors and deputy governors were authorised to grant the pardon . Rogers was officially appointed " Captain General and Governor in Chief " by George I on 6 January 1718 . He did not leave immediately for his new bailiwick , but spent several months preparing the expedition , which included seven ships , 100 soldiers , 130 colonists , and supplies ranging from food for the expedition members and ships ' crews to religious pamphlets to give to the pirates , whom Rogers believed would respond to spiritual teachings . On 22 April 1718 , the expedition , accompanied by three Royal Navy vessels , sailed out of the Thames .
= = = First term = = =
The expedition arrived on 22 July 1718 , surprising and trapping a ship commanded by pirate Charles Vane . After negotiations failed , Vane used a captured French vessel as a fireship in an attempt to ram the naval vessels . The attempt failed , but the naval vessels were forced out of the west end of Nassau harbour , giving Vane 's crew an opportunity to raid the town and secure the best local pilot . Vane and his men then escaped in a small sloop via the harbour 's narrow east entrance . The pirates had evaded the trap , but Nassau and New Providence Island were in Rogers ' hands .
At the time , the island 's population consisted of about two hundred former pirates and several hundred fugitives who had escaped from nearby Spanish colonies . Rogers organised a government , granted the King 's Pardon to those former pirates on the island who had not yet accepted it , and started to rebuild the island 's fortifications , which had fallen into decrepitude under pirate domination . However , less than a month into his residence on New Providence , Rogers was faced with a double threat : Vane wrote , threatening to join with Edward Teach ( better known as Blackbeard ) to retake the island , and Rogers learned that the Spanish also planned to drive the British out of the Bahamas .
Rogers ' expedition suffered further setbacks . An unidentified disease killed almost a hundred of his expedition members , while leaving the long @-@ term residents nearly untouched . Two of the three navy vessels , having no orders to remain , left for New York . Ships sent to Havana to conciliate the Spanish governor there never arrived , their crew revolting and becoming pirates mid @-@ voyage . Finally , the third naval vessel left in mid @-@ September , its commander promising to return in three weeks — a promise he had no intention of keeping . Work on rebuilding the island 's fortifications proceeded slowly , with the locals showing a disinclination to work .
On 14 September 1718 , Rogers received word that Vane was at Green Turtle Cay near Abaco , about 120 miles ( 190 km ) north of Nassau . Some of the pardoned pirates on New Providence took boats to join Vane , and Rogers decided to send two ex @-@ pirate captains , Benjamin Hornigold and John Cockram , with a crew to gather intelligence , and , if possible , to bring Vane to battle . As the weeks passed , and hopes of their return dimmed , Rogers declared martial law and set all inhabitants to work on rebuilding the island 's fortifications . Finally , the former pirates returned . They had failed to find an opportunity to kill Vane or bring him to battle , but had captured one ship and a number of pirate captives . Captain Hornigold was then sent to recapture the ships and crews who had gone pirate en route to Havana . He returned with ten prisoners and three corpses . On 9 December 1718 , Rogers brought the ten men captured by Hornigold to trial . Nine were convicted , and Rogers had eight hanged three days later , reprieving the ninth on hearing he was of good family . One of the condemned , Thomas Morris , quipped as he climbed the gallows , " We have a good governor , but a harsh one . " The executions so cowed the populace that when , shortly after Christmas , several residents plotted to overthrow Rogers and restore the island to piracy , the conspirators attracted little support . Rogers had them flogged , then released as harmless .
On 16 March 1719 Rogers learned that Spain and Britain were at war again . He redoubled his efforts to repair the island 's fortifications , buying vital supplies on credit in the hope of later being reimbursed by the expedition 's investors . The Spanish sent an invasion fleet against Nassau in May , but when the fleet 's commodore learned that the French ( now Britain 's ally ) had captured Pensacola , he directed the fleet there instead . This gave Rogers time to continue to fortify and supply New Providence , and it was not until 24 February 1720 that a Spanish fleet arrived . Wary of Rogers ' defences , the Spanish landed troops on Paradise Island ( then known as Hog Island ) , which shelters Nassau 's harbour . They were driven off by Rogers ' troops .
The year 1720 brought an end to external threats to Rogers ' rule . With Spain and Britain at peace again , the Spanish made no further move against the Bahamas . Vane never returned , having been shipwrecked and captured in the Bay Islands — a year later , he was hanged in Jamaica . This did not end Rogers ' problems as governor . Overextended from financing New Providence 's defences , he received no assistance from Britain , and merchants refused to give him further credit . His health suffered , and he spent six weeks in Charleston , South Carolina , hoping to recuperate . Instead , he was wounded in a duel with Captain John Hildesley of HMS Flamborough ( 1707 ) , a duel caused by disputes between the two on New Providence . Troubled by the lack of support and communication from London , Rogers set sail for Britain in March 1721 . He arrived three months later to find that a new governor had been appointed , and his company had been liquidated . Personally liable for the obligations he had contracted at Nassau , he was imprisoned for debt .
= = = Activities in England , second term and death = = =
With both the government and his former partners refusing to honour his debts , Rogers was released from debtor 's prison only when his creditors took pity on him and absolved him of his debts . Even so , Rogers wrote that he was " perplexed with the melancholy prospect of [ his ] affairs " . In 1722 or 1723 , Rogers was approached by a man writing a history of piracy , and supplied him with information . The resulting work , A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates , published under the pseudonym Captain Charles Johnson , was an enormous hit on both sides of the Atlantic , and catapulted Rogers for the second time to the status of a national hero . With public attention focused on him again , Rogers was successful in 1726 in petitioning the king for financial redress . Not only did King George I grant him a pension , retroactive to 1721 , but the king 's son and successor , George II , reappointed him as governor on 22 October 1728 .
The Bahamas did not come under external threat during Rogers ' second term , but the reappointed governor had difficulties . Still seeking to bolster the island 's defences , Rogers sought imposition of a local tax . The assembly , which had been instituted in Rogers ' absence , objected , and Rogers responded by dissolving it . The governmental battle exhausted Rogers , who again went to Charleston in early 1731 in an attempt to recover his health . Though he returned in July 1731 , he never truly regained his health , and died in Nassau on 15 July 1732 .
A harbour @-@ side street in Nassau is named for Rogers . " Piracy expelled , commerce restored " remained the motto of the Bahamas until the islands gained independence in 1973 .
= Quadrophenia =
Quadrophenia is the sixth studio album by English rock band The Who , released on 26 October 1973 by Track Records . It is a double album and the group 's second rock opera . The story follows a young mod named Jimmy and his search for self @-@ worth and importance , set in London and Brighton in 1965 . It is the only Who album to be entirely composed by group leader Pete Townshend .
The group started work on the album in 1972 , trying to follow up Tommy and Who 's Next , which had both achieved substantial critical and commercial success . Recording was delayed while bassist John Entwistle and singer Roger Daltrey recorded solo albums and drummer Keith Moon worked on films . Because a new studio was not finished in time , the group had to use Ronnie Lane 's Mobile Studio . As well as the group 's typical playing styles , especially from Moon , the album makes significant use of Townshend 's multi @-@ tracked synthesizers and sound effects , and Entwistle 's layered horn parts . Relationships between the group and manager Kit Lambert broke down irretrievably during recording and he had left the band 's services by the time the album was released .
Quadrophenia was released to a positive reception in both the UK and the US , but the resulting tour was marred with problems with backing tapes replacing the additional instruments on the album , and the stage piece was retired in early 1974 . It was revived in 1996 with a larger ensemble , and a further tour occurred in 2012 . The album made a positive impact on the mod revival movement of the late 1970s , and the resulting film adaptation , released in 1979 , was successful . The album has been reissued on compact disc several times , and seen a number of remixes that corrected some perceived flaws in the original .
= = Plot = =
The original release of Quadrophenia came with a set of recording notes for reviewers and journalists that explained the basic plotline .
The narrative centres around a young working @-@ class mod named Jimmy . He likes drugs , beach fights and romance , and becomes a fan of the Who after a concert in Brighton , but is disillusioned by his parents ' attitude towards him , dead @-@ end jobs and an unsuccessful trip to see a psychiatrist . He clashes with his parents over his usage of amphetamines . He has difficulty finding regular work and doubts his own self @-@ worth , and quits a job as a dustman after only two days . Though he is happy to be " one " of the mods , he struggles to keep up with his peers , and his girlfriend leaves him for his best friend .
After destroying his scooter and contemplating suicide , he decides to take a train to Brighton , where he had enjoyed earlier experiences with fellow mods . However , he discovers the " Ace Face " who led the gang now has a menial job as a bellboy in a hotel . He feels everything in his life has rejected him , steals a boat , and uses it to sail out to a rock overlooking the sea . On the rock and stuck in the rain , he contemplates his life . The ending is left ambiguous as to what happens to Jimmy on the rock .
= = Background = =
1972 was the least active year for the Who since they had formed . The group had achieved great commercial and critical success with the albums Tommy and Who 's Next , but were struggling to come up with a suitable follow up . The group recorded new material with Who 's Next collaborator Glyn Johns in May 1972 , including " Is It In My Head " and " Love Reign O 'er Me " which were eventually released on Quadrophenia , and a mini @-@ opera called " Long Live Rock – Rock Is Dead " , but the material was considered too derivative of Who 's Next and sessions were abandoned . In an interview for Melody Maker , guitarist and bandleader Pete Townshend said " I 've got to get a new act together … People don 't really want to sit and listen to all our past " . He had become frustrated that the group had been unable to produce a film of Tommy or Lifehouse ( the abortive project that resulted in Who 's Next ) , and decided to follow Frank Zappa 's idea of producing a musical soundtrack that could produce a narrative in the same way as a film . Unlike Tommy , the new work would be grounded in reality and tell a story of youth and adolescence that the audience could relate to .
Townshend became inspired by " Long Live Rock – Rock Is Dead " ' s theme and in autumn 1972 began writing material , while the group put out unreleased recordings including " Join Together " and " Relay " to keep themselves in the public eye . In the meantime , bassist John Entwistle released his second solo album , Whistle Rymes , singer Roger Daltrey worked on solo material , and Keith Moon featured as a drummer in the film That 'll Be The Day . Townshend had met up with " Irish " Jack Lyons , one of the original Who fans , which gave him the idea of writing a piece that would look back on the group 's history and its audience . He created the character of Jimmy from an amalgamation of six early fans of the group , including Lyons , and gave the character a four @-@ way split personality , which led to the album 's title ( a play on schizophrenia ) .
Work was interrupted for most of 1972 in order to work on Lou Reizner 's orchestral version of Tommy . Daltrey finished his first solo album , which included the hit single " Giving It All Away " , fueling rumours of a split in the press . Things were not helped by Daltrey discovering that managers Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp had large sums of money unaccounted for , and suggested they should be fired , which Townshend resisted .
= = Recording = =
In order to do justice to the recording of Quadrophenia , the group decided to build their own studio , Ramport Studios in Battersea . Work started on building Ramport in November 1972 , but five months later still lacked an adequate mixing desk that could handle recording Quadrophenia . Instead , Townshend 's friend Ronnie Lane loaned his mobile studio for the sessions . Lambert ostensibly began producing the album in May , but missed recording sessions and generally lacked discipline . By mid 1973 , Daltrey demanded that Lambert leave the Who 's services . The band recruited engineer Ron Nevison , who had worked with Townshend 's associate John Alcock , to assist with engineering .
To illustrate the four @-@ way split personality of Jimmy , Townshend wrote four themes , reflecting the four members of the Who . These were " Bell Boy " ( Moon ) , " Is It Me ? " ( Entwistle ) , " Helpless Dancer " ( Daltrey ) and " Love Reign O 'er Me " ( Townshend ) . Two lengthy instrumentals on the album , the title track and " The Rock " contain the four themes , separately and together . The instrumentals were not demoed but built up in the studio . Who author John Atkins described the instrumental tracks as " the most ambitious and intricate music the group ever undertook . "
Most tracks involved each of the group recording their parts separately ; unlike earlier albums , Townshend had left space in his demos for other band members to contribute , though most of the synthesizers on the finished album came from his ARP 2500 synthesizer and were recorded at home . The only song arranged by the band in the studio was " 5 @.@ 15 " . According to Nevison , the ARP 2500 was impossible to record in the studio , and changing sounds was cumbersome due to a lack of patches , which required Townshend to work on these parts at home , working late into the night . To obtain a good string section sound on the album , Townshend bought a cello and over two weeks learned how to play it well enough to be recorded .
Entwistle recorded his bass part to " The Real Me " in one take on a Gibson Thunderbird and spent several weeks during the summer arranging and recording numerous multi @-@ tracked horn parts . Having been forced to play more straightforwardly by Johns on Who 's Next , Moon returned to his established drumming style on Quadrophenia . He contributed lead vocals to " Bell Boy " , where he deliberately showcased an exaggerated narrative style . For the finale of " Love , Reign O 'er Me " , Townshend and Nevison set up a large group of percussion instruments , which Moon played before kicking over a set of tubular bells , which can be heard on the final mix .
During the album production , Townshend made many field recordings with a portable reel @-@ to @-@ reel recorder . These included waves washing on a Cornish beach and the doppler whistle of a diesel train recorded near Townshend 's house at Goring @-@ on @-@ Thames . The ending of " The Dirty Jobs " includes a musical excerpt from a brass band performance of The Thunderer by John Philip Sousa , which Nevison recorded in Regent 's Park . Assembling the field recordings in the studio was problematic ; at one point , during " I Am the Sea " , nine different tape machines were running sound effects . According to Nevison , Townshend produced the album single @-@ handedly , adding that " everything started when Pete got there , and everything finished when Pete left " . Townshend began mixing the album in August at his home studio in Goring along with Nevison .
= = Release = =
The album was preceded by the single " 5 : 15 " in the UK , which benefited from a live appearance on Top of the Pops on 4 October 1973 and was released the next day . It reached No. 20 in the charts . Quadrophenia was originally released in the UK on 26 October , but fans found it difficult to find a copy due to a shortage of vinyl caused by the OPEC oil embargo . In the UK , Quadrophenia reached No. 2 , being held off the top spot by David Bowie 's Pin Ups . In the US , the album reached No. 2 on the US Billboard album chart ( kept from # 1 by Elton John 's Goodbye Yellow Brick Road album ) , the highest position of any Who album in the US . In the US , " Love Reign O 'er Me " was chosen as the lead single , released on 27 October .
The album was originally released as a two @-@ LP set with a gatefold jacket and a booklet containing lyrics , a text version of the story , and photographs taken by Ethan Russell illustrating it . MCA Records re @-@ released the album as a two @-@ CD set in 1985 with the lyrics and text story line on a thin fold @-@ up sheet but none of the photographs . The album was reissued as a remastered CD in 1996 , featuring a reproduction of the original album artwork . The original mix had been criticised in particular for Daltrey 's vocals being buried , so the 1996 CD was completely remixed by Jon Astley and Andy Macpherson .
In 2011 , Townshend and longtime Who engineer Bob Pridden remixed the album , resulting in a deluxe 5 @-@ disc box set . Unlike earlier reissues , this set contains two discs of demos , including some songs that were dropped from the final running order of the album , and a selection of songs in 5 @.@ 1 surround sound . The box set came with a 100 @-@ page book including an essay by Townshend about the album sessions , with photos . In 2014 , the album was released on Blu @-@ ray Audio featuring a brand @-@ new remix of the entire album by Townshend and Pridden in 5 @.@ 1 surround sound as well the 2011 Deluxe Edition stereo remix and the original 1973 stereo LP mix .
= = Reception = =
Critical reaction to Quadrophenia was positive . Melody Maker 's Chris Welch wrote " rarely have a group succeeded in distilling their essence and embracing a motif as convincingly " , while Charles Shaar Murray described the album in New Musical Express as the " most rewarding musical experience of the year " . Reaction in the US was generally positive , though Dave Marsh , writing in Creem gave a more critical response . Lenny Kaye , writing in Rolling Stone wrote " the Who as a whole have never sounded better " but added " on its own terms , Quadrophenia falls short of the mark " .
Retrospective reviews have been positive . Chris Jones , writing for BBC Music said " everything great about the Who is contained herein . " In 2013 , Billboard , reviewing the album for its 40th anniversary , said : " Filled with performances packed with life and depth and personality , Quadrophenia is 90 minutes of the Who at its very best . " The album has sold 1 million copies and has been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . In 2000 Q magazine placed Quadrophenia at # 56 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever . The album has been ranked # 267 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
Townshend now considers Quadrophenia to be the last great album that the Who recorded . In 2011 , he said the group " never recorded anything that was so ambitious or audacious again " , drawing particular praise for Moon 's playing .
= = Live performances = =
= = = 1973 – 74 tour = = =
The band viewed the tour in support of the album as disastrous . To achieve the rich overdubbed sound of the album on stage , Townshend wanted Chris Stainton ( who had played piano on some tracks ) to join as a touring member . Daltrey objected to this and believed the Who 's performances should only have the four core members . To obtain the required instrumentation without additional musicians , the group elected to employ taped backing tracks for live performance , as they had already done for " Baba O 'Riley " and " Won 't Get Fooled Again " . Initial performances were plagued by malfunctioning tapes . Once the tapes started , the band had to play to them , which constrained their styles . Moon , in particular , found playing Quadrophenia difficult as he was forced to stick to a click track instead of watching the rest of the band . The group only allowed two days of rehearsals with the tapes before touring , one of which was abandoned after Daltrey punched Townshend following an argument .
The tour started on 28 October 1973 . The original plan had been to play most of the album , but after the first gig at Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent , the band dropped " The Dirty Jobs " , " Is It In My Head " and " I 've Had Enough " from the set . Both Daltrey and Townshend felt they had to describe the plot in detail to the audience , which took up valuable time on stage . A few shows later in Newcastle upon Tyne , the backing tapes to " 5 : 15 " came in late . Townshend stopped the show , grabbed Pridden , who was controlling the mixing desk , and dragged him onstage , shouting obscenities at him . Townshend subsequently grabbed some of the tapes and threw them over the stage , kicked his amplifier over , and walked off . The band returned 20 minutes later , playing older material . Townshend and Moon appeared on local television the following day and attempted to brush things off . The Who played two other shows in Newcastle without incident .
The US tour started on 20 November at the Cow Palace in San Francisco . The group were nervous about playing Quadrophenia after the British tour , especially Moon . Before the show , he was offered some tranquillisers from a fan . Just after the show started , the fan collapsed and was hospitalised . Moon 's playing , meanwhile , became incredibly erratic , particularly during Quadrophenia where he did not seem to be able to keep time with the backing tapes . Towards the end of the show , during " Won 't Get Fooled Again "
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, Kovář called a Prima TV station crime news reporter , claiming that he was being harassed by multiple people and that he had hostages whom he threatened to kill . The journalist who spoke to the gunman called the police , who were already sending all available units to the location .
A police negotiator contacted Kovář by phone at 13 : 07 . During negotiations , Kovář claimed to have hostages , although all of the people remaining inside were most likely already dead ( apart from Gabriel , who was hiding at the bathroom unbeknownst to Kovář ) . The hostage claim delayed police entry into the building . Kovář stopped communicating at about 14 : 00 p.m. After attempts to contact him failed , the tactical team breached the building at 14 : 23 p.m. Upon the team 's entry , Kovář immediately shot himself dead .
Apart from stun grenades , the policemen did not fire a single shot . After securing the restaurant , the police let in a large number of medical personnel . The only person alive who remained inside the building was Gabriel , who had been hiding in the bathroom for the entire duration of the incident .
= = Perpetrator and victims = =
= = = Perpetrator = = =
Zdeněk Kovář ( c . 1951 – 24 February 2015 ) was 63 years old at the time of his death and lived with his wife in a house not far from the scene of the murders . Neighbours described the couple as deranged , both possibly mentally ill , and known for loudness and verbal abuse of their neighbours . Kovář was the son of a worker in the local Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod ( ČZUB ) firearms factory , the largest small arms manufacturer in the country . Formerly an electrician , he had been unemployed for at least ten years .
Kovář had held a gun license since 2000 and legally owned both of the guns he used .
= = = Victims = = =
A total of eight people , excluding the gunman , died in the rampage . This included seven men , aged 27 to 66 , and one woman , aged 47 . Another woman , aged 37 , survived despite being shot twice in the chest .
= = Aftermath = =
As more information about Kovář 's notoriety among neighbors surfaced , focus of investigation shifted towards the circumstances under which he gained and retained gun license and firearms . In order to be granted a gun license in the Czech Republic , a person must pass a qualification exam , receive a health clearance by a general practitioner , who may require a further examination by a specialist , such as a psychological or psychiatric evaluation , and must pass a background check . According to Section 23 of the Czech Firearms Act , an applicant may not be granted a license if he has committed more than one misdemeanor against public order in the previous three years . Similarly , the law further makes gun license unaccessible to people with mental illnesses . The license must be renewed every five years ( every ten years for licenses issued after 1 July 2014 ) . The renewal requires the presentation of a new health clearance , while the police conduct a new background check . Kovář 's license was renewed in January 2015 .
= = = Misdemeanors registry = = =
Kovář applied for a gun license renewal in accordance with the law . According to Kovář 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , neighbors , and a local policeman who had repeated contacts with him , Kovář and his wife had committed misdemeanors against public order . The municipality of Uherský Brod , which deals with such misdemeanors , did not register them and thus Kovář had an apparently clean history . In turn , this satisfied the requirements and he had his license renewed .
The renewal of his license was due to the fact that while there is a central registry of crimes and of traffic misdemeanors , no such registry exists for other misdemeanors in the Czech Republic . In the case where a non @-@ traffic misdemeanor is solved on the spot ( e.g. fining by a policeman ) , no record of it is made . Only when the investigated person or the police refuse to deal with the misdemeanor on the spot , is an administrative proceeding before a municipal misdemeanor committee initiated and if convicted , then a record of it is made by the municipality .
The Czech government had made a decision to introduce a central registry for all misdemeanors in October 2014 , planning to have the system working within two years . As police are obliged to revoke a gun license when the licensee has committed more than one misdemeanor against public order in a period of three years , the central registry of misdemeanors might have allowed police to effectively revoke the license long before the murders .
= = = Health clearance = = =
At any time , the police may order a new health clearance inspection if they have a reasonable concern that the person is not healthy enough to continue holding their license .
According to the Uherský Brod mayor Patrik Kunčar , Kovář 's family members tried to prevent Kovář from having the license renewed by pleading with his general practitioner not to grant him the necessary health clearance , since they felt threatened and considered him mentally unstable . Nevertheless , Kovář received clearance from his general practitioner and presented it as a part of his license renewal application on 19 January 2015 .
After renewing the license in January , the police were contacted by an unspecified person who reported to them on Kovář 's mental state . The police subsequently contacted Kovář 's general practitioner , and psychiatrist , and on 17 February 2015 ordered a health reevaluation . He received the letter on 19 February 2015 , four days before the murders . Under the law , Kovář was obliged to present a new health clearance within a month or lose the license . Czech media has speculated that the apparent attempt of the authorities to review Kovář 's mental state may have triggered the rampage .
A few days after the murders , the Ministry of Interior announced its deliberation about making the gun license registry accessible to psychiatrists in order to give them the ability to report to police possible changes of mental state of their patients having an impact on their eligibility to possess firearms . This was , however , rejected by psychiatric associations . They argued that psychiatrists ' main goal is to cure patients , and that potential patients may be more likely to avoid psychiatric treatment for fear of losing their gun license .
= = = Police response = = =
One of the main topics of debate after Kovář 's rampage became the way police dealt with him , especially whether the first two responding officers were , under the circumstances , supposed to immediately engage and neutralize the perpetrator , and whether the decision to wait for the arrival of the tactical unit was sound . The debate became more vocal after a cook , who managed to escape the rampage , claimed that she heard a slow series of single shots coming from the restaurant after the police had retreated . Another witness , who escaped unharmed , refuted this version of events , saying that shots were fired only during the initial ten minutes leading up to the point of police entry , with no shots heard thereafter .
Police said the first responders decided not to engage because they saw civilians lying and sitting in the line of fire between them and the perpetrator ; they didn 't know their status , and the perpetrator had taken cover behind a bar with only his head and hand holding the pistol visible . According to the Chief of the Zlín Regional Police Department , Jaromír Tkadleček , the Uherský Brod district units present had enough manpower and equipment , including select @-@ fire rifles , to engage Kovář . However , they decided to withdraw due to the perpetrator 's claim of having hostages and stated intent to negotiate their release .
Apart from local units , a special ordnance unit was called in from its regional headquarters in Zlín . It arrived about 30 minutes later . Because there are eight tactical teams covering fourteen Czech regions and none in Zlín , a tactical team from Brno was called in . The team 's fifteen members reached the restaurant by cars in 66 minutes , opting not to use their helicopter that has a capacity of six . Furthermore , a paramilitary anti @-@ terrorist police URNA unit was called from Prague . However , its helicopters didn 't arrive before the end of the standoff . According to Tkadleček , even if URNA had its headquarters directly in Uherský Brod , it would not have changed anything about the timing nor the manner in which the police engaged Kovář .
Zlín region politicians announced they would call for the establishment of a local tactical team . Meanwhile , the Minister of Interior commented that the police were already in the process of hiring 4 @,@ 000 new officers ( about 10 % of its total manpower ) , thus reversing cuts enacted by previous governments . Experts further pointed out the necessity to provide more CQB training to policemen in small municipalities and at rural areas . This type of training had until that point been largely aimed and directed at police officers in large towns .
On 10 March 2015 , weekly newspaper Respekt published more details of the police engagement . By chance , an emergency motorized police unit , which usually serve as immediate reinforcement to police officers in the field , was conducting exercises not far from Uherský Brod . The unit arrived within twenty minutes of the first emergency call . Heavily armed and well trained , their officer in charge gave order to immediately engage the perpetrator . Within a minute , the local police station chief arrived and ordered them to stand down , began securing the perimeter , gathering information , and preparing an engagement plan . Meanwhile , Kovář
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imer Morris @-@ Goodall as his co @-@ driver . They finished eleventh place overall but did win the Rudge Whitworth Cup . They competed again in the 1938 24 Hours of Le Mans but did not finish . They returned for the 1939 24 Hours of Le Mans where they finished twelfth .
= = Second World War = =
Robert Hichens applied to transfer from the Territorial Army to the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve ( RNVR ) in the summer of 1930 , and eventually transferred to the Royal Naval Volunteer Supplementary Reserve in 1936 , which was formed from yachtsmen sufficiently knowledgeable about the sea to be considered suitable for a commission . After the declaration of war he was ordered to join the training depot HMS King Alfred on 27 October 1939 , and after passing an interview and medical was promoted to sub lieutenant RNVR , completing his training in six weeks instead of the normal three months .
= = = Phoney war and Dunkirk = = =
Having completed training in December 1939 , he was promoted to lieutenant and appointed to HMS Halcycon , part of the 5th Minesweeping Flotilla and later the 4th Minesweeping Flotilla . He moved ship to HMS Niger in April 1940 , during the Phoney war period both flotillas were kept busy minesweeping in the North Sea and the only action seen was on 15 May 1940 , when HMS Hussar was holed by a German bomber . On 29 May 1940 , Hichens was informed that the British Expeditionary Force were being evacuated from Dunkirk in Operation Dynamo and that Niger would be leaving to assist . Arriving off Dunkirk on 31 May , Hichens organised the small boats and yachts used to evacuate the army from the Dunkirk jetty . When Niger was ordered home with a full complement of soldiers , Hichens asked to be left behind to continue with the evacuation . He was given permission but also informed he would have to find his own way home . Arriving back in Dover on the yacht Chico he rejoined Niger on 1 June . HMS Niger returned to Dunkirk another three times , Hichens once more went ashore to arrange the evacuation before the end of the operation . For his work on the beaches in the withdrawal of the Allied armies from Dunkirk , Hichens was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross ( DSC ) .
= = = Coastal forces = = =
Having asked for a transfer to Coastal Forces Hichens was sent to HMS Osprey at Portland for training on Motor Anti @-@ Submarine Boats ( MASB ) . He was appointed to his first command , MASB 16 , on 4 November 1940 , which he held until 18 November 1940 , when he was appointed commander of MASB 18 . His final MASB command was MASB 14 , which he took up 23 December 1940 . These boats were lightly armed with two twin Vickers .50 machine guns and depth charges and had a top speed of 40 knots .
In January 1941 , Hichens was given a new command , Motor Gun Boat 64 , becoming the first RNVR officer to command a MGB , and the only RNVR crewed boat in the 6th MGB Flotilla . It was when in command of MGB 64 that Hichens got his nickname Hitch . As each boat needed to select a radio call sign , Hichens could not think of anything suitable and Lieutenant Arty Shaw suggested Hitch , which stuck and remained with him for the rest of his time with the coastal forces .
The 6th MGB Flotilla was based at HMS Beehive in Felixstowe from April 1941 , where they were tasked to engage German E boats raiding east coast convoys . At this stage in the war MGBs were armed with a mixture of weapons , which could be Lewis machine guns , Vickers machine guns , Oerlikon 20 mm cannon or four barrelled Boulton Paul gun turrets . The armament was soon standardized with two twin Vickers .50 machine guns each side of the bridge , an Oerlikon 20 mm cannon mounted aft , and depth charges . The boats had a crew of 18 , consisting of two officers , two petty officers and 14 ratings .
= = = Flotilla commander = = =
When Robert Hichens was appointed senior officer in command of the 6th MGB Flotilla from September 1941 , he became the first RNVR officer to command a flotilla in the Second World War . Along with the new command came a promotion to lieutenant commander .
As flotilla commander his first successful action took place the night of 19 / 20 November 1941 , when his flotilla was ordered to patrol 10 miles ( 16 km ) off the Hook of Holland to engage E boats returning to base . The flotilla engaged five E boats , causing damage to all five boats , damaging two severely and forcing them to disperse . One E boat was later found abandoned by the crew and boarded . This was the first E boat captured and Hichens ' crew obtained valuable information and equipment before the boat sank . For this action Hichens was awarded a Bar to his DSC , the citation noting his " ... [ c ] oolness skill and readiness when in action against enemy E boats sinking one and damaging others " . Other members of the flotilla were awarded one Distinguished Service Medal ( DSM ) and five others were Mentioned in Dispatches ( MID ) for the action .
The flotilla 's second success was the night of 19 / 20 December 1941 , again in the North Sea off the Dutch coast , when two boats engaged two R boats and one E boat . They passed twice at high speed before losing contact , but twice during the night they located them and eventually carried out depth charge attacks . Both Hichens and the commander of the other boat received a MID for this action .
The third major action Hichens was involved in during this period was the action during the night of 21 / 22 April 1942 , off Ostend , when they engaged six E boats , forcing the superior force to scatter and run for port after severely damaging one boat and causing slight damage to the others . After this action the E boats were moved to a safer harbour to operate from . Hichens was awarded a Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) following this engagement .
= = = 8th MGB Flotilla = = =
Hichens was next appointed commander of the 8th MGB Flotilla . These new boats were armed with a twin Oerlikon mount aft , a QF 2 @-@ pounder Mark XIV forward , twin Lewis or later twin Vickers machine guns either side of the bridge and depth charges . The flotilla was moved to Dartmouth , Devon in July 1942 . The first action they were involved in was during the night of 14 / 15 July . Ordered to engage E Boats using Cherbourg as a base they found a convoy of naval trawlers escorting a small tanker . The flotilla engaged the two rear escort trawlers and carried out a depth charge attack . The tanker was last seen to be on fire as the flotilla reformed off Alderney . After this action Hichens was awarded a Bar to his DSO . Both the DSO and the Bar were presented during the same investiture at Buckingham Palace on 22 September 1942 , while other members of the flotilla were awarded a Conspicuous Gallantry Medal and four MIDs for the action .
The flotilla was next in action during the night 29 / 30 July again off Ostend , when the flotilla in company with two Motor Torpedo Boats ( MTB ) engaged a convoy of three Flak trawlers and two merchant ships . One of the merchant ships was hit by torpedoes from the MTBs while the MGBs engaged the other by dropping depth charges . With those ships destroyed they then engaged the Flak trawlers .
During the night 1 / 2 August , under orders to patrol north west of Guernsey , the flotilla again located enemy shipping . Following them towards the port of Cherbourg they silently passed a German torpedo boat lying at anchor , and located four E boats waiting to enter harbour . Having caught them by surprise they opened fire on the stationary boats and after a short engagement withdrew leaving two of the enemy boats on fire . For this action Hichens received a second MID , while other members of the flotilla were awarded a DSC , two DSMs and four MIDs .
The flotilla was ordered back to Felixstowe in Autumn 1942 . Their first contact with the enemy was on the night 14 / 15 September when they engaged a small convoy off the Hook of Holland . They followed a convoy that was escorted by four Flak trawlers almost into harbour before inflicting considerable damage to it . For this , Hichens was awarded a second Bar to his DSC . Other members of the flotilla were awarded a DSC , two DSMs and a MID .
Hichens , now the recipient of two DSOs , three DSCs and two MIDs , was offered promotion to commander in command of HMS Bee at Weymouth , Dorset and a training post ashore . Feeling unsuited for such a role , he declined and remained commander of the 8th MGB flotilla .
= = = Casualties = = =
Hichens lost the first boat under his command during the night action 2 / 3 October 1942 . Engaging four trawlers MGB 78 went in for a depth charge attack and was lost to enemy fire . Another boat , MGB 76 , was lost during the night of 5 / 6 October 1942 , when the flotilla was ambushed by two German torpedo boats and a number of E boats .
The winter months of 1942 – 43 were uneventful , and Hichens started to write his unfinished account of the war . We fought them in Gunboats was published posthumously in 1944 .
The flotilla , accompanied by four MTBs and escorting mine laying Motor Launches ( ML ) , were next in action over the night of 27 / 28 February 1943 . The mixed flotilla engaged a convoy escorted by two trawlers and a minesweeper , and lost MGB 79 to enemy fire . Hichens closed with the stricken boat , which was on fire , to remove the crew . They managed to rescue seven of the crew before being forced to withdraw under fire . Hichens ' own boat , MGB 77 , was also set on fire during the rescue .
On the night of 12 / 13 April 1943 , the flotilla was ordered to escort mine laying MLs off the Dutch coast . Detecting two trawlers they engaged them leaving one on fire , but as they withdrew MGB 77 was hit , killing Hichens outright and wounding three others on the bridge . Hichens received a posthumous MID for these actions .
= = Victoria Cross recommendation = =
Hichens was recommended for the Victoria Cross for his actions during the night of 27 / 28 February . When informed by his commanding officer , Commander Kerr , of the intention to recommend him , Hichens requested that the recommendation be dropped as he now felt he had endangered two of the boats in the flotilla trying to rescue his friends . Kerr , respecting his views , dropped the recommendation , only for it to be resubmitted six weeks later after his death . The recommendation was endorsed by Commander Kerr , Admiral Lyon ( the Commander @-@ in @-@ chief at Nore ) and Rear Admiral Rogers ( the Flag officer in charge at Harwich ) . The recommendation was rejected by the Admiralty , citing the same reasons Hichens had himself given .
= Delayed gratification =
Delayed gratification , or deferred gratification , is the ability to resist the temptation for an immediate reward and wait for a later reward . Generally , delayed gratification is associated with resisting a smaller but more immediate reward in order to receive a larger or more enduring reward later . A growing body of literature has linked the ability to delay gratification to a host of other positive outcomes , including academic success , physical health , psychological health , and social competence .
A person 's ability to delay gratification relates to other similar skills such as patience , impulse control , self @-@ control and willpower , all of which are involved in self @-@ regulation . Broadly , self @-@ regulation encompasses a person 's capacity to adapt the self as necessary to meet demands of the environment . Delaying gratification is the reverse of delay discounting , which is " the preference for smaller immediate rewards over larger but delayed rewards " and refers to the " fact that the subjective value of reward decreases with increasing delay to its receipt . " It is theorized that the ability to delay rewards is under the control of the cognitive @-@ affective personality system ( CAPS ) .
Several factors can affect a person 's ability to delay gratification . Cognitive strategies , such as the use of distracting or " cool " thoughts , can increase delay ability , as can neurological factors , such as strength of connections in the frontal @-@ striatal pathway . Behavioral researchers have focused on the contingencies that govern choices to delay reinforcement , and have studied how to manipulate those contingencies in order to lengthen delay . Age plays a role too ; children under 5 years old demonstrate a marked lack of delayed gratification ability and most commonly seek immediate gratification . A very small difference between males and females suggest that females may be better at delaying rewards . The ability to wait or seek immediate reinforcement is related to avoidance @-@ related behaviors such as procrastination , and to other clinical diagnoses such as anxiety , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and depression .
Sigmund Freud , the father of psychoanalytic theory , discussed the ego 's role in balancing the immediate pleasure @-@ driven desires of the id with the morality @-@ driven choices of the superego . Funder and Block expanded psychoanalytic research on the topic , and found that impulsivity , or a lack of ego @-@ control , has a stronger effect on one 's ability to delay rewards if a reward is more desirable . Finally , environmental and social factors play a role ; for example , delay is affected by the self @-@ imposed or external nature of a reward contingency , by the degree of task engagement required during the delay , by early mother @-@ child relationship characteristics , by a person 's previous experiences with unreliable promises of rewards ( e.g. , in poverty ) , and by contemporary sociocultural expectations and paradigms . Research on animals comprises another body of literature describing delayed gratification characteristics that are not as easily tested in human samples , such as ecological factors affecting the skill .
= = Background = =
= = = The cognitive @-@ affective processing system = = =
One well @-@ supported theory of self @-@ regulation , called the Cognitive @-@ affective personality system ( CAPS ) , suggests that delaying gratification results from an ability to use " cool " regulatory strategies ( i.e. , calm , controlled and cognitive strategies ) over " hot regulatory strategies ( i.e. , emotional , impulsive , automatic reactions ) , when faced with provocation . In " hot " processing , a person thinks intently about the object causing temptation , and especially about its most appealing elements , and is subsequently less able to resist the immediate reward . The use of cool strategies can translate to more control over behavior . Effective " cool " strategies involve distraction and restructuring the perception of the tempting stimulus to make it seem less appealing . For example , in one study of pre @-@ adolescent boys with behavioral problems , the boys showed a reduction in verbal and physical aggression when they used " cool " strategies , such as looking away or distracting themselves . The most effective type of distraction seems to be imagining another desirable reward , which takes attention away from the immediate temptations .
= = = The Stanford marshmallow experiment = = =
The seminal research on delayed gratification – the now @-@ famous " marshmallow experiment " – was conducted by Walter Mischel in the 1960s and 1970s at Stanford University . Mischel and his colleagues were interested in strategies that preschool children used to resist temptation . They presented four @-@ year @-@ olds with a marshmallow and told the children that they had two options : ( 1 ) ring a bell at any point to summon the experimenter and eat the marshmallow , or ( 2 ) wait until the experimenter returned ( about 15 minutes later ) , and earn two marshmallows . The message was : " small reward now , bigger reward later . " Some children broke down and ate the marshmallow , whereas others were able to delay gratification and earn the coveted two marshmallows . In follow @-@ up experiments , Mischel found that children were able to wait longer if they used certain " cool " distraction techniques ( covering their eyes , hiding under the desk , singing songs , or imagining pretzels instead of the marshmallow in front of them ) , or if they changed the way they thought about the marshmallow ( focusing on its similarity to a cotton ball , rather than on its gooey , delectable taste ) .
The children who waited longer , when re @-@ evaluated as teenagers and adults , demonstrated a striking array of advantages over their peers . As teenagers , they had higher SAT scores , social competence , self @-@ assuredness and self @-@ worth , and were rated by their parents as more mature , better able to cope with stress , more likely to plan ahead , and more likely to use reason . They were less likely to have conduct disorders or high levels of impulsivity , aggressiveness and hyperactivity . As adults , the high delayers were less likely to have drug problems or other addictive behaviors , get divorced , or be overweight . Each minute that a preschooler was able to delay gratification translated to a .2 % reduction in Body Mass Index 30 years later .
Each of these positive outcomes requires some ability to forgo short @-@ term reward in favor of a higher payoff in the future . The ability to delay gratification also appears to be a buffer against rejection sensitivity ( the tendency to be anxious when anticipating interpersonal rejection ) . In a 20 @-@ year follow @-@ up of the marshmallow experiment , individuals with vulnerability to high rejection sensitivity who had shown strong delay of gratification abilities as preschoolers had higher self @-@ esteem and self @-@ worth and more adaptive coping skills , in comparison to the individuals who had high rejection sensitivity but low delay of gratification as four @-@ year @-@ olds . These compelling longitudinal findings converge with other studies showing a similar pattern : The ability to resist temptation early in life translates to persistent benefits across settings .
Forty years after the first marshmallow test studies , neuroimaging data has shed light on the neural correlates of delayed gratification . A team led by B. J. Casey , of Cornell University , recruited 59 of the original participants – who are now in their mid @-@ 40s – and gave them a delayed gratification task . Instead of resisting marshmallows , these adults were instructed to suppress responses to images of happy faces , but not to neutral or fearful faces . Those who had been high delayers as pre @-@ schoolers were more successful at controlling their impulses in response to the emotional faces ( i.e. , not pressing the button in response to happy faces ) , suggesting that the high delayers continued to show better ability to dampen or resist impulses . Casey and colleagues also scanned the brains of 26 participants using functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) as they completed the task . The researchers hypothesized that high delayers would be more likely to use " cool " regulation strategies to control their responses , which would manifest as activation of the right prefrontal cortex , whereas low delayers would use " hot " strategies , which would activate the ventral striatum , an area also linked to addiction . Indeed , results showed this differential brain activity . This mirrors other fMRI research of delayed gratification conducted by Noah Shamosh and Jeremy Gray , of Yale University , demonstrating that individuals who chose larger delayed rewards over smaller immediate rewards ( in hypothetical situations ) showed greater brain activation in the anterior prefrontal cortex .
= = Factors affecting one 's ability = =
= = = Cognitive / neurological factors = = =
The way that a person frames a situation heavily influences a decision 's outcome . Research on " hot " and " cool " strategies suggests that when children cognitively represent what they are waiting for as a real reward by focusing on the reward 's arousing , " hot " qualities ( taste , smell , sound , feel , etc . ) their self @-@ control and delay of gratification decreases , while directing attention to a symbol of the reward by focusing on its abstract , " cool " qualities ( shape , color , number , etc . ) , can enhance self @-@ control and increase the delay . Optimal self @-@ control and the longest delay to gratification can be achieved by directing attention to a competing item , especially the arousing , " hot " qualities of a competing item . For example , delays are increased when thinking about the taste and smell of popcorn while waiting to eat candy . This illustrates an individual 's ability to manipulate his / her cognitive representation of external stimuli for goal @-@ directed purposes .
Delaying gratification is the same as controlling the impulse for immediate gratification , which requires cognitive control . The ventral striatum , located in the midbrain , is the part of the limbic system that is the reward center as well as a pleasure center . The limbic system will always react to the potential for instant pleasure . To override this instinct , the prefrontal cortex , which is also associated with reasoning and rational thought , must be active . The prefrontal cortex is also the part of the brain that determines the focus of a person 's attention , which enables a better framing that facilitates delayed gratification . During adolescence and early adulthood , the prefrontal cortex develops and matures to become more complicated and connected with the rest of the brain . Older children and adults find the deferment @-@ of @-@ gratification tasks easier than do young children for this reason . However , the relative ability to defer gratification remains stable throughout development . Children who can better control impulses grow up to be adults who also have better control . Practicing deferred gratification is quite beneficial to cognitive abilities throughout life .
= = = Behavioral factors = = =
Behaviorists focus on the acquisition and teaching of delayed gratification , and have developed therapeutic techniques for increasing ability to delay . Behavior analysts capitalize on the effective principles of reinforcement when shaping behavior by making rewards contingent on the person 's current behavior , which promotes learning a delay of gratification . It is important to note that for a behavior modification regimen to succeed , the reward must have some value to the participant . Without a reward that is meaningful , providing delayed or immediate gratification serves little purpose , as the reward is not a strong reinforcer of the desired behavior .
Behavior theorists see delaying gratification as an adaptive skill . It has been shown that learning to delay gratification promotes positive social behavior , such as sharing and positive peer interactions . For example , students who learn to delay gratification are better able to complete their assigned activities . To put it simply , if someone undertakes an activity with the promise of a delayed reward after , the task 's completion becomes more likely .
Behavioral researchers have found that a choice for instant versus delayed gratification is influenced by several factors including whether the reward is negative or positive reinforcement . A past study by Solnick et al . , focused on an experiment where the main concentrations were time added to both conditions and the preference of the participants with experiencing a loud noise for variable amounts of time : 15 , 30 , 60 , and 90 seconds . The buttons to turn off the noise were manipulated by one button turning off the noise for a short amount of time and the other turning the noise off for an extended time . The participants were found to be more willing to turn off the noise immediately for 90 seconds rather than turning it off for the 120 seconds after a 60 @-@ second delay was issued . Findings illustrate that participants chose not to delay their gratification for the relief of noise but rather instantly silence it for a shorter amount of time .
= = = = Individual thresholds for delay = = = =
In a 2011 study , researchers tested to see if people would willingly choose between instant and delayed gratification by offering them a set amount of ( hypothetical ) money that they could receive presently , or telling them they could wait a month for more money . Results suggested that willingness to delay gratification depended on the amount of money being offered , but also showed wide individual variation in the threshold of later reward that was motivating enough to forgo the immediate reward . The subjective value of a reward can also stem from the way one describes the potential reward . As prospect theory states , people are heavily loss @-@ averse . People tend to value a commodity more when it is considered to be something that can be lost or given up than when it is evaluated as a potential gain .
= = = = Duration of time delay = = = =
The duration of time until an eventual reward also affects participants ' choice of immediate or delayed gratification . A 2001 study demonstrated that if a reward will not be granted for an extensive amount of time , such as 180 – 300 months ( 15 – 25 years ) , the monetary amount of the reward is inconsequential ; instead , the bulk of the participants choose the immediate reward , even if their delayed reward would be quite large . Delayed gratification has its limits , and a delay can only be so long before it is judged to be not worth the effort it takes to wait .
= = = = Behavioral training = = = =
= = = = = Applications in classroom settings = = = = =
In a Year 3 elementary classroom in South Wales a teacher was having difficulty keeping three girls on task during designated private study times . The teacher reached for aid from behavior analysts , and a delayed gratification behavior modification plan was put into place . The study gave limits on the amounts of questions the children could ask , and if they did not exceed the limit , they were given tokens for rewards . The token economy for rewards is an example of delayed gratification , by way of cool processing . Instead of having the girls focus on attention @-@ seeking behaviors that distracted the teacher and the students , the teacher had them focus on how many questions they had , and if they needed to ask for help from the teacher . They also focused on gaining tokens rather than focusing on the final reward , which increased their delays . By giving the children this goal and the promise of positive reinforcement for good behavior , the girls dropped their rate of question @-@ asking and attention @-@ seeking .
= = = = = Applications to ADHD = = = = =
Compared to neurotypical children , those with ADHD generally demonstrate greater impulsivity by being influenced by reward immediacy and quality more than by the frequency of reward and effort to obtain it . However , researchers have empirically shown that these impulsive behavior patterns can be changed through the implementation of a simple self @-@ control training procedure in which reinforcer immediacy competes with the frequency , quantity or saliency of the reward , and the delay is gradually increased . One study demonstrated that any verbal activity while waiting for reinforcement increases delay to gratification in participants with ADHD . In another study , 3 children diagnosed with ADHD and demonstrating impulsivity were trained to prefer reward rate and saliency more than immediacy through manipulation of the quality of the reinforcers and by systematically increasing the delay with a changing @-@ criterion design . Post @-@ assessment of the children illustrated that self @-@ control can transfer to untrained dimensions of reinforcement ; such as an increase in quality over immediacy preference due to direct training resulting in an increase in quantity over immediacy preference .
= = = Across the lifespan = = =
At birth , infants are unable to wait for their wants and needs to be met and exhibit a defining lack of impulse control . With age , developing children are able to retain impulsivity but also gain control over their immediate desires and are increasingly able to prolong gratification . Developmental psychologists study the progression of impulse control and delay of gratification over the lifespan , including deficiencies in development that are closely related to attention deficits and behavior problems .
= = = = Effects of age = = = =
Children under five years old display the least effective strategies for delaying gratification , such as looking at the reward and thinking about its arousing features . By 5 years old , most children are able to demonstrate better self @-@ control by recognizing the counter @-@ productivity of focusing on the reward . Five @-@ year @-@ olds often choose instead to actively distract themselves or even use self @-@ instructions to remind themselves of the contingency that waiting produces a reward of a greater value . Between 8 and 13 years old , children develop the cognitive ability to differentiate and employ abstract versus arousing thoughts in order to distract their minds from the reward and thereby increase the delay . Once delaying strategies are developed , the capacity to resist temptation is relatively stable throughout adulthood . Preschoolers ' performance on delayed gratification tasks correlates with their adolescent performance on tasks designed to measure similar constructs and processing , which parallels the corresponding development of willpower and the fronto @-@ striatal circuit ( neural pathways that connect the frontal lobe to other brain regions ) . Declines in self @-@ regulation and impulse control in old age predict corresponding declines in reward @-@ delaying strategies , specifically reduced temporal discounting due to a decrease in cooling strategies .
= = = = Effects of gender = = = =
Throughout 33 studies on gender differences , a small significant effect ( r = .06 ) has been found indicating that a base @-@ rate of 10 % more females are able to delay rewards than males , which is the typical percentage of difference found between the sexes on measures such as personality or social behavior . This effect may be related to the slight gender differences found in delay discounting ( i.e. , minimizing the value of a delayed reward ) and higher levels of impulsivity and inattention in boys . Further studies are needed to analyze if this minute difference begins at a certain age ( e.g. , puberty ) or if it has a stable magnitude throughout the lifespan . Some researchers suggest this gender difference may correspond with a mother 's tendency to sacrifice her wants and needs in order to meet those of her child more frequently than a father does .
= = = Clinical factors = = =
= = = = Contemporary clinical psychology perspectives = = = =
Self @-@ control has been called the " master virtue " by clinical and social psychologists , suggesting that the ability to delay gratification plays a critical role in a person 's overall psychological adjustment . People with better ability to delay gratification report higher wellbeing , self @-@ esteem and openness to experience , as well as more productive ways of responding to anger and other provocations . Early delay ability has been shown to protect against the development of a variety of emotional vulnerabilities later in life , such as aggression and features of borderline personality disorder . Meanwhile , many maladaptive coping skills that characterize mental illness entail a difficulty delaying gratification . The tendency to choose short @-@ term rewards at the expense of longer @-@ term benefits permeates many forms of psychopathology .
Externalizing disorders . Externalizing disorders ( i.e. , acting @-@ out disorders ) show a clearer link to delayed gratification , since they more directly involve deficits in impulse control . For example , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) and aggressive behavior are associated with difficulty delaying gratification in children and adolescents , as are substance abuse , gambling , and other addictive behaviors in adolescents and adults . In a 2010 study , teenagers and young adults with stronger abilities to delay gratification were less likely to drink alcohol , or to smoke cigarettes or marijuana . Interestingly , a 2011 study found that the contrast in delayed gratification between children with and without ADHD was no longer significant after statistically controlling for IQ ( in other words , ADHD was not associated with delayed gratification above and beyond the influence of IQ ) . This may stem from the high correlation between intelligence and delayed gratification , and suggests that the tie between delayed gratification and ADHD could benefit from more investigation .
Internalizing disorders . Difficulty delaying gratification also plays a role in internalizing disorders like anxiety and depression . A hallmark behavior in anxiety is avoidance of feared or anxiety @-@ provoking situations . By seeking the immediate relief that comes with avoidance , a person is succumbing to the pull of instant gratification over the larger reward from overcoming the fear and anxiety that caused the avoidance . Procrastination , which is often a reflection of anxiety , is a clear example : a person avoids a dreaded task by engaging in a more enjoyable immediate activity instead . Obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder ( OCD ) is a more jarring case of this anxiety @-@ related struggle to delay gratification ; someone with OCD is unable to resist compulsions that temporarily mitigate the torture of obsessive thoughts , even though these compulsions do not banish the obsessions in the long run . ( One experiment , however , did not find any significant differences between samples with OCD and healthy controls in delayed gratification , while finding substantially improved delayed gratification among those with Obsessive @-@ compulsive personality disorder . ) Depression is also associated with lower capacity to delay gratification , though the direction of cause and effect is not
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clear . A depressed person who has difficulty pushing him or herself to engage in previously enjoyed activities is ( deliberately or not ) prioritizing short @-@ term comfort and is demonstrating an impaired ability to delay gratification . There is evidence that individuals who engage in deliberate self @-@ harm ( i.e. , cut themselves ) are less able to tolerate emotional distress but are more able to tolerate physical pain . Thus it is argued that they injure themselves because they cannot delay gratification and need a way to end emotional pain quickly .
A growing body of research suggests that self @-@ control is akin to a muscle that can be strengthened through practice . In other words , self @-@ control abilities are malleable , a fact that can be a source of hope for those who struggle with this skill . In psychotherapy , treatment for impulse @-@ control issues often involves teaching individuals to realize the downsides of acting on immediate urges and in turn to practice delaying gratification . In anxiety disorders , this process occurs through exposure to a feared situation – which is very uncomfortable at first , but eventually becomes tolerable and even trains a person 's mind and body that these situations are less threatening than originally feared . Exposure therapy is only effective if an individual can delay gratification and resist the urge to escape the situation early on . To shed insight on the tradeoff between short- and long @-@ term gains , therapists might also help individuals construct a pro @-@ con list of a certain behavior , with sections for short @-@ term and long @-@ term outcomes . For maladaptive coping behaviors such as self @-@ injury , substance use or avoidance , there are generally no long @-@ term pros . Meanwhile , abstinence from acting on a harmful urge ( i.e. , delayed gratification ) generally results in long @-@ term benefits . This realization can be a powerful impetus for change .
= = = = Psychoanalytic drives and impulses = = = =
Sigmund Freud viewed the struggle to delay gratification as a person 's efforts to overcome the instinctive , libidinal drive of the id . According to classic psychoanalytic theory , a person 's psyche is composed of the id , ego and superego . The id is driven by the pleasure principle : it wants physical pleasure , and it wants it now . The ego , operating under the reality principle , serves to moderate the id 's desire for instant gratification against the superego , which is guided by a person 's internalized sense of morality . According to psychoanalytic theory , a person with difficulty delaying gratification is plagued by intrapsychic conflict – the ego cannot adequately regulate the battle between the id and the superego – and experiences psychological distress , often in the form of anxiety or " neurosis . "
Other psychoanalytic researchers describe a more nuanced , and less universally positive , view of delayed gratification . David C. Funder and Jack Block theorized that a person 's tendency to delay , or not delay , gratification is just one element of a broader construct called ego control , defined as a person 's ability to modulate or control impulses . Ego control " ranges from ego undercontrol at one end to ego overcontrol at the other , " according to Funder . These tendencies are thought to be relatively stable in each individual , such that someone who tends toward undercontrol will " grab whatever rewards are immediately available even at the cost of long @-@ term gain " and someone who tends toward overcontrol will " delay or even forgo pleasures even when they can be had without cost . " By this view , delay of gratification may be adaptive in certain settings , but inappropriate or even costly in other settings .
Funder and Block draw a distinction between the ego @-@ control model , in which delayed gratification is seen as a general tendency to contain motivational impulses ( whether or not it is adaptive in a specific instance ) , and the ego @-@ resiliency model ( supported by Mischel 's research ) , in which delayed gratification is seen as a skill that arises only when it is adaptive . To tease apart these models , Funder and Block explored the association between ego control , ego resiliency , IQ and delayed gratification in adolescents . The adolescents had the choice between being paid $ 4 at each of six study sessions or delaying their payment until the last session , in which case they would also earn an addition $ 4 of " interest . " The results supported both models of delayed gratification . The teens ' tendency to delay gratification was indeed associated with IQ and with ego resiliency ( e.g. , higher delayers were rated as more responsible , consistent , likable , sympathetic , generous ; less hostile , moody , self @-@ indulgent , rebellious ) , but was also independently associated with ego control ( e.g. , higher delayers were rated as " tends toward over @-@ control of needs and impulses , " " favors conservative values in a number of areas . " . The researchers noted that individual differences in ego control ( i.e. , overall impulsivity ) may play a larger role in delayed gratification when the incentives are larger and more motivating .
Writing in 1998 , Funder described delayed gratification as a " mixed bag . " He concluded : " Participants who exhibited the most delay were not just ' better ' at self @-@ control , but in a sense they seemed unable to avoid it . … Delayers are in general smart and well @-@ adjusted , but they also tend to be somewhat overcontrolled and unnecessarily inhibited . "
= = = Environmental / social factors = = =
= = = = Who 's in control = = = =
Factors affecting one 's ability to delay gratification depend on whether the delay contingency is self @-@ imposed ( delay can be terminated at the will of the person waiting ) or externally imposed by another person , institution or circumstance . When the contingency is self @-@ imposed , the physical presence of the reward seems to aid in delaying gratification . On the other hand , when the delay is externally imposed , children are not able to wait as long when the reward is present , suggesting greater frustration under these circumstances .
= = = = Task engagement = = = =
Engaging in work or an assigned task can generate an effective distraction from a reward and enable a person to wait for a longer delay , as long as the reward is not being flaunted . Having the reward present during work ( and easily accessible ) creates a negative frustration — akin to teasing — rather than providing motivation . For example , a child who can see other children playing outside while finishing his / her homework will be less motivated to wait for his / her turn for recess . Another factor work and task engagement adds to the delay of gratification is that if the work is interesting and has some reinforcing quality inherent to it , then attention to the reward will reduce work productivity since it becomes a distraction to the work rather than a motivation to finish it .
= = = = Mother @-@ child relationship = = = =
The more positive emotions and behavior that a 12- to 24 @-@ month @-@ old toddler displays when coping with separation from a parent , the better s / he is 3 @.@ 5 years later at using cooling strategies in order to delay gratification . This suggests that the emotional skills and processes required for coping with social and interpersonal frustrations are similar to those utilized for coping with the aggravation of goal @-@ directed delay of gratification . Maternal attachment also influences the development of a child 's ability to delay gratification . An interaction has been found between a mother 's level of control and how close a child stays to the mother while exploring the environment . Children who have controlling mothers and explore their environment at a far distance from her are able to employ more cooling strategies and delay rewards longer . Similarly , children who stay close to a non @-@ controlling mothers also use more cool strategies and demonstrate longer delays . This suggests that some children of controlling mothers have better learned how to distract themselves from or effectively avoid intrusive stimuli , although additional effects on their emotional competency are speculated but unknown . A greater capacity to delay gratification by using effective attentional strategies is also seen in preschoolers whose mothers had been responsive and supportive during particularly stressful times of self @-@ regulation when the child was a toddler , indicating that maternal responsiveness during highly demanding times is crucial for the development of self @-@ regulation , self @-@ control and emotional competency .
= = = = Reliability of gratification = = = =
Researchers have investigated whether the reliability of the reward affects one 's ability to delay gratification . Reliability of the reward refers to how well the reward received matches what the person was expecting or promised in terms of quality and quantity . For example , researchers told children that they would receive better art supplies if they waited . After the children successfully waited for the reward , better supplies could not be " found " and so they had to use the crayons and stickers that were in poor shape . Comparing these children to ones who received their promised rewards reliably revealed different results on subsequent Marshmallow tests measuring delayed gratification . Children who had learned that the researcher 's promise was unreliable quickly succumbed to eating the marshmallow , waiting only an average of 3 minutes . Conversely , children who had learned that the researcher was reliable were able to wait an average of 12 minutes , with many of them waiting the full 15 minutes for the researcher to return in order to double the reward to two marshmallows .
= = = = Social / cultural influences = = = =
It is difficult to teach delayed gratification when children grow up expecting a large , instant reward for their years of schooling . Societal impacts and current media trends have had the effect of teaching people to expect instant gratification . The idea of waiting for a good job , earned through working from the bottom up , frequently upsets and frustrates emerging adults in today 's society . This desire for immediate gratification is not only found in workplaces , but also in interpersonal relationships . Current studies show that 45 % of marriages will end in divorce . Without the ability to delay gratification people are more apt to end relationships rather than work on them . Our society today makes it increasingly easy to receive instant gratification . " We have devalued the time we spend alone just thinking , but it 's that time for reflection that leads to the big ideas ... Multitasking is espoused and almost glorified in the United States , but it is dehumanizing us and making us less creative . "
= = = Genetics and evolution = = =
Evolutionary theory can argue against the selection of the deferred gratification trait since there are both costs and risks associated with delaying gratification behavior . One such cost is the basic opportunity cost associated with time spent waiting . While waiting , individuals lose time that could be used to find other food . Seeking high calorie food conveys a clear evolutionary advantage . There are also two risks associated with being patient . First , there is a risk that another animal might get to the food first , also known as an interruption risk . Second , there is the risk that the chance to get the reward will be cut short , perhaps by a predator , also known as a termination risk . These costs and risks create situations in which the fitness of the individual is threatened . There are several examples that show how reward delay occurs in the real world . For example , animals that eat fruit have the option of eating unripe fruit right away , or waiting , delaying gratification , until it becomes ripe . The interruption risk plays a part here , because if the individual forgoes the unripe fruit , there is a chance that another individual may come along and get to it first . Also , in extractive foraging , such as with nuts and shellfish , the outer shell creates a delay . However , animals that can store food and defer eating are more likely to survive during harsh conditions , and thus delaying gratification may also incur an evolutionary advantage .
It is likely that there is a strong genetic component to deferred gratification , though no direct link has been established . Since many complex genetic interactions are necessary for neurons to perform the simplest tasks , it is hard to isolate one gene to study this behavior . For this same reason , multiple genes are likely responsible for deferred gratification . Further research is necessary to discover the genetic corollaries to delayed gratification .
= = Animal studies = =
Delayed gratification or deferred gratification is an animal behavior that can be linked to delay discounting , ecological factors , individual fitness , and neurobiological mechanisms . Research for this behavior has been conducted with animals such as capuchin monkeys , tamarins , marmosets , rats , and pigeons .
= = = Delay discounting = = =
When animals are faced with a choice to either wait for a reward , or receive a reward right away , the discounting of the reward is hyperbolic . As the length of time of waiting for a reward increases , the reward is discounted at a gradual rate . Empirical data have suggested that exponential discounting , rewards discounting at a constant rate per unit of waiting time , only occurs when there are random interruptions in foraging . Discounting can also be related to the risk sensitivity of animals . Rather than relating risk to delay , risk sensitivity acts as a function of delay discounting . In a study conducted by Haden and Platt , macaque monkeys were given the choice of a medium reward that they knew they would receive , versus a more risky choice . The riskier choice would reward the monkey with a large reward fifty percent of the time , and a small reward the other fifty percent . The ultimate payoff was the same , but the monkeys preferred the riskier choice . They speculated that the monkeys did not see their action as risky , but rather as a large , delayed reward . They reasoned that the monkeys viewed the large reward as certain : if they did not get the large reward the first time around , they would eventually get it , but at a longer delay . To test for this theory , they gave the same test while varying the time between the opportunities to choose a reward . They found that as the interval increased , the number of times that the monkeys chose the more risky reward decreased . While this occurred in macaque monkeys , the varying interval time did not affect pigeons ' choices in another study . This suggests that research looking into varying risk sensitivity of different species is needed . When provided a choice between a small , short delay reward , and a large , long delay reward , there is an impulsive preference for the former . Additionally , as the delay time for the small / short and large / long reward increases , there is a shift in preference toward the larger , delayed reward . This evidence only supports hyperbolic discounting , not exponential .
= = = Ecological factors = = =
Although predicting reward preference seems simple when using empirical models , there are a number of ecological factors that seem to affect the delayed gratification behavior of animals . In real world situations , " discounting makes sense because of the inherent uncertainty of future payoffs . "
One study looked at how reward discounting is context specific . By differing the time and space between small and large rewards , they were able to test how these factors affected the decision making in tamarins and marmosets . They showed that tamarins will travel longer distances for larger food rewards , but will not wait as long as marmosets . Conversely , marmosets will wait longer , but will not travel as far . They then concluded that this discounting behavior directly correlates to the normal feeding behavior of species . The tamarins feed over large distances , looking for insects . Capturing and eating insects requires a quick and impulsive decision and action . The marmosets , on the other hand , eat tree sap , which takes more time to secrete , but does not require that the marmosets to cover large distances .
The physiological similarities between humans and other animals , especially primates , have led to more comparative research between the two groups . Future research with animal models then can expand our own understanding of how people make decisions about instant versus delayed gratification in the real world .
= The Go @-@ Getter ( 2007 film ) =
The Go @-@ Getter is a 2007 American independent road film directed and written by Martin Hynes . The film stars Lou Taylor Pucci , Zooey Deschanel , and Jena Malone . In the film , 19 @-@ year @-@ old Mercer ( Pucci ) steals a stranger 's car to embark on a road trip to find his estranged brother and tell him that their mother has died . He communicates with the car 's owner , Kate ( Deschanel ) , via her cell phone while he travels .
The story was based partially on Hynes 's own experiences . After his mother died , and his marriage ended , he took a road trip of his own and wrote " different things , " some of which came together in the script for The Go @-@ Getter . Before production began , Hynes and three other crew members traveled to almost every location visited in the film to perform a test shoot , trying various filming styles and techniques . Filming took place between October and November 2005 in Oregon , Nevada , California , and Mexico . Singer and guitarist M. Ward provided most of the music for the film , complemented by songs from The Black Keys , Elliott Smith , The Replacements , and Animal Collective .
The Go @-@ Getter debuted on January 22 , 2007 at the Sundance Film Festival and was given a limited theatrical release on June 6 , 2008 by Peace Arch Entertainment . Its run lasted just three days , and it grossed only US $ 11 @,@ 931 . Critics were divided in reaction to the film ; some praised the performances , the dialogue and the cinematography , while others thought it was unoriginal , forgettable , and poorly acted .
= = Plot = =
One ordinary day , 19 @-@ year @-@ old Mercer White ( Lou Taylor Pucci ) steals a Volvo station wagon from a car wash , and leaves Eugene , Oregon to find his estranged half @-@ brother Arlen , who is unaware that their mother has recently died . Soon after leaving , a cell phone in the car rings , and Mercer finds himself talking to the owner of the car , Kate ( Zooey Deschanel ) , who lends him her car on the condition that he calls regularly to describe his trip to her .
Mercer travels to a bohemian pottery @-@ making commune in Shelter Cove , California where Arlen once lived , but learns that he moved to Reno , Nevada . He passes through Fallon , Nevada to meet up with the seductive Joely ( Jena Malone ) , his middle school crush . In Reno , they take ecstasy and almost have sex before Mercer resumes his search for Arlen . Later he finds himself on the set of a pornographic film , where the director ( Julio Oscar Mechoso ) tells him that Arlen left to work at a pet store in Sacramento , California . Joely asks Mercer if he can drive her cousin Buddy ( Colin Fickes ) and his friend Rid ( William Lee Scott ) to Mojave , California , where they are building their own car . While driving , Mercer finds Kate 's YMCA card in the trunk of her car and , now knowing what she looks like , describes a dream to her in which he , Joely , and Kate are dancing in a re @-@ enactment of Bande à part 's dance sequence . Not wanting to get sidetracked , he tries to leave the others behind in a motel room , but when Buddy threatens to steal the car , Mercer tells him that the car belongs to his girlfriend , and Buddy , Rid , and Joely leave without Mercer in Kate 's car . He hitchhikes to Mojave and finds the salvage yard where Buddy and Rid are working , and retrieves the car .
Mercer talks to Kate while driving , imagining her sitting in the back seat of the car , but she hangs up in jealousy when he mentions Joely for the first time . He arrives in Sacramento and finds the pet store where Arlen worked . The owner ( Maura Tierney ) asks Mercer to sing in her children 's band , for which she plays as part of her probation . When he returns to the car , he finds somebody trying to break into it , only to discover that it is Kate . They spend the night at a hotel , but he leaves without her the next morning and catches a train to Los Angeles , California . With the help of a translator , he phones Arlen 's last residence and learns from a Hispanic woman that Arlen is working at a hotel in Ensenada , Mexico . Mercer finally meets Arlen ( Jsu Garcia ) at the hotel in Ensenada , but Arlen assumes Mercer is just there for money . Enraged , Mercer tackles his brother to the ground and gets kicked off the premises . Kate later finds a bloody Mercer sitting on the side of a road and takes him to a hotel . She tells him that she let him take her car because she was attracted to him , and they have sex . The next day Mercer meets with Arlen again , more amicably , and tells him that he and Kate are driving to Louisiana to spread his mother 's ashes .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Writer @-@ director Martin Hynes referred to the film as " very uncomfortably autobiographical " . He had learned that his mother was diagnosed with cancer when making his 1999 film The Big Split . His marriage ended soon after his mother died , which Hynes saw as " a huge amount of loss " . After deciding that " I have to do less , " he took a road trip , spending much of his time writing as he traveled . He wrote " really different things " , some of which were pieced together and led to his script for The Go @-@ Getter , which he wrote in 2004 . Within six months of the script 's completion , producer Lucy Barzun Donnelly had raised the entire budget of the film without any actors attached at the time .
Barzun Donnelly recommended to Hynes that he consider Lou Taylor Pucci for the lead role of Mercer , believing that he was " perfect " . Hynes watched Pucci 's 2005 film Thumbsucker and thought that " We 'd be so lucky to have him . " He contacted Pucci about the role but was leaving for Norway in less than a week to attend a friend 's wedding and wanted to meet with him before leaving . Pucci was in San Francisco on a press tour and Hynes flew from Los Angeles to have lunch with him . Hynes said of the meeting , " I think we really [ got ] each other , " and Pucci accepted the role a week later . Jena Malone signed on to portray Joely because she " loved the script " and was keen to play " a woman on the cusp of learning to toy with her [ ... ] sexual manipulation " ; she only later learned that Hynes had written the role with her in mind , having previously worked with her on the short film Al as in Al . Hynes said that Zooey Deschanel , Maura Tierney , and Bill Duke each joined the cast because they " read [ the script ] and really liked it " . He made a deliberate attempt to cast Deschanel and Malone against their previous types . He described Deschanel as a " glamour girl " and Malone as a sexually mature woman .
= = = Filming = = =
Four months before filming began , Hynes asked Barzun Donnelly to set US $ 20 @,@ 000 – 25 @,@ 000 aside from the film 's budget so that he could perform a test shoot . Hynes , cinematographer Byron Shah , a camera assistant , and a stand @-@ in for Mercer — as Pucci had not yet been cast — traveled to every location in the film except for Mexico . Over 2 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) , they shot 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) of film , testing different filters , lenses , film stocks , and shooting styles . Hynes wrote an 85 @-@ page shot list , " scop [ ing ] out " the entire film . He called the test shoot an " incredible boon " and remarked that " Not one frame of it ended up on the movie , but it paid for itself time and time again . " After returning to Los Angeles , he visited each of the locations ( including Mexico ) again with the principal and technical crews .
Principal photography began in mid @-@ October 2005 and continued through November over a total period of 25 days . The film was shot in sequence , with production starting in Eugene , Oregon and then moving to Reno , Nevada and subsequently Ensenada , Mexico . Hynes called the filming " a high @-@ wire act the whole way " , and said that one of the biggest challenges was transporting the crew of 40 from Oregon to Mexico , sometimes changing locations twice a day with few hours of daylight . A crew member lost the project 's Filming Permit on the last day of shooting in Mexico , and filming at rush hour was halted by the police . Hynes took a smaller camera to film several blocks away from the original set , but the second assistant director soon arrived warning that the police were coming and that they would be taken to prison because they did not have the paperwork for filming . Hynes and the crew " scatter [ ed ] " , leaving Pucci alone further down the street , which Hynes claims is his strangest experience in the film industry . The crew later returned to Los Angeles to shoot final scenes and to commence post @-@ production .
= = = Music = = =
When searching for the film 's music , one of the producers suggested to Hynes that he go to a Bright Eyes concert . Singer and guitarist M. Ward opened the show as a supporting act , and Hynes recalled thinking , " Holy shit ! That 's the guy . That 's it . He 's perfect ! " Hynes sent an unsolicited script of the film to Ward , who read it and signed on to the
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project when there was no financing behind the film nor any actors attached . He told Hynes that any of his songs could be used in the film ; Hynes said that , in post @-@ production , he tested every one of Ward 's songs , including instrumental versions , in the final cut . In the beginning of the film , Mercer comes across a band ; Hynes had always intended for whichever song they were playing to become the overture of the film . Ward 's song " Vincent O 'Brien " became that overture , and described the continuous presence of Ward 's music as " a reminder of home " . He decided that when Joely entered " it was right to step away from Mercer 's sound — M. Ward — and [ convey ] that this movie has been overtaken by forces outside his control , " using The Black Keys ' " 10 A.M. Automatic " and " Keep Me " in addition to The Replacements ' " Color Me Impressed " . Hynes was able to obtain , at a low cost , " Banshee Beat " by Animal Collective and the late Elliott Smith 's song " Coast to Coast " , after writing a " heartfelt letter " to Smith 's mother and sister , his main estate holders .
He also used " A Mighty Fortress Is Our God " by novelty singer Corn Mo at the insistence of Nick Offerman , who plays three minor roles in the film . The Portland Youth Jazz Orchestra All Stars plays Ward 's " One Life Away " as an " old @-@ timey instrumental " for one of Mercer 's dreams , an homage to a dancing sequence seen in Jean @-@ Luc Godard 's 1964 film Bande à part . For the closing credits , Ward and Zooey Deschanel recorded a duet cover of " When I Get to the Border " from Richard and Linda Thompson 's 1974 album I Want to See the Bright Lights Tonight . The pair found themselves " mutually charmed " , according to The New York Times ' Melena Ryzik , and bonded over similar musical interests . After Ward listened to Deschanel 's demos , they paired up and formed the band She & Him . Pitchfork Media reported in April 2007 of a future The Go @-@ Getter soundtrack to be released by Merge Records , including a 12 @-@ song tracklist , but Merge later claimed that it was never planning to release a soundtrack .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Theatrical release = = =
The world premiere of The Go @-@ Getter was held on January 22 , 2007 at the Sundance Film Festival . The film was subsequently screened at the AFI Dallas International Film Festival , Waterfront Film Festival , Nantucket Film Festival , Hamburg Film Festival , Austin Film Festival , Stockholm International Film Festival , and the Prague Febiofest . Peace Arch Entertainment bought the film 's distribution rights and it was given a limited release on June 6 , 2008 in selective theatres in New York City , Santa Monica and Irvine , California , and Portland , Oregon . The film 's release was withdrawn on June 8 , its theatrical run lasting only three days . On its only open weekend , the film earned US $ 11 @,@ 931 across six locations with a per @-@ screen average of $ 2 @,@ 386 . The Go @-@ Getter placed 512th for the highest @-@ grossing films of 2008 and 375th for the year 's highest @-@ grossing opening weekends .
= = = Home media = = =
The Go @-@ Getter was released on DVD on October 21 , 2008 in Region 1 and in August 2008 in Region 4 . The region 1 disc includes an audio commentary with Martin Hynes , a " 20 Questions " featurette with the cast and crew , a voucher for the download of a She & Him song , and a digital copy of the film for use with portable video players .
= = Reception = =
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 43 % of 23 collected reviews for the film were positive , with an average score of 5 @.@ 6 / 10 and the consensus that " The Go @-@ Getter features nice performances , but ultimately fails to carve its own path " . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 69 , based on 12 reviews .
Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers awarded the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , commending the film for being " emotionally truthful , painfully funny and vibrantly alive " and labeling it " a near @-@ perfect road movie " . Stephen Holden of The New York Times believed that " Much of the dialogue is so quirky it sounds overheard instead of scripted " and called the cast " correspondingly spontaneous " . New York magazine 's chief film critic David Edelstein praised Hynes ' " talent for deadpan jaw @-@ droppers that aren 't self @-@ consciously quirky " , and thought that " In The Go @-@ Getter , filmmaking itself feels like Manifest Destiny . " Todd McCarthy , writing for Variety , was impressed by Pucci 's performance and Shah 's cinematography , calling the film " an unusually fresh @-@ feeling indie with a nice sense of style " . Lou Lumenick of the New York Post wrote that The Go @-@ Getter " breathes new life [ ... ] into the overworked indie road @-@ movie formula " , labeling Pucci as " charming " and the cinematography as " unusually nice " . The New York Press 's Mark Peikert thought that Deschanel made the film 's flaws " almost forgivable " , and that the film was " a feature @-@ length audition reel for Deschanel to finally get the roles she deserves " . New York Daily News critic Elizabeth Weitzman called Pucci " one of the best , and most overlooked , young actors around " and giving the film 4 out of 5 stars .
Other reviews were less positive . The Los Angeles Times ' Carina Chocano felt that " despite flashes of genuine emotion [ The Go @-@ Getter ] eventually succumbs to its own tweeness " and that the " moments of beauty " were outweighed by " the mannered dialogue and hamstrung performances " . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly graded the film as a C , saying that it " travels , but it doesn 't go anywhere " and likening Pucci to " a wan , passive Johnny Depp " . The Hollywood Reporter critic Frank Scheck praised the film 's " appealing performances , sun @-@ dappled cinematography and occasional witty dialogue " , but thought that it was " contrived and derivative " and " a little too pleased with itself " . The Globe and Mail 's Rick Groen called The Go @-@ Getter " a fairly well @-@ made picture that 's just been fairly well @-@ made too many times before , a knock @-@ off of a thousand other knock @-@ offs " . Gabriel Wilder of The Sydney Morning Herald felt that it was " hard to maintain interest in [ Mercer 's ] plight " because of Pucci 's underacting and thought that " the script isn 't so much quirky as incomplete " , referring to the film 's ending . With a rating of 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 , Maitland McDonagh wrote for TV Guide that the film is " too familiar to make any great impression " .
= Valeri Polyakov =
Valeri Vladimirovich Polyakov ( Russian : Валерий Владимирович Поляков , born Valeri Ivanovich Korshunov on April 27 , 1942 ) is a Russian former cosmonaut . He is the holder of the record for the longest single spaceflight in human history , staying aboard the Mir space station for more than 14 months ( 437 days 18 hours ) during one trip . His combined space experience is more than 22 months .
Selected as a cosmonaut in 1972 , Polyakov made his first flight into space aboard Soyuz TM @-@ 6 in 1988 . He returned to Earth 240 days later aboard TM @-@ 7 . Polyakov completed his second flight into space in 1994 – 1995 , spending 437 days in space between launching on Soyuz TM @-@ 18 and landing on TM @-@ 20 , setting the record for the longest time continuously spent in space by an individual in human history .
= = Early life = =
Polyakov was born in Tula , Tula Oblast , Russian SFSR on April 27 , 1942 . Born Valeri Ivanovich Korshunov , Polyakov legally changed his name after being adopted by his stepfather in 1957 . He was educated at the Tula Secondary School No. 4 , from which he graduated in 1959 .
He enrolled in the I. M. Sechenov 1st Moscow Medical Institute , where he graduated with a doctoral degree . After , he enrolled in the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems , Ministry of Public Health , Moscow , where he specialized in astronautics medicine . Polyakov dedicated himself to the field of space medicine in 1964 after the flight of the first physician in space , Boris Yegorov , aboard Voskhod 1 .
= = Cosmonaut career = =
Polyakov was selected as a cosmonaut in Medical Group 3 on March 22 , 1972 . His first flight into space occurred on Soyuz TM @-@ 6 in 1988 . After staying aboard the Mir space station and conducting research for 240 days , Polyakov returned to Earth aboard Soyuz TM @-@ 7 .
Polyakov 's second spaceflight , the longest human spaceflight in history , began on January 8 , 1994 with the launch of the Soyuz TM @-@ 18 mission . He spent approximately 437 days aboard Mir conducting experiments and performing scientific research . During this flight , he completed just over 7 @,@ 000 orbits of the Earth . On January 9 , 1995 , after 366 days in space , Polyakov formally broke the spaceflight duration record previously set by Vladimir Titov and Musa Manarov six years earlier . He returned to Earth aboard Soyuz TM @-@ 20 on March 22 , 1995 . Upon landing , Polyakov opted not to be carried the few feet between the Soyuz capsule and a nearby lawn chair , instead walking the short distance . In doing so , he wished to prove that humans could be physically capable of working on the surface of Mars after a long @-@ duration transit phase .
Polyakov volunteered for his 437 @-@ day flight to learn how the human body would respond to the micro @-@ gravity environment on long @-@ duration missions to Mars . Upon returning from his second spaceflight , Polyakov held the record for the most total time in space . This record , however , was later broken by Sergei Avdeyev and is currently held by Gennady Padalka . Data from Polyakov 's flight has been used by researchers to determine that humans are able to maintain a healthy mental state during long @-@ duration spaceflight just as they would on Earth .
Polyakov underwent medical assessments before , during , and after the flight . He also underwent two follow @-@ up examinations six months after returning to Earth . When researchers compared the results of these medical exams , it was revealed that although there were no impairments of cognitive functions , Polyakov experienced a clear decline in mood as well as a feeling of increased workload during the first few weeks of spaceflight and return to Earth . However , Polyakov 's mood stabilized to pre @-@ flight levels between the second and fourteenth month of his mission . It was also revealed that Polyakov did not suffer from any prolonged performance impairments after returning to Earth . In light of these findings , researchers concluded that a stable mood and overall function could be maintained during extended duration spaceflights , such as manned missions to Mars .
= = = Spaceflights = = =
Soyuz TM @-@ 6 / Soyuz TM @-@ 7 – August 28 , 1988 to April 27 , 1989 – 240 days , 22 hours , 34 minutes
Soyuz TM @-@ 18 / Soyuz TM @-@ 20 – January 8 , 1994 to March 22 , 1995 – 437 days , 17 hours , 58 minutes
= = Personal life = =
Polyakov retired from his position as a cosmonaut in June 1995 , with a total of just over 678 days in space . He participated in experiment SFINCSS @-@ 99 ( Simulation of Flight of International Crew on Space Station ) in 1999 . Polyakov is currently the Deputy Director of the Ministry of Public Health in Moscow , where he oversees the medical aspects of long @-@ duration space missions . He is a member of the Russian Chief Medical Commission , participating in the qualification and selection of cosmonauts . He also holds membership in the International Space Researcher 's Association and the International Academy of Astronautics . Polyakov is married and has one child .
Since returning from space , Polyakov remained active in the discipline of international spaceflight , becoming a " cosmonaut @-@ investigator " for the United States , Austria , Germany , and France during their respective space science missions to the Mir space station .
= = Legacy = =
Polyakov has won several awards for his spaceflight and academic achievements , including the Hero of the Soviet Union / Russian Federation , Order of Lenin , Order of the Legion of Honour , and the Order of Parasat . He is a member of organizations related to astronautics , including the Russian Chief Medical Commission on cosmonauts ' certification .
Polyakov holds the title of " Pilot @-@ Cosmonaut of the USSR " and has published several works pertaining to life sciences , medical aspects of space missions , and the results of research conducted on long @-@ duration spaceflights .
Polyakov 's record for longest cumulative time in space of 678 days over two
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enormous turbines won 't bother the inhabitants . The plan aims to decrease Germany 's dependence on energy derived from coal and nuclear power plants .
= = = Public opinion = = =
Surveys of public attitudes across Europe and in many other countries show strong public support for wind power . About 80 % of EU citizens support wind power . In Germany , where wind power has gained very high social acceptance , hundreds of thousands of people have invested in citizens ' wind farms across the country and thousands of small and medium @-@ sized enterprises are running successful businesses in a new sector that in 2008 employed 90 @,@ 000 people and generated 8 % of Germany 's electricity .
Although wind power is a popular form of energy generation , the construction of wind farms is not universally welcomed , often for aesthetic reasons .
In Spain , with some exceptions , there has been little opposition to the installation of inland wind parks . However , the projects to build offshore parks have been more controversial . In particular , the proposal of building the biggest offshore wind power production facility in the world in southwestern Spain in the coast of Cádiz , on the spot of the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar has been met with strong opposition who fear for tourism and fisheries in the area , and because the area is a war grave .
In a survey conducted by Angus Reid Strategies in October 2007 , 89 per cent of respondents said that using renewable energy sources like wind or solar power was positive for Canada , because these sources were better for the environment . Only 4 per cent considered using renewable sources as negative since they can be unreliable and expensive . According to a Saint Consulting survey in April 2007 , wind power was the alternative energy source most likely to gain public support for future development in Canada , with only 16 % opposed to this type of energy . By contrast , 3 out of 4 Canadians opposed nuclear power developments .
A 2003 survey of residents living around Scotland 's 10 existing wind farms found high levels of community acceptance and strong support for wind power , with much support from those who lived closest to the wind farms . The results of this survey support those of an earlier Scottish Executive survey ' Public attitudes to the Environment in Scotland 2002 ' , which found that the Scottish public would prefer the majority of their electricity to come from renewables , and which rated wind power as the cleanest source of renewable energy . A survey conducted in 2005 showed that 74 % of people in Scotland agree that wind farms are necessary to meet current and future energy needs . When people were asked the same question in a Scottish renewables study conducted in 2010 , 78 % agreed . The increase is significant as there were twice as many wind farms in 2010 as there were in 2005 . The 2010 survey also showed that 52 % disagreed with the statement that wind farms are " ugly and a blot on the landscape " . 59 % agreed that wind farms were necessary and that how they looked was unimportant . Regarding tourism , query responders consider power pylons , cell phone towers , quarries and plantations more negatively than wind farms . Scotland is planning to obtain 100 % of electricity from renewable sources by 2020 .
In other cases there is direct community ownership of wind farm projects . The hundreds of thousands of people who have become involved in Germany 's small and medium @-@ sized wind farms demonstrate such support there .
This 2010 Harris Poll reflects the strong support for wind power in Germany , other European countries , and the U.S.
= = = Community = = =
Many wind power companies work with local communities to reduce environmental and other concerns associated with particular wind farms . In other cases there is direct community ownership of wind farm projects . Appropriate government consultation , planning and approval procedures also help to minimize environmental risks . Some may still object to wind farms but , according to The Australia Institute , their concerns should be weighed against the need to address the threats posed by climate change and the opinions of the broader community .
In America , wind projects are reported to boost local tax bases , helping to pay for schools , roads and hospitals . Wind projects also revitalize the economy of rural communities by providing steady income to farmers and other landowners .
In the UK , both the National Trust and the Campaign to Protect Rural England have expressed concerns about the effects on the rural landscape caused by inappropriately sited wind turbines and wind farms .
Some wind farms have become tourist attractions . The Whitelee Wind Farm Visitor Centre has an exhibition room , a learning hub , a café with a viewing deck and also a shop . It is run by the Glasgow Science Centre .
In Denmark , a loss @-@ of @-@ value scheme gives people the right to claim compensation for loss of value of their property if it is caused by proximity to a wind turbine . The loss must be at least 1 % of the property 's value .
Despite this general support for the concept of wind power in the public at large , local opposition often exists and has delayed or aborted a number of projects . For example , there are concerns that some installations can negatively affect TV and radio reception and Doppler weather radar , as well as produce excessive sound and vibration levels leading to a decrease in property values . Potential broadcast @-@ reception solutions include predictive interference modeling as a component of site selection . A study of 50 @,@ 000 home sales near wind turbines found no statistical evidence that prices were affected .
While aesthetic issues are subjective and some find wind farms pleasant and optimistic , or symbols of energy independence and local prosperity , protest groups are often formed to attempt to block new wind power sites for various reasons .
This type of opposition is often described as NIMBYism , but research carried out in 2009 found that there is little evidence to support the belief that residents only object to renewable power facilities such as wind turbines as a result of a " Not in my Back Yard " attitude .
= = Turbine design = =
Main articles : Wind turbine and Wind turbine design . See also : Wind turbine aerodynamics .
Wind turbines are devices that convert the wind 's kinetic energy into electrical power . The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern engineering , today 's wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of horizontal axis and vertical axis types . The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power . Slightly larger turbines can be used for making small contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid . Arrays of large turbines , known as wind farms , have become an increasingly important source of renewable energy and are used in many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels .
Wind turbine design is the process of defining the form and specifications of a wind turbine to extract energy from the wind . A wind turbine installation consists of the necessary systems needed to capture the wind 's energy , point the turbine into the wind , convert mechanical rotation into electrical power , and other systems to start , stop , and control the turbine .
In 1919 the German physicist Albert Betz showed that for a hypothetical ideal wind @-@ energy extraction machine , the fundamental laws of conservation of mass and energy allowed no more than 16 / 27 ( 59 @.@ 3 % ) of the kinetic energy of the wind to be captured . This Betz limit can be approached in modern turbine designs , which may reach 70 to 80 % of the theoretical Betz limit .
The aerodynamics of a wind turbine are not straightforward . The air flow at the blades is not the same as the airflow far away from the turbine . The very nature of the way in which energy is extracted from the air also causes air to be deflected by the turbine . In addition the aerodynamics of a wind turbine at the rotor surface exhibit phenomena that are rarely seen in other aerodynamic fields . The shape and dimensions of the blades of the wind turbine are determined by the aerodynamic performance required to efficiently extract energy from the wind , and by the strength required to resist the forces on the blade .
In addition to the aerodynamic design of the blades , the design of a complete wind power system must also address the design of the installation 's rotor hub , nacelle , tower structure , generator , controls , and foundation . Further design factors must also be considered when integrating wind turbines into electrical power grids .
= = Wind energy = =
Wind energy is the kinetic energy of air in motion , also called wind . Total wind energy flowing through an imaginary surface with area A during the time t is :
<formula>
where ρ is the density of air ; v is the wind speed ; Avt is the volume of air passing through A ( which is considered perpendicular to the direction of the wind ) ; Avtρ is therefore the mass m passing through " A " . Note that ½ ρv2 is the kinetic energy of the moving air per unit volume .
Power is energy per unit time , so the wind power incident on A ( e.g. equal to the rotor area of a wind turbine ) is :
<formula>
Wind power in an open air stream is thus proportional to the third power of the wind speed ; the available power increases eightfold when the wind speed doubles . Wind turbines for grid electricity therefore need to be especially efficient at greater wind speeds .
Wind is the movement of air across the surface of the Earth , affected by areas of high pressure and of low pressure . The global wind kinetic energy averaged approximately 1 @.@ 50 MJ / m2 over the period from 1979 to 2010 , 1 @.@ 31 MJ / m2 in the Northern Hemisphere with 1 @.@ 70 MJ / m2 in the Southern Hemisphere . The atmosphere acts as a thermal engine , absorbing heat at higher temperatures , releasing heat at lower temperatures . The process is responsible for production of wind kinetic energy at a rate of 2 @.@ 46 W / m2 sustaining thus the circulation of the atmosphere against frictional dissipation . A global 1 km2 map of wind resources is housed at http : / / irena.masdar.ac.ae / ? map = 103 , based on calculations by the Technical University of Denmark .
The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources . Axel Kleidon of the Max Planck Institute in Germany , carried out a " top down " calculation on how much wind energy there is , starting with the incoming solar radiation that drives the winds by creating temperature differences in the atmosphere . He concluded that somewhere between 18 TW and 68 TW could be extracted .
Cristina Archer and Mark Z. Jacobson presented a " bottom @-@ up " estimate , which unlike Kleidon 's are based on actual measurements of wind speeds , and found that there is 1700 TW of wind power at an altitude of 100 metres over land and sea . Of this , " between 72 and 170 TW could be extracted in a practical and cost @-@ competitive manner " . They later estimated 80 TW . However research at Harvard University estimates 1 Watt / m2 on average and 2 – 10 MW / km2 capacity for large scale wind farms , suggesting that these estimates of total global wind resources are too high by a factor of about 4 .
The strength of wind varies , and an average value for a given location does not alone indicate the amount of energy a wind turbine could produce there .
To assess prospective wind power sites a probability distribution function is often fit to the observed wind speed data . Different locations will have different wind speed distributions . The Weibull model closely mirrors the actual distribution of hourly / ten @-@ minute wind speeds at many locations . The Weibull factor is often close to 2 and therefore a Rayleigh distribution can be used as a less accurate , but simpler model .
= = Gallery = =
= History of the National Hockey League =
The history of the National Hockey League begins with the end of its predecessor league , the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) , in 1917 . After unsuccessfully attempting to resolve disputes with Eddie Livingstone , owner of the Toronto Blueshirts , executives of the three other NHA franchises suspended the NHA , and formed the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , replacing the Livingstone team with a temporary team in Toronto , the Arenas . The NHL 's first quarter @-@ century saw the league compete against two rival major leagues — the Pacific Coast Hockey Association and Western Canada Hockey League — for players and the Stanley Cup . The NHL first expanded into the United States in 1924 with the founding of the Boston Bruins , and by 1926 consisted of ten teams in Ontario , Quebec , the Great Lakes region , and the Northeastern United States . At the same time , the NHL emerged as the only major league and the sole competitor for the Stanley Cup ; in 1947 , the NHL completed a deal with the Stanley Cup trustees to gain full control of the Cup . The NHL 's footprint spread across Canada as Foster Hewitt 's radio broadcasts were heard coast @-@ to @-@ coast starting in 1933 .
The Great Depression and World War II reduced the league to six teams , later known as the " Original Six " , by 1942 . Maurice Richard became the first player to score 50 goals in a season in 1944 – 45 , and ten years later , Richard was suspended for assaulting a linesman , leading to the Richard Riot . Gordie Howe made his debut in 1946 , and retired 35 seasons later as the NHL 's all @-@ time leader in goals and points . " China Clipper " Larry Kwong becomes the first non @-@ white player in the league , breaking the NHL colour barrier in 1948 , when he played for the New York Rangers . Willie O 'Ree broke the NHL 's black colour barrier when he suited up for the Bruins in 1958 . In 1959 , Jacques Plante became the first goaltender to regularly use a mask for protection .
The Original Six era ended in 1967 when the NHL doubled in size by adding six new expansion teams . The six existing teams were formed into the newly created East Division , while the expansion teams were formed into the West Division . The NHL continued to expand , adding another six teams , to total 18 by 1974 . This continued expansion was partially brought about by the NHL 's attempts to compete with the World Hockey Association , which operated from 1972 until 1979 and sought to compete with the NHL for markets and players . Bobby Hull was the most famous player to defect to the rival league , signing a $ 2 @.@ 75 million contract with the Winnipeg Jets . The NHL became involved in international play in the mid @-@ 1970s , starting with the Summit Series in 1972 which pitted the top Canadian players of the NHL against the top players in the Soviet Union , which was won by Canada with four wins , three losses , and a tie . Eventually , Soviet @-@ Bloc players streamed into the NHL with the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989 .
When the WHA ceased operations in 1979 , the NHL absorbed four of the league 's teams , which brought the NHL to 21 teams , a figure that remained constant until the San Jose Sharks were added as an expansion franchise in 1991 . Since then , the league has grown from 22 teams in 1992 to 30 today as the NHL spread its footprint across the United States . The league has withstood major labour conflicts in 1994 – 95 and 2004 – 05 , the latter of which saw the entire 2004 – 05 NHL season canceled , the first time in North American history that a league has canceled an entire season in a labour dispute . Wayne Gretzky passed Gordie Howe as the NHL 's all @-@ time leading scorer in 1994 when he scored his 802nd career goal . Mario Lemieux overcame non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma to finish his NHL career with over 1 @,@ 700 points and two Stanley Cup championships . Increased use of defence @-@ focused systems helped cause scoring to fall in the late 1990s , leading some to argue that the NHL 's talent pool had been diluted by 1990s expansion . In 1998 , the NHL began awarding teams a single point for losing in overtime , hoping to reduce the number of tie games ; after the 2004 – 05 lockout , it eliminated the tie altogether , introducing the shootout to ensure that each game has a winner .
= = Background and founding = =
The first attempts to regulate competitive ice hockey matches came in the late 1880s . Before then , teams competed in tournaments and infrequent challenge contests that prevailed in the Canadian sports world at the time . In 1887 , four clubs from Montreal formed the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada ( AHAC ) and developed a structured schedule . In 1892 , Lord Stanley donated the Stanley Cup to be symbolic of the Canadian championship and appointed Philip Dansken Ross and Sheriff John Sweetland as its trustees . It was awarded to the AHAC champion Montreal Hockey Club and thereafter awarded to the league champions , or to any pre @-@ approved team that won it in a challenge . In 1904 , the International Hockey League ( IHL ) , based around Lake Michigan , was created as the first fully professional league , which lasted for two seasons . In recruiting players , the IHL caused an " Athletic War " that drained amateur clubs of top players , most noticeably in the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) . In the 1905 – 06 season , the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) was formed , which mixed paid and amateur players in its rosters , which led to the demise of the IHL . Bidding wars for players led many ECAHA teams to lose money , and it eventually folded on November 25 , 1909 . As a result of the dissolution of the ECAHA , two leagues were formed — the Canadian Hockey Association ( CHA ) and the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) . Since the NHA 's owners were notable , wealthy businessmen , the CHA did not complete a season , as the NHA easily recruited the top players , and interest in the CHA teams faded . By 1914 , the rival Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) league was launched and the NHA champion would play off each season against the PCHA champion for the Stanley Cup , ending the challenge era .
The National Hockey League came into existence with the suspension of the NHA in 1917 . After unsuccessfully resolving disputes with Eddie Livingstone , owner of the Toronto Blueshirts , executives of the three other NHA franchises — the Montreal Canadiens , Montreal Wanderers and Ottawa Senators — suspended the NHA , and formed the NHL , replacing Livingstone 's team with a temporary team in Toronto , the Arenas . While new , the NHL was a continuation of the NHA . The NHL adopted the NHA 's constitution , its rules , playing with six men to a side rather than the then @-@ traditional seven and the NHA 's split @-@ season schedule . The owners originally intended the NHL to only operate for one season . However , the NHA was suspended permanently in 1918 and ceased to be an organisation in 1920 . In 1921 , the NHA championship trophy O 'Brien Cup was adopted as the championship trophy of the NHL .
= = 1917 – 1942 : Founding = =
= = = Early years = = =
One of the NHL 's first superstars was the prolific goal @-@ scorer Joe Malone , who scored 44 goals in 20 games in the NHL 's first season , of which five were netted on the NHL 's opening night . He also set the record for the most goals in a game that season , with seven . Six games into the season , the Montreal Wanderers were forced to permanently withdraw from the league , as a fire left them without an arena . In the 1918 – 19 season , the Montreal Canadiens faced the Seattle Metropolitans of the PCHA for the Stanley Cup amid the Spanish influenza pandemic . The series was called off after five games when numerous players became ill ; one , Joe Hall of the Canadiens , died a few weeks later .
During the early 1920s , the NHL faced competition for players from two other major leagues : the PCHA and the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) . As a result , ice hockey players were among the best paid athletes in North America . By the mid @-@ 1920s , the NHL emerged as the sole major league in North America ; the PCHA and WCHL having merged in 1924 , only to disband two years later . The Victoria Cougars are the last non @-@ NHL team to win and challenge the Stanley Cup , having defeated the Canadiens in 1925 , and lost to the Montreal Maroons in 1926 , respectively . The NHL continued to expand , adding the Maroons and its first American team , the Boston Bruins in 1924 , getting up to 10 teams by 1926 . Defence dominated the NHL , and in the 1928 – 29 season , Canadiens goaltender George Hainsworth set what remains a league record with 22 shutouts in 44 games . In response , the NHL began to allow forward passing in the offensive zone , which caused the offense to increase by approximately 2 @.@ 5 times ; to stem the tide , the NHL introduced the offside rule , which prevents offensive players to enter the opponent 's zone before the puck crosses the " blue line " .
Livingstone continued to press claims in court throughout the 1920s , going as far as the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London , England . In early 1927 , the Toronto franchise was sold to Conn Smythe , who renamed it to the Maple Leafs , and successfully promised to win the Stanley Cup in five years . He built the Maple Leaf Gardens , which included radio broadcaster Foster Hewitt 's famous broadcast booth , affectionately referred to as a " gondola " . On December 13 , 1933 , Eddie Shore charged Ace Bailey causing a severe skull fracture , following what Shore thought was a check from Bailey , but was actually made by King Clancy . Despite the grim prognosis ( newspapers printed his obituary ) , Bailey survived , but never played a game . The Maple Leafs hosted the Ace Bailey All @-@ Star Benefit Game , which raised over $ 20 @,@ 000 for Bailey and his family .
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= = = Great Depression = = =
While Conn Smythe was able to successfully build a new arena , numerous other teams experienced financial difficulties . With the folding of the Philadelphia Quakers ( originally the Pittsburgh Pirates ) and the St. Louis Eagles ( originally the Ottawa Senators ) , the NHL was reduced to eight teams starting in the 1935 – 36 season . The Montreal Canadiens narrowly escaped a move to Cleveland , Ohio , before a syndicate of Montreal businessmen bought the team . Montreal 's financial troubles forced them to sell popular player Howie Morenz . When Morenz scored against the Canadiens on the last day of the 1935 season , Montreal fans voiced their opinion , giving him a standing ovation . Morenz was eventually re @-@ acquired by Montreal , and on January 28 , 1937 , Morenz 's skate became caught in the ice during a play . He suffered a broken leg in four places , and died on March 8 of a coronary embolism ; 50 @,@ 000 people filed past Morenz 's casket at centre ice of the Montreal Forum to pay their last respects . A benefit game held in November 1937 raised $ 20 @,@ 000 for Morenz 's family as the NHL All @-@ Stars defeated the Montreal Canadiens 6 – 5 .
In the mid @-@ 1930s , Chicago Black Hawks owner and staunch American nationalist Frederic McLaughlin commanded his general manager to compile a team of only American players ; at the time , Taffy Abel was the only American @-@ born player who was a regular player in the league . With eight out of 14 players Americans , the Black Hawks won only 14 of 48 games . In the playoffs , however , the Hawks upset the Canadiens , New York Americans , and the Maple Leafs to become the only team in NHL history to win the Stanley Cup despite a losing regular @-@ season record . In the 1942 Stanley Cup Finals , the heavily favoured Toronto Maple Leafs were facing an upset , having fallen 3 – 0 in the seven @-@ game series to the fifth @-@ place Detroit Red Wings . Toronto rebounded , and won the next four games to capture the Stanley Cup , becoming the first of four teams in the NHL to come back from a 3 – 0 series deficit and the only team to accomplish that in the Stanley Cup Finals .
Prior to the 1938 – 39 season , the Montreal Maroons folded due to financial difficulties , while the New York Americans suffered a similar fate prior to the 1942 – 43 season . With the league reduced to six teams , the " Original Six " era began . The league was nearly reduced to five teams before the following season , as World War II had ravaged the rosters of many teams to such an extent that teams battled each other for players . With only five returning players from the previous season , New York Rangers general manager Lester Patrick suggested suspending his team 's play for the duration of the war but was persuaded otherwise .
= = 1942 – 1967 : Original Six = =
= = = Post @-@ war period = = =
In February 1943 , league President Frank Calder collapsed during a meeting , dying shortly after . Red Dutton agreed to take over as president after receiving assurances from the league that the Brooklyn franchise he had operated would resume play after the war . When the other team owners reneged on this promise in 1946 , Dutton resigned as league president . With Dutton 's recommendation , Clarence Campbell was named president of the NHL in 1946 . He remained in that role until his retirement in 1977 . For the first 21 years of his presidency , the same six teams ( located in Boston , Chicago , Detroit , Montreal , New York , and Toronto ) competed for the Stanley Cup and that period has been called the " golden age of hockey " . The NHL featured increasingly intense rivalries coupled with rule innovations that opened up the game . The first official All @-@ Star Game took place at Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto on October 13 , 1947 to raise money for the newly created NHL Pension Society . The NHL All @-@ Stars defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs 4 – 3 and raised C $ 25 @,@ 000 for the pension fund .
The 1940s Canadiens were led by the " Punch line " of Elmer Lach , Toe Blake and Maurice " Rocket " Richard . In 1944 – 45 , Lach , Richard and Blake finished first , second and third in the NHL 's scoring race with 80 , 73 and 67 points respectively . It was Richard who became the focus of the media and fans as he attempted to score 50 goals in a 50 @-@ game season , a feat no other player had accomplished in league history . Richard scored his 50th goal in Boston at 17 : 45 of the third period of Montreal 's final game of the season . On March 13 , 1948 , Larry Kwong , the " China Clipper " , becomes the first non @-@ white player in the NHL , breaking the colour barrier . He suited up for the New York Rangers against the Montreal Canadiens at the Montreal Forum . In March 1955 , Richard was suspended for the remainder of the season , including the playoffs , after he received a match penalty for slashing Boston 's Hal Laycoe then punching a linesman who attempted to intervene . The suspension touched off a wave of anger towards league president Clarence Campbell , who was warned not to attend a scheduled game in Montreal after receiving numerous death threats , mainly from French @-@ Canadians accusing him of anti @-@ French bias . Campbell dismissed the warnings , and attended the March 17 game as planned . His presence at the game was perceived by many fans as a provocation and he was booed and pelted with eggs and fruit . An hour into the game , a fan lobbed a tear @-@ gas bomb in Campbell 's direction , and firefighters decided to clear the building . Fans leaving the game and a growing mob of angry demonstrators rioted outside of the Montreal Forum , which became known as l 'affaire Richard , or the Richard Riot . Richard became the first player to score 500 career goals on October 19 , 1957 . He retired in 1960 as an eight @-@ time Stanley Cup champion , as well as the NHL 's all @-@ time leading scorer with 544 goals .
In the fall of 1951 , Maple Leafs owner Conn Smythe watched special television feeds of games in an attempt to determine whether it would be a suitable medium for broadcasting hockey games . Television already had its detractors within the NHL , especially in Campbell . In 1952 , even though only 10 % of Canadians owned a television set , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) began televising games . On November 1 , 1952 , Hockey Night in Canada was first broadcast on television , with Foster Hewitt calling the action between the Leafs and Bruins at Maple Leaf Gardens . The broadcasts quickly became the highest @-@ rated show on Canadian television . Campbell feared televised hockey would cause people to stop attending games in person , but Smythe felt the opposite . CBS first broadcast hockey games in the United States in the 1956 – 57 season as an experiment . Amazed with the initial popularity of the broadcasts , it inaugurated a 21 @-@ game package of games the following year . The NHL itself adapted to be viewer @-@ friendly . In 1949 , the league mandated that the ice surface be painted white to make the puck easier to see . On January 18 , 1958 , Willie O 'Ree joined the Bruins as an injury call @-@ up for a game in Montreal . In doing so he became the first black player in the NHL .
Clint Benedict was the first goaltender to wear facial protection , donning it in 1930 to protect a broken nose . He quickly abandoned his mask as its design interfered with his vision . Twenty @-@ nine years later , on November 1 , 1959 , in a game against New York Rangers Jacques Plante made the goaltender mask a permanent fixture in hockey . The first players ' union was formed February 12 , 1957 by Red Wings player Ted Lindsay who had sat on the board of the NHL 's Pension Society since 1952 . Lindsay and his fellow players were upset by the league 's refusal to let them view the books related to the pension fund . The league claimed that it could not contribute more than it did but the players on the Pension Committee suspected otherwise . The idea quickly gained popularity and when the union 's founding was announced publicly , nearly every NHL player had signed up . Led by Alan Eagleson , the National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) was formed in 1967 and it quickly received acceptance from the owners .
= = = Dynasties = = =
The Original Six era was a period of dynasties . The Toronto Maple Leafs won the Stanley Cup five times between 1944 – 45 and 1950 – 51 . In the 1951 Stanley Cup Finals , the Maple Leafs defeated the Canadiens four games to one in the only final in NHL history when all games were decided in overtime . Beginning in 1948 – 49 , the Red Wings won seven consecutive regular season titles , a feat that no other team has accomplished . During that time , the Wings won four Stanley Cups . It was during the 1952 Stanley Cup Finals that the Legend of the Octopus was created . Brothers Pete and Jerry Cusimano brought a dead octopus to the Detroit Olympia for the fourth game of the finals . They hoped that the octopus would inspire Detroit to an eighth game victory . Detroit went on to defeat Montreal 3 – 0 and the tradition was born . The Red Wings faced the Canadiens in the Stanley Cup Finals in three consecutive seasons between 1954 and 1956 . Detroit won the first two match @-@ ups , but Montreal captured the 1956 Stanley Cup , ending one dynasty and starting another . The Canadiens won five consecutive championships between 1956 and 1960 , a feat no other team has duplicated . The Original Six era ended with the 1967 Stanley Cup Finals between the two @-@ time defending champion Canadiens , and the Maple Leafs . The Maple Leafs finished the era by winning the Cup four times between 1962 and 1967 , their 1967 championship is the last Maple Leafs title to date . The Chicago Blackhawks , who won in 1961 , are the only other team to win the Stanley Cup during this period .
= = 1967 – 1992 : Expansion era = =
= = = Expansion years = = =
In 1963 , Rangers governor William Jennings introduced to his peers the idea of expanding the league to the American West Coast by adding two new teams for the 1964 – 65 season . While the governors did not agree to the proposal , the topic of expansion came up every time the owners met from then on out . In 1965 , it was decided to expand by six teams , doubling the size of the NHL . In February 1966 , the governors met and decided to award franchises to Los Angeles , Minnesota , Philadelphia , Pittsburgh , Oakland and St. Louis . The league rejected bids from Baltimore , Buffalo and Vancouver . In Canada , there was widespread outrage over the denial of an expansion team to Vancouver in 1967 ; three years later , the NHL awarded a franchise to Vancouver , which formerly played in the Western Hockey League , for the 1970 – 71 season , along with the Buffalo Sabres .
On January 13 , 1968 , North Stars ' rookie Bill Masterton became the first , and to date , only player to die as a result of injuries suffered during an NHL game . Early in a game against Oakland , Masterton was checked hard by two players causing him to flip over backwards and land on his head . Masterton was rushed to hospital with massive head injuries , and died there two days later . The National Hockey League Writers Association presented the league with the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy later in the season . Following Masterton 's death , players slowly began wearing helmets , and starting in the 1979 – 80 season , the league mandated all players entering the league wear them .
In the 1968 – 69 season , third @-@ year defenceman Bobby Orr scored 21 goals to set an NHL record for goals by a defenceman en route to winning his first of eight consecutive Norris Trophies as the league 's top defenceman . At the same time , Orr 's teammate , Phil Esposito , became the first player in league history to score 100 points in a season ,
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finishing with 126 points . A gifted scorer , Orr revolutionized defencemen 's impact on the offensive part of the game , as blue @-@ liners began to be judged on how well they created goals in addition to how well they prevented them . Orr twice won the Art Ross Trophy as the NHL 's leading scorer , the only defenceman in NHL history to do so . Chronic knee problems plagued Orr throughout his career ; he played 12 seasons in the NHL before injuries forced his retirement in 1978 . Orr finished with 270 goals and 915 points in 657 games , and he won the Hart Memorial Trophy as league Most Valuable Player thrice .
The 1970 – 71 NHL season was the 54th season of the National Hockey League . Two new teams , the Buffalo Sabres and Vancouver Canucks made their debuts and were both put into the East Division . The Chicago Black Hawks were moved to the West Division . The Montreal Canadiens won the Stanley Cup by beating the Black Hawks in seven games in the finals .
The 1970s were associated with aggressive , and often violent play . Known as the " Broad Street Bullies " , the Philadelphia Flyers are the most famous example of this mindset . The Flyers established league records for penalty minutes — Dave " the Hammer " Schultz ' total of 472 in 1974 – 75 remains a league record . They captured the 1974 Stanley Cup , becoming the first expansion team to win the league championship .
= = = World Hockey Association = = =
In 1972 , the NHL faced competition from the newly formed World Hockey Association ( WHA ) . The WHA lured many players away from the NHL . The WHA 's biggest coup was to lure Bobby Hull from the Black Hawks to play for the Winnipeg Jets . He signed a $ 2 @.@ 75 million contract , and lent instant credibility to the new league . After Hull signed , several other players quickly followed suit and the NHL suddenly found itself in a war for talent . By the time the 1972 – 73 WHA season began , 67 players had switched from the NHL to the WHA . The NHL also found itself competing with the WHA for markets . Initially , the league had no intention to expand past 14 teams , but the threat the WHA represented caused the league to change its plans . The league hastily announced the creation of the New York Islanders and Atlanta Flames as 1972 expansion teams . Following the 1972 – 73 season , the NHL announced it was further expanding to 18 @-@ teams for the 1974 – 75 season , adding the Kansas City Scouts and Washington Capitals . In just eight years , the NHL had tripled in size to 18 teams . By 1976 , both leagues were dealing with serious financial problems . Talk of a merger between the NHL and the WHA was growing . In 1976 , for the first time in four decades , the NHL approved franchise relocations ; the Scouts moved after just two years in Kansas City to Denver to become the Colorado Rockies , while the California Golden Seals became the Cleveland Barons . Two years later , after failed overtures about merging the Barons with Washington and Vancouver , the Barons merged with the Minnesota North Stars , reducing the NHL to 17 teams for 1978 – 79 .
The move towards a merger picked up in 1977 when John Ziegler succeeded Clarence Campbell as NHL president . The WHA folded following the 1978 – 79 season , while the Edmonton Oilers , Hartford Whalers , Quebec Nordiques and Winnipeg Jets joined the NHL as expansion teams , which brought the league up to 21 teams , a constant until 1991 . The merger brought Gordie Howe back to the NHL for one final season in 1979 – 80 , during which he brought his NHL career total to 801 goals and 1 @,@ 850 points . It was also the last season for the Atlanta Flames . The team averaged only 9 @,@ 800 fans in attendance and lost over $ 2 million . They were sold for a record $ 16 million , and relocated north to become the Calgary Flames in 1980 – 81 . Two years later , the Rockies were sold for $ 30 million , and left Denver to become the New Jersey Devils for the 1982 – 83 season .
= = = More dynasties = = =
Although the league expanded from six to 21 teams , dynasties still prevailed in the NHL . The Montreal Canadiens won four consecutive Stanley Cups starting in 1975 @-@ 76 . In 1980 , the New York Islanders won their first of four consecutive Stanley Cups . The Islanders dominated both the regular season and the playoffs with the likes of Billy Smith , Mike Bossy , Denis Potvin , and Bryan Trottier . In 1981 , Bossy became the first player to score 50 goals in 50 games since Maurice Richard accomplished that feat in 1945 .
In 1982 – 83 , the Edmonton Oilers won the regular season championship . The Oilers were led by Wayne Gretzky , who remained with the Oilers when they joined the NHL in 1979 . He scored 137 points in 1979 – 80 and won the first of nine Hart Trophies as the NHL 's most valuable player . Over the next several seasons , Gretzky established new highs in goals scored in a season , with 92 in the 1981 – 82 season ; in assists , with 163 in the 1985 – 86 ; and in total points , with 215 in 1985 – 86 . Gretzky also set the record for scoring 50 goals in the fewest number of games , achieving the mark in 39 games . The Islanders and Oilers met in the Finals as New York swept Edmonton for their last Stanley Cup . The following season , the Oilers and Islanders met again in the playoffs . The Oilers won the rematch in five games , marking the start of another dynasty .
Led by Gretzky and Mark Messier , the Oilers won five Stanley Cup championships between 1984 and 1990 . On August 9 , 1988 , Oilers owner Peter Pocklington , in financial trouble , traded Gretzky to the Los Angeles Kings . Gretzky 's trade to the Kings popularized ice hockey in the United States . With the Kings , Gretzky broke Gordie Howe 's record for the most career points . Mario Lemieux led Pittsburgh to Stanley Cups in 1990 – 91 and 1991 – 92 . A gifted forward , he won six Art Ross Trophies as the league 's leading scorer and he scored 199 points in 1988 – 89 , becoming the second highest single @-@ season point scorer behind Gretzky . Lemieux 's career was plagued by health issues , including non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma , and he retired in 1997 . In 2000 he returned and finished his NHL career in 2006 with more than 1 @,@ 700 points .
= = = Fall of the Iron Curtain = = =
The NHL became first involved in international play in the mid @-@ 1970s , starting with the Summit Series in 1972 which pitted the top Canadian players of the NHL against the top players in the Soviet Union . With the eight @-@ game series tied at three wins apiece and a tie , Paul Henderson scooped up a rebound and put it past Soviet goaltender Vladislav Tretiak with 34 seconds left in the eighth and final game to score the series @-@ winning goal .
While European @-@ born players were a part of the NHL since its founding , it was still rare to see them in the NHL until 1980 , although the WHA employed a number of them . Borje Salming was the first European star in the NHL and Finns Jari Kurri and Esa Tikkanen helped lead the Oilers dynasty of the 1980s . The WHA opened the door , and players slowly joined the NHL , but those behind the Iron Curtain were restricted from following suit . In 1980 , Peter Stastny , his wife , and his brother Anton secretly fled Czechoslovakia with the aid of Nordiques owner Marcel Aubut . The Stastnys ' defection made international headlines , and contributed to the first wave of Europeans ' entrance into the NHL . Hoping that they would one day be permitted to play in the NHL , teams drafted Soviet players in the 1980s , 27 in all by the 1988 draft ; however , defection was the only way such players could play in the NHL . Shortly before the end of the 1988 – 89 regular season , Flames general manager Cliff Fletcher announced that he had reached an agreement with Soviet authorities that allowed Sergei Pryakhin to play in North America . It was the first time a member of the Soviet national team was permitted to leave the Soviet Union . Shortly after , Soviet players began to flood into the NHL . Teams anticipated that there would be an influx of Soviet players in the 1990s , as 18 Soviets were selected in the 1989 NHL Entry Draft .
= = 1992 – present : Modern era = =
= = = Southward expansion ( 1992 @-@ 2000 ) = = =
The 21 @-@ team era ended in 1990 , when the league revealed ambitious plans to double league revenues from $ 400 million within a decade and bring the NHL to 28 franchises during that period . The NHL quickly announced three new teams : The San Jose Sharks , who began play in the 1991 – 92 season , and the Ottawa Senators and Tampa Bay Lightning , who followed a year later . The Lightning made NHL history when goaltender Manon Rheaume played a period of an exhibition game , September 23 , 1992 . In doing so , Rheaume became the first woman to play in an NHL game . One year later , the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim and Florida Panthers began play as the NHL 's 25th and 26th franchises respectively . The two new franchises were granted as part of the NHL 's attempts at regaining a network television presence by expanding throughout the American south . The NHL 's southward push continued in 1993 as the Minnesota North Stars moved to Dallas , Texas to become the Dallas Stars .
In 1994 , the players were locked out by the owners because of a lack of a Collective Bargaining Agreement ( CBA ) . The 1994 – 95 NHL lockout lasted 104 days and resulted in the season 's being shortened from a planned 84 games to 48 . The owners insisted on a salary cap , changes to free agency and arbitration in the hopes of limiting escalating salaries , the union instead proposed a luxury tax system . Just as the entire season seemed to be lost , an 11th @-@ hour deal was agreed on . The owners failed to achieve a full salary cap but the deal was initially hailed as a win for the owners . The deal was not enough to save two teams in Canada 's smallest NHL markets . The revenue disparity between large and small market teams , exacerbated by the falling value of the Canadian Dollar , forced the Quebec Nordiques to move to Denver and become the Colorado Avalanche in 1995 ; the Winnipeg Jets relocated to Phoenix , Arizona , becoming the Coyotes , the next year . The Hartford Whalers followed , moving to Greensboro , NC and becoming the Carolina Hurricanes in 1997 . The NHL continued its expansion into cities in the Southern United States . In 1998 , the Nashville Predators joined the league , followed by the Atlanta Thrashers the following year . To further market their players , the NHL decided to have its players play in the Winter Olympics , starting in 1998 , at the Nagano Games . In 2000 , the league added two franchises , boosting the total number to 30 . The NHL returned to Minnesota with the Wild and added the Blue Jackets in Columbus , Ohio .
= = = 2004 – 05 lockout = = =
By 2004 , the owners were claiming that player salaries had grown far faster than revenues , and that the league as a whole lost over US $ 300 million in 2002 – 03 . As a result , on September 15 , 2004 Gary Bettman announced that the owners again locked the players out before the start of the 2004 – 05 season . On February 16 , 2005 , Bettman announced the cancellation of the entire season . As with the 1994 – 95 lockout , the owners were again demanding a salary cap , which the players were unwilling to consider until the season was on the verge of being lost . The season 's cancellation led to a revolt within the union . NHLPA president Trevor Linden and senior director Ted Saskin took charge of negotiations from executive director Bob Goodenow . By early July , the two sides had agreed to a new collective bargaining agreement . The deal featured a hard salary cap , linked to a fixed percentage of league revenues and a 24 % rollback on salaries .
= = = 21st century = = =
Hoping to reduce the number of tie games during the regular season , the NHL decided that beginning in the 1999 – 2000 season , in any game tied after regulation time , both teams would be guaranteed one point , while the team that won in overtime would earn a second point . The Edmonton Oilers hosted the NHL 's first regular season outdoor hockey game , the Heritage Classic on November 22 , 2003 . The game against the Canadiens was held at Commonwealth Stadium before a then @-@ record crowd of 57 @,@ 167 fans who endured temperatures as low as − 18 degrees Celsius ( 0 degrees Fahrenheit ) . In the 2005 – 06 season , the NHL eliminated tie games , as the shootout was introduced to decide all regular season games tied after the five @-@ minute overtime period . The shootout was one of several rule changes made in 2005 , as the league attempted to open the game up after the lockout . One of the most controversial changes was the league 's zero @-@ tolerance policy on obstruction penalties . The league hoped that the game could be opened up if it cracked down on " clutching and grabbing " . The tighter regulations have met with numerous complaints about the legitimacy of some calls , that players are diving to draw penalties , and that officials are not calling enough penalties . The changes initially led to a sharp increase in scoring . Teams combined to score 6 @.@ 1 goals per game in 2005 – 06 , more than a full goal per game higher than in the 2003 – 04 season . This represented the highest increase in offence since 1929 – 30 . However , scoring has rapidly declined since , approaching pre @-@ lockout totals in 2007 – 08 .
In the 2005 – 06 season , rookies Alexander Ovechkin and Sidney Crosby began their careers . In their first three seasons , they each won both the Art Ross and Hart trophies ; Crosby in 2007 , and Ovechkin in 2008 . The success of the Heritage Classic led to the scheduling of more outdoor games . The Sabres hosted the 2008 NHL Winter Classic on New Year 's Day 2008 , losing to the Pittsburgh Penguins in a shootout before a crowd of 71 @,@ 217 at Ralph Wilson Stadium . The second Winter Classic was held January 1 , 2009 at Wrigley Field in Chicago between the Blackhawks and Red Wings . The third NHL Winter Classic was held in Fenway Park on January 1 , 2010 , between the Boston Bruins and the Philadelphia Flyers . The home team Bruins won .
Two clubs still experienced financial problems , however . The Phoenix Coyotes eventually filed for bankruptcy in May 2009 . The league then took control over the team later that year in order to stabilize the club 's operations , with the hopes of eventually reselling it to a new owner who would be committed to stay in the Phoenix market . The league did not find a satisfactory buyer for the Coyotes until 2013 . The financially struggling Atlanta Thrashers were eventually sold to True North Sports and Entertainment in 2011 , who then relocated the team to Winnipeg , a stark reversal of the league 's Southward expansion more than a decade earlier .
The NHL again entered lockout in 2012 , cancelling the first 526 games , about 43 % of the season , until at least December 30 , 2012 . Just after 5 am on January 6 , 2013 , after approximately 16 continuous hours of negotiating , the NHL and the player 's union reached a tentative deal on a new collective bargaining agreement to end the lockout . The first games of the season were held on January 19 .
= = Timeline = =
= Nadia Ali =
Nadia Ali ( Urdu : نادیہ علی , born 3 August 1980 ) is a Pakistani American singer and songwriter . Ali gained prominence in 2001 as the frontwoman and songwriter of the band iiO after their first debut single " Rapture " reached No. 2 on the UK Singles Chart . The song also charted across several countries in Europe . Their 2006 single , " Is It Love ? " , reached the top of the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play Chart .
After embarking on a solo career in 2005 , Ali became a vocalist in electronic dance music . She released her debut album Embers in 2009 . Three singles from the album reached the top @-@ ten of the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play Chart , including the No. 1 hit , " Love Story " .
In 2010 , she released a remix compilation titled Queen of Clubs Trilogy to mark her decade @-@ long career as a singer . " Rapture " was re @-@ released as the only single from the compilation and the song was once again a chart success in Europe . Ali released the single " Pressure " with Starkillers and Alex Kenji in 2011 , which became a club and festival anthem and received an International Dance Music Award . In 2012 , she collaborated with BT and Arty on the single " Must Be The Love "
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1980 – 2005 : Early life and iiO = = =
Nadia Ali was born in Tripoli , Libya to Pakistani parents in 1980 . The family relocated when she was five years old and she was subsequently raised in Queens , New York .
Ali started working in the New York offices of Versace when she was 17 . A colleague from Versace introduced her to producer Markus Moser , who was looking for a female @-@ singer ( or " chanteuse " ) to collaborate on some of his original productions for a girl group in Germany . The two teamed up with Moser working on production , while Ali wrote the lyrics and vocals for the songs . Her first song was the single " Rapture " , which she wrote in 30 minutes based on an encounter with an Australian nightclub patron . A demo of the song was first played at the New York club Twilo in 2001 and received early support from influential DJ Pete Tong who played the demo on his show on BBC Radio 1 . The song eventually became an Ibiza favourite after support from prominent D.J.s such as Sasha , Danny Tenaglia and Sander Kleinenberg during the summer season . Released in late 2001 by Ministry of Sound , the single became a commercial success peaking at No. 2 on UK Singles Chart and Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Play Chart , while charting in several countries in Europe . The success of " Rapture " , Ali said , caused the formation of iiO as the music they were initially working on was quite different from dance music and were asked to come up with a project name to promote the single . They originally named themselves Vaiio after the Sony VAIO laptop Ali used to write the lyrics on . The duo toured internationally and released several more singles , including " At the End " , " Runaway " , " Smooth " , and " Kiss You " . Their first studio album , Poetica followed in 2005 .
Ali left the group in 2005 to pursue a solo career , while Moser continued to release iiO material featuring her on vocals . Most notably , these releases include the 2006 single " Is It Love ? " , which reached No. 1 in America on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play Chart , the 2007 remix album Reconstruction Time : The Best Of iiO Remixed and the 2011 studio album Exit 110 .
= = = 2006 – 09 : Embers = = =
Ali started working on her debut solo album soon after leaving iiO , a process which took her four years . Her first solo release was the 2006 single , " Who is Watching ? " , a collaboration with Dutch DJ Armin van Buuren , which appeared on his album Shivers . This was followed by " Something to Lose " in 2006 , a duet with singer Rosko , produced by John Creamer & Stephane K and released by Ultra Records . The track was licensed to Roger Sanchez 's Release Yourself , Vol . 5 , as well as Sharam Tayebi of Deep Dish for his Global Underground debut Dubai .
In June 2008 , she released " Crash and Burn " , the first single from her solo album . The single became a club success peaking at No. 6 on Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Play Chart . She released the second single , " Love Story " from the as @-@ yet untitled album in February 2009 . It topped Billboard Hot Dance Club Play Chart in April 2009 and was nominated for the Best Progressive / House Track at the 2010 International Dance Music Awards at the Winter Music Conference . Ali was featured on MTV Iggy in March 2009 , where she recorded three live acoustic videos , performing " Rapture " , " Crash and Burn " and " Love Story " .
The third single " Fine Print " was released in July 2009 . Ali announced that the single preceded the release of
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attracted him to the project , adding : " I happened to meet him at the Golden Globes dinner about three years ago . That night we were both nominees , but both losers . He had been nominated for Tsotsi and during the dinner I had spoken to him and he seemed like a really smart and creative guy ... and into music . So I was really delighted when I got a call to meet him and discuss the possibilities for Wolverine . "
In late March 2009 , Jon Burlingame of Variety was at the Newman Scoring Stage at 20th century @-@ Fox to listen and report on the recording of the score . Gregson @-@ Williams conducted " a 78 @-@ piece orchestra and a 40 @-@ voice choir ( 20 male , 20 female ) " to achieve the sound . At the time of his visit , Burlingame noted that the choir was singing " stanzas from an ancient Norse poem in Old Icelandic " to underscore what would be first track , " Logan Through Time . " Director Gavin Hood commented on Gregson @-@ Williams ' style , saying : " Harry 's challenge is to give us operatic scale , but also keep it intimate and human . Harry 's music has a kind of muscular confidence and strength that is very useful for the action , but he also has tremendous soul . " Hood also called the recording performance " frigging brilliant ! "
= = Release = =
= = = Leaked workprint = = =
On March 31 , 2009 , a full @-@ length DVD @-@ quality workprint of the film without a timecode or watermark , with some unfinished effects shots , a different typeface for titles and casting , and alternate sound effects was leaked online . The studio said it would be able to determine the source of the leak using forensic marks in the workprint . The FBI and MPAA began investigating the illegal posting . Fox estimated the workprint was downloaded roughly 4 @.@ 5 million times by the time Wolverine was released in theaters . As of 2014 , Fox estimates that a minimum of 15 million people downloaded it .
The print contained a reference to Rising Sun Pictures , an Australian visual effects company working on the film . The company denied that they ever had a full copy of the film . Executive producer Thomas Rothman noted the leaked version lacked the ten minutes added during pick @-@ ups in January 2009 . However , the theatrical version of the film has no extra scenes that were not included in the leaked workprint . Both versions run exactly 107 minutes , but director Gavin Hood said " another ending exists that features the film 's villain . " The leak was traced down to a Bronx man named Gilberto Sanchez , who had bought an unlicensed DVD copy from a Korean man and later uploaded it under the name " SkillyGilly " .
Roger Friedman , a gossip reporter for Fox News — a channel also owned by Fox 's parent company News Corporation — was fired for writing a review of the film using the leaked copy he downloaded from the Internet . He described how easy it was to find and download the film even if the original source of the leak was no longer available on the web . The article he wrote for his column on the Fox News website was immediately removed .
= = = Marketing = = =
Among the companies which provided tie @-@ in merchandising were 7 @-@ Eleven , Papa John 's Pizza , and Schick . Hugh Jackman also posed as Wolverine for the Got Milk ? campaign . In February 2009 , Hasbro released a film @-@ related toyline , featuring action figures and a glove with retractable claws . In April , Marvel debuted a new comic series , Wolverine : Weapon X , which writer Jason Aaron said that while not directly influenced by the film , was written considering people who would get interested in Wolverine comics after watching the film .
In December 2009 , Hot Toys released the 12 inch highly detailed figure of Wolverine based on the movie with Hugh Jackman 's likeness .
= = = Video game = = =
Raven Software developed a video game based on the film with the same name , which Activision Blizzard published . Marc Guggenheim wrote the script , while Hugh Jackman , Liev Schreiber , and will.i.am voiced their characters from the film . The storyline goes beyond the one from the film , including other villains from the comics such as the Sentinels and the Wendigo , as well as the appearance of Mystique , who was in the other three X @-@ Men films .
= = = Theatrical run = = =
X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine was released on April 29 , 2009 , in the UK , Denmark , South Africa , and Australia ; April 30 , 2009 in the Philippines and in the Dominican Republic ; and May 1 , 2009 in the United States and Canada . A contest was held on the official website to determine the location of the world premiere on April 27 . In the end , the Harkins at the Tempe Marketplace in Tempe , Arizona won the premiere . The release in Mexico was delayed until the end of May due to an outbreak of H1N1 flu in the country . On April 22 , nine days before the release of the film , it was reported that X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine was outselling Iron Man " 3 @-@ to @-@ 1 at the same point in the sales cycle ( nine days prior to the film ’ s release ) . "
During its first day of wide release , Wolverine took in an estimated $ 35 million , with almost $ 5 million of that from midnight showings . The earnings placed the film as the 16th highest @-@ grossing opening day ever ( 22nd with ticket @-@ price inflation ) . It went on to be number one film at the box office with a total of $ 85 million . Among summer kick @-@ offs , it ranked fifth behind Spider @-@ Man , X2 , Spider @-@ Man 3 , and Iron Man and it was in the top ten of comic book adaptations . The opening was lower than the last film in the franchise , X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , as well as X2 , but higher than X @-@ Men , the first film in the series .
The worldwide opening was over $ 158 @.@ 1 million , but Fox stated that some markets underperformed , mostly due to the leaked workprint in countries with illegal downloading problems . However , in an article for the " piracy issue " of Screen International magazine , film critic John Hazelton was doubtful of this explanation , writing that the film 's initial performance was " uncertain " as the outbreak of swine flu in territories with the worst copyright infringement problems means that other territories did not compare at all .
While it has received mixed reviews from critics , the film has been a financial success at the box office . According to Box Office Mojo Wolverine has grossed approximately $ 179 @,@ 883 @,@ 157 in the United States and Canada . It took in another $ 193 @,@ 179 @,@ 707 in other territories , giving it a worldwide total of $ 373 @,@ 062 @,@ 864 .
= = = Home media = = =
On September 15 , 2009 , Fox Home Entertainment released X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine on DVD and Blu @-@ ray disc . The two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray includes commentary by Hood , another commentary by producers Lauren Shuler Donner and Ralph Winter , the featurette " The Roots of Wolverine : A Conversation with X @-@ Men creators Stan Lee and Len Wein " , the featurette " Wolverine Unleashed : The Complete Origins " , 10 character chronicles , two more featurettes , a trivia track , deleted scenes with commentary from Hood , two alternate sequences , a Fox Movie Channel premiere featurette and imdb BD Live technology . Disc two of the set includes a digital copy . In addition , a Wal @-@ Mart exclusive 3 @-@ disc set , which includes a standard DVD copy of the film was also released . The two @-@ DVD special edition includes the two commentaries , the featurette with Stan Lee and Len Wein , an origins featurette , deleted and alternate scenes , and an anti @-@ smoking PSA on disc one ; disc two has a digital copy of the film . The single @-@ disc DVD release has the origins featurette and anti @-@ smoking PSA .
Wolverine was the highest selling and most rented DVD release of the week , selling over three million copies , 850 @,@ 000 of them on Blu @-@ ray . Through its first six weeks the DVD has sold 3 @.@ 79 million copies , generating $ 64 @.@ 27 million in sales .
= = Reception = =
The review @-@ aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported 38 % positive reviews based on 252 reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 1 / 10 . The site 's consensus is , " Though Hugh Jackman gives his all , he can 't help X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine overcome a cliche @-@ ridden script and familiar narrative . "
Richard Corliss of TIME commented on the film 's standing among other Marvel films , saying that it is " an O.K. , not great , Marvel movie that tells the early story of the prime X @-@ Man , and attempts to make it climax in a perfect coupling with the start of the known trilogy . " He also said that " superhero mythologies can be so complicated , only a lonely comic @-@ book @-@ reading kid could make sense of it all . " James Mullinger of GQ also commented on the structure of the story in saying that the " film clumsily tries to explain the origins of James [ Howlett ] , AKA Wolverine , which had wisely only ever been briefly referred to in the original X @-@ Men saga . In doing so , it creates a fairly bland plot which is full of holes . " Lou Lumenick of the New York Post was generally more favorable towards Origins , stating " Fortunately , Jackman is well @-@ matched with Schreiber , who can sneer with the best of them and wears fangs well . The two have three spectacular battles together before squaring off against a formidable enemy atop a nuclear reactor . " Peter Rainer of The Christian Science Monitor also praised Jackman 's performance , saying that " Hugh Jackman demonstrates that you can segue effortlessly from a tuxedoed song @-@ and @-@ dance man at the Oscars to a feral gent with adamantium claws and berserker rage . " Claudia Puig of USA Today considered the movie " well @-@ acted , with spectacular action and witty one @-@ liners " .
Roger Ebert gave the film two stars out of four and expressed his views on the title character : " Why should I care about this guy ? He feels no pain and nothing can kill him , so therefore he 's essentially a story device for action sequences . " James Berardinelli gave Wolverine two and a half stars out of four , calling the action scenes competently executed but not memorable , and considering that when dealing with Wolverine 's past " there 's little creativity evident in the way those blanks are filled in " , and that the revelations made Wolverine " less compelling " . Comparatively , Bill Gibron of AMC 's Filmcritic.com website gave the film a positive " 4 @.@ 0 out of 5 stars , " saying that although Hugh Jackman is " capable of carrying even the most mediocre effort , he singlehandedly makes X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine an excellent start to the summer 2009 season . " He predicted " there will be purists who balk at how Hood and his screenwriters mangle and manipulate the mythology ; " and further said that " any ending which leaves several characters unexplained and unaccounted for can 't really seal the full entertainment deal . "
Regarding Wolverine within the context of the X @-@ Men film series , Tom Charity of CNN commented : " Serviceable but inescapably redundant , this Wolverine movie does just enough to keep the X @-@ Men franchise on life support , but the filmmakers will have to come up with some evolutionary changes soon if it 's going to escape X @-@ tinction . " Similarly , A. O. Scott of The New York Times expressed that " X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine will most likely manage to cash in on the popularity of the earlier episodes , but it is the latest evidence that the superhero movie is suffering from serious imaginative fatigue . " On a more negative note , Philip French of The Observer said that the film 's " dull , bone @-@ crushing , special @-@ effects stuff " is " of interest only to hardcore fans who 've probably read it all in Marvel comics . "
Sukhdev Sandhu of The Daily Telegraph stated that " Wolverine is an artificial stimulus package of the most unsatisfying kind . Aggressively advertised and hyped to the hills , it will no doubt attract full houses at first ; after that though , when word @-@ of @-@ mouth buzz @-@ kill goes into overdrive , there ’ s bound to be widespread deflation and a palpable feeling of being conned . " Similarly , Orlando Parfitt of IGN ( UK ) praised the performances of the actors and the action scenes , but stated that the film felt underdeveloped : " There 's an enjoyable time to be had with Wolverine , but it 's also somewhat unsatisfying . " Furthermore , Scott Mendelson of The Huffington Post gave the film a grade of " D " , noting that " Wolverine was the lead character of [ the X @-@ Men ] films , and we 've already learned everything we need to know from the films in said franchise , " adding that " the extra information given here actually serves to make the character of Logan / Wolverine less interesting . " Steven Rea also felt that the film injured the character by proving that " how the hero acquired his special powers turns out to be a whole lot less interesting than what he does with them " , while also being " a mash @-@ up of meaningless combat sequences ( meaningless because Logan / Wolverine is just about unstoppable ) , sub @-@ par visual effects , template backstory , and some goofy Liev Schreiber @-@ as @-@ a @-@ villain thespianizing " .
Hugh Jackman later confessed being unhappy with the final result of X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine . The actor wanted primarily a film that would deepen the Wolverine character , but “ somehow the first Wolverine movie ended up looking like the fourth X @-@ Men — just with different characters . ” He tried to avert the same results while doing the next solo film for the character , 2013 's The Wolverine .
= = Follow @-@ ups = =
Wolverine was set to be the first of a series of X @-@ Men Origins prequels , with the other being focused on Magneto . However , X @-@ Men Origins : Magneto entered development hell and wound up cancelled by the eventual fifth X @-@ Men movie . X @-@ Men : First Class , released in 2011 , was another prequel to the series . Set in 1962 , the film features a young Professor X and Magneto and the foundation of the X @-@ Men . In 2013 , a second Wolverine film was released titled The Wolverine , set years after the events of X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , but mostly serving as a stand @-@ alone sequel . The follow @-@ up to First Class , 2014 's X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past , was confirmed to erase the events of X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine through retroactive continuity , save for the opening sequence .
A third untitled Wolverine film is planned to release on March 3 , 2017 . It is set to be Hugh Jackman 's last time portraying the character . The 2016 spin @-@ off film Deadpool features Ryan Reynolds reprising his role as the title character . Several jokes are aimed at the expense of Reynolds ' version of Deadpool in X @-@ Men Origins due to the negative reaction of the character 's portrayal .
= Mycena clariviolacea =
Mycena clariviolacea is a mushroom in the Mycenaceae family . First reported as a new species in 2007 , it is known only from Kanagawa , Japan , where it fruits on dead fallen twigs in forests dominated by oak and chinquapin trees . Distinctive features of this species are found in its medium @-@ sized , dark violet fruit bodies , with caps up to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) in diameter and slender stems that are about 30 to 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) long . Microscopic characteristics include the amyloid spores ( staining when treated with Melzer 's reagent ) , the club @-@ shaped cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) that are covered with one or more , knob @-@ like , apical protuberances , the absence of pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) , and the cylindrical , diverticulate caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) .
= = Taxonomy , naming , and classification = =
The mushroom was first collected by Japanese mycologist Haruki Takahashi in 2000 , and , along with seven other Mycena species , was reported as a new species in a 2007 publication . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin words clari- ( meaning " clear " ) and violacea ( " violaceous " ) . The Japanese name is Shikon @-@ sakuratake ( シコンサクラタケ ) .
According to Takahashi , the amyloid spores , the cheilocystidia covered with one or more , knob @-@ like , apical excrescences , the diverticulate elements in the cortical layer of cap and stem , and the diverticulate caulocystidia suggest that the species is best classified in the section Fragilipedes , as defined by the Dutch Mycena specialist Maas Geesteranus .
= = Description = =
Depending on the age of the mushroom , the cap can range in shape from conic to convex to bell @-@ shaped to somewhat flattened in age ; it reaches 10 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter . It is sometimes shallowly umbilicate ( with a small depression like a navel ) , radially grooved almost to the center , and somewhat hygrophanous ( changing color as it loses or absorbs water ) . The cap surface is dry , and pruinose ( covered with what appears to be a fine white powder ) , but this soon sloughs off , leaving the surface smooth . Initially , the cap color is dark violet , but it later fades to grayish @-@ violet around the edges . The whitish flesh is up to 0 @.@ 5 mm thick , and lacks any distinctive taste or odor . The slender stem is 30 to 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) long by 1 to 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 to 0 @.@ 12 in ) thick , cylindrical , centrally attached to the stem , and hollow . Its surface is dry , pruinose over the entire length , and grayish @-@ violet to dark violet in color . The base is covered with a white mycelial tomentum ( a hairy covering of short , closely matted hairs ) . The gills are adnate ( fused to the stem ) , and distantly spaced , with about 15 – 19 gills reaching the stem . The gills are up to 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) broad , thin , and the same color as the cap or paler .
= = = Micro
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cars ( along with several others ) were deemed surplus to requirements and were placed in store from new . TransAdelaide acquired 6 cars ( originally numbered 165 - 170 ) and were subsequently shipped to Australia and renumbered 201 - 206 in the TransAdelaide fleet .
= = = = Type A = = = =
Type A trams were the most common on the newly opened lines with seventy of the initial hundred trams made in this single truck combination style . They incorporated a closed central saloon and open crossbenches on the same tram . Capable of up to 22 miles per hour ( 35 km / h ) , they had a seating capacity of twenty in the saloons with an additional twenty in the open benches . The bodies were made by Duncan and Fraser , who had built horse tram cars for the AS & T as well as bodies of electric trams for Melbourne service . All 70 A type trams were originally fitted with Brill Winner style seats in the saloon section but in 1937 , 20 cars ( numbers unknown ) had their seats replaced with Hale Kilburn fixed rattan seats , removed out of the 20 C type cars . The removed A type seats were then fitted into the C type trams . These trams were never fitted with airbrakes throughout their service lives and instead used a handbrake for normal use and a magnetic track brake for emergency use .
On 9 March 1909 the first type A was the lead car in the procession at the tramway systems official opening . From 1917 , 6 A type trams were used on the isolated Port Adelaide system which closed in 1935 . During the last part of 1936 , tram 100 was briefly renumbered 100A , E1 type tram 101 having been temporarily renumbered 100 for its part in the South Australian Centenary celebrations in 1936 ( more details in the E1 type section ) . A type 100 had its original number restored soon after . Most were removed from the lines and stored in the 1930s , returning to service in 1941 due to petrol rationing increasing passenger numbers . Fifty @-@ eight were permanently joined in " Bib and Bub " ( named after comic characters by May Gibbs ) pairs to conserve manpower and used this way until 1950 . Although the bib and bub pairs still required a conductor per tram to collect fares , they needed only one driver per pair resulting in a twenty @-@ five percent reduction in labour . All type As were withdrawn from service by May 1952 , with the formerly coupled trams being the last to go . Tram 30 was withdrawn from service three months earlier in February 1952 after sustaining accident damage . Many were sold for use as shacks , although trams 10 , 69 and 92 had been sold in 1936 to the State Electricity Commission of Victoria .
The 58 A type trams that were coupled into the ' Bib and Bub ' sets were formed as follows : 1 / 2 , 4 / 5 , 6 / 12 , 8 / 9 , 11 / 13 , 14 / 16 , 17 / 18 , 19 / 20 , 21 / 23 , 22 / 24 , 25 / 26 , 27 / 28 , 29 / 30 , 61 / 64 , 62 / 65 , 66 / 68 , 70 / 72 , 71 / 74 , 73 / 75 , 76 / 78 , 77 / 79 , 80 / 81 , 82 / 83 , 84 / 86 , 85 / 88 , 87 / 89 , 90 / 91 , 94 / 95 , 97 / 98 .
= = = = Type A1 = = = =
Seventeen B type ' toastrack ' trams were rebuilt by Duncan and Fraser ( though it is believed that car 45 was rebuilt in house by the MTT at Hackney Workshops ) were converted into A1 type ' California Combination ' trams , similar to the A and later C types although the ends didn 't drop down on the A1s . They were converted primarily for the isolated Port Adelaide tram system which was run by the MTT and ran between 1917 and 1935 . These trams retained their previous B type numbers ( refer to fleet table above ) . All cars had Hale Kilburn fixed rattan seating in the saloon except for car 44 which had wooden seats running along the sides of the saloon . Wooden seating was fitted to the open ends and these cars had the same passenger capacity ( seated as well as ' crush load ' ) as the A type . These trams were never fitted with airbrakes throughout their service lives and instead used a handbrake for normal use and a magnetic track brake for emergency use .
All of these cars entered service on the Port Adelaide tram system from 1917 and ran in service there until final closure of the system in 1935 . Several were withdrawn from service after closure and were stored in Port Adelaide depot , then transferred to Hackney Depot / Workshops until they were scrapped . After closure of the Port Adelaide system , a few A1 type trams managed to see quite varied ' inoperable ' use by the MTT . Car 44 was used as a first aid room at Hackney Depot between 1946 and 1961 . Cars 45 , 48 and 52 were used as store rooms at Hackney Workshops to house the spare parts originally ordered for the proposed H1 fleet , a ' service ' they finished in 1954 . Car 47 was used as a lunch room at Hackney Workshops while car 50 was partly converted into a ' driver instruction ' car in the early 1950s . The work involved mounting the body of car 50 onto the underframe and running gear of sprinkler car S2 . This work was however never completed . A few of the A1 type trams managed to see further service after the closure of the Port Adelaide system and were transferred to the main system . Like the A type , 4 A1 type trams were converted into coupled sets known as ' Bib and Bub ' sets . The trams involved were 55 / 56 and 57 / 58 . These cars were the last A1 type trams to be withdrawn from service in November 1950 along with the sets of A type trams not converted back into single car operation . They were subsequently scrapped .
= = = = Type A2 = = = =
The A2 type trams were again converted from B type ' toast rack ' trams and also entered service on the Port Adelaide tram system in 1917 , although the conversion work was this time undertaken in house by the MTT at Hackney Workshops . Unlike the A1 type which had traditional wooden sides , the A2 type trams had flat steel plates fitted and rivetted to the sides forming the saloon . Unlike the A , A1 and C types , the A2s had three large windows instead of 5 as per the other types . Despite the different body work for the saloon section , the seating and standing capacity for these trams were the same as the A , A1 and C types . These trams were never fitted with airbrakes throughout their service lives and instead used a handbrake for normal use and a magnetic track brake for emergency use .
The A2 type were introduced for service onto the Port Adelaide system in 1917 and ran until closure of the system in the 1930s . However , they were transferred to Hackney Workshops where they remained until 1946 . During that year , the bodies of 41 and 43 were sold ( and eventually found their way to the Fleurieu Peninsula , where they reportedly still remain ) but 42 was retained at Hackney Workshops so it could store advertising material . It remained in this capacity until 1958 when it was made available to the AETM ( St Kilda Tramway Museum ) for eventual restoration . It has since been rebuilt into its original B type configuration .
= = = = Type B = = = =
Thirty of the initial trams became known as Toast rack trams due to their open structure . They were open trams with passengers seated on cross @-@ benches , and no weather protection on the cars ' sides . Duncan and Fraser built them with summer excursions in mind but they had limited utility due to the lack of weather proofing . These trams were never fitted with airbrakes throughout their service lives and instead used a handbrake for normal use and a magnetic track brake for emergency use .
Twenty of the cars were converted to combination trams in 1917 and redesignated as types A1 and A2 . B type 38 was rebuilt in 1929 as a ballast motor for use on the Glenelg line conversion . The rebuild involved removal of the entire body work and most of the end cabins with the trolley pole mounted on a steel pole in the middle of the now all flat deck . All type B , A1 or A2 cars , except for trams 38 and 42 , were withdrawn from service in 1936 and scrapped in 1946 . Some vehicles ( including 42 ) found other uses around Hackney depot such as store rooms and even as a fuel tank in the case of B 38 which was converted to that use after some years as a ballast motor .
= = = = Type E = = = =
Due to public antipathy to imported trams , type E trams were built by J.G. Brill & Co in Philadelphia , United States , then imported in parts and assembled by Pengelley & Co of Adelaide from 1910 to 1912 . They were partially open trams with passengers sitting on cross bench seats and a closed saloon at one end . As combination trams , the E type could carry 54 seated passengers with a total ' crush load ' of 150 . In 1918 , all 20 E type cars were remotored with more powerful GE 201 traction motors ( rated at 65 hp each ) replacing the original GE 202 units ( rated at 50 hp each ) . The original traction motors were used in the construction of the 20 C type ' Desert Gold ' cars which were being built at the same time .
Their main use was on the Glen Osmond and St Peters routes , also taking picnic parties to Burnside and Magill . Type E trams were rebuilt into type E1 in 1936 . Tram 118 was acquired by the St Kilda Tramway Museum as an E1 type but is currently being converted back to its original E type configuration as well as being returned to operational order .
= = = = Type E1 = = = =
When converted from Type E trams , the crossbenches were removed and the saloon extended the entire car length . The original timber saloon seats were transferred to the newly converted saloon section while the original saloon received new upholstered seating . One of the original crossbenches ( attached to the motorman 's bulkhead ) was retained after conversion . As before conversion , these trams were used mainly on the Glen Osmond and St Peters routes . Tram 101 was temporarily renumbered 100 , painted in ivory and gold , and used in the 1936 South Australian centenary celebrations .
= = = = Type D = = = =
Similar to Type E with crossbenches and a saloon , type D trams also had sliding doors at the end of the benches giving weather protection . Four similar cars were built in 1912 for the Prahan & Malvern Tramways Trust , Melbourne , on sold to the Hawthorn Tramways Trust then purchased by the MTT in 1925 becoming trams 191 @-@ 194 . After injuries to conductors collecting fares while standing on the footboards , a centre isle was cut through the centre bulkhead and four of the six crossbench seats of the trams in 1934 . Trams 191 @-@ 194 had been similarly modified in Melbourne prior to their purchase by the MTT .
= = = = Type C = = = =
A planned purchase of large trams was delayed by World War I. Type C trams were small combination cars , built in 1918 – 1919 as an interim measure . They were similar in basic design to the older A type but had a more modern curved roof rather than a clerestory roof . During their construction , the old motors from the E type ( General Electric 202 motors ) were fitted to these new trams . Rated at 50 hp each compared to the 33 hp units fitted to the A types , these trams were considerably faster .
Due to their consequent higher speeds they became known as Desert Gold trams , after a New Zealand racehorse that had won races in Australia at the same time . This speed became useful in competition against unlicensed buses in the 1920s , and they were used in peak service until 1952 with the last use for the royal visit of 1954 . Trams 181 to 190 inclusive were allocated to the Port Adelaide system for a short period in the 1930s before closure of the system , mainly used on the Port Adelaide - Albert Park line . During the 1930s , the original Hale Kilburn seating fitted to these trams were replaced with Brill Winner seats taken out of 20 A type trams ( numbers unknown ) .
One of the Type C Trams has found a home at Port Parham and been in the possession of the Jenkin family since the 1950s . Its number was 190 . It retains many of the fittings internally . Photo taken and provided by Michael Jenkin . This is an infrared photo .
= = = = Types F and F1 = = = =
The F and later F1 type trams were built between 1921 and 1929 were mostly by Pengelley & Co with three F1 type trams being built ' in house ' by the Municipal Tramways Trust at Hackney Workshops . The F series trams being built from 1921 to 1925 with the F1 series being built from 1925 to 1929 . These trams became known as ' Drop Centres ' since the centre section of the tram had been lowered in height to ease boarding and alighting . They were the first trams to be fitted with airbrakes in Adelaide and were designed so that six streams of passengers could board or alight on each side of the tram at the same time , with a large capacity and reportedly comfortable ride . The F and F1 series trams were the most common trams used in Adelaide from their introduction to the closure of the main tram network with a total of 84 of the drop centre trams built for use in Adelaide . The main difference between the two types lay in the construction of the underframe , with the F types having a combined steel and timber frame construction while the later F1 type having an all @-@ steel underframe . There were other variations in the fleet which will be detailed later on .
With such a number of trams in service , it should come as no surprise that a number of detail variations occurred in the fleet , only the main variations are listed here . In 1929 , cars 274 and 275 were fitted with additional air brake pipes for use in hauling the horse transport cars between the City and Morphettville Racecourse on the Glenelg line . These airpipes were later removed , most possibly after the suspension of the horse transport service in 1936 . As originally built , all the drop centre trams were built with General Electric PC5L2 and later PC5K2 control equipment ( except for nos 251 - 261 which had English Electric control equipment ) . However , in 1952 – 1953 , cars 259 , 260 and 261 had their English Electric control gear replaced with General Electric control gear . At the same time , 251 - 258 and 264 had English Electric controllers of a different type fitted . The original control gear from 264 ended up in the solitary H1 car , 381 .
While all 84 cars had completely timber seats in the drop centre section , the enclosed saloons had several different styles of seating . Cars 201 @-@ 261 all had rattan seating in the saloons except for 250 . All these cars except for 250 had imitation leather seating fitted after 1946 . 250 and 262 had moquette seating . 263 @-@ 284 had wooden seating fitted .
From October 1953 , a number of F and F1 type trams were repainted from Tuscan and Cream livery into Carnation Red and Silver . The trams repainted were 201 @-@ 204 , 213 , 216 , 218 @-@ 219 , 224 @-@ 225 , 227 @-@ 231 , 246 , 248 , 254 , 256 @-@ 257 , 260 @-@ 261 , 264 @-@ 265 , 267 @-@ 269 , 271 @-@ 279 , 283 and 284 . Cars 224 , 255 and 262 all had minor variations to the livery . Most ( though not all ) of the repainted cars had an emergency exit door fitted behind the motorman 's compartment reducing the seating capacity in these trams from 60 to 56 . A few un repainted cars were also fitted with these doors .
Cars 201 @-@ 262 had been fitted with Brill 77E2 type trucks and 263 @-@ 284 had been fitted with cast Commonwealth Steel type trucks . However , by the final year of operations in 1958 , F type cars 234 , 245 and 249 had been retrucked with the Commonwealth Steel type trucks taken off of 266 , 284 and 263 , the retrucked Fs taking the F1 numbers in that order . By this time , most of the original F type cars had been withdrawn from service . The F1 type tram was the last type of tram to see service on the main Adelaide street tramway system with F1 269 making the final run to Cheltenham and return on 22 November 1958 , Adelaide tramway operations ceasing that night with the exception of the Glenelg line .
= = = = Type G = = = =
As a means of more economic operation over the lightly patronized Port Adelaide system , four ' Birney Safety Cars ' were constructed by J.G. Brill and were imported complete by the Municipal Tramways Trust . Numbered 301 to 304 , this small class of four trams were built with features such as folding doors and steps as well as being the only trams in Adelaide able to be operated by one man ( thereby doing away with the need for a conductor ) . These were the only trams built new for the Port Adelaide system , the other trams in the fleet allocated to Port Adelaide being either transferred from the main system or converted from the B type toast rack trams ( into A1 and A2 types ) . Until the arrival of the Flexity and Citadis trams over 80 years later , these were also the only trams in Adelaide to be entirely constructed overseas . Introduced into service from December 1925 , these four trams only ran on the Port Adelaide system for 10 years before the system was completely closed in July 1935 .
In January and February 1936 , the four were sold to the State Electricity Commission of Victoria for use in Geelong and were renumbered 27 to 30 in the SEC Geelong fleet and joined two other Birney trams acquired from new for use in Geelong making 6 in all there . In 1947 , the four former Adelaide ' Birney ' trams were transferred to Bendigo to operate on the tramway system there , also owned by the State Electricity Commission . The two Geelong ' Birney ' cars were also transferred to Bendigo arriving in 1949 . While in service in Bendigo , these trams ran in revenue service until 1972 when the system was closed down , with part of the track retained by the Bendigo Trust for tourist operation . All 6 of the ' Birney ' trams that made it to Victoria have all been preserved in operational condition with former Adelaide tram 303 returning to South Australia in 1976 .
= = = = Type H = = = =
Known as Glenelg trams , The Hs are a long rigid body tram that is end loading with a full length saloon and were built by Pengelley and Co in 1929 specifically for the Glenelg line , they commenced operations on 14 December 1929 . Incredibly , 4 of the cars remained in limited heritage service on the Glenelg line at the start of 2009 , nearly 80 years after they were introduced . They also saw service on the Henley North , Kensington Gardens and Cheltenham routes until their closure . They were built with Tomlinson automatic couplers and were also fitted with General Electric PC5L2 control gear and could be operated in multiple , either in pairs or until 1937 , as triple car sets . After a few years in service , they were also fitted with air horns . Although specifically designed for use on the Glenelg line , the H type trams saw service from 1935 on the Henley North line and then on the Kensington line from 1952 .
A total of 30 H cars were built for service on the Glenelg line with the first cars ( 351 and 352 ) being run under trial for the first time in October 1929 , these two cars opening the line on 14 December 1929 . Until February 1937 , some services on the line were run with triple @-@ car sets until an accident at Grovene ( now called Glengowrie ) which saw the practice discontinued .
During the 1930s , 5 H type were experimentally fitted with pantographs of 5 different patterns . 376 was fitted with a Simens Schukert pantograph , 377 was fitted with a Fischer bow collector , 378 was fitted with an ASEA pantograph , 379 was fitted with a Metropolitan Vickers pantograph and 380 was fitted with an English Electric pantograph . The pantographs on 376 , 379 and 380 were all fitted on a small pantograph tower while 377 and 378 had their pantographs mounted on the roof itself . During the experiments , the pantographs were only used on the reserve track section which at the time was fitted with a railway @-@ like catenary overhead system rather than the traditional tramway @-@ style overhead used on the rest of the system . Because the overhead at the time was not staggered to suit pantograph operation , the pantographs fitted all suffered from uneven wear and as a result the experiment ceased . Ironically , all the surviving H type trams were fitted with pantographs 50 years later in October 1986 .
The next major round of changes to the H types occurred in the 1950s , starting in c.1952 with a repainting of most of the fleet from the traditional Tuscan and Cream to a new Carnation Red and Silver livery with an Ashbury Green interior which had been completed by the end of the decade . The first H types to be withdrawn from service were also taken out of service during the time ( 352 in December 1957 and the first 380 in May 1959 . 351 was renumbered 380 at this time ) . This was the first in a series of renumberings of the H cars , designed to keep a consecutively numbered fleet for rostering purposes ( i.e. 363 @-@ 364 or 371 @-@ 372 ) . A table of the renumbered cars is listed further down . During 1956 , the entire fleet had their original Dick Kerr motors replaced with English Electric motors originally intended for the H1 fleet . In 1968 , 366 and 377 ( original numbers ) were scrapped with cars 353 and 354 renumbered to replace them ( refer to renumbering table further below ) with the result that the H type fleet had been reduced to 26 cars .
From 1971 onwards , cars 351 , 357 , 358 , ( 2nd ) 363 , ( 2nd ) 366 , 367 , 368 , 369 , 370 , 371 , 372 , 373 , 374 , 375 , 376 , ( 2nd ) 377 , 379 and 380 were all refurbished and repainted into their original Tuscan and Cream livery except for 363 and 364 which originally entered service after refurbishment in an experimental Carnation Red and Grey livery in 1971 . These two were repainted into Tuscan and Cream in 1973 . Most of these cars had their original varnished timber interior restored too , although there were a few variations in the refurbishment program . 377 was also repainted into a one off black and gold livery to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Glenelg line in 1979 . 377 retained this livery for a few years afterwards . 380 was also briefly repainted in 1979 into a special livery by a number of Glenelg area students as part of the SA schools ' Come out ' festival of that year .
During the 1980s , most of the remaining unrefurbished cars ( 355 , 356 , 360 , 362 and 378 ) were disposed of , bringing the operating fleet down to 21 cars . In October 1986 , along with the opening of a new tram depot at Glengowrie , 369 became the first car to be fitted with a pantograph on a permanent basis after the overhead had been altered to make the wire ' zig sag ' to minimise wear on the pantograph . All the other cars in the fleet were subsequently fitted with pantographs and roller bearings on the trucks replacing the old plain bearings . For a short period after installation of pantographs , a trolley pole was retained at one end ' just in case ' but was finally removed soon afterwards . In 1987 , the last of the silver trams ( 361 ) was refurbished under a new program which introduced a few more modern features to the cars . Eventually , 10 H types were refurbished under the new program ( 357 , 358 , 361 , 364 , 365 , 368 , 369 , 371 , 372 and 373 ) .
Interestingly , 378 , which had previously been disposed of in 1986 , was repurchased and refurbished for use as a restaurant tram and was launched on 1 November 1990 as the ' Adelaide Tram Car Restaurant ' , run by a private operator . It was not successful and the tram was later purchased by TransAdelaide and renamed ' Grand Lady ' . As with the private operator , the operation was not a success under TransAdelaide . The tram was retained but very rarely used and was last seen on the mainline in 2001 . For some years it was stored at Glengowrie depot , then in 2006 it was sold to the South Australian History Trust , which made it available to the St Kilda Tramway Museum , where it has been run on occasions .
In 2001 and 2002 , cars 351 , 367 , 370 , 374 and 380 were again refurbished to the extent of a complete rebuild . New modern chopper controls were added replacing the original GE PC5L2 control gear . From 2007 the five trams have seen service for weekend , public holiday and charter trips . With an in service operational life of 80 years , these five trams are the oldest public transport vehicles still in service in Australia ( although 374 hasn 't been in service since 2004 after sustaining some underframe damage ) . With the purchase of replacement trams , sixteen Type H trams were disposed of with some sold , for a total of $ 65 @,@ 000 , and the remainder donated . They were destined for uses as varied as a restaurant , an attraction at a bed and breakfast boarding house and a tourism display at Glenelg , Adelaide .
= = = = Type H1 = = = =
Until the arrival of the Flexity trams in 2005 , H1 type car 381 was the most modern tram in Adelaide.Originally part of an order for 40 H1 type cars , 381 was just completed by JA Lawton & Sons of Adelaide when the reconstitution of the MTT caused cancellation of the remaining thirty @-@ nine cars . A partly constructed 382 was scrapped before it was completed as a result of the change in policy . Like the H type upon which 381 was based on , it was fitted with PC5L2 type controllers although in this case , they were taken out of F1 type tram 264 ( more details to be found in the F1 type section ) . Originally fitted with a standard link and pin type coupler , 381 was later fitted with a Tomlinson automatic style coupler ( although it was not able to operate in multiple with the H type ) . Power operated doors were also fitted .
381 ran its first trial run on 22 January 1953 and entered service the following
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offensive in the Sinai , although the pace of the advance was governed by the speed by which the railway and water pipeline could be constructed from the Suez Canal . Rafa was captured on 9 January 1917 , while the last of the small Turkish garrisons in the Sinai were eliminated in February .
The advance entered Palestine and an initial , unsuccessful attempt was made to capture Gaza on 26 March 1917 , while a second and equally unsuccessful attempt was launched on 19 April . A third assault occurred between 31 October and 7 November and this time both the ANZAC Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division took part . The battle was a complete success for the British , overrunning the Gaza – Beersheba line and capturing 12 @,@ 000 Turkish soldiers . The critical moment was the capture of Beersheba on the first day , after the Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade charged more than 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) . The Turkish trenches were overrun , with the Australians capturing the wells at Beersheba and securing the valuable water they contained along with over 700 prisoners for the loss of 31 killed and 36 wounded . Later , Australian troops assisted in pushing the Turkish forces out of Palestine and took part in actions at Mughar Ridge , Jerusalem and the Megiddo . The Turkish government surrendered on 30 October 1918 . Units of the Light Horse were subsequently used to help put down a nationalist revolt in Egypt in 1919 and did so with efficiency and brutality , although they suffered a number of fatalities in the process . Total Australian battle casualties in the campaign were 4 @,@ 851 , including 1 @,@ 374 dead .
= = = Western Front = = =
Five infantry divisions of the AIF saw action in France and Belgium , leaving Egypt in March 1916 . I ANZAC Corps subsequently took up positions in a quiet sector south of Armentieres on 7 April 1916 and for the next two and a half years the AIF participated in most of the major battles on the Western Front , earning a formidable reputation . Although spared from the disastrous first day of the Battle of the Somme , within weeks four Australian divisions had been committed . The 5th Division , positioned on the left flank , was the first in action during the Battle of Fromelles on 19 July 1916 , suffering 5 @,@ 533 casualties in a single day . The 1st Division entered the line on 23 July , assaulting Pozieres , and by the time that they were relieved by the 2nd Division on 27 July , they had suffered 5 @,@ 286 casualties . Mouquet Farm was attacked in August , with casualties totalling 6 @,@ 300 men . By the time the AIF was withdrawn from the Somme to reorganise , they had suffered 23 @,@ 000 casualties in just 45 days .
In March 1917 , the 2nd and 5th Divisions pursued the Germans back to the Hindenburg Line , capturing the town of Bapaume . On 11 April , the 4th Division assaulted the Hindenburg Line in the disastrous First Battle of Bullecourt , losing over 3 @,@ 000 casualties and 1 @,@ 170 captured . On 15 April , the 1st and 2nd Divisions were counter @-@ attacked near Lagnicourt and were forced to abandon the town , before recapturing it . The 2nd Division then took part in the Second Battle of Bullecourt , beginning on 3 May , and succeeded in taking sections of the Hindenburg Line and holding them until relieved by the 1st Division . Finally , on 7 May the 5th Division relieved the 1st , remaining in the line until the battle ended in mid @-@ May . Combined , these efforts cost 7 @,@ 482 Australian casualties .
On 7 June 1917 , II ANZAC Corps — along with two British corps — launched an operation in Flanders in order to eliminate a salient south of Ypres . The attack commenced with the detonation of a million pounds ( 454 @,@ 545 kg ) of explosives that had been placed underneath the Messines ridge , destroying the German trenches . The advance was virtually unopposed , and despite strong German counterattacks the next day , it succeeded . Australian casualties during the Battle of Messines included nearly 6 @,@ 800 men . I ANZAC Corps then took part in the Third Battle of Ypres in Belgium as part of the campaign to capture the Gheluvelt Plateau , between September and November 1917 . Individual actions took place at Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle and Passchendaele and over the course of eight weeks of fighting the Australians suffered 38 @,@ 000 casualties .
On 21 March 1918 , the German Army launched its Spring Offensive in a last @-@ ditched effort to win the war , unleashing 63 divisions over a 70 @-@ mile ( 110 km ) front . As the Allies fell back the 3rd and 4th Divisions were rushed south to Amiens on the Somme . The offensive lasted for the next five months and all five AIF divisions in France were engaged in the attempt to stem the tide . By late May the Germans had pushed to within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of Paris . During this time the Australians fought at Dernacourt , Morlancourt , Villers @-@ Bretonneux , Hangard Wood , Hazebrouck , and Hamel . At Hamel the commander of the Australian Corps , Lieutenant General John Monash , successfully used combined arms — including aircraft , artillery and armour — in an attack for the first time .
The German offensive ground to a halt in mid @-@ July and a brief lull followed , during which the Australians undertook a series of raids , known as Peaceful Penetrations . The Allies soon launched their own offensive — the Hundred Days Offensive — ultimately ending the war . Beginning on 8 August 1918 the offensive included four Australian divisions striking at Amiens . Using the combined arms techniques developed earlier at Hamel , significant gains were made on what became known as the " Black Day " of the German Army . The offensive continued for four months , and during the Second Battle of the Somme the Australian Corps fought actions at Lihons , Etinehem , Proyart , Chuignes , and Mont St Quentin , before their final engagement of the war on 5 October 1918 at Montbrehain . While these actions were successful , the Australian divisions suffered considerable casualties and by September 1918 the average strength of their infantry battalions was between 300 and 400 , which was less than 50 percent of the authorised strength . The AIF was withdrawn for rest and reorganisation following the engagement at Montbrehain , and was subsequently out of the line when the armistice was declared on 11 November 1918 . Although , some artillery units continued to support British and American units into November , and the AFC maintained flying operations until the end of the war . Total Australian casualties on the Western Front numbered 181 @,@ 000 , including 46 @,@ 000 of whom died . Another 114 @,@ 000 men were wounded , 16 @,@ 000 gassed , and approximately 3 @,@ 850 were taken prisoners of war .
= = = Other theatres = = =
Small numbers of AIF personnel also served in other theatres . Australian troops from the 1st Australian Wireless Signal Squadron provided communications for British forces during the Mesopotamian Campaign . They participated in a number of battles , including the Battle of Baghdad in March 1917 and the Battle of Ramadi in September that year . Following the Russian Revolution in 1917 , the Caucasus Front collapsed , leaving Central Asia open to the Turkish Army . A special force , known as Dunsterforce after its commander , Major General Lionel Dunsterville , was formed from hand @-@ picked British officers and NCOs to organise any remaining Russian forces or civilians who were ready to fight the Turkish forces . Some 20 Australian officers served with Dunsterforce in the Caucasus Campaign and one party under Captain Stanley Savige was instrumental in protecting thousands of Assyrian refugees . Australian nurses staffed four British hospitals in Salonika , and another 10 in India .
= = Leadership = =
The position of Chief of the General Staff ( CGS ) had been established in 1909 and was responsible for maintaining the war organisation of the Army , preparing defensive plans , the training and examination of officers , and the collection and interpretation of intelligence . In addition , the incumbent also sat as First Military Member of the Military Board . The Military Board was responsible to the Minister for Defence for the administration of the Australian Military Forces ( AMF ) . Colonel James Gordon Legge was appointed CGS on 1 May 1914 , replacing Brigadier General Joseph Gordon , but was still en route from Britain when war had broken out . With Bridges occupied in organising the AIF , Legge took over the organisation of the AN & MEF for service in New Guinea . After Bridges departed for overseas , Legge took over responsibility for the training of AIF reinforcements .
When originally formed in 1914 the AIF was commanded by Bridges , who also commanded the 1st Division . After Bridges ' death at Gallipoli in May 1915 , the Australian government appointed Legge , a Boer War veteran , to replace Bridges in command of both . However , British Lieutenant General Sir John Maxwell , the commander of British Troops in Egypt , objected to Legge bypassing him and communicating directly with Australia . The Australian government failed to support Legge , who thereafter deferred to Lieutenant General William Birdwood , the commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps . When Legge was sent to Egypt to command the 2nd Division , Birdwood made representations to the Australian government that Legge could not act as commander of the AIF , and that the Australian government should transfer Bridges ' authority to him . This was done on a temporary basis on 18 September 1915 . Birdwood was officially confirmed as commander of the AIF on 14 September 1916 , backdated to 1
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" Middle Ages ( sort of ) with a French air . " The series takes place in a fictional universe , where an worldwide epidemic of a virus , the Galatea Syndrome ( ガラテイア症候群 , Garateia Shoukougun ) , has turned part of the population into guignols ( ギニョール , Giniyōru ) , zombies which resemble marionettes . Certain types of music can restore humanity and memories to the guignols while speeding up their destruction ; the queen 's Grand Orchestra destroys guignols through music , as does the much smaller , unofficial Grand Orchestra . If an area becomes more than seventy percent infected by the virus , the queen sends her Divine Lightning ( 神雷 , Kami Kaminari ) to destroy the area and keep the virus from spreading . The virus , however , originates from the first queen , whose father transformed her into a guignol ; subsequent queens and their potential successors are grown from her cells . Opposed to the queen 's rule is Le Sénat : consuls Richter ( リチテライツ , Richiteraitu ) and Valentine ( バレンチナイツ , Barentinaitu ) , chancellor Meerschaum ( ミアシャム , Miatsuyamu ) , and regent Jasper ( ジャスパー , Jayasupā ) , all of whom have been governing for a century .
= = = Story = = =
The plot follows the unofficial Grand Orchestra led by singer Lucille ( ルチル , Ruchiru ) , who searches for a way to rescue his younger sister Cordierite " Cordie " ( コーディアライト , Kodiaraito ) — who now despises him as the cold @-@ hearted Queen Gemsilica , convinced that he tricked her into becoming queen in his place . The other members include the violence @-@ prone violinist Kohaku ( コハク ) , who was bitten by a guignol ; and cellist Gwindel " Gwin " ( グィンデル , Guwinderu ) , a former sculptor of guignols who keeps his daughter 's hedgehog with him . They are soon joined by pianist Celestite " Celes " ( セレスタイト , Seresutaito ) , who has lived under the identity of her twin brother , Elestial " Eles " ( エレスチャル , Eresutiaru ) after a guignol attack left her the only surviving child in her town . They periodically encounter Berthier ( ベルチェ , Beruchie ) , the unofficial orchestra 's former pianist whose violence drove his beloved , Lucille , away and who was resurrected by Le Sénat after his suicide . Other reoccurring characters include Spinel ( スピネル , Supineru ) , a spy for the queen who can manipulate her voice and whom Lucille befriended when she snuck into the all @-@ male monastery as a child .
The unofficial orchestra visits infected towns and destroys the guignols there for a fee . Eventually , they obtain the Black Oratorio ( 黒の聖譚曲 , Kuro no Hijiri Tan Kyoku ) , rumoured to be able to destroy the queen and neutralize the virus when performed . Having left Eles behind for her own protection and unaware that she took the Black Oratorio out of fear of its effects on the orchestra , Lucille and his orchestra confront Queen Gemsilica , and find Berthier with a kidnapped Eles and the Black Oratorio . Queen Gemsilica is fatally wounded by their servant Cookiete " Cook " ( クーク石 , Kukitu ) . Secretly the host of the original king , Cook is responsible for the manipulation that caused her to become queen instead of Lucille . Berthier , persuaded to return the Black Oratorio , kills Cook as he attempts to escape , and the music of the Black Oratorio is broadcast throughout the world by the satellites formerly used for Divine Lightning . Upon hearing the music , the guignols sing along and are destroyed . Separated from Lucille and the orchestra , Eles realizes that she can live as herself now . Later , she joyfully reunites with Lucille , and rejoins the unofficial orchestra , all of whom have been affected by the neutralization of the virus .
= = Development = =
Yuki noted that the title of the series was potentially misleading , as the orchestra is not composed of guignols ; she chose the word " guignol " — which describes hand puppets , not marionettes — for its sound . Page limitations affected the roles of Kohaku and Carnelian , Lucille 's castrato rival , although she felt that the story still ended as she had planned it . She also faced difficulty with Berthier 's character design . Initially , she planned to have him appear in a " full @-@ body animal suit " costume , but decided against the idea as " too comical . " One of his early character designs was used for a minor character , an assassin for Le Sénat .
Included with the bound @-@ volume release of Grand Guignol Orchestra is " Camolet Garden " , Yuki 's 92 @-@ page romantic one @-@ shot manga originally published in the April 2008 issue of the monthly shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga magazine Bessatsu Hana to Yume . It focuses on Ryū , who finds himself in a boys ' dormitory , where its inhabitants have ranks corresponding to a deck of playing cards . He struggles to solve the mystery of the boys ' dormitory , closed off from the outside world and where death only results in rebirth . In it , Yuki made allusions to the Victorian poem " The Lady of Shalott " by the English poet Alfred , Lord Tennyson . In retrospective , she felt that its setting was " not really the best , " and the many characters presented some difficulty in remembering .
= = Release = =
Written and illustrated by Kaori Yuki , Grand Guignol Orchestra appeared as a serial in Bessatsu Hana to Yume from the August 2008 issue , to the June 2010 issue . Hakusensha collected the eighteen chapters into five bound volumes , and released them from 19 February 2009 , to 19 August 2010 .
At the 2009 New York Anime Festival , Viz Media announced that it had licensed the series and would publish the series under its Shojo Beat imprint . Viz Media published the series from 5 October 2010 , to 6 December 2011 . It also released a digital version of the series . The series is distributed by Madman Entertainment in Australasia ( Australia and New Zealand ) . It has also been translated into other languages , among them German , Italian , French , and Mandarin .
= = = Volume list = = =
= = Reception = =
Grand Guignol Orchestra was positively received by English @-@ language readers . Three volumes appeared on the list of the 300 bestselling graphic novels . The first volume sold 464 copies and appeared at the 256th spot on October 2010 ; it reached the fifteenth spot in BookScan 's list of the twenty bestselling graphic novels for September 2011 . The second volume sold an estimated 334 copies , and appeared at the 265th spot for February 2011 . The fifth volume sold an estimated 297 copies , and appeared at the 267th spot .
Writing for School Library Journal 's blog Good Comics for Kids , Snow Wildsmith reviewed the first volume positively , and wrote , " The elements her fans adore are all there : beautiful characters , gender ambiguity , horror themes , blood and gore , and , of course , gorgeous costumes . " According to Wildsmith , the unexplained aspects of the plot helped to create interest for the readers . David Welsh of Comic World News had more mixed feelings about the first volume ; although he praised the aesthetic , premise , translation , and guignols , he wrote that Yuki 's work would be more appealing " if she could just strike that balance between creative focus and intellectual abandon and emotional shamelessness . " About.com 's Deb Aoki reviewed it negatively , criticizing its plot . Aoki wrote that it would only appeal to fans of Yuki . While finding aspects of the setting and costume design historically confusing and trying on the reader 's suspension of disbelief , Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network wrote that the Gwin 's backstory , the quick pacing , Yuki 's detailed art , and her frightening portrayal of zombies made the third volume " a winning entry in an already fascinating series . " Silverman had mixed feelings about the dense page layouts : according to her , they contributed to the narrative suspense , although they affected the reader 's ability to easily read the volume in places . In her review of the fourth volume , Silverman praised the character development and Yuki 's ability to create mysteries , although she wrote that not all readers would enjoy the numerous plot twists . She also suggested the possibility of a metaphor for the French Revolution in the series . Another reviewer for Anime News Network , Carlo Santos gave the third volume a C- ; while he praised Yuki 's illustrations and ability to create " dramatic revelations , " he wrote that it was overshadowed by the confusing and cluttered narrative .
Sequential Tart 's Sheena McNeil reviewed the series positively , with Yuki 's art , characterization , and storytelling a source of praise . She , however , expressed her feelings of annoyance and frustration with the conclusion of the fourth volume , which saw the female characters left behind on purpose by the male members of the orchestra and then Eles ' kidnapping by Berthier . She also wrote that Yuki 's inclusion of a happy ending felt surprising compared to the rest of the story . Reviewing " Camelot Garden " , she enjoyed it less than Grand Guignol Orchestra , and wrote that the short story contained an implicit reference to Lewis Carroll 's children 's novel Through the Looking Glass ( 1871 ) and its character , the ever @-@ sleeping Red King .
= 2015 Tour of Oman =
The 2015 Tour of Oman was the sixth edition of the Tour of Oman cycling stage race . It was rated as a 2.HC event on the UCI Asia Tour , and was held from 17 to 22 February 2015 , in Oman . The race was organised by the municipality of Muscat , in collaboration with ASO ( the organisers of the Tour de France ) and Paumer . Chris Froome , the defending champion from 2013 and 2014 , was not present to defend his title .
The decisive stage in this as in past editions was the climb of Jebel Akhdar . That stage was won by Rafael Valls of Lampre – Merida , who went on to defend his overall race lead to the finish in Muscat . This was aided by the controversial events of stage 5 , which was eventually cancelled due to extreme weather conditions . Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) finished second ( as he had in 2014 ) and Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) finished third .
The points competition was won by Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) , who won the first stage of the race . Louis Meintjes ( MTN – Qhubeka ) was the best young rider , while Jef Van Meirhaeghe ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) won the combativity prize after participating in the breakaway on every stage of the race . BMC Racing Team was the winner of the teams classification .
= = Teams = =
18 teams were selected to take part in the event , including 12 UCI Pro Tour teams .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
The Tour of Oman is the third of a trio of stage races in the Middle East that come early in the road cycling season , following the Dubai Tour and the Tour of Qatar , in 2015 won by Mark Cavendish and Niki Terpstra respectively . The distinctive feature of the Tour of Oman is the annual inclusion of the climb of Jebel Akhdar , the Green Mountain , which means the general classification is generally won by climbers . Many Grand Tour contenders start their seasons racing in Oman for this reason .
In 2013 and 2014 , the race was won by Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) as the beginning of his preparation for the Tour de France . In 2015 , however , Froome opted to begin his season at the Vuelta a Andalucía and so missed the Tour of Oman . The race was therefore expected to be contested between other Grand Tour riders , such as Tour de France champion Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) , Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) , Thibault Pinot ( FDJ ) , Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) , Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Leopold König ( Team Sky ) .
Although the general classification was expected to be contested by climbers , many riders ride the Tour of Oman with other aims . Spring classics riders use them as a last block of racing before the European classics season starts with the Omloop Het Nieuwsblad , while sprinters aim to win stages . Notable sprinters at the 2015 race included Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) , who won three stages in the 2014 Tour of Qatar , Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) and Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) . Stages 1 , 3 and 6 were predicted to be suited for the pure sprinters , while stages 2 and 5 were expected to suit riders who could cope with some climbing .
= = Route = =
The 2015 event was scheduled to have six stages , including four flat stages , one medium @-@ mountain stage and one mountain stage .
= = Stages = =
= = = Stage 1 = = =
The first stage was a 161 km ( 100 mi ) route from Bayt al Naman Castle to Al Wuttayah on the outskirts of Muscat . It was a fairly flat course , with an uphill finish . Temperatures exceeded 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) .
The early breakaway was formed by Johan van Zyl ( MTN – Qhubeka ) , Patrick Konrad ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , Simone Andreetta ( Bardiani – CSF ) and Jef van Meirhaeghe ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , who built a lead of up to five minutes . The chasing peloton was led for most of the day by Team Katusha , in support of their leader Alexander Kristoff , for whom the uphill finish was ideal . Movistar Team and Trek Factory Racing aided in the chase .
Van Zyl put in an attack with 85 km ( 53 mi ) remaining , leaving his breakaway companions behind . This group was soon caught by the peloton after Konrad suffered a puncture ; Van Zyl was caught with 32 km ( 20 mi ) remaining . Team Katusha continued to lead the peloton until the final kilometres . At this point , Etixx – Quick @-@ Step led out the sprint in support of Tom Boonen . However , they misjudged the difficulty towards the finish line : there was a 2 @-@ 3 % incline and a headwind . This caused the team to mistime the sprint : Boonen 's lead @-@ out man Matteo Trentin was only able to support him until there were 200 m ( 660 ft ) remaining . Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) was supported by his teammate Borut Božič and was then able to follow Boonen and come past him in the final 50 m ( 160 ft ) to take his first victory of 2015 . Matteo Pelucchi ( Lampre – Merida ) took third place .
Guardini therefore took over the red jersey of overall leader . Van Zyl , Konrad and Andreeta all finished on the same time as Guardini and so moved into the top ten thanks to bonus seconds won at intermediate sprints .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
Stage 2 was a 195 km ( 121 mi ) route ( the longest of the race ) from Al Hazm Castle to Al Bustan . It was classified as a flat stage , but there were two notable climbs within the last 25 km ( 16 mi ) , presenting the opportunity for riders to attack close to the finish .
The early breakaway was formed by Gatis Smukulis ( Team Katusha ) , Preben Van Hecke , Jef Van Meirhaeghe ( both Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , and Enrico Barbin ( Bardiani – CSF ) . The chase was led by Astana , defending the red jersey of Andrea Guardini . After about 50 km ( 31 mi ) , Barbin suffered a puncture ; he was dropped by the remaining three riders and was then caught by the peloton . As the stage progressed , Tinkoff – Saxo took control of the peloton in support of Peter Sagan . Their strong pace meant that the main group was soon catching the breakaway , but the peloton itself began to split , with riders including Edvald Boasson Hagen ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) among the riders temporarily distanced from the front of the race .
The breakaway had a two @-@ minute lead with 25 km ( 16 mi ) remaining , as they approached the climbs at the end of the stage . Smukulis attacked on the first climb , Al Hamriyah , and had a 30 @-@ second lead at the summit , with the peloton a little over a minute behind . Guardini was among the riders who were dropped from the peloton , with Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) and Thibault Pinot ( FDJ ) also in difficulty . Smukulis was caught soon afterwards , with 16 @.@ 5 km ( 10 mi ) remaining , under continued impetus from Tinkoff – Saxo .
On the second climb , Al Jissah , there was an attack from Jakob Fuglsang ( Astana ) , Ben Hermans ( BMC Racing Team ) , Julián Arredondo ( Trek Factory Racing ) , and Louis Meintjes ( MTN – Qhubeka ) . Pinot , Rodriguez and Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) were all dropped by the peloton , now reduced to a small group . This group , made up of 14 riders , was able to catch the breakaway soon after the climb . Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) , Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) and Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) all made attacks in the final 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) , but were unable to stay away and the race came down to a sprint .
Movistar Team did much of the pace @-@ setting in support of Valverde , before BMC Racing Team attempted to set up Greg Van Avermaet for the uphill sprint at the finish . Despite these efforts , Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) was able to sprint to victory . Valverde was second , with Van Avermaet in third place . This victory meant that Cancellara took over the lead of both the general classification and the points competition . It was his first race victory since the 2014 Tour of Flanders the previous spring .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
Stage 3 was a 158 @.@ 5 km ( 98 mi ) route that started and ended at Al Mussanah Sports City . The route was mostly flat with no significant climbs and the roads at the finish were wide and straight , so the stage was likely to end in a bunch sprint .
Jef Van Meirhaeghe ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) was again in the breakaway , along with his teammate Preben Van Hecke and Alessandro Tonelli ( Bardiani – CSF ) . Initially there was a lack of agreement in the peloton about who should lead the chase . Trek Factory Racing were supporting race leader Fabian Cancellara , but they wanted the sprinters ' teams to support the chase . The breakaway was therefore allowed a lead that reached nine minutes , but eventually agreement between the chasing teams brought control and the lead was reduced to six minutes . The breakaway was eventually caught with 15 km ( 9 mi ) remaining .
In the final 10 km ( 6 mi ) many teams , including Astana , Movistar Team , MTN – Qhubeka and Tinkoff – Saxo , sought to lead out their sprinters . In the confusion , Matteo Trentin ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) crashed and was forced to abandon the race . Team Katusha moved up in the final 5 km ( 3 mi ) in support of Alexander Kristoff . Kristoff 's lead out train was strong and positioned him well for the final sprint .
In the finishing straight , there was a significant headwind , and , when Danny van Poppel ( Trek Factory Racing ) opened his sprint too early , Kristoff was able to follow him and come round to take his fourth victory of the season , just ahead of Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) . Cancellara retained his overall lead in the race .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
Stage 4 was the queen stage of the race , with a summit finish at the climb of Jabal al Akhdar ( the Green Mountain ) . The stage was a 189 km ( 117 mi ) route from the Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque to Jabal al Akhdar . There were no significant climbs in the route until the final 5 @.@ 7 km ( 4 mi ) , which had an average gradient of 10 @.@ 5 % .
An early breakaway was formed of Jef Van Meirhaeghe ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) ( the leader of the combativity award and in the breakaway for the fourth consecutive stage ) , his teammate Gijs Van Hoecke , Stijn Vandenbergh ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and points classification leader Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) . Guardini and Van Meirhaeghe contested the intermediate sprint after 18 @.@ 5 km ( 11 mi ) , taking points for their respective classifications , then sat up and were caught by the peloton . Vandenbergh and Van Hoecke were allowed to build a lead of nearly 15 minutes , before the peloton increased its speed . The breakaway was caught with less than 10 km ( 10 mi ) to go .
BMC Racing Team led the peloton hard into the early slopes of Jabal al Akhdar . This caused many riders , including race leader Fabian Cancellara , to be dropped , and a group of 20 riders formed . Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) put in two attacks , causing the group to be reduced further , in support of Jakob Fuglsang . More riders , including Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) were dropped , leaving a group of three riders in the lead with 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) to go : Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) and Rafael Valls ( Lampre – Merida ) . Majka unable to follow Van Garderen 's attacks , but Valls was able to stay in his wheel . Valls was then able to put in his own attack and pass Van Garderen in the final part of the stage , going on to win by five seconds . It was his first victory in five years and gave him a 19 @-@ second lead in the overall standings . Van Garderen was frustrated after the stage , having also finished second on the same stage in the 2014 race behind Chris Froome . He said afterwards that he had " underestimated " Valls , who had not been considered among the favourites for stage victory .
Louis Meintjes ( MTN – Qhubeka ) was eighth on the stage and moved into the white jersey as the best young rider .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
Stage 5 was scheduled to be a 151 @.@ 5 km ( 94 mi ) route , beginning at Al Sawadi Beach . The planned route then went along the coast and included four laps of a circuit before finishing at the Ministry of Housing . Each lap of the circuit included the climb of Bousher al Amerat , a difficult climb . Equivalent stages in the 2013 and 2014 editions had been highly selective , and the stage was considered an opportunity for Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) to attempt to attack race leader Rafael Valls ( Lampre – Merida ) .
Extreme weather conditions , however , made the stage impossible . There was a sandstorm at the starting point on Al Sawadi Beach , so the decision was taken to transport the riders to the finishing circuit , shortening the stage to 95 km ( 59 mi ) . When the riders arrived at the finishing circuit , however , they were now faced with very high temperatures , approximately 41 ° C ( 106 ° F ) . They started racing , but found themselves with problems due to the extreme heat . Several riders suffered punctures , especially during the fast descents , and problems with their brakes and the riders took the decision to neutralise the stage and took shelter under a bridge . The race organisers , led by race director Eddy Merckx , tried to persuade the riders to carry on , and at one point it was suggested that the cancellation of the stage could mean the end of the Tour of Oman altogether . It was eventually agreed , however , that the riders would take a short flat route to the stage finish .
With the stage cancelled , the standings in all the classifications remained unchanged .
= = = Stage 6 = = =
Stage 6 was a 133 @.@ 5 km ( 83 @.@ 0 mi ) route starting at the headquarters of Oman Air on the edge of Muscat International Airport . The route first followed the coast west , before turning inland and heading east . The race crossed two classified climbs on the edge of Muscat , before finishing on the corniche at Muttrah with three laps of a finishing circuit . The weather conditions were much more suitable for racing , with grey skies and the temperature approximately 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) lower than the previous day .
The first riders to break away , were Iljo Keisse ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Jef Van Meirhaeghe ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) . Van Meirhaeghe was in the breakaway for the fifth time in the race : he had participated in the breakaway on every stage except the aborted stage 5 . After his efforts earlier in the week , he struggled initially to stay with Keisse . The pair were joined , however , by Danny Pate ( Team Sky ) and Matthias Brändle ( IAM Cycling ) , and Van Meirhaeghe was able to stay with the group . Jelle Wallays , Van Meirhaeghe 's team mate , attempted to bridge across to the leading riders , but he was not able to make it across in the crosswinds and was caught by the main peloton . Lampre – Merida were happy to allow the breakaway a large lead as none of the riders posed any threat to Rafael Valls in the general classification , and they had a nine @-@ minute lead with approximately 65 km ( 40 mi ) remaining .
The sprinters ' teams attempted to chase the breakaway down . Principally this was led by Cofidis , who were hoping to set up Nacer Bouhanni for the stage win . However , the hills close to the finish made this difficult , as the breakaway were able to maintain their advantage on the technical descents . Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) was dropped on the last of these climbs .
In the leading group , Pate made the first attack on the unclassified climb on the finishing circuit , but Brändle covered the move and passed him . Brändle was then able to hold off the chase of Keisse – the faster sprinter – and finished the stage with a four @-@ second advantage . Van Meirhaeghe finished third with Pate fourth . In the peloton , Peter Sagan won the bunch sprint , over a minute behind Brändle .
Rafael Valls was therefore able to secure the overall win , nine seconds ahead of Van Garderen , to take the first professional stage race win of his career .
= = Classification leadership = =
There were five principal classifications in the 2015 Tour of Oman .
The first and most important was the general classification ; the winner of this is considered the overall winner of the race . It is calculated by adding together each rider 's times on each stage , then applying bonuses . Bonuses are awarded for coming in the top three on a stage ( 10 seconds for the winner , 6 seconds for the second placed rider and 4 seconds for the rider in third ) or at intermediate sprints ( 3 seconds , 2 seconds and 1 second for the top three riders ) . The rider in the lead of the general classification wears a red jersey .
The second competition is the points classification . This is calculated by awarding points for the top 10 riders at the finish of each stage ( 15 points to the winner down to 1 point for the rider in tenth place ) and to the top three at intermediate sprints ( 3 points , 2 points and 1 point ) . The rider with the highest points total is the leader of the classification and wears a green jersey .
The young rider classification is open to those born on or after 1 January 1990 . The young rider ranked highest in the general classification is the leader of the young rider classification and wears a white jersey .
The combativity classification is based on points won at intermediate sprints and classified climbs along the route . Points are awarded to the top three riders across each sprint or climb ( 3 points , 2 points and 1 point ) . The rider with the most accumulated points is the leader of the classification and wears a white jersey with red and green sections .
The final competition is the team classification . On each stage , each team is awarded a time based on the cumulative time of its top three riders . The times for each stage are then added together and the team with the lowest total time is the leader of the team classification . There is no jersey awarded for this classification .
= = Classification standings = =
= = = Team classification = = =
= = Controversy over stage 5 = =
The 2015 race included one significant controversy : the conditions on stage 5 that led to the stage 's cancellation . After a sandstorm had caused the start of the race to be relocated , very high temperatures ( somewhere between 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) and 49 ° C ( 120 ° F ) ) caused several riders ' tyres to puncture . This was especially the case on the neutralised descents , as the slow speeds and consequent frequent braking led to higher tyre temperatures and more punctures . Many riders had concerns for their safety on the descents , and a rider protest brought the race to a halt .
Riders engaged in a lengthy discussion with the race organisers , who were represented by Eddy Merckx , considered one of the greatest cyclists ever , who was part @-@ owner of the race . The Omani organisers , led by Salim bin Mubarak Al Hassani , put pressure on the riders to continue racing , but they refused to do so . The riders were led by Tom Boonen ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , who cited the danger of continuing to race in the conditions , suggesting that their lives were at risk . The stage was eventually neutralised and the riders returned to the finish line by a flat route .
After the race , Merckx publicly dismissed the riders ' complaints . In particular , he made comparisons with the dangers that are accepted by the riders , such as those faced when riding Paris – Roubaix or descending on wet days in the Tour de France . Merckx also said that he was worried about the future of the race , as the local organisers were angry at the cancellation of the stage and had wanted to cancel stage 6 as well . He was also concerned about the renewal of the contract to run the Tour of Oman , after it expired in 2016 . Before the final stage – which did go ahead – he had agreed with the local authorities that the race would continue in 2016 . It was suggested , however , that the local organisers may refuse to invite certain teams back to future editions of the race . These teams possibly included Etixx – Quick @-@ Step and Trek Factory Racing since their riders were central to the rider protest .
= Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well =
Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well is a book of poems by American author Maya Angelou , published by Random House in 1975 . It is Angelou 's second volume of poetry , written after her first two autobiographies and first volume of poetry were published . Angelou considers herself a poet and a playwright , but is best known for her seven autobiographies , especially her first , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , although her poetry has also been successful . She began , early in her writing career , alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Although her poetry collections have been best @-@ sellers , they have not received serious critical attention .
Oh Pray is divided into five parts and consists of 36 poems . The volume is dedicated to " Paul " . Like many of Angelou 's poems , the poetry in the volume has been characterized as light verse . They contain identifications with ordinary objects and universal identifications . Oh Pray has received mixed reviews from critics ; one critic states that the poems in it are best if read aloud . They focus
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1969 , China 's strongest link to Vietnam was gone . In the meantime , Richard Nixon had been elected President of the United States . While having been known for his anti @-@ communist rhetoric , Nixon said in 1971 that the U.S. " must have relations with Communist China " . His plan was for a slow withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam , while still retaining the government of South Vietnam . The only way he thought this was possible was by improving relations with both Communist China and the USSR . He later made a visit to Moscow to negotiate a treaty on arms control and the Vietnam war , but on Vietnam nothing could be agreed . On his visit to Moscow , Nixon and Brezhnev signed the SALT I , marking the beginning of the " détente " era , which would be proclaimed a " new era of peaceful coexistence " that would replace the hostility that existed during the Cold War .
= = = = Sino – Soviet relations = = = =
Soviet foreign relations with the People 's Republic of China quickly deteriorated after Nikita Khrushchev 's attempts to reach a rapprochement with more liberal Eastern European states such as Yugoslavia and the west . When Brezhnev consolidated his power base in the 1960s , China was descending into crisis because of Mao Zedong 's Cultural Revolution , which led to the decimation of the Communist Party of China and other ruling offices . The Brezhnev leadership who promoted the idea of " stabilisation " , could not comprehend why Mao would start such a " self @-@ destructive " drive to finish the socialist revolution , according to himself . At the same time , Brezhnev had problems of his own , the Czechoslovakian leadership were also deviating from the Soviet model . In the aftermath of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia , the Soviet leadership proclaimed the Brezhnev doctrine , which said the USSR had the right to intervene in any fraternal communist state that did not follow the Soviet model . This doctrine increased tension not only with the Eastern Bloc , but also the Asian communist states . By 1969 relations with other communist countries had deteriorated to a level where Brezhnev was not even able to gather five of the fourteen ruling communist parties to attend an international conference in Moscow . In the aftermath of the failed conference , the Soviets concluded , " there were no leading center of the international communist movement . "
Later in 1969 , Chinese forces started the Sino – Soviet border conflict . The Sino – Soviet split had chagrined Premier Alexei Kosygin a great deal , and for a while he refused to accept its irrevocability ; he briefly visited Beijing in 1969 due to the increase of tension between the USSR and China . By the early 1980s , both the Chinese and the Soviets were issuing statements calling for a normalisation of relations between the two states . The conditions given to the Soviets by the Chinese were the reduction of Soviet military presence in the Sino – Soviet border and the withdrawal of Soviets troops in Afghanistan and the Mongolian People 's Republic and to end their support for the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia . Brezhnev responded in his March 1982 speech in Tashkent where he called for the normalisation of relations . Full Sino – Soviet normalisations of relations would prove to take years , until the last Soviet ruler , Mikhail Gorbachev came to power .
= = = = Intervention in Afghanistan = = = =
After the communist revolution in Afghanistan in 1978 , authoritarian actions forced upon the populace by the Communist regime led to the Afghan civil war , with the mujahideen leading the popular backlash against the regime . The Soviet Union was worried that they were losing their influence in Central Asia , so after a KGB report claimed that Afghanistan could be taken in a matter of weeks , Brezhnev and several top party officials agreed to a full intervention in Afghanistan .
Parts of the Soviet military establishment were opposed to any sort of active Soviet military presence in Afghanistan , believing that the Soviet Union should leave Afghan politics alone . President Carter , following the advice of his National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski , denounced the intervention , describing it as the " most serious danger to peace since 1945 " . The U.S. stopped all grain exports to the Soviet Union and boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics held in Moscow . The Soviet Union responded by boycotting the 1984 Summer Olympics held in Los Angeles .
= = = = Eastern Europe = = = =
The first crisis for Brezhnev 's regime came in 1968 , with the attempt by the Communist leadership in Czechoslovakia , under Alexander Dubček , to liberalise the Communist system ( Prague Spring ) . In July , Brezhnev publicly criticised the Czechoslovak leadership as " revisionist " and " anti @-@ Soviet " , and in August he orchestrated the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia , and Dubček 's removal . The invasion led to public protests by dissidents in various Eastern Bloc countries . Brezhnev 's assertion that the Soviet Union had the right to interfere in the internal affairs of its satellites to " safeguard socialism " became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine , although it was really a restatement of existing Soviet policy , as enacted by Khrushchev in Hungary in 1956 . In the aftermath of the invasion , Brezhnev reiterated it in a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers ' Party on 13 November 1968 :
When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism , it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned , but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries .
When the situation in Czechoslovakia was discussed with the Politburo , Brezhnev was not the one pushing hardest for the use of military force . Brezhnev was aware of the dire situation he was in , and if he had abstained or voted against Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia he may have been faced with growing turmoil — domestically and in the Eastern Bloc . Archival evidence suggests that Brezhnev was one of the few who was looking for a temporary compromise with the reform @-@ friendly Czechoslovak government when their relationship was at the brink . Significant voices in the Soviet leadership demanded the re @-@ installation of a so @-@ called ' revolutionary government ' . After the military intervention in 1968 , Brezhnev met with Czechoslovak reformer Bohumil Simon , then a member of the Politburo of the Czechoslovak Communist Party , and said , " If I had not voted for Soviet armed assistance to Czechoslovakia you would not be sitting here today , but quite possibly I wouldn 't either . "
In 1980 a political crisis emerged in Poland with the emergence of the Solidarity mass movement . By the end of October , Solidarity had 3 million members , and by December , had 9 million . In a public opinion poll organised by the Polish government , 89 % of the respondents supported Solidarity . With the Polish leadership split on what to do , the majority did not want to impose martial law , as suggested by Wojciech Jaruzelski . The Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc was unsure how to handle the situation , but Erich Honecker of East Germany pressed for military action . In a formal letter to Brezhnev , Honecker proposed a joint military measure to control the escalating problems in Poland . A CIA report suggested the Soviet military were mobilising for an invasion .
In 1980 @-@ 81 representatives from the Eastern Bloc nations met at the Kremlin to discuss the Polish situation . Brezhnev eventually concluded on 10 December 1981 that it would be better to leave the domestic matters of Poland alone , reassuring the Polish delegates that the USSR would intervene only if asked to . This effectively marked the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine . With domestic matters escalating out of control in Poland , Wojciech Jaruzelski imposed a state of war , the Polish version of martial law , on 12 December 1981 .
= = = Cult of personality = = =
The last years of Brezhnev 's rule were marked by a growing personality cult . His love of medals ( he received over 100 ) , was well known , so in December 1966 , on his 60th birthday , he was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union . Brezhnev received the award , which came with the Order of Lenin and the Gold Star , three more times in celebration of his birthdays . On his 70th birthday he was awarded the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union – the highest military honour in the Soviet Union . After being awarded the medal , he attended an 18th Army Veterans meeting , dressed in a long coat and saying ; " Attention , Marshal 's coming ! " He also conferred upon himself the rare Order of Victory in 1978 — the only time the decoration was ever awarded outside of World War II . ( This medal was posthumously revoked in 1989 for not meeting the criteria for citation . )
Brezhnev 's weakness for undeserved medals was proven by his poorly written memoirs recalling his military service during World War II , which treated the little @-@ known and minor Battle of Novorossiysk as the decisive military theatre . Despite the apparent weaknesses of his memoirs , they were awarded the Lenin Prize for Literature and were met with critical acclaim by the Soviet press . The book was followed by two other books , one on the Virgin Lands Campaign . Brezhnev 's vanity made him the victim of many political jokes . Nikolai Podgorny warned him of this , but Brezhnev replied , " If they are poking fun at me , it means they like me . " It is now believed by Western historians and political analysts that the books were written by some of his " court writers " .
In keeping with traditional socialist greetings , Brezhnev kissed many politicians during his career , the most memorable instance being the Erich Honecker kiss .
= = = Health problems = = =
Brezhnev 's personality cult was growing outrageously at a time when his health was in rapid decline . His physical condition was deteriorating ; he was a lifelong heavy smoker , he had become addicted to sleeping pills , and had begun drinking to excess . Over the years he had become overweight . From 1973 until his death , Brezhnev 's central nervous system underwent chronic deterioration and he had several minor strokes as well as insomnia . In 1975 he suffered his first heart attack . When receiving the Order of Lenin , Brezhnev walked shakily and fumbled his words . According to one American intelligence expert , United States officials knew for several years that Brezhnev had suffered from severe arteriosclerosis and believed he had suffered from other unspecified ailments as well . In 1977 American intelligence officials publicly suggested that Brezhnev had also been suffering from gout , leukemia and emphysema . He was reported to have been fitted with a pacemaker to control his heart rhythm abnormalities . Yevgeniy Chazov , the Chief of the Fourth Directorate of the Ministry of Health , had to keep doctors by Brezhnev 's side at all times , and Brezhnev was brought back from near @-@ death on several occasions . At this time , most senior officers of the CPSU wanted to keep Brezhnev alive , even if such men as Mikhail Suslov , Dmitriy Ustinov and Andrei Gromyko , among others , were growing increasingly frustrated with his policies . They did not want to risk a new period of domestic turmoil that might be caused by his death . At about this time First World commentators started guessing Brezhnev 's heirs apparent . The most notable candidates were Suslov and Andrei Kirilenko , who were both older than Brezhnev , and Fyodor Kulakov and Konstantin Chernenko , who were younger ; Kulakov died of natural causes in 1978 .
= = = Last years and death = = =
For the last two years Brezhnev was only a figurehead . His health worsened in the winter of 1981 – 82 . In the meantime , the country was governed by Andrei Gromyko , Dmitriy Ustinov , Mikhail Suslov and Yuri Andropov while crucial Politburo decisions were made in his absence . While the Politburo was pondering the question of who would succeed , all signs indicated that the ailing leader was dying . The choice of the successor would have been influenced by Suslov , but he died at the age of 79 in January 1982 . Andropov took Suslov 's seat in the Central Committee Secretariat ; by May , it became obvious that Andropov would try to make a bid for the office of the General Secretary . He , with the help of fellow KGB associates , started circulating rumours that political corruption had become worse during Brezhnev 's tenure as leader , in an attempt to create an environment hostile to Brezhnev in the Politburo . Andropov 's actions showed that he was not afraid of Brezhnev 's wrath .
Brezhnev rarely appeared in public during 1982 . The Soviet government claimed that Brezhnev was not seriously ill , but admitted that he was surrounded by doctors . He suffered a severe stroke in May 1982 , but refused to relinquish office . On 7 November 1982 , despite his failing health , Brezhnev was present standing on Lenin 's Mausoleum during the annual military parade and demonstration of workers commemorating the anniversary of the October Revolution . The event would also mark Brezhnev 's final public appearance before dying three days later after suffering a heart attack . He was honoured with a state funeral , which was followed with a five @-@ day period of nationwide mourning . He was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis in Red Square . National and international statesmen from around the globe attended his funeral . His wife and family attended ; his daughter Galina Brezhneva outraged spectators by not showing up in sombre garb . Brezhnev on the other hand was dressed for burial in his Marshal 's uniform , along with all his medals .
= = Legacy = =
Brezhnev presided over the Soviet Union for longer than any other person except Joseph Stalin . He is often criticised for the prolonged Era of Stagnation , in which fundamental economic problems were ignored and the Soviet political system was allowed to decline . During Mikhail Gorbachev 's tenure as leader there was an increase in criticism of the Brezhnev years , such as claims that Brezhnev followed " a fierce neo @-@ Stalinist line " . The Gorbachevian discourse blamed Brezhnev for failing to modernise the country and to change with the times , although in a later statement Gorbachev made assurances that Brezhnev was not as bad as he was made out to be , saying , " Brezhnev was nothing like the cartoon figure that is made of him now . " The intervention in Afghanistan , which was one of the major decisions of his career , also significantly undermined both the international standing and the internal strength of the Soviet Union . In Brezhnev 's defence , it can be said that the Soviet Union reached unprecedented and never @-@ repeated levels of power , prestige , and internal calm under his rule .
Brezhnev has fared well in opinion polls when compared to his successors and predecessors in Russia . In the West he is most commonly remembered for starting the economic stagnation that triggered the dissolution of the Soviet Union . In an opinion poll by VTsIOM in 2007 the majority of Russians chose to live during the Brezhnev era rather than any other period of 20th century Soviet history . In a Levada Center poll conducted in 2013 , Brezhnev beat Vladimir Lenin as Russia 's favourite leader in the 20th century with 56 % approval . In another poll in 2013 , Brezhnev was voted the best Russian leader of the 20th century .
= = Personality traits and family = =
Brezhnev 's vanity became a problem during his reign . For instance , when Moscow City Party Secretary Nikolay Yegorychev refused to sing his praises , he was shunned , forced out of local politics and given only an obscure ambassadorship . Brezhnev 's main passion was driving foreign cars given to him by leaders of state from across the world . He usually drove these between his dacha and the Kremlin with , according to historian Robert Service , flagrant disregard for public safety .
Brezhnev lived at 26 Kutuzovsky Prospekt , Moscow . During vacations , he lived in his Gosdacha in Zavidovo . He was married to Viktoria Brezhneva ( 1908 – 1995 ) . During her final four years she lived virtually alone , abandoned by everybody . She had suffered for a long time from diabetes and was nearly blind in her last years . He had a daughter , Galina , and a son , Yuri . Galina in her later life became an alcoholic who together with a circus director started a gold @-@ bullion fraud gang in the later years of the Soviet Union .
= Special Air Service Regiment =
The Special Air Service Regiment , officially abbreviated SASR though commonly known as the SAS , is an elite special operations force of the Australian Army . Formed in 1957 , it was originally modelled on the British SAS sharing the motto , " Who Dares Wins " , and draws on the experiences of Australian Services Reconnaissance Department , independent companies , Coastwatchers and M and Z Special Units during World War II . Based at Campbell Barracks , in Swanbourne , a suburb of Perth , Western Australia , the regiment is a direct command unit of the Special Operations Command . It has been involved in operations in Borneo during the Indonesia – Malaysia confrontation , the Vietnam War , Somalia , Kuwait , East Timor , Iraq and Afghanistan , as well as many other peacekeeping missions . It also provides a counter @-@ terrorist capability , and has been involved in a number of domestic security operations .
= = Role = =
= = = Tasks and capabilities = = =
A direct command unit of Special Operations Command , the Special Air Service Regiment ( SASR ) is a special forces unit of the Australian Army and " is tasked to provide special @-@ operations capabilities in support of the Australian Defence Force . This includes providing unique capabilities to support sensitive strategic operations , special recovery operations , advisory and training assistance , special reconnaissance , precision strike and direct action " . The SASR is primarily structured to conduct covert long @-@ range reconnaissance and surveillance in small teams in enemy @-@ controlled territory , while commando units are utilised to conduct raids in larger groups . In addition to warfighting during conventional conflicts , the regiment is also tasked with maintaining a specialist counter @-@ terrorist capability . Other capabilities include training local or indigenous forces , recovery of Australian citizens and humanitarian assistance . The SASR is also trained in counter @-@ insurgency operations .
= = = Warfighting and special reconnaissance = = =
In the long @-@ range reconnaissance role , the SASR typically operates in small patrols of between five and six operators with the task of infiltrating enemy @-@ held territory and providing intelligence on enemy activities and capabilities . During such tasks the SASR seeks to evade rather than confront the enemy . SASR soldiers also direct fire support including air strikes to destroy enemy installations and disrupt or kill enemy forces whenever possible . SASR reconnaissance patrols can be inserted by air ( either by helicopter , standard parachute or HALO ) , land ( on foot or by vehicle ) or sea ( including by submarine , small boats , canoes or closed @-@ circuit breathing apparatus ) and have proven capable of covering large distances and staying concealed in jungle , desert and mountain terrain . SASR patrols may also conduct sabotage and short @-@ duration raids on high @-@ value targets , including headquarters , airfields and communications nodes .
= = = Counter @-@ terrorism and special recovery = = =
One of the primary roles of the regiment is to provide a counter @-@ terrorist capability , with an element of the SASR forming Australia 's domestic Tactical Assault Group ( West ) , while the 2nd Commando Regiment provides Tactical Assault Group ( East ) . TAG West maintains a short @-@ notice capability to conduct military operations beyond the scope of state and federal police tactical groups . Offensive counter @-@ terrorist operations may include direct action and hostage recovery . A capability to board ships whilst underway and off @-@ shore oil platforms is also maintained . The TAG is kept at high readiness for a period of 12 months , before being replaced by another squadron in this role .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The SASR draws on the experiences of the Australian Services Reconnaissance Department , independent companies , Coastwatchers and M and Z Special Units which operated in the South West Pacific Area against the Japanese during World War II . These units had been disbanded soon after the war as part of the demobilisation of the Australian military ; however , after observing the operations of the British Special Air Service during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s the Australian Army decided to raise its own SAS unit . The 1st Special Air Service Company was established on 25 July 1957 at Swanbourne , a suburb of Perth , Western Australia , with a strength of 16 officers and 144 other ranks . In 1960 , the company became part of the Royal Australian Regiment ( RAR ) and was given the responsibility for commando and special forces operations . As part of the pentropic organisation adopted by the Australian Army at the time , the regiment 's primary wartime role was divisional @-@ level reconnaissance . On 20 August 1964 , the SAS gained regimental status and was expanded to two sabre squadrons and a headquarters , severing the link with the RAR . The raising of a third squadron was approved on 30 April 1965 as part of an overall expansion of the Australian Army .
= = = Borneo = = =
The SASR first saw action in 1965 as part of the British Commonwealth force stationed in north Borneo during the Indonesian Confrontation . The Australian SASR troopers operated alongside their British and New Zealand counterparts in operations aimed at stopping Indonesian infiltration into Malaysia , taking part in Operation Claret . 1 Squadron conducted reconnaissance patrols in Sarawak from February to July 1965 , and conducted cross @-@ border operations between May and July . They suffered their first fatality on 2 June when a soldier was gored by an elephant . 1 Squadron completed operations on 1 August and returned to Australia . 2 Squadron arrived in Borneo in January 1966 for a four @-@ month deployment , and despite the suspension of Claret operations it also conducted reconnaissance patrols and cross @-@ border operations , undertaking a total of 45 patrols on both sides of the border . On 19 March two soldiers drowned during a river crossing . On 21 July , 2 Squadron was relieved by a British SAS squadron and returned to Australia in August . Despite often being deployed in the reconnaissance role , the SASR killed at least 20 Indonesian soldiers in a series of ambushes and contacts . Three SASR soldiers were killed during these operations .
= = = Vietnam = = =
Based in Nui Dat the SASR was responsible for providing intelligence to both the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) and US forces , operating throughout Phuoc Tuy Province as well as Bien Hoa , Long Khanh and Binh Tuy provinces . From 1966 SASR squadrons rotated through Vietnam on year @-@ long deployments , with each of the three Sabre Squadrons completing two tours before the last squadron was withdrawn in 1971 . Missions included medium range reconnaissance patrols , observation of enemy troop movements , and long range offensive operations and ambushing in enemy dominated territory . Operating in small groups of four to six men they moved slower than conventional infantry through jungle or bushland and were heavily armed , employing a high rate of fire to simulate a larger force on contact and to support their withdrawal . The primary method of deployment was by helicopter , with the SASR working closely with No. 9 Squadron RAAF which regularly provided rapid and precise insertion and extraction of patrols into jungle landing zones at tree top height . On occasion SAS patrols would also be deployed by M @-@ 113 armored personnel carriers ( APCs ) with a method devised to deceive the Viet Cong as to their insertion and the location of their drop @-@ off point despite the noise they made moving through the jungle . An operational parachute jump was also undertaken .
A fourth squadron was raised in mid @-@ 1966 , but was later disbanded in April 1967 . The SASR operated closely with the New Zealand SAS , with a troop being attached to each Australian squadron from late 1968 . Completing its final tour in October 1971 , 2 Squadron was disbanded on return to Australia , with Training Squadron raised in its place . During its time in Vietnam the SASR proved highly successful , with members of the regiment known to the Viet Cong as Ma Rung or " phantoms of the jungle " due to their stealth . In a six @-@ year period the Australian and New Zealand SAS in Vietnam conducted nearly 1 @,@ 200 patrols and inflicted heavy casualties on the Viet Cong , including 492 killed , 106 possibly killed , 47 wounded , 10 possibly wounded and 11 prisoners captured . Their own losses totalled one killed in action , one died of wounds , three accidentally killed , one missing and one death from illness . Twenty @-@ eight men were wounded . During the period of its deployment 580 men served in the SASR in Vietnam . The remains of the last Australian soldier who went missing in action in 1969 after falling into the jungle during a suspended rope extraction were found in August 2008 . Australian SASR personnel also worked with US Army Special Forces in Vietnam , and provided instructors to the MACV Recondo School , and then to the LRRP Training Wing at the AATTV @-@ operated Van Kiep Training Centre from 1967 . Some members of the regiment also served with MACV @-@ SOG units , with soldiers often serving on exchange with American Special Forces .
= = = Defence of Australia and counter @-@ terrorism = = =
The Australian withdrawal from Vietnam brought to an end the doctrine of ' forward defence ' through involvement in Southeast Asian wars . Instead , the Australian military 's new focus was on the defence of continental Australia against external attack . In line with this change , the SASR took the lead in developing the Australian Army 's capability to conduct patrol operations in Northern Australia , although this role was later taken over by the Army 's three Regional Force Surveillance Units following their formation in the early 1980s . During this time the SASR also continued to train overseas with other special forces units . On one such exercise in the Philippines , a US special forces C @-@ 130 Hercules crashed into the South China Sea shortly after take @-@ off from Subic Bay on 26 February 1981 , killing 23 passengers including three Australians from the SASR , as well as a number of Americans , Filipinos , and New Zealanders . Meanwhile , following the Sydney Hilton bombing in February 1978 , the SASR was given responsibility for providing Australia 's military counter @-@ terrorism response force , for which 2 Squadron was raised again in 1982 . In addition to being able to respond to terrorist attacks in Australian cities , the SASR counter @-@ terrorism unit was required to develop a capability to board ships underway and off @-@ shore oil platforms . In May 1987 a squadron from the SASR was alerted for a possible deployment to Fiji as part of Operation Morris Dance , but did not leave Australia . The regiment was not involved in operations during the Gulf War in 1991 although two troops were again placed on standby for deployment at short notice , while other elements remained on high alert to respond to a terrorist incident in Australia if required .
= = = Peacekeeping = = =
The first SASR units to deploy on active service after the Vietnam War did so as part of Australian peacekeeping deployments . Small numbers of SAS personnel were involved in Operation Habitat in Turkey and Northern Iraq as medics to assist Kurdish refugees between May and June 1991 . Personnel were also provided by the regiment as part of the Australian contribution to the UN Special Commission established to oversee the destruction of Iraq 's weapons of mass destruction between 1991 and 2000 . SASR medics deployed with some of the weapons inspection teams , and at times were also employed as drivers and for " personal protection " tasks . Several SAS signallers from 152 Signal Squadron also deployed to the Western Sahara between September 1991 and May 1994 as part of the Australian contingent there . Contrary to some reports , the SASR did not provide a security team for service in Cambodia although some SASR @-@ qualified signals sergeants from 152 Signal Squadron were deployed as part of the Australian military contribution to the United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia ( UNAMIC ) and Force Communications Unit between 1991 and 1993 . A small number of members of the regiment served on exchange with the British SAS and Special Boat Service ( SBS ) in Bosnia in the early 1990s , including a sergeant who commanded an SBS detachment in April 1993 .
In April 1994 , a 10 @-@ man SASR team from J Troop was attached to Australian forces in Somalia to provide an elite response , VIP protection and force protection to the Australian Service Contingent in Mogadishu . Known as " the Gerbils " , the small team operated from Toyota Landcruisers and Datsun utility vehicles and two M @-@ 113 APCs . They were subsequently involved in a number of actions , including an incident on 21 May when they were flown to the scene of a downed Canadian civilian helicopter 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north of Mogadishu to protect the crew , and another on 16 August when they were involved in a skirmish during a convoy which resulted in two Somalis being killed after one of them aimed an AK @-@ 47 at the Australians . They returned to Australia in November 1994 . SASR @-@ qualified medical sergeants were also deployed as part of the contribution to the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda , some of whom were present during the Kibeho Massacre in April 1995 , for which one SAS soldier and two other Australians were awarded the Medal of Gallantry for their actions . In addition , individual members of the SASR have been attached to a wide range of Australian peacekeeping deployments as observers , including in Kashmir , Lebanon and in the Sinai .
= = = Blackhawk accident = = =
Deaths during training accidents make up the majority of the SASR 's fatalities . The worst accident in the regiment 's history occurred on the evening of 12 June 1996 when two S @-@ 70 @-@ A9 Blackhawk helicopters from the 5th Aviation Regiment carrying SASR troopers collided during a live @-@ fire counter @-@ terrorism / special @-@ recovery operation exercise at Fire Support Base Barbara in the High Range Training Area near Townsville , Queensland . This activity was part of Exercise Day Rotor 96 and took place on the second day of the exercise , sometime after 18 : 30 , requiring the pilots to use night vision goggles . Six aircraft had been approaching the target area when , 30 seconds from the landing zone , one of the helicopters veered to the right , clipping the tail rotor of another helicopter . One Blackhawk crashed immediately killing 12 personnel on board , while the other was able to make a crash landing but burst into flames , killing six . Crash survivors , soldiers from the other helicopters and exercise staff risked the flames and exploding ammunition to rescue their comrades and retrieve the bodies of the dead . Fifteen members of the SASR and three from the 5th Aviation Regiment lost their lives in the
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, and was directed by Kim Manners . The episode helps to explore one of the show 's story arc involving John Doggett finding the truth behind his son 's murder . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 1 , being watched by 5 @.@ 38 million households , and 7 @.@ 8 million viewers in its initial broadcast . The episode received largely positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , Doggett stumbles upon a case that may hold a connection to the murder of his son . With the help of an FBI cadet named Rudolph Hayes ( Jared Poe ) , Doggett acquires information to help his current case as well as establish the link between the present , his Jane Does , and the past — his son , Luke . The link is a man named Nicholas Regali , an organized crime participant who has an association with Bob Harvey , the only suspect in Luke 's case . Though the cadet , Hayes , is not who he says he is , his information proves invaluable in Doggett 's search for release from his son 's death .
The idea for " Release " was developed by Shiban , who handed the script over to Amann . The character of Rudolph Hayes was crafted to be an ambiguous character : either he was a genius who was adept at solving crime , comparable to Sherlock Holmes , or he was a criminal mastermind , like Professor Moriarty . The final scene , featuring Doggett scattering his son 's ashes , was difficult for Patrick to film , but thanks to Manners ' help , he was able to achieve the desired effect .
= = Plot = =
In Mendota , Minnesota , John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) arrives at an abandoned apartment building after getting a tip , and sees a figure bolt out of one of the rooms during the night . He hears a scratching sound and claws away at the fresh plaster wall until blood begin streaming downward . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) performs an autopsy on the body Doggett found and one of her FBI cadets , Rudolph Hayes , accurately guesses that the victim hooked up with a psychotic killer at a bar . Hayes 's suggestions lead Scully to connect this murder to another killing two weeks earlier . In the meantime , Doggett wonders why anyone tipped him of the murder , since it is not an X @-@ File .
Doggett and Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) try to get more help from Hayes . He tells them that the killer they are looking for is a criminal linked to organized crime . The two agents later meet up with Nicholas Regali , a former mobster who claims he is looking for a job in the area . They later find out that Hayes 's intuition about Regali was correct . Meanwhile , Hayes returns to his apartment complex where walls are covered with crime scene photos related to the death of Luke Doggett . Eventually , Doggett asks Hayes for help solving the case about his son 's death . Hayes tells Doggett that he believes that Robert Harvey was behind the kidnapping of Luke , but that Regali killed him .
Looking for help , Doggett approaches FBI Assistant Director Brad Follmer ( Cary Elwes ) for help on the case . Doggett 's ex @-@ wife , Barbara Doggett , meets up for a lineup at a police station . Barbara does not recognize Regali or anyone else on the lineup . Scully finds some similarities between Luke and the two dead bodies , but no forensic proof . Doggett comes to realize that Regali has had help from someone within the FBI all along . Follmer informs Reyes and Doggett that Cadet Hayes is really Stuart Mimms , a former mental patient . He also informs them that Mimms lived in New York City during the year of Luke 's murder , hinting that Mimms is the murderer and not Regali . Doggett and Reyes assemble a SWAT team to raid Mimms apartment . Mimms is taken into police custody and at a new lineup , Barbara recognizes Mimms .
At a meeting between Follmer and Regali , Follmer says he is finished consorting with him , but Regali reminds him he was being bribed , and threatens to blackmail him . In the meantime , Mimms tells Scully that he first noticed the case of Luke Doggett when he read it in a newspaper . He further stated that he lied about his name so that he could help solve the case . At the end , he still pushes that Regali is the real murderer of Doggett 's son , and not him . Later on , Doggett approaches Regali . Regali tells him a " hypothetical " story about how a pedophile took a young boy to his home . A " businessman " then walked in on the incident , realized that the boy has seen his face , and feared that the boy might associate him with the crime . The businessman then found a solution to the boy seeing his face : he murdered him . Regali then walks away and Doggett , filled with rage , unholsters his gun and follows . But a gunshot rings out and when Doggett gets outside , he sees Regali has been killed by Follmer . Later , Doggett and Barbara scatter Luke 's ashes into the ocean , finally achieving the release he has sought .
= = Production = =
The story for " Release " was developed by John Shiban and David Amman ; the teleplay was written by Amann . Kim Manners helmed the directing of the episode . " Release " was originally going to be written by Shiban alone , but he later turned the script over to Amann because he was needed elsewhere at the time . Shiban had been desiring to write a story like " Release " for a while . The character of Hayes was crafted as an ambitious character , inspired by the works of Arthur Conan Doyle : he was written to be either a " brilliant guy who 's solving crimes with his amazing intuition " , comparable to Sherlock Holmes , or " a guy who 's actually doing those crimes and playing a game " , like Professor Moriarty . Shiban and Amman came up with a story wherein Scully encounters a " genius " from her classes at the FBI Academy at Quantico . Later on , they extrapolated on the story , allowing the " genius " crime solver to help John Doggett find out what happened to his son , Luke Doggett .
The final scene wherein Doggett and his ex @-@ wife scatter Luke 's remains was called " difficult " by Robert Patrick . He later noted that Manners " was there to guide us along ; I can think of no worst [ sic ] nightmare for a parent than to lose their child . " The episode was written to create closure to Doggett 's story . Patrick later said that , if the series had continued for a tenth season , he would have liked to see his character develop a relationship with Reyes , because " I think Doggett was very attracted to Reyes [ … ] I would have liked to see the relationship with Reyes explored more . " Gish agreed , noting that the show 's ending never allowed the idea to be fleshed out , but that Reyes " would have definitely gone further with their relationship . "
= = Reception = =
" Release " first aired in the United States on May 5 , 2002 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on March 9 , 2003 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 5 @.@ 38 million households , and 7 @.@ 8 million viewers . It ranked as the fifty @-@ fifth most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending May 5 . " Release " earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 1 , meaning that it was seen by 5 @.@ 1 % of the nation 's estimated households .
Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode an A – grade . In a season review , Michelle Kung from Entertainment Weekly called the episode " worthy " , but noted that it was overshadowed by the show 's " ludicrous conspiracy plots " . Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk concluded that " Release " was a " good episode " because it " presented conclusions to [ one of the ] long running stories in the series [ in that it ] featured the conclusion to John Doggett 's personal trial , his quest for closure with his son 's murder . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a glowing review and rated it five stars out of five . The two argued that , because of the " minimal emphasis " Doggett 's son 's murder was given in the show , the episode " packs [ a ] punch " . Shearman and Pearson saw similarities between Doggett 's trials and those of Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . They noted that while " Mulder was always identified by his quest for his sister [ Samantha ] " , Doggett " carried the loss of his son as a private grief . " They concluded that this structuring made the entry " emotionally powerful " and " moving " . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , complimented the " lyrical style " of the episode , calling it " gorgeously shot " and " well acted " . Other reviews were not as glowing . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a negative review and awarded it a 4 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this episode made about as much sense as ' Underneath ' or ' Jump the Shark ' . It was entirely inappropriate for John Doggett ’ s struggle to end with someone else ’ s actions . If this is the way the series is going to end , then I have to say , my hopes for a rousing finale are dwindling . "
= Community of Royalist People 's Party =
The Community of Royalist People 's Party ( Khmer : គណបក ្ សសង ្ គមរាស ្ រ ្ តរាជាធិបតេយ ្ យ ; CRPP ) was a Cambodian political party that lasted from March 2014 until January 2015 . It was founded and led by Norodom Ranariddh , who had been ousted from FUNCINPEC back in 2006 . Ideologically a royalist party , the CRPP drew its inspiration from the political legacy of the former King of Cambodia , Norodom Sihanouk , and competed for its voter base with both FUNCINPEC and the Cambodia National Rescue Party ( CNRP ) . In January 2015 , the CRPP was dissolved when Ranariddh returned to FUNCINPEC .
= = History = =
On 25 February 2014 , former First Prime Minister of Cambodia Norodom Ranariddh , who was ousted from FUNCINPEC in 2006 , announced plans to return to politics and lead the formation the Community of Royalist People 's Party . The Cambodian Interior Ministry reportedly received a request from the party to be formally registered as a political party . In March 2014 , Ranariddh hosted the party 's official launching ceremony at the Phnom Penh Sunway Hotel , where he revealed the party logo and signed registration papers for the party . In April 2014 , the CRPP 's registration was officially approved by the Interior Ministry . A month later , CRPP appointed a new chief @-@ of @-@ cabinet Nop Sothearith , and the party also made an in @-@ advance registration with the Interior Ministry to run for general elections scheduled to be held in 2018 . In June 2014 , the CRPP held a party to mark its official launch , and opened its headquarters at the Russey Keo District in Phnom Penh .
In October 2014 , a public spate arose between Ranariddh and his personal secretary , Noranarith Anandayath . Ranariddh accused Noranarith of badmouthing him , which prompted the latter to resign from the CRPP . Two months later , in December 2014 , the Phnom Penh Post reported that several high @-@ ranking FUNCINPEC officials defected to the CRPP , which included a former secretary of state , former provincial governor and former deputy national police chief . On 2 January 2015 , Ranariddh announced his plan to return to FUNCINPEC , after being ousted from the party in 2006 . The announcement was made after a private meeting with Prime Minister Hun Sen who had urged Ranariddh to rejoin his former party . The CRPP was subsequently dissolved when Ranariddh returned to FUNCINPEC later in the latter part of January 2015 .
= = Ideology and political positions = =
The CRPP was a royalist party , and Ranariddh stated in February 2015 that the party aligns itself to the political legacy of Norodom Sihanouk . The CRPP also stated that it directly competed for the voter base from the CNRP and FUNCINPEC , but not with the Cambodian People 's Party ( CPP ) . At the party 's launching ceremony in March 2014 , Ranariddh added that the CRPP would not seek to align itself with the CPP or CNRP . Ranariddh also expressed interest to resolve socioeconomic problems such as poverty , low wages and corruption , which he claimed were worsened by the effects of the political protests as a result of political differences between the CPP and CNRP . In June 2014 , Ranariddh outlined several reform proposals at a party meeting for youths , such as reviewing 99 @-@ year land leases to identify illegal land concessions and helping more youths to seek employment locally .
The CRPP maintained frosty relations with FUNCINPEC , which had earlier ousted Ranariddh as its president in 2006 . When Ranariddh announced plans to form the party in February 2014 , several FUNCINPEC leaders including Nhek Bun Chhay , Keo Puth Rasmey and Sisowath Sirirath questioned Ranariddh 's leadership abilities and past political track record . Ranariddh was particularly critical of the CNRP and in March 2014 , he denied accusations by CNRP leader Sam Rainsy that the CRPP was formed with the aim of splitting the opposition voter base . Ranariddh also charged that the Rainsy would end Cambodia 's status as a constitutional monarchy if they were elected to power . In May 2014 , Ranariddh called on the CPP and CNRP to form a unity government and proposed that the CRPP was keen to act as a mediator between the two parties .
= = Logo = =
The CRPP 's party logo had a circular design , and bears Ranariddh 's initials in the Khmer language . The logo also includes the number " 9 " , which represents power according to brahmin tradition . Around the logo were three circles ; one was yellow , representing the monarchy , another was white , representing peace , and the third was green , representing water . On Ranariddh 's return to the party in January 2015 , FUNCINPEC adopted a new logo that was inspired by that of the defunct CRPP 's party logo .
= Iron Man ( 2008 film ) =
Iron Man is a 2008 American superhero film featuring the Marvel Comics character of the same name , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures.1 It is the first film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . The film was directed by Jon Favreau , with a screenplay by Mark Fergus & Hawk Ostby and Art Marcum & Matt Holloway . It stars Robert Downey Jr . , Terrence Howard , Jeff Bridges , Shaun Toub and Gwyneth Paltrow . In Iron Man , Tony Stark , an industrialist and master engineer , builds a powered exoskeleton and becomes the technologically advanced superhero Iron Man .
The film had been in development since 1990 at Universal Pictures , 20th Century Fox , or New Line Cinema at various times , before Marvel Studios reacquired the rights in 2006 . Marvel put the project in production as its first self @-@ financed film , with Paramount Pictures as its distributor . Favreau signed on as director , aiming for a naturalistic feel , and he chose to shoot the film primarily in California , rejecting the East Coast setting of the comics to differentiate the film from numerous superhero films set in New York City @-@ esque environments . During filming , the actors were free to create their own dialogue because pre @-@ production was focused on the story and action . Rubber and metal versions of the armors , created by Stan Winston 's company , were mixed with computer @-@ generated imagery to create the title character .
Iron Man premiered in Sydney on April 14 , 2008 , and was released in theaters on May 2 , 2008 . The film was a critical and commercial success , grossing over $ 585 million and garnering widespread critical acclaim , with Downey 's performance as Tony Stark particularly praised . The American Film Institute selected the film as one of the ten best of the year , it was also nominated for two Academy Awards for the Best Sound Editing and the Best Visual Effects . A sequel , Iron Man 2 , was released on May 7 , 2010 , and another sequel , Iron Man 3 , was released on May 3 , 2013 .
= = Plot = =
Genius , billionaire , and playboy Tony Stark , who has inherited the defense contractor Stark Industries from his father , is in war @-@ torn Afghanistan with his friend and military liaison , Lieutenant Colonel James Rhodes to demonstrate the new " Jericho " missile . The convoy is ambushed and Stark is critically wounded by one of his own rocket @-@ propelled grenades . He is captured and imprisoned in a cave by a terrorist group , the Ten Rings , and an electromagnet is grafted into his chest by fellow captive Yinsen to keep the shrapnel shards that wounded him from reaching his heart and killing him . Ten Rings leader Raza offers Stark freedom in exchange for building a Jericho missile for the group , but Tony and Yinsen agree Raza will not keep his word .
Stark and Yinsen quietly build a powerful electric generator called an arc reactor to power Stark 's electromagnet and a suit of powered armor to aid in their escape . Although they keep the suit hidden almost to completion , the Ten Rings attack the workshop when they discover their hostages ' intentions . Yinsen sacrifices himself to divert them while the suit powers up . The armored Stark battles his way out of the cave to find the dying Yinsen , then in anger burns the Ten Rings weapons and flies away , crashing in the desert and destroying the suit . After being rescued by Rhodes , Stark returns home and announces that his company will no longer manufacture weapons . Obadiah Stane , his father 's old partner and the company 's manager , advises Stark that this may ruin Stark Industries and his father 's legacy . In his home workshop , Stark builds a sleeker , more powerful version of his improvised armor suit , as well as a more powerful arc reactor for his chest . Personal assistant Pepper Potts places the original reactor inside a small glass showcase . Though Stane requests details , Stark keeps his work to himself .
At a charity event held by Stark Industries , reporter Christine Everhart informs Stark that his company 's weapons , including the Jericho , were recently delivered to the Ten Rings and are being used to attack Yinsen 's home village , Gulmira . Stark also learns Stane is trying to replace him as head of the company . Enraged by these revelations , Stark dons his new armor and flies to Afghanistan , where he saves Yinsen 's village . While flying home , Stark is shot at by two F @-@ 22 Raptor fighter jets . He reveals his secret identity to Rhodes over the phone in an attempt to end the attack . Meanwhile , the Ten Rings gather the pieces of Stark 's prototype suit and meet with Stane , who subdues Raza and has the rest of the group killed . Stane has a massive new suit reverse engineered from the wreckage . Seeking to find any other weapons delivered to the Ten Rings , Stark sends Pepper to hack into the company computer system from Stane 's office . She discovers Stane has been supplying the terrorists and hired the Ten Rings to kill Stark , but the group reneged . Potts meets with Agent Phil Coulson of S.H.I.E.L.D. , a counter @-@ terrorism agency , to inform him of Stane 's activities .
Stane 's scientists cannot duplicate Stark 's arc reactor , so Stane ambushes Stark at his home and takes the one from his chest . Stark manages to get to his original reactor to replace the taken one . Potts and several S.H.I.E.L.D. agents attempt to arrest Stane , but he dons his suit and attacks them . Stark fights Stane , but is outmatched without his new reactor to run his suit at full capacity . The fight carries Stark and Stane to the top of the Stark Industries building , and Stark instructs Potts to overload the large arc reactor powering the building . This unleashes a massive electrical surge that causes Stane and his armor to fall into the exploding reactor , killing him . The next day , at a press conference , Stark defies suggestions from S.H.I.E.L.D. and publicly admits to being the superhero the press has dubbed " Iron Man " .
In a post @-@ credits scene , S.H.I.E.L.D. Director Nick Fury visits Stark at home , telling him that Iron Man is not " the only superhero in the world " , and explaining that he wants to discuss the " Avenger Initiative " .
= = Cast = =
Robert Downey Jr. as Tony Stark / Iron Man :
An industrialist , genius inventor , and consummate playboy , he is CEO of Stark Industries and a chief weapons manufacturer for the U.S. military . Favreau had planned to cast a newcomer in the role , but ultimately chose Downey , a fan of the comic , because he felt the actor 's past made him an appropriate choice for the part , explaining " The best and worst moments of Robert 's life have been in the public eye . He had to find an inner balance to overcome obstacles that went far beyond his career . That 's Tony Stark . Robert brings a depth that goes beyond a comic book character who is having trouble in high school , or can 't get the girl . " Favreau felt Downey could make Stark a " likable asshole , " but also depict an authentic emotional journey once he won over the audience . Downey had an office next to Favreau during pre @-@ production , which allowed him greater involvement in the screenwriting process . He brought a deeper sense of humor to the film not present in previous drafts of the script . Downey explained , " What I usually hate about these [ superhero ] movies [ is ] when suddenly the guy that you were digging turns into Dudley Do @-@ Right , and then you 're supposed to buy into all his ' Let 's go do some good ! ' That Eliot Ness @-@ in @-@ a @-@ cape @-@ type thing . What was really important to me was to not have him change so much that he 's unrecognizable . When someone used to be a schmuck and they 're not anymore , hopefully they still have a sense of humor . " To prepare , Downey spent five days a week weight training and practiced martial arts to get into shape , which he said benefited him because " it 's hard not to have a personality meltdown [ ... ] after about several hours in that suit . I 'm calling up every therapeutic moment I can think of to just get through the day . "
Terrence Howard as Lt. Colonel James " Rhodey " Rhodes :
A friend of Stark 's , and the liaison between Stark Industries and the United States Air Force in the department of acquisitions , specifically weapons development . Favreau cast Howard because he felt he could play War Machine in a sequel . Howard prepared for the role by visiting Nellis Air Force Base on March 16 , 2007 , where he ate with the pilots and observed HH @-@ 60 Pave Hawk rescue helicopters and F @-@ 22 Raptors . While Rhodes is roguish in the comics after he met Stark , his earlier disciplinarian character forms a dynamic with Stark , and he is unsure whether or not Stark 's actions are acceptable . " Rhodey is completely disgusted with the way Tony has lived his life , but at a certain point he realizes that perhaps there is a different way , " Howard said . " Whose life is the right way ; is it the strict military life , or the life of an independent ? " Howard and his father are Iron Man fans , partly because Rhodes was one of the few black superheroes when he was a child . He was a Downey fan since he saw him in Weird Science , and the two competed physically on set .
Jeff Bridges as Obadiah Stane :
Stark 's business second @-@ in @-@ command , mentor and friend who turns on him to overtake the company , eventually building a giant exosuit to fight Stark . Bridges read the comics as a boy and liked Favreau 's modern , realistic approach . He shaved his head , something he had wanted to do for some time , and grew a beard for the role . Bridges googled the Book of Obadiah , and was surprised to learn retribution is a major theme in that particular book of the Bible , something which Stane represents . Many of Stane 's scenes were cut to focus more on Stark , but the writers felt Bridges 's performance allowed the application of " less is more " .
Shaun Toub as Yinsen :
Stark 's fellow captive , who grafts an electromagnet to Stark 's chest " to keep the shrapnel shell shards that wounded him from reaching his heart and killing him " , and who helps Stark build the first Iron Man suit .
Gwyneth Paltrow as Pepper Potts :
Stark 's personal assistant and budding love interest . Paltrow asked Marvel to send her any comics they would consider relevant to her understanding of the character , who she considered to be very smart , levelheaded , and grounded . She said she liked " the fact that there 's a sexuality that 's not blatant . " Favreau wanted Potts ' and Stark 's relationship to be reminiscent of a 1940s comedy , something which Paltrow considered to be fun in a sexy , yet innocent way .
Additionally , Faran Tahir appears as Raza , the leader of the Ten Rings ; Paul Bettany voices J.A.R.V.I.S. , Stark 's personal AI system ; Leslie Bibb portrays Christine Everhart , a reporter for Vanity Fair ; and Clark Gregg appears as Phil Coulson , an agent of S.H.I.E.L.D .. Will Lyman provides the voiceover during the opening award ceremony . Samuel L. Jackson cameos as Nick Fury , director of S.H.I.E.L.D. , in a post @-@ credits scene . Jackson 's face was previously used as the model for the Ultimate Marvel imprint version of Nick Fury . Other cameos in the film include : Stan Lee as himself , being mistaken for Hugh Hefner by Stark at a party ; director Jon Favreau as Happy Hogan , Stark 's bodyguard and chauffeur ; Tom Morello , who also provides additional guitar music for the film , as a terrorist guard ; and Jim Cramer as himself . Ghostface Killah had a cameo in a scene where Stark briefly stays in Dubai , but the scene was cut from the theatrical release for pacing reasons .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In April 1990 , Universal Studios bought the rights to develop Iron Man for the big screen , with Stuart Gordon to direct a low @-@ budget film based on the property , but by February 1996 , 20th Century Fox had acquired the rights from Universal . In January 1997 , Nicolas Cage expressed interest in portraying the character , while in September 1998 , Tom Cruise expressed interest in producing as well as starring in an Iron Man film . Jeff Vintar and Iron Man co @-@ creator Stan Lee co @-@ wrote a story for Fox , which Vintar adapted into a screenplay . It included a new science @-@ fiction origin for the character , and featured MODOK as the villain . Tom Rothman , President of Production at Fox , credited the screenplay with finally making him understand the character . In May 1999 , Jeffrey Caine was hired to rewrite Vintar and Lee 's script . That October , Quentin Tarantino was approached to write and direct the film . Fox sold the rights to New Line Cinema the following December , reasoning that although the Vintar / Lee script was strong , the studio had too many Marvel superheroes in development , and " we can 't make them all . "
By July 2000 , the film was being written for New Line by Ted Elliott , Terry Rossio , and Tim McCanlies . McCanlies ' script used the idea of a Nick Fury cameo to set up his own film . In June 2001 , New Line entered talks with Joss Whedon , a fan of the character , to direct , and in December 2002 , McCanlies had turned in a completed script . In December 2004 , the studio attached director Nick Cassavetes to the project for a target 2006 release . Screenplay drafts were written by Alfred Gough , Miles Millar , and David Hayter , and pitted Iron Man against his father Howard Stark , who becomes War Machine . After two years of unsuccessful development , and the deal with Cassavetes falling through , New Line Cinema returned the film rights to Marvel .
In November 2005 , Marvel Studios worked to start development from scratch , and announced Iron Man as their first independent feature , as the character was their only major one not already depicted in live action . According to associate producer Jeremy Latcham , " we went after about 30 writers and they all passed " , saying they were uninterested in the project due to both the relative obscurity of the character and it being a solely Marvel production . Even the rewrites when the film had a script led to many refusals . In order to gain more awareness for Iron Man to the general public , and put him on the same level of popularity as Spider @-@ Man or Hulk , Marvel conducted focus groups to help remove the general thought that the character was a robot , despite a man being inside the armor . After the groups proved successful , the information Marvel received helped them formulate a plan to " build awareness ahead of the movie 's release " , which included three animated short films called " Iron Man Advertorials " , which were produced by Tim Miller and Blur Studio .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Jon Favreau was hired in April 2006 to direct the film . Favreau had wanted to work with Marvel producer Avi Arad on another film after they both worked on Daredevil . Favreau celebrated getting the job by going on a diet , and lost seventy pounds . The director found the opportunity to create a politically ambitious " ultimate spy movie " in Iron Man , citing inspiration from Tom Clancy , James Bond , and RoboCop . Favreau described his approach as similar to an independent film — " [ i ] f Robert Altman had directed Superman " — and also cited Batman Begins as an inspiration . He wanted to make Iron Man a story of an adult man literally reinventing himself after discovering the world is far more complex than he originally believed . Favreau changed the Vietnam War origin of the character to Afghanistan , as he did not want to do a period piece . Art Marcum & Matt Holloway were hired to write the script , while Mark Fergus & Hawk Ostby wrote another version , with Favreau compiling both team 's scripts , and John August then ' polishing ' the combined version . Comic book staff Mark Millar , Brian Michael Bendis , Joe Quesada , Tom Brevoort , Axel Alonso , and Ralph Macchio were also called upon by Favreau to give advice on the script . Favreau , as he prepared to film Iron Man in a complex that once belonged to Hughes Aircraft , got a tour with Robert Downey Jr. of SpaceX from Elon Musk , Downey said " Elon was someone Tony probably hung out with and partied with , or more likely they went on some weird jungle trek together to drink concoctions with the shamans . "
Choosing a villain was difficult , because Favreau felt Iron Man 's archnemesis , the Mandarin , would not feel realistic , especially after Mark Millar gave his opinion on the script . He felt only in a sequel , with an altered tone , would the fantasy of the Mandarin 's rings be appropriate . The decision to push him into the background is comparable to Sauron in The Lord of the Rings , or Palpatine in Star Wars . Favreau also wanted Iron Man to face a giant enemy . The switch from Mandarin to Obadiah Stane was done after Bridges was cast , with Stane originally intended to become a villain in the sequel . The Crimson Dynamo was also a villain in early drafts of the script . Favreau felt it was important to include intentional inside references for fans of the comics , such as giving the two fighter jets that attack Iron Man the call signs of " Whiplash 1 " and " Whiplash 2 , " a reference to the comic book villain Whiplash , and including Captain America 's shield in Stark 's workshop . The post @-@ credits sequence that introduces Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury was written by comics writer Brian Michael Bendis .
= = = Filming = = =
Production was based in the former Hughes Company soundstages in Playa Vista , Los Angeles , California . Howard Hughes was one of the inspirations for the comic book , and the filmmakers acknowledged the coincidence that they would film Iron Man creating the flying Mark III where the Hughes H @-@ 4 Hercules was built . Favreau rejected the East Coast setting of the comic books because many superhero films had already been set there . Filming began on March 12 , 2007 , with the first few weeks spent on Stark 's captivity in Afghanistan . The cave where Stark is imprisoned was a 150- to 200 @-@ yard ( 150 – 200 m ) long set , which had movable forks in the caverns to allow greater freedom for the film 's crew . Production designer J. Michael Riva saw footage of a Taliban fighter in Afghanistan , and saw the cold breath as he spoke : realizing remote caves are actually very cold , Riva placed an air conditioning system in the set . He also sought Downey 's advice about makeshift objects in prison , such as a sock being used to make tea . Afterwards , Stark 's capture was filmed at Lone Pine , and other exterior scenes in Afghanistan were filmed at Olancha Sand Dunes , where the crew endured two days of 40 to 60 @-@ mile per hour ( 60 to 100 km / h ) winds . Filming at Edwards Air Force Base began in mid @-@ April , and ended on May 2 . Exterior shots of Stark 's home were digitally added to footage of Point Dume in Malibu , while the interior was built at Playa Vista , where Favreau and Riva aimed to make Stark 's home look less futuristic and more " grease monkey " . Filming concluded on June 25 , 2007 , at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas , Nevada . Favreau , a newcomer to action films , remarked , " I 'm shocked that I [ was ] on schedule . I thought that there were going to be many curveballs " . He hired " people who are good at creating action " , so " the human story [ felt ] like it belongs to the comic book genre " .
There was much improvisation in dialogue scenes , because the script was not completed when filming began ( the filmmakers had focused on the story making sense and planning the action ) . Favreau acknowledged that improvisation would make the film feel more natural . Some scenes were shot with two cameras to capture lines said on the spot . Multiple takes were done , as Downey wanted to try something new each time . It was Downey 's idea to have Stark hold a news conference on the floor , and he created the speech Stark makes when demonstrating the Jericho weapon . Brian Michael Bendis wrote three pages of dialogue for the Nick Fury cameo scene , with the filmmakers choosing the best lines for filming . The cameo was filmed with a skeleton crew in order to keep it a secret , but rumors appeared on the Internet only days later . Marvel Studios 's Kevin Feige subsequently had the scene removed from all preview prints in order to maintain the surprise and keep fans guessing .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Favreau wanted the film to be believable by showing the construction of the suit in its three stages . Stan Winston , a fan of the comic book , and his company built metal and rubber versions of the armors . They had previously worked on Favreau 's Zathura . Favreau 's main concern with the effects was whether the transition between the computer @-@ generated and practical costumes would be too obvious . Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) was hired to create the bulk of the visual effects , with additional work being completed by The Orphanage and The Embassy ; Favreau trusted ILM after seeing Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End and Transformers . The Mark
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, including signing actor Samuel L. Jackson to a then " unprecedented " nine @-@ movie contract . In July 2014 , Feige said that the studio has all actors sign contracts for multiples films , with the norm being for 3 or more , and the 9 or 12 film deals " more rare " . Actor 's contracts also feature clauses that allows Marvel to use up to three minutes of an actor 's performance from one film for another , which Marvel describes as " bridging material " . At Marvel Television , actors such as Charlie Cox ( Matt Murdock / Daredevil in Daredevil ) and Adrianne Palicki ( Bobbi Morse / Mockingbird in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. ) are contractually obliged to appear in a Marvel film if asked . In August 2014 , Vincent D 'Onofrio ( Wilson Fisk / Kingpin in Daredevil ) said , " The thing about Marvel is ... they ’ re looking for artists that are willing to take chances and are willing to create characters , even if that character has been around for years and years in comic books , they still are depending on us to create something and take it somewhere else . "
In August 2012 , Marvel signed Joss Whedon to an exclusive contract through June 2015 for film and television . With the deal , Whedon would " contribute creatively " on Phase Two of the MCU and develop the first television series set in the universe . In March 2013 , Whedon expanded on his consulting responsibilities , saying , " I understand what Kevin [ Feige ] is going for and where he ’ s heading , and I read the scripts and watch cuts and talk to the directors and writers and give my opinion . Occasionally there could be some writing . But I ’ m not trying to get in anybody ’ s soup , I ’ m just trying to be helpful . " Whedon later elaborated that " Since the story has already been approved and everybody knows what we 're doing with Avengers 2 , we can really lay it out . It 's not like anyone 's saying " well I don 't know , what if I need that ? " It 's like " doing this is troublesome for us , whereas doing this will actually help us . " It 's a dance , but I had to do it on [ The Avengers ] too . You want to honor the events of the last movie but you don 't want to be beholden to them , because some people will see Avengers [ : Age of Ultron ] who did not see any of the movies in between or even Avengers 1 . " He also found working in television and script doctoring to be " great training ground [ s ] for dealing with this ... because you 're given a bunch of pieces and told to make them fit — even if they don 't . " For the Russo brothers and writers Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely working on Avengers : Infinity War and Phase Three , they saw " a through line from Winter Soldier , through Civil War , right to Infinity War " , with films like Doctor Strange and Thor : Ragnarok laying groundwork for the " culmination " in Infinity War . Subsequently , they talked " to the directors and writers of the other Phase 3 movies on an almost weekly basis , to make sure everything lines up right . "
= = Feature films = =
= = Television series = =
= = Short films = =
= = Comic books = =
= = Viral marketing = =
In July 2015 , Marvel Studios and Google began a viral marketing campaign to promote Ant @-@ Man , centering on a series of in @-@ universe YouTube videos depicting a faux news program , WHIH Newsfront with Christine Everhart . The videos star Leslie Bibb as Christine Everhart , reprising her role from the Iron Man films , who reports on and discusses issues from the MCU . The campaign is an extension of the fictional news network WHIH World News , which is seen reporting on major events in many MCU films and television series , and returned in April 2016 as part of a similar marketing campaign for Captain America : Civil War . The videos feature a news ticker that contains multiple references and easter eggs to the wider MCU , and are supported by ongoing in @-@ universe social media posts that also reference the MCU 's characters and events . The marketing campaign has been called " one of the more well @-@ produced campaigns " as far as viral marketing goes , and " one of the cannier bits of marketing that Marvel have come up with " .
= = Recurring cast and characters = =
List indicator ( s )
This table includes characters who have appeared in multiple MCU media .
A dark grey cell indicates the character has not appeared in that medium .
A P indicates a new appearance in onscreen photographs only .
Additionally , Paul Bettany was the first actor to portray two main characters within the universe , voicing Tony Stark 's artificial intelligence J.A.R.V.I.S. in the Iron Man and Avengers films , and portraying Vision in Avengers : Age of Ultron and Captain America : Civil War . Stan Lee , creator or co @-@ creator of many of the characters seen in the MCU , has cameo appearances in all of the feature films and television series .
= = Reception = =
Jim Vorel of Herald & Review called the Marvel Cinematic Universe " complicated " and " impressive " , but said , " As more and more heroes get their own film adaptations , the overall universe becomes increasingly confusing . " Kofi Outlaw of Screen Rant stated that while The Avengers was a success , " Marvel Studios still has room to improve their approach to building a shared movie universe " . Some reviewers criticized the fact that the desire to create a shared universe led to films that did not hold as well on their own . In his review of Thor : The Dark World , Forbes critic Scott Mendelson likened the MCU to " a glorified television series " , with The Dark World being a " ' stand @-@ alone ' episode that contains little long @-@ range mythology . " Collider 's Matt Goldberg considered that while Iron Man 2 , Thor and Captain America : The First Avenger were quality productions , " they have never really been their own movies " , feeling that the plot detours to S.H.I.E.L.D. or lead @-@ ups to The Avengers dragged down the films ' narratives .
The metaphor of the MCU as " the world 's biggest TV show " was discussed again , after the release of Captain America : Civil War , by Todd VanDerWerff of Vox , who felt that film in particular highlighted Marvel 's success with the model , saying , " Viewed in complete isolation , the plot of Captain America : Civil War makes little to no sense ... [ but ] when you think about where [ Captain America ] has been in earlier Marvel films ... his leeriness about being subject to oversight makes a lot more sense . " VanDerWerff continued that when thinking about the MCU as a television series , many " common criticisms people tend to level at it take on a new context " such as complaints that the films are formulaic , lack " visual spark " , or " shoehorn in story elements " that " are necessary to set up future films " , all characteristics that " are fairly typical on television , where a director 's influence is much lower than that of the showrunner " , in this case , Feige . Comparing the films to the series Game of Thrones specifically , VanDerWerff noted that each solo film checks " in on various characters and their individual side stories , before bringing everyone together in the finale ( or , rather , an Avengers film ) " , with Guardians of the Galaxy being equivalent to the character Daenerys Targaryen — " both separated by long distances from everybody else . " He noted that this format was an extension of early " TV @-@ like " film franchises such as Star Wars , as well as the format of the comics upon which the films are based . " I say all of this not to suggest that film franchises resembling TV series is necessarily a good trend , " VanDerWerff concluded , " For as much as I generally enjoy the Marvel movies , I 'm disheartened by the possibility that their particular form might take over the film industry ... But I also don 't think it 's the end of the world if Marvel continues on ... there 's a reason TV has stolen so much of the cultural conversation over the past few decades . There 's something legitimately exciting about the way the medium tells stories when it 's good , and if nothing else , Marvel 's success shows the film world could learn from that . "
Following the conclusion of season one of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , Mary McNamara at the Los Angeles Times praised the connections between that series and the films , stating that " never before has television been literally married to film , charged with filling in the back story and creating the connective tissue of an ongoing film franchise ... [ Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. ] is now not only a very good show in its own right , it 's part of Marvel 's multiplatform city @-@ state . It faces a future of perpetual re @-@ invention , and that puts it in the exhilarating first car of television 's roller @-@ coaster ride toward possible world domination . " Terri Schwartz of Zap2it agreed with this sentiment , stating that " the fact that [ Captain America : The Winter Soldier ] so influenced the show is game @-@ changing in terms of how the mediums of film and television can be interwoven " , though " the fault there seems to be that Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. had to bide time until The Winter Soldier 's release " , which led to much criticism .
In January 2015 , Michael Doran of Newsarama and Graeme McMillian of The Hollywood Reporter had a " point @-@ counterpoint " debate in response to the first Ant @-@ Man trailer . Doran stated , " Marvel has raised the bar sooo high that as opposed to just allowing another film to finish under the [ MCU ] bar , we 're all overly and perhaps even eager to overreact to the first thing that doesn 't clear it " . McMillian responded , " at this point , Marvel 's brand is such that I 'm not sure it can offer up something like [ the trailer ] without it seeming like a crushing disappointment ... part of Marvel 's brand is that it doesn 't offer the kind of run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill superhero movie that you 're talking about , that it 's ... at least different enough to tweak and play with the genre somehow ... The fact that there 's such upset about this trailer being ... well , okay ... suggests to me that the audience is expecting something to knock their socks off . " Doran concluded , " That does seem to be the point here — the expectations fans now have for everything Marvel Studios ... [ and ] Marvel is going to eventually falter . "
After seeing the portrayal of Yellowjacket in Ant @-@ Man , the antagonist of the film , McMillian noted ,
It 's hardly a secret that Marvel Studios has a bit of a problem when it comes to offering up exciting characters for their heroes to fight against ... [ their ] villains generally fall into one of two camps . There 's the Unstoppable Monster ... or there 's the Professional White Guy In A Suit With An Ego ... No matter which of the groups the above villains fall into , they share one common purpose : evil . The motivations for evil likely differ — although , invariably , they fall under the umbrella of ' misguided belief in a greater good that doesn 't exist ' — but that really doesn 't matter , because without fail , there will be so little time in the movie to actually properly explore those motivations , meaning that to all intents and purposes , the villain is being evil for reasons of plot necessity and little else ... The strange thing about this is that Marvel 's comic books offer a number of wonderful , colorful bad guys who could step outside the above parameters and offer an alternative to the formulaic villains audiences have gotten used to ( and arguably bored with ) ... In future movies , we can only hope [ they are ] treated in such a way that their freak flags are allowed to fly free .
Following the release of Jessica Jones , David Priest at c | net wrote about how the series rescues " Marvel from itself ... Jessica Jones takes big steps forward in terms of theme , craft and diversity . It 's a good story
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1943 , Squadron Leader R.E. Bell took over command of No. 4 OTU on a temporary basis , handing over to Flight Lieutenant R. Tuel @-@ Wilkinson on 27 April 1944 . The Vengeances had meanwhile been withdrawn from operations in the South West Pacific theatre , having flown their last combat mission on 8 March . No. 4 OTU disbanded on 30 April 1944 ; a small detachment remained to hand over the Williamtown base to an advance party of No. 5 Operational Training Unit the following day . The rest of No. 5 OTU transferred from Tocumwal to Williamtown during July . By the time No. 4 OTU disbanded , the school 's Vengeances had accumulated 7 @,@ 593 flying hours and the Wirraways 7 @,@ 646 hours .
= HMS Hermes ( 95 ) =
HMS Hermes was an aircraft carrier built for the Royal Navy . The ship began construction during World War I and finished after the war ended . She was the world 's first ship to be designed as an aircraft carrier , although the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Hōshō was the first to be commissioned and launched . The ship 's construction was delayed by multiple changes in her design after she was laid down . After she was launched , her shipyard closed and her construction was suspended . Most of the changes were made to optimise her design in light of the results of experiments with the existing carriers .
Commissioned in 1924 , Hermes served briefly with the Atlantic Fleet before spending the bulk of her career assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet and the China Station . In the Mediterranean , she worked with other carriers developing multi @-@ carrier tactics . While showing the flag at the China Station , she helped to suppress pirates in Chinese waters . Hermes returned home in 1937 and was placed in reserve before becoming a training ship in 1938 .
When World War II began in September 1939 , the ship was briefly assigned to the Home Fleet and conducted anti @-@ submarine patrols in the Western Approaches . She was transferred to Dakar in October to cooperate with the French Navy in hunting down German commerce raiders and blockade runners . Aside from a brief refit , Hermes remained there until Vichy France was established at the end of June 1940 . Supported by several cruisers , the ship then blockaded Dakar and attempted to sink the French battleship Richelieu by exploding depth charges underneath her stern , as well as sending Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers to attack her at night . While returning from this mission , Hermes rammed a British armed merchant cruiser in a storm and required several months of repairs in South Africa , then resumed patrolling for Axis shipping in the South Atlantic and the Indian Ocean .
In February 1941 , the ship supported Commonwealth forces in Italian Somaliland during the East African Campaign and did much the same two months later in the Persian Gulf during the Anglo @-@ Iraqi War . After that campaign , Hermes spent most of the rest of the year patrolling the Indian Ocean . She refitted in South Africa between November 1941 and February 1942 and then joined the Eastern Fleet at Ceylon .
Hermes was berthed in Trincomalee on 8 April when warning of an approaching Japanese fleet was received and sailed that day for the Maldives with no aircraft on board . She was spotted on 9 April near Batticaloa by a Japanese scout plane and attacked by several dozen dive bombers shortly afterwards . With no air cover , the carrier was quickly sunk by the Japanese aircraft . Most of the survivors were rescued by a nearby hospital ship , although 307 men from Hermes were lost in the sinking .
= = Development = =
Like Hōshō , Hermes was based on a cruiser @-@ type hull and she was initially designed to carry both wheeled aircraft and seaplanes . The ship 's design was derived from a 1916 seaplane carrier design by Gerard Holmes and Sir John Biles , but was considerably enlarged by Sir Eustace d 'Eyncourt , the Director of Naval Construction ( DNC ) , in his April 1917 sketch design . Her most notable feature was the seaplane slipway that comprised three sections . The seaplanes would taxi onto the rigid submerged portion aft and dock with a trolley that would carry the aircraft into the hangar . A flexible submerged portion separated the rear section from the rigid forward portion of the slipway to prevent the submerged part from rolling with the ship 's motion . The entire slipway could be retracted into the ship , and a gantry crane ran the length of the slipway to help recover the seaplanes . The design showed two islands with the full @-@ length flight deck running between them . Each island contained one funnel ; a large net could be strung between them to stop out @-@ of @-@ control aircraft . Aircraft were transported between the hangar and the flight deck by two aircraft lifts ( elevators ) ; the forward lift measured 30 by 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 by 9 @.@ 1 m ) and the rear 60 by 18 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 by 5 @.@ 5 m ) . This design displaced 9 @,@ 000 long tons ( 9 @,@ 100 t ) and accommodated six large Short Type 184 seaplanes and six smaller Sopwith Baby seaplanes . The ship 's armament consisted of six 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns .
The DNC produced a detailed design in January 1918 that made some changes to his original sketch , including the addition of a rotating bow catapult to allow the ship to launch aircraft regardless of wind direction , and the ship was laid down that month to the revised design . Progress was slow , as most of the resources of the shipyard were being used to finish the conversion of Eagle from a battleship to an aircraft carrier . The leisurely pace of construction allowed for more time with which to rework the ship 's design . By mid @-@ June the slipway had been deleted from the design and the ship 's armament had been revised to consist of eleven 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns and only a single anti @-@ aircraft gun . By this time , the uncertainty about the best configuration for an aircraft carrier had increased to the point that the Admiralty forbade the builder from working above the hangar deck without express permission . Later that year the ship 's design was revised again to incorporate a single island , her lifts were changed to a uniform size of 44 by 20 feet ( 13 @.@ 4 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) , and her armament was altered to ten 6 @-@ inch guns and four 4 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns . These changes increased her displacement to 10 @,@ 110 long tons ( 10 @,@ 270 t ) .
Construction was suspended after Hermes was launched in September 1919 as the Admiralty awaited the results of flight trials with Eagle and Argus . Her design was modified in March 1920 with an island superstructure and funnel to starboard , and the forward catapult was removed . The logic behind placing the island to starboard was that pilots generally preferred to turn to port when recovering from an aborted landing . A prominent tripod mast was added to house the fire @-@ control systems for her guns .
The last revisions were made to the ship 's design in May 1921 , after the trials with Argus and Eagle . The lifts were moved further apart to allow for more space for the arresting gear and they were enlarged to allow the wings of her aircraft to be spread in the hangar . Her anti @-@ ship armament was reduced to six 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) guns and her flight deck was faired into the bow .
= = = Description = = =
Hermes had an overall length of 600 feet ( 182 @.@ 9 m ) , a beam of 70 feet 3 inches ( 21 @.@ 4 m ) , and a draught of 23 feet 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load . She displaced 10 @,@ 850 long tons ( 11 @,@ 020 t ) at standard load . Each of the ship 's two sets of Parsons geared steam turbines drove one propeller shaft at a speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . Steam was supplied by six Yarrow boilers operating at a pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) . The turbines were designed for a total of 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) , but they produced 41 @,@ 318 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 811 kW ) during her sea trials , and gave Hermes a speed of 26 @.@ 178 knots ( 48 @.@ 482 km / h ; 30 @.@ 125 mph ) . The ship carried 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 480 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 160 mi ) at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
The ship 's flight deck was 570 feet ( 173 @.@ 7 m ) long and her lifts ' dimensions were 36 by 36 @.@ 6 feet ( 11 @.@ 0 by 11 @.@ 2 m ) . Her hangar was 400 feet ( 121 @.@ 9 m ) long , 50 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) wide and 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high . Hermes was fitted with longitudinal arresting gear . A large crane was positioned behind the island . Because of her size , the ship was only able to carry about 20 aircraft . Bulk petrol storage consisted of 7 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 32 @,@ 000 l ; 8 @,@ 400 US gal ) . The ship 's crew totalled 33 officers and 533 men , exclusive of the air group , in 1939 .
For self @-@ defence against enemy warships , Hermes had six BL 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk I guns , three on each side of the ship . All four of her QF Mk V 4 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns were positioned on the flight deck . The ship 's waterline belt armour was 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick and her flight deck , which was also the ship 's strength deck , was 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick . Hermes had a metacentric height of 2 @.@ 9 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) and handled well in heavy weather . However , she had quite a large surface area exposed to the wind and required as much as 25 to 30 degrees of weather helm at low speed when the wind was blowing from the side .
= = Service = =
Hermes was laid down by Sir W. G. Armstrong @-@ Whitworth and Company at Walker on the River Tyne on 15 January 1918 as the world 's first purpose @-@ designed aircraft carrier , and was launched on 11 September 1919 . She was christened by Mrs. A. Cooper , daughter of the First Lord of the Admiralty , Walter Long . The shipyard was scheduled to close at the end of 1919 and the Admiralty ordered the ship towed to Devonport , where she arrived in January 1920 for completion .
= = = 1920s = = =
Captain Arthur Stopford was appointed as the ship 's commanding officer in February 1923 and the ship began her sea trials in August . After fitting @-@ out , Hermes was commissioned on 19 February 1924 and later assigned to the Atlantic Fleet . She conducted flying trials with the Fairey IIID reconnaissance biplanes for the next several months . Hermes participated in the fleet review conducted by King George V on 26 July in Spithead . Afterwards she was refitted until November and then transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet . She arrived at Malta on 22 November and needed some repairs to fix storm damage suffered en route . At this time the ship embarked No. 403 Flight with Fairey Flycatcher fighters and 441 Flight with Fairey IIIDs . Hermes conducted flying exercises with Eagle and the rest of the Mediterranean Fleet in early 1925 before she began a seven @-@ week refit in Malta on 27 March , then sailed for Portsmouth where she arrived on 29 May after her aircraft had flown ashore .
Hermes sailed for the China Station on 17 June with 403 and 441 Flights aboard , but made a lengthy pause en route in the Mediterranean during which Captain Stopford was replaced by Captain C. P. Talbot . She arrived at Hong Kong on 10 August 1925 . The ship made her first foreign port visit to Amoy in November . Hermes returned to the Mediterranean in early 1926 and was refitted at Malta between April and June . 441 Flight was transferred to Eagle at this time in exchange for 440 Flight which flew aboard in September . 442 Flight also joined the ship at this time ; both flights were equipped with Fairey IIIs . The ship exercised with the Mediterranean Fleet after her refit was completed and Captain R. Elliot relieved Captain Talbot on 14 August . Hermes returned to Hong Kong on 11 October and conducted routine training until she sailed to the naval base at Wei Hai Wei on 27 July 1927 to escape the summer heat . The ship rendezvoused in September with Argus , which was to replace her on the China Station . Before she departed the area , however , both ships attacked the pirate base at Bias Bay and their fleet of junks and sampans . Hermes reached the United Kingdom on 26 October and began a refit at Chatham Dockyard at the beginning of November . One of her 4 @-@ inch guns was removed at this time . Sometime after this refit , the ship was provided with two single 1 @.@ 57 @-@ inch ( 40 mm ) 2 @-@ pounder " pom @-@ pom " AA guns .
Captain Eliot was relieved by Captain G. Hopwood on 2 December and the ship sailed for the China Station on 21 January 1928 . The Fairey IIIDs of 440 Flight had been replaced by IIIFs , and the ship kept the same three flights for this deployment . En route to Hong Kong , Hermes stopped at Bangkok , Siam , in March for four days and was inspected by King Rama VII . She reached Hong Kong on 18 March , relieving Argus . The ship spent a month in the port of Chefoo in May and then the following three weeks in Wei Hai Wei . While visiting Chinwangtao in July , one of her Fairey IIIF seaplanes made a forced landing outside the port ; the Italian destroyer Muggia rescued the pilot and towed the aircraft back to the carrier . During the rest of the year , the ship visited Shanghai , Manila , as well as Kudat and Jesselton in Borneo . She began a refit in Hong Kong in January 1929 and Captain J. D. Campbell assumed command on 28 March . After refit was completed in April , Hermes conducted flying training before sailing up the Yangtze River to visit Nanking the following month . Afterwards she spent the next four months at Wei Hei Wei . She made visits to Tsingtao and Japan before returning to Hong Kong on 29 October where she remained for the rest of the year .
= = = 1930s = = =
On 28 January 1930 , Hermes transported the British Minister to China , Sir Miles Lampson , to Nanking for talks with the Chinese Government over the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and she remained there until she sailed downriver to Shanghai on 2 March . By the end of the month , the carrier was back in Hong Kong and remained there until June when she returned to Wei Hai Wei for her annual summer visit . The ship briefly returned to Hong Kong before departing for Great Britain on 7 August . Hermes reached Portsmouth on 23 September , but only remained there for six days before transferring to Sheerness . Captain E. J. G. MacKinnon relieved Captain Campbell there on 2 October . She was given a brief refit at Chatham Dockyard before sailing for the China Station . The ship had aboard only 403 and 440 Flights on this deployment and transported six Blackburn Ripons to deliver to Malta and HMS Eagle . Hermes departed Portsmouth on 12 November and reached Hong Kong on 2 January 1931 . En route to her summer refuge at Wei Hai Wei , the ship received a report on 9 June that the submarine Poseidon had been sunk there while on exercise . Captain MacKinnon took command of the rescue effort when Hermes arrived at the accident site an hour afterwards . Eight of the submarine 's crewmen managed to escape through the forward torpedo hatch , but only six of those reached the surface where they were picked up and treated in Hermes 's sickbay ; two of those six subsequently died .
The ship remained at Wei Hai Wei until the end of August when she sailed up the Yangtze River for Hankow . She reached the inland port on 5 September and dispatched armed guards to put down unrest on several British @-@ owned merchant ships . Her primary purpose , though , was to aid the Chinese government 's survey of the massive flooding in the area . Charles Lindbergh and his wife , Anne Morrow Lindbergh , were also in the city to survey the flooding with their Lockheed Sirius float @-@ plane and they were invited to use the carrier as their base . Unfortunately , their aircraft was flipped on the morning of 2 October by a strong current as it was being hoisted out by Hermes 's crane . They were quickly rescued by a boat from the carrier , but their aircraft was damaged . Captain MacKinnon offered to take them and their aircraft to Shanghai where it could be repaired and the ship departed the next day . She remained in Shanghai until 2 November , when she sailed for Hong Kong . Hermes received a distress message on 3 November from a Japanese merchantman , SS Ryinjin Maru , that had run aground on the Tan Rocks near the Chinese mainland at the mouth of the Taiwan Strait . The ship managed to rescue nine crew members before she was relieved by the Japanese destroyer Nashi and could proceed to Hong Kong . She reached the city on 7 November and remained in the area until April 1932 .
Captain MacKinnon took sick the next month and he was relieved by Captain W. B. Mackenzie on 25 February . After a short refit , the carrier , escorted by the destroyer Whitehall , made a brief visit to Amoy in late April before sailing for Wei Hai Wei where she stayed until 17 September . On that day , Hermes sailed for the Japanese city of Nagasaki and then spent four weeks in Shanghai . The ship did not return to Hong Kong until 28 October and spent the next few months there . In January 1933 , the carrier visited the Philippines for several weeks before returning to Hong Kong where she was given a brief refit . After short visits to Tsingtao and Wei Hai Wei , Hermes departed Hong Kong in mid @-@ June for Great Britain . She reached Sheerness on 22 July , but the ship was transferred shortly afterwards to Chatham Dockyard and opened to the public during Navy Week in early August . She sailed the next month for Devonport Dockyard for a thorough refit . Transverse arresting gear was fitted and her machinery was thoroughly overhauled . Sometime in 1932 , the two single 2 @-@ pounders were replaced by two quadruple .50 @-@ calibre Mark III machine gun mounts .
Captain the Honourable G. Fraser was appointed on 15 August 1934 as the new commanding officer and the ship began trials of the new equipment in early November . At the same time the nine Fairey Seal torpedo bombers of 824 Squadron joined the ship . Hermes left Portsmouth on 18 November for the China Station and arrived at Hong Kong on 4 January 1935 . The Hawker Osprey reconnaissance biplanes of 803 Squadron were transferred aboard from Eagle before that ship left Hong Kong . Pirates captured a British @-@ owned merchant ship , SS Tungchow , with 90 British and American children on board on 29 January and Hermes was ordered to search for the ship when she failed to arrive at Chefoo at her scheduled time . Three Seals spotted her in Bias Bay on 1 February and the pirates abandoned the ship when it was found , leaving the passengers unharmed . Hermes remained in the vicinity of Hong Kong until mid @-@ May when she steamed to Wei Hai Wei . There she remained until 12 September when the Admiralty decided to transfer her to Singapore where she was closer to East Africa in case a military response to the Italian invasion of Ethiopia was deemed necessary . The ship arrived on 19 September and remained in the area for the next five months .
The ship 's aircraft were detailed to search for the missing Lady Southern Cross of Sir Charles Kingsford Smith when it failed to arrive at Singapore on 8 November during an attempt to set a new speed record between Britain and Australia . No sign was found of either the aircraft or its crew despite a month @-@ long search . Hermes returned to Hong Kong at the beginning of March 1936 before beginning a tour of Japan on 21 April , escorted by the destroyers Duncan and Delight . She summered at Wei Hai Wei and did not return to Hong Kong until the end of October . For most of January 1937 , the carrier , accompanied by the heavy cruiser Dorsetshire and the destroyers Duncan and Diana , toured the Dutch East Indies . The ship 's torpedo bombers practised torpedo attacks on the cruisers Cumberland and Dorsetshire in February , working with the Royal Air Force 's torpedo bombers based at RAF Seletar , Singapore . Hermes left Singapore on 17 March , leaving 803 Squadron behind , and reached Plymouth on 3 May 1937 . Following the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May for King George VI , she was assigned to the Reserve Fleet . On 16 July 1938 , Hermes was transferred from the Reserve Fleet and became a training ship at Devonport .
Plans were made in 1937 to replace Hermes 's three single 4 @-@ inch guns with two twin 4 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns , one forward and another aft of the island , as well as two octuple 2 @-@ pounder mounts . A single High @-@ Angle Control System would have been fitted to control these guns , but the dockyard was overwhelmed with other work and couldn 't begin to design the changes until July 1938 . They were scheduled to be installed between September and December 1939 , but the beginning of the war intervened and nothing was done . The ship 's petrol storage was to be increased to 13 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 59 @,@ 000 l ; 16 @,@ 000 US gal ) in April 1940 , but this also does not seem to have occurred .
= = = World War II = = =
The ship was given a brief refit in early August 1939 and Captain F. E. P. Hutton assumed command on 23 August . She was recommissioned the following day , and 12 Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers of 814 Squadron flew aboard on 1 September . Hermes conducted anti @-@ submarine patrols in mid @-@ September in an effort to find and destroy U @-@ boats in the Western Approaches . On 18 September , the day after the fleet carrier Courageous was sunk on one such patrol , Hermes located a submarine , but attacks by her escorting destroyers , Isis and Imogen , were ineffective . The carrier was then ordered to return to Devonport where she was fitted with degaussing gear during another brief refit . On 7 October , the ship rendezvoused with the French battleship Strasbourg and they arrived at Dakar in French West Africa on 16 October . Designated as Force X , they began searching for German ships in the Atlantic on 25 October . Hermes performed these patrols with no sightings until the end of December when she escorted a convoy to Britain where she could be refitted from 9 January to 10 February 1940 ; the ship then returned to Dakar and resumed her patrols for German commerce raiders and blockade runners .
Captain Richard F. J. Onslow relieved Captain Hutton on 25 May and Hermes continued her fruitless patrols . After returning from one such patrol on 29 June , the ship was ordered to leave harbour only nine hours after her arrival and to begin a blockade of Dakar as the Governor of French Senegal had declared the colony 's allegiance to the Vichy French regime . On the night of 7 / 8 July , a boat from Hermes attempted to drop four depth charges underneath the Richelieu 's stern in conjunction with a torpedo attack by the Swordfish of
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814 Squadron . The boat was successful in reaching the French ship , but the depth charges failed to detonate . The torpedo attack was more successful as one of the battleship 's propellers was damaged . French aircraft attacked the British forces several times in retaliation , but without success . While returning to Freetown after the attack , Hermes accidentally rammed the armed merchant cruiser HMS Corfu during a rainstorm in the dark on 10 July . The impact injured three of the carrier 's crew , one of whom subsequently died of his injuries , but no one from Corfu 's crew was injured . The two ships were locked together so that Corfu 's crew could walk from one to the other when Captain Onslow ordered most of her crew to be evacuated onto Hermes . They were pulled apart by a combination of the carrier 's turbines at full speed astern and blowing of ballast tanks on board Corfu to lighten that ship forward . Hermes had crumpled the forward 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) of her bow , mostly above water , and was able to proceed to Freetown at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , but Corfu had to be towed stern first to Freetown where she arrived three days later . The carrier joined a convoy to South Africa on 5 August and began repairs at Simonstown 12 days later . They were completed on 2 November and the ship arrived back at Freetown on 29 November after working up .
The ship was joined by the light cruiser Dragon on 2 December to search for German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic . They mostly operated from Saint Helena during the month and were later joined by the armed merchant cruiser Pretoria Castle to search for the pocket battleship Admiral Scheer without success . The force sailed for Simonstown on 31 December and Hermes was dispatched to search off the South African coast for Vichy French blockade runners . One such ship was spotted on 26 January , but she returned to Madagascar . On 4 February , the ship headed north to rendezvous with the heavy cruisers Shropshire and Hawkins to blockade the Somali port of Kismayo which was under siege by Commonwealth forces . Hawkins captured three Italian merchantmen and Hermes captured one on 12 February .
On 22 February , the carrier was one of the ships tasked to search for Admiral Scheer after she was spotted by an aircraft from the light cruiser Glasgow , but the pocket battleship successfully broke contact . Hermes arrived in Colombo , Ceylon , on 4 March and continued to search for Axis shipping . She was sent to the Persian Gulf in April to support British operations in Basra , Iraq , and remained there until mid @-@ June when she returned to patrolling the Indian Ocean between Ceylon and the Seychelles Islands . The ship continued to patrol until 19 November when she arrived in Simonstown for a refit that was not completed until 31 January 1942 . Hermes was assigned to the Eastern Fleet and arrived at Colombo on 14 February . She put to sea on 19 February to receive the Swordfish of 814 Squadron and to rendezvous with the destroyer HMAS Vampire to conduct an anti @-@ submarine patrol . The squadron was disembarked on 25 February after the ships arrived in Trincomalee Harbour . The two ships were ordered to Fremantle , Australia , in mid @-@ March to join the Allied naval forces headquartered there , but they were recalled after three days and assigned to Force B of the Eastern Fleet .
After the raid on Colombo by the Japanese aircraft carriers on 5 April , Hermes and Vampire were sent to Trincomalee to prepare for Operation Ironclad , the British invasion of Madagascar , and 814 Squadron was sent ashore . After advance warning of a Japanese air raid on 9 April 1942 , they left Trincomalee and sailed south down the Ceylon coast before it arrived . They were spotted off Batticaloa , however , by a Japanese reconnaissance plane from the battleship Haruna . The British intercepted the spot report and ordered the ships to return to Trincomalee with the utmost dispatch and attempted to provide fighter cover for them . The Japanese launched 85 Aichi D3A dive bombers , escorted by nine Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , at the two ships . At least 32 attacked them and sank them in quick order despite the arrival of six Fairey Fulmar II fighters of No. 273 Squadron RAF . Another six Fulmars from 803 and 806 Squadrons arrived after Hermes had already sunk . The rest of the Japanese aircraft attacked other ships further north , sinking the RFA Athelstone of 5 @,@ 571 gross register tonnage ( GRT ) , her escort , the corvette Hollyhock , the oil tanker SS British Sergeant and the Norwegian ship SS Norviken of 2 @,@ 924 GRT .
Hermes sank at coordinates 7 ° 35 ′ 28 @.@ 392 ″ N 82 ° 05 ′ 55 @.@ 089 ″ E with the loss of 307 men , including Captain Onslow . Vampire 's captain and seven crewmen were also killed . Most of the survivors of the attack were picked up by the hospital ship Vita . Japanese losses to all causes were four D3As lost and five more damaged , while two Fulmars were shot down .
= = = = Two HMS Hermes = = = =
The merchant ship SS Mamari III was converted to resemble Hermes as a decoy ship to confuse the Axis where Hermes was actually operating . The superstructure was mainly a wooden mock @-@ up . She was a part of the phantom fleet of mock @-@ up British warships designated as Fleet Tender C. On 4 June 1941 , when she was sailing down the east coast of England to Chatham Dockyard in Kent to be converted back to a merchant ship , the decoy Hermes hit a submerged wreck and ran aground off Norfolk during a German aerial attack . Before being refloated she was totally disabled by German E @-@ boats . The Germans initially thought they had sunk an aircraft carrier .
= Australian magpie =
The Australian magpie ( Cracticus tibicen ) is a medium @-@ sized black and white passerine bird native to Australia and southern New Guinea . Although once considered to be three separate species , it is now considered to be one , with nine recognised subspecies . A member of the Artamidae , the Australian magpie is classified in the butcherbird genus Cracticus and is most closely related to the black butcherbird ( C. quoyi ) . It is not , however , related to the European magpie , which is a corvid . The adult Australian magpie is a fairly robust bird ranging from 37 to 43 cm ( 14 @.@ 5 to 17 in ) in length , with distinctive black and white plumage , gold brown eyes and a solid wedge @-@ shaped bluish @-@ white and black bill . The male and female are similar in appearance , and can be distinguished by differences in back markings . With its long legs , the Australian magpie walks rather than waddles or hops and spends much time on the ground .
Described as one of Australia 's most accomplished songbirds , the Australian magpie has an array of complex vocalisations . It is omnivorous , with the bulk of its varied diet made up of invertebrates . It is generally sedentary and territorial throughout its range . Common and widespread , it has adapted well to human habitation and is a familiar bird of parks , gardens and farmland in Australia and New Guinea . This species is commonly fed by households around the country , but in spring a small minority of breeding magpies ( almost always males ) become aggressive and swoop and attack those who approach their nests . Magpies were introduced into New Zealand in the 1860s but have subsequently been accused of displacing native birds and are now treated as a pest species . Introductions also occurred in the Solomon Islands and Fiji , where the birds are not considered an invasive species . The Australian magpie is the mascot of several Australian sporting teams , most notably the Collingwood Magpies .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Australian magpie was first described by English ornithologist John Latham in 1801 as Coracias tibicen , the type collected in the Port Jackson region . Its specific epithet derived from the Latin tibicen " flute @-@ player " or " piper " in reference to the bird 's melodious call . An early recorded vernacular name is piping poller , written on a painting by Thomas Watling , one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter , sometime between 1788 and 1792 . Tarra @-@ won @-@ nang , or djarrawunang , wibung , and marriyang were names used by the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney Basin . Booroogong and garoogong were Wiradjuri words , and carrak was a Jardwadjali term from Victoria . Among the Kamilaroi , it is burrugaabu , galalu , or guluu . It was known as Warndurla among the Yindjibarndi people of the central and western Pilbara . Other names used include piping crow @-@ shrike , piper , maggie , flute @-@ bird and organ @-@ bird . The term bell @-@ magpie was proposed to help distinguish it from the European magpie but failed to gain wide acceptance .
The bird was named for its similarity in colouration to the European magpie ; it was a common practice for early settlers to name plants and animals after European counterparts . However , the European magpie is a member of the Corvidae , while its Australian counterpart is placed in the Artamidae family ( although both are members of a broad corvid lineage ) . The Australian magpie 's affinities with butcherbirds and currawongs were recognised early on and the three genera were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by John Albert Leach after he had studied their musculature . American ornithologists Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between woodswallows and the butcherbirds in 1985 , and combined them into a Cracticini clade , which became the family Artamidae . The Australian magpie had been placed in its own genus Gymnorhina , but several authorities , Storr in 1952 and later authors including Christidis and Boles in their 2008 official checklist , place it in the butcherbird genus Cracticus , giving rise to its current binomial name , arguing that its adaptation to ground @-@ living is not enough to consider it a separate genus . Evidence confirming this was published in a 2013 molecular study , which showed that it was the sister taxon to the black butcherbird ( C. quoyi ) . The ancestor to the two species is thought to have split from the other butcherbirds between 8 @.@ 3 and 4 @.@ 2 million years ago , during the late Miocene to early Pliocene , while the two species themselves diverged sometime during the Pliocene ( 5 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 0 million years ago ) .
The Australian magpie was subdivided into three species in the literature for much of the twentieth century — the black @-@ backed magpie ( C. tibicen ) , the white @-@ backed magpie ( C. hypoleuca ) , and the western magpie ( C. dorsalis ) . They were later noted to hybridise readily where their territories crossed , with hybrid grey or striped @-@ backed magpies being quite common . This resulted in them being reclassified as one species by Julian Ford in 1969 , with most recent authors following suit .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are currently thought to be nine subspecies of the Australian magpie , although there are large zones of overlap with intermediate forms between the taxa . There is a tendency for birds to become larger with increasing latitude , the southern subspecies being larger than those further north , except the Tasmanian form which is small . The original form known , as the black @-@ backed magpie and classified as Gymnorhina tibicen , has been split into four black @-@ backed races :
C. tibicen tibicen , the nominate form , is a large subspecies found in southeastern Queensland , from the vicinity of Moreton Bay through eastern New South Wales to Moruya , New South Wales almost to the Victorian border . It is coastal or near @-@ coastal and is restricted to east of the Great Dividing Range .
C. tibicen terraereginae , found from Cape York and the Gulf Country southwards across Queensland to the coast between Halifax Bay in the north and south to the Mary River , and central and western New South Wales and into northern South Australia , is a small to medium @-@ sized subspecies . The plumage is the same as that of subspecies tibicen , although the female has a shorter black tip to the tail . The wings and tarsus are shorter and the bill proportionally longer . It was originally described by Gregory Mathews in 1912 , its subspecies name a Latin translation , terra " land " reginae " queen 's " of " Queensland " . Hybridisation with the large white @-@ backed subspecies tyrannica occurs in northern Victoria and southeastern New South Wales ; intermediate forms have black bands of varying sizes in white @-@ backed area . Three @-@ way hybridisation occurs between Bega and Batemans Bay on the New South Wales south coast .
C. tibicen eylandtensis , the Top End magpie , is found from the Kimberley in northern Western Australia , across the Northern Territory through Arnhem Land and Groote Eylandt and into the Gulf Country . It is a small subspecies with a long and thinner bill , with birds of Groote Eylandt possibly even smaller than mainland birds . It has a narrow black terminal tailband , and a narrow black band ; the male has a large white nape , the female pale grey . This form was initially described by H. L. White in 1922 . It intergrades with subspecies terraereginae southeast of the Gulf of Carpentaria .
C. tibicen longirostris , the long @-@ billed magpie , is found across northern Western Australia , from Shark Bay into the Pilbara . Named in 1903 by Alex Milligan , it is a medium @-@ sized subspecies with a long thin bill . Milligan speculated the bill may have been adapted for the local conditions , slim fare meaning the birds had to pick at dangerous scorpions and spiders . There is a broad area of hybridisation with the western dorsalis in southern central Western Australia from Shark Bay south to the Murchison River and east to the Great Victoria Desert .
The white @-@ backed magpie , originally described as Gymnorhina hypoleuca by John Gould in 1837 , has also been split into races :
C. tibicen tyrannica , a very large white @-@ backed form found from Twofold Bay on the New South Wales far south coast , across southern Victoria south of the Great Dividing Range through to the Coorong in southeastern South Australia . It was first described by Schodde and Mason in 1999 . It has a broad black tail band .
C. tibicen telonocua , found from Cowell south into the Eyre and Yorke Peninsulas in southern South Australia , as well as the southwestern Gawler Ranges . Described by Schodde and Mason in 1999 , its subspecific name is an anagram of leuconota " white @-@ backed " . It is very similar to tyrannica , differing in having a shorter wing and being lighter and smaller overall . The bill is relatively short compared with other magpie subspecies . Intermediate forms are found in the Mount Lofty Ranges and on Kangaroo Island .
C. tibicen hypoleuca now refers to a small white @-@ backed subspecies with a short compact bill and short wings , found on King and Flinders Islands , as well as Tasmania .
The western magpie , C. tibicen dorsalis was originally described as a separate species by A. J. Campbell in 1895 and is found in the fertile south @-@ west corner of Western Australia . The adult male has a white back and most closely resembles subspecies telonocua , though it is a little larger with a longer bill and the black tip of its tail plumage is narrower . The female is unusual in that it has a scalloped black or brownish @-@ black mantle and back ; the dark feathers there are edged with white . This area appears a more uniform black as the plumage ages and the edges are worn away . Both sexes have black thighs .
The New Guinean magpie , C. tibicen papuana , is a little @-@ known subspecies found in southern New Guinea . The adult male has a mostly white back with a narrow black stripe , and the female a blackish back ; the black feathers here are tipped with white similar to subspecies dorsalis . It has a long deep bill resembling that of subspecies longirostris .
= = Description = =
The adult magpie is a fairly solid , sturdy bird ranging from 37 to 43 cm ( 14 @.@ 5 to 17 in ) in length with a 65 – 85 cm ( 25 @.@ 5 – 33 @.@ 5 in ) wingspan , and weighing 220 – 350 g ( 7 @.@ 8 – 12 @.@ 3 oz ) . Its robust wedge @-@ shaped bill is bluish @-@ white bordered with black , with a small hook at the tip . The black legs are long and strong . The plumage is pure glossy black and white ; both sexes of all subspecies have black heads , wings and underparts with white shoulders . The tail has a black terminal band . The nape is white in the male and light greyish @-@ white in the female . Mature magpies have dull red eyes , in contrast to the yellow eyes of currawongs and white eyes of Australian ravens and crows . The main difference between the subspecies lies in the " saddle " markings on the back below the nape . Black @-@ backed subspecies have a black saddle and white nape . White @-@ backed subspecies have a wholly white nape and saddle . The male Western Australian subspecies dorsalis is also white @-@ backed , but the equivalent area in the female is scalloped black .
Juveniles have lighter greys and browns amidst the starker blacks and whites of their plumage ; two- or three @-@ year @-@ old birds of both sexes closely resemble and are difficult to distinguish from adult females . Immature birds have dark brownish eyes until around two years of age . Australian magpies generally live to around 25 years of age , though ages of up to 30 years have been recorded . The reported age of first breeding has varied according to area , but the average is between the ages of three and five years .
Well @-@ known and easily recognisable , the Australian magpie is unlikely to be confused with any other species . The pied butcherbird has a similar build and plumage , but has white underparts unlike the former species ' black underparts . The magpie @-@ lark is a much smaller and more delicate bird with complex and very different banded black and white plumage . Currawong species have predominantly dark plumage and heavier bills .
= = = Vocalisations = = =
One of Australia 's most highly regarded songbirds , the Australian magpie has a wide variety of calls , many of which are complex . Pitch may vary over up to four octaves , and the bird can mimic over 35 species of native and introduced bird species , as well as dogs and horses . Magpies have even been noted to mimic human speech when living in close proximity to humans . Its complex , musical , warbling call is one of the most familiar Australian bird sounds . In Denis Glover 's poem " The Magpies " , the mature magpie 's call is described as quardle oodle ardle wardle doodle , one of the most famous lines in New Zealand poetry , and as waddle giggle gargle paddle poodle , in the children 's book Waddle Giggle Gargle by Pamela Allen .
When alone , a magpie may make a quiet musical warbling ; these complex melodious warbles or subsongs are pitched at 2 – 4 KHz and do not carry for long distances . These songs have been recorded up to 70 minutes in duration and are more frequent after the end of the breeding season . Pairs of magpies often take up a loud musical calling known as carolling to advertise or defend their territory ; one bird initiates the call with the second ( and sometimes more ) joining in . Often preceded by warbling , carolling is pitched between 6 and 8 kHz and has 4 – 5 elements with slurring indistinct noise in between . Birds will adopt a specific posture by tilting their heads back , expanding their chests , and moving their wings backwards . A group of magpies will sing a short repetitive version of carolling just before dawn ( dawn song ) , and at twilight after sundown ( dusk song ) , in winter and spring .
Fledgling and juvenile magpies emit a repeated short and loud ( 80 dB ) , high @-@ pitched ( 8 kHz ) begging call . Magpies may indulge in beak @-@ clapping to warn other species of birds . They employ several high pitched ( 8 – 10 kHz ) alarm or rallying calls when intruders or threats are spotted . Distinct calls have been recorded for the approach of eagles and monitor lizards .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Australian magpie is found in the Trans @-@ Fly region of southern New Guinea , between the Oriomo River and the Princess Mariane Strait , and across most of Australia , bar the tip of Cape York , the Gibson and Great Sandy Deserts , and southwest of Tasmania . Birds taken mainly from Tasmania and Victoria were introduced into New Zealand by local Acclimatisation Societies of Otago and Canterbury in the 1860s , with the Wellington Acclimatisation Society releasing 260 birds in 1874 . White @-@ backed forms are spread on both the North and eastern South Island , while black @-@ backed forms are found in the Hawke 's Bay region . Magpies were introduced into New Zealand to control agricultural pests , and were therefore a protected species until 1951 . They are thought to affect native New Zealand bird populations such as the tui and kererū , sometimes raiding nests for eggs and nestlings , although studies by Waikato University have cast doubt on this , and much blame on the magpie as a predator in the past has been anecdotal only . Introductions also occurred in the Solomon Islands and Sri Lanka , although the species has failed to become established . It has become established in western Taveuni in Fiji , however .
The Australian magpie prefers open areas such as grassland , fields and residential areas such as parks , gardens , golf courses , and streets , with scattered trees or forest nearby . Birds nest and shelter in trees but forage mainly on the ground in these open areas . It has also been recorded in mature pine plantations ; birds only occupy rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest in the vicinity of cleared areas . In general , evidence suggests the range and population of the Australian magpie has increased with land @-@ clearing , although local declines in Queensland due to a 1902 drought , and in Tasmania in the 1930s have been noted ; the cause for the latter is unclear but rabbit baiting , pine tree removal , and spread of the masked lapwing ( Vanellus miles ) have been implicated .
= = Behaviour = =
The Australian magpie is almost exclusively diurnal , although it may call into the night , like some other members of the Artamidae . Natural predators of magpies include various species of monitor lizard and the barking owl . Birds are often killed on roads or electrocuted by powerlines , or poisoned after killing and eating house sparrows or mice , rats or rabbits targeted with baiting . The Australian raven may take nestlings left unattended .
On the ground , the Australian magpie moves around by walking , and is the only member of the Artamidae to do so ; woodswallows , butcherbirds and currawongs all tend to hop with legs parallel . The magpie has a short femur ( thigh bone ) , and long lower leg below the knee , suited to walking rather than running , although birds can run in short bursts when hunting prey .
The magpie is generally sedentary and territorial throughout its range , living in groups occupying a territory , or in flocks or fringe groups . A group may occupy and defend the same territory for many years . Much energy is spent defending a territory from intruders , particularly other magpies , and different behaviours are seen with different opponents . The sight of a raptor results in a rallying call by sentinel birds and subsequent coordinated mobbing of the intruder . Magpies place themselves either side of the bird of prey so that it will be attacked from behind should it strike a defender , and harass and drive the raptor to some distance beyond the territory . A group will use carolling as a signal to advertise ownership and warn off other magpies . In the negotiating display , the one or two dominant magpies parade along the border of the defended territory while the rest
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the bridge , part of National Road 555 . In 1976 , the company issued NOK 5 million in an interest @-@ free loan to the project , which was repaid in 1982 and 1983 . Similar conditions were imposed for NOK 2 million for National Road 561 to Nordra Straumsundet and NOK 1 @.@ 2 million for the establishment of the Solsvik – Rong Ferry in 1974 . The rest of the subsidies were given as grants . The main project was National Road 561 , which ran from Kollveit northwards through Øygarden , for which the company paid NOK 28 @.@ 6 million . It paid a further NOK 9 @.@ 3 million for other projects in Sotra and Øygarden , including connections to Turøy and Misje .
= = Future = =
In 2005 , 8 @,@ 000 people commuted between Sotra and Bergen , and the bridge had an average daily traffic of 22 @,@ 000 vehicles . On National Road 555 between Straume , the municipal center of Fjell , and Storavatnet , where National Road 555 becomes a motorway , there are long queues during rush hour . The Norwegian Public Roads Administration has proposed a four @-@ lane motorway along National Road 555 from Stoavatnet to Straume . This will require a new crossing across Knarreviksundet . Such a motorway extension is estimated to cost between NOK 3 and 4 billion , and the government has allocated NOK 400 million in National Transport Plan 2010 – 2019 for the project . It is presumed that most of the project will be financed as a toll road .
Four main proposals were suggested for the new fixed link . One involved a four @-@ lane subsea tunnel , one involved building a second , two @-@ lane bridge immediately adjacent to the current one , which would give the impression of a single bridge , another involved a new four @-@ lane bridge slightly to the south , and the last involved a new bridge considerably further to the south , which would connect to County Road 557 .
A tunnel would consist of two sections , one from Kolltveit to Arefjord , where there would be an intersection , and one from Arefjord to Storavatnet . Both would be subsea tunnels , where the western @-@ most would be 4 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) long and reach 80 meters ( 260 ft ) below mean sea level ( BMSL ) , while the eastern tunnel would be 7 @.@ 0 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) long and reach 140 metres ( 460 ft ) BMSL . This would involve the current National Road 555 being reclassified as a local road . A tunnel would be 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) longer than a bridge , which would give higher costs of roughly NOK 1000 per year for an average commuter . The tunnel would catch long @-@ distance travel ( Straume and westwards ) , while the bridge would be used for local traffic . An alternate tunnel proposal was to build it roughly 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) south of the current bridge , between Brattholmen and Håkonshella . This would connect to County Road 557 about 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) south of Liavatnet .
The company Sotrasambandet AS has been established to lobby for and potentially debt @-@ finance the construction , which potentially could include other parts of National Roads 555 and 561 . In 2008 , the company estimated that it might be possible to start construction in 2013 , and complete the project by 2016 . On 21 April 2009 , State Secretary Geir Pollestad stated that the government would support a bridge , but did not indicate if a two @-@ lane or four @-@ lane solution would be chosen . The Norwegian Public Roads Administration has recommended a four @-@ lane bridge , while the Institute of Transport Economics has recommended the two @-@ lane bridge . It is largely up to the city councils of Bergen and Fjell to determine which of the bridge alternatives will be chosen .
A four @-@ lane bridge is estimated to cost NOK 2 billion . It could either be located immediately north of the current bridge , or south of Norwegian Talc . The traffic from Askøy , along County Road 562 , connects with National Road 555 at Storavatnet . Without a bypass , the increased capacity from Sotra would not be achieved without expanding the motorway from Storavatnet to the city center . In 2010 , an alternative was launched whereby a four @-@ lane bridge would be built south of Norwegian Talc , and would immediately run into a tunnel and connect to the current motorway at Liavatnet . This is the planned intersection between National Road 555 and County Road 557 ( Ring Road West ) , which would result in traffic from Sotra towards southern Bergen would not take up capacity on the current 555 motorway until after traffic from both Sotra and Askøy heading towards southern Bergen have had a possibility to head onto County Road 557 .
In June 2010 , Hordaland County Council decided that an extension of the Bergen Light Rail to Sotra was to be made part of the extension plans in the period until 2040 . For the light rail to use existing infrastructure , a bridge would have to be chosen . The road project has been criticized by environmentalists because it uniformly bases growth in transport to the archipelago based on cars , and lacks any plans for inclusion of public transport , whether by light rail or as bus lanes . Criticism has also been raised against the Norwegian Public Roads Administration being responsible for planning the public transport , as they have failed to produce efficient public transport systems in Bergen .
= Evan O 'Neill Kane =
Evan O 'Neill Kane ( April 6 , 1861 – April 1 , 1932 ) was a surgeon working in Pennsylvania , United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , and a member of a notable Pennsylvanian family . Several other members of his family were also surgeons or physicians and their family home , Anoatok , is now a listed building .
He is most well known for the remarkable feat of removing his own appendix under local anaesthetic in 1921 at the age of 60 . He operated on himself again at the age of 70 to repair a hernia . In many ways Kane was idiosyncratic in his practices , which included the tattooing of his patients . Kane was again in the public eye when he gave evidence at the sensational trial of his son for murder .
Kane was one of the founding members of the Kane Summit Hospital and became chief surgeon there . A large part of Kane 's work was in railway surgery . In this field he contributed a number of innovations in procedures and equipment . These included asbestos bandages , mica windows for brain surgery , and multiple site hypodermoclysis .
= = Family and home = =
Kane 's father was the American Civil War Major General Thomas L. Kane , who was also the founder of the town Kane , Pennsylvania and a prominent abolitionist . Thomas L. Kane also played a role in preventing war with the Mormons through his friendship with Brigham Young . Kane 's mother , Elizabeth Denniston Wood Kane , M.D. also practiced medicine ( until 1909 ) as did his brother , William ( also called Thomas L. Kane Jr . ) ( b . 1863 ) , and his sister , Harriet Amelia ( 1855 – 1896 ) . Kane also had an elder brother , Elisha Kent Kane ( b . 1856 ) , an engineering graduate from Princeton .
Kane married his first wife Blanche Rupert on 18 May 1893 , but she died less than a year later , two weeks after giving birth to their son Elisha Kent Kane ( b . 18 March 1894 ) . He then married Lila Rupert on 1 June 1897 . With Lila he had a further six children : William Wood Kane ( b . 7 May 1898 ) , Blanche Rupert Kane ( b . 9 August 1899 ) , Bernard Evan Kane ( b . 18 February 1902 ) , Thomas Leiper Kane ( b . 3 August 1903 ) , Robert Livingston Kane ( b . 29 August 1904 ) , and his twin Schuyler Kane born on the same date .
Kane 's son , Elisha Kent Kane , was head of the Romance language department at the University of Tennessee . Elisha was charged with the murder of his wife , Jenny G. Kane ( 1898 – 1931 ) , by drowning her in Chesapeake Bay . The trial was such a sensation at the time that there were crowds of people outside the courthouse unable to find room inside . Evan Kane was instrumental in obtaining his son 's acquittal by presenting medical evidence at his trial . He established that Jenny had a heart condition that contributed to her drowning . Elisha resigned his position with the university after his trial . A book by Ann Davis , a local historian , gives a fictionalized account of these events .
The arctic explorer Elisha Kent Kane is related ( he is Evan Kane 's uncle ) , but is a different person from both Evan Kane 's son and his brother of the same name .
Kane lived in the family home Anoatok , which is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Anoatok was built by Kane 's mother to house herself , Evan O 'Neill Kane and another son , Thomas L. Kane , and their families after the original family home burned down in 1896 . The architect was Walter Cope who had married into the Kane family – to a cousin of Major General Kane . The name Anoatok , an Eskimo word , honours Elisha Kent Kane the arctic explorer . Elizabeth died in 1909 and Thomas moved his family out in 1910 into a new home also designed by Walter Cope , leaving Evan O 'Neill Kane and his family as the sole occupants . Anoatok remained Kane 's home and office until his death .
Kane died of pneumonia at the age of 70 in 1932 , shortly after the trial of his son and just a few months after his major hernia operation .
= = Kane Summit Hospital = =
In 1887 , Elizabeth Kane together with two of her sons , Evan and William , founded the Woodside Cottage Hospital in Kane . The concept of a cottage hospital originated with Major General Kane , who thought that wounds healed better " in the Kane air " , but he died in 1883 , some years before Elizabeth founded the hospital . Around 1892 the hospital , together with its patients , was moved to a larger site , built on land donated by Elizabeth Kane , and was thereafter known as Kane Summit Hospital . Evan graduated from Jefferson Medical College , Philadelphia in 1884 . He practiced as a physician in Kane and later became chief surgeon of the Kane Summit Hospital , a position he held at the time of his own appendectomy operation . He died at his own hospital in 1932 . The facility ceased work as a hospital in 1970 , but the building is still used by Kane Community Hospital for administration .
Kane Summit Hospital , as a public hospital , received charitable grants from the State of Pennsylvania . The tight family control of the hospital led to complaints from local physicians , who claimed that they were not able to freely use the hospital . Patients were admitted on condition that Evan O 'Neill Kane , as the chief surgeon , had the final say in their treatment . The complaining physicians felt that they alone should be the judge of the proper treatment of their own patients and found this condition unacceptable . In February 1908 , formal complaints to the Pennsylvania Board of Charity Commissioners resulted in an investigation . The complainants were requesting that the Hospital grant should be withdrawn so this was a serious matter for the hospital , but both Evan and his assistant Thomas L. Kane were away in Florida at the time . Answering the charges fell to their brother Elisha Kent Kane , who was on the board of management of the hospital , but not the medical staff , and the hospital superintendent Dr. M. J. Hays . The hospital admission rules were changed as a result of the investigation . The commissioners found that the Kanes were not using their position to make unacceptable profits from the hospital ; on the contrary , they had made large donations , but recommended that stock holding in the hospital should be more broadly extended outside the Kane family . The commissioners also requested that the private practice offices of Evan and Thomas Kane be moved outside the hospital . Although the furnishing of these offices were paid for by the occupants , the cost of fuel , water and lighting was borne by the hospital .
= = Railway surgery = =
Kane was a railway surgeon for five different railroads . In Kane 's time , railway surgery was markedly different from surgery in a hospital and was considered to be its own field . Surgeons frequently needed to operate at great distances from a proper hospital facility , often in dirty and unsanitary conditions , and operations were performed with only basic equipment and materials . Industrial accidents on the railways resulted in many crushing injuries . A large proportion of the estimated 1 @,@ 000 operations Kane performed in the three years from 1898 to 1900 were treatment for accidents on the railways , many of which were laparotomies . Several of Kane 's medical innovations were intended to be aids to the surgeon in the field , and clearly inspired by his work as a railway surgeon .
= = Innovations and inventions = =
Kane is responsible for one of the first uses of music as a medical therapy . Starting in 1914 , he played music with a phonograph in the operating theatre prior to anaesthetizing the patient . Kane believed this had a calming effect on his patients and was more effective than simply talking to them as the surgeon was often distracted and conversations with the assistants , in his experience , soon dried up . Modern studies have shown that music can help reduce pain following an operation , and consequently also reduces the need for pain @-@ killing drugs .
Kane invented an improvement to the Murphy button , a device then commonly used for intestinal anastomosis , but now usually done with a surgical stapler . Kane was seeking a device with a larger aperture and less possibility of blockage after losing a patient to whom he had fitted a Murphy button .
Kane presented a paper to the American Academy of Railway Surgeons in 1900 addressing the difficulty of administering intravenous infusions in the field . Kane lists among the difficulties the unsterilized conditions and the tendency of veins to collapse following haemorrhage . Kane 's solution was a device which could administer multiple instances of hypodermoclyses simultaneously . Kane 's device could have up to ten needles , but Kane never used this many , as four were normally sufficient . Normal hypodermoclysis would be too slow in emergency conditions , but Kane 's invention speeded up the rate of fluid replacement many times . Kane 's device was subsequently criticised for its use of an unsealed rubber bulb by Edwin Hasbrouck , who proposed an alternative improved design . Administering hypodermoclysis at two sites for faster fluid uptake is a technique still in use today .
Kane had some novel ideas on materials for use in surgery . Influenced by his work in railway surgery , he was particularly concerned with materials that were good for use in the field and sometimes advocated the use of supplies that could be obtained locally from hardware stores and similar suppliers . He made his own bandages from woven asbestos , a material readily available at the time . Sterilising dressings , and keeping them sterilised , was a problem in the field . Unlike modern dressings — which are supplied in sealed , sterile packs — the dressings of the time had to be sterilised immediately before use . In an emergency situation there may be little time to do this . The use of fire @-@ proof bandages allowed them to be sterilised quickly in an open fire . In 1924 , Kane proposed the use of mica to repair head wounds that had exposed and damaged the brain . He cited among the advantages of this that it provided a window for the physician to observe the damage and that in an emergency in the field , mica could be obtained by removing it from a stove window , an application for which it was commonly used at the time .
Another of Kane 's innovations for use in the field was an acetylene lamp worn on the head by the surgeon . This was intended for operations carried out in the field at night . Kane says it was particularly useful for illuminating the abdominal cavity .
Kane advocated , and practiced , tattooing newborn infants ( in an inconspicuous place ) with an identifying mark matching an identical tattoo on the mother . Kane was aware of cases where claims had been made of babies being mixed up and wished to avoid any possibility of this occurring in his hospital . In Kane 's view , complex clerical systems designed to prevent errors that might be implemented in a large hospital were impracticable in a small hospital because the administrative staff to run it were simply not available . Kane also argued that it was impossible to positively prove that a mistake had not been made with a purely clerical system .
= = Do @-@ it @-@ yourself surgery = =
Kane had a history of operating on himself . In 1919 he self @-@ amputated one of his own fingers that had become infected . But it was the operation of removing his own appendix under local anaesthetic , performed on 15 February 1921 at the age of 60 , which brought him wider media attention . He is believed to have been the first to have undertaken this self @-@ operation . Dr. Kane did this , in part , to experience the procedure from the patient 's perspective . He had in mind using local anaesthesia in future on patients with medical conditions that prevented a general anaesthetic being administered , and wanted to ensure that the procedure could be tolerated by the patient . Kane believed ether ( the usual general anaesthetic of the time ) was used too often and was more dangerous than local anaesthetics . The anaesthetic used by Kane was novocaine , a fairly recent replacement for the more dangerous cocaine . Kane performed the operation , which he had carried out nearly 4 @,@ 000 times on others , with the aid of mirrors that enabled him to see the work area . At this time the operation was rather more major than today , as the incision to remove an appendix was much larger than that needed for modern keyhole surgery techniques . Nevertheless , Kane was well enough to be taken home the following day .
This operation by Kane was not only a sensation at the time — it continued to be reported for many years afterwards . For instance , Popular Science discusses it in 1933 in an article on anaesthesia . More recently , it was held up as an example of commitment in a self @-@ motivation book .
On another occasion , in 1932 at the age of 70 , Kane repaired his own inguinal hernia under local anaesthetic . The hernia had been caused by a horse riding accident six years earlier . The operation was carried out at the Kane Summit Hospital with the press , including a photographer , in attendance . This operation is more dangerous than the earlier appendectomy because of the risk of puncturing the femoral artery . The operation lasted one hour and 55 minutes . Kane was back in the operating theatre working 36 hours later .
In the latter part of his career , Kane had started signing his handiwork by tattooing on his patients the letter " K " in morse code ( — · — ) using India ink . However , during his hernia operation he became too drowsy to finish the stitching up so this task and the tattooing fell to Dr. Howard Cleveland ( who later became Chief Surgeon in 1938 ) .
= = Alcohol = =
Kane was opposed to the consumption of alcohol . Alcohol had been previously widely used as a treatment in medicine , but Kane believed that this was neither necessary nor desirable . He also spoke out against a suggestion that the sale of spirits should be reintroduced in army bases . Alcohol had ceased to be available to soldiers on base when , in a prelude to prohibition , the army canteens were abolished in 1901 . For many years Richard Bartholdt attempted to introduce a Bill reversing this decision and his efforts were supported by a petition of 279 physicians . In a letter to JAMA in 1912 , Kane railed against this with " If our soldiers cannot find agreeable amusement without booze to make it attractive it is time that a determined effort to refine their depraved taste be made by the officers , who have plenty of spare time on their hands " .
= = Publications = =
" Fire @-@ proof asbestos dressing " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.25 , no.23 , pp. 996 – 997 , 7 December 1895 .
" Cure of prostatic hypertrophy by internal pressure " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.26 , no.11 , pp. 521 – 522 , 14 March 1896 .
" A new apparatus for fracture of the clavicle " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.27 , no.11 , pp. 596 – 597 , 12 September 1896 .
" Syphilis and drunkenness " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.28 , no.20 , pp. 951 – 952 , 15 May 1897 .
" Simple device for rapid hypodermoclysis in combating shock " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.34 , no.9 , pp. 520 – 521 , 3 March 1900 .
" A new coupler for rapid intestinal anastomosis " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.38 , no.16 , pp. 1003 – 1005 , 19 April 1902 .
" Pin in appendix " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.43 , no.3 , p . 199 , 16 July 1904 .
" Acetylene headlight and reflector for night operating " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.43 , no.17 , p . 1231 , 22 October 1904 .
" Cardiac dilation and displacement due to pleurisy " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.57 , no.10 , pp. 792 – 793 , 2 September 1911 .
" Peculiar twin ectopic gestation " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.58 , no.7 , p . 475 , 17 February 1912 .
" Phonograph in operating @-@ room " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.62 , no.23 , p . 1829 , 6 June 1914 .
" Railway and army surgery – a comparison " , International Journal of Surgery , vol.29 , p . 390 , December 1916 .
" Radium therapy " , Radium , vol.7 , no.1 , pp. 16 – 20 , April 1916 .
" Absorbable metal clips as substitutes for ligatures and deep sutures in wound closure " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.69 , no.8 , pp. 663 – 664 , 24 May 1917 .
" The injury to cancer patients of securing specimens prior to operation " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.72 , no.13 , p . 955 , 29 March 1919 .
" Autoappendectomy : a case history " , International Journal of Surgery , vol.34 , iss.3 , pp. 100 – 102 , March 1921 .
Is the Practice of Medicine Worth While ? , Harrisburg , Pa : Medical Society of the State of Pennsylvania , 1921 OCLC 30681219 .
" Sheet mica in brain surgery " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.82 , no.21 , p . 1714 , 24 May 1924 .
= Fu ( poetry ) =
Fu ( Chinese : 賦 ) , variously translated as rhapsody or poetic exposition , is a form of Chinese rhymed prose that was the dominant literary form during the Han dynasty ( 206 BC – AD 220 ) . Fu are intermediary pieces between poetry and prose in which a place , object , feeling , or other subject is described and rhapsodized in exhaustive detail and from as many angles as possible . Classical fu composers attempted to use as wide a vocabulary as they could , and often included great numbers of rare and archaic terms in their compositions . Fu poems employ alternating rhyme and prose , varying line length , close alliteration , onomatopoeia , loose parallelism , and extensive cataloging of their topics .
Unlike the songs of the Classic of Poetry ( Shijing 詩經 ) or the Verses of Chu ( Chu ci 楚辭 ) , fu were meant to be recited aloud or chanted but not sung . The fu genre came into being around the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC and continued to be regularly used into the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) . Fu were used as grand praises for the imperial courts , palaces , and cities , but were also used to write " fu on things " , in which any place , object , or feeling was rhapsodized in exhaustive detail . The largest collections of historical fu are the Selections of Refined Literature ( Wen xuan 文選 ) , the Book of Han ( Han shu 漢書 ) , the New Songs from the Jade Terrace ( Yutai xinyong 玉臺新詠 ) , and official dynastic histories .
There is no counterpart or similar form to the fu genre in Western literature . During a large part of the twentieth century , fu poetry was harshly criticized by Chinese scholars as excessively ornate , lacking in real emotion , and ambiguous in its moral messages . Because of these historical associations , scholarship on fu poetry in China almost ceased entirely between 1949 and the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976 . Since then , study of fu has gradually returned to its previous level .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The term " fu " , when applied to Chinese literature , first appears in the Zhou dynasty ( c . 1046 – 221 BC ) , where it meant " to present " , as in poetic recitations . It was also one of the three literary devices traditionally assigned to the songs of the Classic of Poetry ( Shijing 詩經 ) . Over the course of the late 1st millennium BC , fu became the name of poetic expositions in which an author or composer created a comprehensive exposition and performed it as a rhapsody . Han dynasty historian Ban Gu in the " Monograph on Arts and Letters " defined fu as " to recite without singing " ( bù gē ér sòng 不歌而誦 ) .
Fu poetry is often viewed as a descendant of the Verses of Chu ( Chu ci 楚辭 ) songs combined with the rhetorical expositions of the Intrigues of the Warring States ( Zhanguo ce 戰國策 ) . During the golden age of fu in the 2nd century BC , many of the greatest fu composers were from the southwestern area of Shu ( modern Sichuan Province ) . A chapter of Xunzi containing a series of riddles has been theorized to be the earliest known fu . The earliest preserved and definitely datable fu is Jia Yi 's " Fu on the Owl " ( Fúniǎo fù 鵩鳥賦 ) , composed about 170 BC . Jia 's surviving writings mention an earlier fu he wrote upon his exile to Changsha which he modeled upon Qu Yuan 's " Encountering Sorrow " ( Li Sao 離騷 ) , but it has not survived to the present .
= = = Han dynasty = = =
Much of the surviving Han fu and other poetry survives through Six Dynasty anthologies and other sources , such as quotations embedded in various works .
= = = = Western Han = = = =
Fu achieved its greatest prominence during the early Han dynasty . Jia Yi 's " Fu on the Owl " , written around 170 BC , was composed following on the third year of his exile to Changsha , and uses much of the style of the Li Sao and other songs of the Verses of Chu . " Fu on the Owl " , besides being the earliest known fu , is unusual in the author 's extended use of philosophical reflection upon his own situation in life .
Emperor Wu of Han ascended the throne in 141 BC , and his 54 @-@ year reign is considered the golden age of " grand fu " ( Chinese : 大賦 ; pinyin : dàfù ) . Emperor Wu summoned famous fu writers to the imperial court in Chang 'an , where many of them composed and presented fu to the entire court . The earliest grand fu of Emperor Wu 's reign is " Seven Stimuli " ( Qī fā 七發 ) , by Mei Sheng ( 枚乘 ; d . 140 BC ) . In " Seven Stimuli " , Mei Sheng acts as a Warring States @-@ style travelling orator who tries to cure a Chu prince of an illness caused by overindulgence in sensual pleasures by pushing his senses to their limits with his fu descriptions .
Of all the authors from the golden age of " grand fu " composition , Sima Xiangru is generally considered to be the greatest . A native of Chengdu , he was traditionally said to have been summoned to the imperial court after Emperor Wu happened to personally read his " Fu of Sir Vacuous " ( Zǐxū fù 子虛賦 ) , though this is almost certainly a story added later . After arriving in the capital around 136 BC , Sima Xiangru expanded his " Fu of Sir Vacuous " into his magnum opus , " Fu on the Imperial Park " ( Shànglín fù 上林賦 ) , generally considered the most famous fu of all . This work , whose original title was probably " Fu on the Excursion Hunt of the Son of Heaven " ( Tiānzǐ yóuliè fù 天子遊獵賦 ) , is a grand celebration of the Emperor 's personal hunting park east of Chang 'an , and is famed for its rich number of rare and difficult words and characters . If not for the survival of Chinese scholar Guo Pu 's early 4th century AD annotations to " Fu on the Imperial Park " , much of its ancient and esoteric terminology would now be unintelligible .
The grand fu of the Western Han dynasty were read and recited as celebrations of pure poetic delight , and were the first pieces of Chinese literature to fuse both unrestrained
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entertainment and moral admonitions together in single works . However , after the reign of Emperor Wu , his court culture began to be criticized as having placed undue emphasis on the grandiose language in fu and therefore having missed opportunities to encourage moral restraint . The most prominent critic of " grand fu " was the other great fu writer of the Han dynasty : Yang Xiong . As a youth , Yang was an admirer and imitator of Sima Xiangru 's fu , but later came to disapprove of grand fu . Yang believed that the original purpose of fu was to " indirectly admonish " ( fèng 諷 ) , but that the extended rhetorical arguments and complex vocabulary used in grand fu caused their hearers and readers to marvel at their aesthetic beauty while missing their moral messages . Yang juxtaposed early Han dynasty fu with the fu @-@ like expositions in the Classic of Poetry , saying that while those in the Poetry provided moral standards , the fu of the Han poets " led to excess " . While known as one of the fu masters of the Han dynasty , Yang 's fu are generally known for their focus on admonishing readers and listeners to uphold moral values .
= = = = Eastern Han = = = =
Two of the most famous fu writers of the Eastern Han period were the polymaths Zhang Heng and Cai Yong . Among Zhang Heng 's large corpus of writings are a significant number of fu poems , which are the first to have been written in the shorter style that became typical of post @-@ Han fu . Zhang 's earliest known fu is " Fu on the Hot Springs " ( Wēnquán fù 溫泉賦 ) , which describes the hot springs at Mount Li ( modern Huaqing Pool ) which famously later became a favorite of Imperial Concubine Yang during the Tang dynasty . " Fu on the Two Metropolises " ( Èr jīng fù 二京賦 ) is considered Zhang 's masterpiece . Zhang spent ten years gathering material for the fu , a response to an earlier fu by Ban Gu that is a poetic comparison between the two capitals of the Han dynasty : Luoyang and Chang 'an . Zhang 's fu is highly satirical and cleverly mocks many aspects of the Western Han period , including Emperor Wu himself The piece contains long passages colorfully describing life in the two capitals in great detail , including the entertainment areas .
Cai Yong , like Zhang Heng , was a prolific writer in addition to his mathematical , astronomical , and musical interests . In AD 159 , Cai was summoned to Chang 'an to perform on the Chinese zither for the imperial court , but became ill shortly before arriving and returned to his home . Cai composed a poetic record of his journey in " Fu on Recounting a Journey " ( Shù xíng fù 述行賦 ) , his most well @-@ known fu . In " Fu on Recounting a Journey " , Cai cites examples of treacherous and dishonest rulers and officials from Chinese history , then criticizes the eunuchs of the capital for similar crimes .
A number of fu writers from the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries AD became considered great fu poets , and were noted for their descriptions of the chaos and destruction following the collapse of the Han dynasty . Wang Can , who lived as a refugee in Chu following the assassination of Dong Zhuo in AD 192 , wrote a famous fu entitled " Fu on Climbing the Tower " ( Dènglóu fù 登樓賦 ) in which Wang movingly describes climbing a tower near Jingzhou and gazing longingly in the direction of his home in Luoyang . Poets often used subjects of descriptive fu poems to symbolize themselves , as in " Fu on the Parrot " ( Yīngwǔ fù 鸚鵡賦 ) , by Mi Heng , in which Mi uses a caged parrot as an allegory for a scholar whose talents go unrecognized and whose inability to control his tongue results in his captivity . During the Three Kingdoms period , the court of the warlord Cao Cao and his sons Cao Pi and Cao Zhi became a famous literary salon , and a number of fu poems from their court have survived to modern times .
= = = Six Dynasties = = =
During the Six Dynasties period ( 220 – 589 ) , fu remained a major part of contemporary poetry , although shi poetry was gradually increasing in popularity . Six Dynasties fu are generally much shorter and less extravagant than Han dynasty fu , likely due to a tradition of composing works entirely in parallel couplets that arose during the period . While lyrical fu and " fu on things " had been starkly different forms in the Han dynasty , after the 2nd century AD the distinction mostly disappeared . Although the extravagant fu style of the Han mostly disappeared , " fu on things " continued to be widely written .
Xie Lingyun is one of the best @-@ known poets of the entire Six Dynasties period , second only to Tao Yuanming . In contrast to his older contemporary Tao , Xie is known for the difficult language , dense allusions , and frequent parallelisms of his poetry . Xie 's greatest fu is " Fu on Dwelling in the Mountains " ( Shān jū fù 山居賦 ) , a Han @-@ style " grand fu " describing Xie 's personal estate that borrows its style from the famous " Fu on the Imperial Park " by Sima Xiangru . Like classical Han fu , the poem uses a large number of obscure and rare characters , but " Fu on Dwelling in the Mountains " is unique in that Xie included his own annotations to the poem , without which the poem would be nearly incomprehensible .
During the Liang dynasty ( 502 – 587 ) , fu continued to be a popular form of literature , though it began to merge with the popular five- and seven @-@ syllable poetry forms , which completely eclipsed fu during the Tang dynasty . Some fu pieces , such as Shen Yue 's " Fu on Dwelling in the Suburbs " ( Jiāo jū fù 郊居賦 ) — an homage to Xie Lingyun 's " Fu on Dwelling in the Mountains " — followed the traditional forms and subjects of classical fu , but an increasing number did not . " Fu on Lotus @-@ picking " ( Cǎi lián fù 採蓮賦 ) , by Xiao Gang ( later Emperor Jianwen of Liang ) , is a short , lyrical fu that mixes freely with popular lyric poetry , and portrayed southern China as a romantic land of pleasure and sensuality . Lotus @-@ picking was an activity traditionally associated with peasant women , but in the early 5th century became a popular topic in fu and poetry .
Yu Xin is generally considered the last great fu poet of Chinese history . Yu , like Yan Zhitui , was born in the south but forced to relocate to northern China after the south 's defeat , and spent the rest of his career writing of the loss of the south as a loss of an entire culture and way of life . Yu 's most famous piece is " Fu on Lamenting the South " ( Āi Jiāngnán fù 哀江南賦 ) , in which he describes his life 's experiences in the context of the larger context of the destruction of the south and its culture .
= = = Tang and Song dynasties = = =
The fu genre changed rapidly during the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) . During the early Tang , a new form of fu called " regulated fu " ( lǜfù 律賦 ) supplanted the original form . " Regulated fu " had strict rules of form and expression , and required the use of consistent rhymes throughout each piece . Additionally , rules were created to govern the arrangement of tones in each poem , as the introduction of Buddhist texts written in Sanskrit and Pali had stimulated the Chinese to methodical study of their own language and the identification of the four tones of Middle Chinese . Beginning in the Tang dynasty , these " regulated fu " were required for the composition sections of the imperial examinations . Tang writers added new topics to the traditional subjects of fu , such as purely moral topics or scenes from Chinese antiquity . The " parallel fu " ( piānfù 駢賦 ) was another variant of the fu developed in the Tang , and was only used for rhetorical compositions .
In 826 , Tang poet Du Mu 's poem " Fu on E @-@ pang Palace " ( Ēpáng gōng fù 阿房宫賦 ) laid the foundation for a new form of fu called " prose fu " ( wénfù 文賦 ) , in which prose is freely rhymed . This form of fu became the dominant fu form during the late Tang and the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) . By the 9th and 10th centuries , traditional fu had become mainly historical pursuits , and were largely read and copied because of their inclusion on the imperial examinations .
= = Topics = =
= = = " Fu on things " = = =
Between 130 – 100 BC , Emperor Wu greatly expanded China 's territory into Central Asia , northern Vietnam , and the Korean Peninsula through a series of military campaigns and invasions . As the expansion progressed , a large number of foreign plants , animals , goods , and rarities were brought to the imperial capital at Chang 'an . Throughout the Han dynasty , court officials and poets often composed special fu called " fu on things " ( yǒngwù fù 詠物賦 ) on these new and unusual things , in which they described and catalogued extensively . These " fu on things " became a major genre in fu poetry , and cover a vast number of instruments , objects , and phenomena .
Ban Zhao , one of the most famous female poets of Chinese history , wrote a well @-@ known fu during the reign of Emperor He of Han entitled " Fu on the Great Bird " ( Dà què fù 大雀賦 ) , believed to be a description of an ostrich brought to the Han court from Parthia around AD 110 . Scholar Ma Rong wrote two well @-@ known fu on ancient board games : his " Fu on Chaupar " ( Chūpú fù 樗蒲賦 ) , which the Chinese believed to actually have been invented by Laozi after he departed west out of China , and his " Fu on Encirclement Chess " ( Wěiqí fù 圍棋賦 ) , one of the earliest known descriptions of the game Go . Han dynasty librarian Wang Yi , best known as the compiler of the received version of the Verses of Chu , wrote several object @-@ description fu in the early 2nd century AD , such as " Fu on the Lychee " ( Lìzhī fù 荔枝賦 ) , the earliest known poetic description of the lychee fruit .
The literary salon of Cao Pi 's court produced a number of notable " fu on things " in which a group of poets known as the Seven Masters of the Jian 'an period each composed their own version of the fu . During this period , Cao Pi was once presented with a large agate of unusual quality which Cao had made into a bridle . Each of the men composed their own " Fu on the Agate Bridle " ( Mǎnǎo lè fù 瑪瑙勒賦 ) for the occasion . Another object @-@ description fu from the Cao court is " Fu on the Musāragalva Bowl " ( Chēqú wǎn fù 硨磲碗賦 ) , which was a bowl made of a coral- or shell @-@ like substance from somewhere near India , which was then known as the " Western Regions " .
One of poet Shu Xi 's ( 束皙 ; AD 263 – 302 ) fu has become well known in the history of Chinese cuisine : his " Fu on Pasta " ( Bǐng fù 餅賦 ) is an encyclopedic description of a wide variety of dough @-@ based foods , including noodles , steamed buns , and dumplings , which had not yet become the traditional Chinese foods they are in modern times . Western Jin poet Fu Xian 's " Fu on Paper " ( Zhǐ fù 紙賦 ) is well known as an early description of writing paper , which had only been invented about 150 years earlier .
= = = Sociopolitical protest = = =
Part of the legacy associated with the fu is its use as a form of sociopolitical protest , such as the theme of the loyal minister who has been unjustly exiled by the ruler or those in power at the court , rather than receiving the promotion and respect which he truly deserves . In the Verses of Chu , one of the works attributed to Qu Yuan is the " Li Sao " , which is one of the earliest known works in this tradition , both as ancestral to the fu as well as its incorporation of political criticism as a theme of poetry . The theme of unjust exile is related to the development of Xiaoxiang poetry , or the poetry stylistically or thematically based upon lamenting the unjust exile of the poet , either directly , or allegorically through the use of the persona of a friend or historical figure ( a safer course in the case of a poet @-@ official who might be punished for any too blatant criticism of the current emperor ) . During the Han Dynasty , along with the development of the fu stylistically , the idea that it incorporate political criticism through indirection and allegory also developed . Han Dynasty historian and author Ban Gu in his Book of Han pointedly refers to a fu by Qu Yuan as a literary example of the use of the theme of the loyal minister who has been unjustly exiled , rather than receiving the promotion and respect which he truly deserves . As Hellmut Wilhelm puts it : " ... the Han fu can easily be classified into a limited number of types . All types have one feature in common : almost without exception they can be and have been interpreted as voicing criticism — either of the ruler , the ruler 's behavior , or certain political acts or plans of the ruler ; or of the court officials or the ruler 's favorites ; or , generally , of the lack of discrimination in the employment of officials . The few examples that are positive in tone recommend the authors or their peers for employment , or even contain specific political suggestions . In short , almost all fu have a political purport , and , in addition , almost all of them deal with the relationship between the ruler and his officials . " Seen in context , Ban Gu 's discussion of Qu Yuan and the Chu sao style is less to the point of the actual evolutionary path of the fu and more to the point that the main purpose of the fu is political and social criticism through poetic indirection : thus , in fu , paradoxically , the " fantastic descriptions and an overflowing rhetoric ... can be reduced to ... restraint " , as the sociopolitical criticism which was key to the fu was constrained within a very subtle , elaborately indirect , occasional , and allusive mode .
= = Collections = =
Fu pieces comprise the first main category in the Wen Xuan ( Selections of Refined Literature ) , an early Chinese literary anthology which is still extant . The Selections collects all known fu pieces from the early Han dynasty to its compilation in the 6th century AD , during the Liang dynasty ; it has since been the traditional source for studying classical fu .
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries , during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor , scholar Chen Yuanlong ( 1652 – 1736 ) compiled a collection of all known fu extant in his day , publishing his collection in 1706 as Collection of Fu Through the Ages ( Lìdài fù huì 歷代賦彙 ) . Chen 's Collection in total contains 4 @,@ 155 fu .
= Tephrosia apollinea =
Tephrosia apollinea is a legume species , native to southwest Asia ( the Levant , Arabia , Socotra , Iran , Pakistan , northwestern India ) and northeast Africa ( Egypt , Sudan , Ethiopia , Eritrea , Djibouti , Somalia ) .
The leaflets of the plant are obovate @-@ oblong and equal @-@ sided , and of a silky texture . The fruits ( legumes ) are typically one to two inches ( 2 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 1 cm ) long and contain six or seven brownish seeds . The species typically grows in areas where the soils are relatively deep , especially in semi @-@ arid and wadi areas , and on terraces and slight inclines and hills .
Tephrosia apollinea is known to be toxic to goats . Although it has been used in Oman to treat bronchitis , cough , earache , nasal congestion and wounds and bone fractures , as of 1993 its wider impact on humans had not been assessed . It can be used to make indigo dyes , and the leaves and those of other plants are used to make hot drinks by the Bedouin in parts of Sinai and the Negev .
= = Description = =
The leaflets of the plant are obovate @-@ oblong , somewhat wedge @-@ shaped , equal @-@ sided , and of a silky texture . The mid @-@ rib is usually folded longitudinally , and they are characterized by parallel transverse veins . The fruits ( legumes ) are typically one to two inches long ( 2 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 1 cm ) and contain six or seven brownish seeds . The plant displays purple flowers during season ; they are described as their most attractive in the month of January . It typically grows to 45 – 50 cm in height , and can grow on mountains with an altitude of over 3000 ft . ( 914 m ) . Both diploid ( 22 chromosomes ) and tetraploid ( 44 chromosomes ) cytotypes have been reported .
The roots of Tephrosia apollinea are deep , penetrating soils to a depth of 3 metres or more , aiding the absorption of moisture from the soil . Moisture is stored in the cortex of the roots , which is protected by a thin periderm . Water storage in the cortex enables growth and reproduction during times of drought , which allow it to thrive in both arid and semi @-@ arid conditions and to survive during winter and summer months at times of low rainfall . The roots grow at a faster rate than the shoots themselves , and even at the early stage of the plant displaying a shoot the length of a cm , the roots may already be 30 cm or more in length .
A proposed 1993 treatment of T. apollinea as a subspecies of Tephrosia purpurea noted some regional variations , with plants in the Eastern Desert of Egypt possibly producing smaller pods , leaves , and leaflets , and plants from oases having densely pubescent spreading hairs . Among the features they described as differentiating the apollinea subspecies from the nominate purpurea subspecies were that apollinea has somewhat longer pods ( 3 @.@ 5 – 5 or sometimes 5 @.@ 5 cm , rather than 3 – 4 cm ) , a wider range in the quantity of seeds per pod ( generally 7 – 9 , as low as 3 , rather than generally 5 – 6 , or sometimes 7 ) , the pods being curved upwards rather than downwards , and leaflets having 9 rather than 7 lateral veins .
= = Taxonomy and names = =
The plant was initially named Galega apollinea by Alire Raffeneau Delile in 1813 , and moved to the genus Tephrosia by Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link in 1822 .
Its treatment as a subspecies of Tephrosia purpurea , called Tephrosia purpurea subsp. apollinea , was proposed by Hasnaa A. Hosni and Zeinab A. R. El @-@ Karemy in 1993 . This treatment has not been accepted by the databases The Plant List , International Legume Database & Information Service , or Tropicos . Hosni and El @-@ Karemy treated T. apollinea and T. purpurea as a single species after finding that their previous descriptions " agree in most of their characters and the distinction between typical forms is rather difficult ... " The full name with authorities under their revised classification is Tephrosia purpurea ( L. ) Pers. subsp. apollinea ( Delile ) Hosni & El @-@ Karemy .
In parts of southern Arabia the species carries the vernacular name of hailara , and it is also known as dhafra , dhawasi , omayye or nafal to Arabs , and written as رﮭﻔط in the Arabic language . In the Sinai area of Egypt it is referred to by the Bedouin as sanna or senna . It is also known as amioka in parts of Sudan . Due to its traditional use in making indigo dyes , Tephrosia apollinea has also been referred to as " Egyptian indigo " .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
The species is recorded in the northeast African nations of Djibouti , Egypt , Eritrea , Ethiopia , Somalia , and Sudan , the Western Asian nations of Iran , Israel , Jordan , Oman , Saudi Arabia , South Yemen , the United Arab Emirates , and Yemen ( including the Yemeni island of Socotra ) , and the South Asian nations of India and Pakistan . Within India , it is documented in the western states of Gujarat , Maharashtra , and Rajasthan .
The species , cited as a " leguminous desert forb " , typically grows in areas where the soils are relatively deep , especially in semi @-@ arid and wadi areas , and on terraces and slight inclines and hills . In Saudi Arabia it has been found scattered among species such as Zilla spinosa , Rhanterium epapposum , Astragalus spinosus , Gymnocarpos decandrum , Achillea fragrantissima and Halothamnus bottae on the edges of the slopes of desiccated lakes .
It has been well documented in sources in Egypt and Sudan . In 1866 the Pharmaceutical Journal stated that it was found as a contaminant in Alexandrian senna , being found in cultivated fields in the valleys to the east and south of Assouan , in the Elephantine Islands , opposite Assouan , along the Nile , and Edfou and Hermonthis . In Israel it grows in the Judean desert , the Dead Sea Valley , the Negev hills and Eilat .
In wadi areas of the Yemen it tends to grow on desert alluvial shrubland , and coexist with Fagonia indica , Cymbopogon schoenanthus and Boerhavia elegans . An example of Tephrosia apollinea was found by Harry St John Bridger Philby in 1936 at Raiyan , about 150 miles ( 240 km ) northeast of Sana 'a . In Socotra , an island off the coast of Yemen , it is typically found in the Croton shrubland of lowland plains at altitudes of between sea level and 100 metres on overgrazed soils , along with Cassia holsericea . In a 2000s analysis of vegetation in the woodlands of northern Socotra , the species was found to coexist with Achyranthus aspera , Ageratum conyzoides , Bidens chinensis , Forsskaolea viridis , Hibiscus vitifolius , Indigofera coerulea , Leucas urticifolia , Setaria adhaerens and Solanum incanum .
Tephrosia apollinea is also found in the United Arab Emirates and in Oman , where it inhabits the Jiddat al @-@ Harasis desert and dominates the beds of wadis in mountains such as Jebel Shams .
= = Toxicity = =
Tephrosia apollinea is cited as " unpalatable " , although the seeds of the plant are reportedly a favourite of sandgrouse inhabiting the scrub @-@ desert of northern Sudan , and the butterfly Colias croceus is known to feed on it . This has allowed it to colonize the landscape in parts of the Middle East which have been overgrazed , especially at lower altitudes .
The species is known to be toxic to goats ; a study published in the early 1980s revealed that 11 out of 12 goats died after 1 to 40 days of daily oral dosing of Tephrosia apollinea shoots ( fresh or dried ) , and that they displayed adverse reactions to ingesting it such as dyspnoea , weakness of the limbs and joints causing instability in movement , changes in fat composition , catarrhal enteritis , and hemorrhage in the heart , lungs , and intestinal mucosa . Rotenoids extracted from the seeds of the plant also caused complete mortality in Aphis craccivora , when applied at a concentration of 0 @.@ 1 % for 48 hours .
= = Uses = =
Tephrosia apollinea can be used to make indigo dyes . The species was noted to be commonly cultivated for this purpose in Nubia in the 1800s .
The plant is known for its medicinal properties and has significant anti @-@ bacterial properties ; the leaves and the root have been used to treat bronchitis , cough , earache , wounds and bone fractures by herbalists in countries like Oman . The ground leaves of Tephrosia apollinea are also inhaled to reduce nasal congestion , or boiled with water to make eardrops . Powdered bark can be mixed with water and poured into the ears of camels to alleviate ticks , and powdered leaves can be used as a paste in the treating of wounds . It can also be rubbed on limbs in conjunction with Fagonia indica and Ocomim basilicum to treat people affected with polio .
Although unpalatable when consumed raw , when boiled the leaves of Tephrosia apollinea and numerous other plants are used to make hot drinks by the Bedouin in parts of Sinai and the Negev . But herbal doctors in Oman warn that Tephrosia apollinea can be potentially harmful to humans , and as of 1993 it had not been fully analyzed chemically to assess the wider impact it could have on health .
= = Phytochemistry = =
When dried , the leaves of Tephrosia apollinea were found to contain 4 @.@ 4 % moisture , 21 @.@ 1 % of crude protein , 19 @.@ 8 % of crude fiber , and 10 @.@ 9 % of ash . A chemical analysis found that it contains rotenoids , isolflavones , flavanones , chalcones , and flavones , The chloroform extract of the aerial part of Tephrosia apollinea also revealed seven new 8 @-@ prenylated flavonoids , including tephroapollin A @-@ G ( 1 @-@ 7 ) .
In 2006 , researchers of Oman 's Sultan Qaboos University published their findings from a chemical investigation into the leaves in which they found it contained semiglabrin , semigalbrinol , and a new flavanone named apollineanin . One 2014 study revealed that pseudosemiglabrin extracted from the aerial parts of Tephrosia apollinea had an antiproliferative effect on cancer cell lines .
= Ontario Highway 420 =
King 's Highway 420 , commonly referred to as Highway 420 , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that connects the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) with downtown Niagara Falls . It continues east as a limited @-@ access expressway named Niagara Regional Road 420 to connect with the Rainbow Bridge international crossing between Canada and the United States over the Niagara River ; this was part of Highway 420 until 1998 . West of the QEW , the freeway ends at an at @-@ grade intersection with Montrose Road ( Niagara Regional Road 98 ) . The highway has a speed limit of 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) , making it the only 400 @-@ series highway to have a speed limit less than 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 mph ) for its entirety .
Originally constructed as a divided four lane road with two traffic circles , the route of Highway 420 formed part of the QEW between 1941 and 1972 before being assigned a unique route number . This took place during the reconstruction of the four lane divided highway into a freeway and the construction of the large interchange at the freeway 's western terminus . In 1998 , the section of Highway 420 east of Stanley Avenue was transferred to the responsibility of the Regional Municipality of Niagara and redesignated as Regional Road 420 .
= = Route description = =
At 3 @.@ 3 km ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) , Highway 420 is the shortest 400 @-@ series highway , travelling through Niagara Falls from Montrose Road to Stanley Avenue , on the outskirts of the city 's tourist district . East of Stanley Avenue ( Regional Road 102 ) the highway becomes Niagara Regional Road 420 and is known as Falls Avenue and Newman Hill on approach to the Rainbow Bridge . This portion was designated a part of Highway 420 until 2000 , when it was transferred to the City of Niagara Falls and the Regional Municipality of Niagara , although the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) still assists with the maintenance of it under a Connecting Link agreement . East of Drummond Road , Highway 420 features stylized light fixtures with the letters " ER " , which stand for Elizabeth Regina and are a tribute to The Queen Mother .
Highway 420 begins in the west at a signalized intersection with Montrose Road ( Regional Road 98 ) , west of which it continues as Watson Street through the residential neighbourhood of Greens Corners to Beaverdams Road ( Regional Road 53 ) . East of Montrose Road , the highway is a four lane roadway divided by a raised paved median , and passes north of a forest as it approaches a large interchange with the QEW . In addition to a parclo interchange that provides almost all directional movements , this four @-@ level stack interchange features two flyovers that arc from south to east as well as a four lane mainline that curves from north to east , directing most westbound Highway 420 traffic onto the Toronto @-@ bound QEW .
East of the QEW , Highway 420 encounters an interchange with Dorchester Road as both cross the Queenston @-@ Chippawa Power Canal . This interchange was originally a traffic circle that was removed in the early 1970s . The numerous lanes from the stack interchange to the west begin to converge between residential subdivisions east of Dorchester Road , gradually narrowing to four through lanes at the Drummond Road interchange . After passing beneath Portage Road , the route widens on approach to an at @-@ grade intersection with Stanley Avenue . This intersection is the eastern end of both the freeway segment of the route and the signed King 's Highway 420 ; east of Stanley Avenue the route is signed as Niagara Regional Road 420 and known as Falls Avenue .
Now separated by a landscaped median , the route progresses eastward , intersecting MacDonald Avenue and providing access to several residential / retail properties that adjoin the road . The route travels through a concrete trench and abruptly curves to the southeast as it passes beneath Victoria Avenue , with which there is a simple interchange . East of this point , the road was named Newman Hill until March 2012 . Palmer Avenue and Ontario Avenue overpass the route as it descends a hill towards the Niagara Gorge . At the bottom , the route curves to the southwest , where it provides access to the Rainbow Bridge border crossing into the United States as well as the tourist district of the city .
Due to its association with the number 420 in cannabis culture , Highway 420 is also the location for the annual Cannabis Conference and Protest , usually taking place sometime around April 20 . The event includes a march beginning near Niagara Falls and travelling to Highway 420 .
= = History = =
= = = Rainbow Bridge Approach = = =
The history of Highway 420 predates its designation by nearly 75 years , tied in with the crossing of the Niagara Gorge between the twin cities of Niagara Falls . The first level crossing between the two cities was the Honeymoon Bridge , constructed in 1898 . The 14 m ( 46 ft )
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against England . He was awarded the captaincy in 1889 , by which time he was playing at centre , and led Wales to their first Home Nations Championship and Triple Crown titles in 1893 ; that tournament 's match against England established Gould as a great player and captain . By the time Gould retired he was the most capped Welsh centre , a record he held until 1980 , with 25 caps in the position . He ended his international career against England on 9 January 1897 . The game , played in front of 17 @,@ 000 supporters at Rodney Parade , was Gould 's 18th as Wales captain – a record eventually broken by Ieuan Evans in 1994 .
Towards the end of his career , Gould was at the centre of a controversy known as the " Gould affair " that saw Wales withdraw from international rugby for a year . The controversy centred on the support of the Welsh Football Union ( WFU ) for a testimonial for Gould on his retirement . The English Rugby Football Union and International Rugby Football Board ( IRFB ) argued that the testimonial constituted professionalism – which they claimed breached the sport 's by @-@ laws . The WFU withdrew from the IRFB in protest , rejoining a year later under the IRFB @-@ imposed condition that Gould would not represent Wales again . He worked as a brewery representative after retiring from rugby , and died of an internal haemorrhage in 1919 at the age of 54 .
= = Family and early years = =
Arthur Joseph Gould was born into a sporting family in Newport , Monmouthshire , on 10 October 1864 to Joseph and Elizabeth . His father , from Oxford , England , moved to Newport to find work , setting up his own brass foundry business . Joseph was also an ardent sportsman , playing for the local cricket team .
Gould 's five brothers were all notable rugby players and athletes . His brother Bob was a forward who played 136 times for Newport Rugby Football Club , whom he captained in the 1886 – 87 season . Bob was also capped 11 times for Wales between 1882 and 1887 , and captained his country once , versus Scotland in 1887 . A younger brother , Bert , was a centre who played three times for Wales – he appeared with Gould in the Welsh team that won the Triple Crown for the first time in 1893 . His other brothers – Harry , Gus and Wyatt – all played rugby for Newport . Wyatt captained Newport in 1905 – 06 , and Harry played for them in their inaugural season of 1875 – 76 . For the first 29 seasons of its existence , Newport RFC always had at least one of the Gould brothers in the team . Wyatt played for the club until 1907 ; he also ran the 400 m hurdles for Great Britain in the 1908 Summer Olympics .
The young Gould often climbed trees , and thus acquired the childhood nickname " Monkey " , which was soon contracted by most to " Monk " . Like his brother Wyatt , he was a keen athlete and made £ 1 @,@ 000 during his years as a rugby player by entering track and field meets . A county champion sprinter and hurdler , Gould finished third in the Amateur Athletic Association 120 @-@ yard hurdles in 1887 and 1893 .
= = Rugby career = =
= = = Club and county history = = =
At the age of 14 Gould captained the Newport Junior team , and later played a few games for the Third XV . Gould was drafted into the First XV – the senior team – as a fullback at the age of 18 . On 18 November 1882 Newport had a home fixture against Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare at Rodney Parade . The Newport groundsman , John Butcher , had been sent by the club to collect the regular fullback who had not appeared for the game . Gould , who was returning from a youth match , saw Butcher outside the missing fullback 's home and approached the groundsman to discover that the player was at a funeral . Butcher offered Gould the position instead , and then the groundsman successfully persuaded the club captain to play him . Gould ran in two of his team 's three tries after disregarding the instructions of his captain , Charlie Newman , who kept shouting for Gould to " Kick , kick ! " After this , he was not dropped by Newport until his retirement in 1898 .
As rugby was then an exclusively amateur sport , Gould and his brother Bob travelled Britain working as public works contractors . During this time he entered open athletic meets and played for various English rugby teams including the Southampton Trojans , and from 1887 was a regular member of the London side Richmond . In 1885 Gould was invited to play for the newly formed Welsh exiles team London Welsh . London Scottish F.C. had been founded for Scottish players working or studying in the city , but until this time a London club for Welsh players had not existed . The side 's first game , a trial match , was played on 21 October 1885 at Putney , and three days later the first team played London Scottish at the Saracens ' Palmerston Road ground in Walthamstow . Gould played at half @-@ back , and was joined in the team by Martyn Jordan , Thomas Judson , Rowley Thomas , Charles Taylor and T. Williams – all past or future Welsh internationals . During the 1885 – 86 season London Welsh were invited to form a combined " exiles " team with London Scottish , to face a London XV in a charity match at The Oval . Gould was one of six Welsh players selected to play in front of a crowd of 8 @,@ 000 that included the Prince of Wales .
In the 1885 – 86 season he was moved up to play as a threequarter for Newport . As he was frequently travelling and playing in England between 1885 and 1890 , Gould was not a regular member of the team . After playing just a handful games during the three seasons preceding it , in the 1889 – 90 season he managed 15 games for the club – scoring ten tries and five dropped goals .
In June 1890 Gould left Britain to complete a works contract in the West Indies , but returned to Newport in time for the 1891 – 92 season . Newport were unbeaten throughout that campaign , which was later dubbed their " invincible " season . Gould captained Newport between 1893 – 94 , when the team lost only three games , and in the 1894 – 95 season , in which the club lost only to Llanelli . During his first period as captain , 1893 – 94 , Gould scored 37 tries in 24 games , a club record that still stands as of 2013 . Although records before 1886 are incomplete , Newport RFC acknowledge Gould 's scoring record at the club between the 1882 – 83 and 1898 – 99 seasons as 159 tries , 66 conversions , 61 dropped goals and a single penalty , over 231 appearances .
Gould also turned out for the Middlesex county side , and was a mainstay during their " invincible " season of 1887 – 88 . He also played for them against the New Zealand Native team in 1888 . The match , hosted by the Earl of Sheffield , was an invitation only event . The Middlesex side won 9 – 0 , and scored three tries in the match , the second one resulting from a smart pass by Gould . In addition to Gould , the Middlesex backline of the time regularly fielded a number of English and Scottish internationals – this earned the side the sarcastic nickname " the Imperial team " .
= = = International career = = =
= = = = 1885 – 89 = = = =
Gould was first capped for Wales against England in the opening game of the 1885 Home Nations Championship . He joined his brother Bob in the side , and played at fullback , his preferred position at the time . Played under the captaincy of Newport team @-@ mate Charlie Newman , this was Wales ' eighth @-@ ever international and fourth encounter with England . The Welsh lost by a goal and a try to a goal and four tries . Wing Martyn Jordan of London Welsh scored both Welsh tries , with one successfully converted into a goal . Some accounts award the conversion to Charles Taylor , though it is now generally credited to Gould . Gould was selected for the second game of the tournament , an away draw to Scotland , in which both teams played a pair of brothers ; George and Richard Maitland for Scotland , and Arthur and Bob Gould for Wales .
By 1886 the four threequarter system had spread throughout Wales . First instituted by Cardiff RFC in 1884 , the system was designed to allow Cardiff centres Frank Hancock and Tom Williams to play at the same time , and involved dropping the ninth forward to include a second centre . Newport were reluctant to adopt this style of play , mainly due to Gould 's excellent kicking and covering abilities , which allowed the club to continue with the advantage of the extra forward .
For the 1885 – 86 season Gould switched from fullback at Newport to the centre position ; this tactic was adopted by Wales and Gould replaced Cardiff 's Hancock at centre for their first match of the 1886 Home Nations Championship against England . The match resulted in a Welsh loss . In Wales ' next game , against Scotland , Wales became the first country to trial the four threequarter system . They did this by bringing back Hancock as captain and having him play at centre alongside Gould . The experiment was a tactical disaster – the eight Welsh forwards struggled against the nine Scottish forwards . Hancock duly regrouped the team at half @-@ time and readopted the standard formation , bringing Harry Bowen from fullback into the pack , and pushing Gould from centre into Bowen 's vacant position . Wales lost by two goals to nil , the system was deemed a failure and Hancock never represented Wales again . The whole affair had a negative effect on Gould , who initially disliked the strategy , stating that he was " prejudiced against the four three @-@ quarters . " Gould even went as far as persuading the Welsh selectors to revert to the old formation . The next time Wales trialled the system was in the 1888 encounter with the touring New Zealand Natives , a match in which Gould was unavailable to play .
In the next season , Wales completed their first full Home Nations Championship ; Gould played as the lone centre in all three games . It was a fairly successful Championship for the Welsh , with a draw , a win and a loss , leaving them second in the table . Of note during the series was Bob Gould 's captaincy in the second match , against Scotland , and Gould 's first ever international dropped goal – which gave Wales a win over Ireland and made up for him missing a dropped goal by just a yard in their draw against England . Due to work commitments , Gould only played one of the two Wales games of the 1888 Home Nations Championship , in the country 's first victory over Scotland , thanks to a single try from Thomas Pryce @-@ Jenkins . In the second game , played away to Ireland , George Bowen was given the centre position in the last match Wales would play with a three threequarter system . Gould then missed the first Welsh international against an overseas touring side , when the New Zealand Natives were beaten at St. Helen 's in Swansea , and was still absent two months later for the opening game of the 1889 Championship . Gould returned in time for the clash with Ireland where he was given the captaincy and played alongside Llanelli centre Tom Morgan . Gould lost his first match as captain , losing by two tries to nil at home – this was the first of 18 caps he earned leading his country .
= = = = 1890 – 93 = = = =
Gould appeared in Wales ' three matches of the 1890 Home Nations Championship where he partnered Dickie Garrett , a coal tipper who played for Penarth , at centre . Gould lost the team captaincy for the first match to Frank Hill , a game which Wales lost to Scotland 5 – 1 , though Gould did score his first international try . The game is also notable for featuring the first appearance of Billy Bancroft , the Swansea all @-@ round sportsman who would take over the captaincy from Gould on his retirement . Bancroft was fullback in Gould 's next 18 international games . Gould regained the captaincy for the next game , an encounter with England at Crown Flatt in Dewsbury , and from that point held the captaincy whenever he represented Wales . The encounter was an historic day for Wales , with the country 's first win over England , a single try from Buller Stadden giving Wales the victory . The campaign ended in a disappointing away draw with Ireland , which saw the introduction of Tom Graham , a Newport forward who would become Gould 's club captain during the 1891 – 92 " invincible " season .
Gould missed the entire 1891 campaign as he and his brother Bob had travelled to the West Indies to conduct civil engineering work . Gould regained his international place and the captaincy on his return for the 1892 Home Nations Championship . The tournament was a failure for Wales ; the team lost all three of their matches . There was little consistency for Gould at centre , with three different centre @-@ pairings in each of the matches ; Garrett against England , Conway Rees at home to Scotland and in the Irish encounter , Gould 's younger brother Bert . The 1892 Championship was soured by the aftermath of the Wales – Scotland encounter , which was played in Swansea at St. Helen 's . After Wales lost the game 7 – 2 , members of the crowd , angered by Jack Hodgson 's refereeing of the game , attacked him . The assailants by @-@ passed the police and the referee had to be rescued by members of the Welsh team . In the struggle , Gould was struck on the chin , and it was reported that Hodgson only reached the Mackworth Hotel because Gould accompanied him on the coach .
The Welsh performance during the 1893 Home Nations Championship was in stark contrast to the previous year . Under the captaincy of Gould , Wales not only won the Championship for the first time , but also the Triple Crown . The first match of the campaign was against England , and played at the Cardiff Arms Park . The pitch had been kept from freezing over the night before by 500 braziers dispersed across the playing field . This led to a slippery ground , with play further hampered by a strong wind .
The English played the first half with the wind behind them and their nine @-@ man scrum dominated the smaller Welsh pack . At half time Wales were 7 – 0 down following tries from Frederick Lohden and Howard Marshall and a conversion from England captain Andrew Stoddart . The second half started poorly for Wales when Marshall scored a second try following excellent English forward pressure . The game turned not long after : the English forwards could not maintain the pace they had set in the first half of the game , and began to slow . Then Welsh forward Charles Nicholl broke through a line @-@ out with the ball , transferred it to Hannan , who passed to Gould at the half way line . Gould evaded both Alderson and Lockwood before outpacing Edwin Field to score beneath the posts . Bancroft converted . A near identical move resulted in Conway Rees then releasing Cardiff wing Norman Biggs who scored with a run from the half @-@ way line , though this time the conversion missed .
The Welsh backs repeatedly exposed the three threequarter system used by the English , as once the Welsh backs broke through the pack there was little defensive @-@ cover to prevent run away scores . With the score at 9 – 7 to England , Marshall extended the lead with his third try of the match . This gave England an 11 – 7 lead with only ten minutes remaining . The game swung again when Percy Phillips received ball quickly before passing to Gould . Gould broke through the English defence and scored , though again Bancroft missed the conversion . With further Welsh pressure , a penalty was awarded to Wales on the English 25 @-@ yard line , but at a wide angle . Accounts differ as to what happened ; some say that Gould tried to place the ball for Bancroft , but failed on the frozen ground , another states that Bancroft defied his captain to take the penalty as a drop kick , while other accounts mention Bancroft and Gould arguing on the pitch before Bancroft 's attempt . Regardless , Bancroft kicked the penalty , the first penalty to be scored in an international match . It was the final score of the game and Wales were victorious , 12 – 11 .
At the final whistle the pitch was invaded by Welsh fans and Gould was carried shoulder @-@ high back to the Angel Hotel , cheered all the way . It was a defining moment for the Welsh style of play . England adopted the four threequarter system the following year .
Gould continued to captain the Wales team through victory over Scotland , with tries coming from Bert Gould , Biggs and William McCutcheon ; all the result of precision handling from the backs . This left the final encounter with Ireland , played at Stradey Park in Llanelli , as the deciding match for a Welsh Triple Crown . Despite an unconvincing Welsh display , an enthusiastic crowd of 20 @,@ 000 watched their country win the game and with it the title , decided by a single try from Bert Gould .
= = = = 1894 – 97 = = = =
The 1894 Championship began with a loss for the defending champions against England , during a game in which Welsh in @-@ fighting affected the result . Before the game , Gould instructed his forwards to heel the ball from the scrums swiftly , so it would get to the backs quickly and allow them to run at the English . Frank Hill decided that this was the wrong option and put all his might into wheeling the scrums instead , which worked against the efforts of Jim Hannan , who was trying to follow his captain 's wishes . In the next match Gould was partnered by Dai Fitzgerald in a win over Scotland , but was unavailable for the encounter with Ireland and was replaced by Jack Elliott from Cardiff RFC .
By 1895 the only backs remaining from the 1893 Championship @-@ winning team were Bancroft and Gould . Gould was now partnered with Owen Badger , who kept his place for the whole campaign . As the other teams adopted the Welsh style of play , Wales lost their advantage ; the livelier English forwards outplayed their Welsh counterparts to give England victory in the opening game of the 1895 Championship . This was followed by a close loss to Scotland at Raeburn Place and then a narrow win over Ireland at the Cardiff Arms Park .
1896 was Gould 's last full international tournament . The Championship started badly for Wales with a heavy defeat by England , during which Wales were reduced to 14 men after Badger broke his collar @-@ bone in the first 15 minutes . In the second game Wales beat Scotland 6 – 0 , with a try each for Gould and Cliff Bowen . The final game of the Championship was an away loss to Ireland , in which Gould scored his last international points with a dropped goal . At the end of 1896 Gould decided to retire from rugby .
In 1897 , Gould was enticed out of retirement for one last Championship . By now Gould was a household name throughout Britain , as much due to his personality and good looks as his brilliant centre play ; a testimonial fund had been started with contributions being made by the public . This caused a stir among the other Home Unions , who viewed this as an effort to pay Gould for playing , which would constitute professionalism . As the arguments continued , Gould played his final international game , a solid 11 – 0 win over England in early January . Wales played no further matches that season after the events behind Gould 's testimonial fund caused Wales to leave the International Rugby Football Board ( IRFB ) , in a situation now referred to as the " Gould affair " .
= = = = Matches played = = = =
= = Gould affair = =
By 1896 Gould had played more first class matches , scored more tries and dropped more goals than any other player on record . This led to South Wales Argus journalist W. J. Townsend Collins , to write in the paper : " ... as Arthur Gould is as pre @-@ eminent in football as W. G. Grace is in cricket , the footballing enthusiasts of Wales might recognise his services to the game ... by some national testimonial . "
A Welsh shipbroker , W. J. Orders , organised a collection fund on the floor of the Cardiff Coal Exchange and floated a public testimonial of one shilling . The national response was considerable and within weeks the total was into hundreds of pounds . This drew the Welsh Football Union ( WFU ) into a confrontation with the IRFB , as rule 2 on professionalism stated that no player was allowed to receive money from his club , or any member of his club , for services rendered to football . The fund could have been seen as a professional fee to Gould , henceforth making him ineligible to play for his country . The WFU argued that the money raised was not given by the club , but rather an outpouring of thanks from the Welsh public to a national hero .
By April 1896 the Welsh Football Union had sanctioned a subscription of 1 @,@ 000 shillings to be contributed to the Gould testimonial . The Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) complained and the IRFB reacted by informing the WFU that only a plate up to the value of a hundred pounds sterling could be given to Gould , and that the remaining funds should be donated to charity ; otherwise Wales would lose their international fixtures . The WFU stood down and withdrew their subscription . The reaction in Wales was one of anger , with the people feeling that the WFU had bowed to English pressure , and had been bullied into a decision against the people 's wishes .
In a move that was described as an act of hurt pride by social historian David Smith , but also as a manoeuvre to appease the Welsh supporters , in February 1897 the WFU wrote to the IRFB and withdrew their membership . The WFU claimed that they alone had authority over the matter because the IRFB did not have any rules regarding amateurism . The WFU then reinstated their subscription to Gould , and on Easter Monday 1897 a banquet was arranged at Drill Hall in Newport in Gould 's honour . Many civic and sporting worthies were in attendance to witness the WFU president Sir John Llewellyn present Gould with the title deeds of a gift house . The 250 guests , including David A. Thomas , were joined by a reed and string orchestra , the band of the Fourth Battalion of the South Wales Borderers , and galleries packed by members of the public .
Wales did not field an international team until the IRFB , supported by the RFU , recommended that the WFU be readmitted into the organisation in February 1898 . The WFU agreed that they would in future abide by all IRFB by @-@ laws , and that Gould not be allowed to play in any future internationals . Gould accepted the ruling but returned to rugby as a referee and Welsh international selector . The compromise prevented a long term split in the sport , and by 1901 the IRFB added laws to the game banning professionalism to clarify their authority on the issue .
= = Later life and legacy = =
After retiring from rugby , Gould became a brewery representative around Newport . He was still a very popular figure and was followed during his work by fans ; his image was still worth money , appearing on merchandise such as cigarette cards and matchboxes .
Gould died in 1919 , at the age of 54 . Falling ill at work on 2 January , he was rushed home where he died later that day of an internal haemorrhage . His funeral was reported as the biggest ever seen in Wales up to that time ; it was surpassed three decades later by that of the former British Prime Minister David Lloyd George . Gould was buried at St Woolos Cemetery , Newport . In reporting his death , The Times stated :
To him more than anyone else is due the rise of Welsh football , and so football as we know it now . He did more than any one else to transform a game from one in which brute force and individual skill were the chief characteristics to one in which scientific combination became the main feature , without the sacrifice of individualism .
In 1923 a memorial fund was raised in Gould 's name , the donations of which were given to the Royal Gwent Hospital in Newport . The hospital recognised the gift with the Arthur Gould Memorial Bed , inscribed : " To the memory of Arthur Gould – Greatest of Rugby Football Players " . The bed was lost , however , when a portion of the hospital was demolished . Donations for the memorial , which totalled £ 1 @,@ 525 , were received from all over the world , and several matches were staged to raise funds , including a fixture between Newport and Cardiff .
Gould has been described as the first superstar of his sport by rugby historian Terry Godwin while David Smith in the Official History of the Welsh Rugby Union described him as the first player to surpass national recognition , becoming in both meanings of the word " an international " . The Welsh Academy 's Encyclopedia of Wales , published over 90 years after his death , records Gould as " Welsh rugby 's first superstar " , while a 1919 obituary described him as " the most accomplished player of his generation " . He set several long @-@ standing records for his country , including captaining Wales 18 times , a number eventually surpassed by Ieuan Evans in 1994 . Gould played 25 matches at centre for Wales , a record that stood until beaten by Steve Fenwick in 1980 . He was also the most capped Welsh player , with 27 , at the time of his retirement .
Gould was inducted into the Welsh Sports Hall of Fame in June 2007 ; members of Gould 's family were in attendance including his granddaughter Mary Hales . When Newport RFC set up their own hall of fame in 2012 the first person inaugurated was Gould .
= Majungasaurus =
Majungasaurus ( / məˌdʒʌŋɡəˈsɔːrəs / ; " Mahajanga lizard " ) is a genus of abelisaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in Madagascar from 70 to 66 million years ago , at the end of the Cretaceous Period . The genus contains a single species , Majungasaurus crenatissimus . This dinosaur was briefly called Majungatholus , a name which is now considered a junior synonym of Majungasaurus .
Like other abelisaurids , Majungasaurus was a bipedal predator with a short snout . Although the forelimbs are not completely known , they were very short , while the hind limbs were longer and very stocky . It can be distinguished from other abelisaurids by its wider skull , the very rough texture and thickened bone on the top of its snout , and the single rounded horn on the roof of its skull , which was originally mistaken for the dome of a pachycephalosaur . It also had more teeth in both upper and lower jaws than most abelisaurids .
Known from several well @-@ preserved skulls and abundant skeletal material , Majungasaurus has recently become one of the best @-@ studied theropod dinosaurs from the Southern Hemisphere . It appears to be most closely related to abelisaurids from India rather than South America or continental Africa , a fact that has important biogeographical implications . Majungasaurus was the apex predator in its ecosystem , mainly preying on sauropods like Rapetosaurus , and is also one of the few dinosaurs for which there is direct evidence of cannibalism .
= = Description = =
Majungasaurus was a medium @-@ sized theropod that typically measured 6 – 7 meters ( 20 – 23 ft ) in length , including its tail . Fragmentary remains of larger individuals indicate that some adults reached lengths of more than 8 meters ( 26 ft ) . Sampson and Witmer estimated an average weight for an adult Majungasaurus of 1 @,@ 100 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 400 lb ) . The specimen they based it on ( FMNH PR 2100 ) was not the largest one discovered . Larger specimens of Majungasaurus crenatissimus could have been similar in size to its relative Carnotaurus , which has been estimated to weigh 1 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) .
The skull of Majungasaurus is exceptionally well @-@ known compared to most theropods and generally similar to that of other abelisaurids . Like other abelisaurid skulls , its length was proportionally short for its height , although not as short as in Carnotaurus . The skulls of large individuals measured 60 – 70 centimeters ( 24 – 28 in ) long . The tall premaxilla ( frontmost upper jaw bone ) , which made the tip of the snout very blunt , was also typical of the family . However , the skull of Majungasaurus was markedly wider than in other abelisaurids . All abelisaurids had a rough , sculptured texture on the outside faces of the skull bones , and Majungasaurus was no exception . This was carried to an extreme on the nasal bones of Majungasaurus , which were extremely thick and fused together , with a low central ridge running along the half of the bone closest to the nostrils . A distinctive dome @-@ like horn protruded from the fused frontal bones on top of the skull as well . In life , these structures would have been covered with some sort of integument , possibly made of keratin . Computed tomography ( CT scanning ) of the skull shows that both the nasal structure and the frontal horn contained hollow sinus cavities , perhaps to reduce weight . The teeth were typical of abelisaurids in having short crowns , although Majungasaurus bore seventeen teeth in both the maxilla of the upper jaw and the dentary of the lower jaw , more than in any other abelisaurid except Rugops .
The postcranial skeleton of Majungasaurus closely resembles those of Carnotaurus and Aucasaurus , the only other abelisaurid genera for which complete skeletal material is known . Majungasaurus was bipedal , with a long tail to balance out the head and torso , putting the center of gravity over the hips . Although the cervical ( neck ) vertebrae had numerous cavities and excavations ( pleurocoels ) to reduce their weight , they were robust , with exaggerated muscle attachment sites and ribs that interlocked for strength . Ossified tendons attached to the cervical ribs , giving them a forked appearance , as seen in Carnotaurus . All of these features resulted in a very strong and muscular neck . Uniquely , the cervical ribs of Majungasaurus had long depressions along the sides for weight reduction . The humerus ( upper arm bone ) was short and curved , closely resembling those of Aucasaurus and Carnotaurus . Also like related dinosaurs , Majungasaurus had very short forelimbs with four extremely reduced digits , first reported with only two very short external fingers and no claws . The hand and finger bones of Majungasaurus , like other majungasaurines , lacked the characteristic pits and grooves where claws and tendons would normally attach , and its finger bones were fused together , indicating that the hand was immobile . In 2012 , a better specimen was described , showing that the lower arm was robust , though short , and that the hand contained four metatarsals and four , probably inflexible and very reduced , fingers , with small claws on the second and third finger . The phalanx formula was 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 @-@ 0 .
Like other abelisaurids , the hindlimbs were stocky and short compared to body length . The tibia ( lower leg bone ) of Majungasaurus was even stockier than that of its relative Carnotaurus , with a prominent crest on the knee . The astragalus and calcaneum ( ankle bones ) were fused together , and the feet bore three functional digits , with a smaller first digit that did not contact the ground .
= = Classification and systematics = =
Majungasaurus is classified as a member of the theropod clade Abelisauridae , which is considered a family in Linnaean taxonomy . Along with the family Noasauridae , abelisaurids are included in the superfamily Abelisauroidea , which is in turn a subdivision of the infraorder Ceratosauria . Abelisaurids are known for their tall skulls with blunt snouts , extensive sculpturing on the outer surfaces of the facial bones ( convergent with carcharodontosaurids ) , very reduced ( atrophied ) forelimbs ( convergent with tyrannosaurids ) , and stocky hindlimb proportions , among other features .
As with many dinosaur families , the systematics ( evolutionary relationships ) within the family Abelisauridae are confused . Several cladistic studies have indicated that Majungasaurus shares a close relationship with Carnotaurus from South America , while others were unable to firmly place it in the phylogeny . The most recent analysis , using the most complete information , instead recovered Majungasaurus in a clade with Rajasaurus and Indosaurus from India , but excluding South American genera like Carnotaurus , Ilokelesia , Ekrixinatosaurus , Aucasaurus and Abelisaurus , as well as Rugops from mainland Africa . This leaves open the possibility of separate clades of abelisaurids in western and eastern Gondwana .
A cladogram by Tortosa et al . 2013 places Majungasaurus in a new subfamily , Majungasaurinae . A simplified version showing the taxa within the group is shown below .
= = Discovery and naming = =
French paleontologist Charles Depéret described the first theropod remains from northwestern Madagascar in 1896 . These included two teeth , a claw , and some vertebrae discovered along the Betsiboka River by a French army officer and deposited in the collection of what is now the Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 . Dep
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Khalid al @-@ Qasri wrote to al @-@ Kilabi , urging him to proceed with it until his replacement , Khalid 's brother Asad , arrived in Khurasan . Nevertheless , 4 @,@ 000 troops from the Yemeni Azd tribe withdrew from the army .
Al @-@ Kilabi led his army along the Jaxartes valley to Ferghana , and laid siege to it while devastating the surrounding countryside . At this point , the Umayyad army became aware that the Turgesh khagan Suluk was advancing against them with a stronger army . Abandoning their advance , the Muslim army retreated so hastily towards the south that it was claimed they covered a distance in one day that equalled three days of normal travel . On the second day , after the Arabs crossed the river Wadi al @-@ Subuh , the Turgesh army caught up with them , and attacked a secondary camp pitched by Abdallah ibn Abi Abdallah separately from the main Arab force . The Arabs and their Sogdian allies suffered heavy casualties — the brother of the ruler of Samarkand , Ghurak , being among the slain — but managed to repel the attack .
The Arabs continued their retreat for eight more days , during which they were constantly harassed by the Turgesh cavalry . On the ninth day , the Arabs reached the Jaxartes only to find their path blocked by their enemies , troops of the native principalities of Shash and Farghana , and the remnants of the Sogdian rebellion Sa 'id al @-@ Harashi had suppressed . The Arabs made camp for the night and burned all their baggage , allegedly worth one million dirhams , in preparation for battle . On the next day , despite suffering from thirst and being hemmed in between the Turgesh on their rear and the Transoxianian forces in front , the desperate Arabs managed to break through the enemy lines and cross the Jaxartes . As al @-@ Tabari writes , when they reached the relative safety of Khujand , " suffering from hunger and exhaustion , the troops spread out in disorder " . There , the leadership of the army was formally transferred to Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Na 'im al @-@ Ghamidi , who led the remnants of the army back to Samarkand .
= = Aftermath and impact = =
The defeat of the Arab army , and the casualties suffered , was a catalyst for the almost complete collapse of Muslim rule in Transoxiana over the next few years . In the words of the British scholar H.A.R. Gibb , " it was practically the last aggressive expedition of the Arabs into Transoxania for fifteen years , but of much greater importance was the blow which it struck at Arab prestige . The roles were reversed ; from now onwards the Arabs found themselves on the defensive and were gradually ousted from almost every district across the Oxus . " The new Umayyad governor , Asad al @-@ Qasri , campaigned incessantly over the next few years , but without achieving any major result . Asad also tried to secure the cooperation of the local elites by abolishing for a time the payment of taxes by the native converts ( mawali ) , but this policy was opposed by the Khurasani Arabs themselves , and was reversed by Asad 's successor Ashras ibn Abdallah al @-@ Sulami . This led to a general uprising of Transoxiana in 728 , and with Turgesh military aid the Arabs were evicted from almost the entire region . Transoxiana thereafter remained contested , and the Arabs did not recover their previous position until the campaigns of Nasr ibn Sayyar in 739 – 741 , who took advantage of the collapse of the Turgesh khaganate into civil wars after the murder of Suluk in 738 .
= Louis H. Carpenter =
Louis Henry Carpenter ( February 11 , 1839 – January 21 , 1916 ) was a United States Army brigadier general and a recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions in the American Indian Wars .
He dropped out of college to enlist in the Union Army at the beginning of the American Civil War in 1861 , first as an enlisted soldier before being commissioned as an officer the following year . During the American Civil War , he participated in at least fourteen campaigns primarily with the 6th U.S. Cavalry Regiment and as regimental commander of the 5th U.S. Colored Cavalry Regiment . By the end of the Civil War , he held the rank of brevet lieutenant colonel , colonel of volunteers and also received a commission to first lieutenant in the Regular United States Army .
Carpenter received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Indian Wars while serving with the Buffalo Soldiers of the 10th U.S. Cavalry . He was noted several times for gallantry in official dispatches .
After the Civil War and until his transfer back East in 1887 , he served primarily on the western frontier . He engaged many Native American tribes , dealt with many types of renegades and explored vast areas of uncharted territory from Texas to Arizona . During the Spanish – American War , he commanded an occupation force and became the first military governor of Puerto Principe , Cuba . After 38 continuous years of service to his country , he retired from the Army on October 19 , 1899 , as a brigadier general . After his retirement , he became a speaker and a writer .
= = Early life and family = =
Louis H. Carpenter was a direct descendant ( great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandson ) of the notable immigrant Samuel Carpenter ( November 4 , 1649 Horsham , Sussex , England – April 10 , 1714 Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ) , who came to America in early 1683 by way of Barbados .
The eldest son of eight children born to Edward Carpenter 2nd and Anna Maria ( Mary ) Howey , Carpenter was born in Glassboro , New Jersey . In 1843 , his family moved to Philadelphia where they attended Trinity Episcopal Church in West Philadelphia . L. Henry Carpenter attended A. B. Central High School in Philadelphia in 1856 and started attending Student University of Pennsylvania in 1859 .
His younger brother , James Edward Carpenter , served in the Union army as a private in the Eighth Pennsylvania Cavalry and later was commissioned a second lieutenant . He later became a first lieutenant , captain then a brevet major of volunteers .
= = Military service = =
= = = American Civil War = = =
In July 1861 , during his junior year , Carpenter dropped out of Dickinson College and joined the " The Fighting Sixth " Cavalry Regiment . He became a private in the Union Army which later became known as the Army of the Potomac . Carpenter was trained as an infantry soldier who was capable of riding a horse to the battlefield and as a mounted scout . As a " horse soldier " , Carpenter and others like him had a steep learning curve that proved difficult and frustrating during the first year of the conflict . He participated in the Peninsula Campaign and chased the audacious Jeb Stuart 's Cavalry that went completely around the Union Army ( June 13 – 15 , 1862 ) . This caused great psychological concerns to the Union cavalry commanders and men . The " horse soldiers " were a far second best compared to the dashing Confederate cavalry .
Rapid expansion of the Union Cavalry in the East was chaotic . At the beginning of the Civil War , officers were elected by the men or appointed politically . This resulted in many misguided and inept commanders . The tools and techniques of pre @-@ war cavalry often seemed inadequate , resulting in a steep learning curve that was costly in men and supplies . Slowly out the chaos came the tactics and leaders who proved worthy of the challenge . Union " horse soldiers " became cavalry troopers under this tough regimen and proved adept , dismounted and mounted on horseback , with their carbines , pistols , sabers and confident under their battle @-@ proven leaders .
After the Seven Days Battles ( June 25 to July 1 , 1862 ) , Carpenter was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Regular Army , 6th U. S. Cavalry , on July 17 , 1862 , for meritorious actions and leadership .
= = = = Gettysburg Campaign = = = =
The Gettysburg Campaign was a series of engagements before and after the Battle of Gettysburg . To better understand Carpenter 's role within the military organization , the following brief is provided . For more details , see Gettysburg Union order of battle .
The Army of the Potomac was initially under Major General Joseph Hooker then under Major General George G. Meade on June 28 , 1863 .
The Cavalry Corps was commanded by Major General Alfred Pleasonton , with divisions commanded by Brigadier Generals John Buford , David McM . Gregg , and H. Judson Kilpatrick .
The following list is the 6th US Cavalry Regiment 's documented battles and engagements of June and July 1863 which Carpenter participated . These battle were pivotal for Carpenter . He was a company commander until July 3 then acting executive officer of his regiment after that .
Beverly Ford , Virginia , June 9 , at the Battle of Brandy Station . The 6th was under Buford 's right wing .
Benton 's Mill , Virginia , June 17 , an engagement near Middleburg .
Middleburg , Virginia , June 21 , at the Battle of Middleburg .
Upperville , Virginia , June 21 , at the Battle of Upperville .
Fairfield , Pennsylvania , July 3 , at the Battle of Fairfield .
Williamsport , Maryland , July 6 , an engagement .
Funkstown , Maryland , July 7 , a small engagement .
Boonesboro , Maryland , July 8 and 9 , at the Battle of Boonesboro .
Funkstown , Maryland , July 10 , at the Battle of Funkstown .
= = = = = Battle of Brandy Station = = = = =
On June 9 , 1863 , opposing cavalry forces met at Brandy Station , near Culpeper , Virginia . The 9 @,@ 500 Confederate cavalrymen under Major General J.E.B. Stuart were surprised at dawn by Major General Alfred Pleasonton 's combined arms force of two cavalry divisions of some 8 @,@ 000 cavalry troops ( including the 6th U.S. Cavalry Regiment and Carpenter with his Company H ) and 3 @,@ 000 infantry . Stuart barely repulsed the Union attack and required more time to reorganize and rearm . This inconclusive battle was the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the Civil War to that time . This battle proved for the first time that the Union horse soldiers , like Carpenter , were equal to their Southern counterparts .
= = = = = Battle of Fairfield = = = = =
On July 3 , 1863 , reports of a slow moving Confederate wagon train in the vicinity of Fairfield , Pennsylvania , attracted the attention of newly commissioned Union Brigadier General Wesley Merritt of the Reserve Brigade , First Division , Cavalry Corps . He ordered the 6th U.S. Cavalry under Major Samuel H. Starr to scout Fairfield and locate the wagons , resulting in the Battle of Fairfield .
Carpenter 's next action was with Major Starr on July 3 , 1863 . Starr had his 400 troopers dismount in a field and an orchard on both sides of the road near Fairfield . Union troopers directed by their officers took up hasty defensive positions on this slight ridge . Carpenter 's troops and others threw back a mounted charge of the 7th Virginia Cavalry , just as the Confederate Chew 's Battery unlimbered and opened fire on the Federal cavalrymen . Supported by the 6th Virginia Cavalry , the 7th Virginia charged again , clearing Starr 's force off the ridge and inflicting heavy losses . General " Grumble " Jones , outnumbering the Union forces by more than 2 to 1 , pursued the retreating Federals for three miles to the Fairfield Gap , but was unable to eliminate his quarry . Major Starr who was wounded in the first attack was unable to escape and was captured . Small groups of the 6th Cavalry , " ... reformed several miles from the field of action by Lt. Louis H. Carpenter , " harassed the Virginia troopers giving the impression of the vanguard of a much larger force . Carpenter became then became the acting executive officer of the Regiment .
Carpenter , in this fight with others of his small regiment at Fairfield , stood against two of the crack brigades of Stuart 's cavalry . The 6th Cavalry 's stand was considered one of the most gallant in its history and helped influence the outcome the battles being fought around Gettysburg . While the 6th Cavalry regiment was cut to pieces , it fought so well that its squadrons were regarded as the advance of a large body of troops . The senior officer of those brigades was later criticized severely for being delayed by such an inferior force . Had the 6th Cavalry regiment not made their stand , the two brigades of Virginians could have caused serious problems to the Union rear areas .
Lieutenant Carpenter , of Troop H , was one of only three officers of the 6th U.S. Cavalry to escape from the deadly melee at Fairfield on July 3 , 1863 . Private George Crawford Platt , later Sergeant , an Irish immigrant serving in Carpenter 's Troop H , received the Medal of Honor on July 12 , 1895 , for his actions that day at Fairfield . His citation reads , " Seized the regimental flag upon the death of the standard bearer in a hand @-@ to @-@ hand fight and prevented it from falling into the hands of the enemy . " His " commander " , as an eyewitness , documented Private Platt 's " beyond the call of duty " behavior that day . Carpenter was brevetted from second lieutenant to first lieutenant for his gallant and meritorious conduct for his actions at Fairfield . During this time period , he was mentioned in official reports and dispatches .
= = = = Overland Campaign = = = =
On April 5 , 1864 , Major General Philip Sheridan was appointed to command the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac under the newly promoted general @-@ in @-@ chief Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant . Carpenter became his Aide @-@ de @-@ camp similar to today 's executive assistant known then as a Field & Staff ( F & S ) officer to the Cavalry Corps . It is unknown how much of an influence Carpenter had on Sheridan on the concept of deploying Union cavalry to become more effective and independent in roles such as long @-@ range raids . Carpenter 's treatise on " The Battle of Yellow Tavern " suggests that he had some influence on what was later called the Richmond or Sheridan 's Raid .
On May 8 , 1864 , at the beginning of the Overland Campaign , Sheridan went over his immediate superior , Major General Meade 's head and told Grant that if his Cavalry Corps were let loose to operate as an independent unit , he could defeat Confederate Major General J.E.B. Stuart . " Jeb " Stuart was the most prominent and able cavalry officer of the south . Grant was intrigued and convinced Meade of the value of Sheridan 's request .
The May 1864 Battle of Yellow Tavern was the first of four major so called strategic raids . The others being the Trevilian in June 1864 , the Wilson @-@ Kautz in late June , and the First Deep Bottom in July 1864 . Of all of these , only the Battle of Yellow Tavern can be considered a clear Union victory . The defeat and resulting death of " Jeb " Stuart made this clear during the first raid . At best , the follow @-@ up raids diverted Confederate forces required to deal with them from where they were needed elsewhere . Despite what Carpenter and other supporters of Sheridan have written , further raids of this caliber were less than successful . And these raids may have even hindered the Union effort by the lack of reconnaissance and intelligence Sheridan could have otherwise provided . How long Carpenter served with Sheridan is not currently known . Carpenter is not mentioned in Sheridan 's personal memoirs or other major books on Sheridan . Brevet Lieutenant Colonel Carpenter was promoted to first lieutenant in the Regular Army on September 28 , 1864 . He was then transferred the District of Kentucky , Department of Ohio and accepted a commission to lieutenant colonel of volunteers with the United States colored Troops .
= = = = 5th U.S. Colored Cavalry = = = =
Lieutenant Colonel of Volunteers L. Henry Carpenter arrived at Camp Nelson , Kentucky on October 1 , 1864 . The majority of 600 " colored " slaves , ex @-@ slaves and freedmen of what would become the 5th United States Colored Cavalry ( USCC ) were absent . The men were then in the field being led by Lieutenant Colonel James S. Brisbin under Brevet Major General Stephen G. Burbridge preparing for an attack on Saltville , Virginia . The 5th USCC would not be officially organized until October 24 , 1864 .
= = = = = First Battle of Saltville = = = = =
In late September 1864 , Burbridge led a raid into southwest Virginia against the salt works near the town of Saltville , Virginia as part of the Battle of Saltville on October 1 , 1864 . Burbridge controversially led white troops and some 600 mostly untrained black troops into that battle and , despite outstanding effort by the " coloured troops , " the raid ultimately failed . Burbridge quickly retreated the next day . Wounded troops ( black and white ) were left behind on the field of battle . By October 3 , an unknown number of surrendered and wounded Union soldiers were killed by Confederate regular , home guard and irregular soldiers , with special ire directed toward the black troops . To many this was a war crime and Champ Ferguson , a captain of partisan rangers , was later found guilty of murdering 53 white and black soldiers at the Battle of Saltville , and on October 20 , 1865 , he was hanged until dead . Ferguson and Henry Wirz were the only two Confederate soldiers during the Civil War tried for war crimes .
Union forces en route back to Camp Nelson had a brief engagement on October 21 , 1864 at Harrodsburg , Kentucky . A few days later , Carpenter faced the defeated but defiant Union troops as they returned to Camp Nelson in October . The reports of " Black Flag " behavior toward the " colored troops " and their white officers frightened many men . And it was widely reported in the press both North and South .
= = = = = Problems = = = = =
Carpenter became the executive officer of the 5th USCC in charge of training and getting the African @-@ American recruits ready for combat . Basic drill , weapon training and conditioning helped build confidence and preparedness . Carpenter faced another serious problem . Non @-@ commissioned officers were to be chosen from the ranks and with almost an entire regiment of recent ex @-@ slaves , Carpenter found it difficult to find men literate enough to handle the tasks assigned to sergeants . " Scarcely any of the Colored men enlisted into this regiment can read or write , " wrote Carpenter , to Captain O. Bates Dickson in a letter .
Carpenter 's solution , which was granted by his superiors , involved placing literate white non @-@ commissioned officers among the " colored sergeants . " This combined with a literacy program for African @-@ American NCOs corrected the problem in time .
Another problem was the rifles issued to the 5th USCC . These were muzzle loaded Enfield infantry rifles unsuited for mounted use because they could not be loaded on horseback . Carpenter taught tactics that involved dismounted fighting , going back to the concept of " mounted infantry " who dismounted to fight .
A final problem was white officers promoted from the ranks who were " unsuited " to command " colored troops . " Despite efforts of training by Carpenter and others , attrition was the only real solution for these junior officers .
= = = = = Stoneman ’ s 1864 Winter Raid = = = = =
In December 1864 , General George Stoneman ordered the 5th USCC to participate in a raid from East Tennessee into southwestern Virginia . This resulted in engagements that involved the 5th USCC at Hopkinsville , Kentucky on December 12 , Kingsport , Tennessee on December 13 , the Battle of Marion near Marion , Virginia on December 17 & 18 , and the second Battle of Saltville on December 20 & 21 near Saltville , Virginia . All were considered Union victories .
During the Battle of Marion , Division Commander Stephen G. Burbridge ordered the 5th USCC between two white units on the left flank of the Union line . Lieutenant Colonel James S. Brisbin and his second in command , Carpenter , led their dismounted soldiers forward toward the Confederate defensive works . The Confederates opened heavy fire upon the advancing Union troops that included four ten pound Parrott rifled cannons . The first Union charge wavered and fell back . Carpenter was seen giving clear orders to reform and rallied his men . With a mighty yell the 5th USCC rushed forward toward the breastworks but could not break the defensive line . Carpenter ordered the men to dig in and night fell . Volunteers went out between lines to rescue the wounded .
On December 18 , the morning was cold and rainy with a light fog . The second day began as a copy of the first with multiple Union charges . The Union center was able to breach the center of the Confederate breatworks but were pushed out by a Rebel counterattack . Carpenter led a mounted rescue force of colored soldiers to save white soldiers trapped near a cover bridge on the left flank . Carpenter made several attempts but could not rescue the soldiers . Most of those trapped soldiers would be captured later that afternoon , but released before giving their parole . Later that day the Confederate reinforcements delivered a wild rebel yelling charge on the Union left flank . The white unit adjacent to the 5th USCC was completely routed and the 5th USCC flank was threatened . Ordered to fall back , Carpenter and Brisbin tried to maintain an orderly retreat . Many " colored soldiers " remembering the murder of their comrades during the first battle of Saltville broke ranks to rescue their wounded comrades . The retreat threatened to become a rout . About 4 PM , Union reinforcements arrived and bolstered the Union line . During the night , Confederate forces were forced to retire due to the lack of ammunition . The next day Union forces buried the dead and helped the wounded . The costly victory marked the highpoint of Stoneman 's raid .
On the afternoon of December 20 , Union forces attacked Saltville , Virginia . Confederate forces were overwhelmed when the 5th & 6th USCC entered the fray with a cold vengeance . Outnumbered Confederate forces retreated and awaited promised reinforcements . Union forces hastily attempted to destroy the vital salt works . They destroyed about one third of the boiling kettles and most evaporating sheds . They also damaged portions of the Virginia & Tennessee railroad . But they failed to destroy or damage the actual salt wells . General Stoneman claimed a victory and retreated out of Virginia before Confederate forces could completely surround him . Carpenter 's role is strangely missing from letters and other documents that simply note that he was there . Within three months , the saltworks were back in full production . Carpenter later wrote a long letter home about this battle and how his men responded .
= = = = = Ambush at Simpsonville = = = = =
On January 23 , 1865 , 80 " colored " troops of Company E , 5th US Colored Cavalry , under command of 2nd Lieutenant Augustus Flint , were assigned to move almost a thousand head of cattle from Camp Nelson to the stock yard at Louisville , Kentucky . The men were mostly assigned to the front and rear of the spread out herd of cattle . About 41 men were bringing up the rear on January 25 near Simpsonville , when they were ambushed by Confederate guerrillas . Very few of the Union troops were able to fire their muzzle @-@ loaded Enfield infantry rifles , due to fouled powder . The guerrillas were armed with 6 @-@ shot revolvers , and most carried two or more . As Confederates quickly closed the distance , almost all of the " colored soldiers " bringing up the rear were wounded or dismounted . Only two escaped harm , one by playing dead , and the other hiding under an overturned wagon box . The forward group panicked and fled .
About an hour after the ambush , local citizens found 15 dead and 20 wounded soldiers stretched out on and near the road . Four more soldiers were later found dead of wounds or of exposure nearby . The men of Simpsonville took 20 wounded men back to town , 8 of the men so severely wounded they were not expected to live . A total of six soldiers died en route or in Louisville . Later it was determined that 19 Union soldiers had been murdered trying to surrender or after being disarmed . The remainder of the Union wounded were left to die in the freezing cold . Three soldiers remained missing in the final accounting . Flint , who was in town during the ambush , fled to Louisville . Authorities telegraphed Camp Nelson , and Carpenter immediately ordered ambulances , and a heavy escort was mounted . They arrived on scene on October 28 and took the surviving wounded to a hospital in Louisville . Locals reported what had happened and the boasts of the Confederate guerrillas , led by Captain Dick Taylor , who had murdered or shot many of the Union soldiers after they had been captured . The mass grave was located , and an effort was made to find the missing men . Carpenter wrote a report and documented the names of the known guerrillas and encouraged a hunt and their prosecution .
= = = = = Command of the 5th USCC = = = = =
In mid February 1865 , Colonel James F. Wade regimental commander of the 6th USCC was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers and moved to Division duties . A reorganization of command of 5th & 6th USCC resulted . Brevet Lieutenant Colonel James S. Brisbin of the 5th USCC took over the 6th USCC and Carpenter took command of the 5th USCC Regiment . The 5th USCC regiment was attached to the 1st Division , District of Kentucky , Department of Ohio until February 1865 . The regiment subsequently served under the Military District of Kentucky until December 1865 and the Department of Arkansas until March 20 , 1866 . During this later period of time the regiment performed scattered garrison duties and reportedly hunted rebel renegades .
= = = = End of the Civil War = = = =
Through the course of the Civil War , Carpenter served in at least 14 campaigns and over 150 battles related to them from the 1861 Peninsula Campaign , the 1862 Maryland Campaign , Campaign at Fredericksburg , the 1863 Gettysburg Campaign , Chancellorsville ( in Stoneman ’ s raid to the rear of Lee ’ s army ) , the 1864 The Wilderness and final battles in Kentucky and south @-@ West Virginia .
= = = = = Reconstruction = = = = =
After the fighting stopped and Reconstruction began , Carpenter did not go with the 6th Cavalry to Texas in October 1865 , as reported in some historical sketches . Carpenter stayed in Arkansas with the 5th USCC until March 1866 .
There was little or no fighting during the state of martial law imposed while the military closely supervised local government , enrolled freemen to vote , excluded former Confederate leaders for a period of time , supervised free elections , and tried to protect office holders and freedmen from the Ku Klux Klan and early versions of the White League violence . Carpenter and his men did face a low level of civil hostility and violence during this uneasy transition period by trying to keep the peace . Many former rebels resented occupation by " colored " soldiers . Carpenter saw this ugly racism daily and did his best to maintain the peace . Carpenter was promoted colonel of volunteers on November 2 , 1865 .
= = = = = Battles of the 5th USCC = = = = =
Summary of battles of the 5th USCC . All except the October 2 & 21 , 1864 battles had Carpenter present in the command structure .
1864
October 2 – Saltville , Virginia – Battle of Saltville I
October 21 – Harrodsburg , Kentucky – an engagement
December 12 – Hopkinsville , Kentucky – an engagement
December 13 – Kingsport , Tennessee ( flanking movement & skirmishing )
December 17 – 18 , 1864 , Marion , Virginia – Battle of Marion
December 20 – 21 – Saltville , Virginia – Battle of Saltville II
1865
January 25 – Simpsonville , KY – an ambush
= = = = = Retirement of the 5th USCC = = = = =
The 5th USCC Regimental Commander , Colonel of Volunteers , L. Henry Carpenter , had his final regimental review on March 16 , 1866 in Helena , Arkansas . The names of 46 officers and men still listed officially as missing in action and presumed murdered between October 2 & 8 , 1864 were read for a final time to the regiment . Then most of the officers , including Carpenter , were honorably discharged by ceremony . Over the next four days the men were mustered out and the regiment was officially retired on March 20 , 1866 . Official losses from October 24 , 1864 to March 16 , 1866 were 35 killed in action and 152 died in service from disease , wounds and other causes . After mustering out , Carpenter reverted to his Regular Army rank of first lieutenant and returned home to Philadelphia on leave . After his leave he reported to the new 10th United States Cavalry Regiment .
= = = = = Loyal Legion = = = = =
On January 2 , 1867 , Carpenter was elected as a companion of the Pennsylvania Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States ( MOLLUS ) . He was assigned MOLLUS insignia number 433 .
= = = Indian Wars and frontier service = = =
= = = = 10th Cavalry Regiment – Buffalo Soldiers = = = =
After the Civil War , Carpenter was serving as a first lieutenant in the Regular U.S. Army and volunteered for cavalry duty with
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" Negro Troops " that were being raised . The 10th U.S. Cavalry was formed at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas in 1866 as an all African @-@ American regiment . By the end of July 1867 , eight companies of enlisted men had been recruited from the Departments of Missouri , Arkansas , and the Platte . Life at Leavenworth was not pleasant for the 10th Cavalry . The fort 's commander , who was openly opposed to African @-@ Americans serving in the Regular Army , made life for the new troops difficult . Benjamin Grierson sought to have his regiment transferred , and subsequently received orders moving the regiment to Fort Riley , Kansas . This began on the morning of August 6 , 1867 and was completed the next day in the afternoon of August 7 .
Carpenter accepted the rank of captain in the Regular Army on July 28 , 1866 and took command of the African American troops of " D " company , 10th U.S. Cavalry . The 10th U.S. Cavalry regiment was composed of black enlisted men and white officers , which was typical for that era . Carpenter was assigned to the newly formed Company H on July 21 , 1867 and served with these original " Buffalo Soldiers " for thirteen years of near continuous conflict with the Native Americans in the southwest United States . Carpenter was dispatched to Philadelphia to recruit non @-@ commissioned officers in late summer and fall of 1867 . His efforts contributed to the high level of veteran soldiers who became the core non @-@ commissioned officers of the 10th Cavalry .
Carpenter 's men respected him , and his company had the lowest documented desertion rate of the Regular Army during his charge . He was known as being fair , firm , and consistent . He learned , saw and understood , the hardships and racial bigotry his men faced . After his service with the 10th , he campaigned and defended what his Buffalo Soldiers had done and could do . His ability to train and lead was notable and set a standard for all cavalry units .
= = = = Battle of Beecher Island = = = =
On September 17 , 1868 , Lieutenant Colonel G. A. Forsyth with a mounted party of 48 white scouts , was attacked at dawn . Forsyth , seeing no viable route for retreat , made a stand on a sandbar in the river . He was attacked by a force of about 200 @-@ 300 Indian warriors on a sand island up the North Fork of the Republican River ; this action became the Battle of Beecher Island . The Indians were primarily Cheyenne , supported by members of the Arapaho tribe under the Cheyenne War Chief Roman Nose , who was killed during the battle . Forsyth dispatched Simpson " Jack " Stilwell and Pierre Trudeau to seek help from Fort Wallace , more than 60 miles ( 97 km ) away . They were both able to reach Fort Wallace where rescue plans were quickly made .
Three rescue parties went out on different routes to find the endangered party . The first , led by Lieutenant Colonel Carpenter in charge of Troop H & I of the 10th Cavalry Regiment , relieved Forsyth on September 25 . Forsyth had been shot in the thigh , breaking his leg , and in the forehead . He was not expected to survive another day .
= = = = Battle of Beaver Creek = = = =
On October 14 , 1868 , two weeks after Carpenter had returned to Fort Wallace with the survivors of Forsyth ’ s command , he was ordered out once again . Troops H and I of the 10th Cavalry sallied forth to escort Major Carr of the 5th Cavalry to his new command with supplies to Beaver Creek . Near there Carpenter 's supply train and command was attacked by a force of about 500 Indians with no sign of the 5th Cavalry present .
Carpenter , seeking a more defensive posture closer to Beaver Creek , advanced for a short period then circled the supply wagons in a defensible area . This was possible because his mounted troopers fought a mobile delaying action . On his command , Carpenter 's men rushed inside at the gallop . They dismounted and took up a defensive firing line at the gap between the wagons they had just entered .
On Carpenter 's command , several massive volleys of aimed Spencer repeating rifles hit the front waves of the mounted Indians . The volleys decimated them as if hit by cannon filled with musket balls . A number of warriors , dismounted and using their ponies as bullet breaks , returned fire . Nearly all of these warriors died along with their ponies . Only three warriors made it to within fifty yards of the wagons before their demise . The Indians were so traumatized and demoralized by Carpenter 's defense that they did not renew their attack .
Carpenter 's troopers then accomplished their primary task by sending out scouts to find the location of the 5th Cavalry . This was done without further incident and they arrived back to Fort Wallace on October 21 .
Carpenter 's command had traveled some 230 miles in a week , routed some 500 mounted Indians , delivered the needed supplies with the new commander of the 5th Cavalry and completed all as effectively and professionally as any other command could do . For their gallantry in this fight on Beaver Creek , the officers and men of the " Buffalo Soldiers " were thanked by General Sheridan in a general field order and in official dispatches to the War Department in Washington . Captain Carpenter was brevetted Colonel . " In 1898 , for his efforts in September and October 1868 , Carpenter became one of seven 10th Cavalry soldiers to be awarded the Medal of Honor during its service on the frontier .
= = = = Defense of the Wichita I = = = =
The 10th Regimental headquarters remained at Fort Gibson until March 31 , 1869 , when they moved to Camp Wichita , Indian Territory ( now the state of Oklahoma ) . They arrived on April 12 , 1869 . Camp Wichita was an old Indian village inhabited by the Wichita tribe on the Anadarko Reservation . General Sheridan had selected a site nearby for a military post and Carpenter with the rest of the 10th Cavalry was ordered there to establish and build it . Some time in the following month of August , the post was given the name of Fort Sill . Civil War Brigadier General Joshua W. Sill was a classmate and friend of Sheridan who was killed in action in 1862 .
On June 12 , 1869 , Camp Supply was attacked by a raiding party of Comanche intent on stealing cavalry mounts . The 3rd Infantry with Troops A & F of the 10th Cavalry pursued them , but were ambushed by the warriors . Carpenter with Troops H , I , & K flanked the Indians , forcing them to withdraw .
On August 22 & 23 , 1869 , Carpenter and other troopers became involved in a fierce attack by Kiowa and Naconee Indians , who were focused on destroying the buildings and settlement on the Anadarko Reservation . Carpenter , with Troops H and L , patrolled the area aggressively and engaged several groups of warriors who were setting prairie fires upwind of the settlement at different points . Further and increasingly violent assaults were made by the Native Americans , in numbers ranging from 50 to 500 at different points of the defensive lines . The decisive feature of the engagement was a charge made by Captain Carpenter 's troopers . His men routed a body of over 150 warriors , who were about to take up a commanding position in rear of other defenders . On June 5 , 1872 , the 10th left Fort Sill to elements of the 3rd Infantry and proceeded back to Fort Gibson .
= = = = Satank , Satanta and Big Tree = = = =
In May 1871 , Carpenter was involved in the capture and escort of the Kiowa warrior and medicine man Satank , along with the Kiowa War Chiefs Santana , and Big Tree at Fort Sill , Indian Territory , now in Oklahoma . General Sherman was present at the fort due to an inspection tour ; also present was Colonel Benjamin Grierson . These three Native American leaders were the first to be tried , for raids ( Warren Wagon Train Raid ) and murder , in a United States civil court instead of a military court . This would deny them any vestige of rights as prisoners of war by being tried as any common criminal in the Court of the Thirteenth Judicial District of Texas in Jacksboro , Texas near Fort Richardson .
The military leaders at the fort had been given written information from the Indian Agent regarding the killings during the raid . Plans were made to arrest the Indians involved . D Troop was hidden on foot behind the main office building . Carpenter had mounted troopers waiting nearby . Sherman and Grierson sat on the porch , reviewing the situation and waiting for the Indians to arrive . When the Indians came , they blatantly boasted of what they had done . After Sherman told the Indians they were under arrest , a signal was given and the dismounted troopers came forward with carbines and pistols in hand . Lone Wolf , supporting the Kiowa Chiefs , pulled a rifle out from under his blanket serape and pointed it at Sherman . Sherman , ready for any problem , quickly disarmed him before the trigger could be pulled . Big Tree made an attempt to escape but was quickly subdued by Carpenter 's mounted troopers . Sherman decided that these men were criminals to be tried in a civil court and Carpenter was told to get it done .
Carpenter faced many problems associated with this , including the possibility of the Indians being rescued by their followers or being lynched by angry settlers , during their transport to the civilian court . During transport , Satank hid himself under his red blanket in his wagon while he gnawed the base of his thumb to the bone . This allowed him to slip the manacle from his wrist while he sang his death chant . With a small hidden knife that was not found during two separate searches , he stabbed the driver ( who survived ) , both falling out of the wagon , grabbed a soldier 's unloaded carbine and was mortally wounded in his escape attempt .
The other two Kiowa were tried , found guilty , sentenced to death , had their sentences commuted to life and then paroled within a few years . They violated parole by raiding ; Satanta was sent to the Huntsville State Penitentiary in Texas where , in despair , he later killed himself . Big Tree , who presented witnesses to his non @-@ involvement , was returned to the reservation and accepted pacification . He lived on in the sadness of a warrior in exile . He later became a Christian and eventually , a minister in the Baptist church . The same Kiowa chief who had supervised the torture and burning of captives went about converting his own people to Christ . There were days , he would proudly recount his cruel acts against the white man , although it is faithfully recorded that he always concluded those tales with the solemn note that God had forgiven him for those " hideous " acts .
= = = = Defense of the Wichita II = = = =
In August 1874 , Carpenter became involved in fighting at Anadarko Reservation , Wichita , Indian Territory . This fighting is considered the first of many clashes during the Red River War ( 1874 – 75 ) . Carpenter , with Troops H & I was sent to support Fort Sill and by using aggressive patrols engaged several Kiowa and Comanche raiding parties . The relatively peaceful Wichita Indians on the reservation were targets of the hostile Indians because of their increasing positive status under pacification . The 10th were sent to Fort Concho in Texas where they were established on April 17 , 1875 . The exception was Carpenter 's troop stationed at Fort Davis as of May 1 , 1875 .
= = = = Victorio Campaign and map making = = = =
Carpenter became heavily involved in the Victorio Campaign of 1879 – 80 . Victorio was a warrior and chief of the Chihenne band of the Chiricahua Apaches . From January 12 , 1880 to May 12 , 1880 , Carpenter directed scouting missions into the isolated Chinati Mountains bordering the United States with Mexico . The surrounding area on the American side was the high desert of far West Texas . This is where Victorio and other Apaches had been making raids . These scouts helped provide the first reliable maps drawn in the areas of operation . Finding waterholes and mapping the area was a critical step in Victorio campaign . On May 12 , 1880 , when eight Apaches attacked a nearby wagon train . Captain Carpenter and H Company pursued the Apaches to the Rio Grande . There , under orders , Carpenter had to stop at the international border with Mexico .
= = = = = Rattlesnake Springs = = = = =
Colonel Grierson , commander of the 10th Cavalry , traversed the hot Chihuahuan Desert and then the narrow valleys of the Chinati Mountains , reaching Rattlesnake Springs on the morning of August 6 , 1880 . His cavalrymen and their mounts were worn down from the forced march of over 65 miles in 21 hours . After resting and getting water , Grierson carefully placed his men in ambush positions . Carpenter , with his two cavalry troops , arrived as reinforcements and were posted in reserve a short distance south of the spring . The cavalrymen settled down to wait as Indian scouts brushed away any sign of their presence .
A little after two o 'clock in the afternoon , Victorio and his Apaches slowly approached the springs . Victorio somehow sensed danger and halted his men . With the hostile Apaches in their sights appearing ready to bolt , the soldiers did not wait and opened fire on their own initiative ; Victorio 's men scattered and withdrew out of carbine range . Victorio 's people needed water and believing that there were only a few soldiers present , regrouped and attacked immediately . As the battle progressed , Victorio sent his warriors to flank the soldiers . Carpenter charged forward with Companies B and H and a few massed volleys from their carbines sent the hostiles scattering back up the canyon . Stunned by the presence of such a strong force but in desperate need of water , Victorio repeatedly charged the cavalrymen in attempts to reach the spring . Grierson 's cavalry defenders , now bolstered by Carpenter 's two companies , stood firm . The last such attempt to break the soldiers was conducted near nightfall and when it failed , Victorio and his followers withdrew into the westward into the mountains . Carpenter with his two companies remounted in pursuit until darkness halted the effort .
On August 7 , Carpenter , with Captain Nolan as second in command , and three companies of troopers headed out to Sulfur Springs to deny that source of water to the Apaches . In the early light of day , Victorio saw a string of wagons rounding a mountain spur to the southeast and about eight miles distant , crawling onto the plain . Victorio sent a band of warriors riding out of the mountains and attacked savagely . The wagons held a load of provisions for Fort Davis with a company of infantry riding in some of the wagons . The warriors were met with rifle fire , as the teamsters circled the wagons in defensive positions . Alerted by his Indian scouts , Carpenter and two companies charged to the rescue . The Apache attack disintegrated
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The German forces were able to communicate by radio during the battle and they could shift the point of the main effort unexpectedly . The Germans also practiced combined arms tactics , while the French tactical deployment was a rigid and linear leftover from the First World War . French tanks did not possess radios and often the commanders had to dismount to issue orders . Despite the disadvantages experienced by the Germans in armour , they were able to gain the upper hand in the morning battle on 12 May , encircling several French battalions . The combat power of the French 2e DLM managed to defeat the German defences guarding the pockets and freeing the trapped units . Contrary to German reports , the French were victorious on that first day , preventing a Wehrmacht break @-@ through to Gembloux or seizing Hannut . The result of the first day 's battle was :
The effect on the German light tanks was catastrophic . Virtually every French weapon from 25mm upward penetrated the 7 @-@ 13mm of the Panzer I. Although the Panzer II fared somewhat better , especially those that had been up @-@ armoured since the Polish Campaign , their losses were high . Such was the sheer frustration of the crews of these light Panzers in [ the ] face of heavier armoured French machines that some resorted to desperate expedients . One account speaks of a German Panzer commander attempting to climb on a Hotchkiss H @-@ 35 with a hammer , presumably to smash the machine 's periscopes , but falling off and being crushed by the tank 's tracks . Certainly by day 's end , Prioux had reason to claim that his tanks had come off best . The battlefield around Hannut was littered with knocked @-@ out tanks – the bulk of which were German Panzers – with by far and away the bulk of them being Panzer Is and IIs .
The following day , 13 May , the French were undone by their poor tactical deployment . They strung their armour out in a thin line between Hannut and Huy , leaving no defence in depth , which was the point of sending the French armour to the Gembloux gap in the first place . This left Hoepner with a chance to mass against one of the French Light Divisions ( the 3e DLM ) and achieve a breakthrough in that sector . Moreover , with no reserves behind the front , the French denied themselves the chance of a counterattack . The victory saw the Panzer Corps out @-@ manoeuvre the 2e DLM on its left flank . The Belgian III Corps , retreating from Liege , offered to support the French front held by the 3e DLM . This offer was rejected .
On 12 and 13 May , 2e DLM lost no AFVs , but the 3e DLM lost 30 SOMUAs and 75 Hotchkisses . The French had disabled 160 German tanks . But as the poor linear deployment had allowed the Germans the chance of breaking through in one spot , the entire battlefield had to be abandoned , the Germans repaired nearly three quarters of their tanks ; 49 were destroyed and 111 were repaired . They had 60 men killed and another 80 wounded . In terms of battlefield casualties , the Hannut battle had resulted in the French knocking @-@ out 160 German tanks , losing 105 themselves . Prioux had achieved his tactical mission and withdrew .
Hoepner now pursued the retreating French . Being impatient , he did not wait for his infantry divisions to catch up . Instead , he hoped to continue pushing the French back and not give them time to construct a coherent defence line . German formations pursued the enemy to Gembloux . The Panzer Corps ran into retreating French columns and inflicted heavy losses on them . The pursuit created severe problems for the French artillery . The combat was so closely fought that the danger of friendly fire incidents were very real . Nevertheless , the French , setting up new anti @-@ tank screens and Hoepner , lacking infantry support , caused the Germans to attack positions head @-@ on . During the following Battle of Gembloux the two Panzer Divisions reported heavy losses during 14 May and were forced to slow their pursuit . The German attempts to capture Gembloux were repulsed .
Although suffering numerous tactical reverses , operationally the Germans diverted the Allied First Army Group from the lower Ardennes area . In the process his forces , along with the Luftwaffe depleted Prioux ' Cavalry Corps . When news of the German breakthrough at Sedan reached Prioux , he withdrew from Gembloux . With the Gembloux gap breached , the German Panzer Corps , the 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions , were no longer required by Army Group B and were handed over to Army Group A. Army Group B would continue its own offensive to force the collapse of the Meuse front . The Army Group was in a position to advance westward to Mons , outflank the BEF and Belgian Army protecting the Dyle – Brussels sector , or turn south to outflank the French 9th Army . German losses had been heavy at Hannut and Gembloux . The 4th Panzer Division was down to 137 tanks on 16 May , including just four Panzer IVs . The 3rd Panzer Division was down by 20 – 25 percent of its operational force , while the 4th Panzer Division 45 – 50 percent of its tanks were not combat ready . Damaged tanks were quickly repaired , but its strength was initially greatly weakened . The French 1st Army had also taken a battering and despite winning several tactical defensive victories it was forced to retreat on 15 May owing to developments elsewhere , leaving its tanks on the battlefield , while the Germans were free to recover theirs .
= = = 15 – 21 May : Counterattacks and retreat to the coast = = =
On the morning of 15 May , German Army Group A broke the defences at Sedan and was now free to drive for the English Channel . The Allies considered a wholesale withdrawal from the Belgian trap . The withdrawal would reflect three stages : the night of 16 / 17 May to the River Senne , the night of 17 / 18 May to the river Dendre and the night of 18 / 19 May to the river Scheldt . The Belgians were reluctant to abandon Brussels and Leuven , especially as the Dyle line had withstood German pressure well . The Belgian Army , the BEF and the French 1st Army , in a domino effect , was ordered / forced to retire on 16 May to avoid their southern flanks from being turned by the German armoured forces advancing through the French Ardennes and the German 6th Army advancing through Gembloux . The Belgian Army was holding the German Fourteenth Army on the KW @-@ line , along with the French 7th and British armies . Had it not been for the collapse of the French 2nd Army at Sedan , the Belgians were confident that they could have checked the German advance .
The situation called for the French and British to abandon the Antwerp – Namur line and strong positions in favour of improvised positions behind the Scheldt , without facing any real resistance . In the South , General Deffontaine of the Belgian VII Corps retreated from the Namur and Liège regions , the Liège fortress region put up stiff resistance to the German 6th Army . In the North , the 7th Army was diverted to Antwerp after the surrender of the Dutch on 15 May , but was then diverted to support the French 1st Army . In the centre , the Belgian Army and the BEF suffered little German pressure . On 15 May , the only sector to really be tested was around Leuven , which was held by the British 3rd Division . The BEF was not pursued vigorously to the Scheldt .
After the withdrawal of the French Army from the northern sector , the Belgians were left to guard the fortified city of Antwerp . Four infantry divisions ( including the 13th and 17th Reserve Infantry Divisions ) engaged the German Eighteenth Army 's 208th , 225th and 526th Infantry Divisions . The Belgians successfully defended the northern part of the city , delaying the German infantry forces while starting to withdraw from Antwerp on 16 May . The city fell on 18 / 19 May after considerable Belgian resistance . On 18 May the Belgians received word that Namur 's Fort Marchovelette had fallen ; Suarlee fell on 19 May ; St. Heribert and Malonne on 21 May ; Dave , Maizeret and Andoy on 23 May .
Between 16 and 17 May , the British and French withdrew behind the Willebroek Canal , as the volume of Allied forces in Belgium fell and moved toward the German armoured thrust from the Ardennes . The Belgian I Corps and V Corps also retreated to what the Belgians called the Ghent bridgehead , behind the Dendre and Scheldt . The Belgian Artillery Corps and its infantry support defeated attacks by the Eighteenth Army 's infantry and in a communiqué from London , the British recognized the " Belgian Army has contributed largely toward the success of the defensive battle now being fought . Nevertheless , the now @-@ outnumbered Belgians abandoned Brussels and the Government fled to Ostend . The city was occupied by the German Army on 17 May . The very next morning , Hoepner , the German XVI Corps commander , was ordered to release the 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions to Army Group A. This left the 9th Panzer Division attached to the Eighteenth Army as the only armoured unit on the Belgian front .
By 19 May , the Germans were hours away from reaching the French Channel coast . Gort had discovered the French had neither plan nor reserves and little hope for stopping the German thrust to the channel . He was concerned that the French 1st Army on its southern flank had been reduced to a disorganized mass of " fag @-@ ends " , fearing that German armour might appear on their right flank at Arras or Péronne , striking for the channel ports at Calais or Boulogne or north west into the British flank . Their position in Belgium massively compromised , the BEF considered abandoning Belgium and retreating to Ostend , Bruges or Dunkirk , the latter lying some 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) inside the French border .
The proposals of a British strategic withdrawal from the continent was rejected by the War Cabinet and the Chief of the Imperial General Staff ( CIGS ) . They dispatched General Ironside to inform Gort of their decision and to order him to conduct an offensive to the south @-@ west " through all opposition " to reach the " main French forces " in the south [ the strongest French forces were actually in the north ] . The Belgian Army was asked to conform to the plan , or should they choose , the British Royal Navy would evacuate what units they could . The British cabinet decided that even if the " Somme offensive " was carried out successfully , some units may still need to be evacuated , and ordered Admiral Ramsay to assemble a large number of vessels . This was the beginning of Operation Dynamo . Ironside arrived at British General Headquarters at 06 : 00 am on 20 May , the same day that continental communications between the France and Belgium were cut . When Ironside made his proposals known to Gort , Gort replied such an attack was impossible . Seven of his nine divisions were engaged on the Scheldt and even if it was possible to withdraw them , it would create a gap between the Belgians and British which the enemy could exploit and encircle the former . The BEF had been marching and fighting for nine days and was now running short of ammunition . The main effort had to be made by the French to the south .
The Belgian position on any offensive move was made clear by Leopold III . As far as he was concerned , the Belgian Army could not conduct offensive operations as it lacked tanks and aircraft ; it existed solely for defence . The King also made clear that in the rapidly shrinking area of Belgium still free , there was only enough food for two weeks . Leopold did not expect the BEF to jeopardize its own position in order to keep contact with the Belgian Army , but he warned the British that if it persisted with the southern offensive the Belgians would be overstretched and their army would collapse . King Leopold suggested the best recourse was to establish a beach @-@ head covering Dunkirk and the Belgian channel ports . The will of the CIGS won out . Gort committed just two infantry battalions and the only armoured battalion in the BEF to the attack , which despite some initial tactical success , failed to break the German defensive line at the Battle of Arras on 21 May .
In the aftermath of this failure , the Belgians were asked to fall back to the Yser river and protect the Allied left flank and rear areas . The King 's aide , General Overstraten said that such a move could not be made and would lead to the Belgian Army disintegrating . Another plan for further offensives was suggested . The French requested the Belgians withdraw to the Leie and the British to the French frontier between Maulde and Halluin , the Belgians were then to extend their front to free further parts of the BEF for the attack . The French 1st Army would relieve two more divisions on the right flank . Leopold was reluctant to undertake such a move because it would abandon all but a small portion of Belgium . The Belgian Army was exhausted and it was an enormous technical task that would take too long to complete .
At this time , the Belgians and the British concluded that the French were beaten and the Allied Armies in the pocket on the Belgian – Franco border would be destroyed if action was not taken . The British , having lost confidence in their Allies , decided to look to the survival of the BEF .
= = = 22 – 28 May : Last defensive battles = = =
The Belgian battle @-@ front on the morning of 22 May extended some 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) from north to south , beginning with the Cavalry Corps , which checked its advance at Terneuzen . V , II , VI , VII and IV Corps ( all Belgian ) were drawn up side by side . Two further signal Corps were guarding the coast . These formations were then largely holding the eastern front as the BEF and French forces withdrew to the west to protect Dunkirk , which was vulnerable to German assault on 22 May . The eastern front remained intact , but the Belgians now occupied their last fortified position at Leie . The Belgian I Corps , with only two incomplete divisions , had been heavily engaged in the fighting and their line was wearing thin . On that day , Winston Churchill visited the front and pressed for the French and British Armies to break out from the north @-@ east . He assumed that the Belgian Cavalry Corps could support the offensives ' right flank . Churchill dispatched the following message to Gort :
1 . That the Belgian Army should withdraw to the line of the Yser and stand there , the sluices being opened .
2 . That the British Army and French 1st Army should attack south @-@ west toward Bapaume and Cambrai at the earliest moment , certainly tomorrow , with about eight divisions , and with the Belgian Cavalry Corps on the right of the British .
Such an order ignored the fact that the Belgian Army could not withdraw to the Yser , and there was little chance of any Belgian Cavalry joining in the attack . The plan for the Belgian withdrawal was sound ; the Yser river covered Dunkirk to the east and south , while the La Bassée Canal covered it from the west . The ring of the Yser also dramatically shorted the Belgian Army 's area of operations . Such a move would have abandoned Passchendaele and Ypres and would have certainly meant the capture of Ostend while further reducing the amount of Belgian territory still free by a few square miles . And it would have meant the loss of all Belgian ports to the east of the Yser , such as Zeebrugge and Ostend .
On 23 May , the French tried to conduct a series of offensives against the German defensive line
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on the Ardennes – Calais axis but failed to make any meaningful gains . Meanwhile , on the Belgian front , the Belgians , under pressure , retreated further , and the Germans captured Terneuzen and Ghent that day . The Belgians also had trouble moving the oil , food and ammunition that they had left . The Luftwaffe had air superiority and made everyday life hazardous in logistical terms . Air support could only be called in by " wireless " and the RAF was operating from bases in southern England which made communication more difficult . The French denied the use of the Dunkirk , Bourbourg and Gravelines bases to the Belgians , which had initially been placed at its disposal . The Belgians were forced to use the only harbours left to them , at Nieuport and Ostend .
Churchill and Maxime Weygand , who had taken over command from Gamelin , were still determined to break the German line and extricate their forces to the south . When they communicated their intentions to King Leopold and van Overstraten on 24 May , the latter was stunned . A dangerous gap was starting to open between the British and Belgians between Ypres and Menen , which threatened what remained of the Belgian front . The Belgians could not cover it ; such a move would have overstretched them . Without consulting the French or asking permission from his government , Gort immediately and decisively ordered the British 5th and 50th Infantry Divisions to plug the gap and abandon any offensive operations further south .
On the afternoon of 24 May , von Bock had thrown four divisions , of Reichenau 's 6th Army , against the Belgian IV Corps position at the Kortrijk area of the Leie during the Battle of the Lys ( 1940 ) . The Germans managed , against fierce resistance , to cross the river at night and force a one @-@ mile penetration along a 13 @-@ mile front between Wervik and Kortrijk . The Germans , with superior numbers and in command of the air , had won the bridgehead . Nevertheless , the Belgians had inflicted many casualties and several tactical defeats on the Germans . The 1st , 3rd , 9th and 10th Infantry Divisions , acting as reinforcements , had counterattacked several times and managed to capture 200 German prisoners . Belgian artillery and infantry were then heavily attacked by the Luftwaffe , which forced their defeat . The Belgians blamed the French and British for not providing air cover . The German bridgehead dangerously exposed the eastern flank of the southward stretched BEF 's 4th Infantry Division . Montgomery dispatched several units of the 3rd Infantry Division ( including the heavy infantry of the 1st and 7th Middlesex battalions and the 99th Battery , 20th Anti @-@ Tank Regiment ) , as an improvised defence .
A critical point of the " Weygand Plan " and the British government and French Army 's argument for a thrust south , was the withdrawal of forces to see the offensive through which had left the Belgian Army over @-@ extended and was instrumental in its collapse . It was forced to cover the areas held by the BEF in order to enable the latter to engage in the offensive . Such a collapse could have resulted in the loss of the Channel ports behind the Allied front , leading to a complete strategic encirclement . The BEF could have done more to counterattack von Bock 's left flank to relieve the Belgians as von Bock attacked across the fortified British position at Kortrijk . The Belgian High Command made at least five appeals for the British to attack the vulnerable left flank of the German divisions between the Scheldt and the Leie to avert disaster .
Admiral Sir Roger Keyes transmitted the following message to GHQ :
Van Overstraten is desperately keen for strong British counterattack . Either north or south of Leie could help restore the situation . Belgians expect to be attacked on the Ghent front tomorrow . Germans already have a bridgehead over canal west of Eecloo . There can be no question of the Belgian withdrawal to Yser . One battalion on march NE of Ypres was practically wiped out today in attack by sixty aircraft . Withdrawal over open roads without adequate fighter support very costly . Whole of their supplies are east of Yser . They strongly represent attempt should be made to restore the situation on Leie by British counter @-@ attack for which opportunity may last another few hours only .
No such attack came . The Germans brought fresh reserves to cover the gap ( Menen – Ypres ) . This nearly cut the Belgians off from the British . The 2nd , 6th and 10th Cavalry Divisions frustrated German attempts to exploit the gap in depth but the situation was still critical . On 26 May , Operation Dynamo officially commenced , in which large French and British contingents were to be evacuated to the United Kingdom . By that time , the Royal Navy had already withdrawn 28 @,@ 000 British non @-@ fighting troops . Boulogne had fallen and Calais was about to , leaving Dunkirk , Ostend and Zeebrugge as the only viable ports which could be used for evacuation . The advance of the 14th German Army would not leave Ostend available for much longer . To the west , the German Army Group A had reached Dunkirk and were 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from its centre on the morning of 27 May , bringing the port within artillery range .
The situation on 27 May had changed considerably from just 24 hours earlier . The Belgian Army had been forced from the Leie line on 26 May , and Nevele , Vynckt , Tielt and Iseghem had fallen on the western and central part of the Leie front . In the east , the Germans had reached the outskirts of Bruges , and captured Ursel . In the west , the Menen – Ypres line had broken at Kortrijk and the Belgians were now using railway trucks to help form anti @-@ tank defences on a line from Ypres – Passchendaele – Roulers . Further to the west the BEF had been forced back , north of Lille just over the French border and was now in danger of allowing a gap to develop between themselves and the Belgian southern flank on the Ypres – Lille axis . The danger in allowing a German advance to Dunkirk would mean the loss of the port which was now too great . The British withdrew to the port on 26 May . In doing so , they left the French 1st Army 's north @-@ eastern flank near Lille exposed . As the British moved out , the Germans moved in , encircling the bulk of the French Army . Both Gort and his Chief of Staff , General Henry Pownall , accepted that their withdrawal would mean the destruction of the French 1st Army , and they would be blamed for it .
The fighting of 26 – 27 May had brought the Belgian Army to the brink of collapse . The Belgians still held the Ypres – Roulers line to the west , and the Bruges – Thelt line to the east . However , on 27 May , the central front collapsed in the Iseghem – Thelt sector . There was now nothing to prevent a German thrust to the east to take Ostend and Bruges , or west to take the ports at Nieuport or La Panne , deep in the Allied rear . The Belgians had practically exhausted all available means of resistance . The disintegration of the Belgian Army and its front caused many erroneous accusations by the British . In fact , on numerous occasions , the Belgians had held on after British withdrawals . One example was the taking over of the Scheldt line , where they relieved the British 44th Infantry Division , allowing it to retire through their ranks . Despite this , Gort and to a greater extent Pownall , showed anger at the Belgian King 's decision to surrender on 28 May , considering it undercut the war effort . . When it was inquired if any Belgians were to be evacuated , Pownall was reported to have replied , " We don 't care a bugger what happens to the Belgians " .
= = = Belgian surrender = = =
The Belgian Army was stretched from Cadzand south to Menen on the river Leie , and west , from Menin , to Bruges without any sort of reserves . With the exception of a few RAF sorties , the air was exclusively under the control of the Luftwaffe , and the Belgians reported attacks against all targets considered an objective , with resulting casualties . No natural obstacles remained between the Belgians and the German Army , retreat was not feasible . The Luftwaffe had destroyed most of the rail networks to Dunkirk , just three roads were left : Bruges – Torhout – Dixmude , Bruges – Ghistelles – Nieuport and Bruges – Ostend – Nieuport . Using such axes of retreat was impossible without losses owing to German air supremacy ( as opposed to air superiority ) . Water supplies were damaged and cut off , gas and electricity supplies were also cut . Canals were drained and used as supply dumps for whatever ammunition and food @-@ stuffs were left . The total remaining area covered just 1 @,@ 700 km ² , and compacted military and civilians alike , of which the latter numbered some 3 million people . Under these circumstances Leopold deemed further resistance useless . On the evening of 27 May , he requested an armistice .
Churchill sent a message to Keyes the same day , and made clear what he thought of the request :
Belgian Embassy here assumes from King 's decision to remain that he regards the war as lost and contemplates [ a ] separate peace . It is in order to dissociate itself from this that the constitutional Belgian Government has reassembled on foreign soil . Even if present Belgian Army has to lay down its arms , there are 200 @,@ 000 Belgians of military age in France , and greater resources than Belgium had in 1914 which to fight back . By present decision the King is dividing the Nation and delivering it into Hitler 's protection . Please convey these considerations to the King , and impress upon him the disastrous consequences to the Allies and to Belgium of his present choice .
The Royal Navy evacuated General Headquarters at Middelkerke and Sint @-@ Andries , east of Bruges , during the night . Leopold III , and his mother Queen Mother Elisabeth , stayed in Belgium to endure five years of self @-@ imposed captivity . In response to the advice of his government to set up a government @-@ in @-@ exile Leopold said , " I have decided to stay . The cause of the Allies is lost . " The Belgian surrender came into effect at 04 : 00 on 28 May . Recriminations abounded with the British and French claiming the Belgians had betrayed the alliance . In Paris , the French Premier Paul Reynaud denounced Leopold 's surrender , and the Belgian Premier Hubert Pierlot informed the people that Leopold had taken action against the unanimous advice of the government . As a result , the king was no longer in a position to govern and the Belgian government in exile that was located in Paris ( later moved to London following the fall of France ) would continue the struggle . The chief complaint was that the Belgians had not given any prior warning that their situation was so serious as to capitulate . Such claims were largely unjust . The Allies had known , and admitted it privately on 25 May through contact with the Belgians , that the latter were on the verge of collapse .
Churchill 's and the British response was officially restrained . This was due to the strong @-@ willed defence of the Belgian defensive campaign presented to the cabinet by Sir Roger Keyes at 11 : 30 am 28 May . The French and Belgian ministers had referred to Leopold 's actions as treacherous , but they were unaware of the true events : Leopold had not signed an agreement with Hitler in order to form a collaborative government , but an unconditional surrender as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Belgian Armed Forces .
= = Casualties = =
The casualty reports include total losses at this point in the campaign . The figures for the Battle of Belgium , 10 – 28 May 1940 , cannot be known with any certainty .
= = = Belgian = = =
Belgian casualties stood at :
Killed in action : 6 @,@ 093 and 2 @,@ 000 Belgian prisoners died in captivity
Missing : more than 500
Captured : 200 @,@ 000
Wounded : 15 @,@ 850
Aircraft : 112 destroyed
= = = French = = =
Numbers for the Battle of Belgium are unknown , but the French suffered the following losses throughout the entire western campaign , 10 May – 22 June :
Killed in action : 90 @,@ 000
Wounded : 200 @,@ 000
Prisoners of War : 1 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 .
Total French losses in aircraft numbered 264 from 12 to 25 May , and 50 for 26 May to 1 June .
= = = British = = =
Numbers for the Battle of Belgium are unknown , but the British suffered the following losses throughout the entire campaign , 10 May – 22 June :
68 @,@ 111 killed in action , wounded or captured .
64 @,@ 000 vehicles destroyed or abandoned
2 @,@ 472 guns destroyed or abandoned
RAF losses throughout the entire campaign ( 10 May – 22 June ) amounted to 931 aircraft and 1 @,@ 526 casualties . Casualties to 28 May are unknown . Total British losses in the air numbered 344 between 12 and 25 May , and 138 between 26 May and 1 June .
= = = German = = =
The consolidated report of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht regarding the operations in the west from 10 May to 4 June ( German : Zusammenfassender Bericht des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht über die Operationen im Westen vom 10 . Mai bis 4 . Juni ) reports :
Killed in action : 10 @,@ 232 officers and soldiers
Missing : 8 @,@ 463 officers and soldiers
Wounded : 42 @,@ 523 officers and soldiers
Losses of the Luftwaffe from 10 May to 3 June : 432 aircraft
Losses of the Kriegsmarine : none
= LW3 ( classification ) =
LW3 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing sport class defined by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) for skiers with a disability affecting both legs , with double below knee amputation or a combined strength total for both legs of 60 , with 80 as the baseline for people without disabilities . For international skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing . The classification has two subclasses for para @-@ Alpine skiing : LW3.1 which is for people with double below the knee amputations or similar disabilities , and LW3.2 which is for people with cerebral palsy that involves moderate athetoid , moderate ataxic impairment or slight diplegic involvement .
Skiers in this classification compete with two skis and two ski poles in both para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing . In training , they may use different types of equipment depending on the type of disability the skier has . As this class includes skiers with paralysis , amputations and cerebral palsy , a variety of skiing techniques and training types are needed . For skiers with balance issues , ski bras are used to learn how to balance on skis .
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different sport classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring for LW3 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 8929 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 9157 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9307 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9429 for downhill . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , the percentage for the 2012 / 2013 ski season was 87 @-@ 94 % for classic and 80 @-@ 96 % for free . This class has been able to compete at the Paralympic Games and World Championships dating back to at least the 1990s . Skiers in this class include Australian Marty Mayberry and Canadian LW3.1 skier Lauren Woolstencroft .
= = Definition = =
LW3 is as para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing classification , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . Competitors in this class have a disability affecting both legs , with double below knee amputation or a combined strength total for both of 60 , with 80 as the baseline for people without disabilities . For para @-@ Alpine skiing , the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) explicitly defines this sport class as " Competitors with disabilities in both lower limbs , and skiing with two normal skis and two poles or stabilizers ... Typical disability profile of the class is double below @-@ knee amputations . " The Australian Paralympic Committee summarized this classification in 2002 as a standing skiing classification with " Two skis , two poles , disability in both legs below the knees . " For para @-@ Nordic skiing , the IPC defines this classification as " those with impairment in two lower limbs , which includes whole and / or partial limb dysfunction . " Cross Country Canada summarized this classification as " Impairment in two lower limbs which include whole and or partial limb dysfunction . " A skier may be able to stand and jump on one leg depending on the nature of their disability .
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this sport class , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing .
= = = LW3.1 = = =
LW3.1 is a para @-@ Alpine skiing subclass for people with double below the knee amputations or similar disabilities . It is defined by the IPC as " a . Double below @-@ knee amputation , minimal through the ankle joint. b. disabilities of both lower limbs with a maximum of 60 muscle points ( normal 80 ) , i.e. , those competitors who are able to edge skis belong to class 3 @.@ 2 . "
= = = LW3.2 = = =
LW3.2 is a subclass for people with cerebral palsy that involves moderate athetoid , moderate ataxic impairment or slight diplegic involvement . The IPC defines this class for para @-@ Alpine skiing as " a . CP5 : moderate @-@ to @-@ slight diplegic involvement b . CP6 : moderate athetoid or ataxic impairment " .
= = Equipment = =
Skiers in this classification compete with two skis and two ski poles in both para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing . During training , skiers may use prosthesis , cants , wedges , ski @-@ bras , outriggers or short skis . For skiers using a prosthesis , a special skiing prosthesis is used and they may also require the user of outriggers . The nature of their disability will dictate the type of equipment required . Ski bras are devices clamped to the tips of skis , which result in the skis being attached to each other . Outriggers are forearm crutches with a miniature ski on a rocker at the base . Cants are wedges that sit under the binding that are intended to more evenly distribute weight . They are customised for the specific needs of the skier . The ski boot for below the knee amputees often has the prosthetic built into it , though for all competitors in this class , FIS rules for para @-@ Alpine ski boots and binding heights are modified for this class from rules applied to able bodied competitor 's equipment . In the Biathlon , athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Technique = =
As this class includes skiers with paralysis , amputations and cerebral palsy , a variety of skiing techniques and training types are needed . Skiers in this classification who have paralysis as a result of hemiplegia , stroke or polio tend to initially favour a strong side of their body when they learn to ski , which sometimes results in overskiing . Ski @-@ bras and bungie cords are used in training to correct this . If this is not corrected , skiers are likely to fall over when their skis cross in front of them . Skiers with below the knee amputations get on and off the ski lift using the same technique as able @-@ bodied skiers .
In this classification , skiers with cerebral palsy have difficulty walking in ski boots and sometimes require assistance when walking in them . When going up hill , they often have their weaker side on the uphill side . In learning to ski , a ski bra is often used to teach the proper technique . Skiers sometimes have difficulty with the snowplough technique . In teaching skiers with cerebral palsy , instructors are encouraged to delay the introduction ski poles as skiers may overgrip them . Use of a ski bra is also encourage as it helps the skier learn correct knee and hip placement . Some skiers with cerebral palsy have better balance while using skis than they would otherwise . This presents challenges for coaches who are working with the skier . Compared to other skiers in the class , the skier with cerebral palsy may tie more quickly .
One method of learning to ski for LW3 competitors with cerebral palsy is the American Teaching System . They first thing skiers learn is what their equipment is , and how to put it on and take it off . Next , skiers learn about positioning their body in a standing position on flat terrain . After this , the skier learns how to side step , and then how to fall down and get back up again . The skier then learns how to do a straight run , and then is taught how to get on and off the chair lift . This is followed by learning wedge turns and weight transfers , wedge turns , wide track parallel turns , how to use ski poles , and advanced parallel turns .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for the classic technique was 87 % and percentage for free was 80 @-@ 91 % . The factoring for LW3 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 8929 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 9157 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9307 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9429 for downhill . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , the percentage for the 2012 / 2013 ski season was 87 @-@ 94 % for classic and 80 @-@ 96 % for free .
In para @-@ Alpine @-@ skiing events , LW3 is grouped with standing classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and before sitting classes in the slalom and giant slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and sitting classes . For alpine events , a skier is required to have their ski poles or equivalent equipment planted in the snow in front of the starting position before the start of the race . In cross @-@ country and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other standing classes . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's standing ski group after the blind men 's group and before the blind women 's group . Women 's standing classes are advised to go last .
= = Events = =
While LW3 was not grouped with others classes at an event in the 1980s , it was grouped with other classifications during the 1990s and 2000s . At the 1984 Winter Olympics Exhibition Competition , disciplines included on the programme were downhill and giant slalom . This classification was not grouped with others for medal events for men . At the 1992 Winter Paralympics , LW1 and LW3 were grouped together for men 's medal events in para @-@ Alpine . At the 1994 Winter Paralympics , LW1 and LW3 were grouped together for men 's medal events in para @-@ Alpine . At the 1996 Disabled Alpine World Championships , Lech , Austria , men 's LW1 , LW3 and LW5 were grouped together for medal events . At the 1998 Winter Paralympics , the women 's LW1 , LW3 , LW4 , LW5 and LW6 classes competed
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McDonald appeared in six WCHL games with the Calgary Centennials .
The Medicine Hat Tigers acquired McDonald 's playing rights in a trade during the 1970 – 71 WCHL season . He joined the team the following year , finishing eighth in league scoring with 114 points , including 50 goals . He improved to 62 goals and 139 points in 1972 – 73 to finish third overall in league scoring and was named to the WCHL All @-@ Star Team at forward . McDonald added 37 points in the playoffs as the Tigers won the league championship .
In McDonald 's draft year of 1973 , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) was in competition with the rival World Hockey Association ( WHA ) for talent . McDonald was considered a top junior prospect and was recruited by both leagues . The Vancouver Canucks had the third overall selection in the NHL draft and were interested in drafting him , but opted against it when McDonald made it clear he would likely go to the WHA rather than play with Vancouver . Instead , he went to the Toronto Maple Leafs with the fourth overall pick . In the WHA draft , he was selected 10th overall by the Cleveland Crusaders . McDonald chose to play in the NHL , signing a contract with the Maple Leafs that was considered to be among the richest in the league . The deal , worth between $ 175 @,@ 000 and $ 200 @,@ 000 per season , came as a result of the competition between the two leagues and McDonald found that some of the older players in Toronto resented him as a result .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
McDonald made his NHL debut with the Leafs on October 10 , 1973 , against the Buffalo Sabres . He assisted on two goals in the game , but also suffered a concussion and required several stitches after landing on his head as a result of a check by Rick Martin . Following the custom of most NHL players at the time , he played the game without wearing a helmet . It was the only time in his career he did so , as he felt that his injury contributed to his early struggles in the NHL . McDonald scored his first NHL goal on October 17 against Michel Larocque of the Montreal Canadiens , but finished the season with only 14 goals and 30 points in 1973 – 74 . His continued inability to score early in the 1974 – 75 season nearly resulted in a trade . Atlanta Flames general manager Cliff Fletcher sought to take advantage of the Maple Leafs ' early disappointment in McDonald and agreed in principle to a trade for the young forward in exchange for Curt Bennett . However , McDonald scored three goals in his following two games causing Toronto to back out of the deal . McDonald recorded a modest improvement over his rookie campaign : 17 goals and 44 points .
The patience the Maple Leafs had shown McDonald in his first two seasons was rewarded in 1975 – 76 when he rediscovered his offensive touch , scoring 37 goals and adding 56 assists . Following the season , he earned an invite to the Canadian national team 's summer camp in advance of the 1976 Canada Cup . McDonald was named to the roster , and appeared in five of Team Canada 's seven games . He recorded two assists in the tournament , one of which came on Darryl Sittler 's overtime goal that clinched the inaugural Canada Cup championship .
A 43 @-@ goal season in 1976 – 77 earned McDonald several accolades . He was named to the Wales Conference team at the 1977 All @-@ Star Game where he scored two goals in a 4 – 3 victory over the Campbell Conference . He was also named a Second Team All @-@ Star at right wing following the season . It was the first of three consecutive 40 @-@ goal seasons for McDonald , and he finished in the top ten in NHL scoring in both 1977 – 78 and 1978 – 79 . He appeared in his second All @-@ Star Game in 1978 and played for the NHL All @-@ Stars in the 1979 Challenge Cup against the Soviet national team .
The highlight of McDonald 's career in Toronto came in the 1978 Stanley Cup playoffs against the New York Islanders . The Maple Leafs were viewed as underdogs in the series against an Islanders team that was considered to be among the best in the league . Toronto overcame a 2 – 0 series deficit to force a seventh and deciding game . Playing despite breaking both his wrist and nose during the series , McDonald scored the overtime winning goal that eliminated the Islanders and allowed the Maple Leafs to advance to the league semi @-@ finals for the first time in 11 years . Toronto was then eliminated by Montreal , who swept the series with four consecutive victories .
= = = Colorado Rockies = = =
Punch Imlach was named Toronto general manager prior to the 1979 – 80 season and immediately clashed with team captain Darryl Sittler . Imlach wanted to move Sittler to another team , but the player refused to waive his no trade clause . Imlach responded by trading teammates friendly to Sittler instead . On December 28 , 1979 , Imlach dealt McDonald to the Colorado Rockies , along with Joel Quenneville , in exchange for Wilf Paiement and Pat Hickey . The deal came as a surprise even to Toronto 's head coach .
McDonald was devastated by the trade , particularly because he and his wife were expecting their second child and had just purchased a new house . In his 1987 autobiography , he argued that Imlach made the trade out of spite . McDonald had also come into conflict with Imlach while serving as the team 's representative of the National Hockey League Players Association ( NHLPA ) when the general manager refused to honour an increase in the per diem paid to each player . The trade outraged fans in Toronto , where McDonald was among the team 's most popular players . While fans picketed outside Maple Leaf Gardens in protest , McDonald told the media that he felt fortunate to have been traded away from the unsettled situation the Leafs were in and blamed Imlach for the team 's failures on the ice . Sittler resigned as the team 's captain following the trade .
Arriving in Colorado , McDonald found himself at the centre of another power struggle . Sympathetic to the fact that his wife was less than two weeks away from giving birth , head coach Don Cherry gave McDonald permission to leave the team on off @-@ days to return to his wife in Toronto . But he did so without gaining the approval of general manager Ray Miron , who disagreed frequently with Cherry and fired him following the season . On the ice , McDonald scored 35 goals with the Rockies and finished with a total of 40 between the two teams .
Rumours circulated following the season that Maple Leafs owner Harold Ballard had told the media that he was attempting to reacquire McDonald . The Rockies disputed that any such negotiations had taken place and Ballard quickly apologized for the news story after Colorado threatened to file tampering charges against the Maple Leafs ' owner . McDonald served as the Rockies ' captain , and scored 35 goals and 81 points in 1980 – 81 , his only full season with the team .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
Stating that his team needed to add character and leadership , Cliff Fletcher finally completed a trade for McDonald seven years after his first attempt . McDonald was acquired by the Calgary Flames , along with a draft pick , in exchange for Bob MacMillan and Don Lever on November 25 , 1981 . The deal occurred one day after the last place Rockies lost to the Flames by a 9 – 2 score . Once the team 's plane landed in Winnipeg , McDonald was informed of the trade and told to return to Calgary . Angered at first , he viewed the deal as an insult , that the worst team in the NHL had rejected him .
McDonald also felt the pressure of having to replace two popular ex @-@ Flames in MacMillan and Lever while also working to overcome a separated shoulder he suffered earlier in the year with the Rockies . He made his debut with the Flames the following night , a 7 – 1 victory over the Los Angeles Kings , after which McDonald remarked that it was the most fun he had playing the game in a long time . He was given a loud ovation by the fans who immediately embraced him as a local hero , even though it took him seven games before he scored his first goal as a member of the Flames . He scored 34 goals in Calgary , and combined with the 6 scored in Colorado , finished with his fifth 40 @-@ goal campaign in six years .
The 1982 – 83 season was dominated by McDonald 's battle with Wayne Gretzky of the Edmonton Oilers for the league lead in goals . Amidst the best offensive season of his career , McDonald scored a hat trick against Pittsburgh to give him 47 goals at the mid @-@ season break for the 1983 All @-@ Star Game , a total that tied his career high . He was named to the starting lineup for the All @-@ Star Game and was the league 's leading goal scorer at that point , two ahead of Gretzky . McDonald finished with 66 goals , five short of Gretzky 's 71 . At that time , only Gretzky , Mike Bossy and Phil Esposito had ever scored more goals in one NHL season . McDonald was named to the Second All @-@ Star Team for the second time in his career and was voted the winner of the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy , given to the player who " best exemplifies the qualities of perseverance , sportsmanship and dedication to hockey " . His 66 goals remains a Flames ' single season record .
Following the trade of Phil Russell in the summer of 1983 , McDonald and Doug Risebrough were named co @-@ captains for the 1983 – 84 season . They were joined by Jim Peplinski the following season . McDonald missed 15 games due to injuries which reduced his scoring to 33 goals and 66 points , but he played in his fourth All @-@ Star Game . He scored the first Flames goal in the Olympic Saddledome , on the building 's opening night of October 15 , 1983 .
McDonald became the 21st player in NHL history to score 400 career goals , reaching the mark in a 7 – 4 loss in Los Angeles on December 21 , 1983 . He was initially credited with scoring the milestone goal
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ta Carinae 's unusual brightness at 1st magnitude , and was the first to suspect that it varied in brightness . John Herschel made a detailed series of accurate measurements in the 1830s showing Eta Carinae consistently shone around magnitude 1 @.@ 4 until November 1837 . On the evening of December 16 , 1837 , Herschel was astonished to see that it had brightened to just outshine Rigel . This event marked the beginning of a roughly 18 year period known as the Great Eruption .
Eta Carinae was brighter still on January 2 , 1838 , equivalent to Alpha Centauri , before fading slightly over the following three months . Herschel did not observe the star after this , but received correspondence from the Reverend W.S. Mackay in Calcutta , who wrote in 1843 , " To my great surprise I observed this March last ( 1843 ) , that the star Eta Argus had become a star of the first magnitude fully as bright as Canopus , and in colour and size very like Arcturus . " Observations at the Cape of Good Hope indicated it peaked in brightness , surpassing Canopus , over March 11 to 14 , 1843 before beginning to fade , then brightened to between the brightness of Alpha Centauri and Canopus between March 24 and 28 before fading once again . For much of 1844 the brightness was midway between Alpha Centauri and Beta Centauri , around magnitude + 0 @.@ 2 , before brightening again at the end of the year . At its brightest in 1843 it likely reached an apparent magnitude of − 0 @.@ 8 , then − 1 @.@ 0 in 1845 . The peaks in 1827 , 1838 , and 1843 are likely to have occurred at the periastron passage — the point the two stars are closest together — of the binary orbit . From 1845 to 1856 , the brightness decreased by around 0 @.@ 1 magnitudes per year , but with possible rapid and large fluctuations .
In their oral traditions , the Boorong people of northwestern Victoria , Australia told of a reddish star they knew as Collowgulloric War , the wife of War ( Canopus , the Crow – wɑː ) . In 2010 , astronomers Duane Hamacher and David Frew from Macquarie University in Sydney showed that this was Eta Carinae during its Great Eruption in the 1840s . From 1857 the brightness decreased rapidly until it faded below naked eye visibility by 1886 . This has been calculated to be due to the condensation of dust in the ejected material surrounding the star rather than an intrinsic change in luminosity .
= = = Lesser Eruption = = =
A new brightening started in 1887 , peaked at about magnitude 6 @.@ 2 in 1892 , then at the end of March 1895 faded rapidly to about magnitude 7 @.@ 5 . Although there are only visual records of the 1890 eruption , it has been calculated that Eta Carinae was suffering 4 @.@ 3 magnitudes of visual extinction due to the gas and dust ejected in the Great Eruption . An unobscured brightness would have been magnitude 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 9 , significantly brighter than the historical magnitude . This appeared to be a smaller copy of the Great Eruption , expelling much less material .
= = = Twentieth century = = =
Between 1900 and at least 1940 , Eta Carinae appeared to have settled at a constant brightness at around magnitude 7 @.@ 6 , but in 1953 it was noted to have brightened again to magnitude 6 @.@ 5 . The brightening continued steadily , but with fairly regular variations of a few tenths of a magnitude .
In 1996 the variations were first identified as having a 5 @.@ 52 year period , later measured more accurately at 5 @.@ 54 years . The binary theory was confirmed by observations of radio , optical , and near infrared radial velocity and line profile changes at the predicted time of periastron passage in late 1997 and early 1998 . At the same time there was a complete collapse of the X @-@ ray emission presumed to originate in a colliding wind zone . The confirmation of a luminous binary companion greatly modified the understanding of the physical properties of the Eta Carinae system and its variability .
A sudden doubling of brightness was observed in 1998 – 99 bringing it back to naked eye visibility . During the 2014 spectroscopic event , the apparent visual magnitude became brighter than magnitude 4 @.@ 5 . The brightness does not always vary consistently at different wavelengths , and does not always exactly follow the 5 @.@ 5 year cycle . Radio , infrared , and space @-@ based observations have expanded coverage of Eta Carinae across all wavelengths and revealed ongoing changes in the spectral energy distribution .
= = Visibility = =
As a 4th magnitude star , Eta Carinae is comfortably visible to the naked eye in all but the most light @-@ polluted skies in inner city areas according to the Bortle scale . However its brightness is variable over a wide range , from the second brightest star in the sky at one point in the 19th century to well below naked eye visibility . Its location at around 60 ° S in the far Southern Celestial Hemisphere means it cannot be seen by observers in Europe and much of North America .
Located between Canopus and the Southern Cross , Eta Carinae is easily pinpointed as the brightest star within the large naked eye Carina Nebula . In a telescope the " star " is framed within the dark " V " dust lane of the nebula and appears distinctly orange and clearly non @-@ stellar . High magnification will show the two orange lobes of a surrounding a reflection nebula known as the Homunculus Nebula on either side of a bright central core . Variable star observers can compare its brightness with several 4th and 5th magnitude stars closely surrounding the nebula .
Discovered in 1961 , the weak Eta Carinids meteor shower has a radiant very close to Eta Carinae . Occurring from 14 to 28 January , the shower peaks around 21 January . Meteor showers are not associated with bodies outside the Solar System , making the proximity to Eta Carinae merely a coincidence .
= = = Visual spectrum = = =
The strength and profile of the lines in the Eta Carinae spectrum are highly variable , but there are a number of consistent distinctive features . The spectrum is dominated by emission lines , usually broad although the higher excitation lines are overlaid by a narrow central component from dense ionised nebulosity , especially the Weigelt Blobs . Most lines show a P Cygni profile but with the absorption wing much weaker than the emission . The broad P Cygni lines are typical of strong stellar winds , with very weak absorption in this case because the central star is so heavily obscured . Electron scattering wings are present but relatively weak , indicating a clumpy wind . Hydrogen lines are present and strong , showing that Eta Carinae still retains much of its hydrogen envelope . HeI lines are much weaker than the hydrogen lines , and the absence of HeII lines provides an upper limit to the possible temperature of the primary star . NII lines can be identified but are not strong , while carbon lines cannot be detected and oxygen lines are at best very weak , indicating core hydrogen burning via the CNO cycle with some mixing to the surface . Perhaps the most striking feature is the rich FeII emission in both permitted and forbidden lines , with the forbidden lines arising from excitation of low density nebulosity around the star .
The earliest analyses of the star 's spectrum are descriptions of visual observations from 1869 , of prominent emission lines " C , D , b , F , and the principal green nitrogen line " . Absorption lines are explicitly described as not being visible . The letters refer to Fraunhofer 's spectral notation and correspond to Hα , HeI ( " D " usually refers to the sodium doublet , but " d " or " D3 " was used for the nearby helium line ) , FeII , and Hβ . It is assumed that the final line is from FeII very close to the green nebulium line now known to be from OIII .
Photographic spectra from 1893 were described as similar to an F5 star , but with a few weak emission lines . Analysis to modern spectral standards suggests an early F spectral type . By 1895 the spectrum again consisted mostly of strong emission lines , with the absorption lines present but largely obscured by emission . This spectral transition from F supergiant to strong emission is characteristic of novae , where ejected material initially radiates like a pseudo @-@ photosphere and then the emission spectrum develops as it expands and thins .
The emission line spectrum associated with dense stellar winds has persisted ever since the late 19th century . Individual lines show widely varying widths , profiles , and Doppler shifts , often multiple velocity components within the same line . The spectral lines also show variation over time , most strongly with a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ year period but also less dramatic changes over shorter and longer periods , as well as ongoing secular development of the entire spectrum . The spectrum of light reflected from the Weigelt Blobs , and assumed to originate mainly with the primary , is similar to the extreme P Cygni @-@ type star HDE 316285 which has a spectral type of B0Ieq .
Direct spectral observations did not begin until after the Great Eruption , but light echoes from the eruption reflected from other parts of the Carina Nebula were detected using the U.S. National Optical Astronomy Observatory 's Blanco 4 @-@ meter telescope at the Cerro Tololo Inter @-@ American Observatory . Analysis of the reflected spectra indicated the light was emitted when Eta Carinae had the appearance of a 5 @,@ 000 K G2 @-@ to @-@ G5 supergiant , some 2 @,@ 000 K cooler than expected from other supernova impostor events . Further light echo observations show that following the peak brightness of the Great Eruption the spectrum developed prominent P Cygni profiles and CN molecular bands . These indicate that the star , or the expanding shell of ejected material , had cooled further and may have been colliding with circumstellar material in a similar way to a type IIn supernova .
In the second half of the 20th century , much higher resolution visual spectra became available . The spectrum continued to show complex and baffling features , with much of the energy from the central star being recycled into the infrared by surrounding dust , some reflection of light from the star from dense localised objects in the circumstellar material , but with obvious high ionisation features indicative of very high temperatures . The line profiles are complex and variable , indicating a number of absorption and emission features at various velocities relative to the central star .
The 5 @.@ 5 year orbital cycle produces strong spectral changes at periastron that are known as spectroscopic events . Certain wavelengths of radiation suffer eclipses , either due to actual occultation by one of the stars or due to passage within opaque portions of the complex stellar winds . Despite being ascribed to orbital rotation , these events vary significantly from cycle to cycle . These changes have become stronger since 2003 and it is generally believed that long @-@ term secular changes in the stellar winds or previously ejected material may be the culmination of a return to the state of the star before its Great Eruption .
= = = Ultraviolet = = =
The ultraviolet spectrum of the Eta Carinae system shows many emission lines of ionised metals such as FeII and CrII , as well as Lymanα ( Lyα ) and a continuum from a hot central source . The ionisation levels and continuum require the existence of a source with a temperature at least 37 @,@ 000 K.
Certain FeII UV lines are unusually strong . These originate in the Weigelt Blobs and are caused by a low @-@ gain lasing effect . Ionised hydrogen between a blob and the central star generates intense Lyα emission which penetrates the blob . The blob contains atomic hydrogen with a small admixture of other elements , including iron photo @-@ ionised by radiation from the central stars . An accidental resonance ( where emission coincidentally has a suitable energy to pump the excited state ) allows the Lyα emission to pump the Fe + ions to certain pseudo @-@ metastable states , creating a population inversion that allows the stimulated emission to take place . This effect is similar to the maser emission from dense pockets surrounding many cool supergiant stars , but the latter effect is much weaker at optical and UV wavelengths and Eta Carinae is the only clear instance detected of an ultraviolet astrophysical laser . A similar effect from pumping of metastable OI states by Lyβ emission has also been confirmed as an astrophysical UV laser .
= = = Infrared = = =
Infrared observations of Eta Carinae have become increasingly important . The vast majority of the electromagnetic radiation from the central stars is absorbed by surrounding dust , then emitted as mid and far infrared appropriate to the temperature of the dust . This allows almost the entire energy output of the system to be observed at wavelengths that are not strongly affected by interstellar extinction , leading to estimates of the luminosity that are more accurate than for other extremely luminous stars . Eta Carinae is the brightest source in the night sky at mid @-@ infrared wavelengths .
Far infrared observations show a large mass of dust at 100 – 150 K , suggesting a total mass for the Homunculus of 20 solar masses ( M ☉ ) or more . This is much larger than previous estimates , and is all thought to have been ejected in a few years during the Great Eruption
Near @-@ infrared observations can penetrate the dust at high resolution to observe features that are completely obscured at visual wavelengths , although not the central stars themselves . The central region of the Homunculus contains a smaller Little Homunculus from the 1890 eruption , a butterfly of separate clumps and filaments from the two eruptions , and an elongated stellar wind region .
= = = High energy radiation = = =
Several X @-@ ray and gamma @-@ ray sources have been detected around Eta Carinae , for example 4U 1037 –
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60 in the 4th Uhuru catalogue and 1044 – 59 in the HEAO @-@ 2 catalog . The earliest detection of X @-@ rays in the Eta Carinae region was from the Terrier @-@ Sandhawk rocket , followed by Ariel 5 , OSO 8 , and Uhuru sightings .
More detailed observations were made with the Einstein Observatory , ROSAT X @-@ ray telescope , Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics ( ASCA ) , and Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory . There are multiple sources at various wavelengths right across the high energy electromagnetic spectrum : hard X @-@ rays and gamma rays within 1 light @-@ month of the Eta Carinae ; hard X @-@ rays from a central region about 3 light @-@ months wide ; a distinct partial ring " horse @-@ shoe " structure in low energy X @-@ rays 0 @.@ 67 parsec ( 2 @.@ 2 light @-@ years ) across corresponding to the main shockfront from the Great Eruption ; diffuse X @-@ ray emission across the whole area of the Homunculus ; and numerous condensations and arcs outside the main ring .
All the high energy emission associated with Eta Carinae varies during the orbital cycle . A spectroscopic minimum , or X @-@ ray eclipse , occurred in July and August 2003 and similar events in 2009 and 2014 have been intensively observed . The highest energy gamma @-@ rays above 100 MeV detected by AGILE show strong variability , while lower energy gamma @-@ rays observed by Fermi show little variability .
= = = Radio emission = = =
Radio emissions have been observed from Eta Carinae across the microwave band . It has been detected in the 21 cm HI line , but has been particularly closely studied in the millimetre and centimetre bands . Masing hydrogen recombination lines ( from the addition of an electron and proton to form a hydrogen atom ) have been detected in this range The emission is concentrated in a small non @-@ point source less than 4 arcseconds across and appears to be mainly free @-@ free emission ( thermal bremsstrahlung ) from ionised gas , consistent with a compact HII region at around 10 @,@ 000 K. High resolution imaging shows the radio frequencies originating from a disk a few arcseconds in diameter , 10 @,@ 000 astronomical units ( AU ) wide at the distance of Eta Carinae .
The radio emission from Eta Carinae shows continuous variation in strength and distribution over a 5 @.@ 5 year cycle . The HII and recombination lines vary very strongly , with continuum emission ( electromagnetic radiation across a broad band of wavelengths ) less affected . This shows a dramatic reduction in the ionisation level of the hydrogen for a short period in each cycle , coinciding with the spectroscopic events at other wavelengths .
= = Surroundings = =
Eta Carinae is found within the Carina Nebula , a giant star @-@ forming region in the Carina – Sagittarius Arm of the Milky Way . The nebula is a prominent naked eye object in the southern skies showing a complex mix of emission , reflection , and dark nebulosity . Eta Carinae is known to be at the same distance as the Carina Nebula and its spectrum can be seen reflected off various star clouds in the nebula . The appearance of the Carina Nebula , and particularly of the Keyhole region , has changed significantly since it was described by John Herschel over 150 years ago . This is thought to be due to the reduction in ionising radiation from Eta Carinae since the Great Eruption . Prior to the Great Eruption the Eta Carinae system contributed up to 20 % of the total ionizing flux for the whole Carina Nebula , but that is now mostly blocked by the surrounding gas and dust .
= = = Trumpler 16 = = =
Eta Carinae lies within the scattered stars of the Trumpler 16 open cluster . All the other members are well below naked eye visibility , although WR 25 is another extremely massive luminous star . Trumpler 16 and its neighbour Trumpler 14 are the two dominant star clusters of the Carina OB1 association , an extended grouping of young luminous stars with a common motion through space .
= = = Homunculus = = =
Eta Carinae is enclosed by , and lights up the Homunculus Nebula . The Homunculus Nebula is composed mainly of gas ejected during the Great Eruption event in the mid @-@ nineteenth century , as well as dust that condensed from the debris . The nebula consists of two polar lobes aligned with the rotation axis of the star , plus an equatorial " skirt " . Closer studies show many fine details : a Little Homunculus within the main nebula , probably formed by the 1890 eruption ; a jet ; fine streams and knots of material , especially noticeable in the skirt region ; and three Weigelt Blobs — dense gas condensations very close to the star itself .
The lobes of the Homunculus are considered to be formed almost entirely due to the initial eruption , rather than shaped by or including previously ejected or interstellar material , although the scarcity of material near the equatorial plane allows some later stellar wind and ejected material to mix . Therefore , the mass of the lobes gives an accurate measure of the scale of the Great Eruption , with estimates ranging from 12 – 15 M ☉ up to as high as 40 M ☉ . The results show that the material from the Great Eruption is strongly concentrated towards the poles ; 75 % of the mass and 90 % of the kinetic energy were released above latitude 45 ° .
A unique feature of the Homunculus is the ability to measure the spectrum of the central object at different latitudes by the reflected spectrum from different portions of the lobes . These clearly show a polar wind where the stellar wind is faster and stronger at high latitudes thought to be due to rapid rotation causing gravity brightening towards the poles . In contrast the spectrum shows a higher excitation temperature closer to the equatorial plane . By implication the outer envelope of Eta Carinae A is not strongly convective as that would prevent the gravity darkening . The current axis of rotation of the star does not appear to exactly match the alignment of the Homunculus . This may be due to interaction with Eta Carinae B which also modifies the observed stellar winds .
= = Distance = =
The distance to Eta Carinae has been determined by several different methods , resulting in a widely accepted value of 2 @,@ 300 parsecs ( 7 @,@ 800 light @-@ years ) , with a margin of error around 100 parsecs ( 330 light @-@ years ) . Eta Carinae 's distance cannot be measured using parallax due to its great distance from Earth and the surrounding nebulosity . However , at least two stars expected to be at a similar distance are in the Hipparcos catalog . These are HD 93250 in Trumpler 16 and HD 93403 , another member of Trumpler 16 or possibly of Trumpler 15 . These two stars are assumed to be at approximately the same distance as Eta Carinae , all formed from the same molecular cloud , but the distances are too great for parallaxes to be reliable . HD 93250 and HD 93403 have recorded parallaxes of 0 @.@ 53 ± 0 @.@ 42 milli @-@ arcseconds and 1 @.@ 22 ± 0 @.@ 45 milli @-@ arcseconds respectively , suggesting distances of anywhere from 2 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 600 to 9 @,@ 000 parsecs ) . The GAIA space mission is expected to measure the parallax of these two stars with excellent precision .
The distances to star clusters can be estimated by using a Hertzsprung – Russell diagram or colour – colour diagram to calibrate the absolute magnitudes of the stars , for example fitting the main sequence or identifying features such as a horizontal branch , and hence their distance from Earth . It is also necessary to know the amount of interstellar extinction to the cluster and this can be difficult in regions such as the Carina Nebula . A distance of 7 @,@ 330 light @-@ years ( 2 @,@ 250 parsecs ) has been determined from the calibration of O @-@ type star luminosities in Trumpler 16 . After determining an abnormal reddening correction to the extinction , the distance to both Trumpler 14 and Trumpler 16 has been measured at 9 @,@ 500 ± 1000 light @-@ years ( 2 @,@ 900 ± 300 parsecs ) .
The known expansion rate of the Homunculus Nebula provides an unusual geometric method for measuring its distance . Assuming that the two lobes of the nebula are symmetrical , the projection of the nebula onto the sky depends on its distance . Values of 2 @,@ 300 , 2 @,@ 250 and 2 @,@ 300 parsecs have been derived for the Homunculus , and Eta Carinae is clearly at the same distance .
= = Properties = =
The Eta Carinae star system is currently one of the most massive that can be studied in great detail . Until recently Eta Carinae was thought to be the most massive single star , but the system 's binary nature was confirmed in 2005 . Unfortunately , both component stars are largely obscured by circumstellar material ejected from Eta Carinae A and basic properties such as their temperatures and luminosities can only be inferred . Rapid changes to the stellar wind in the 21st century suggest that the star itself may be revealed as dust from the great eruption finally clears .
= = = Orbit = = =
The binary nature of Eta Carinae is clearly established , although the components have not been directly observed and cannot even be clearly resolved spectroscopically due to scattering and re @-@ excitation in the surrounding nebulosity . Periodic photometric and spectroscopic variations prompted the search for a companion , and modelling of the colliding winds and partial " eclipses " of some spectroscopic features have constrained the possible orbits .
The period of the orbit is accurately known at 5 @.@ 539 years , although this has changed over time due to mass loss and accretion . The period between the Great Eruption and the smaller 1890 eruption was 5 @.@ 52 years , while before the Great Eruption it would have been lower still , probably between 4 @.@ 8 and 5 @.@ 4 years . The orbital separation is only known approximately , with a semi @-@ major axis of 15 – 16 AU . The orbit is highly eccentric , e = 0 @.@ 9 . This means that the separation of the stars varies from around 1 @.@ 6 AU , similar to the distance of Mars from the Sun , to 30 AU , similar to the distance of Neptune .
Perhaps the most valuable use of an accurate orbit for a binary star system is to directly calculate the masses of the stars . This requires the dimensions and inclination of the orbit to be accurately known . Unfortunately the dimensions of Eta Carinae 's orbit are only known approximately as the stars cannot be directly and separately observed . The inclination has been modelled at 130 – 145 degrees , but the orbit is still not known accurately enough to provide the masses of the two components .
= = = Classification = = =
Eta Carinae A is classified as a luminous blue variable ( LBV ) due to the distinctive spectral and brightness variations . This type of variable star is characterised by irregular changes from a high temperature quiescent state to a low temperature outburst state at roughly constant luminosity . LBVs in the quiescent state lie on a narrow S Doradus instability strip , with more luminous stars being hotter . In outburst all LBVs have about the same temperature , which is near 8 @,@ 000 K. LBVs in a normal outburst are visually brighter than when quiescent although the bolometric luminosity is unchanged .
A Great Eruption event similar to Eta Carinae A 's has only been observed in one other star in the Milky Way — P Cygni — and in a handful of other possible LBVs in external galaxies . None of them seem to be quite as violent as Eta Carinae 's . It is unclear if this is something that only a very few of the most massive LBVs undergo , something that is caused by a close companion star , or a very brief but common phase for massive stars . Some similar events in external galaxies have been mistaken for supernovae and have been called supernova impostors , although this grouping may also include other types of non @-@ terminal transients that approach the brightness of a supernova .
Eta Carinae A is not a typical LBV . It is more luminous than any other LBV in the Milky Way although possibly comparable to other supernova impostors detected in external galaxies . It does not currently lie on the S Doradus instability strip , although it is unclear what the temperature or spectral type of the underlying star actually is . The 1890 eruption may have been fairly typical of LBV eruptions , with an early F spectral type , and it has been estimated that the star may currently have an opaque stellar wind forming a pseudo @-@ photosphere with a temperature of 9 @,@ 000 K – 14 @,@ 000 K which would be typical for an LBV in eruption .
Eta Carinae B is a massive luminous hot star , about which little else is known . From certain high excitation spectral lines that ought not to be produced by the primary , Eta Carinae B is thought to be a young O @-@ type star . Most authors suggest it is a somewhat evolved star such as a supergiant or giant , although a Wolf – Rayet star cannot be ruled out .
= = = Mass = = =
The masses of stars are difficult to measure except by determination of a binary orbit . Eta Carinae is a binary system , but certain key information about the orbit is not known accurately . The mass can be strongly constrained to be greater than 90 M ☉ , due to the high luminosity . Standard models of the system assume masses of 100 – 120 M ☉ and 30 – 60 M ☉ for the primary and secondary respectively . Higher masses have been suggested , to model the energy output and mass transfer of the Great Eruption , with a combined system mass of over 250 M ☉ before the Great Eruption . Eta Carinae A has clearly lost a great deal of mass since it formed and it is expected that it was initially 150 @-@ 250 M ☉ , although it may have formed through binary merger .
= = = Mass loss = = =
Mass loss is one of the most intensively studied aspects of massive star research . Put simply , using observed mass loss rates in the best models of stellar evolution do not reproduce the observed distribution of evolved massive stars such as Wolf – Rayets , the number and types of core collapse supernovae , or their progenitors . To match those observations , the models require much higher mass loss rates . Eta Carinae A has one of the highest known mass loss rates , currently around 10 − 3 M ☉ / year , and is an obvious candidate for study .
Eta Carinae A is losing so much mass due to its extreme luminosity and relatively low surface gravity . Its stellar wind is entirely opaque and appears as a pseudo @-@ photosphere ; this optically dense surface hides the true physical surface of the star . During the Great Eruption the mass loss rate was a thousand times higher , around 1 M ☉ / year sustained for ten years or more . The total mass loss during the eruption was 10 – 20 M ☉ with much of it now forming the Homunculus Nebula . The smaller 1890 eruption produced the Little Homunculus Nebula , much smaller and only about
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available .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews , and many critics considered Martin to be a highlight . Reaction to the music as a whole was less enthusiastic than for the episode itself , though " La Isla Bonita " and " Don 't Wanna Lose You " were given a generally favorable reception . The former song charted on both the Billboard Hot 100 and the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 ; of the remaining four singles , " Sexy and I Know It " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 , and the other three singles did not chart .
Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 81 million American viewers and received a 3 @.@ 3 / 9 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership was down significantly from the special tribute episode , " Michael " , which aired the previous week .
= = Plot = =
The retirement of a history teacher opens a tenured position at McKinley High . Spanish teacher Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) and cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) both want the promotion , but anonymous students have registered complaints about the pair . Determined to polish up his language skills , Will goes to night school for a refresher course and meets instructor David Martinez ( Ricky Martin ) , who points out that kids learn better through music . Will assigns a Spanish @-@ themed week to New Directions and David helps by singing " Sexy and I Know It " partially in Spanish . Santana ( Naya Rivera ) suggests that Will now has a rival and needs to defend his honor .
Rachel ( Lea Michele ) tells Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) and Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) that she has accepted Finn 's ( Cory Monteith ) marriage proposal . Kurt later tells Finn that he would be lucky to have Rachel some day , but he believes Finn is considering matrimony because he has given up too early on his own dreams .
Mercedes is torn between her feelings for Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) and her boyfriend Shane ( LaMarcus Tinker ) . Guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) recommends that Mercedes and Sam stop speaking to each other for a week so they can hear what their hearts are telling them . Mercedes sings " Don 't Wanna Lose You " and Sam reciprocates by singing a mash @-@ up of " Bamboléo " and " Hero " .
Sue 's position as coach of the Cheerios is challenged by the synchronized swim coach , Roz Washington ( NeNe Leakes ) . Roz is also pursuing the tenured position , and she views herself as a serious competitor for tenure and for replacing Sue on the Cheerios . She believes Sue 's coaching style and cheerleading choreography is old @-@ fashioned , and plans to update the team if she becomes the new coach .
Sue reveals her desire to become a mother and asks Will to be the sperm donor . When Will 's fiancee , Emma , confronts her about this request , Sue admits that she wants Will 's capacity for kindness for her child . Emma and Will 's relationship becomes strained as he focuses on impressing Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) to win tenure , and denigrates her newest set of counseling pamphlets . He is surprised when Coach Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) enthusiastically praises Emma for her recent pamphlet on genital sanitation , which has just been adopted by the Big Ten football teams .
Santana and David duet with " La Isla Bonita " and Will responds with a bilingual rendition of " A Little Less Conversation " while dressed as a matador , which offends Santana . Will accuses her of complaining about him , and she says she did so because of the negative Latin stereotypes he has been perpetuating . Sue discovers that Cheerios co @-@ captain Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) was the one who complained about her coaching . Becky believed that Sue had become less focused on the squad , to its detriment , and Sue praises her devotion to the team .
Will arranges with Figgins to become the new history teacher , and successfully proposes David to be his replacement as Spanish teacher . Ultimately , Emma is the one who is given tenure .
= = Production = =
On November 29 , 2011 , the day news broke that Ricky Martin had " closed a deal " with Glee to guest star in an early 2012 episode , Martin himself tweeted , " I hear McKinley high has an opening for a Spanish teacher ... Maybe I ’ ll apply . ; o ) " .
The episode was written by co @-@ creator Ian Brennan and directed by Paris Barclay , and began filming on January 5 , 2012 , with Martin in attendance ; he had recorded his songs the day before . He finished filming his scenes that week , ending early in the morning of January 7 , 2012 . The previous episode — the Michael Jackson tribute — had not yet completed , and the two episodes continued in parallel until the final Michael Jackson number was shot on January 13 , 2012 , the same day that the thirteenth episode commenced filming .
One of the songs Martin performs is a Spanglish version of LMFAO 's " Sexy and I Know It " , as part of a competition with Morrison 's character , who sings an Elvis Presley song in Spanish , " A Little Less Conversation . Martin 's other musical number , Madonna 's " La Isla Bonita " , is a duet with Rivera . The two remaining numbers performed in the episode include a mash @-@ up of " Bamboleo " by the Gipsy Kings and " Hero " by Enrique Iglesias , performed by Overstreet with the other New Directions males , and Gloria Estefan 's " Don 't Wanna Lose You " performed by Riley . The six cover versions have been released as five singles for digital download , with the two @-@ song mash @-@ up in one single . The brief , flashback performance of " La Cucaracha " was not released as a single .
Recurring guest stars who appear in the episode include glee club members Sam Evans ( Overstreet ) , Rory Flanagan ( Damian McGinty ) and Sugar Motta ( Vanessa Lengies ) , Principal Figgins ( Theba ) , synchronized swimming coach Roz Washington ( NeNe Leakes ) , cheerleading co @-@ captain Becky Jackson ( Potter ) , football player Shane Tinsley ( Tinker ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Jones ) and tenured history teacher Mrs. Hagberg ( Mary Gillis ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Spanish Teacher " was first broadcast on February 7 , 2012 in the United States on Fox . It received a 3 @.@ 3 / 9 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 7 @.@ 81 million American viewers during its initial airing , a significant decrease from the 3 @.@ 7 / 10 rating / share and 9 @.@ 07 million viewers of the previous episode , the Michael Jackson tribute " Michael " , which was broadcast on January 31 , 2012 . Viewership also decreased significantly in Canada , where 1 @.@ 57 million viewers watched the episode on the same day as its American premiere . It was the fifteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down five slots and 14 % from the 1 @.@ 84 million viewers who watched " Michael " the previous week .
In the United Kingdom , " The Spanish Teacher " first aired on March 15 , 2012 , and was watched on Sky 1 by 771 @,@ 000 viewers . Viewership was up over 13 % from " Michael " , which attracted 682 @,@ 000 viewers when it aired the week before . In Australia , " The Spanish Teacher " was broadcast on March 2 , 2012 . It was watched by 564 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the twelfth most @-@ watched program of the night , up from thirteenth the week before . The viewership was up over 5 % from the previous episode , " Michael " , which was seen by 535 @,@ 000 viewers .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Spanish Teacher " was given mixed to positive reviews . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club wrote that " much of this episode felt like a very deliberate throwback to season one , in some very good ways " , and IGN 's Robert Canning said that " the overarching storylines on Glee have become far more engaging than what we saw in the first half of the season " . John Kubicek of BuddyTV stated that the episode " does a lot of things right when it comes to the plot " , and Billboard 's Rae Votta described the plot as " consistent and well managed , with believable motivation , response and action all around " . However , Jen Chaney of The Washington Post wrote that the episode " brought more narrative developments that didn ’ t make sense " , and Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman stated that aside from Martin 's scenes , " the rest of the episode found us back in scatterbrained plot territory " . Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times liked the episode and described it as " the kind that makes you belly @-@ laugh and chortle and snicker despite your better judgment " .
The introduction of Ricky Martin as David Martinez was welcomed by most reviewers . Futterman wrote that " Ricky Martin carried on the Gwyneth Paltrow tradition of pretty great guest teacher cameos " , and TVLine 's Michael Slezak said that the episode was good " at least whenever Ricky Martin appeared on screen " . VanDerWerff called him " fun and infectious " , and Kate Stanhope of TV Guide said he " showed himself to be a guest star with mucho potential " . Kubicek , though he said Martin was " great at singing " , found him " kind of dull as an actor " , and Canning said Martin " felt out of place " in the episode .
Although Canning wrote that " the writers did a fine job of incorporating the tenure , Will 's terrible Spanish and the songs into the storylines " , Will 's lack of Spanish skills was questioned by other reviewers . Entertainment Weekly 's Joseph Brannigan Lynch said this did not " seem to gel with the passionate Will Schuester I remember from season 1 " , and Slezak expressed surprise that " he hadn 't even mastered the basics of the language ! " , as did Chaney . Slezak also said Will , as evidenced by his " La Cucaracha " rendition for his class , was " suddenly dumb as the cardboard box that Finn winningly turned into a robot head " , and Chaney commented , " Mr. Schuester always seemed a bit more sensitive than this . " VanDerWerff wrote of " the weird , dark despair at the heart of Will 's plight : He 's a high school Spanish teacher , and he mostly is that because he doesn 't know what else to do . " He added , " I think this was probably the best episode for the character since early season one . " Canning stated that " the tension between Will and Emma was a welcome change " , and Votta commented on the episode 's less dramatic ending with Will 's apology and " celebrating Emma 's new @-@ found tenure with a dinner " with the conclusion , " sometimes you don 't need a big bang to get oomph out of an episode " . Chaney , however , was puzzled as to why Emma was given teaching tenure " when she 's been working at McKinley as a guidance counselor and handing out absolutely horrifying self @-@ made pamphlets " .
The scene between Sue and Roz was singled out by many reviewers . Bell wrote that she was " really loving the feisty dynamic " between them , and that it was " about time that Sue had a proper sparing partner " . Flandez called Roz " the delightfully colorful synchronized swimming teacher " , and said her " scathing remarks were expertly delivered " and that there were " too many good lines to savor " . Futterman said Roz reminded her of " what an entertaining spitfire Sue was during season one " , and that Sue is " a shadow of [ her ] former self " as evidenced by the fact that Roz has not been a victim of Sue 's " evil planning " . Lynch described the encounter as " one of the episode highlights " , though he felt that " the writers overdid it a touch " when Sue " barely got in any retorts " against Roz . Reiter called Roz " a great addition to the cast of characters " and Leakes " spot @-@ on " in the role , also hearkening back to the early Sue . Kubicek said he " might like this subplot " if Leakes did not mistake " shouting for acting " , and Slezak commented on Roz 's " particularly abhorrent assessment of Sue ’ s reproductive abilities " . Votta , however , declared that the show " should never let NeNe go " , and said she " delivers some of the best lines ever " . Chaney and Slezak thought that Sue should have been fired immediately for requesting sperm donations from New Directions males , while Lynch merely deemed it a possible detriment to her tenure bid . Kubicek thought the pregnancy storyline should move forward " because Sue becoming a mommy has comedic potential written all over it " .
A " highlight " for Lynch was the scene where Kurt , Mercedes and Rachel were watching Twilight together , not only because the " friendship between Kurt and Mercedes " has been " sadly downplayed " , but because it was " nice to see the Glee kids just being kids sometimes " . The subsequent conversation between Kurt and Finn in the locker room was described by Canning as " one of the truest moments of the season so far " . Votta wrote , " Chris Colfer and Cory Monteith often shine together in scenes , especially one @-@ on @-@ one , and this is no exception . " Another duo that reviewers complimented was Mercedes and Sam . Futterman , while she criticized the episode for setting " its scope too wide " , credited their storyline as the " only one played out strongly enough through dialogue and song " . Votta stated that " Glee is getting more romantic tension mileage out of this duo than you can shake a stick at , and it 's delicious , especially with Valentine 's around the corner " , and Canning noted that their week @-@ long verbal silence " helped build their relationship into something we care more about " . Chaney , however , could not see the sense in Mercedes bringing Sam with her " to see Miss Pillsbury to sort out her conflicted feelings for Sam and Shane " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The musical performances received a mixed response from reviewers . Votta said that " the songs were mostly forgettable and generally useless to advancing the plot " , and Canning maintained that " the music this week was just okay " . Although VanDerWerff called the musical numbers " mostly superfluous " , he described many of them as " pretty fun " , while Bobby Hankinson of The Houston Chronicle said he " wasn ’ t incredibly moved by this week ’ s Spanish @-@ flavored selections " .
" Sexy and I Know It " was reviewed positively by HuffPost TV 's Crystal Bell , who cited Martin 's " incredibly sexy performance " . Slezak gave the number an enthusiastic " Oh dear God , please yes " , " bonus points " and an " A " grade . Chaney declared that " Martin did what he does very well : dance and sing with high intensity " , though she wished " they had chosen a better song " and gave it a " B − " ; the latter sentiment was echoed by Lynch , who called the song " idiotic " and gave it a slightly lower " C + " . Futterman characterized it as a " rousing number that toes the line of being too risque for a high school classroom " , though Kubicek thought that having " a teacher grinding with students " was " wildly inappropriate " if " hot and pretty entertaining " . MTV 's Kevin P. Sullivan , however , called it " one of the most eye @-@ brow @-@ raising musical numbers " in the show 's history , " bizarre " , and " a Rory @-@ dancing , Finn @-@ flailing fail " . VanDerWerff was also critical , and described it as " dumb and stupid and wrong " .
Slezak stated that " Mercedes ' musical moments in Season 3 have been really strong " and that " Don 't Wanna Lose You " was " no exception " ; he gave it a " B + " grade . Lynch gave an " A – " and wrote , " It 's been a treat to hear her develop the softer side of her voice . " Chaney said that " the number was fine , just not particularly interesting " and gave it a " C " , but Futterman declared that Mercedes " brings a richness and power and commendable Spanish pronunciation to Gloria Estefan 's song " . Lynch called the " Bamboleo " / " Hero " mash @-@ up " another Samcedes winner " and gave it a " B " , and Chaney said it was a " fun choice " that " would have been a fun number " without the " constant " focus on the hipster boots , and graded it " C + " . Sullivan agreed that the boots were better not seen , but that " the song actually worked " ; he also noted that " Sam can sound a hell of a lot like " Iglesias . Futterman also heard the resemblance between Sam and Iglesias , though she said " the performance lacks the fire and sex appeal of the originals " . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal described it as " the corniest number in several seasons " .
Futterman called " La Isla Bonita " the " best number of the night " . She added that it " mixes slick dance moves and spot @-@ on singing with perhaps a touch too much sexual tension for a student / teacher pairing " . Slezak said that " the harmonies were sweet , and the dancing was sexy without crossing the line into disturbing April – October territory " and gave it an " A − " . Votta wrote that " the pair don 't have any chemistry " , but that " they 're both very pretty to look at and listen to " and " their interpretation of Latin culture is modern and sexy " . Both Chaney and Lynch noted what she called " inexplicably high production values " ; the fact that " these two looked great together " , danced the merengue " beautifully " and " sounded smooth " drew a " B + " grade from her , while his " B " was given because " the dancing wowed but their voices just didn 't connect for me on this empty club version " .
The two songs performed by Will Schuester received the most negative reviews . Chaney described " La Cucaracha " as " mercifully brief " , and Slezak gave it an " F " for being not only " intentionally awful " but " awful @-@ awful " . Chaney was more generously inclined toward " A Little Less Conversation " . She wrote , " Matthew Morrison managed to give his all to this Spanish @-@ infused Elvis Presley cover , even though he looked pretty ridiculous in that matador outfit " , and gave it a " B " . Futterman stated that the performance reached " a new low " with the appearance of " Mike and Brittany as his bulls " , and Lynch said that the number " was supposed to suck " and " did its job well " ; even so , he gave it a " C − " . Slezak gave a one @-@ word summation to accompany his " D " grade : " No . "
= = = Chart history = = =
Two of the episode 's five released singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 : " Sexy and I Know It " debuted at number eighty @-@ three and " La Isla Bonita " at number ninety @-@ nine . The second of those songs , " La Isla Bonita " , also debuted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 at number ninety @-@ three , and was the one song from the episode to appear on that chart .
= The Almost People =
" The Almost People " is the sixth episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , and was first broadcast on BBC One on 28 May 2011 . It is the second episode of a two @-@ part story written by Matthew Graham and directed by Julian Simpson which began with " The Rebel Flesh " .
Following from " The Rebel Flesh " , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) are on an acid @-@ pumping factory on a remote island in the 22nd century where the crew of the factory create " Gangers " , the Flesh duplicates they control . However , a solar storm has caused the Gangers to become conscious , and the Doctor must prevent a war breaking out between the humans and Gangers .
" The Almost People " ends on a cliffhanger which brings several plot threads of the series to a head . The two @-@ part story was filmed through November 2010 to January 2011 , mainly at Caerphilly Castle . The Gangers were achieved with the aid of prosthetics , as well as computer @-@ generated imagery for their contortions . " The Almost People " also features a Flesh double of the Doctor , which marked Smith 's first time in prosthetic make @-@ up . The episode was watched by 6 @.@ 72 million viewers in the UK and received mixed reviews from critics , many noting that the cliffhanger overshadowed the actual story of the episode .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
Following from " The Rebel Flesh " , the Doctor , Amy , Rory and Foreman Cleaves and her staff of a hazardous acid factory housed in an old island monastery have discovered that several " Gangers " of the plant crew exist , created from a living organic liquid called the Flesh as a result of a recent solar tsunami . The Gangers have turned against their human counterparts , forcing the humans to take shelter in a secured commons area . There , they discover that a Ganger of the Doctor exists , differing only from the real Doctor by his shoes . Though the Ganger Doctor appears ready to help the crew to contact the mainland to request rescue , Amy is distrustful of the being , particularly after it advances on her after she asks about the Doctor 's death she witnessed ( " The Impossible Astronaut " ) . Eventually , Cleaves orders the two Doctors separated ; the Ganger Doctor and another crewman go looking for Rory , who had gone off alone to find the emotionally distraught Jennifer , another of Cleaves ' crew .
Meanwhile , the other gangers have regrouped , led by Ganger Cleaves . She realizes that she is suffering from the same terminal illness that the human Cleaves is suffering , and questions their need to kill their counterparts . The group is spurred on by Ganger Jennifer who insists the humans must die . As Ganger Cleaves orders her group to stay one step ahead of the humans , the Ganger Jennifer kills the real Jennifer , and then stages a fight with another Ganger Jennifer to fool Rory that she is the human version . Ganger Jennifer leads Rory to a console , claiming it will restore power when instead it disables the cooling system for the acid , making it dangerously unstable . She then convinces Rory to lead the human group into the acid storage chamber and traps them inside ; crewman Jimmy is killed trying to stall the acid release .
Later , the Ganger Doctor has met with the other Gangers , and discovers their unwillingness to proceed . The Ganger Doctor uses the opportune call of Jimmy 's son on his birthday to convince the Ganger Jimmy and the other gangers they are just as real as their human counterparts . Ganger Jennifer becomes furious at this display and rages off ; the other Gangers agree to work with the humans to escape the facility . They free the humans trapped in the acid storage room , and race off through the crypts below the monastery , chased by a savage Ganger Jennifer who has transformed herself into a monster . Both Ganger and human sacrifice themselves to stall the monster while letting the rest of the group escape . They eventually come onto a room where the TARDIS , having been trapped in a pool of acid outside , has fallen into the crypt . Ganger Cleaves offers to hold the door to allow the rest to escape , and the Doctor soon joins her , stunning Amy . To Amy 's surprise , the Doctor reveals that he and his Ganger had switched shoes long ago ; Amy 's distrust of the Ganger was completely misplaced . Amy apologizes to the Ganger Doctor , who accepts but warns her to " push , Amy , but only when she tells you to " . As the surviving humans and Gangers escape to the TARDIS , the Cleaves and Doctor Gangers together face the monster , triggering a sonic screwdriver at the right moment to cause them and the monster to dissolve back into liquid .
Aboard the TARDIS , the Doctor indefinitely stabilizes the Gangers ' forms , while providing Cleaves a cure to her terminal condition . He drops the factory crew at their headquarters where they plan to reveal the truth of the Flesh to humanity . As the TARDIS crew turns to leave , Amy starts feeling contractions . Back aboard the TARDIS , the Doctor admits his trip to the factory was planned : he wanted to investigate the Flesh in its raw form , as he has known for some time that Amy is a Ganger herself . He promises her that he will find her and then disrupts her form , turning her back to raw Flesh . Amy wakes in a pristine white tube ; a slot opens on a wall revealing the " Eye Patch Lady " , who informs Amy she is " ready to pop , aren 't you " . Amy looks down at herself , finding herself fully pregnant , and starts entering labour .
= = = Continuity = = =
While struggling with his past regenerations , the Doctor 's Ganger alludes to several previous Doctors ' words . He misquotes the First Doctor 's line " one day we shall get back ... yes , one day " from An Unearthly Child as " one day we will get back " ; quotes the Third Doctor 's catchphrase " reverse the polarity of the neutron flow " ; and speaks with the voices of the Fourth and Tenth Doctors ( Tom Baker and David Tennant , respectively ) , the former expressing that Doctor 's fondness for jelly babies . Growing frustrated by the humans ' distrust of him , the Doctor asks both Amy and Cleaves ' Gangers to refer to him as " John Smith " . This is an alias the Doctor has used on several occasions , beginning with The Wheel in Space ( 1968 ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Matthew Graham was originally scheduled to write a single episode for the previous series , but withdrew because he did not have enough time to finish the script . Showrunner Steven Moffat e @-@ mailed him asking for him to write for the next series , and Graham agreed . When the two met , Moffat said he would like the episodes to lead into the mid @-@ series finale and that it should deal with " avatars that rebel " . After Graham had finished his script Moffat had the idea of what would need to happen at the end of " The Almost People " to lead into the next episode and gave Graham the premise for the cliffhanger , which Graham " loved " . With " The Almost People " , Graham avoided creating similar situations that had happened in " The Rebel Flesh " . He originally intended on setting " The Almost People " in a different location to " throw everybody " , but decided that would be unnecessary .
Graham found writing for two Doctors easy , as Smith 's Doctor had a constant " internal dialogue " and was always finishing his own sentences . He wanted each character to be different and did not want all of them to become evil , and the Doctor would help them discover their humanity . Graham wanted Jennifer to be the antagonist as he liked the idea of the quietest character becoming the most evil . The original script explained that she has a perfect memory , and so her Ganger was able to remember every terrible thing that had happened to the Flesh . Several other sequences were
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also produced images elsewhere in the country . Rossier is an important figure in the early history of photography not only because of his own images , but also because of the critical impact of his teaching in the early days of Japanese photography .
= = Identity and origins = =
Until very recently , little was known about Rossier ; even his given name was a mystery . In his own time he was sometimes referred to as " P. Rossier " and at other times as " M. Rossier " . Documents discovered in the Fribourg town archives finally proved that his given name was Pierre , and it can be assumed that the " M " in " M. Rossier " stood for " Monsieur " . He was long thought to be from France and while he was in Japan he was even referred to as an " Englishman " ; however , recent research has revealed that Rossier was Swiss , born on 16 July 1829 in Grandsivaz , a small village in the Canton of Fribourg . He was the fourth of ten children of a farming family of modest means . At the age of sixteen he became a teacher at a school in a neighbouring village , but by 1855 he was issued a passport to visit France and England to work as a photographer .
At some point after leaving Switzerland and arriving in England , Rossier was commissioned by the firm of Negretti and Zambra to travel to China to photograph the Second Opium War ( 1858 – 1860 ) . It may be that the firm considered Rossier 's Swiss citizenship an asset for such a voyage , that his country 's neutrality might help him find passage aboard either British or French ships . Taking into account the high costs and uncertainty incurred by the firm and the potential hazards for Rossier himself , this was an important commission .
= = Photographing in Asia = =
Rossier was in Hong Kong in 1858 , and he soon began taking photographs , mostly in and around Canton ( now Guangzhou ) . In November 1859 Negretti and Zambra published a set of fifty of Rossier 's views , including stereographs . These received favourable reviews in photographic periodicals of the day . In 1858 or 1859 Rossier travelled to the Philippines where he visited and photographed the Taal Volcano . Rossier was in Japan by 1859 , producing photographs first in Nagasaki , then in Kanagawa , Yokohama and Edo ( now Tokyo ) ; he was the first professional photographer to arrive in Japan . One of the photographs Rossier took during the summer of 1859 , while in Nagasaki , was a portrait of Philipp Franz von Siebold 's son Alexander and a group of samurai from the Nabeshima clan .
At the end of June 1860 , Rossier was in Shanghai , and it is likely that he visited the city in an attempt to gain permission to accompany the Anglo @-@ French military expedition that had already arrived in northern China and thereby fulfill his commission to document the Second Opium War . If so , he was unsuccessful ; both forces had already hired photographers to document the mission . The British forces were accompanied by the photographers Felice Beato and John Papillon , and the French by Antoine Fauchery , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Du Pin , and possibly also by Louis Legrand . Although Rossier failed even to embark on the mission he had been hired to document , he remained in East Asia for some time longer .
By October 1860 , Rossier had returned to Nagasaki , where he took photographs of the harbour on behalf of the British Consul , George S. Morrison , for which Rossier was paid $ 70 . Although Rossier 's photographs of Japan were advertised by Negretti and Zambra on at least two occasions in 1860 , the firm did not publish them until October or November 1861 . Five of Rossier 's views of Japan appeared earlier , in George Smith 's book , Ten Weeks in Japan , in April 1861 , and that July , eight of Rossier 's Japan photographs appeared in the form of lithographs in Henry Arthur Tilley 's book , Japan , the Amoor , and the Pacific . An 1861 edition of the Illustrated London News included several engravings under the collective title Domestic Life in China , the images having been taken from Rossier 's stereographs . One of the photographs Negretti and Zambra had advertised in 1860 became the first commercial photograph taken in Japan to be published , and is the earliest known hand @-@ coloured Japanese photograph .
Thanks to a number of documents of the time , it is now certain that Negretti and Zambra 's photographs of China and Japan were taken by Rossier , but for many years it was thought that they might have been taken by either Walter B. Woodbury , who also had dealings with Negretti and Zambra but was based in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) , or Abel Gower , who was an amateur photographer in Japan . Interestingly , the Leiden University photograph collection includes a portrait , allegedly of Gower , signed " P. Rossier " , and in 1859 Rossier and Gower shared passage aboard HMS Sampson from Nagasaki to Edo .
= = Teaching photography = =
Rossier first arrived in Japan in 1859 , at a time when early experiments in photography were being conducted in Kyūshū , particularly in Nagasaki . The city was the centre of rangaku , the study of Western science , and it was here that physicians Jan Karel van den Broek and J. L. C. Pompe van Meerdervoort were instrumental in teaching their Japanese students not only medicine but also chemistry and photography . Neither Van den Broek nor Pompe van Meerdervoort was an experienced photographer , and their attempts to produce photographs were largely failures . Nevertheless , in turn they taught wet @-@ collodion process photography to Keisai Yoshio , Furukawa Shumpei , Kawano Teizō , Maeda Genzō , Ueno Hikoma , and Horie Kuwajirō , among others .
On his arrival in Japan , Rossier presumably introduced himself as a photographer despatched to Japan by Negretti and Zambra , perhaps thereby inspiring a misconception , for while he remained in the country he was often referred to as an " English " photographer . In Nagasaki , Rossier was assisted in his work by Maeda Genzō , who had been instructed to accompany the " Englishman " and to further learn photography . With Maeda and other students escorting him around the city , Rossier took photographs of priests , beggars , the audience of a sumo match , the foreign settlement , and the group portrait of Alexander von Siebold and samurai . Rossier believed that Pompe van Meerdervoort 's failures in photography were due to a lack of the necessary chemicals and so he provided Maeda with a letter of recommendation to procure photographic apparatus and chemicals from a source in Shanghai . Both Maeda and Furukawa bought lenses , chemicals and albumen paper through Rossier .
At this time , Ueno Hikoma and Horie Kuwajirō also received photographic instruction from Rossier . Apparently Ueno had originally intended to learn not only the practice of photography but also the manufacture of cameras . The encounter with Rossier seems to have convinced Ueno to pursue photography as a career , but he was so overwhelmed by the technology of the camera that he quickly dropped the notion of making one himself . Within a few months , he and Horie had purchased a French camera and chemicals , thereafter launching their independent photographic careers .
Although Rossier 's time in Japan was brief and the surviving photographic legacy of his sojourn is scant , he nevertheless had a lasting impact on photography in the country .
= = Later years and legacy = =
In 1861 , Rossier was in Siam , where he assisted the French zoologist Firmin Bocourt by taking ethnographic portraits for the latter 's scientific expedition of 1861 – 1862 , and in 1863 , Negretti and Zambra issued a series of 30 stereographic portraits and landscapes taken in Siam that are almost certainly the work of Rossier . In February 1862 , Rossier was again in Shanghai , where he sold his cameras and other photographic equipment before embarking for Europe . During his time in Asia it is possible that Rossier photographed in India ; Negretti and Zambra issued a series of views of India at about the same time as Rossier 's China views .
Rossier returned to Switzerland in early 1862 and , in October 1865 , married Catharine Barbe Kaelin ( 1843 – 1867 ) . The couple had a son , Christophe Marie Pierre Joseph , who was born on 30 July 1866 . Catharine died on 4 April 1867 .
Rossier maintained a photographic studio in Fribourg until at least 1876 and he also had a studio in Einsiedeln . During the 1860s and 1870s , he produced a number of stereographs and cartes @-@ de @-@ visite comprising portraits and views of Fribourg , Einsiedeln and other places in Switzerland . An 1871 advertisement in the French @-@ language Fribourg newspaper La Liberté offered photographs by Rossier of religious paintings by the artist Melchior Paul von Deschwanden . In 1872 , Rossier applied for a passport to travel to France where he may have produced photographs . At some point between 1871 and 1884 , he married again . His second wife , Marie Virginie Overney , was employed as a household servant by the landlords of his studio . They had a son , Joseph Louis , who was born in Paris on 16 March 1884 , and who went on to own a café in Vevey , Switzerland . He died in 1927 .
Pierre Rossier died in Paris some time between 1883 and 1898 .
Examples of Rossier 's views of Switzerland are held in several institutions and private collections in that country . Rossier took the first commercial photographs of China and Japan , and they are now quite rare . He complained at times of the adverse effects of the climate on his photographic chemicals and some of his negatives may have been damaged en route to London from Asia . Though his surviving images are scarce , his importance to the early history of photography in Asia is great . Before his arrival in Japan in 1859 , Japanese students of photography had struggled to produce satisfactory images , but Rossier 's experience , instruction , and contacts with suppliers of photographic materials were extremely helpful in the development of an autonomous photographic tradition in Japan .
= Madonna ( book ) =
Madonna is a biography by English author Andrew Morton , chronicling the life of American recording artist Madonna . The book was released in November 2001 by St. Martin 's Press in the United States and in April 2002 by Michael O 'Mara Books in the United Kingdom . Morton decided to write a biography on Madonna in 2000 . The release was announced in April 2001 by St. Martin 's Press . President and publisher Sally Richardson described the biography to contain details about Madonna 's ambitions , her relationships and her lifestyle .
Morton interviewed about 70 people who had known Madonna since her youth . He had to spend a lot of evenings in bars and clubs in New York chatting to people — including artists , musicians , and directors — who had an interesting perspective on Madonna and the world . After its release , Madonna received mixed reviews from contemporary critics , who pointed out Morton 's poor writing skills and felt that the book did not present anything new about the singer . The book was a commercial disappointment . In the United States , the book reached eight on The New York Times Best Seller list , and sold half of its initial print .
Madonna herself was critical of Morton writing a biography on her life , and sent a letter to him , asking him to stay away from her family and friends . Morton remained unabashed , saying that he wrote the book because of his interest in the star , not least because she has made a " difference " to pop culture and modern culture . In 2004 , a lawsuit was filed against the author by Jim Albright , one of Madonna 's ex @-@ lovers mentioned in the book . The lawsuit regarded an image in the book , portraying one of Madonna 's gay dancers — with Albright 's name underneath . United States District Court ruled out the lawsuit explaining that stating someone is homosexual does not libel or slander them .
= = Summary = =
The book opens with Madonna 's birth , her early years in Michigan , and her 1977 move to New York City where she was involved with modern dance , two pop groups , composing , and releasing her 1983 debut album , Madonna . Her rise to superstardom as a pop icon is chronicled and her cutting edge music videos , albums , first concert tour , film roles , and marriage and divorce to Sean Penn are examined . The book investigates her controversial religious imagery and her erotic productions , Erotica , Sex , and Body of Evidence . The book describes a mellowing in her appearance and provocativeness , and , among other things , the release of her next several albums , her Golden Globe Award @-@ winning musical film portrayal of Eva Peron , and her high @-@ grossing Drowned World Tour . The birth of her daughter and son are chronicled and her marriage to Guy Ritchie . Madonna includes detailed descriptions of her relationships with people including John F. Kennedy , Jr. and Michael Jackson .
= = Writing and development = =
American journalist and celebrity biographer Andrew Morton is known for his works on Diana , Princess of Wales , Monica Lewinsky and footballer David Beckham and his wife , Victoria . In October 2000 , Morton had hinted that he had American recording artist Madonna as his next project , when he responded to an Independent reader in " You Ask the Questions " section . Asked who he would most like to write a biography of , he said : " I 've always admired Madonna as an intriguing and charismatic character who has been able to stay at the top for 20 years . " A formal announcement was made by Morton 's UK publicist Michael O 'Mara in April 2001 , that Morton had secured access to " those in her [ Madonna 's ] inner circle , who have never been interviewed before , about her ambitions , lifestyle and relationships . " O 'Mara added the reason for choosing Madonna was because she was " one of the most enigmatic and fascinating women of our time , [ and ] is the undisputed female icon of the modern age . "
The biography 's American publishing rights were acquired by St. Martin 's Press . President and publisher Sally Richardson described the biography to contain details about Madonna 's ambitions , her relationships and her lifestyle . Richardson added that " Andrew loves complicated women , and has a genius for getting into their psyche and telling the world what makes them tick . " Scheduled for release in November 2001 , St. Martin 's Press added that about 500 @,@ 000 copies of the first print were ordered , and Morton received a six figure undisclosed amount as advance for writing the book . Madonna had always wanted to protect her privacy and reports had initially suggested that she was furious that Morton had decided to write the book , and commanded her friends and relatives not to give any interview to him . She added , " I don 't want anyone talking to that snivelling little worm . How dare he invade my privacy ? "
With the BBC , Morton detailed his " detective work " researching Madonna 's life in New York , where she clambered her way up to fame and fortune . " Not only is she an interesting character , but all her friends and those who 've known her are interesting characters too , " he said . Morton had to spend a lot of evenings in bars and clubs in New York chatting to people — including artists , musicians , directors — who had an interesting perspective on Madonna and the world . He interviewed about 70 people who had known Madonna since her youth . " I think I 've come up with a very fresh picture , " he said , adding that Dan Gilroy of Breakfast Club , who had introduced Madonna to the music world , had e @-@ mailed him saying the biography had " really captured Madonna 's spirit " .
= = Critical response = =
The book received mixed reviews . Richard Lautens from Toronto Star said that " Madonna is a thorough , if slightly workmanlike , retelling of its namesake 's well @-@ documented slog from lowly Midwestern beginnings to squeaky @-@ voiced sex kitten to professional button @-@ pusher to mother and respected , vaguely Bowie @-@ esque , chameleonic figure , a cultural bloodhound always on the scent of the fresh , cool and credible . " Helen Bushby from BBC commented that " [ t ] he book is certainly detailed , and will no doubt keep Madonna fanatics happy , although it is perhaps more of a reference book than a page @-@ turner . But Morton is a good businessman , and is canny in his choice of subjects . " Michael Sneed from Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave a negative review of the book and felt that Morton 's previous works had been better . George Rush from New York Daily News commented : " Despite her best efforts to discourage friends from cooperating with him , Andrew Morton has come forth with a book that portrays Madge as an insecure manipulator so ravenous for affection that she scared off some boyfriends , cheated on most of them and made a lot of foolish choices . " In another review , Sherryl Connelly from the same publication was of the opinion that Madonna was mostly similar to J. Randy Taraborrelli 's biography on her , Madonna : An Intimate Biography . She added , " At least , it 's the story made familiar by Madonna , a woman who has always taken for granted the world 's interest in her life . "
Rick Thames , editor of The Charlotte Observer , criticized the book 's packaging calling the cover as " tacky , hot pink @-@ and @-@ acid green sleeves , featuring an unflattering photo of the dished artist . " Barry Didcock from Sunday Herald felt that " Morton [ had failed ] to find the face of Madonna . " He criticized Morton 's sketchy portrayal of Madonna 's relationship with deceased painter Jean @-@ Michel Basquiat , saying " he commits an error by doing so because , unusually for Madonna , this was a relationship of equals . " Gregg Barrios from Daily Star was critical of the book , saying " The fatal flaw of these quickie knockoffs is that they have no real ending or any way of predicting what the fates have in store for Madonna Louise Penn [ Guy Ritchie ] nee Ciccone . Once the next Madonna tour , CD , marriage or film appears , their shelf life is cut short . " Barbara Ellen from The Guardian criticized Morton 's writing by saying , " Andrew Morton achieves the implausible : he takes an interesting woman and an astonishing life and makes them both seem incredibly boring in his life of Madonna .... Once you get used to Morton 's pace ( dull plod , with occasional snooze ) , it becomes quite amusing joining him on the journey , a bit like watching someone dragging a dead body around , trying to find some place to hide it . Even luminaries such as Madonna exes Sean Penn and Warren Beatty are reduced to flailing around like disenfranchised phantoms in the shallows of Morton 's blandly automatic insight . "
= = Commercial reception = =
Madonna was released in hardback in the United States in November 2001 . It debuted at position 15 on The New York Times Best Seller list , and reached eight the next week , but was present there for only two weeks . It was a commercial disappointment , failing to sell even close to its initial print @-@ run of 500 @,@ 000 . According to Nielsen BookScan , Madonna has sold around 240 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
Madonna was still livid that Morton wrote the book without her permission , even saying " It 's not a well @-@ written book . We all know he wrote it for financial gain and the truth had little to do with it " , after the book was released . With Jo Whiley from BBC Radio 1 , she added that " [ Morton ] really went through my Rolodex and that part was really annoying , and I ended up writing him a letter saying , ' I 'm not interested in you writing this book , I don 't want to have anything to do with it – and please leave my friends alone ' . " The singer said that she had even sent Morton a book of philosophy — The Power of Kabbalah — to try to dissuade him from continuing . " It 's a beginner 's crash course in what it 's all about – that eventually in some way shape or form it would come back round to him , but he either didn 't read it or didn 't care , " Madonna added . During the Drowned World Tour of 2001 , Madonna was asked whether she had really sent the book for Morton 's well @-@ being . She replied sarcastically : " Why yes , I always send bibles and philosophy books to my biographers . " Motioning to her then husband Guy Ritchie she continued , " Just ask my husband , he 'll tell you that my greatest concern these days is not this fucking tour , or him or even our kids , why , it 's Andrew Morton 's spiritual enlightment of course . " Her publicist Liz Rosenberg released a statement that " None of this [ things in the biography ] is true . I never saw a groom walk down an aisle with a bigger smile than Guy Ritchie , " adding that Morton 's claims were a retread of " tired old gossip . It 's same old , same old . " Morton remained unabashed , saying that he wrote the book because of his interest in the star , not least because she has made a " difference " to pop culture and modern culture . He added :
" I 'm very proud of the book and I 'm very disappointed at Madonna 's reaction . I think the problem is that she wants control over everything – that 's one of the themes of the book , and secondly she seems to be almost disowning her past at the moment . She 's reinventing herself as an upper @-@ class , English aristocrat , and the former vegetarian who now goes hunting , fishing and shooting . My door 's always open – Madonna 's welcome to my house for a cup of tea . She said she wasn 't interested in doing any kind of biography or anything ever , which is a bit of a stern statement from someone who has been so out there . It doesn 't matter whether it 's me , Norman Mailer , whoever . I was disappointed because I felt that we 've only ever seen the caricature , the cartoon version of Madonna and I really wanted to show that she is a considerable artist and that she is more than anything that has been written about her in the past . I think for her it is an opportunity missed
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= = Lawsuit = =
Madonna faced a lawsuit in 2004 over an image in the book . Titled Amarak Productions , Inc. vs. Morton , Madonna 's former bodyguard and ex @-@ lover Jim Albright brought a defamation case against Morton , based on an incorrect photo caption . The photo had a caption identifying the subject in it as Albright ; it was actually one of Madonna 's homosexual back @-@ up dancers , Jose Gutierez . Amarak Productions , Inc. had employed Albright as Madonna 's bodyguard in 1992 , and he became romantically involved with her . While writing Madonna , Morton contacted Albright to gather information on their relationship . On discovering the misleading image , the lawsuit was filed by Albright who objected to the caption .
On 30 May 2004 , US District judge Nancy Gertner ruled out the lawsuit explaining that stating someone is homosexual does not libel or slander them , particularly in light of new court decisions granting gays more rights . Gertner first rejected the idea that the mistake in captioning constituted a statement that Albright was gay . She added : " Private biases may be outside the reach of the law , but the law cannot , directly or indirectly give them effect . In this day and age , recent rulings by the Supreme Court and the Supreme Judiciary Court of Massachusetts undermine any suggestion that a statement implying that an individual is homosexual is defamatory .
= = Publication history = =
= City of London School =
The City of London School , also known as CLS and City , is an independent day school for boys in the City of London , England , on the banks of the River Thames next to the Millennium Bridge . It is the brother school of the City of London School for Girls and a member of the Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference ( HMC ) .
The School was founded by a private Act of Parliament in 1834 , following a bequest of land in 1442 for poor children in the City of London . The original school was established at Milk Street , moving to the Victoria Embankment in 1879 and its present site on Queen Victoria Street in 1986 .
The school provides day education to about 900 boys aged 10 to 18 and employs approximately 100 teaching staff and around another 100 non @-@ teaching staff . The majority of pupils enter at 11 , some at 13 and some at 16 into the Sixth form . There is a small intake at 10 into Old Grammar , a year group consisting of two classes equivalent to primary school Year 6 . Admissions are based on an entrance examination and an interview .
Among Old Citizens who have attained eminence in various fields are Prime Minister Herbert Asquith , the First World War hero Theodore Bayley Hardy , Nobel Prize – winning scientists Frederick Gowland Hopkins and Peter Higgs , Justice of the Supreme Court Lawrence Collins , England cricket captain Mike Brearley and Booker Prize @-@ winning authors Kingsley Amis and Julian Barnes .
= = History = =
The City of London School traces its origins to a bequest of land by John Carpenter , town clerk of London . On his death in 1442 , it was found that Carpenter had listed many bequests , most to his relatives but some to charitable causes . There were no bequests listed to directly support the education of boys in the City of London . However , a bequest of land was left to two trusted friends who were aware that Carpenter desired a legacy which would support children , and in turn the land was passed on to John Don , an influential man in the City of London . On his death , Don left his own will incorporating the words used in Carpenter 's bequest of land and his intentions for the land , that it be " for the finding and bringing up of four poor men 's children with meat , drink , apparel , learning at the schools , in the universities , etc . , until they be preferred , and then others in their places for ever . " The four boys became known as Carpenter 's Children .
Little is known of the early years of the legacy . This bequest was administered by the Corporation of London in around 1460 and a small college was founded next to Guildhall Chapel , also using the library facilities in the chapel . Despite the fact that this continued for over 70 years , the earliest certain evidence of the existence of Carpenter 's Children can only be traced back to 1536 , and thus it isn 't clear who these boys were , what they were taught and where they lived . In 1547 , under the Chantries Act the Guildhall Chapel and Library were forfeited . The funding for the four boys was also discontinued . The Corporation of London remained in control of Carpenter 's estate and accounts from the next 300 years show that the money continued to be spent on children 's benefits such as providing new coats to every child or providing them with access to education .
In 1823 , a report published by the Charity Commission revealed that over the centuries , the income from the bequest vastly exceeded the expenses of the boys ' education . In response to the report , the Corporation of London indicated that it had taken , " great pains ... by searching in the archives of the corporation and other places for the will of John Carpenter , without effect " . Had the Corporation instead looked for the will of John Don , it would have received guidance in what to do with the money .
Lacking that guidance , discussions began on how the bequest money should be spent . The City Lands Committee suggested in a report that the bequest should be spent on educating a larger number of boys and this approach was adopted in 1826 . A number of people including Richard Taylor , a printer and an assistant to the founding of University College London , urged the Corporation of London to spend the bequest on creating a day school for the largest possible number of boys . In 1830 , they proposed that the City of London Corporation School be founded with Taylor as a governor , and that the school to be established on the site of the disused London Workhouse . In the mean time , a small number of boys , who became known as Carpenter 's scholars , were sent to Tonbridge School . In 1829 , an Act of Parliament was passed to transform the workhouse into a school and governors were appointed . Conditions at the workhouse site had deteriorated and much money was needed for its maintenance . The only funds available , though , were the same £ 300 ( about £ 22 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) a year budget the workhouse had received .
Over the next few years , the workhouse proposal was seen , by the City of London Lord Mayor 's deputation and the City Lands Committee ( Taylor was a member of both ) , as impractical and alternate schemes were proposed . In 1832 , Warren Stormes Hale , who believed that the Workhouse proposal was not the best use of Carpenter 's legacy , was appointed to the City Lands Committee . He became chairman of the committee in 1833 , and would come to be considered the second founder of the City of London School , after Carpenter .
At this point , the City Lands Committee started to search for better locations for a school . They selected Honey Lane Market , a site on Milk Street , as their preferred location . However , this proposal faced the same funding difficulties as the Workhouse proposal ; only £ 300 per year was available , insufficient to build and maintain a school . This problem was not recognised until the bill to found the school reached the House of Lords . An altered bill was finalised in 1834 , removing any references to the London Workhouse and addressing the Lords ' objections .
The altered bill was passed as an Act of Parliament in 1834 . It was this act which founded the City of London School , which initially had around 400 pupils . The act gave the Corporation of London a duty to maintain a school on the Honey Lane Market site and so gave control over almost every aspect of the school 's running to the Corporation . A committee was also set up to manage the school , with Hale as chairman . Although the committee 's powers were initially limited , they gained more control over time as they made important decisions for the school .
The act gave the new school an annual budget of £ 900 ( around £ 75 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) from the bequest while the governors of the City of London Corporation School , who still wanted to implement their original idea , gained nothing , only retaining the old workhouse income . Both Hale and the Corporation of London were also eager to create this second school , which the governors of the City of London Corporation School had proposed . Despite their efforts , the other school was not founded until 1854 , as the Freemen 's Orphanage School , in Brixton with Hale as chairman . The Freemen 's Orphanage School still exists today as the City of London Freemen 's School in Surrey .
= = = Establishment at Milk Street = = =
The foundation stone of the new school was laid by Lord Brougham at premises in Milk Street , in the City of London near Cheapside , on the site of the old Honey Lane Market , in 1835 and the school opened its doors in 1837 .
The school was remarkable for its time in several respects . It did not discriminate against pupils on the grounds of religious persuasion ( at a time when most public schools had an Anglican emphasis ) ; it included pupils from non @-@ conformist and Jewish families . Also , unlike other established independent schools , it was a day school ( although there were in early days a handful of boarders , no boarding department ever became established ) . It also promoted a practical and progressive scheme of education which was well ahead of its time . It was the first school in England to include science on the curriculum and to include scientific experiments as part of its teaching . It also offered education in commercial subjects . This did not , however , diminish the excellence of its teaching in the subjects traditionally favoured by independent schools , and it sent classical and mathematical scholars to Oxford and Cambridge throughout the nineteenth century . These included the mathematician Edwin Abbott Abbott ( whose exploration of a world in other than three dimensions , Flatland , is still in print and who returned to the school as headmaster ) and H. H. Asquith , who though educated as a classical scholar went on to become the British Prime Minister .
= = = Move to Blackfriars = = =
The school eventually outgrew its original site . While many public schools moved away from Greater London in the late Nineteenth Century , a joint decision was made by the school 's management and the school committee to stay in the capital as it was deemed a stimulating environment for education by many . By a further Act of Parliament ( the City of London School Act 1879 ) , it was empowered to move to a new site at Blackfriars on the Victoria Embankment overlooking the Thames ( still in the City of London ) . The school moved in 1883 and the new building was opened by the Prince of Wales , ( the future Edward VII ) .
In 1920 , an arrangement was made whereby all the boy choristers of the Temple Church , were given scholarships at the City of London School . In 1926 , this arrangement was extended to the boy choristers of the Chapel Royal at St. James 's Palace . The choristers included Ernest Lough whose recording of Mendelssohn 's " O for the Wings of a Dove " with the Temple Choir in 1927 made him world famous ; it was the first classical record to sell ( by 1962 ) more than a million copies . Other musicians educated at the City of London School include the cellist Steven Isserlis .
= = = Second World War = = =
In 1938 , the headmaster F.R. Dale made an agreement with George Turner , headmaster of Marlborough College , to evacuate the school there , if it became necessary . On 1 September 1939 following the German invasion of Poland and the start of the Second World War , the majority of the school were sent to Marlborough College by train .
Accommodation was not provided in the agreement with Marlborough College and so Turner wrote to the Mayor of Marlborough to request accommodation in town . Many of the accommodation billets were occupied by soldiers and women working for the Ministry of Health at the time and so for the first night , the boys slept in the gymnasium of the school , before moving into the town 's billets the following night .
When the Marlborough term began , an arrangement was made whereby City of London boys had lessons during games for Marlborough College pupils and vice versa . The difficulties at the Marlborough location ranged from finding a study for Headmaster Dale to finding enough kitchen staff to prepare food for both schools . Resources were limited and outbreaks of influenza and rubella were common . Like many other schools evacuated into the countryside , the City of London School 's enrolment fell from 700 to 430 during the war , although no pupil was killed or injured as a direct result of enemy fire .
The arrangements at Marlborough College gave pupils the opportunity to strengthen the school 's clubs and societies . This included a dramatic society , in which Kingsley Amis played a large part .
Marlborough College itself experienced some threat from the war . The Ministry of Aircraft Production had also relocated there , and in 1942 , bombs fell nearby . By 1944 , with the war settling down , the City of London School returned to its home on the Victoria Embankment , which had suffered no structural damage during the Blitz . Air raid shelters were built on site as a precautionary measure .
Soon after the building reopened , a bomb fell on the nearby Law Courts , and the staff sent pupils home for a week . However , some pupils were due to take public exams . After Marlborough College refused permission to take the exams there , it was decided that boys would take the Higher Certificate papers in the Guildhall Crypt .
It took the school over five years to fully recover from the effects of the war . Many Old Citizens had lost their lives fighting in the war . Today , a memorial exists on the school 's current grounds to remember those Old Citizens who had lost their lives in both the Second World War and the First World War . An annual remembrance service , involving members of the Combined Cadet Force , is held in November .
= = = Modernisation and move to Queen Victoria Street = = =
The school underwent many changes during its time on the Victoria Embankment . The curriculum had been consolidated at the turn of the century , the Combined Cadet Force was modernised , the house system had been reorganised , the " mission " , what is now the annual charity appeal , had been started and a Community Service Organisation had been set up as an alternative to the Combined Cadet Force . It was compulsory for a boy , above the third form , to serve in one of these organisations for at least four school terms . This is a tradition which still exists today . In 1925 , the school acquired its sports grounds at Grove Park , Lewisham . This site included a pavilion , containing offices , changing rooms , toilets and showers , which was designed , by Old Citizen Ralph Knott , to also be a memorial to those Old Citizens who had lost their lives in the First World War . When J. A. Boyes became headmaster in 1964 , further modernisations were made in the building . As the number of pupils increased over the years , overcrowding became a problem . Headmaster Boyes , believed that a new , modern building was needed for the school , and his efforts managed to secure a site on the banks of the River Thames for a new facility .
In 1986 , the City of London School moved to its present site in purpose @-@ built facilities in Queen Victoria Street ( where it is opposite the College of Arms and just below St Paul 's Cathedral ) on one side and facing onto the banks of the River Thames on the other side . It was officially opened in 1987 by HRH The Princess Anne . The Millennium Bridge is next to the school buildings .
= = Buildings = =
= = = Milk Street ( 1837 – 1883 ) = = =
The original building at Milk Street was designed by architect J.B. Bunning , who was the architect to the City of London and also an Old Citizen of the school . The building was designed in a neo -Gothic Tudor style .
= = = Victoria Embankment ( 1883 – 1987 ) = = =
The Victoria Embankment building , a grand building said to be in the Italian Renaissance style but actually in a high Victorian style with a steep pitched roof resembling that of a French chateau , was designed by Davis and Emanuel and constructed by John Mowlem & Co at a cost exceeding £ 100 @,@ 000 ( about £ 7 @,@ 570 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) . The designers designed the school as " amazingly unscholastic , rather like a permanent Exhibition Palace . "
On the front of the building are statues of Shakespeare , Milton , Bacon , Newton and Sir Thomas More with " the first four emphasising the school 's literary and scientific traditions [ and ] the last being a religious martyr , a famous lawyer and the author of Utopia . "
The building remained the home of the City of London School for a hundred years , although the site expanded to include not only the original building on the Victoria Embankment itself , but a range of buildings at right angles along the whole of John Carpenter Street , which was named after the founder of the school , and further buildings constructed at the back along Tudor Street , with the school playground , Fives courts and cloisters enclosed within the site . These other buildings were demolished when the school moved again in 1986 . Here the school was adjacent to the City of London School for Girls , which was founded by the City of London Corporation as a sister school in 1894 and moved in 1969 to its present site in the Barbican , and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama which has also since moved to the Barbican . It was also next to the traditional home of the British newspaper industry in Fleet Street .
This building still stands and is now protected by a preservation order ; it is presently occupied by the investment bank JPMorgan and it appeared on the left of the famous Thames Television ident for 20 years from 1968 to 1989 . The building still features the school 's name above the door .
= = = Queen Victoria Street ( 1987 – present ) = = =
The present building on Queen Victoria Street was designed by City of London architect Thomas Meddings , an Old Citizen of the school as well as a former Temple Church chorister . It is a wholly modern building , although some of the stained glass and sculptures from the Victoria Embankment building has been relocated to this new building . A design and technology block was added to the building in 1990 , though in 2008 , the block was transformed into a building mainly used by the ICT and music departments , although some design and technology facilities remain . The building was designed on a structural grid and non @-@ load bearing walls were used so that the internal layout of the building could easily be changed when necessary . The school 's design is also slightly unusual in that it was built avoiding a road tunnel in the centre of the premises . This meant that the first and second floors of the building could only be built on either side of the road tunnel . The load on the third floor directly above the road tunnel is also limited and so a courtyard , surrounded by the building , which goes up to the fifth floor , exists in that area . The current building is opened to the public annually on one weekend in September as part of the Open House London event .
The front view of the building beside the River Thames with St Paul 's Cathedral in the background and the Millennium Bridge on the right is occasionally seen in popular media such as in the BBC News 60 @-@ second countdown as well as in an early scene of the 2005 movie , The Constant Gardener and in the 2009 film Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince .
= = School life = =
The school seeks to provide a community " to foster good relationships between members of the staff , the pupils themselves and between members of the staff and pupils " , so that pupils can develop their social confidence as well as thrive on academic excellence . The school 's aims and range of extracurricular activities reflect this ethos .
= = = Houses = = =
City of London School has six Houses . As well as houses named after the founder of the school John Carpenter and former headmaster Edwin Abbott and Mortimer , they include houses named after important Old Citizens or school benefactors including Beaufoy , a philanthropist who donated the sum of £ 10 @,@ 000 ( about £ 540 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) in the eighteenth century , Hale who played a significant role in the school 's founding and Seeley , a famous historian who attended the school . Boys are assigned to a House in the Third Form ( 13 years old ) , which they stay in throughout their school career . There are interhouse events ( e.g. sports , literature among others ) which contribute points to an overall Interhouse Competition that is decided at the end of the year and in which Hale has been very successful .
= = = School uniform = = =
The school requires school uniform for all pupils up to the fifth form . Sixth formers do not have to wear the uniform but they are required to wear suits and the sixth form school tie . The uniform is a blazer with the school crest ( black for winter or maroon with black stripes for summer , though both are now allowed throughout the year ) , white shirt , black trousers , shoes , black socks and school tie which has black and maroon stripes . There are a selection of other ties worn by some pupils ; these are given out as awards for achievements within the school . These include house colours which are awarded to those who have represented their house in multiple events . School colours are awarded to those who have represented the school in multiple events . School colours include junior colours normally awarded to boys in the fourth form and below who have represented the school on a number of occasions , half colours which are awarded to those who have competed in several events for the school , and full colours for those who have shown a good commitment in representing the school . Other ties include the prefects tie for elected prefects , the senior prefects tie for the four senior prefects and the John Carpenter Club tie which is awarded to those who have competed in events at an international level .
= = = Curriculum = = =
In 2013 , the Daily Telegraph placed the school 27th in its League Table of Independent School A @-@ level results , with 73 % of pupils gaining A * or A grades at A @-@ level . Currently around 20 pupils take up places at Oxbridge each year .
Pupils are required to take a minimum of ten GCSE subjects in the fourth and fifth form of which six , Mathematics , English Language , English Literature , Biology , Chemistry and Physics are chosen for all students . The confines on the remaining four options are that one must be a humanity and another a modern foreign language . Additional subjects and qualifications are taken by some students . In 2007 , the school also started offering IGCSE in some subjects .
In the sixth form , boys take four subjects at AS @-@ Level and continue three of those four subjects into their A2 year . Subjects on offer include Geography , History and Politics , Economics , Mathematics , Language and Literature , Modern Languages , Chemistry , Biology , Physics , Drama and Theatre , Classical Languages / Studies , Design and Visual Arts , Religious Education , Information Technology and Physical Education . There is also a programme of PSHE , and games at all levels , and a ICT programme for the first and second forms .
= = = Extracurricular activities = = =
The school offers many extracurricular activities . These include over 50 clubs and societies including a Model United Nations , public speaking and debating society which frequently participates in international competitions , and the Square Mile Club which in the past has attracted notable speakers such as Sir Trevor Macdonald , Brian Paddick , Sir David Pepper and Ian Livingston . Boys themselves can create and manage clubs , with school funding available for activities . There are also trips , opportunities to carry out community service and a Combined Cadet Force . The school also gives boys the opportunity to receive instrumental tuition as well as join music groups including orchestras and choirs . The school also offers sports including Football , Cricket , Basketball , Water polo , Swimming , Sailing , Fencing , Squash , Badminton , Fives , Athletics , Cross @-@ country , Judo , Karate and Indoor rowing . Most of these sports take place on school facilities . Sports such as sailing and climbing take place on non @-@ school facilities . Boys also represent the school in competitions at varying levels . The school has a tradition of supporting a charity , chosen by the boys through a ballot , each academic year . The fundraising activities are coordinated by the boys and events take place throughout the year to raise money for the selected charity . An average of £ 50 @,@ 000 is raised each year .
= = = Facilities = = =
The school 's sports facilities include a multi purpose indoor sports hall , a fencing salle , three squash courts , a 25 @-@ metre swimming pool , a conditioning room and playing fields , astroturf and athletics tracks at Grove Park , Lewisham . Music facilities include three ensemble rooms , ten rehearsal rooms and a music technology lab . Other facilities include the Great Hall , a sixth form common room , a bookshop , a library , an archive room , three ICT labs , facilities for the Combined Cadet Force , a drama studio , two playgrounds and a drama theatre . The Great Hall houses a Walker organ which was moved from the previous school building and put into a new casing . The organ has 3 manual departments , 61 notes and a pedal department with 32 notes as well as 43 stops , 4 tremulants and 6 couplers . The drama theatre was rebuilt in 2009 at a value of £ 1 @.@ 3 million . The project was jointly funded by City entrepreneur Brian Winterflood and the City of London Corporation . The new theatre was designed by architectural firm RHWL and built by Wilmott Dixon Construction .
= = = Traditional events = = =
Although the school provides a very modern atmosphere in most aspects of school life , there are some traditional events held annually , although attendance of these events is no longer compulsory for all boys . This includes the annual prize giving ceremony at Guildhall , London and the annual carol service at Temple Church , among others . The school is also home to the annual London Classical Reading Competition , participated in by schools nationwide . Another traditional event is " muck @-@ up day " celebrated by each year group at the end of formal schooling in their final year at the school . In 2015 this attracted police attention when plans to bring in paint for " raucous " celebrations led to concerns about disruption to the city 's financial district . The headmistress reluctantly decided to bar the year group from school grounds " for their own safety " .
= = = Governance = = =
Today , the City of London School 's policies are maintained by a board of governors . It continues to be under the governance of the City of London Corporation ( the governing body of the City of London headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London , as opposed to Greater London , as well as an independent corporation ) . The school is under the governance of the City of London Corporation 's corporate arm as opposed to its Local Authority arm .
The school is one of the three independent schools owned by the City of London Corporation , the other two being the City of London School for Girls and the City of London Freemen 's School . The City of London School for Girls located in the Barbican is a fifteen @-@ minute walk away from the school and there are joint events , such as social evenings , concerts and plays , with the school throughout the year .
= = School fees = =
Although the City of London School has always charged fees to most of its pupils , those fees have been moderate relative to other independent schools , and it has always offered scholarships , both on the basis of academic and musical ability ( it educates ten boys selected for the Choir of Her Majesty 's Chapel Royal ) . In 2008 , the school began offering sports scholarships . In addition , due to the withdrawal of the Government Assisted Places scheme in 1998 , the school has been able to offer full @-@ fee bursaries ( or Sponsored Awards ) to pupils from families on lower incomes with the help of contributions from parties including private companies , the John Carpenter Club and parents of current pupils .
For the 2013 – 14 academic year , the annual school fees were £ 13 @,@ 803 , and lunch is added extra at £ 212 a term ( £ 636 a year ) . Music lessons are an additional £ 198 a term ( £ 594 a year )
= = Charitable status = =
The school currently has six charities registered with the Charity Commission . These are The City of London School Bursary Fund which contributes to the funding of the bursary schemes , The City of London School Bursary Trust which provides bursaries to boys who have gained admission to the school but whose parents cannot afford the fees , The City of London School Scholarships and Prize Fund which allows the school and other parties to offer scholarships , prizes or sponsored awards to current or former pupils without incurring taxes , The City of London School War Memorial Fund which was originally established to support boys affected by the World Wars but now supports means @-@ tested bursaries at the School , The City of London School Charitable Trust which is the annual charity appeal and The City of London School Education Trust which exempts the school from taxes as an independent school providing education for pupils within the school , as well as providing educational and recreational facilities for children and young people in the surrounding communities . Recent charities have included WaterAid , GOSH , Teenage Cancer Trust and Malaika Kids . Events such as the 24 @-@ hour ' fishathon ' , 48 @-@ hour row , cake sales , sponsored swims and an 11 @-@ mile sponsored walk generate money for the charity appeal .
= = Notable people = =
Many distinguished people have been part of the school either as pupils ( see List of Old Citizens ) or staff .
Notable recent pupils include the actors Daniel Radcliffe from Harry Potter movies , Skandar Keynes , of The Chronicles of Narnia film series , and Harry Michell of Tom Brown 's Schooldays and Feather Boy .
Jack Crawford is a British born American football player who was drafted with the 158th overall pick in the 2012 NFL Draft by the Oakland Raiders .
Jonathan Keates , a prize @-@ winning writer , was an English master at the school . Sheila Gallagher MBE was honoured for her service as a lollipop lady at the crossing to the school on Queen Victoria Street , in 2002 .
Old boys of the City of London School are known as Old Citizens. and may join the John Carpenter Club . Over 140 people listed in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography were educated at the City of London School , and that includes only those who were already deceased at the time of writing .
= = Headmasters = =
The school has had thirteen headmasters . The first was Rev J. A. Giles , a scholar of Anglo @-@ Saxon history and a Fellow at Corpus Christi College , Oxford , who also wrote a number of scholarly works , including the 34 volume Patres ecclesiæ Anglicanæ . He was however , " temperamentally unsuited " to be headmaster of the school , and was replaced by Rev Dr G. F. Mortimer , a liberal who had written an anti @-@ slavery pamphlet . Mortimer 's religious tolerance led him to open the school to boys from Jewish families . He was replaced in 1865 by a former boy , Edwin Abbott Abbott , author of the novella Flatland . Abbott oversaw the education of future Prime Minister H. H. Asquith , before retiring in 1889 to devote himself to literary and theological pursuits . The Rev. Prebendary Dr Arthur Chilton MVO , DD was appointed Headmaster in 1905 , an appointment he held for 24 years and throughout World War One , until 1929 . In 1950 Dr. Arthur Willoughby Barton a scholar and top @-@ class football referee , took over as headmaster until 1965 . David R. Levin , who was also the chair of the Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference for the 2009 – 2010 academic year , held the position from 1999 to 2014 . He left the school in January 2014 to become the managing director of all the independent schools owned by United Learning , and was succeeded by Sarah Fletcher , who had been the head of Kingston Grammar School , in May 2014 . Gary Griffin was acting as head in the interim .
= Lucy Stone =
Lucy Stone ( August 13 , 1818 – October 19 , 1893 ) was a prominent American orator , abolitionist , and suffragist , and a vocal advocate and organizer promoting rights for women . In 1847 , Stone became the first woman from Massachusetts to earn a college degree . She spoke out for women 's rights and against slavery at a time when women were discouraged and prevented from public speaking . Stone was known for using her maiden name after marriage , as the custom was for women to take their husband 's surname .
Stone 's organizational activities for the cause of women 's rights yielded tangible gains in the difficult political environment of the 19th century . Stone helped initiate the first National Women 's Rights Convention in Worcester , Massachusettsand she supported and sustained it annually , along with a number of other local , state and regional activist conventions . Stone spoke in front of a number of legislative bodies to promote laws giving more rights to women . She assisted in establishing the Woman 's National Loyal League to help pass the Thirteenth Amendment and thereby abolish slavery , after which she helped form the American Woman Suffrage Association , which built support for a woman suffrage Constitutional amendment by winning woman suffrage at the state and local levels .
Stone wrote extensively about a wide range of women 's rights , publishing and distributing speeches by herself and others , and convention proceedings . In the long @-@ running and influential Woman 's Journal , a weekly periodical that she founded and promoted , Stone aired both her own and differing views about women 's rights . Called " the orator " , the " morning star " and the " heart and soul " of the women 's rights movement , Stone influenced Susan B. Anthony to take up the cause of women 's suffrage . Elizabeth Cady Stanton wrote that " Lucy Stone was the first person by whom the heart of the American public was deeply stirred on the woman question . " Together , Anthony ,
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suggested she had been sitting up when she received both injuries .
There were no marks on her body suggestive of a struggle . The firearms officer who first saw her said her feet and hands were clean , her fingernails manicured and not broken , and her fingertips free of blood , dirt or powder . There was no trace of lead dust . The rifle magazine would have been loaded at least twice during the killings ; this would usually leave lubricant and material from the bullets on the hands . A scenes @-@ of @-@ crimes officer , DC Hammersley , said there were blood stains on the back of her right hand , but that otherwise her hands were clean .
There was no blood on her feet or other debris , such as the sugar that was on the downstairs floor . Low traces of lead were found on her hands and forehead at postmortem , but the levels were consistent with the everyday handling of things around the house . A scientist , Mr Elliott , testified that if she had loaded 18 cartridges into a magazine he would expect to see more lead on her hands . The blood on her nightdress was consistent with her own , and no trace of firearm @-@ discharge residue was on it . Blood and urine samples indicated that she had taken the anti @-@ psychotic drug haloperidol , and several days earlier had used cannabis .
The rifle , without the suppressor or sights attached , was lying on her body pointing up at her neck . June 's Bible lay on the floor to the right of Sheila . It was normally kept in a bedside cupboard . June 's fingerprints were on it , as were others that could not be identified , including one made by a child .
= = Police investigation = =
= = = Criticism = = =
Journalist David Connett , who attended the trial , writes that it was by common consent a poor investigation . The trial judge , Mr Justice Drake , expressed concern about what he called a " less than thorough investigation . " Claire Powell wrote that " doing a Bamber " briefly became police slang for making a mess of a case .
According to Connett , the officer in charge , DCI " Taff " Jones , deputy head of CID , was told that it was a " domestic , " and went off to play golf . Jones became so convinced of the murder – suicide theory that he ordered Bamber 's cousins out of his office when they asked him to consider whether Bamber had set the whole thing up . Evidence was not recorded or preserved , and three days after the killings the police burned bloodstained bedding and a carpet , apparently to spare Bamber 's feelings . The inquest opened on 14 August 1985 , and the police gave evidence that it was a murder – suicide .
The scenes @-@ of @-@ crime officer did not find the silencer in the cupboard . It was found by one of Bamber 's cousins days later , and it took the police three days to collect it from them . The same officer moved the rifle without wearing gloves , and it was not examined for fingerprints until weeks later . The Bible found with Sheila was not examined at all . Connett writes that a hacksaw blade that might have been used to gain entry to the house lay in the garden for months . Officers did not take contemporaneous notes ; those who had dealt with Bamber wrote down their statements weeks later . Bamber 's clothes were not examined until one month later . The bodies were cremated . Ten years later all blood samples were destroyed .
Unlike DCI Jones , his junior officers were suspicious of Bamber , and when Jones was removed from the case , they began to look more closely at him . ( Jones died before the case came to court after falling from a ladder at his home . ) Bamber 's behaviour after the funeral increased suspicion that he had been involved . The Times reported that , immediately after the bodies were found , he broke down and was offered tea and whisky by police , and apparently managed to persuade them to burn bedding and carpets inside the house . He wept openly at the funerals , supported by his girlfriend , Julie Mugford , after which he flew to Amsterdam , where he apparently tried to buy a consignment of drugs and offered to sell nude photographs of Sheila to tabloid newspapers . He also invited friends to expensive champagne @-@ and @-@ lobster dinners . His behaviour served to draw police attention to him .
= = = Fingerprints on rifle = = =
A print from Sheila 's right ring finger was found on the right side of the butt , pointing downwards . A print from Bamber 's right forefinger was on the breech ( rear ) end of the barrel , above the stock and pointing across the gun . He said he had used the gun to shoot rabbits . There were three further prints of insufficient detail to be identified .
= = = Silencer = = =
On the day of the murders , the police searched the gun cupboard in the ground @-@ floor office , but did not examine it closely or search for the silencer or sights for the rifle . Three days later , members of Bamber 's extended family visited the farm with Basil Cock , the estate 's executor . During that visit one of Bamber 's cousins , David Boutflour , found the silencer and sights in the cupboard . The court heard that several people had witnessed this discovery : Boutflour 's father and sister ; the farm secretary ; and Basil Cock . The family took the silencer to Boutflour 's sister 's home to examine it . They said they found the surface of it had been damaged and that there seemed to be red paint and blood on it . They told the police about their find , and the police collected the silencer from them on 12 August , five days after the murders . At that point the police reportedly noticed an inch @-@ long grey hair attached to the silencer , but this was lost before the silencer arrived at the Forensic Science Service at Huntingdon .
The family returned to the farmhouse to search for the source of the red paint , and found what they said was recent damage to the underside of the red @-@ painted mantelpiece above the Aga cooker in the kitchen . A scenes @-@ of @-@ crime officer , DI Cook , took a paint sample from the mantelpiece on 14 August , and it contained the same 15 layers of paint and varnish that were in the paint flake on the silencer . On 1 October casts were taken of the marks on the mantel , and the marks were deemed consistent with the silencer having come into contact with the mantelpiece more than once . In February 2010 Bamber 's legal team submitted evidence that they said showed the marks had been created after the crime @-@ scene photographs were taken ( see below ) .
A scientist at the Forensic Science Laboratory , Mr. Hayward , found blood on the inside and outside surface of the silencer , the latter not enough to permit analysis . The blood inside was found to be the same blood group as Sheila 's , although it might have been a mixture of Nevill 's and June 's . A firearms expert , a Mr. Fletcher , said the blood was backspatter , caused by a close @-@ contact shooting . Tests at the lab indicated that it would have been physically impossible for Sheila to have reached the trigger to shoot herself with the silencer attached .
= = = Julie Mugford 's allegations = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
A month after the murders Bamber 's girlfriend , Julie Mugford , changed her statement , as a result of which Bamber was arrested . He and Mugford had started dating in 1983 when she was a 19 @-@ year @-@ old student at Goldsmith 's College in London ; she was still studying there when the killings occurred . Mugford admitted to a brief background of dishonesty . She had been cautioned in 1985 for using a friend 's chequebook to obtain goods worth around £ 700 , after it had been reported stolen ; she said she and the friend had repaid the money to the bank . She also acknowledged having helped Bamber in March or April 1985 to steal just under £ 1 @,@ 000 from the office of the Osea Road caravan site his family owned ; she said he had staged a break @-@ in to make it appear that strangers were responsible . The admission added to the picture of her own and Bamber 's lack of credibility .
As part of their submission to the Criminal Cases Review Commission in 2012 , Bamber 's lawyers found a letter dated 26 September 1985 showing that the assistant director of public prosecutions who prepared the case against Bamber had suggested that Mugford not be prosecuted for the burglary , the cheque fraud , and for a further offence of selling cannabis . She subsequently testified against Bamber during his trial in October 1986 . The judge told the jury that they could convict Bamber on Mugford 's testimony alone .
= = = = Statements to police = = = =
Mugford was at first supportive of Bamber after the murders ; newspaper photographs of the funeral show him weeping and hanging onto her arm . On the day after the killings , she told police that she had received a telephone call from him at about 3 : 30 am on 7 August , shortly after the murders , during which he sounded worried and said , " There 's something wrong at home . " She said she had been tired and had not asked what it was .
Her position toward Bamber changed on 3 September 1985 , after they rowed about his involvement with another woman . She threw something at him , slapped him , and he twisted her arm up her back . She went to the police four days later and changed her statement . In the second statement she said he had talked disparagingly about his " old " father , his " mad " mother , his sister who he said had nothing to live for , and the twins who he said were disturbed . Bamber denied having said these things and argued that Mugford was motivated by jealousy , but other witnesses offered similar testimony . Mugford 's mother said Bamber had told her he hated his adoptive mother , and that he had described her as mad . A friend of Mugford 's testified that Bamber had said around February 1985 that his parents kept him short of money , his mother was a religious freak , and " I fucking hate my parents . " A farm worker testified that Bamber seemed not to get on with Sheila and had once said : " I 'm not going to share my money with my sister . "
In discussions Mugford said she had dismissed as fantasies , she alleged that Bamber had said he wanted to sedate his parents and set fire to the farmhouse . He reportedly said Sheila would make a good scapegoat . Mugford alleged he had discussed entering the house through the kitchen window because the catch was broken , and leaving it via a different window that latched when it was shut from the outside .
She said she had spent the weekend before the murders with him in his cottage in Goldhanger , where he had dyed his hair black . She also said that she had seen his mother 's bicycle there . This was significant because the prosecution alleged that he had used the bicycle to cycle between his cottage and the farmhouse on the night of the murders . She told police Bamber had telephoned her at 9 : 50 pm on 6 August to say he had been thinking about the crime all day , was pissed off , and that it was " tonight or never . " A few hours later , at 3 : 00 – 3 : 30 am on 7 August , she said he phoned her again to say : " Everything is going well . Something is wrong at the farm . I haven 't had any sleep all night ... bye honey and I love you lots . " Her flatmates ' evidence suggested that call had come through closer to 3 am . He called her later during the morning of 7 August to tell her that Sheila had gone mad , and that a police car was coming to pick her up and bring her to the farmhouse . When she arrived there , she said he had pulled her to one side and said : " I should have been an actor . "
Later that evening , on 7 August , she asked Bamber whether he had done it . He said no , but that a friend of his had , whom he named ; the man was a plumber the family had used in the past . Bamber allegedly said he had told this friend how he could enter and leave the farmhouse undetected , and that one of his instructions had been for the friend to telephone him from the farm on one of the phones in the house that had a memory redial facility , so that if the police checked it , it would give him an alibi . Everything had gone as planned , he said , except that Nevill had put up a fight , and the friend had become angry and shot him seven times . The friend had allegedly told Sheila to lie down and shoot herself last , Bamber said . The friend then placed the Bible on her chest so she appeared to have killed herself in a religious frenzy . The children were shot in their sleep , he said . Mugford said Bamber claimed to have paid the friend £ 2 @,@ 000 .
= = = Bamber 's arrest = = =
As a result of Mugford 's statement Bamber was arrested on 8 September 1985 , as was the friend Mugford said he had implicated , although the latter had a solid alibi and was released . Bamber told police Mugford was lying because he had jilted her . He said he loved his parents and sister , and denied that they had kept him short of money ; he said the only reason he had broken into the caravan site with Mugford was to prove that security was poor . He said he had occasionally gained entry to the farmhouse through a downstairs windows , and had used a knife to move the catches from the outside . He also said he had seen his parents ' wills , and that they had left the estate to be shared between him and Sheila . As for the rifle , he told police the gun was used mostly with the silencer off because it would otherwise not fit in its case .
He was bailed from the police station on 13 September , after which he went on holiday to Saint @-@ Tropez . Before leaving England , he returned to the farmhouse , gaining entry by the downstairs bathroom window . He said he did this because he had left his keys in London and needed some papers from the house for the trip to France ; he entered through the window rather than borrow keys from the farm 's housekeeper who lived nearby . When he returned to England on 29 September , he was re @-@ arrested and charged with the murders .
= = Trial , October 1986 = =
Bamber was tried in October 1986 before Mr Justice Drake and a jury at Chelmsford Crown Court , during a trial that lasted 19 days . The prosecution was led by Anthony Arlidge QC , and the defence by Geoffrey Rivlin QC , supported by Ed Lawson , QC . The Times wrote that Bamber cut an arrogant figure in the witness box . At one point when prosecutors accused him of lying , he replied : " That is what you have got to establish . "
= = = Prosecution case = = =
The prosecution case was that Bamber had been motivated by hatred and greed . They argued that he had left the farm around 10 pm on 6 August 1985 , and returned by bicycle in the early hours of the morning , using a route that avoided the main roads . He had entered the house through a downstairs bathroom window , taken the rifle with the silencer attached , and gone upstairs .
He had shot June in her bed , but she had managed to get up and walk a few steps before collapsing and dying . He had shot Nevill in the bedroom too , but Nevill was able to get downstairs where he and Bamber had fought in the kitchen , before Bamber shot him several times in the head . He had shot Sheila in the main bedroom , and had shot the children in their beds , in their own bedroom , as they slept .
They argued that Bamber had then set about arranging the scene to make it appear that Sheila was the killer . He had discovered that she could not have reached the trigger with the silencer attached , so he had removed it and placed it in the cupboard , then placed a Bible next to her body to introduce a religious theme . He had removed the kitchen phone from its hook , left the house via a kitchen window , and banged it from the outside so that the catch dropped back into position . He had then cycled home . Shortly after 3 am , he had telephoned Mugford , then the police at
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her fear that she still does not fit in or have a place in the world , unlike those around her , who are competent and know what is going on . She wears ordinary clothes , but the others repeatedly comment on the excellence of her " costume " , a reference to her fear that her friends do not see what she has grown into , but rather what she was when younger : nerdy and awkward . This fear is confirmed when Buffy strips off her shirt and jeans , revealing the same unfashionable turtleneck and corduroy jumper she wore in episode one of the series , four years earlier , before her demon @-@ fighting experiences and study of magic increased her confidence and competence . Willow stands anxiously at the front of the class , trying to read a paper , while her classmates express their boredom with listening to her and Oz whispers into Tara 's ear , until she is attacked by the First Slayer and her breath is sucked out of her body .
Whedon stated that the maze of red curtains on the stage in Willow 's dream are not a direct homage to Twin Peaks , as some have posited , but rather represent the safety and comfort of being with her girlfriend Tara , and are a sexual metaphor as well .
The main theme of Xander 's dream is his sense of failure and of being left behind as his friends move ahead in life . His fear that he is stuck is reiterated throughout his dream by his inability to escape his basement bedroom in his parents ' home . No matter where his dream takes him , he ends up back in the basement . As the only one of the Scoobies not in college , he feels anxiety about his ability to understand and keep up with ideas and conversations , a fear which is realized when he goes to the university , a place he already feels excluded from , and finds that he cannot understand what people say to him . Aware that he is being chased and is in danger , he asks Giles what is happening but cannot understand his answer , nor what Anya says to him , as they are both inexplicably speaking French . He exclaims , " I don 't understand ! " During his dream both Buffy and Willow tell him , " I 'm way ahead of you , " and Giles tells him " the others have gone on ahead , " underscoring his fear that this is really the case .
Giles ' dream presents a choice : either to remain a father figure and Watcher to Buffy , or to begin his own life , represented by the presence of his girlfriend Olivia , who pushes an empty baby stroller . During this part of his dream , Buffy is dressed as a child , with pigtails , and is unable to throw a ball straight without his help and instruction , an indication of his fear that she will be unable to do her job without his guidance . Later , Olivia is seen weeping , while the baby stroller has been overturned and abandoned , signifying elements of his unfulfilled life , such as marriage and children . Later , in The Bronze , he is explaining the reason they are all being stalked and attacked , performing his job as Watcher , but his singing this information represents his unfulfilled longing to be a musician , something he 's been exploring privately throughout the season .
The major theme of Buffy 's dream is her fear of the personal cost of her life as a Slayer , the isolation and loneliness she is forced to endure . This theme of aloneness is reiterated by several shots in which she is alone in the frame , most notably the wide shot of her in the vast and empty desert . Another source of anxiety is her relationship with her current boyfriend , Riley , whom she finds plotting world domination with Adam in his original , human , form . She fears what Riley could turn into as a result of his alliance with the military . She also fears the destabilizing effect of this alliance on their relationship , and the destabilizing effect of this relationship on her life as the slayer . She is shown putting mud on her face , mimicking the mud mask of the primal , First Slayer . By the end of her encounter in the desert with the First Slayer , Buffy realizes that she does not have to be entirely alone , that it is her closeness to friends and family that makes her a great Slayer , and once she experiences this revelation , the efforts of the First Slayer to continue to engage her in battle become fruitless and increasingly comical . The dream finally ends in a mundane way , as Buffy refuses to accept a tragic climax and instead insists on normality in her life .
All of the many elements in the dream sequences have meaning , with the exception of the Cheese Man . Whedon explains : " ... the Cheese Man — meaningless . Why ? Because I needed something in the show that was meaningless , because there is always something in the dream that doesn 't make any sense at all . In this case it was the Cheese Man . He confounds everybody because of that , and people ascribe him meaning . This to me means that we 're being successful , because this means they 're not worried about everything else , which means they sort of did understand most other things . "
= = = Foreshadowing = = =
Although Whedon does not often foreshadow events , Buffy 's dream includes several references to past and future episodes . In a dream sequence in the season three finale , Faith says " Little Miss Muffet counting down from 7 @-@ 3 @-@ 0 " ; foreshadowing Dawn 's arrival two years later in season five . This number appears ( as 7 : 30 ) on a clock in Buffy 's dream in " Restless " . Buffy says , " It 's so late . " Tara replies , " Oh ... that clock 's completely wrong . " A year has now passed , making the previous number of days to her arrival incorrect . When Buffy leaves the room , Tara tells her , " Be back before Dawn . " The character Dawn appears in the next episode . Tara 's words to Buffy , " You think you know what 's to come , what you are . You haven 't even begun . " are repeated by Dracula to Buffy in the following episode ( " Buffy vs. Dracula " ) . In Xander 's dream , Giles and Spike swing together on a swing set , with Spike wearing a tweed jacket . Giles comments , " Spike 's like a son to me . " In " Tabula Rasa " ( season six ) , when the characters lose their memories , Spike wears the same tweed jacket and believes Giles is his father .
= = Reception = =
The episode received critical praise and is often included on lists of the best episodes of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . In Entertainment Weekly 's list of the 25 best Whedonverse episodes — including episodes from Buffy , as well as Angel , Firefly and Dollhouse — " Restless " placed at # 20 , where they called it " Visually lush and trippy , " and said , " ... it reestablished that this genre show was really and truly a deeply affecting character drama with a delightfully bent sense of humor . " At Syfy.co.uk , the episode was listed as the seventh best episode in their list of the top 10 Buffy episodes , saying " This surreal episode marks the show 's turning point , as it moved from a very well @-@ executed urban fantasy drama series to something more creative , more thoughtful , and more surprising than pretty much anything else on television . " In The Futon Critic 's list of the 20 best episodes of 2000 , the episode was placed at # 1 , with the author calling it an even more daring episode than " Hush " , another acclaimed episode from the fourth season .
At Slayage.com , the Online Journal of Buffy Studies , author Daniel Erenberg placed the episode as the second best of the series ; stating that the episode " lends itself to infinite interpretations . No one watches it the same way . That 's the mark of a true masterpiece . " When Noel Murray of The A.V. Club reviewed " Restless " in 2009 , after beginning his first look at the series in 2008 , he praised Joss Whedon 's ability to represent what dreams are actually like . The A.V. Club also included " Restless " as an " essential episode " of the series in their list of the best TV series of the 2000s , in which Buffy the Vampire Slayer placed at # 25 . " Restless " was listed at # 10 in The A.V. Club 's list of " 21 TV episodes that do dream sequences right " , commenting , " This device allows for a lot of surreal images and moments of weird comedy " and that " there are also some striking , unsettling touches that have the indefinable power and strangeness of a real dream . " The episode was listed as # 1 in Daily Kos ' list of the top 10 episodes of the series , and the episode was listed as the second best episode featuring dream sequences by USA Today . In series creator Joss Whedon 's own list of his favorite episodes , he includes " Restless " , saying " Most people sort of shake their heads at it . It was different , but not pointless . "
In 2001 , the episode received two nominations for the Hollywood Makeup Artist and Hair Stylist Guild Awards , for Best Contemporary Makeup in a Series and Best Contemporary Hair Styling in a Series .
= Catalogue of Women =
The Catalogue of Women ( Ancient Greek : Γυναικῶν Κατάλογος , Gynaikôn Katálogos ) — also known as the Ehoiai ( Ἠοῖαι , Ancient : [ ɛːhói.ai ] ) — is a fragmentary Greek epic poem that was attributed to Hesiod during antiquity . The " women " of the title were in fact heroines , many of whom lay with gods , bearing the heroes of Greek mythology to both divine and mortal paramours . In contrast with the focus upon narrative in the Homeric Iliad and Odyssey , the Catalogue was structured around a vast system of genealogies stemming from these unions and , in M.L. West 's appraisal , covered " the whole of the heroic age . " Through the course of the poem 's five books , these family trees were embellished with stories involving many of their members , and so the poem amounted to a compendium of heroic mythology in much the same way that the Hesiodic Theogony presents a systematic account of the Greek pantheon built upon divine genealogies .
Most scholars do not currently believe that the Catalogue should be considered the work of Hesiod , but questions about the poem 's authenticity have not lessened its interest for the study of literary , social and historical topics . As a Hesiodic work that treats in depth the Homeric world of the heroes , the Catalogue offers a transition between the divine sphere of the Theogony and the terrestrial focus of the Works and Days by virtue of its subjects ' status as demigods . Given the poem 's concentration upon heroines in addition to heroes , it provides evidence for the roles and perceptions of women in Greek literature and society during the period of its composition and popularity . Greek aristocratic communities , the ruling elite , traced their lineages back to the heroes of epic poetry ; thus the Catalogue , a veritable " map of the Hellenic world in genealogical terms , " preserves much information about a complex system of kinship associations and hierarchies that continued to have political importance long after the Archaic period . Many of the myths in the Catalogue are otherwise unattested , either entirely so or in the form narrated therein , and held a special fascination for poets and scholars from the late Archaic period through the Hellenistic and Roman eras .
Despite its popularity among the Hellenistic literati and reading public of Roman Egypt , the poem went out of circulation before it could pass into a medieval manuscript tradition and is preserved today by papyrus fragments and quotations in ancient authors . Still , the Catalogue is much better attested than most " lost " works , with some 1 @,@ 300 whole or partial lines surviving : " between a third and a quarter of the original poem " , by one estimate . The evidence for the poem 's reconstruction — not only elements of its content , but the distribution of that content within the Catalogue — is indeed extensive , but the fragmentary nature of this evidence leaves many unresolved complexities and has over the course of the past century led to several scholarly missteps .
= = Title and the ē ' hoiē @-@ formula = =
Ancient authors most commonly referred to the poem as the Catalogue of Women , or simply the Catalogue , but several alternate titles were also employed . The tenth @-@ century encyclopedia known as the Suda gives an expanded version , the Catalogue of Heroic Women ( Γυναικῶν Ἡρωϊνῶν Κατάλογος ) , and another late source , the twelfth @-@ century Byzantine poet and grammarian Tzetzes , prefers to call the poem the Heroic Genealogy ( Ἡρωϊκὴ Γενεαλογία ) . But the earliest and most popular alternate title was Ehoiai ( Ἠοῖαι ) , after the feminine formula ē ' hoiē ( ἠ ' οἵη , Ancient : [ ɛː hoȷ ́ .ɛː ] ) , " or such as " , which introduces new sections within the poem via the introduction of a heroine or heroines . This nickname also provided the standard title for a similar Hesiodic work , the Megalai Ehoiai or Great Ehoiai ( Μεγάλαι Ἠοῖαι ) .
As is reflected by its use as an alternate title , the ē ' hoiē @-@ formula was one of the poem 's most recognizable features . It may have belonged originally to a genre of poetry that simply listed notable heroines , but in the Catalogue the formula is used as a structuring tool that allows the poet to resume a broken branch of a family tree , or to jump horizontally across genealogies to a new figure and line of descent . A characteristic example is found in the introduction of the daughters of Porthaon at Cat. fr . 26 @.@ 5 – 9 :
The preceding section of the poem had dealt at some length with the extended family of Porthaon 's sister Demodice , tracing her line down to the generation following the Trojan War . Here ē ' hoiai ( plural ) is used to jump backwards in order to complete the account of the descendants of Porthaon and Demodice 's father Agenor by covering the son 's family . Elsewhere the formula is used in transitions to more distant branches . The Ehoie of Mestra , for example , ultimately serves to reintroduce the family of Sisyphus , Mestra 's great @-@ granduncle who hoped to win her as bride for his son Glaucus . Although that marriage does not take place , the descendants of Sisyphus are soon presented .
= = Content = =
According to the Suda , the Catalogue was five books long . The length of each is unknown , but it is likely that the entire poem consisted of anywhere from 4000 to over 5000 lines . The majority of the content was structured around major genealogical units : the descendants of Aeolus were found in book 1 and at least part of book 2 , followed by those of Inachus , Pelasgus , Atlas and Pelops in the later books . It is believed that a rough guide to this structure can be found in the Bibliotheca , a Roman @-@ era mythological handbook transmitted under the name of Apollodorus of Athens which used the Catalogue as a primary source for many genealogical details and appears to have followed reflect the poem 's overall arrangement .
= = = Book 1 = = =
The first is by far the best @-@ attested book of the poem , with several extensive papyri overlapping ancient quotations or coinciding with paraphrases : at least 420 verses of dactylic hexameter survive in part or entire . One papyrus includes line numbers which , taken together with the system of overlaps among the other sources , allows much of the book 's content to be assigned approximate line numbers . Perhaps the most significant of these overlaps is between the papyrus containing the opening lines of the poem and the Theogony : the Catalogue was styled as a continuation of the " canonical " Hesiodic poem , with the final two verses of the Theogony standing as Catalogue of Women book 1 , lines 1 – 2 . Toward the end of the Theogony as transmitted by the manuscript tradition , following Zeus 's final ordering of Olympus and his siring several key deities , the poet invokes the Muses to sing of the " tribe of goddesses ... immortals who slept with mortal men , bearing children like gods . " After some 150 verses on this topic , the proem to the Catalogue comes in the form of another re @-@ invocation of the Muses to introduce a new , only slightly more terrestrial topic ( Cat. fr . 1 @.@ 1 – 5 ) :
The immediately subsequent lines describe significant characteristics of the heroic age . The first allowed for the liaisons that are the poem 's ostensible subject : gods and mortals freely interacted in those days . A further significant detail about the heroic condition is offered next in one of the most puzzling passages of the Catalogue . Men and women are said to have been not " equally long @-@ lived " ( ἰσαίωνες , isaiōnes , a hapax legomenon ) , but it is unclear whether this refers to different lifespans among the heroes themselves , a difference between the lives of the heroes and " today 's " man , or between the lifespans of the heroes and the gods . The differing fates of the heroes are then described : some appear to have lived a long life characterized by perpetual youth , while others were apparently condemned to an early death by the gods . The papyrus is damaged at this point , and the full implications of these comparisons are unknown . The Muses are next addressed again , asked to sing of " however many [ Zeus ] lay with , siring the race of glorious kings ... and Poseidon [ lay with ] ... Ares ... Hermes ... [ Heph ] aestus ... Heracles " ; here the papyrus ends .
= = = = First families = = = =
The repeated use of the introductory phrase " or such as ... " implies an initial " such as ... " , and it is likely that this first woman treated was Pyrrha , wife of Deucalion . There is some debate about whether the Catalogue included an account of the Flood myth , but the creation of a race of humans born from stones cast by Deucalion and Pyrrha does appear to have figured in the poem . Zeus unsurprisingly had first pick from the catalogue of women , and sired Hellen by Pyrrha . Pyrrha also had three daughters by Deucalion : Thyia , Protogeneia and Pandora , who was named for her maternal grandmother , the famous Pandora . Like their mother , these three lay with Zeus , bearing sons from whom several early Greek tribes were said to descend . Thyia bore Magnes and Macedon ; Protogeneia bore Aethlius , the grandfather of Aetolus ; and Pandora 's son was Graecus .
But it was the family of Hellen , who would himself ultimately be the eponym for the entire Greek world , that had the greatest mythological significance . He sired Dorus , Xuthus and Aeolus , apparently by Othryis , the nymph of Mount Othrys . Dorus was the eponym of the Dorians , and his son Aegimius ' sons , Dymas and Pamphylus , gave their names to two of the three Dorian tribes , the Dymanes and Pamphyli . The third division was called the Hylleis , after Heracles ' son Hyllus , with whom Pamphylus and Dymas migrated to the Peloponnese . Xuthus married Erechtheus ' daughter Creusa and was the father of Ion and Achaeus , along with a daughter named Diomede . The relation between the progenitors of Greek tribes among the descendents of Deucalion is outlined in the following table :
= = = = Aeolids = = = =
What was likely the largest unified stemma to be treated , the account of the descendents of Aeolus and Aenarete 's five daughters and seven sons , stretched from before the 200th line of book 1 well into the second book . The sons who were certainly found in the Catalogue are Cretheus , Athamas , Sisyphus , Salmoneus , Deion ( or Deioneus ) and Perieres . A seventh son 's name is obscured in lacuna : he has been identified tentatively as Minyas , Locrus or a second Magnes , not the eponym of the Magnetes , but the father of Dictys and Polydectes of the Danaë @-@ Perseus myth . No similar doubt attends the identities of Aeolus ' daughters : they were Peisidice , Alcyone , Calyce , Canace and Perimede . The families of the daughters were treated first , and much of the middle of book 1 — over 400 lines — was devoted to recounting their descendents . Aeolus ' extended family , via both sons and daughters , is notable for a concentration of fantastical narratives and folk elements of a sort largely absent from the Homeric poems , beginning with the doomed , hubristic love of Ceyx and Alcyone , who called one another " Zeus " and " Hera " and were turned into the kingfisher and halcyon as punishment ( frr . 10a.83 – 98 , 10d OCT , 15 ) .
After treating the Thessalian families of Peisidice and Canace , the poet turned to the intermingled Aetolian @-@ Elian lines of Calyce and Perimede . Perimede had earlier in the book borne two sons to the river Achelous , one of whom was the grandfather of Oeneus , Hippodamas . To Aethlius Calyce bore Endymion , whose son Aetolus was the eponym of Aetolia and the great @-@ grandfather of Demodice and Porthaon , through whom the later Aetolian and Elian genealogies were traced . Somewhere within these families , Eurytus and Cteatus were found in a form more fearsome than they were in the Iliad : in the Catalogue they were fierce conjoined twins with two heads , four arms and an equal number of legs . Most significant for the epic tradition , however , was the marriage of Demodice 's son Thestius and Porthaon 's daughter Eurythemiste which produced the daughters Leda , Althaea and Hypermestra , who are introduced in a group Ehoiai at fr . 23a.3 – 5 .
Leda 's marriage to Tyndareus is followed by the births of Clytemnestra , Timandra and Phylonoe , the last of whom Artemis made immortal . Clytemnestra and Agamemnon had two daughters , Electra and Iphimede , the name used in the poem for the woman later and more famously known as Iphigenia . It had been prophesied that she must be sacrificed to Artemis before the Greek fleet could sail for Troy , but in the Catalogue version of events the goddess replaced her with an eidolon and immortalized Iphimede as " Artemis Enodia " , or Hecate . Next Orestes ' birth and matricide are reported , the earliest extant account of his killing Clytemnestra , as the planned sacrifice of Iphimede / Iphigenia is first found in the Catalogue . Timandra 's marriage to Echemus follows , followed in turn by Leda 's bearing the Dioscuri to Zeus in several damaged lines . It is unknown if Helen 's birth was reported here , for the testimonia leave her parentage uncertain . Althaea lies with Ares and bears Meleager , whose heroic qualities are described along with his death at the hands of Apollo during the conflict with the Curetes that was the sequel to the Hunt for the Calydonian Boar . Among Althaea 's children by Oeneus , Deianeira is singled out for her role in the death and apotheosis of Heracles . The poet next turns his attention to the Porthaonids ( see above ) and closes out his account of the female Aeolids with the Sirens , daughters of Sterope and Achelous .
The Ehoie of Salmoneus ' daughter Tyro provides the transition to the families of the male Aeolids . As king of Elis , Salmoneus forced his subjects to worship him as Zeus and simulated the god 's thunder and lighting by dragging bronze cauldrons from his chariot and throwing torches through the air . The real Zeus destroyed king and subjects alike , but spared Tyro and conducted her to the house of her uncle Cretheus in Thessaly because she wrangled with her impious father . There she became enamoured of the river Enipeus , but Poseidon had his own designs upon Tyro and in the guise of the river lay with her , siring Neleus and Pelias . The brothers did not get along , and Zeus gave them different realms to rule : Pelias received as his lot Iolcos ; to Neleus fell Pylos in the western Peloponnese . The house of Neleus now takes center @-@ stage . Heracles sacked Pylos , killing all the male Neleids , save Nestor who was off in Gerenia , another Messenian city . Periclymenus , a son of Neleus to whom Poseidon had granted the ability to change shape , was Pylos ' only bulwark against the onslaught of Heracles , and the Catalogue @-@ poet granted him a brief aristeia which ended when Athena pointed out that the bee on Heracles ' chariot was actually the Pylian defender . Following the account of Nestor 's marriage and family , the contest for Neleus ' daughter Pero was narrated . The father would give her hand to whoever could rustle the cattle of Iphicles from Phylace , a feat accomplished by Bias with the help of his brother Melampus . The poet then turned to the family of Pelias as the last assignable papyrus fragment from book 1 breaks off . It is likely that Tyro 's children by Cretheus — Aeson , Pheres and Amythaon — followed , and there might have been room in the book to at least start the family of Cretheus ' brother Athamas .
Athamas ruled in Boeotia and had a complicated family life , several details of which are known to have played part in the Catalogue . His first children were Phrixus and Helle , whose mother was Nephele . In what was the first episode of the Argonautic saga , she gave her children a ram with a golden fleece upon which they fled the intrigues of their stepmother Ino according to other sources . Athamas was driven mad by the gods , perhaps because he took the young Dionysus into his household , and slaughtered his and Ino 's son Learchus ; Ino herself jumped into the sea with their son Melicertes and became the sea @-@ goddess Leucothea . At some point before his marriage to Ino , Athamas had sired Leucon and Schoeneus by Themisto , and Leucon 's daughters Peisidice , Euippe and Hyperippe were given extended group treatment in the Catalogue .
= = = Book 2 = = =
It is uncertain at what point among the extant fragments the division between books 1 and 2 fell , but at least some of the Aeolid families were covered in the second book . The families of Perieres , Deion and Sisyphus ( in that order ) were most likely found in the 2nd book because there does not appear to be enough room left in book 1 to accommodate them as a group after the children of Neleus and Pelias . It was once thought that the Ehoie of Atalanta opened the book , but recently published evidence casts doubt upon this view ( see Book 3 , below ) .
Perieres ' family was centered around Messene . His son Leucippus had several daughters , but Arsinoe was singled out for extensive treatment . To Apollo she bore Asclepius , whom Zeus killed . In a rage Apollo killed the Cyclopes , after which Zeus was about to hurl him into Tartarus when Leto interceded and arranged for Apollo to serve as a laborer for Admetus instead . Directly following the Asclepius affair comes the Ehoie of Asterodeia , the daughter of Deion . She bore Crisus and Panopeus to Phocus ; the brothers did not get along , quarreling while still in the womb . Another daughter of Deion , Philonis , bore Philammon to Apollo and Autolycus to Hermes . Philammon sired Thamyris ; Autolycus , the grandfather of Odysseus , was a master thief who could change the appearance of his booty to avoid detection . Autolycus ' daughter Polymele , the mother of Jason , is apparently born directly preceding the Ehoie of Mestra , the daughter of Erysichthon .
Mestra 's story is one of the best preserved and most studied sections of the Catalogue . She had the ability to change her shape at will , a skill which her father Erysichthon exploited in service of a ravening hunger with which he had been cursed and for which reason the people had nicknamed him Aethon ( Αἴθων , Aithon , " Blazing " ) . He would marry off Mestra for the bride prices she garnered , only to have the girl return home in some different form . The most notable victim of this plot was Sisyphus , who , despite his characteristic cunning , could never retain custody of his would @-@ be daughter @-@ in @-@ law . Strife arose between Sisyphus and Erysichthon which no mortal could resolve , and the case was handed over to another authority . The text is damaged at this point , and identity of the mediator is a matter of dispute , as is the nature of the verdict rendered . Exactly how this judgement resolves the quarrel over Mestra is obscure , but Sisyphus ultimately comes out on the losing end , for Mestra does not bear children to Glaucus . Instead Poseidon whisks her off to Kos , where she bears Eurypylus to the god . Eurypylus ' descendents rule the island , which is sacked by Heracles in a brief allusion to the great hero 's adventures . On his way home from attacking Troy for the horses of Laomedon , he assaulted Kos before going on to participate in the gigantomachy .
The Ehoie of Mestra closes with her returning to Athens to care for her father , but the poet 's attention stays with Sisyphus , as he and his son are the male subjects of the Ehoie of Eurynome which immediately follows . She was wise and beautiful , having been taught womanly arts by Athena . Sisyphus attempted to cheat her of her cattle , but Zeus intervened . Although he did not get what he was after , Sisyphus did accomplish with Eurynome what he could not with Mestra : a marriage for Glaucus . The gods again got in the way , though , and she bore Bellerophontes to Poseidon , who gave his son the winged horse Pegasus with which Bellerophontes slew the Chimera . In the Iliad this task was presented as the order of Proetus ' father @-@ in @-@ law Iobates , and in the Catalogue it appears to be followed immediately by the marriage of Bellerophontes and a daughter of the Lycian king .
= = = = Inachids = = = =
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. This arrangement allowed for a longer wheelbase with leading axle to permit greater stability at speed on tight track curves , which had constrained the size of locomotives operating on the SECR . A longer locomotive could also accommodate a larger boiler than an 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 , giving the N class sufficient power to avoid double @-@ heading of locomotives on heavier trains .
The N class incorporated the principles of power and reliability established by George Churchward , using a Belpaire firebox that sloped downwards towards the cab instead of a round @-@ topped version , a regulator located in the smokebox , long @-@ travel valves for free running up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , a sharply tapered and domeless boiler , and a right @-@ hand driving position . These features are attributed to Holcroft , who worked on the GWR 4300 class before joining the SECR . The boiler was intended to become a standard component for use on future SECR locomotive designs , thereby reducing building times and improving organisation at the works . The size was constrained by the heavier axle @-@ loading of Maunsell ’ s proposed 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotive variant of the N class , the K class , and was consequently smaller than was otherwise possible on the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 chassis . The need to reduce overall weight also meant that the latter would feature lightly braced frames .
Maunsell 's Chief Locomotive Draughtsman , James Clayton , brought functional Midland Railway influences to the design , such as the shape of the cab and the drumhead @-@ type smokebox , which sat on a saddle that was of wider diameter than the fully lagged and clad boiler . Clayton was also responsible for the tender and chimney designs . Snifting valves were provided to prevent vacuum formation in the cylinders when the locomotive was stationary , and the outside Walschaerts valve gear incorporated single slide @-@ bars and piston tail rods . Innovations added by Maunsell 's team included steam @-@ powered locomotive brakes , locating the boiler water top feed inside a dome @-@ like cover with external clackboxes and water feed pipes mounted on either side , and a new type of superheater that segregated saturated and superheated steam . Maunsell also incorporated a screw reverser to control valve events , which was easier to maintain than the complex steam reverser configuration of previous SECR designs . All components were standardised for interchange with similar locomotive classes to ease maintenance and reduce production costs .
= = = SECR batch = = =
For a detailed examination of the modifications made to No. 822 , see : SR N1 class .
Production of the first batch was delayed by the outbreak of the First World War . Assembly began towards the end of the war and the first locomotive , No. 810 , emerged from Ashford Works for proving trials in July 1917 , one month after the first K class tank , whose design was derived from the N class . Entering service in August 1917 , No. 810 was trialled for three years before another 15 locomotives ( Nos. 811 – 825 ) were ordered in 1919 . These were built between 1920 and 1923 ; their construction delayed by a backlog of repairs caused by the war . The first left Ashford Works in June 1920 , featuring a greater superheating surface area within the boiler as a result of operational experience with No. 810 . All locomotives were equipped with 3 @,@ 500 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 15 @,@ 911 l ) tenders .
In 1922 modifications were made to No. 822 during assembly . This was because production delays at Ashford prevented the building of a proposed 3 @-@ cylinder design drawn @-@ up in 1919 . Maunsell and Holcroft revised No. 822 's cylinder arrangement to accommodate a third inside cylinder fitted between the frames . The outside cylinders were also reduced to 16 in × 26 in ( 406 mm × 660 mm ) diameter to accommodate the inside cylinder and its associated valve linkages . The differences between No. 822 and the rest of the N class meant that this locomotive was re @-@ designated as the 1919 proposal , becoming the prototype of the SR N1 class when completed in March 1923 .
= = = " Woolwich " batch = = =
The first batch of the N class proved successful in service , and few problems were encountered after settling @-@ in . The Ministry of Supply drew up a contract for a second batch to the same specification – to be built at the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich . The government backing came as part of a proposal to nationalise the railways , which would require a standard fleet of locomotives to promote economies in production and maintenance . The nationalisation proposal was abandoned ; instead , the government passed the 1921 Railways Act , which grouped the railways into the " Big Four " in 1923 . Building of the second batch went ahead to retain skilled labour at Woolwich , but the fabrication of 119 boilers for allocation to the kits of parts was contracted @-@ out because of limited production capacity at Woolwich and Ashford ; the North British Locomotive Company built 85 , Robert Stephenson and Company 20 , and Kitson & Co . 14 . By 1924 , the prefabricated components stored at Woolwich formed 100 complete N class kits for purchase from the government .
The newly created Southern Railway , which had absorbed the SECR in the 1923 " Grouping " , undertook trials in the spring of 1924 to compare the performance of its freight locomotives . Because the Ns were designed to haul both freight and passenger traffic , Maunsell , as the newly appointed Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Southern Railway , decided to compare the design with the N1 , LSWR S15 and LB & SCR K classes in trials that involved hauling trains of 65 loaded wagons . Although the S15 was superior in freight haulage capacity and operational economy , the N class ’ good all @-@ round performance on passenger and freight meant that the type was adopted as the company 's standard mixed @-@ traffic design . The Southern Railway subsequently bought fifty " Woolwich " kits for assembly at Ashford between June 1924 and August 1925 . These were identical to the SECR batch and were given numbers in the series A826 – A875 . The Midland Great Western Railway of Ireland bought 12 kits prior to absorption by the Great Southern and Western Railway , which bought an extra 15 . The latter 15 locomotives were divided into eight GSR Class 372 with 5 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 676 m ) driving wheels and six GSR Class 393 with 6 @-@ foot @-@ 0 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 829 m ) driving wheels : the final kit was kept for spares .
The Metropolitan Railway bought six kits for conversion to the Metropolitan Railway K Class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4T tank engines , which were similar in outline to the SECR K class . The remaining 17 complete kits at Woolwich were bought by the Southern Railway , and formed the basis of later locomotive classes such as the three @-@ cylinder SR W class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotive . The prototype W class was produced in 1932 from N class parts with the addition of water tanks , a coal bunker , a rear bogie and a third cylinder between the frames . Woolwich also stocked a surplus of N class bogie components , and these were bought by the Southern for rebuilding the LB & SCR E1 class 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tanks into the E1R class 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 tanks .
= = = Southern Railway batch = = =
In 1932 , the Southern Railway ordered a final batch of 15 locomotives ( Nos. 1400 – 1414 ) to expand class availability on the Southern Railway 's network . These were built at Ashford works and differed from the previous 65 in a number of ways . The cabs of the final eight locomotives ( Nos. 1407 – 1414 ) were fitted for left @-@ hand driving , which was adopted as standard by the Southern Railway . The original N class chimney was replaced with the lower @-@ profile version used on the U1 class , which increased route availability by allowing the locomotives to pass under lower bridges and tunnels . Maunsell had begun to research smoke deflection techniques to improve driver visibility on the King Arthur class between 1926 and 1927 , which resulted in the adoption of a standard smoke deflector design for the Southern Railway . A smaller version was fitted to Nos. 1400 – 1414 during building .
Before entering service , the batch was attached to 4 @,@ 000 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 18 @,@ 184 l ) tenders to increase operational range over the Southern Railway 's long Western section routes . Despite this advantage , tenders fitted to the eight left @-@ hand drive examples were intended for use with right @-@ hand drive locomotives . This resulted in the location of the fireman 's fittings on the " wrong " side of the cab . The design also necessitated the addition of a step to the footplate , as the boiler backhead was lower than the fall @-@ plate that connected the tender and cab floors . The new batch incorporated a new set of footsteps beneath the front buffer beam , modified slide @-@ bars and the dome was redesigned to incorporate the regulator to ease access during routine maintenance .
= = = N class construction history = = =
= = Operational details = =
The N class was used to haul services over most of the SECR network and became a familiar sight on the difficult cross @-@ country route between Tonbridge and Reading , on which the steep gradients had taxed the company 's 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 and 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 designs . The success of the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 in traversing this route was due to their higher @-@ capacity tapered boilers that produced an ample supply of steam , and the small 5 ft 6 in ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) driving wheels that delivered considerable tractive effort when climbing gradients such as the 1 in 100 between Gomshall and Shalford .
After " The Grouping " in 1923 , the N class remained on the former SECR network , which was incorporated into the Southern Railway 's Eastern section . Typical services included Ramsgate , Ashford and Hither Green freights , and Cannon Street to Dover passenger trains . The spring of 1924 saw Nos. A815 and A825 transferred to the former LSWR mainline between Waterloo and Guildford for trials . These proved successful , and paved the way for the allocation of most of the Woolwich batch to the Southern Railway 's Western section . The type regularly replaced Dugald Drummond 's ageing LSWR T9 class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0s on portions of the Atlantic Coast Express over the steeply graded mainlines west of Exeter .
The N class was also successful on the Central section , where they worked alongside L. B. Billinton 's LB & SCR K class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s . However the large cylinder and cab sizes of the N class prevented use of the type on the Eastern section 's Tonbridge – Hastings line . The route 's narrow bridges and tunnels were unable to accommodate the class , and provided justification for using the narrower 3 @-@ cylinder N1 class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 on the route . Despite these restrictions , the class was capable of hauling heavy loads at moderate speeds , a useful attribute that was exploited throughout the Second World War . The entire class came into British Railways ' ownership in 1948 and could be seen in most areas of the Southern Region .
= = = Performance of the class and modifications = = =
When introduced in 1917 , the N class proved adept at hauling both passenger and freight services on the SECR . They were well liked by crews who appreciated the general robustness of the design , although the lightly built frames caused excessive vibration and rough riding on the footplate when worked hard . Despite there being little wrong with the original design , the N class ’ full steaming potential was not realised because of the failure to capitalise upon a larger boiler , which was a direct consequence of Maunsell ’ s standardisation policy . Instead , the SECR batch was trial @-@ fitted with " stovepipe " chimneys in an attempt to improve draughting . This was initially applied to No. 812 in 1921 , although two more were fitted to Nos. 817 and 819 during building because of a shortage of chimneys at Ashford Works . The chimney fitted to No. 819 was transferred to No. 818 sometime between 1921 and 1924 , though all " stovepipes " had been replaced with the standard N class type by April 1927 . Another trial saw the addition of a second slidebar to No. 825 , which gave better support to the valve gear and helped protect it from spillage from the driving wheel sander fillers .
The quality of the original design was such that No . A866 was put on display at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley from May to November 1925 , and no class @-@ wide modifications were made until 1934 . This was when the SECR and Woolwich batches began to receive new domes and front footsteps during overhauls and general repairs . These were the same design as those used on Nos. 1400 – 1414 , and were intended to standardise components between the batches . The SECR and Woolwich batches also received smoke deflectors to prevent drifting smoke from obscuring the driver 's vision ahead . The U1 chimneys replaced the standard N class type on the earlier locomotives , which , along with the removal of the piston tail rods on the earlier batches , created a truly standardised appearance .
In 1937 , Maunsell 's replacement Oliver Bulleid saw no need to improve draughting of the class , and spared them from trials with Lemaître multiple @-@ jet blastpipes and wide @-@ diameter chimneys . However , he had Maunsell 's smokebox @-@ mounted anti @-@ vacuum snifting valves removed at the end of the Second World War in an effort to reduce maintenance . Bulleid also had eight new 4 @,@ 000 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 18 @,@ 184 l ) tenders built specially for the left @-@ hand drive locomotives . In 1947 , No. 1831 was given electric lighting and converted to oil @-@ burning as part of government @-@ backed fuel trials in anticipation of a post @-@ war coal shortage , though it was reverted to coal @-@ firing in December 1948 .
The class was heavily used by British Railways : 29 locomotives required replacement cylinders between 1955 and 1961 due to excessive wear . Frames were occasionally replaced due to stress caused by heavy use , and the steam circuit was revised when new cylinders were fitted : the inside steam pipes of Maunsell 's original design were replaced by outside steam pipes emerging from the smokebox , behind the smoke deflectors . From 1957 , some of the locomotives had larger @-@ diameter BR Standard Class 4 chimneys fitted to improve draughting with poor @-@ quality coal , though the decline of steam on the Southern Region precluded use on the entire class . Crew reports maintained that the latter modifications cut fuel and water consumption . The final set of modifications constituted the fitting of new injectors and Automatic Warning System ( AWS ) equipment in 1957 and 1959 respectively .
= = = Experiments = = =
Although sufficient for the Southern Railway 's needs , the N class was an ideal test @-@ bed for experiments with new steam technology . The first experiment entailed fitting a Worthington feed pump to No . A819 in 1924 . The trial was moderately successful , and the pump remained in use until removal in 1927 . In June 1930 , No . A816 was withdrawn from service for the application of experimental Anderson steam conservation equipment at Eastleigh Works . This was designed by a Scottish marine draughtsman , Mr. A.P.H. Anderson , who proposed the use of a fan system to condense spent steam and improve draughting of the fire on long @-@ distance runs in regions with poor access to water .
No . A816 emerged from Eastleigh in August 1931 for trials , but was stopped when temperature variations within the condensing equipment caused water leakage . Modifications were made to improve the draughting of the locomotive , incorporating a box @-@ like chimney attached to the condenser array by pipes . No . A816 was released for more trials , and produced performances well @-@ below those displayed by the unmodified members of the class . The experiment was ended when the system 's developers ran out of money , and the locomotive was converted back to standard form between May and August 1935 , re @-@ entering service as No. 1816 .
The final experiment with performance enhancement began in October 1933 , when No. 1850 had its Walschaerts valve gear replaced with J.T. Marshall valve gear at Eastleigh Works . The engine was trialled on the Western section , where the gear showed promise at slower speeds , with reduced consumption of coal and water . Problems were encountered at speeds over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , at which a severe " knocking " sound was reported by the footplate crew . When trialled on a Basingstoke – Waterloo semi @-@ fast ( a high @-@ speed passenger train that stops at selected intermediate stations ) , the valve gear disintegrated near Woking . After immediate withdrawal from traffic , the locomotive had its Walschaerts valve gear re @-@ fitted and No. 1850 re @-@ entered traffic in April 1934 .
= = = Withdrawal = = =
Suitable work for the class began to decline after completion of the Kent Coast route electrification in 1959 . The reduction of work precipitated a phased reduction of the class that began with the withdrawal of No. 31409 in November 1962 . The withdrawal programme intensified after boundary changes on the Southern Region placed the lines west of Salisbury under Western Region control in 1963 . Class members based at Exmouth Junction shed were withdrawn in 1964 , whilst the Southern Region 's allocation was gradually replaced by Bulleid 's Light Pacifics . The last operational members of the class were Nos. 31405 and 31408 ; both were withdrawn in June 1966 .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 4 April 1958 , locomotive No. 31867 was hauling a parcels train that overran signals and collided with an electric multiple unit at Gloucester Road Junction , Croydon , Surrey . Nine people were injured .
= = Livery and numbering = =
= = = SECR and Southern Railway = = =
N class locomotives were initially painted in an unlined dark grey livery with white lettering and numbering . This Maunsell grey livery was introduced by the SECR as a wartime economy measure . After Grouping in 1923 , the Southern Railway replaced the different liveries of the constituent companies with a standard sage green livery ( the colour was that previously used by Robert Urie on the LSWR ) with black and white lining , primrose yellow numbering and " Southern " on the tender . This livery was first applied to No. 825 .
From 1925 , the class was repainted in a darker olive green livery , introduced by Maunsell , with plain white lining , black borders and primrose yellow markings . In 1939 , shortly after the start of the Second World War , locomotives Nos. 1413 and 1850 were painted in unlined olive green because of labour shortages . In 1941 , Nos. 1821 , 1825 , 1847 , 1878 and 1403 were run in unlined olive green with Bulleid 's gilt block lettering . Labour and paint shortages during the Second World War meant that all N class locomotives were painted in plain black by 1945 . In 1946 , two locomotives , Nos. 1817 and 1854 , were repainted in Bulleid 's malachite green livery , with yellow and black lining and " Sunshine " yellow lettering .
The 15 locomotives built by Ashford Works for the SECR between August 1917 and December 1923 were numbered 810 – 824 . The Royal Arsenal batch of 50 locomotives purchased by the newly formed Southern Railway from 1923 were numbered A825 – A875 ; the numbers followed consecutively from the Ashford batch but with a prefix " A " to denote a locomotive allocated for overhaul at Ashford Works . The prefix was gradually applied to the SECR batch . From 1928 , a new system was adopted where all Southern Railway locomotives were renumbered into one sequence . The SECR and Woolwich N class batches became Nos. 1810 – 1875 . The final batch of 15 locomotives , built between 1932 and 1934 , were numbered 1400 – 1414 from new .
= = = British Railways = = =
The class was absorbed by British Railways in 1948 , and initially given the power classification 4MT in 1949 . Under British Railways ownership , the class was reclassified from 4MT to 4P5FB in 1953 ; the " B " denoting the brake power rating when used on unfitted ( non @-@ vacuum braked ) goods trains . The locomotives at first retained their Southern Railway livery , but with " British Railways " painted on the tender in Bulleid block lettering . Eight locomotives had light repairs prior to 1950 and were given an " S " prefix to the Southern number ( e.g. s1405 ) . From 1949 to 1950 N class locomotives were repainted in the British Railways mixed @-@ traffic lined black livery with red , cream and grey lining and the British Railways crest on the tender . Numbering was changed to the British Railways standard numbering system : the series 31810 – 31875 was allocated to the earlier locomotives , and 31400 – 31414 to the final 15 .
= = Operational assessment and preservation = =
The N class was the first to combine Churchward design principles with the best practices of other railways ; it was an important step in the development of the British 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 , providing inspiration for the LMS Hughes Crab of 1926 and subsequent Maunsell designs . The locomotives were well received by crews , who nicknamed them " Woolworths " , because the majority were fabricated from cheaply produced parts from Woolwich . The robustness and reliability of the design ensured that their sphere of operation was expanded to cover most of the Southern Railway network . The utility of the N class as capable mixed @-@ traffic locomotives ensured their continued use until withdrawal in 1966 .
One member of the class is preserved , No . ( 3 ) 1874 , which was rescued in March 1974 from the Woodham Brothers scrapyard in Barry , Vale of Glamorgan , South Wales . One of the " Woolwich " batch , this locomotive was bought and restored for use on the Mid @-@ Hants Railway ; it was steamed for the first time in preservation in 1977 , and was operational at the railway 's re @-@ opening as a heritage attraction in April 1977 . The locomotive was withdrawn in 1998 due to problems that require firebox reconstruction . In 2012 the locomotive was repainted into its SR Wartime Black guise of 1874 for the first time in decades . The locomotive was moved from the Mid @-@ Hants Railway to the Swanage Railway in 2014 along with U Classes 31806 and 31625 . In August 2014 the overhaul to return 31874 to operational condition began .
= = Models = =
Bachmann Branchline make a model of the N class in OO gauge . [ Graham Farish ] make a model of the N class in [ N gauge ]
= Unforgiven ( 2008 ) =
Unforgiven ( 2008 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on September 7 , 2008 , at the Quicken Loans Arena in Cleveland , Ohio . It was the eleventh and final annual Unforgiven event , starring wrestlers from the Raw , SmackDown , and ECW brands .
Seven professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event 's card , which featured a supercard , a scheduling of more than one main event . The three brands , Raw , SmackDown , and ECW , were all represented by their respective Championship Scramble match – a 20 minute time limit bout , during which participants can become the temporary champion via pinfall or submission . The main event of the pay @-@ per @-@ view was the Championship Scramble from the Raw brand . It was originally scheduled to feature World Heavyweight Champion CM Punk defending his title ; he was replaced by Chris Jericho after Randy Orton attacked CM Punk . Jericho won the match and became World Heavyweight Champion . The Championship Scramble from the ECW brand featured ECW Champion Mark Henry defending , losing the match and title to Matt Hardy . The SmackDown brand 's Championship Scramble saw WWE Champion Triple H defeat the other competitors to retain his championship .
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in his book The Best of Tamil Cinema that the songs were " evergreen " . Film historian and columnist Randor Guy approved of the music , considering " Ninaipadhellam " to have " excellent background orchestration " . Film critic Baradwaj Rangan , writing for The New Indian Express , opined that " Engirundhaalum Vaazhga " had set " the precedent for several generations of jilted lovers " . On " Sonnathu Neethaana " , singer Charulatha Mani wrote , " The subtle pathos that P. Susheela imparts when she sings ' sol sol .. en uyire ' is notable . " P. K. Ajith Kumar of The Hindu stated , " Just as [ Susheela ] does not need to know the language to sing a song perfectly , we need not know Tamil to enjoy her songs like ... Sonnathu neethanaa ... ( Nenjil Oru Aalayam ) " . Following Viswanathan 's death in July 2015 , the news agency , Press Trust of India wrote that " Ninaipadhellam " was " memorable for the deep sense of solace it offered to wounded hearts . " Anand Venkateswaran of The Wire noted , " MSV ’ s style is less about making words sit in a meter than about a musical empathy with the meaning . Could anyone else have set to tune the first line of ‘ Sonnadhu nee daana ‘ , of Nenjil Or Alayam ( Muthuraman , 1962 ) ? " A critic from Dina Thanthi noted Kannadasan had an uncanny ability to deliver perfect situational songs and cited " Sonnathu Neethaana " as an example .
Tracklist
= = Release = =
Nenjil Or Aalayam was released on 26 January 1962 , coinciding with the Republic Day of India . Sridhar had to release the film on his own since no distributors were willing to buy it . The film received critical acclaim and was also commercially successful upon release ; it ran for 175 days in theatres . The film is hailed as a landmark for portraying a triangular love story in an innovative manner . To celebrate the film 's successful outing at the box office , the film 's crew members created an advertisement thanking the people who came to watch the film and appreciated it ; the advertisement was issued in Nadigar Sangam 's official magazine , Nadigan Kural , on 9 February 1962 .
Sridhar remade the film in Hindi as Dil Ek Mandir ( 1963 ) and in Telugu as Manase Mandiram ( 1966 ) . It was also remade in Malayalam as Hridayam Oru Kshethram and in Kannada as Kumkuma Rakshe ( 1977 ) . California @-@ based Indian filmmaker Jag Mundhra was keen on remaking Dil Ek Mandir in English and Hindi , effecting some marginal changes in the film treatment . Mundhra met Sridhar to ask for the rights to the film 's script only to learn that Sridhar had assigned it to a film financier for a paltry sum , for eternity . The financier demanded an exorbitant fee for giving up the rights . The fee amounted to 75 % of Mundhra 's budget .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Nenjil Or Aalayam received positive feedback from critics . Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan appreciated the film and mentioned , " It is an innovative film made like Hollywood films and a sincere attempt to improve the taste of filmgoers for quality films " . Link commented , " The film is , however , refreshingly different . What makes it better is , what it does not have . It has , for instance , no " star value . " " Randor Guy wrote , " Sridhar proved that movies could be made with new faces , limited sets and low budgets if one had an interesting , emotionally rich story , tautly narrated on screen with pleasing music " . Guy concluded his review by stating that the film would be " remembered for its excellent music and impressive performances by Muthuraman , Devika , Kalyankumar [ sic ] , Nagesh , Manorama and child artiste Padmini . " Dinamalar praised the film for showing love as a divine thing .
Following Devika 's demise in 2002 , S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu wrote , " If the song " Sonnathu needhana " [ sic ] attained immortality , thanks to the lyrical richness Kannadasan bestowed on it , the credit for making it visually poignant goes to Devika , who rendered it in the film . " Another journalist from The Hindu , T. Ramakrishnan noted , " Caught between her former lover and her husband who was battling for life , Devika strongly displayed the plight that any woman in such situations could face . " Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu said , " Decades may pass but the comedy element even in a serious story remains unforgettable . Nagesh 's fun fare in the film with Manorama , juxtaposed with the staid and sedate performances of Devika , Muthuraman and Kalyan Kumar , weren 't just a comic relief but an evergreen treat " .
K. S. Sivakumaran of Daily News Sri Lanka described the film 's plot as a " hackneyed theme " and compared it to a soap opera , but appreciated Muthuraman 's performance , Kannadasan 's lyrics and Vincent 's cinematography . Writing for The Times of India , Deepauk Murugesan said , " There is no clear choice between options and while the audience is entirely aware of the right moral decision even our minds are clouded by our affections for both Dr Murali and Venu . " K. Hariharan , director of the L. V. Prasad Film and Television Academy in Chennai , noted , " The only film that could stake claim [ in the 1960s ] to an individual ' love story ' was probably Sridhar 's powerful Nenjil [ Or ] Aalayam ! And even here ' sacrifice ' takes the upper hand ! "
= = = Accolades = = =
Nenjil Or Aalayam won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil and the President 's Award for Sridhar at the 10th National Film Awards . It also won the Cinema Express Award for Best Film .
= = Legacy = =
Nenjil Or Aalayam attained cult status in Tamil cinema , and became a trendsetter for both fast @-@ paced filmmaking and triangular love stories with sacrifice as the theme . Films that followed the trend of having these traits include Annakili ( 1976 ) , Antha Ezhu Naatkal ( 1981 ) and Kadhal Virus ( 2002 ) . The film became a major breakthrough in Nagesh 's career , and the film critic S. Theodore Baskaran believed that his role as a ward boy " established his position " .
In July 2007 , S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu asked eight acclaimed directors were asked to list ten films they liked most . Directors J. Mahendran , Balu Mahendra and K. S. Ravikumar listed the film among their favourite films . Ravikumar was quoted saying , " Sridhar 's Nenjil Or Aalayam depicts the supremacy of love . " Encouraged by the film 's success , Sridhar wished to screen the film at the Cannes Film Festival , thus the screenplay was translated into French in time for the festival . Sridhar sent Sarma , one of his administrative managers , to France to attend the screening of the film on his behalf . It was one of the films featured in artist V. Jeevananthan 's book Thiraiseelai , a compilation of articles on cinema which won a Special Mention certificate award at the 58th National Film Awards .
= The Boat Race 1871 =
The 28th Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on the 1 April 1871 . The race , umpired by Joseph William Chitty , was won by Cambridge by one length in a time of 23 minutes 10 seconds for their second consecutive victory .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by three lengths in the previous year 's race , while Oxford led overall with sixteen wins to Cambridge 's eleven .
Oxford were coached by W. D. Benson ( their non @-@ rowing president , who had rowed three times for the Dark Blues in the 1868 , 1869 and 1870 races ) . Cambridge 's coach was John Graham Chambers ( who rowed in the 1862 and 1863 race , and was a non @-@ rowing president for the 1865 race ) and John Hilton Ridley ( who rowed in the 1869 and 1870 races ) .
The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 4 @.@ 125 lb ( 76 @.@ 1 kg ) , 2 @.@ 75 pounds ( 1 @.@ 2 kg ) more than their opponents . The Cambridge crew saw only three new rowers , with five returning from the 1870 race , including the Cambridge University Boat Club president John Goldie and William Henry Lowe in their third appearance in the event , along with the cox Henry Erskine Gordon . Similarly , Oxford saw five of their crew return , including S. H. Woodhouse at bow and Thomas Southey Baker who were participating in their third Boat Races .
= = Race = =
There was " little or no tide and head wind over part of the course " according to Drinkwater . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex station to Oxford . The umpire , Chitty , got the race underway at 10.08am , with Cambridge taking an early lead . The Light Blues had a clear water advantage by the Point and held a two @-@ length lead by the time the crews shot Hammersmith Bridge . Despite a spurt instigated by Oxford stroke Robert Lesley at Barnes Bridge , Goldie remained steady until , before the final twenty strokes , he increased the stroke rate and saw Cambridge home by one length in a time of 23 minutes 10 seconds for their second consecutive victory and took the overall record to 16 – 12 in Oxford 's favour .
= Getting It : The Psychology of est =
Getting It : The Psychology of est is a non @-@ fiction book by American psychologist Sheridan Fenwick , first published in 1976 , analyzing Werner Erhard 's Erhard Seminars Training or est . It is based on Fenwick 's own experience of attending a four @-@ day session of the est training , an intensive 60 @-@ hour personal development course in the self @-@ help genre . Large groups of up to 250 people took the est training at one time .
In the first section of Fenwick 's book , she recounts the est training process and the methods used during the course . Fenwick details the rules or " agreements " laid out by the trainers to the attendees , which include not talking to others or leaving the session to go to the bathroom unless during an announced break period . The second section is analytic : Fenwick analyzes the methods used by the est trainers , evaluates the course 's potential effects , and discusses Erhard 's background . Fenwick concludes that the program 's long @-@ term effects are unknown , the est training may not be appropriate for certain groups of people , and that the large proportion of participants experience positive effects .
Writing in Library Journal , psychiatrist James Charney describes the book as " the only useful critical look " at the training . Zane Berzins of The New York Times Book Review characterizes the book as a " calm and professionally informed view " . Hearings held in 1979 before the United States House of Representatives on a juvenile delinquents program depicted in Scared Straight ! cited the book for background on the est training , as did psychologist Gidi Rubinstein in a 2005 study of the Landmark Forum published in the academic journal Psychology and Psychotherapy : Theory , Research and Practice .
= = Background = =
Werner Erhard ( born John Paul Rosenberg ) , was originally from Pennsylvania and migrated to California . A former salesman , training manager and executive in the encyclopedia business , Erhard created the Erhard Seminars Training ( est ) course in 1971 @.@ est was a form of Large Group Awareness Training , and was part of the Human Potential Movement. est was a four @-@ day , 60 @-@ hour self @-@ help program given to groups of 250 people at a time . The program was very intensive : each day would contain 15 – 20 hours of instruction . During the training , est personnel utilized jargon to convey key concepts , and participants had to agree to certain rules which remained in effect for the duration of the course . Participants were taught that they were responsible for their life outcomes .
Est was controversial . It had its critics and proponents . A year after Getting It was published , over 100 @,@ 000 people completed the est training , including public figures and mental health professionals . In 1985 , Werner Erhard and Associates repackaged the course as " The Forum " , a seminar focused on " goal @-@ oriented breakthroughs " . By 1988 , approximately one million people had taken some form of the trainings . In the early 1990s Erhard faced family problems , as well as tax problems that were eventually resolved in his favor . A group of his associates formed the company Landmark Education in 1991 .
= = Author = =
Sheridan Fenwick , in her early thirties when Getting It was published , had graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree from Goucher College and received a doctorate in psychopathology and social psychology from Cornell University . Her Ph.D. dissertation was published in 1975 . Fenwick served as the director of social policy in the Department of City Planning of Chicago , Illinois , as assistant attending psychologist at Montefiore Medical Center , and as a faculty member of Columbia University 's department of psychology .
Fenwick writes that although she had been trained as a clinical psychologist , she avoided " consciousness " movements and never participated in transactional analysis or similar therapies , including Transcendental Meditation , Esalen , Arica , Gestalt therapy and Mind Dynamics . When she met with graduates of the est training and heard their testimonials and observed their level of self @-@ confidence , she considered taking the training .
After some preliminary research , Fenwick decided to take the training as a participant rather than as a professional observer . She paid the $ 250 @.@ 00 course fee and enrolled in a four @-@ day est program to examine its methods and its appeal . She reports that the training was an " extraordinary experience " , but that she had " serious concerns about the implications of the est phenomenon " , and that people should know more about it . The book was first published September 16 , 1976 , by J. B. Lippincott Company . A second edition was published by Penguin Books in 1977 . Fenwick went on to work as director of the Behavioral Medicine Clinic at Abbott Northwestern Hospital in Minneapolis , before retiring in 1993 to set up Psybar , an online service to provide psychological experts for court cases .
= = Contents = =
The book
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is divided into two sections . The first section describes Fenwick 's own experiences of the training ; the second analyzes the est program 's methodology and effects . In her analysis of the course , she states , " While the consensus of informed opinion , based on summaries of research findings , is that interventions similar to the est training have only modestly positive effects , I think that the existing research provides us with an underestimate of the effect of the est training . This training represents a distillation of some of the most powerful techniques and central precepts for attitude and behavior change … I would guess that the effects of the est training are substantial for a large proportion of people . ”
In the latter portion of the book Fenwick discusses comparisons of the est training to brainwashing and psychotherapy , potential harmful effects of the course , and the extent that positive benefit from the course may be attributed to a self @-@ fulfilling prophecy . Fenwick sees est as a form of psychotherapy that utilizes " in " therapies , and questions its suitability for certain individuals . Fenwick writes that the est training draws influences from Synanon , Gestalt therapy , encounter groups , and Scientology . She discusses the potential positive and negative psychological effects that can occur subsequent to taking the est training . She analyzes the rules of the training , and the behavioral tools used by the trainers , and points out that the est personnel are not qualified to assess psychopathology . Fenwick asserts that tactics including sensory deprivation and the large group setting of 250 people at a time help to make the training " work " . She describes this as a " compression chamber effect " , and asserts that it leads to the " hysterical confessions and the euphoric testimonials " she observed in the course .
Fenwick cites the secrecy of the est organization as an impediment to meaningful study , and states that the studies cited by est itself are inadequate and inconclusive . Fenwick writes that a lack of " sophisticated research designs " limits the ability to properly determine long @-@ term benefits or harm caused by the course and notes : " est uses techniques indiscriminately which , in a certain proportion of the population , are known to be harmful and potentially quite dangerous " . She concludes that it is difficult to determine whether est " produces any more than a superficial catharsis , or whether it might be harmful to certain people , " and states that the long @-@ range effects of the training are unknown .
Fenwick also asks rhetorically , " Should we completely discount the testimonials of est graduates , knowing that they are not sufficiently rigorous measures to qualify as scientific evidence ? I don ’ t think so . The fact that positive testimonials are so readily obtained from est graduates , in combination with the observation that a majority of people who take the est training , continue to participate and have found the est experience to be rewarding . Even if ' objective ' changes are not documented in people 's lives , it is noteworthy that people feel happier , more satisfied , more relaxed , and more ' alive . ' If you ' feel ' happier , then you ' are ' happier – objective circumstances notwithstanding . Subjective states are clearly an important component of our lives . "
= = Reception = =
Getting It received mixed , but generally positive , reviews . One positive evaluation came from psychiatrist James Charney , in a 1976 review for Library Journal . Charney calls the book " the only useful critical look at this essential issue " , referring to the est training . He notes in particular that Fenwick 's " analysis of the function of the group , the restrictive rules , and the enforced discomfort is convincing " . In a 1977 review in Library Journal Edith Crockett and Ellis Mount highly recommended the book , commenting that " A plethora of newspaper and magazine reports , along with books written by graduates ... have attempted to explain the phenomenon of this self @-@ help program , but none has done it as well or as objectively as this writer . " Kirkus Reviews noted the precedent set by the analytical nature of the book , writing " Finally . Here 's someone who is willing to disclose the details of Erhard Seminars Training , and then go on to analyze them from a psychological point of view . " Zane Berzins , writing for The New York Times Book Review in 1977 , describes Fenwick 's work as a " calm and professionally informed view " . Berzins describes the book as a " brave attempt " at an analysis of est 's appeal , and concludes that " It 's hardly an incendiary exposé , but Fenwick 's open @-@ minded scrutiny should deglamourize the est movement . "
William McGurk reviewed the book in Contemporary Psychology . Although McGurk praises the book 's description of the est seminars , noting that it " present [ s ] a clear picture of the process " , he also criticizes Fenwick 's subsequent analysis , saying she " sounds like a different person " than in the first section . McGurk writes that " It 's as though she put on her psychoanalytically oriented , professional hat and ran a tape that was far from being effective . " A review in Publishers Weekly states that Fenwick 's " inbred detachment may have kept her from the full impact of the ' experience ' the training was meant to be ( and is for many ) " . Even so , the review notes that Fenwick " scores heavily " in the section where she questions the nature of the est training and Erhard 's background ; it recommends that Getting It be read alongside Luke Rhinehart 's The Book of est .
The book is recommended by James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton 's 1992 book Perspectives on the New Age , where they describe it as " a thorough discussion of est training methods and the psychology behind them " . Other works that cite the book for background on est include Snapping : America 's Epidemic of Sudden Personality Change , by Flo Conway and Jim Siegelman ; and Evaluating a Large Group Awareness Training , a study commissioned by Erhard 's successor company to est , Werner Erhard and Associates .
Fenwick 's work was cited in 1979 hearings before the United States House of Representatives on a controversial program for juvenile delinquents , which was depicted in the Academy Award @-@ winning documentary film Scared Straight ! . Getting It is cited in background discussion of the est training : " Fenwick has pointed out that sophisticated assessment of individual psychopathology is beyond the competence and training of the est personnel ; it is also outside the est value system , since the training is held to be almost universally beneficial . " Psychologist Gidi Rubinstein cites the book as a reference in a 2005 study of the Landmark Forum , a course descended from the est training , which he presented in the academic journal Psychology and Psychotherapy : Theory , Research and Practice .
= Pierre Monteux =
Pierre Benjamin Monteux ( pronounced : [ pjɛʁ mɔ ̃ .tø ] ; 4 April 1875 – 1 July 1964 ) was a French ( later American ) conductor . After violin and viola studies , and a decade as an orchestral player and occasional conductor , he began to receive regular conducting engagements in 1907 . He came to prominence when , for Sergei Diaghilev 's Ballets Russes company between 1911 and 1914 , he conducted the world premieres of Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring and other prominent works including Petrushka , Ravel 's Daphnis et Chloé , and Debussy 's Jeux . Thereafter he directed orchestras around the world for more than half a century .
From 1917 to 1919 Monteux was the principal conductor of the French repertoire at the Metropolitan Opera in New York . He led the Boston Symphony Orchestra ( 1919 – 24 ) , Amsterdam Concertgebouw Orchestra ( 1924 – 34 ) , Orchestre Symphonique de Paris ( 1929 – 38 ) and San Francisco Symphony ( 1936 – 52 ) . In 1961 , aged eighty @-@ six , he accepted the chief conductorship of the London Symphony Orchestra , a post which he held until his death three years later . Although known for his performances of the French repertoire , his chief love was the music of German composers , above all Brahms . He disliked recording , finding it incompatible with spontaneity , but he nevertheless made a substantial number of records .
Monteux was well known as a teacher . In 1932 he began a conducting class in Paris , which he developed into a summer school that was later moved to his summer home in Les Baux in the south of France . After moving permanently to the US in 1942 , and taking American citizenship , he founded a school for conductors and orchestral musicians in Hancock , Maine . Among his students in France and America who went on to international fame were Igor Markevitch , Neville Marriner , André Previn , Lorin Maazel , Seiji Ozawa and David Zinman . The school in Hancock has continued since Monteux 's death .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Pierre Monteux was born in Paris , the third son and the fifth of six children of Gustave Élie Monteux , a shoe salesman , and his wife , Clémence Rebecca née Brisac . The Monteux family was descended from Sephardic Jews who settled in the south of France . The Monteux ancestors included at least one rabbi , but Gustave Monteux and his family were not religious . Among Monteux 's brothers were Henri , who became an actor , and Paul , who became a conductor of light music under the name Paul Monteux @-@ Brisac . Gustave Monteux was not musical , but his wife was a graduate of the Conservatoire de Musique de Marseille and gave piano lessons . Pierre took violin lessons from the age of six .
When he was nine years old Monteux was admitted to the Conservatoire de Paris . He studied the violin with Jules Garcin and Henri Berthelier , composition with Charles Lenepveu , and harmony and theory with Albert Lavignac . His fellow violin students included George Enescu , Carl Flesch , Fritz Kreisler and Jacques Thibaud . Among the piano students at the Conservatoire was Alfred Cortot , with whom he developed a lifelong friendship . At the age of twelve , Monteux organised and conducted a small orchestra of Conservatoire students to accompany Cortot in performances of concertos in and around Paris . He attended the world premiere of César Franck 's Symphony in February 1889 . From 1889 to 1892 , while still a student , he played in the orchestra of the Folies Bergère ; he later said to George Gershwin that his rhythmic sense was formed during the experience of playing popular dance music there .
At the age of fifteen , while continuing his violin studies , Monteux took up the viola . He studied privately with Benjamin Godard , with whom he performed in the premiere of Saint @-@ Saëns 's Septet , with the composer at the keyboard . Monteux joined the Geloso Quartet as violist ; he played many concerts with them , including a performance of Fauré 's Second Piano Quartet with the composer at the piano . On another occasion he was the violist in a private performance of a Brahms quartet given before the composer in Vienna . Monteux recalled Brahms 's remark , " It takes the French to play my music properly . The Germans all play it much too heavily . " Monteux remained a member of the Geloso Quartet until 1911 . With Johannes Wolff and Joseph Hollman he also played chamber music for Grieg . Years later , in his seventies , Monteux deputised with the Budapest Quartet without rehearsal or score ; asked by Erik Smith if he could write out the parts of the seventeen Beethoven quartets , he replied , " You know , I cannot forget them . "
In 1893 , when he was eighteen , Monteux married a fellow student , the pianist Victoria Barrière . With her he played the complete Beethoven violin sonatas in public . Neither family approved of the marriage ; although the Monteux family were not religious , both they and the Roman Catholic Barrières were doubtful about an inter @-@ religious marriage ; furthermore , both families thought the couple too young to marry . There were a son and a daughter from the union .
During his formative years Monteux belonged to a group which toured with the Casadesus family of musicians and the pianist Alfredo Casella . The combination played supposed " ancient pieces " , allegedly discovered in libraries by one or other of the Casadesus family ; Marius Casadesus later revealed that he or his brother Henri had written the music . While still a student , in 1893 Monteux was successful in the competition for the chair of first viola of the Concerts Colonne , of which he became assistant conductor and choirmaster the following year . This gave him a link via the orchestra 's founder , Édouard Colonne , to Berlioz . Colonne had known Berlioz , and through the older conductor Monteux was able to mark his scores with notes based on the composer 's intentions . He was also employed on a freelance basis at the Opéra @-@ Comique , where he continued to play from time to time for several years ; he led the viola section at the 1902 premiere of Pelléas et Mélisande under the baton of André Messager . In 1896 he graduated from the Conservatoire , sharing first prize for violin with Thibaud .
= = = First conducting
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Monteux 's first high profile conducting experience came in 1895 , when he was barely 20 years old . He was a member of the orchestra engaged for a performance of Saint @-@ Saëns 's oratorio La lyre et la harpe , to be conducted by the composer . At the last minute Saint @-@ Saëns judged the player engaged for the important and difficult organ part to be inadequate and , as a celebrated virtuoso organist , decided to play it himself . He asked the orchestra if any of them could take over as conductor ; there was a chorus of " Oui – Monteux ! " . With great trepidation , Monteux conducted the orchestra and soloists including the composer , sight @-@ reading the score , and was judged a success .
Monteux 's musical career was interrupted in 1896 , when he was called up for military service . As a graduate of the Conservatoire , one of France 's grandes écoles , he was required to serve only ten months rather than the three years generally required . He later described himself as " the most pitifully inadequate soldier that the 132nd Infantry had ever seen " . He had inherited from his mother not only her musical talent but her short and portly build and was physically unsuited to soldiering .
Returning to Paris after discharge , Monteux resumed his career as a violist . Hans Richter invited him to lead the violas in the Bayreuth Festival orchestra , but Monteux could not afford to leave his regular work in Paris . In December 1900 Monteux played the solo viola part in Berlioz 's Harold in Italy , rarely heard in Paris at the time , with the Colonne Orchestra conducted by Felix Mottl . In 1902 he secured a junior conducting post at the Dieppe casino , a seasonal appointment for the summer months which brought him into contact with leading musicians from the Paris orchestras and well @-@ known soloists on vacation . By 1907 he was the principal conductor at Dieppe , in charge of operas and orchestral concerts . As an orchestral conductor he modelled his technique on that of Arthur Nikisch , under whose baton he had played , and who was his ideal conductor .
= = = Ballets Russes = = =
For some time , Monteux 's marriage had been under strain , exacerbated by his wife 's frequent absences on concert tours . The couple were divorced in 1909 ; Monteux married one of her former pupils , Germaine Benedictus , the following year .
Monteux continued to play in the Concerts Colonne through the first decade of the century . In 1910 Colonne died and was succeeded as principal conductor by Gabriel Pierné . As well as leading the violas , Monteux was assistant conductor , taking charge of early rehearsals and acting as chorus master for choral works . In 1910 the orchestra was engaged to play for a Paris season given by Sergei Diaghilev 's ballet company , the Ballets Russes . Monteux played under Pierné in the world premiere of Stravinsky 's The Firebird . In 1911 Diaghilev engaged Nikolai Tcherepnin to conduct the premiere of Stravinsky 's Petrushka . Monteux conducted the preliminary rehearsals before Tcherepnin arrived ; Stravinsky was so impressed that he insisted that Monteux conduct the premiere .
Petrushka was part of a triple bill , all conducted by Monteux . The other two pieces were Le Spectre de la Rose and Scheherazade , a balletic adaptation of Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's symphonic suite of the same name . The three works were choreographed by Fokine . In later years Monteux disapproved of the appropriation of symphonic music for ballets , but he made an exception for Scheherazade , and , as his biographer John Canarina observes , at that stage in his career his views on the matter carried little weight . Petrushka was a success with the public and with all but the most diehard conservative critics .
Following the Paris season Diaghilev appointed Monteux principal conductor for a tour of Europe in late 1911 and early 1912 . It began with a five @-@ week season at the Royal Opera House in London . The press notices concentrated on the dancers , who included Anna Pavlova as well as the regular stars of the Ballets Russes , but Monteux received some words of praise . The Times commented on the excellent unanimity he secured from the players , apart from " occasional uncertainty in the changes of tempo . "
After its season in London the company performed in Vienna , Budapest , Prague and Berlin . The tour was successful , artistically and financially , but was not without untoward incident . A planned visit to St Petersburg had to be cancelled because the Narodny Dom theatre burned down , and in Vienna the Philharmonic was unequal to the difficulties of the score of Petrushka . The illustrious orchestra revolted at the rehearsal for the first performance , refusing to play for Monteux ; only an intervention by Diaghilev restored the rehearsal , by the end of which Monteux was applauded and Stravinsky given an ovation . In the middle of the tour Monteux was briefly summoned back to Paris by the Concerts Colonne , which had the contractual right to recall him , to deputise for Pierné ; his own deputy , Désiré @-@ Émile Inghelbrecht , took temporary musical charge of the Ballets Russes .
In May 1912 Diaghilev 's company returned to Paris . Monteux was the conductor for the two outstanding works of the season , Vaslav Nijinsky 's ballet version of Debussy 's Prélude à l 'après @-@ midi d 'un faune , made with the composer 's approval , and Fokine 's Daphnis et Chloé to a score commissioned from Ravel . Monteux later recalled " Debussy was behind me when we played L 'après midi d 'un faune because he did not want anything in his score to be changed on account of the dancing . And when we came to a forte , he said ' Monteux , that is a forte , play forte ' . He did not want anything shimmering . And he wanted everything exactly in time " .
In February and March 1913 the Ballets Russes presented another London season . As in 1911 , the local orchestra engaged was the Beecham Symphony Orchestra . The orchestra 's founder , Thomas Beecham , shared the conducting with Monteux . At the end of February Beecham had to take over Petrushka when Monteux suddenly hastened to Paris for four days to be with his wife on the birth of their daughter , Denise .
= = = The Rite of Spring = = =
During the 1913 Ballets Russes season in Paris , Monteux conducted two more premieres . The first was Jeux , with music by Debussy and choreography by Nijinsky . The choreography was not liked ; Monteux thought it " asinine " , while Debussy felt that " Nijinsky 's cruel and barbarous choreography ... trampled over my poor rhythms like so many weeds " . The second new work was Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring given under the French title , Le sacre du printemps . Monteux had been appalled when Stravinsky first played the score at the piano :
I decided then and there that the symphonies of Beethoven and Brahms were the only music for me , not the music of this crazy Russian . ... My one desire was to flee that room and find a quiet corner in which to rest my aching head . Then [ Diaghilev ] turned to me and with a smile said , " This is a masterpiece , Monteux , which will completely revolutionize music and make you famous , because you are going to conduct it . " And , of course , I did .
Despite his initial reaction , Monteux worked with Stravinsky , giving practical advice to help the composer to achieve the orchestral balance and effects he sought . Together they worked on the score from March to May 1913 , and to get the orchestra of the Théâtre des Champs @-@ Élysées to cope with the unfamiliar and difficult music Monteux held seventeen rehearsals , an unusually large number . Monteux 's real attitude to the score is unclear . In his old age he told a biographer , " I did not like Le Sacre then . I have conducted it fifty times since . I do not like it now . " However , he told his wife in 1963 that the Rite was " now fifty years old , and I do not think it has aged at all . I had pleasure in conducting the fiftieth anniversary of Le Sacre this spring " .
The dress rehearsal , with Debussy , Ravel , other musicians and critics among those present , passed without incident . However , the following evening the premiere provoked something approaching a riot , with loud verbal abuse of the work , counter @-@ shouts from supporters , and fisticuffs breaking out . Monteux pressed on , continuing to conduct the orchestra regardless of the turmoil behind him . Stravinsky wrote " The image of Monteux 's back is more vivid in my mind today than the picture of the stage . He stood there apparently impervious and as nerveless as a crocodile . It is still incredible to me that he actually brought the orchestra through to the end . " The extensive press coverage of the incident made Monteux " at age thirty @-@ eight , truly a famous conductor " . The company presented the Rite during its London season a few weeks later . The Times reported that although there was " something like a hostile reception " at the first London performance , the final performance in the season " was received with scarcely a sign of opposition " . Before the 1913 London performances , Monteux challenged Diaghilev 's authority by declaring that he , not the impresario , was the composer 's representative in matters related to The Rite of Spring .
Monteux believed that most of the anger aroused by the work was due not to the music but to Nijinsky 's choreography , described by Stravinsky as " knock @-@ kneed and long @-@ haired Lolitas jumping up and down " . With the composer 's agreement Monteux presented a concert performance in Paris in April 1914 . Saint @-@ Saëns , who was present , declared Stravinsky mad and left in a rage , but he was almost alone in his dislike . At the end Stravinsky was carried shoulder @-@ high from the theatre after what he described as " the most beautiful performance that I have had of the Sacre du printemps " . That performance was part of a series of " Concerts Monteux " , presented between February and April 1914 , in which Monteux conducted the orchestra of the Théâtre des Champs @-@ Élysées in a wide range of symphonic and concertante works , including the concert premiere of the orchestral version of Ravel 's Valses nobles et sentimentales . His last notable engagement before the outbreak of war was as conductor of the premiere of Stravinsky 's opera The Nightingale at the Palais Garnier .
= = = The Met and Boston = = =
After the outbreak of the First World War Monteux was again conscripted into the army , serving as a private in the 35th Territorial Regiment , with which he saw action in the trenches at Verdun , Soissons and the Argonne . He later described much of this period as one of " filth and boredom " , although he formed a scratch band to divert his fellow soldiers . After just over two years on active service he was released from military duties after Diaghilev prevailed on the French government to second Monteux to conduct the Ballets Russes on a North American tour . The tour took in fifty @-@ four cities in the US and Canada . In New York in 1916 Monteux refused to conduct Nijinsky 's new ballet Till Eulenspiegel as the music was by a German – Richard Strauss – so a conductor had to be engaged for those performances . At the end of the tour Monteux was offered a three @-@ year contract to conduct the French repertoire at the Metropolitan Opera in New York , and received the permission of the French government to remain in the US .
At the Met ( as the Metropolitan Opera is generally called ) , Monteux conducted familiar French works such as Faust , Carmen and Samson and Delilah , with singers including Enrico Caruso , Geraldine Farrar , Louise Homer and Giovanni Martinelli . Of his first appearance , The New York Times said , " Mr. Monteux conducted with skill and authority . He made it evident that he had ample knowledge of the score and control of the orchestra – an unmistakably rhythmic beat , a sense of dramatic values . " Monteux conducted the American premieres of Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's The Golden Cockerel , and Henri Rabaud 's Mârouf , savetier du Caire . The American premiere of Petrushka , in a new production by , and starring , Adolph Bolm , was in an unusual opera @-@ ballet double bill with La traviata . Monteux 's performances were well received , but , though he later returned to the Met as a guest , opera did not loom large in his career . He said , " I love conducting opera . The only trouble is that I hate the atmosphere of the opera house , where only too often music is the least of many considerations , from staging to the temperaments of the principal singers . " Nor was he drawn to further engagements as a ballet conductor : " it offers special problems of fitting in with the dances and the dancers , most of whom , I 'm sorry to say , seem to have musical appreciation confined to an ability to count beats . " Nonetheless he occasionally conducted ballet performances , and even in his concert performances of the ballet scores he had conducted for Diaghilev he said he always had the dancers in his mind 's eye .
In 1919 Monteux was appointed chief conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra . The orchestra was going through difficult times ; its conductor , Karl Muck , had been forced by anti @-@ German agitation to step down in 1917 . Sir Henry Wood turned down the post , and despite press speculation neither Sergei Rachmaninoff nor Arturo Toscanini was appointed . At least twenty @-@ four players of German heritage had been forced out with Muck , and orchestral morale was low . Shortly before Monteux took up the conductorship the autocratic founder and proprietor of the orchestra , Henry Lee Higginson , died . He had steadfastly resisted unionisation , and after his death a substantial minority of the players resumed the struggle for union recognition . More than thirty players , including two important principals , resigned over the matter . Monteux set about rebuilding the orchestra , auditioning players from all kinds of musical background , some of whom had not played symphonic music before . By the end of his first season he had restored the orchestra to something approaching its normal complement . He trained the orchestra to a high standard ; according to the critic Neville Cardus , Monteux 's musicianship " made the Boston Symphony Orchestra the most refined and musical in the world . "
Monteux regularly introduced new compositions in Boston , often works by American , English and French composers . He was proud of the number of novelties presented in his years at Boston , and expressed pleasure that his successors continued the practice . He was dismayed when it was announced that his contract would not be renewed after 1924 . The official explanation was that the orchestra 's policy had always been to appoint conductors for no more than five years . It is unclear whether that was genuinely the reason . One suggested possibility is that the conductor chosen to replace him , Serge Koussevitzky , was thought more charismatic , with greater box @-@ office appeal . Another is that the primmer members of Boston society disapproved of Monteux 's morals : he and his second wife had gradually drifted apart and by 1924 he was living with Doris Hodgkins , an American divorcée , and her two children . They were unable to marry until 1928 , when Germaine Monteux finally agreed to a divorce .
= = = Amsterdam and Paris = = =
In 1924 , Monteux began a ten @-@ year association with the Concertgebouw Orchestra of Amsterdam , serving as " first conductor " ( " eerste dirigent " ) alongside Willem Mengelberg , its long @-@ serving chief conductor . The two musicians liked and respected one another , despite the difference in their approach to music @-@ making : Monteux was scrupulous in his adherence to a composer 's score and straightforward in his performances , while Mengelberg was well known for his virtuoso , sometimes wilful , interpretations and his cavalier attitude to the score ( " Ve vill make some changements " , as an English player quoted him ) . Their preferred repertoire overlapped in some of the classics , but Mengelberg had his own favourites from Bach 's St. Matthew Passion to Mahler symphonies , and was happy to leave Debussy and Stravinsky to Monteux . Where their choices coincided , as in Beethoven , Brahms and Richard Strauss , Mengelberg was generous in giving Monteux at least his fair share of them .
While in Amsterdam Monteux conducted a number of operas , including Pelléas et Mélisande ( its Dutch premiere ) , Carmen , Les Contes d 'Hoffmann , a Lully and Ravel double bill of Acis et Galatée and L 'Heure espagnole , Gluck 's Iphigénie en Tauride ( also brought to the Paris Opéra ) and Verdi 's Falstaff . Toscanini had been invited to conduct the last of these , but he told the promoters that Monteux was his dearest colleague and the best conductor for Falstaff .
During the first eight years of his association with the Concertgebouw , Monteux conducted between fifty and sixty concerts each season . In his final two years with the orchestra other conductors , notably the rising young Dutchman Eduard van Beinum , were allocated concerts that would previously have been given to Monteux , who amicably withdrew from his position in Amsterdam in 1934 . He returned many times as a guest conductor .
In addition to his work with the Concertgebouw Orchestra , from 1929 Monteux conducted the Orchestre Symphonique de Paris ( OSP ) , founded the previous year . The orchestral scene in Paris in the 1920s had been adversely affected by the " deputy " system , whereby any contracted orchestral player was at liberty , if a better engagement became available , to send a deputy to a rehearsal or even to a concert . In most other major cities in Europe and America this practice either had never existed or had been eradicated . Alongside the opera orchestras , four other Paris orchestras were competing for players . In 1928 the arts patron the Princesse de Polignac combined with the fashion designer Coco Chanel to propose a new orchestra , well enough paid to keep its players from taking conflicting engagements . With financial backing assured , they appointed a triumvirate of musicians – Cortot , Ernest Ansermet and Louis Fourestier – to assemble the OSP . The following year Cortot invited Monteux to become the orchestra 's artistic director and principal conductor . Ansermet , its initial musical director , was not pleased at being supplanted by a conductor of whom he was reportedly " ragingly jealous " , but the composer Darius Milhaud commented on how much better the orchestra played for Monteux " since Ansermet has been sent back to his Swiss pastures " .
Monteux considered the OSP one of the finest with which he worked . He conducted it until 1938 , premiering many pieces , including Prokofiev 's Third Symphony in 1929 . The orchestra 's generous funding in the first years allowed for ample rehearsals and adventurous programming , presenting contemporary music and the lesser @-@ known works of earlier composers as well as the classic repertoire . In his first season Monteux conducted an all @-@ Stravinsky concert , consisting of the suite from The Firebird and complete performances of Petrushka and The Rite of Spring . The orchestra made European tours in 1930 and 1931 , receiving enthusiastic receptions in the Netherlands and Germany . In Berlin the audience could not contain its applause until the end of the Symphonie fantastique , and in Monteux 's words " went wild " after the slow movement , the " Scène aux champs " . He approved of spontaneous applause , unlike Artur Schnabel , Sir Henry Wood and Leopold Stokowski , who did all they could to stamp out the practice of clapping between movements .
After 1931 the OSP suffered the effects of the Great Depression ; much of its funding ceased , and the orchestra reformed itself into a co @-@ operative , pooling such meagre profits as it made . To give the players some extra work Monteux started a series of conducting classes in 1932 . From 1936 he held the classes at his summer home in Les Baux in Provence , the forerunner of the school he later set up in the US .
= = = San Francisco and the Monteux School = = =
Monteux first conducted the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra ( SFSO ) in 1931 , and in 1935 at the age of 60 he was offered the chief conductorship . He was doubtful about accepting , both on personal and on professional grounds . He did not want to leave the OSP , his wife did not want to live on the west coast of America , and the orchestra was so low in funds that it had been forced to cancel an entire season in 1934 . Like most orchestras the SFSO had been badly hit financially by the depression , and it suffered the further difficulty that many of its former players had left for better @-@ paid jobs in Hollywood studios . That problem was exacerbated by the insistence of the Musicians ' Union that only local players could be recruited . Monteux nevertheless accepted the appointment . The SFSO concert season was never longer than five months a year , which enabled him to continue working with the OSP , and allowed him to conduct the inaugural concert of the NBC Symphony Orchestra on 13 November 1937 . In The New York Times Olin Downes wrote that the new orchestra was " of very high rank " and that the broadcast concert had displayed Monteux " at the height of his powers . "
The Times said of Monteux 's time in San Francisco that it had " incalculable effect on American musical culture " , and gave him " the opportunity to expand his already substantial repertory , and by gradual , natural processes to deepen his understanding of his art . " Monteux consistently programmed new or recent music . He generally avoided , as he did throughout his career , atonal or serial works , but his choice of modern works nevertheless drew occasional complaints from conservative @-@ minded members of the San Francisco audience . Among guest conductors with the SFSO during Monteux 's years were John Barbirolli , Beecham , Otto Klemperer , Stokowski and Stravinsky . Soloists included the pianists George Gershwin , Rachmaninoff , Arthur Rubinstein and Schnabel , the violinists Jascha Heifetz , Yehudi Menuhin and the young Isaac Stern , and singers such as Kirsten Flagstad and Alexander Kipnis . Almost all his seventeen San Francisco seasons concluded with Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony . Monteux 's SFSO studio recordings were mainly made in the cavernous acoustics of War Memorial Opera House ( without an audience ) with the music transmitted over telephone wires to a Los Angeles studio and recorded on film there . Confined to the USA for the years of the Second World War , in 1942 Monteux took American citizenship .
Monteux wished to continue his work in helping young conductors : " Conducting is not enough . I must create something . I am not a composer , so I will create fine young musicians . " In addition to his classes in Paris and Les Baux in the 1930s he had given private lessons to Igor Markevitch ; later private students included André Previn , Seiji Ozawa , José Serebrier and Robert Shaw . Previn called him " the kindest , wisest man I can remember , and there was nothing about conducting he didn 't know . " After a performance conducted by Previn , Monteux said to him , " Did you think the orchestra was playing well ? ... So did I. Next time don 't interfere with them . " Previn said that he never forgot this advice . Monteux 's best @-@ known undertaking as a teacher was the Pierre Monteux School for conductors and orchestral musicians , held each summer at his home in Hancock , Maine from 1943 onwards . Internationally known alumni of the school include Leon Fleisher , Erich Kunzel , Lorin Maazel , Neville Marriner , Hugh Wolff and David Zinman . Other Monteux students included John Canarina , whose 2003 biography was the first full @-@ length study of the conductor in English , Charles Bruck , one of Monteux 's first pupils in Paris , who became music director of the school in Hancock after Monteux 's death , and Emanuel Leplin .
Monteux appeared as guest conductor with many orchestras ; he commented in 1955 , " I regret they don 't have symphony orchestras all over the world so I could see Burma and Samarkand " . His successor with the Boston Symphony Orchestra , Serge Koussevitzky , invited many guest conductors during his twenty @-@ five years in charge ; Monteux was never among them , probably , in Canarina 's view , because of Koussevitzky 's jealousy . In 1949 Koussevitzky was succeeded by Charles Munch , whose early career had been boosted by an invitation from Monteux to conduct the Orchestre Symphonique de Paris in 1933 . Munch invited Monteux to Boston as a guest conductor in the 1951 season . The engagement was greeted with enthusiasm by the critics and the public , and Munch invited Monteux to join him the following year in heading the orchestra 's first European tour . The high point of the tour was a performance under Monteux of The Rite of Spring at the Théâtre des Champs @-@ Elysées , in the presence of the composer . Monteux returned annually to Boston every year
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. Many students also attend classes at Garden City Community College .
= = School layout = =
= = = Former high school = = =
The previous high school consisted of several halls . The main hall was the longest hall in the school and consisted of several classrooms . It was attached to the main entrance on the west and met the trophy room on the east . The John D. Adams Vocational Technology building stood by itself next to the main building . There were two gymnasiums on campus . The main gym was often referred to as " The Garden " and accommodated approximately 2 @,@ 000 people . There were also 8 trailers located on the north side of the school to help provide additional classrooms . These trailers were used largely for English and History classes .
GCHS underwent a major remodeling project during the 2005 – 2006 school year . An open courtyard had previously existed in the central section of the school which had gone largely unused . School officials met and decided to enclose the courtyard and transform the space into a multi @-@ purpose atrium tetrastylum . After nearly a year , construction was completed . The new multi @-@ purpose area was used for additional seating during lunchtime , as well as conferences , banquets , and additional uses . The atrium featured a projection screen , a flat @-@ screen HDTV , additional storage closets , a small elevated stage area , several unique design features , and additional entrances / exits to classrooms . The renovation was , however , largely regarded by students and residents of Garden City as a waste of resources , owing to the construction of the current high school . One of the main reasons for the enclosure of the courtyard was to provide adequate room for most of its students in a lunchroom of some sort . However , at the time , the high school espoused an open lunch policy , and consequently a majority of its close to 2 @,@ 000 students left campus for lunch . Administrators responded to this in the 2007 – 2008 school year by closing lunch to freshmen , and the following year by closing lunch to sophomores who do not have special identification cards .
= = = Current high school = = =
Unlike the previous high school which covered 225 @,@ 000 square feet , the current high school , located at 2720 Buffalo Way Boulevard is much larger , covering 384 @,@ 000 square feet on 160 acres . The high school has 123 classrooms with the capacity of holding approximately 2 @,@ 100 students . The building also has a 750 @-@ seat auditorium with a large amount of natural light . The football stadium seats 4 @,@ 000 people and the gymnasium seats 2 @,@ 500 .
The building is subdivided into four learning academies at the high school ; Academy of Trade and Health Science , Academy of Arts and Communications , Academy of Public Service and the Ninth Grade Academy . Each career academy has teachers from different subjects , who combine their efforts as a means of integrating academic and technical curriculum . Students are able to participate in different academies each year , with the ultimate purpose of better preparing them for college and careers than traditional educational systems .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
The extracurricular activities offered at Garden City High School are numerous and diverse due to the school 's large size . The Buffaloes compete in the Western Athletic Conference and are classified as a 6A school , the largest classification in Kansas according to the Kansas State High School Activities Association . Throughout its history , Garden City has won twenty @-@ one state championships in various sports and non @-@ athletic activities . Many graduates have gone on to participate in collegiate athletics . Garden City High School athletes are able to compete in some of the top facilities in western Kansas . The football , soccer , and track & field teams compete at Buffalo Stadium . Basketball , intramural basketball , volleyball , and wrestling take place in " The Garden " , Garden City 's main gymnasium . The men 's and women 's golf programs compete at Buffalo Dunes Golf Course and The Golf Club at Southwind . The tennis programs compete at the GCHS Tennis Complex . The baseball program competes at Clint Lightner Stadium and the softball team at the James Tangeman Sports Complex . The swim team practices at the local YMCA . In February 2015 , Jarrod Stoppel was promoted as the new interim athletic director , replacing Martin Segovia , who had been in the position since 2010 .
= = = Athletics = = =
= = = = Football = = = =
The GCHS football team has consistently competed at a high level in football . Led by former head coach Dave Meadows , Garden City High School won the 6A state championship in football on November 20 , 1999 over Olathe South High School . The Buffaloes had previously finished runner @-@ up in 1971 , 1990 , 1991 and 1998 .
In 2002 , Mike Smith took over as head coach . Smith resigned in November 2009 and was replaced by Brian Hill . As of 2009 , Garden City has been WAC champion five times , district champion thirteen times , and regional champion seven times . The football program also has produced several notable collegiate and professional athletes including former NFL pro @-@ bowler Fum McGraw . Each year , rivals Garden City High School and Dodge City High School play an annual football game known as the " Hatchet Game . " The winning team receives a decorated hatchet with an engraving of the victorious team and the year . The first Hatchet Game was played in 1938 and has been played every year since . During the 2007 Hatchet Game , junior quarterback Brodrick Smith set the school record when he rushed for 347 yards in a 42 @-@ 28 win . As of the 2013 season , Garden City High School has won the " Hatchet " for 15 of the past 20 seasons . In 2012 , USA Today voted the Hatchet Game as the " Greatest Rivalry in Kansas " .
Garden City has seen several improvements in its football facilities in recent years . FieldTurf was installed in the summer of 2004 to better accommodate the multiple uses of the field . Additionally , the visitor stands were greatly expanded in the summer of 2008 to accommodate visiting fans . A second pressbox was also installed to provide more accessibility for coaches and coordinators during games . The new Buffalo Stadium was part of the $ 92 million bond issue for the current high school .
= = = = Basketball = = = =
Another program at Garden City High School is the men 's basketball program . The Buffaloes won the state championship in 1966 and were sub @-@ state champions in 2003 . The men 's basketball team has featured several notable alumni including former Texas Longhorns ' all @-@ time leading free @-@ throw shooter , Brandy Perryman . On March 10 , 2010 , former head coach Jeff Tanner resigned after 12 years as head boys ' basketball coach . Former Iowa State point guard Jacy Holloway took over as head coach of the boys ' basketball team .
= = = = Wrestling = = = =
The most successful and storied athletic program at GCHS is wrestling . Since Garden City High School was established , it has won ten state championships in wrestling , occurring in 1971 , 1990 , 1991 , 1992 , 1993 , 1998 , 1999 , 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 ( and runner @-@ up in 2003 ) . Garden City wrestling has also had 26 individual state champions . In 1979 , two @-@ time state champion Jon Bigler was named as an Honorable Mention All @-@ American according to Wrestling USA Magazine .
Due to the immense success between 1990 – 1993 , GCHS earned national rankings and a reputation as having one of the finest wrestling programs in the country . Additionally , Wrestling USA Magazine ranked Garden City as having the 38th best high school wrestling dynasty in the 1990s out of over 38 @,@ 000 high schools . The success of the wrestling program during this time was due in large part to the leadership of legendary former head coach Rocky Welton . Overall , Welton led the wrestling program to six state championships and helped produce numerous individual state champions . Welton finished his coaching career with a dual record of 200 @-@ 50 @-@ 4 during his tenure at Goodland High School and Garden City High School . For his contributions , Rocky Welton was inducted into the Kansas Wrestling Coaches Association Hall of Fame and the National Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum . Since its inception in 1951 , the wrestling program has hosted an annual tournament which attracts some of the top wrestling programs from the midwestern United States . Originally known as the " Garden City Invitational " , the tournament was renamed the " Rocky Welton Invitational " in honor of the legendary coach .
Following the retirement of Rocky Welton in 1999 , former assistant coach Martin Segovia took over as the new head coach . In contrast to the 1990s , Garden City was unable to win a state championship throughout the 2000s , although the Buffaloes did produce three individual state titles and an All @-@ American . Jason Nichols won individual state championships in 2000 and 2001 and sophomore Ryan Kromer won an individual state championship in 2002 . In 2006 , Beth Johnson was named a Second @-@ Team All @-@ American and in 2008 , she was named as a First @-@ Team All @-@ American , the first girl to do so in school history . Also in 2008 , Martin Segovia relinquished his role as head coach and former assistant Monte Moser took over as the new head coach . In 2010 , the Buffaloes placed fourth in the state championship , while producing two individual state champions in Lane Greenlee and Joey Dozier . One year later , Anthony Calderon won an individual state championship . Following the 2012 season , Monte Moser retired and Carlos Prieto became the current head coach . In 2013 , the Buffaloes won the state championship for the first time since 1999 , and repeated in 2014 , 2015 and 2016 . Also in 2016 , Michael Prieto won his fourth consecutive individual state title , the first 4 @-@ time individual state champion in school history and 33rd in state history .
= = = = Golf = = = =
The men 's golf program has established itself as one of the top athletic programs at GCHS . The Buffaloes won state championships in 1977 and 1998 . The 1998 championship team was led by coach Mike Adams and players : Sean Villareal , Chris Becker , Dan Dreiling , Adam Fuller , Ryan Berry , and Kirby Schimke . Cole Wasinger won an individual state championship in 1995 . More recently , the men 's golf team competed at the state tournament in 2014 . In 2011 , MacKenzie Thayer became the first female state champion in school history after shooting an 81 and winning in a playoff . The Buffs compete on two of the top golf courses in the state of Kansas . The golf teams alternate their practices between The Golf Club at Southwind and Buffalo Dunes Golf Course .
= = = = Tennis = = = =
The men 's and women 's tennis programs have also had many successful years . The programs have remained as two of the more competitive tennis teams in the WAC for several decades . The women 's program experienced their most successful season in 1994 in which they finished state runner @-@ up . The men 's program won 10 consecutive WAC championships from 1994 to 2003 . In 1999 , former head coach Bob Krug was named NFCA Midwest Region Coach of the Year . The streak in WAC Championships ended during the 2003 – 04 school year , but the Buffs rebounded and won three more consecutive WAC championships from 2005 to 2007 . The Buffs added WAC Championship titles in 2011 and 2014 . The tennis program has sent numerous players to the state tournament throughout the program 's history .
= = = = Track and Field = = = =
The Buffalo track and field program has had several successes throughout its history . The Buffaloes won the state championship in 1945 and 1946 , but in more recent years results have been variable . In 2003 , future Big 12 long jump champion Eric Babb won the long jump state title for the first time in the school 's history . The track & field program finished runner @-@ up in the 2006 state championship , falling to Lawrence High School by 1 / 2 of a point . Garden City has also produced several notable athletes , including 1995 Kansas Track and Field Gatorade Athlete of the Year , high @-@ jumper Jason Archibald .
= = = State championships = = =
= = = Fall = = =
= = = Winter = = =
= = = Spring = = =
= = = Non @-@ athletic programs = = =
= = = = Music = = = =
Garden City High School offers many music @-@ related clubs and organizations . Garden City offers marching band , pep band , orchestra , choir , and show choir in addition to many other groups . The Garden City Municipal Band rehearses at the former Garden City High School building ( Now Horace Good Middle School ) once a week during the summer months .
= = = = Band = = = =
The first unofficial band was organized in 1915 . The Garden City Marching Band is often referred to as the " Marching Stampede " . Each year , the marching band performs during halftime of football games and the pep band plays during basketball games . Additionally , throughout the football season , the marching band competes in the WAC Band Festival to determine the top marching band in the area , the Andover Marching Festival , and the Kansas State University Marching Festival . The band also performs during pep rallies and other school functions .
= = = = Debate and Forensics = = = =
The Garden City High debate and forensics teams have been ranked among the top schools in the nation in terms of state appearances by the National Forensics League . Garden City High has competed at the state level in all of the NFL events and at the national level in many of the events . It is one of the largest teams by members in the state . The debate team won the state championship in 1959 , 1961 , 1962 , and 1971 ( two @-@ speaker ) . The forensics team won the state championship in 2011 . Russ Tidwell is the current debate and forensics coach at Garden City High School .
= = = Student newspaper and yearbook = = =
The journalism department at GCHS is a member of the Kansas Scholastic Press Association . Established in 1910 , the school newspaper , The Sugar Beet , is the oldest high school newspaper in the state of Kansas . The Sugar Beet is a frequent Columbia Scholastic Press Association Gold Medal winner and has also won the First @-@ Place Award issued by the American Scholastic Press Association . The Sugar Beet is one of only two weekly , student @-@ produced high school newspapers in Kansas , the other being The Mentor , which is produced by students of Manhattan High School . GCHS also produces an annual yearbook at the end of every school year , known as The Buffalo .
= = Student activities = =
= = = Clubs = = =
There are numerous extracurricular activities available to Garden City students . Among these are :
= = Notable alumni = =
Kendall Carl Campbell , U.S. Naval Reserve aviator , USS Kendall C. Campbell ( DE @-@ 443 ) was named in his honor
Mark Fox , head men 's basketball coach at the University of Georgia
Clifford R. Hope , youngest man ever chosen to serve as Speaker of the House of Representatives
Mike Johnson , former NFL player for the Dallas Cowboys
Gene Krug , former Major League Baseball player for the Chicago Cubs
Frank Mantooth , late jazz pianist and arranger
Fum McGraw , former Colorado State athletic director , NFL Pro @-@ Bowler , 1981 inductee into the College Football Hall of Fame
Fred Myton , screenwriter
Harold " Prince Hal " Patterson , former University of Kansas basketball player and member of the Canadian Football Hall of Fame
Brandy Perryman , University of Texas ’ all @-@ time leader in free throw shooting and fourth @-@ best three @-@ point shooter
Larry Powell , member of the Kansas House of Representatives
Chuck Reed , former mayor of San Jose , California , 2007 – 2014
Eric Robinson , comedian
Roy Romer , former governor of Colorado , 1987 – 1999
Todd Tichenor , MLB umpire
= Catherine de ' Medici 's building projects =
Catherine de ' Medici 's building projects included the Valois chapel at Saint @-@ Denis , the Tuileries Palace , and the Hôtel de la Reine in Paris , and extensions to the château of Chenonceau , near Blois . Born in 1519 in Florence to an Italian father and a French mother , Catherine de ' Medici was a daughter of both the Italian and the French Renaissance . She grew up in Florence and Rome under the wing of the Medici popes , Leo X and Clement VII . In 1533 , at the age of fourteen , she left Italy and married Henry , the second son of Francis I and Queen Claude of France . On doing so , she entered the greatest Renaissance court in northern Europe .
King Francis set his daughter @-@ in @-@ law an example of kingship and artistic patronage that she never forgot . She witnessed his huge architectural schemes at Chambord and Fontainebleau . She saw Italian and French craftsmen at work together , forging the style that became known as the first School of Fontainebleau . Francis died in 1547 , and Catherine became queen consort of France . But it wasn 't until her husband King Henry 's death in 1559 , when she found herself at forty the effective ruler of France , that Catherine came into her own as a patron of architecture . Over the next three decades , she launched a series of costly building projects aimed at enhancing the grandeur of the monarchy . During the same period , however , religious civil war gripped the country and brought the prestige of the monarchy to a dangerously low ebb .
Catherine loved to supervise each project personally . The architects of the day dedicated books to her , knowing that she would read them . Though she spent colossal sums on the building and embellishment of monuments and palaces , little remains of Catherine 's investment today : one Doric column , a few fragments in the corner of the Tuileries gardens , an empty tomb at Saint Denis . The sculptures she commissioned for the Valois chapel are lost , or scattered , often damaged or incomplete , in museums and churches . Catherine de ' Medici 's reputation as a sponsor of buildings rests instead on the designs and treatises of her architects . These testify to the vitality of French architecture under her patronage .
= = Influences = =
Historians often assume that Catherine 's love for the arts stemmed from her Medici heritage . " As the daughter of the Medici , " suggests French art historian Jean @-@ Pierre Babelon , " she was driven by a passion to build and a desire to leave great achievements behind her when she died . " Born in Florence in 1519 , Catherine lived at the Medici palace , built by Cosimo de ' Medici to designs by Michelozzo di Bartolomeo . After moving to Rome in 1530 , she lived , surrounded by classical and Renaissance treasures , at another Medici palace ( now called the Palazzo Madama ) . There she watched the leading artists and architects of the day at work in the city . When she later commissioned buildings herself , in France , Catherine often turned to Italian models . She based the Tuileries on the Pitti palace in Florence ; and she originally planned the Hotel de la Reine with the Uffizi palace in mind .
Catherine , however , left Italy in 1533 at the age of fourteen and married Henry of Orléans , the second son of King Francis I of France . Though she kept in touch with her native Florence , her taste matured at the itinerant royal court of France . Her father @-@ in @-@ law impressed Catherine deeply as an example of what a monarch should be . She later copied Francis ' policy of setting the grandeur of the dynasty in stone , whatever the cost . His lavish building projects inspired her own .
Francis was a compulsive builder . He began extension works at the Louvre , added a wing to the old castle at Blois , and built the vast château of Chambord , which he showed off to the emperor Charles V in 1539 . He also transformed the lodge at Fontainebleau into one of the great palaces of Europe , a project that continued under Henry II . Artists such as Rosso Fiorentino and Francesco Primaticcio worked on the interior , alongside French craftsmen . This meeting of Italian Mannerism and French patronage bred an original style , later known as the first School of Fontainebleau . Featuring frescoes and high @-@ relief stucco in the shape of parchment or curled leather strapwork , it became the dominant decorative fashion in France in the second half of the sixteenth century . Catherine later herself employed Primaticcio to design her Valois chapel . She also patronised French talent , such as the architects Philibert de l 'Orme and Jean Bullant , and the sculptor Germain Pilon .
The death of Henry II from jousting wounds in 1559 changed Catherine 's life . From that day , she wore black and took as her emblem a broken lance . She turned her widowhood into a political force that validated her authority during the reigns of her three weak sons . She also became intent on immortalizing her sorrow at the death of her husband . She had emblems of her love and grief carved into the stonework of her buildings . She commissioned a magnificent tomb for Henry , as the centrepiece of an ambitious new chapel .
In 1562 , a long poem by Nicolas Houël likened Catherine to Artemisia , who had built the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus , one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World , as a tomb for her dead husband . Artemesia had also acted as regent for her children . Houël laid stress on Artemesia 's devotion to architecture . In his dedication to L 'Histoire de la Royne Arthémise , he told Catherine :
You will find here the edifices , columns , and pyramids that she had built both at Rhodes and Halicarnassus , which will serve as remembrances for those who reflect on our times and who will be astounded at your own buildings – the palaces at the Tuileries , Montceaux , and Saint @-@ Maur , and the infinity of others that you have constructed , built , and embellished with sculptures and beautiful paintings .
= = Valois Chapel = =
In memory of Henry II , Catherine decided to add a new chapel to the basilica of Saint Denis , where the kings of France were traditionally buried . As the centrepiece of this circular chapel , sometimes known as the Valois rotunda , she commissioned a magnificent and innovative tomb for Henry and herself . The design of this tomb should be understood in the context of its planned setting . The plan was to integrate the tomb 's effigies of the king and queen with other statues throughout the chapel , creating a vast spatial composition . Catherine 's approval would have been essential for such a departure from funerary tradition .
= = = Architecture = = =
To lead the Valois chapel project , Catherine chose Francesco Primaticcio , who had worked for Henry at Fontainebleau . Primaticcio designed the chapel as a round building , crowned by a dome , to be joined to the north transept of the basilica . The interior and exterior of the chapel were to be decorated with pilasters , columns , and epitaphs in coloured marble . The building would contain six other chapels circling the tomb of Henry and Catherine . Primaticcio 's circular design solved the problems faced by the Giusti brothers and Philibert de l 'Orme , who had built previous royal tombs . Whereas de l 'Orme had designed the tomb of Francis I to be viewed only from the front or the side , Primaticcio 's design allowed the tomb to be viewed from all angles . Art historian Henri Zerner has called the plan " a grand ritualistic drama which would have filled the rotunda 's celestial space " .
Work on the chapel began in 1563 and continued over the next two decades . Primaticcio died in 1570 , and the architect Jean Bullant took over the project two years later . After Bullant 's death in 1578 , Baptiste du Cerceau led the work . The building was abandoned in 1585 . Over two hundred years later , in 1793 , a mob tossed Catherine and Henry 's bones into a pit with the rest of the French kings and queens .
= = = Tomb = = =
Several of the monuments built for the Valois chapel have survived . These include the tomb of Catherine and Henry — in Zerner 's view , " the last and most brilliant of the royal tombs of the Renaissance " . Primaticcio himself designed its structure , which eliminated the traditional bas @-@ reliefs and kept ornamentation to a minimum . The sculptor Germain Pilon , who had provided statues for the tomb of Francis I , carved the tomb 's two sets of effigies , which represented death below and eternal life above . The king and queen , cast in bronze , kneel in prayer ( priants ) on a marble canopy supported by twelve marble columns . Their poses echo those on the nearby tombs of Louis XII and Francis I. Pilon 's feel for the material , however , invests his statues with a greater sense of movement .
Before they were destroyed in the Revolution , the remains of the king and queen lay in the mortuary chamber below . Catherine 's effigy suggests sleep rather than death , while Henry is posed strikingly , with his head thrown back . From 1583 , Pilon also sculpted two later gisants of Catherine and Henry wearing their crowns and coronation robes . In this case , he portrays Catherine realistically , with a double chin . These two statues were intended to flank the altar of the chapel . Pilon 's four bronze statues of the cardinal virtues stand at the corners of the tomb . Pilon also carved the reliefs round the base that recall Bontemps ' work on the monument for the heart of Francis I.
= = = Statuary = = =
In the 1580s , Pilon began work on statues for the chapels that were to circle the tomb . Among these , the fragmentary Resurrection , now in the Louvre , was designed to face the tomb of Catherine and Henry from a side chapel . This work owes a clear debt to Michelangelo , who had designed the tomb and funerary statues for Catherine 's father at the Medici chapels in Florence . Pilon 's statue of St Francis in Ecstasy now stands in the church of St Jean and St François . In art historian Anthony Blunt 's view , it marks a departure from the tension of Mannerism and " almost foreshadows " the Baroque .
Pilon had by this time developed a freer style of sculpture than previously seen in France . Earlier French sculpture seems to have influenced him less than Primaticcio 's decorations at Fontainebleau : the work of his predecessor Jean Goujon , for example , is more linear and classical . Pilon openly depicts extreme emotion in his work , sometimes to the point of the grotesque . His style has been interpreted as a reflection of a society torn by the conflict of the French wars of religion .
= = Montceaux = =
Catherine 's earliest building project was the château of Montceaux @-@ en @-@ Brie , near Paris , which Henry II gave her in 1556 , three years before his death . The building consisted of a central pavilion housing a straight staircase , and two wings with a pavilion at each end . Catherine wanted to cover the alley in the garden where Henry played pall mall , an early form of croquet . For this commission , Philibert de l 'Orme built her a grotto . He set it on a base made to look like natural rock , from which guests could watch the games while taking refreshments . The work was completed in 1558 but has not survived . The château ceased to be used as a royal residence after 1640 , and had fallen into ruin by the time it was demolished by revolutionary decree in 1798 .
= = Tuileries = =
After the death of Henry II , Catherine abandoned the palace of the Tournelles , where Henry had lain after a lance fatally pierced his eye and brain in a joust . To replace the Tournelles , she decided in 1563 to build herself a new Paris residence on the site of some old tile kilns or tuileries . The site was close to the congested Louvre , where she kept her household . The grounds extended along the banks of the Seine and afforded a view of the countryside to the south and west . The Tuileries was the first palace that Catherine had planned from the ground up . It was to grow into the largest royal building project of the last quarter of the sixteenth century in western Europe . Her massive building schemes would have transformed western Paris , as seen from the river , into a monumental complex .
To design the new palace , Catherine brought back Philibert de l 'Orme from disgrace . This arrogant genius had been sacked as superintendent of royal buildings at the end of Henry II 's reign , after making too many enemies . De l 'Orme mentioned the project in his treatises on architecture , but his ideas are not fully known . It appears from the small amount of work carried out that his plans for the Tuileries departed from his known principles . De l 'Orme is said to have " taught France the classical style — lucid , rational and regular " . He notes , however , that in this case he added rich materials and ornaments to please the queen . The plans therefore include a decorative element that looks forward to Bullant 's later work and to a less classical style of architecture .
For the pilasters of Catherine 's palace , de l 'Orme chose the Ionic order , which he considered a feminine form :
I will not go on to other matters without pointing out to you that I chose the present Ionic order , from amongst all others , in order to ornament and to give lustre to the palace , which Her Majesty the Queen , mother of the most Christian King Charles IX , today is having built at Paris ... The other reason why I wanted to use and to show the Ionic order properly , on the palace of Her Majesty the Queen , is because it is feminine and was devised according to the proportions and beauties of women and goddesses , as was the Doric to those of men , which is what the ancients have told me : for , when they decided to build a temple to a god , they used the Doric , and to a goddess , the Ionic . Yet all architects have not followed that [ principle ] , shown in Vitruvius 's text ... accordingly I have made use , at the palace of Her Majesty the Queen , of the Ionic order , on the view that it is delicate and of greater beauty than the Doric , and more ornamented and enriched with distinctive features .
Catherine de ' Medici was closely involved in planning and supervising the building . De l 'Orme records , for example , that she told him to take down some Ionic columns that struck her as too plain . She also insisted on large panels between the dormers to make room for inscriptions . Only a part of de l 'Orme 's scheme was ever built : the lower section of a central pavilion , containing an oval staircase , and a wing on either side . Though work on de l 'Orme 's design was abandoned in 1572 , two years after his death , it is nonetheless held in high regard . According to Thomson , " The surviving portions of the palace scattered between the Tuileries gardens , the courtyards of the Ecole des Beaux @-@ Arts [ Paris ] and the Château de la Punta in Corsica show that the columns , pilasters , dormers and tabernacles of the Tuileries were the outstanding masterpieces of non @-@ figurative French Renaissance architectural sculpture " .
De l 'Orme 's original plans have not survived . Jacques Androuet du Cerceau , however , has left us a set of plans for the Tuileries . One engraving shows a grandiose palace , with three courts and two oval halls . This design is atypical of de l 'Orme 's style and so is likely to have been du Cerceau 's own proposal or his son Baptiste 's . It recalls the houses with tall pavilions and multiple courtyards that du Cerceau often drew in
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usitania to London , where they gathered the supplies they would need for their expedition , Beebe and his team traveled across the Mediterranean Sea to Egypt , through the Suez Canal , and across the Indian Ocean to Ceylon , where they began their task of documenting the native wildfowl . From Ceylon they traveled to Calcutta , with the goal of capturing the species of pheasants which live only in the Himalayas . By this point Beebe was beginning to be in conflict with Horsfall , who was unaccustomed to such expeditions . After Beebe had finished his documentation in the eastern part of the range , Horsfall refused to accompany Beebe in the western part of the range , causing Beebe to leave him in the town of Jorepokhri and continue his work in the Western Himalayas without him . Horsfall rejoined them in Calcutta , from which they sailed to Indonesia . The next ship took them to Singapore , where Beebe established a base of operations for the next stage of his expedition .
The expedition 's next destination was Sarawak , on the island of Borneo . By the time they left Sarawak , the conflict between Beebe and Horsfall had grown to such a degree that Beebe decided Horsfall was endangering the expedition and must be sent home . In response to Beebe 's dismissal , Horsfall retorted that he had been ill @-@ treated by Beebe from the beginning of the expedition , and that his subsequent actions had been for the express purpose of revenge . Continuing without Horsfall , Beebe and Blair traveled to Batavia in Java , to the island of Madura just to the north , and to Belitung between Borneo and Sumatra .
Finished in Java , Beebe and his crew sailed north from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur to begin exploring Malaya . After Malaya , the next portion of their expedition took them to Burma , where they arrived in Rangoon and traveled by rail to Myitkyina . In Burma Beebe succumbed temporarily to a bout of depression , and it was several days before he was able to resume working or continue the expedition . He attributed his recovery to the pile of penny dreadful novels he discovered in his bungalow at Pungatong , which he then read constantly for the next few days .
The last portion of Beebe 's journey took him to China , from which they made an unplanned visit to Japan in order to escape a riot as well as a surge of bubonic plague . When the plague and riots had subsided , Beebe returned to China to document the local pheasant species , then made a second visit to Japan to study pheasants kept in the Imperial Preserves there . In Japan , Beebe was given two cranes by the Imperial Household in exchange for a pair of swans , which were unknown in Japan .
His expedition completed after a total of 17 months , Beebe and Blair crossed the Pacific to San Francisco , then crossed the United States to return to their home in New York . Their expedition had obtained live or stuffed specimens of nearly all the pheasants he had sought , and also produced extensive notes about their behavior . Some of these pheasants , such as Sclater 's impeyan or Himalayan monal , had never before been seen in the wild by Americans or Europeans . Beebe 's observations of sexual dimorphism in pheasants during this expedition led him to become the first biologist to correctly understand the mechanism by which this aspect of sexual selection operates . On the basis of his observations he also proposed a new evolutionary model of pheasant ancestry , involving a period of rapid diversification followed by more typical and gradual changes . Although this evolutionary model is now taken for granted , in William Beebe 's time it was a novel idea .
In January 1913 , Blair left Beebe for Reno with the intention of divorcing him , since at this time in history it was easier to obtain a divorce in Reno than in most other areas of the United States . The divorce was granted on August 29 , 1913 , after Blair had spent the minimum requirement of six months as a resident in Reno . Obtaining a divorce in Reno required a person to demonstrate that their spouse had committed either adultery or extreme cruelty ; Blair 's complaint accused Beebe of the latter , claiming that during the pheasant expedition he had threatened to commit suicide by " throwing himself in the river , shooting himself through the roof of the mouth with a revolver , and by cutting his throat with a razor . " Beebe made very little effort to contest the divorce , and did not appear in court to offer any testimony . Although newspapers at the time reported Blair 's accusations uncritically , with headlines such as " Naturalist was cruel " , modern biographers consider it more likely that Blair resorted to hyperbole in order to make a case for divorce . A week after her divorce from Beebe , Blair was remarried to their next @-@ door neighbor Robin Niles , suggesting that the true reason for the divorce may have been cuckoldry . On the other hand , some biographers have suggested that Beebe suffered a nervous breakdown during the expedition , and that he may have contributed his own part to Blair 's alienation .
Blair 's departure came as a shock to Beebe , and he was severely depressed for more than a year afterward . Despite her assistance during the pheasant expedition , Beebe excised any mention of her from the monograph he was preparing based on the data gathered during it .
By the end of 1914 , Beebe 's pheasant monograph was essentially complete in manuscript . While the text was written by Beebe , the illustrations were provided by several artists : Robert Bruce Horsfall , who had accompanied Beebe on the expedition , painted the environmental scenes for the illustrations ' backgrounds , while the pheasants themselves were painted by other artists including George Edward Lodge , Charles R. Knight , and Louis Agassiz Fuertes . Due to the elaborate nature of the book 's color artwork , no American publisher was considered capable of reproducing it . The publisher which Beebe chose for his work was George Witherby and Sons of London , as a result of their success publishing the artwork of John James Audubon . The reproduction of the illustrations themselves was to be handled by several companies in Germany and Austria . Reproductions of the illustrations were in the process of being printed when World War I began , holding up the completion of the project for the next four years .
= = = Return to Guiana , and World War I = = =
Beebe undertook an expedition to Brazil in 1915 , for the purpose of capturing more birds for the zoo . This expedition was an important turning point for Beebe in several ways . Beebe had far more field experience than either of the two others accompanying him on the expedition , G. Inness Hartler and Herbert Atkins , making this his introduction to the role of a mentor . During this expedition , Beebe was also amazed to discover the number and variety of organisms living under a single tree , and pioneered the method of studying a small area of wilderness for an extended amount of time . This expedition marked the beginning of a shift for Beebe from ornithology to the study of tropical ecosystems .
In 1916 , Beebe traveled to Georgetown in pursuit of his earlier goal of establishing a permanent field research station in Guiana . After following several leads which came to nothing , his goal was realized when George Withers , who owned a rubber plantation on the Mazaruni River , offered him the use of a large house on his property for this purpose . Soon after Beebe and his researchers moved into the plantation house , which was known by the name of Kalacoon , they were paid a visit by Theodore Roosevelt and his family . Roosevelt subsequently wrote an article about the station for Scribner 's Magazine , which helped to build public support for the station .
The establishment of the Kalacoon research station enabled Beebe to research the ecology of the surrounding jungle in far more detail than had been possible during his earlier expeditions . Using Kalacoon as his base of operations , Beebe performed a novel type of study : methodically dissecting a small area of jungle , and all of the animals which inhabit it , from the top of the canopy to below the ground . In a second study , Beebe performed the same task for a much larger area of jungle , approximately a quarter mile ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) square . During his first season at Kalacoon in 1916 , Beebe brought back 300 living specimens for the zoo . This time he succeeded at capturing a hoatzin , the bird that he had narrowly missed during his earlier trip to Guiana , although he was unable to keep it alive for the zoo during the trip back to New York .
Beebe summarized his discoveries at Kalacoon in his 1917 book Tropical Wild Life in British Guiana , which inspired many other researchers to plan trips to Kalacoon , or to establish their own field research stations of the type that Beebe had pioneered .
Beebe was eager to serve in World War I , but at 40 he was considered too old for regular service . With Roosevelt 's help , he secured a post training American pilots for a flight squadron on Long Island . His training work was halted when , veering to avoid a photographer who had run in front of his airplane as he landed , he crashed on landing and severely injured his right wrist . During a second trip to Kalacoon while his wrist healed , Beebe was further devastated to discover that due to wartime demand for rubber , the entire jungle surrounding the house had been clear @-@ cut to make room for rubber trees . Since the purpose of Kalacoon station had been to study the jungle , the jungle 's destruction left Beebe with no choice but to close the station and return with its supplies to New York . Combined with his earlier loss of Blair , the effect of losing Kalacoon plunged Beebe into depression . This did not go unnoticed by Beebe 's mentor Osborn , who expressed concern about it in a letter to Madison Grant , writing " I find that he is worried and far from well . [ ... ] Without telling him so , we must take care of him . "
In October 1917 , Beebe had his opportunity to serve in the war . With the help of a letter of recommendation from Roosevelt , he was given the duty of flying aerial photography planes over German gun emplacements . He also spent time in trenches and accompanied a Canadian Indian platoon on
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a night raid . Beebe subsequently wrote several articles describing his war experience for Scribner 's Magazine and Atlantic Monthly . Beebe generally did not make the exact nature of his military service clear in his writings about it , although he expressed his general dismay at the realities of the war . The best @-@ known of these accounts is provided by the opening paragraph of his 1918 book Jungle Peace :
Beebe 's position in the Zoological Society underwent a change in 1918 : He was given the title of Honorary Curator of Birds , and was made the director of the newly created Department of Tropical Research . With his new position , Beebe no longer had the duty of caring for the zoo 's animals , freeing him to devote himself fully to his writing and research . Beebe 's duties as curator were passed to Lee Crandall , the former Assistant Curator who had worked under Beebe , although Crandall continued to rely on Beebe for help treating illness in birds , and caring for the exotic birds brought back from Beebe 's expeditions .
The first volume of Beebe 's pheasant monograph was published that fall , although the ongoing war made it unclear when the remaining three volumes would be published . The first volume was highly praised by reviewers , and received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1918 . In January 1919 Roosevelt , who was severely ill by this point , wrote to Beebe from his hospital bed congratulating Beebe on the publication of his monograph . His letter of congratulation to Beebe was the last letter that Roosevelt wrote before his death . Volume II of the monograph was published in 1921 , and volumes III and IV were published in 1922 . The completed work , titled A Monograph of the Pheasants , has been considered by some reviewers to be possibly the greatest ornithological monograph of the twentieth century .
In 1919 , Osborn helped secure Beebe a new research station in Guiana to replace Kalacoon : Beebe was offered Kartabo Point , an outpost of a New York @-@ based mining corporation . Beebe was enthusiastic about the new station , and it proved very successful for conducting the same detailed analyses of wildlife within small areas that had been performed at Kalacoon . At Kartabo Beebe discovered the phenomenon known as an ant mill , a column of ants following itself in an endless loop until nearly all of them died of exhaustion .
= = = Galápagos expeditions = = =
Beebe was eager to undertake an expedition to the Galápagos Islands , with the intention of obtaining more detailed data in support of evolution than Charles Darwin had been able to collect in his earlier visit . In 1923 , Harrison Williams agreed to finance such an expedition , and Beebe was provided with a 250 @-@ foot ( 76 m ) steam yacht called the Noma for this purpose along with a support crew . The support crew included a number of scientists who had worked with Beebe previously , as well as some of Williams ' friends whose inclusion was a condition for Williams ' agreement to fund the expedition . Passing through the Sargasso Sea on the way to the Galápagos , Beebe was fascinated by the diversity of life that could be found in the sargassum weed floating on the surface , and spent several days scooping the weed from the water to examine the creatures that lived in it .
Beebe 's first expedition to the Galápagos lasted twenty days , broken into two ten @-@ day periods , between which the Noma was forced to return to Panama for fresh water and coal . During this expedition he documented the unique ways that animals that inhabit the Galápagos have evolved in response to the absence of predators . The Galápagos animals generally showed no fear of humans , causing the team to have a high degree of success at capturing live specimens for the zoo . Beebe also discovered a previously unknown bay on Tower Island in the Galápagos , which he named Darwin Bay , and documented the diversity of animal life that inhabited it . During the return to New York from this expedition , Beebe continued to dredge animals from the sea , using a pair of new devices he had devised to assist himself with this : a " pulpit " , an iron cage affixed to the bow of the ship that enabled its occupant to examine the surface of the sea more closely ; and a " boom walk " , a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) boom jutting from the side of the ship from which he suspended himself . The book in which Beebe summarized this expedition , titled Galápagos : World 's End , was an instant best @-@ seller and remained on the New York Times top ten list for several months .
In 1924 , Beebe went on another expedition to his Guiana research station of Kartabo , with the goal of continuing the detailed documentation of the tropical ecosystem that he had begun at Kalacoon . The paper which finally resulted from this study was published in Zoologica in 1925 , and was the first study of its kind in the developing field of tropical ecology . Beebe continued to battle depression during this trip to Kartabo , both over his earlier loss of Blair , and over the death of his mother Nettie , who had died shortly before the beginning of the expedition .
Despite his ongoing research in Guiana , what Beebe desired most was to return to the Galápagos , this time with a properly fitted @-@ out scientific research vessel that possessed the ability to dredge animals from beneath the ocean . In 1925 , Beebe set out on a second Galápagos expedition , backed by Williams and several other donors . His ship for this expedition was the Arcturus , a steam yacht considerably larger than the Noma that was capable of being at sea for extended periods of time . The Arcturus was outfitted with Beebe 's pulpit and boom walk from the Noma , as well as cages and tanks for live animals , chemicals and vials to preserve dead ones , and a darkroom for developing film and studying the bioluminescent animals they hoped to encounter .
The Arcturus did not encounter the thick mats of sargassum in the Sargasso Sea that Beebe was hoping to study , but Beebe and his crew experienced great success dredging creatures from the sea off the coast of Saint Martin and Saba . In the Pacific , they encountered a strange boundary between two currents of very different temperatures , containing a vast diversity of life on the border between the two . He sailed along the border between the currents for several days to document it , theorizing that it could be the cause of the unusual climate which South America had recently been experiencing . Beebe 's study of these currents , and their effect on the climate of South America , is the earliest known study of the phenomenon known as El Niño .
Anchoring near Darwin Bay , Beebe made his first attempt at studying sea animals in their native environment by descending into the ocean in a diving helmet . Beebe continued to perform helmet dives throughout his Galápagos expedition , documenting several previously unknown sea animals . In addition to his helmet dives , Beebe applied the same method of research that he had pioneered in the tropics to a small area of ocean , sailing in circles around it for ten days with the intention of documenting all actions and interactions of marine life within that area . This study yielded a collection of 3 @,@ 776 fish of 136 species , many of them also new to science .
While anchored off the Galápagos , Beebe and his crew noticed volcanic activity on Albemarle Island , and set out to investigate it . Anchoring in a small cove , Beebe and his assistant John Tee @-@ Van searched for an active crater where they could observe the eruption , and were nearing exhaustion by the time they found one . As he observed the crater , Beebe realized that the air surrounding it was filled with noxious gases , and narrowly avoided suffocation before staggering away from it . Observing the eruption from his ship for another two days , as well as again at a later point in the expedition , Beebe recorded how numerous birds and marine animals were killed after either failing to escape the lava , or drawing too close to it in an attempt to scavenge other animals that had died .
During the return from the Galápagos through the Sargasso Sea , Beebe once again failed to find the thick mats of Sargassum whose study had been one of the primary goals of the expedition . Searching for a way to satisfy his expedition 's donors , Beebe hit upon the idea of documenting the marine life of the Hudson Gorge just beyond the shore of New York City . Applying the same techniques to studying the Hudson Gorge that he had used in the Galápagos , Beebe encountered a surprising variety of sea animals , many of which had previously been thought to be exclusive to the tropics .
Shortly after Beebe 's return from this expedition , Anthony Kuser requested that Beebe produce a condensed , popular version of his pheasant monograph . The book which resulted from this , titled Pheasants : their Lives and Homes ( also known by the title Pheasants of the World ) , was released in 1926 and received the John Burroughs Medal . During the course of writing this book , Beebe was reminded of many experiences during the pheasant expedition which he had not included in his original monograph , and wrote an additional book titled Pheasant Jungles about his adventures during this expedition . While A Monograph of the Pheasants had been a factual account of this expedition , Pheasant Jungles was a somewhat fictionalized account , in which Beebe altered some aspects of his experience in order to appeal to a wider audience .
= = = Haiti and Bermuda = = =
In 1927 , Beebe went on an expedition to Haiti in order to document its marine life . Anchoring his ship the Lieutenant in the harbor of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , he performed over 300 helmet dives examining the area 's coral reefs and classifying the fish that inhabited them . These dives involved several technological innovations : a watertight brass box which could be used to house a camera for underwater photography , and a telephone which was incorporated into the diving helmet , allowing the diver to dictate observations to someone on the surface instead of having to take notes underwater . Within a hundred days , Beebe and his team had created a catalog of species inhabiting the area nearly as long as what had been assembled on the neighboring island of Puerto Rico in the past four hundred years . In 1928 Beebe and Tee @-@ Van published an illustrated and annotated list of 270 such species , which was expanded in 1935 bringing the total to 324 . Beebe provided an account of this expedition in his 1928 book Beneath Tropic Seas , which was the first of his books to receive less than enthusiastic reviews , due to its episodic structure .
As he gained experience with helmet diving , Beebe soon became an enthusiastic advocate of it , believing it to be something that should be experienced by everyone who had the opportunity to do so . He later went so far as to suggest that beachfront homes would someday contain their own underwater gardens , to be experienced with the help of diving helmets :
By this point in his life Beebe was developing a close friendship with the American romance novelist Elswyth Thane , who had met Beebe in 1925 . Very little of their early correspondence survives , but Elswyth had idolized Beebe for years , and her first novel Riders of the Wind was devoted to him . The novel was an account of a young woman who falls in love with , and eventually marries , a much older adventurer who strongly resembled Beebe . Beebe and Elswyth were married on September 22 , 1927 , when Beebe was 50 . Due to Elswyth 's tendency to misrepresent her age , conflicting accounts exist of how old she was when she and Beebe were married , ranging from 23 to 28 . Elswyth and Beebe had an open marriage , in which neither expected sexual exclusivity from the other so long as their life together was not damaged .
Although Riders of the Wind was partially based on Beebe 's pheasant expedition , Elswyth did not enjoy Beebe 's current research . She disliked the heat of the tropics , and was unwilling to go with Beebe to Kartabo . As a compromise , Beebe decided to continue his marine research in Bermuda , where she and Beebe had spent their honeymoon . Bermuda 's governor Louis Bols introduced Beebe to Prince George , who was fascinated by Beebe 's books , and Prince George persuaded Beebe to take him helmet diving . Governor Bols and Prince George subsequently offered Beebe Nonsuch Island , a 25 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 10 km2 ) island off the east coast of Bermuda , for use as a research station .
With the financial help of his sponsors , Beebe planned to use his new research station on Nonsuch island to conduct a thorough study of an 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) square area of ocean , documenting every living thing they could find from the surface to a depth of 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . However , Beebe 's ability to research the deep ocean using these methods was constrained by the inherent limitations of dredging , which could only provide an incomplete picture of the animals living there . Beebe compared the knowledge that could be gained of the deep ocean from dredging to what a visitor from Mars could learn about a fog @-@ shrouded earthly city by using a dredge to pick up bits of debris from a street . Beebe began planning to create an underwater exploration device , which he could use to descend into the depths and observe these environments directly . The New York Times carried articles describing Beebe 's plans , which called for a diving bell with the shape of a cylinder .
These articles caught the attention of Otis Barton , an engineer who had long admired Beebe and who had his own ambition to become a deep @-@ sea explorer . Barton was convinced that Beebe 's design for a diving vessel would never be capable of withstanding the extreme pressure of the deep ocean , and with the help of a friend who arranged a meeting with Beebe , proposed an alternative design to him . Barton 's design called for a spherical vessel , which was the strongest possible shape for resisting high pressure . Barton had the good fortune that years earlier , Theodore Roosevelt had proposed a similar idea to Beebe , and Beebe approved of Barton 's design . Beebe and Barton made a deal : Barton would pay for the sphere and all of the other equipment to go with it . In return , Beebe would pay for other expenses such as chartering a ship to raise and lower the sphere , and as the owner of the sphere Barton would accompany Beebe on his expeditions in it . Beebe named their vessel the Bathysphere , from the Greek prefix bathy- meaning " deep " combined with " sphere " .
= = = Work at Nonsuch Island = = =
From 1930 to 1934 , Beebe and Barton used the Bathysphere to conduct a series of dives of increasing depth off the coast of Nonsuch Island , becoming the first people to observe deep @-@ sea animals in their native environment . The Bathysphere was lowered into the ocean using a steel cable , and a second cable carried a phone line which the Bathysphere 's occupants used to communicate with the surface , as well as an electrical cable for a searchlight to illuminate animals outside the Bathysphere . Beebe 's observations were relayed up the phone line to be recorded by Gloria Hollister , his chief technical associate who was also in charge of preparing specimens obtained from dredging . Beebe and Barton made a total of 35 dives in the Bathysphere , setting several consecutive world records for the deepest dive ever performed by a human . The record set by the deepest of these , to a depth of 3 @,@ 028 feet ( 923 m ) on August 15 , 1934 , lasted until it was broken by Barton in 1949 .
In 1931 , Beebe and Barton 's Bathysphere dives were interrupted for a year due to technical problems and uncooperative weather . An additional difficulty in 1931 was the death of Beebe 's father , and Beebe left Nonsuch Island for a week in order to attend his father 's funeral . A second year @-@ long interruption occurred in 1933 , and was caused in part by a lack of funds due to the Great Depression . Although Beebe and Barton performed no dives in 1933 , their work gathered a large amount of publicity when the Bathysphere was displayed in a special exhibit for the American Museum of Natural History , and later at the Century of Progress World 's Fair in Chicago , where they shared the fair 's Hall of Science with Auguste Piccard . Beebe and Barton also obtained publicity for their dives from several articles Beebe wrote describing them for National Geographic , and from an NBC radio broadcast in which Beebe 's voice transmitted up the phone line from inside the Bathysphere was broadcast nationally over the radio .
Although Beebe attempted to ensure that Barton would receive credit as the Bathysphere 's inventor and Beebe 's fellow diver , the popular media tended to ignore Barton and pay attention only to Beebe . Barton was often resentful of this , believing Beebe to be deliberately hogging the fame . Beebe in turn lacked patience for Barton 's unpredictable moods , and felt that Barton did not display the proper respect for the natural world . Still , Beebe and Barton both had something the other needed : Beebe for his experience as a marine biologist , and Barton for his mechanical skill . Out of pragmatic concern for the success of their dives , they managed to resolve their disagreements well enough to work together at Nonsuch Island , although they did not remain on good
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Prize nominee led to a sharp increase in sales and a jump from number 44 to 16 on the British chart . By then , it had sold more than 150 @,@ 000 copies in the UK and 179 @,@ 000 copies in the United States. xx remained in the top 20 of the Official Albums Chart in the weeks leading up to the Mercury Prize ceremony . Immediately after its win that week , it climbed from number 16 to 3 on its highest weekly sales — 28 @,@ 666 copies — and reached a total of 212 @,@ 835 copies sold . According to McCormick , " its triumph is a rare example of the Mercury Prize doing music lovers a service . " In the US , the album reached sales of 350 @,@ 000 copies by June 2012 with consistent weekly sales during its first two years of release , which Time magazine 's Melissa Locker said was " quite a feat " in an era of music piracy , media streaming , and YouTube .
Although xx had been highly anticipated by XL , the album 's success exceeded expectations in the press . McDonald said their direction and sound would have been entirely different had expectations been higher . Croft was " baffled " by the acclaim given to what she viewed as an album they had made " for themselves " . Sim had mixed feelings about its success and believed it could affect his songwriting in the future : " This album was done with no expectations . No one knew who we were . When I was writing the songs , I didn 't think anyone other than Romy or James would ever actually hear them . Now I know so many people will . I might feel I have to be a bit more private . " At the Mercury Prize ceremony , he said the time since its release has " felt like a haze " , but that the event serves as " a moment of clarity " . In their acceptance speech , the band announced they would use the £ 20 @,@ 000 prize money to build their own studio , where they subsequently wrote and recorded their second album Coexist . When Coexist debuted in September 2012 , xx was still on the British chart at number 37 and had sold 446 @,@ 734 copies in the UK . The following year , it was ranked number 237 on NME 's list of the top 500 albums of all time and named the 74th greatest debut record by Rolling Stone , who found its music radical as " an exercise in restraint , in the artful use of space and silence " during popular music 's period of maximalism .
= = Touring = =
After xx was released , the xx toured Europe and North America through the end of 2009 . Their first show in August was at Hoxton Hall in London , which Sim recalled was attended by only 112 people . When Pitchfork 's positive review of the album elicited greater interest among American listeners , the xx were booked as the supporting act for the Friendly Fires 's tour of larger club venues in the US . The difficulties of touring early on exacerbated the growing tensions between the xx and Qureshi , which culminated in her dismissal after a difficult stay at an October music festival in New York . It was reported that she had become fatigued and left the group after they cancelled several concerts . Sim disputed those reports and said her departure had been the band 's decision : " We 've grown up to be very different people . It wasn 't working any more musically or as a friendship . " Croft told NME in November , " I guess ' personal differences ' would be the standard way to say it . I guess it 's just the intensity of being on tour , things are so much heightened . "
Rather than find a replacement for Qureshi , the xx continued to tour as a smaller line @-@ up of guitar , bass , and percussion . They also reduced their already minimalist arrangements for songs in concert , although Sim jokingly said Smith " needs another few arms so he can work everything " after Qureshi 's departure . In their shows , Croft abandoned playing solos and chords in favor of less defined figures and motifs , while Smith performed beats and ambient sounds from his synth pad as an accompaniment to Croft and Sim 's playing . Because their style had been suited to the small venues they first played , the xx focused more on the production value of their concerts and performing for larger audiences while on tour . They dressed in dark clothing and illuminated the stage with light boxes displaying their x @-@ shaped , white @-@ on @-@ black logo .
With a growing fanbase , the xx made commitments to more concerts and extended their tour for the album . They intermittently toured for 18 months , including most of 2010 . That year , they embarked on their first US tour and played high @-@ profile festivals such as South by Southwest , Coachella , and Bonnaroo . Croft recalled their show at Coachella , where they performed for 30 @,@ 000 people : " That was the moment when I was , like , Oh , my God , I think people might be into this . " They were also a supporting act for fellow English group Florence and the Machine . By touring frequently , the xx broadened their reputation among listeners and the press . In March 2010 , they played two consecutive nights at the Shepherd 's Bush Empire in London to capacity crowds and appeared on the cover of NME , who proclaimed them " the most underrated band in Britain " . In April and May , they toured the southern US and Japan , which Croft said was most demanding part of the tour because " none of us had been away from home continuously for so long . " They were accompanied during this six @-@ week period by photographer Jamie @-@ James Medina , who later published his photos of the group in his book The Tourist ( 2010 ) .
While on tour , the xx acclimated themselves to the increased attention and became considerably more sociable and confident . As Sim recounted , " If you 'd have put me onstage at London 's Shepherd 's Bush Empire a few years ago , I 'd have run away . I couldn 't have done it . We used to be terrified . " In June , the band played the Glastonbury Festival in Somerset and , according to journalist Jude Rogers , displayed a newfound confidence through the rest of their summer and " post @-@ Mercury [ Prize ] autumn " concerts : " Croft would sing more boldly , Sim developed an onstage swagger and Smith began experimenting with different rhythms and textures . "
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Romy Madley Croft and Oliver Sim , all music composed by Madley Croft , Sim , Jamie Smith , and Baria Qureshi , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = The xx = = =
Romy Madley Croft – guitar , vocals
Oliver Sim – bass , vocals
Jamie Smith – beats , mixing , MPC , production
Baria Qureshi – guitar , keyboards
The xx – design , photography
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Phil Lee – art direction , design
Rodaidh McDonald – engineering , mixing
Nilesh Patel – mastering
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Type Ib and Ic supernovae =
Types Ib and Ic supernovae are categories of stellar explosions that are caused by the core collapse of massive stars . These stars have shed ( or been stripped of ) their outer envelope of hydrogen , and , when compared to the spectrum of Type Ia supernovae , they lack the absorption line of silicon . Compared to Type Ib , Type Ic supernovae are hypothesized to have lost more of their initial envelope , including most of their helium . The two types are usually referred to as stripped core @-@ collapse supernovae .
= = Spectra = =
When a supernova is observed , it can be categorized in the Minkowski – Zwicky supernova classification scheme based upon the absorption lines that appear in its spectrum . A supernova is first categorized as either a Type I or Type II , then sub @-@ categorized based on more specific traits . Supernovae belonging to the general category Type I lack hydrogen lines in their spectra ; in contrast to Type II supernovae which do display lines of hydrogen . The Type I category is sub @-@ divided into Type Ia , Type Ib and Type Ic supernovae .
Type Ib / Ic supernovae are distinguished from Type Ia by the lack of an absorption line of singly ionized silicon at a wavelength of 635 @.@ 5 nanometres . As Type Ib / Ic supernovae age , they also display lines from elements such as oxygen , calcium and magnesium . In contrast , Type Ia spectra become dominated by lines of iron . Type Ic supernovae are distinguished from Type Ib in that the former also lack lines of helium at 587 @.@ 6 nm .
= = Formation = =
Prior to becoming a supernova , an evolved massive star is organized in the manner of an onion , with layers of different elements undergoing fusion . The outermost layer consists of hydrogen , followed by helium , carbon , oxygen , and so forth . Thus when the outer envelope of hydrogen is shed , this exposes the next layer that consists primarily of helium ( mixed with other elements ) . This can occur when a very hot , massive star reaches a point in its evolution when significant mass loss is occurring from its stellar wind . Highly massive stars ( with 25 or more times the mass of the Sun ) can lose up to 10 − 5 solar masses ( M ☉ ) each year — the equivalent of 1 M ☉ every 100 @,@ 000 years .
Type Ib and Ic supernovae are hypothesized to have been produced by core collapse of massive stars that have lost their outer layer of hydrogen and helium , either via winds or mass transfer to a companion . The progenitors of Types Ib and Ic have lost most of their outer envelopes due to strong stellar winds or else from interaction with a close companion of about 3 – 4 M ☉ . Rapid mass loss can occur in the case of a Wolf @-@ Rayet star , and these massive objects show a spectrum that is lacking in hydrogen . Type Ib progenitors have ejected most of the hydrogen in their outer atmospheres , while Type Ic progenitors have lost both the hydrogen and helium shells ; in other words , Type Ic have lost more of their envelope ( i.e. , much of the helium layer ) than the progenitors of Type Ib . In other respects , however , the underlying mechanism behind Type Ib and Ic supernovae is similar to that of a Type II supernova , thus placing Type Ib / c between Type Ia and Type II . Because of their similarity , Type Ib and Ic supernovae are sometimes collectively called Type Ibc supernovae .
There is some evidence that a small percent of the Type Ic supernovae may be the progenitors of gamma ray bursts ( GRB ) ; in particular , type Ic supernovae that have broad spectral lines corresponding to high @-@ velocity outflows are thought to be strongly associated with gamma ray bursts ( GRB ) . However , it is also hypothesized that any hydrogen @-@ stripped Type Ib or Ic supernova could be a GRB , dependent upon the geometry of the explosion . In any case , astronomers believe that most Type Ib , and probably Type Ic as well , result from core collapse in stripped , massive stars , rather than from the thermonuclear runaway of white dwarfs .
As they are formed from rare , very massive stars , the rate of Type Ib and Ic supernovae occurrence is much lower than the corresponding rate for Type II supernovae . They normally occur in regions of new star formation , and have never been observed in an elliptical galaxy . Because they share a similar operating mechanism , Type Ib / c and the various Type II supernovae are collectively called core @-@ collapse supernovae . In particular , Type Ib / c may be referred to as stripped core @-@ collapse supernovae .
= = Light curves = =
The light curves ( a plot of luminosity versus time ) of Type Ib supernovae vary in form , but in some cases can be nearly identical to those of Type Ia supernovae . However , Type Ib light curves may peak at lower luminosity and may be redder . In the infrared portion of the spectrum , the light curve of a Type Ib supernova is similar to a Type II @-@ L light curve . ( See Supernova . ) Type Ib supernovae usually have slower decline rates for the spectral curves than Ic .
Type Ia supernovae light curves are useful for measuring distances on a cosmological scale . That is , they serve as standard candles . However , due to the similarity of the spectra of Type Ib and Ic supernovae , the latter can form a source of contamination of supernova surveys and must be carefully removed from the observed samples before making distance estimates .
= The Old Man and the Key =
" The Old Man and the Key " is the thirteenth episode of The Simpsons ' thirteenth season . It first aired in the United States on the Fox network on March 10 , 2002 . In the episode , Grampa Simpson falls in love with Zelda , an old woman who has just moved in to the senior home in which Grampa lives . However , Grampa is not the only one in the home who is infatuated with Zelda .
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Lance Kramer . The storyline was pitched by Vitti , who based it on an article about social status in senior homes . The episode features Olympia Dukakis as Zelda , and Bill Saluga as his television character Ray J. Johnson . The song " Ode to Branson " , which was written by Vitti and composed by Alf Clausen , was submitted for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music And Lyrics in 2002 , which it ultimately lost to a score from The Blue Planet .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with Homer anticipating the new XFL season before Marge tells him that the league has folded , which she hears from the league 's MVP , who now works at her hair salon . The Simpson family then gets a phone call from Grampa Simpson 's retirement home saying that he is dead . When the family arrives he informs them the home got it wrong and Grampa is still alive . A beautiful new woman named Zelda moves into his retirement home . Grampa is determined to win her love over Zack , the youthful owner of a minivan . After renewing his driver 's license ( which Patty quickly gave to him in return that he would not wink at her again ) , Grampa convinces Homer to let him borrow the car to romance her . Although he impresses the new old gal , Homer and Marge think she is a hoochie and only likes Grampa because he can drive . After he crashes Homer 's car in a death race with the Souvenir Jackitos , a rival seniors gang , Homer gets particularly livid with Grampa and takes his keys away , forbidding him to drive ever again . Zelda informs Grampa that she got them tickets to Branson , Missouri but when he tells her he does not have a car Zelda leaves with Zack and his minivan .
Grampa steals Marge 's car and " kidnaps " Bart , taking him on the road to Branson , Missouri to win back Zelda . When realizing that Grandpa and Bart are heading to Branson , Homer , Marge , Lisa , and Maggie , take a bus there . However they end up not in Branson , Missouri , but Bronson , Missouri ( where everyone in town looks and talks like Charles Bronson ) . Ray Jay Johnson , Mr. T , Charo , Yakov Smirnoff , Charlie Callas , Bonnie Franklin and Adrian Zmed are the stars of the show in Branson they go to see . ( Tennessee Ernie Ford is backstage , but crumbles to dust when Grampa proves he is dead by showing the deceased singer his obituary . ) Grampa calls out to his lady from on @-@ stage , but then denounces her in front of everyone , who then call her ( in a chant ) a hoochie , sending her fleeing off the stage in tears . Grampa then reconciles with Homer .
= = Production = =
" The Old Man and the Key " was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Lance Kramer . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on March 10 , 2002 . The idea for the episode was pitched by Vitti , who was inspired by an article about senior homes . The article described senior homes as being a lot like high schools , in that there are popular and unpopular people , and that those who , for example , own a car are " like kings " . Vitti suggested that the episode should be that " Grampa 's life [ is ] basically like that of a teenager " , with Homer acting as if he was Grampa 's father . The Souvenir Jackitos , who challenge Grampa to a death race in the episode , were conceived from an observation by the writers . The writers argued that the only ones buying expensive trademarked jackets are old people who want to appear younger .
A scene in the episode shows Grampa and Bart driving to Branson with Marge 's car , listening to the radio . Because the scene consists entirely of auditive gags , the Simpsons staff had difficulty figuring out what to show visually during the scene . In the DVD audio commentary for the episode , Jean explained that these scenes “ get a really big laugh at the table , ” but are subsequently hard for the animators . The scene makes use of a repeated background , an animation technique made famous by Hanna @-@ Barbera in order to cut budget .
The song " Ode to Branson , " which is performed by several " washed @-@ up " celebrities , was composed by Alf Clausen and written by Vitti . Even though Vitti received sole credit for writing the song , parts of the lyrics were written by Simpsons writer Carolyn Omine , which were then revised by fellow writer Matt Selman . Selman was especially satisfied with the rhyme sung by Mr. T ; he stated that whenever he feels down , he thinks of that rhyme and that it " boosts [ him ] up inside . " The episode features American actress Olympia Dukakis as Grampa 's love interest Zelda . American comedian Bill Saluga also makes an appearance , as his television character Ray J. Johnson . The owner of the minivan is portrayed by series regular Hank Azaria , who imitated the voice of Clark Gable for the character .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of the episode itself is a reference of Ernest Hemingway 's book " The old man and the sea " . A scene in the episode shows Grandpa wearing a zoot suit , a suit popular in the 1940s . When Grandpa and Zelda take off on one of their dates , three old men with long beards imitate ZZ Top as a short part of " Sharp Dressed Man " is played . Grandpa 's interaction with the " Souvenir Jackitos " in Apu 's store mirrors a scene in the 1961 musical film West Side Story , with Grandpa and his friends taking the role of the Jets in the film , the " Souvenir Jackitos " as the Sharks , and Apu as Doc . The " Death race " on the other hand , is a reference to the 1955 drama film Rebel Without a Cause . The abandoned aqueduct , in which the death race takes place , is based on the Los Angeles River . Yakov Smirnoff 's appearance at a theatre in Branson , Missouri in the episode may be a reference to the fact that he owns and performs at a theatre in the city in reality . During the ending credits , the Simpsons wave goodbye while The Beverly Hillbillies theme song is playing . In fact , before the Gracie Films jingle , Lisa says in a southern accent , " This has been a Gracie Films presentation ! " , which parodies the line " This has been a Filmways presentation ! " The beginning of the episode shows Homer excitedly preparing for the new XFL season , only to be disappointed when Marge informs him that the league folded after one year .
The name " Zelda " is a reference to Zelda Fitzgerald the wife of F. Scott Fitzgerald . Like Grampa , F Scott 's courtship of Zelda was difficult . The Fitzgeralds are closely tied to the Roaring 20s , so this is also a joke about Grampa 's age .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast on March 10 , 2002 , " The Old Man and the Key " received a 7 @.@ 9 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 7 @.@ 9 million viewers . The episode ranked 19 in the top 25 most watched television programs the week it aired . Later in 2002 , " Ode to Branson " was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music And Lyrics , which it ultimately lost to a score from BBC 's nature documentary The Blue Planet . In 2007 , the song was included on the soundtrack album The Simpsons : Testify .
Following the thirteenth season 's release on DVD and Blu @-@ ray , " The Old Man and the Key " received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Writing for Project : Blu , Nate Boss stated that Grampa " just isn 't all that funny when cornered , and that 's what we get here , " and that " the jokes are a bit too few and far between " . Giving the episode a negative review , Ryan Keefer of DVD Talk wrote that it was " borderline painful " and one of the season 's " duds " . Casey Broadwater of Blu @-@ ray.com wrote that the episode " moves at a geriatric pace " , and R. L. Shaffer of IGN stated that it " represent [ s ] some of the worst of The Simpsons . " On the other hand , giving the episode a positive review , Ron Martin of 411Mania enjoyed the " poke towards Branson , Missouri , a mecca for old people everywhere , " and Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict gave the episode a B rating . Colin Jacobsson of DVD Movie Guide wrote that , even though Grampa is " essentially a one @-@ joke personality , " " those gags tend to be pretty fun . " He concluded his review by writing that the episode was " a likable program . "
Despite the mixed responses , the episode features one of the " most used little clips " of the series . The scene shows Grampa getting his driver 's license . Instead of taking a photo for the license on the spot , Grampa suggests that Patty , who works in the facility , use a photo of him from a newspaper headline that reads " Old man yells at cloud . " Patty agrees , and Grampa , holding his newly acquired license , goes up to a window and yells " Who 's laughing now ? " at a cloud . A still from the scene has been used several times on The Daily Show . Both Malkowski of DVD Verdict and Jacobsson of DVD Movie Guide considered it to be the best part of the episode . After Clint Eastwood 's speech at the 2012 Republican National Convention , which featured Eastwood talking to an empty chair representing President Barack Obama , a modified version of the image with the caption , " Old man yells at chair " , was used in an internet meme .
= Noemvriana =
The Noemvriana ( Greek : Νοεμβριανά , " November Events " ) of November – December 1916 , or the Greek Vespers , was a political dispute , which led to an armed confrontation in Athens between the royalist government of Greece and the forces of the Allies over the issue of Greece 's neutrality during World War I.
Friction existed between the two sides from the beginning of World War I. The unconditional surrender of the border fortress of Rupel , in May 1916 , to the Central Powers ' forces , mainly composed of Bulgarian troops , was the first event that led to Noemvriana . The Allies feared the possibility of a secret pact between the Greek royalist government and the Central Powers . Such an alliance would endanger the Allied army in Macedonia bivouacking around Thessalonica since the end of 1915 . Intensive diplomatic negotiations between King Constantine and Allied diplomats took place throughout the summer . The king wanted Greece to maintain her neutrality , a position that would favor the Central Powers plans in the Balkans . While the Allies wanted demobilization of the Greek army and the surrender of war materiel equivalent to what was lost at Fort Rupel as a guarantee of Greece 's neutrality . By the end of the summer of 1916 , the failure of negotiations , along with Bulgarian army 's advance in eastern Macedonia and the Greek government 's orders for the Greek army not to offer resistance , led to a military coup by Venizelist military officers in Thessaloniki with the support of the Allies . The former Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos , who from the very beginning supported the Allies , established a provisional government in northern Greece . He began forming an army to liberate areas lost to Bulgaria , but this effectively split Greece into two entities .
The inclusion of the Greek army along with Allied forces , as well as the division of Greece , sparked several anti @-@ Allied demonstrations in Athens . In late October , a secret agreement was reached between the king and the Allied diplomats . The pressure from the military advisers forced the king to abandon this agreement . In an attempt to enforce their demands , the Allies landed a small contingent in Athens on 1 December [ O.S. 18 November ] 1916 . However , it met organized resistance and an armed confrontation took place until a compromise was reached at the end of the day . The day after the Allied contingent evacuated from Athens , a royalist mob began rioting throughout the city , targeting supporters of Venizelos . The rioting continued for three days , and the incident became known as the Noemvriana in Greece , which in the Old Style calendar occurred during the month of November . The incident drove a deep wedge between the Venizelists and the royalists , bringing closer what would become known as the National Schism .
Following Noemvriana , the Allies , determined to remove King Constantine , established a naval blockade to isolate areas which supported the king . After the resignation of the king on 15 June 1917 , Greece unified under a new king Alexander Constantine 's son and the leadership of Eleftherios Venizelos , joined World War I on the side of the Allies . By 1918 , the mobilized Greek army provided the numerical superiority the Allies needed on the Macedonian front . The Allied army shortly thereafter defeated the Central Powers forces in the Balkans followed by the liberation of Serbia and the conclusion of the First World War .
= = Background : Greece 1914 @-@ 1916 = =
Greece emerged victorious after the 1912 @-@ 1913 Balkan Wars , with her territory almost doubled . The unstable international political climate of the early 20th century placed Greece in a difficult position . The ownership of the Greek occupied eastern Aegean islands was contested by the Ottoman Empire which claimed them as their own . In the north , Bulgaria , defeated in the Second Balkan War , was engineering revanchist strategies against Greece and Serbia . The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Serbia precipitated Austria @-@ Hungary 's declaration of war against Serbia . This caused Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary , and countries allied with Serbia ( the Triple Entente Powers ) to declare war on each other , starting World War I.
Greece , like Bulgaria , initially maintained neutrality during the conflict . The Greek leadership was divided between the Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos , who supported Great Britain on the side of the Allies and King Constantine who was educated in Germany and married to the Kaiser 's sister . The king admired Prussian militarism and was anticipating a quick German victory . The king wanted Greece to remain neutral in the conflict , a strategy favorable to Germany and the Central Powers .
In early 1915 , Britain offered Greece " territorial concessions in Asia Minor " if it would participate in the upcoming Gallipoli Campaign . Venizelos supported this idea , while the king and his military advisers opposed it . Dismayed at the king 's opposition , the prime minister resigned on 21 February 1915 . A few months later , Venizelos ' Liberal Party won the May elections , and formed a new government . When Bulgaria mobilized against Serbia in September 1915 , Venizelos ordered a Greek counter @-@ mobilization and asked the Anglo @-@ French army to defend Thessaloniki and aid Serbia . The Allies , led by General Maurice Sarrail , began landing on 22 September 1915 and entrenched around the city . The Greek parliament gave Venizelos a vote of confidence to help Serbia , yet the king unconstitutionally dismissed the prime minister along with the parliament . This unlawful order escalated the animosity between the king and Venizelos as well as their loyal followers . The Liberals boycotted the December elections .
= = Causes = =
= = = Surrender of Fort Rupel = = =
On 9 May 1916 , the Chief of the General Staff of the Central Powers , Erich von Falkenhayn informed Athens of the imminent advance of German @-@ Bulgarian forces . In reply , Athens minimized the importance of General Sarrail 's movements and requested Falkenhayn to change his strategy . On 23 May , Falkenhayn guaranteed that the territorial integrity of Greece and the rights of its citizens would be respected . On 26 May , despite an official protest by the Greek government , 25 @,@ 000 Bulgarian soldiers led by German cavalry invaded Greece . The Greek forces at Fort Rupel surrendered . The German Supreme Command was concerned about Allied General Sarrail 's movements and Falkenhayn was ordered to occupy strategic positions inside Greek territory , specifically Fort Rupel . Despite the assurances of Falkenhayn , Bulgarian soldiers immediately began to forcibly centralize the Greek population into large cities , namely Serres , Drama and Kavala . German attempts to restrain Bulgarian territorial ambitions were partially successful , yet on 4 September , Kavala was occupied by the Bulgarian army .
= = = Reactions of Venizelos and the Allies = = =
The surrender of Fort Rupel caused the Allies to believe that the German @-@ Bulgarian advance was a result of a secret agreement between Athens and the Central Powers , as they were assured that no Bulgarian force would invade Greek territory . The Allies saw this as a violation of Greek neutrality and a disturbance in the balance of power in the Balkans . The Allied press , especially in France , demanded swift military action against Greece to protect the Allied forces in Macedonia . For Venizelos and his supporters , the surrender of Fort Rupel signaled the loss
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was promoted to lieutenant general , the first New Zealand @-@ born soldier to reach this rank . In the 1942 Birthday Honours , he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) . As the war progressed he was faced with the difficulty of juggling resources to maintain both the 2nd New Zealand Division in the Middle East and the 3rd New Zealand Division in the Pacific theatre . Later in the war , he was in favour keeping the 2nd Division in Italy to deal with what he considered to be the greater priority , the defeat of Germany , rather than have it be used against the Japanese .
= = Later life = =
Puttick was succeeded as Chief of the General Staff by Major General Norman Weir in late 1945 and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 1946 New Year Honours . In June 1946 , he led the New Zealand contingent at the Victory Parade in London . He retired from the military three months later .
In his retirement , Puttick authored one of the volumes of the Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939 – 45 , a unit history of the 25th Battalion , which was published in 1960 . His wife died in 1964 and in his later years , he lived in Raglan , a small seaside town on the west coast of the North Island . He died on 25 July 1976 in Hamilton , survived by his three daughters , and was buried at Karori Cemetery in Wellington with military honours .
= Eazy @-@ E =
Eric Lynn Wright ( September 7 , 1964 – March 26 , 1995 ) , better known by his stage name Eazy @-@ E , was a U.S. American rapper who performed solo and in the hip hop group N.W.A. Wright is affectionately called " The Godfather of Gangsta Rap " . He was born to Richard and Kathie Wright in Compton , California . After dropping out of high school in the tenth grade , he supported himself primarily by selling drugs before founding Ruthless Records and becoming a rapper . Arabian Prince , Eazy @-@ E , Dr. Dre and Ice Cube formed N.W.A. After DJ Yella and MC Ren joined the group , N.W.A released their debut single Panic Zone . In 1988 , they released their most controversial album , Straight Outta Compton . The group released two more albums and then disbanded after Eazy released Dr. Dre from his contract .
Eazy 's main influences included 1970s funk groups , contemporary rappers , and comedians . When reviewing Eazy 's albums , many critics noted his unique overall style , with Steve Huey of the All Music Guide remarking : " While his technical skills as a rapper were never the greatest , his distinctive delivery ... over @-@ the @-@ top lyrics , and undeniable charisma made him a star . "
= = Early life and Ruthless Records investment = =
Eric Wright was born to Richard and Kathie Wright on September 7 , 1964 , in Compton , California , a Los Angeles suburb notorious for gang activity and crime . His father was a postal worker and his mother was a grade school administrator . Wright dropped out of high school in the tenth grade , but later received a high @-@ school general equivalency diploma ( GED ) .
Wright supported himself primarily by selling drugs , introduced to the occupation by his cousin . Wright 's friend Jerry Heller admits that he witnessed Wright selling marijuana , but says that he never saw him sell cocaine . As Heller noted in his book Ruthless : A Memoir , Wright 's " dope dealer " label was part of his " self @-@ forged armor " . Wright was also labeled as a " thug " . Heller explains : " The hood where he grew up was a dangerous place . He was a small guy . ' Thug ' was a role that was widely understood on the street ; it gave you a certain level of protection in the sense that people hesitated to fuck with you . Likewise , ' dope dealer ' was a role that accorded you certain privileges and respect . "
In 1986 , at the age of 22 , Wright had allegedly earned as much as US $ 250 @,@ 000 from dealing drugs . However , after his cousin was shot and killed , he decided that he could make a better living in the Los Angeles hip hop scene , which was growing rapidly in popularity . He started recording songs during the mid @-@ 1980s in his parents ' garage .
The original idea for Ruthless Records came when Wright asked Heller to go into business with him . Wright suggested a half @-@ ownership company , but it was later decided that Wright would get eighty percent of the company 's income , and Heller would only get twenty percent . According to Heller , he told Wright , " Every dollar comes into Ruthless , I take twenty cents . That 's industry standard for a manager of my caliber . I take twenty , you take eighty percent . I am responsible for my expenses , and you 're responsible for yours . You own the company . I work for you . " Along with Heller , Wright invested much of his money into Ruthless Records . Heller claims that he invested the first $ 250 @,@ 000 , and would eventually put up to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 into the company .
= = Musical career = =
= = = N.W.A and Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It ( 1986 – 91 ) = = =
N.W.A 's original lineup consisted of Arabian Prince , Dr. Dre , Eazy @-@ E , and Ice Cube . DJ Yella and MC Ren joined later . The compilation album N.W.A. and the Posse was released on November 6 , 1987 , and would go on to be certified Gold in the United States . The album featured material previously released as singles on the Macola Records label , which was responsible for distributing the releases by N.W.A and other artists like the Fila Fresh Crew , a West Coast rap group originally based in Dallas , Texas .
Eazy @-@ E 's debut album , Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It , was released on September 16 , 1988 , and featured twelve tracks . It was labeled as West Coast hip hop , Gangsta rap , and Golden age hip hop . It has sold over 2 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States and reached number forty @-@ one on the Billboard 200 . The album was produced by Dr. Dre and DJ Yella and largely written by MC Ren , Ice Cube , and The D.O.C .. Both Glen Boyd from the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer and MTV 's Jon Wiederhorn claimed that Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It " paved the way " for N.W.A 's most controversial album , Straight Outta Compton . Wright 's only solo in the album was a remix of the song " 8 Ball " , which originally appeared on N.W.A. and the Posse . The album featured Wright 's writing and performing ; he performed on seven songs and helped write four songs .
After the release of Straight Outta Compton , Ice Cube left because of internal disputes , and the group continued as a four @-@ piece ensemble . N.W.A released 100 Miles and Runnin ' and Niggaz4Life in 1991 . A diss war started between N.W.A and Ice Cube when " 100 Miles and Runnin ' " and " Real Niggaz " were released . Ice Cube responded with " No Vaseline " on Death Certificate . Wright performed on seven of the eighteen songs on Niggaz4Life .
In March 1991 Wright accepted an invitation to a lunch benefiting the Republican Senatorial Inner Circle , hosted by then @-@ U.S. President George H. W. Bush . A spokesman for the rapper said that Eazy @-@ E supported Bush because of his performance in the Persian Gulf War .
= = = End of N.W.A and feud with Dr. Dre ( 1991 – 94 ) = = =
N.W.A began to split up after Jerry Heller became the band 's manager . Dr. Dre recalls : " The split came when Jerry Heller got involved . He played the divide and conquer game . Instead of taking care of everybody , he picked one nigga to take care of and that was Eazy . And Eazy was like , ' I 'm taken care of , so fuck it ' . " Dre sent Suge Knight to look into Eazy 's financial situation because he was beginning to grow suspicious of Eazy and Heller . Dre asked Eazy to release him from the Ruthless Records contract , but Eazy refused . The impasse led to what reportedly transpired between Knight and Eazy at the recording studio where Niggaz4life was recorded . After he refused to release Dre , Knight declared to Eazy that he had kidnapped Heller and was holding him prisoner in a van . The rumor did not convince Eazy to release Dre from his contract , and Knight threatened Eazy 's family : Knight gave Eazy a piece of paper that contained Eazy 's mother 's address , telling him , " I know where your mama stays . " Eazy finally signed Dre 's release , officially ending N.W.A.
The feud with Dr. Dre continued after a track on Dre 's The Chronic , " Dre Day " , contained lyrics that insulted Eazy @-@ E. Eazy responded with the EP , It 's On ( Dr. Dre ) 187um Killa , featuring the tracks " Real Muthaphuckkin G 's " and " It 's On " . The album , which was released on October 25 , 1993 , contains pictures of Dre wearing " lacy outfits and makeup " when he was a member of the Electro @-@ hop World Class Wreckin ' Cru .
= = Personal life = =
Wright had a son , Eric Wright Jr . , in 1984 . He also had a daughter named Erin who has legally changed her name to Ebie . Wright also knew that he had at least five other children by five separate women during his lifetime . His oldest son Eric in an interview in 2015 , said that three more children , now adults , were confirmed through DNA testing with Eric Jr 's sister and Eazy @-@ E 's father , to be his as well . He had two children with Tomica Woods , and found out he was dying of AIDS while she was pregnant with their second baby . This brings his total children to at least twelve .
Wright met Tomica Woods at a Los Angeles nightclub in 1991 , and they married in 1995 , twelve days before his death . They had a son named Dominick and a daughter named Daijah ( born six months after Wright 's death ) . After Wright 's death , Ruthless Records was taken over by his wife .
= = Legal issues = =
After Dr. Dre left Ruthless Records , executives Mike Klein and Jerry Heller sought assistance from the Jewish Defense League ( JDL ) . Klein , a former Ruthless Records director of business affairs , said this provided Ruthless Records with leverage to enter into negotiations with Death Row Records over Dr. Dre 's departure . While Knight had sought an outright release from Ruthless Records for Dr. Dre , the JDL and Ruthless Records management negotiated a release in which the record label would continue to receive money and publishing rights from future Dr. Dre projects with Death Row Records , founded by Dr. Dre with Suge Knight . The FBI launched a money @-@ laundering investigation under the assumption that the JDL was extorting money from Ruthless Records to fight their causes . This led to JDL spokesperson Irv Rubin issuing a press release stating " There was nothing but a close , tight relationship " between Eazy @-@ E and the organization .
= = Illness and death = =
On February 24 , 1995 , Wright was admitted to the Cedars @-@ Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles with what he believed to be asthma due to a recurring cough and wincing that occurred beginning in July of 1994 . Instead , he was diagnosed with AIDS . He announced his illness in a public statement on March 16 , 1995 . Wright allegedly lost his virginity at the age of twelve , and his promiscuous behavior resulted in not only the fatal disease , but also in nine children by seven different women . During the week of March 20 , having already made amends with Ice Cube , Snoop Dogg and Dr. Dre , he drafted a final message to his fans . On March 26 , 1995 , at approximately 6 : 35 p.m. PST , Eazy @-@ E died from complications of AIDS , one month after his diagnosis . He was 31 years old . He was buried on April 7 , 1995 at Rose Hills Memorial Park in Whittier , California . Over 3 @,@ 000 people attended his funeral , including Jerry Heller and DJ Yella . He was buried in a gold casket , and instead of wearing a suit and tie , Eazy @-@ E was dressed in a flannel shirt , a Compton hat and jeans . On January 30 , 1996 , ten months after Eazy @-@ E 's death , his final album , Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton was released .
= = Musical influences and style = =
Allmusic cites Eazy @-@ E 's influences as Ice @-@ T , Redd Foxx , King Tee , Bootsy Collins , Run @-@ D.M.C. , Richard Pryor , The Egyptian Lover , Schoolly D , Too $ hort , Prince , The Sugarhill Gang , and George Clinton . In the documentary The Life and Timez of Eric Wright , Eazy @-@ E mentions collaborating with many of his influences .
When reviewing Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton , Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted " ... Eazy @-@ E sounds revitalized , but the music simply isn 't imaginative . Instead of pushing forward and creating a distinctive style , it treads over familiar gangsta territory , complete with bottomless bass , whining synthesizers , and meaningless boasts . " When reviewing Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It , Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic said , " In terms of production , Dr. Dre and Yella meld together P @-@ Funk , Def Jam @-@ style hip @-@ hop , and the leftover electro sounds of mid- ' 80s Los Angeles , creating a dense , funky , and thoroughly unique style of their own . " Birchmeier described Eazy 's style as " dense , unique , and funky , " and said that it sounded " absolutely revolutionary in 1988 . "
Several members of N.W.A wrote lyrics for Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It : Ice Cube , The D.O.C. , and MC Ren . The EP 5150 : Home 4 tha Sick features a song written by Naughty By Nature . The track " Merry Muthaphuckkin ' Xmas " features Menajahtwa , Buckwheat , and Atban Klann as guest vocalists , and " Neighborhood Sniper " features Kokane as a guest vocalist . It 's On ( Dr. Dre ) 187um Killa features several guest vocalists , including Gangsta Dresta , B.G. Knocc Out . Kokane , Cold 187um , Rhythum D , and Dirty Red . Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton featured several guest vocalists , including B.G. Knocc Out , Gangsta Dresta , Sylk @-@ E. Fyne , Dirty Red , Menajahtwa , Roger Troutman , and ex @-@ N.W.A members MC Ren and DJ Yella .
= = = Legacy = = =
Eazy @-@ E has been called the godfather of gangsta rap . MTV 's Reid Shaheem said that Eazy was a " rap @-@ pioneer , " and he is sometimes cited by critics as a legend . Steve Huey of AllMusic said that he was " one of the most controversial figures in gangsta rap . " Since his 1995 death , many book and video biographies have been produced , including 2002 's The Day Eazy @-@ E Died and Dead and Gone .
When Eazy was diagnosed with AIDS , many magazines like Jet , Vibe , Billboard , The Crisis , and Newsweek covered the story and released information on the topic . All of his studio albums and EPs charted on the Billboard 200 , and many of his singles — " Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It " , " We Want Eazy " , " Real Muthaphuckkin G 's " , and " Just tah Let U Know " — also charted in the U.S.
In 2012 a Eazy @-@ E documentary was released by Ruthless Propaganda , called Ruthless Memories . The documentary featured interviews from Jerry Heller , MC Ren and B.G. Knocc Out .
In the 2015 film Straight Outta Compton , Eazy @-@ E is played by Jason Mitchell , and the film is dedicated in his honor .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It ( 1988 )
Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton ( 1996 )
Extended Plays
5150 : Home 4 tha Sick ( 1992 )
It 's On ( Dr. Dre ) 187um Killa ( 1993 )
Impact of a Legend ( 2002 )
With N.W.A
N.W.A. and the Posse ( 1987 )
Straight Outta Compton ( 1988 )
100 Miles and Runnin ' ( 1990 )
Niggaz4Life ( 1991 )
= Poison ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Poison " is a song by American recording artist Beyoncé . It is included on the 2009 deluxe edition of her third studio album , I Am … Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) and the EP titled I Am ... Sasha Fierce – The Bonus Tracks ( 2009 ) . It was written by Johntá Austin , Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen of the production team Stargate and Beyoncé while the production was handled by the later two . The song leaked online in August 2009 prior to the release of the deluxe edition of I Am … Sasha Fierce . During that month , it was included on a mixtape by DJ Haze titled Big R & B Ego .
" Poison " is a slow @-@ tempo song in which the female protagonist talks about a bad relationship that she cannot abandon . It received mostly positive reviews from critics who noted that although the song was cut out of the track @-@ listing of the standard edition of the album , it was a solid track . Following the release of the EP I Am ... Sasha Fierce – The Bonus Tracks in Korea , the song peaked at number one on the South Korea Gaon International Chart during the week ending February 7 , 2010 .
= = Background = =
" Poison " was written by Johntá Austin , Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen of the production team Stargate and Beyoncé for her third studio album I Am … Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . It was produced by Stargate and Beyoncé while the audio mixing was done by Carlos Otanedel and Damien Lewis at Soapbox Studios in Atlanta . The instrumentation of the song was provided by Stargate at the Roc the Mic studio in New York and the recording was done by Mikkel S. Eriksen . Jim Caruana also worked on the recording of the song .
Prior to the official premiere of the song on I Am ... Sasha Fierce , " Poison " was included on a mixtape by DJ Haze which was called Big R & B Ego . This version was leaked on the Internet in August 2009 . " Poison " was not included on the track @-@ listing of the standard version of I Am ... Sasha Fierce ; it was included on a re @-@ issue of the deluxe edition of the album instead , which was released on November 23 , 2009 . An extended play ( EP ) titled I Am ... Sasha Fierce – The Bonus Tracks was also released on the same date in several countries featuring new songs including " Poison " , " Why Don 't You Love Me " and a remix of " Video Phone featuring Lady Gaga . " Poison " later became an A @-@ side to the European single release of " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " and an EP release of " Video Phone " both in 2009 .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
According to the sheet music published by EMI Music Publishing on the website Musicnotes.com , " Poison " is a slow @-@ tempo song with hundred beats per minute . It was composed using common time in the key of G major . Beyoncé 's vocals range from the low note of G3 to the high note of D5 . In the song , Beyoncé sings about a relationship that she knows is not good for her , but still one that she cannot give up . " Poison " is complete with stuttering beats coupled with the singer 's " liquidy " voice as stated by Sonya Eskridge of Sister 2 Sister magazine .
A writer of Rap @-@ Up magazine noted that the remix of the song which was featured on the mixtape Big R & B Ego was " potent , but not quite fatal " . Eskridge of Sister 2 Sister wrote in her review of the song that " we can 't help but wonder why it would have been cut " . Matthew Richardson of Prefix Magazine noted , " As far as songs that got left in the studio , ' Poison ' actually isn 't that bad . The song 's production isn 't loud enough for this to be a single , but Beyonce sounds fine here . " Nia Beckwith of the website AllHipHop gave a positive review about the song , saying that it was " the most noteworthy " track she heard during the week of its premiere . She wrote ,
The overall theme of the song puts me in the mind of a hit from R & B group Bell Biv Devoe circa 1990 that was also titled Poison , but doesn 't fair the potential to be a number one song like it did close to 20 years ago . Even though the song doesn 't seem like it would be a chart topper it does seem album worthy . It 's something most can relate to if you 've ever been in a relationship . Beyonce sings about a failed relationship that 's no good , but yet is so hard to walk away from and ends up being just like Poison .
Recording artist Nicki Minaj discussed the song during an interview with Rap @-@ Up magazine , saying " When I tell you it gives me life , like , it gives me life . Her voice is effortless . It 's badass , like , ' I know I 'm the best . ' I love the melody , I love the cadence . It 's playful , but it 's just so in @-@ your @-@ face . It 's dope and it 's creative . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from the liner notes of the re @-@ issue of the deluxe edition of I Am ... Sasha Fierce .
Written by Beyoncé Knowles , Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen
Produced by Stargate and Beyoncé
All instruments by Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen
Recorded by Mikkel S. Eriksen at Roc the Mic , New York
Additional vocals recorded by Jim Caruana at Roc the Mic , New York
Mixed by Phil Tan assisted by Josh Houghkirk
Audio engineering by Carlos Oyanedel and Damien Lewis at Soapbox Studios , Atlanta
= = Charts = =
After the release of I Am ... Sasha Fierce – The Bonus Tracks , " Poison " became very popular in Korea and reached the top position of the South Korea Gaon International Chart during the week ending February 7 , 2010 . It was the ninety @-@ eighth best @-@ selling track of 2010 selling 128 @,@ 009 units .
= 2009 – 10 Calgary Flames season =
The 2009 – 10 Calgary Flames season was the 30th season for the Calgary Flames , and the 38th for the Flames franchise in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Flames entered the season with a new head coach as Brent Sutter replaced Mike Keenan . The year opened with the 2009 NHL Entry Draft on June 26 – 27 , as the Flames selected defenceman Tim Erixon with their first selection . 2009 also marked the debut of the Flames ' new American Hockey League affiliate , the Abbotsford Heat , as the franchise has relocated from the Quad Cities to the British Columbia city .
While the Flames led the Northwest Division early in the season , an extended slump left them in the eighth and final playoff position by the Olympic break . As a result , General Manager Darryl Sutter completed several trades in a bid to improve the team 's fortunes . Dion Phaneuf was one of seven roster players sent to other teams between January 31 and the March 3 trade deadline . The 2010 Winter Olympic tournament interrupted the season during February . Jarome Iginla won his second Olympic gold medal with Team Canada , while Miikka Kiprusoff and Niklas Hagman won bronze medals with the Finnish team . Iginla and Daymond Langkow each played their 1,000th games in February .
The Flames continued to struggle after the Olympic break ; they finished the season in tenth place in the West and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2003 . The result was disappointing for the organization , and led to media and fan speculation regarding the futures of Sutter and Iginla in Calgary .
= = Pre @-@ season = =
The Flames entered the 2009 – 10 campaign with a new head coach after Brent Sutter was named the 18th coach in franchise history . His assistants were promoted from within the organization : former Quad City Flames coach Ryan McGill and Calgary Hitmen coach Dave Lowry joined Sutter 's staff along with former player Jamie McLennan , who became the team 's new goaltender coach . Sutter had spent the previous two seasons as the coach of the New Jersey Devils , but resigned the position over a desire to return closer to his home in Red Deer , Alberta . He joined his brother Darryl , who remained the Flames ' general manager .
Preceding the release of the season schedule , rampant speculation that the Flames were in negotiations to host a second outdoor game for the 2010 NHL Winter Classic were confirmed . The additional game , suggested by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , would have taken place at McMahon Stadium , though negotiations were not successful and the league scheduled only one outdoor game for New Year 's Day .
Training camp had been dominated by the comeback attempt of Theoren Fleury at the age of 41 . Fleury had last played in the NHL in 2003 as a member of the Chicago Blackhawks before his career was halted by drug and alcohol addictions . Fleury , who had been under NHL suspension over his addictions since he last played , was reinstated by the league prior to the opening of camp and subsequently signed a tryout offer . He appeared in the Flames ' second pre @-@ season game , against the New York Islanders , drawing a loud ovation from the fans . He scored the only shootout goal to lead the Flames to a 5 – 4 victory before acknowledging the Saddledome crowd as it chanted " Theo ! Theo ! Theo ! "
Fleury played four exhibition games , scoring four points , before being released by the Flames . General Manager Darryl Sutter expressed his pride in Fleury 's attempt and commended his effort , but decided he was not one of the top six wingers in camp , which Sutter and Fleury had agreed was a condition of the tryout continuing . On September 28 , 2009 , Fleury announced his retirement . He thanked the Flames for allowing him to attempt the comeback , and expressed satisfaction at how his career ended .
The game against the Islanders also featured a devastating open @-@ ice hit by Dion Phaneuf on New York 's Kyle Okposo that saw the young forward taken off on a stretcher and sent to hospital with a concussion . The hit led Pascal Morency to leave his team 's bench to engage Phaneuf as a melee broke out in the aftermath of the check . The league reviewed the incident and suspended Morency ten games for leaving the bench .
= = Regular season = =
The Flames were expected to battle the Vancouver Canucks for top spot in the Northwest Division . The two teams met to open the season , a 5 – 3 victory for Calgary . It was the first time Calgary won a season opening game in seven years , and only the second since 1993 . The Flames won their next three , including two against their arch @-@ rivals , the Edmonton Oilers to open the season at 4 – 0 for the first time since 1993 – 94 . Following a loss to the Dallas Stars , the Flames faced the Chicago Blackhawks , and after scoring five goals in just five minutes , 29 seconds in the first period , went on to give up six consecutive goals to lose the game 6 – 5 in overtime . The six @-@ goal outburst by Chicago tied an NHL record for the largest comeback in league history . Despite a 4 – 1 – 1 start to the season , the loss prompted coach Sutter to question the players ' mental toughness . Although they felt they were not playing up to their expectations , the Flames tied a franchise record for the best start to the season , going 7 – 2 – 1 after ten games .
The Flames were embroiled in a national controversy in early November after it was revealed the team had secured a private clinic from Alberta Health Services ( AHS ) to have all players and their families inoculated against the H1N1 flu pandemic at the same time as many Albertans were growing increasingly frustrated with how the province was running public clinics . The controversy polarized the public and the media , even within individual newspapers . The Calgary Sun 's Michael Platt accused the " millionaire hockey players " of taking vaccinations from " shivering children " , while Eric Francis defended the club by pointing to the millions of dollars and hundreds of hours of volunteer time the team gives to the medical community . The Flames defended their actions , stating they completed an agreement with AHS prior to the Alberta government 's controversial clinics opening and arguing that they did so at a time when the government was encouraging all Albertans to get the vaccinations . AHS responded to the controversy by firing two people , including the most senior staff member involved in permitting the private clinic to go ahead .
Coincidentally , goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff was sidelined by what was suspected to be the flu on the same night the controversy broke . Backup Curtis McElhinney was a surprise starter against the Dallas Stars , and responded with a 38 save performance in a 3 – 2 overtime victory . The victory ended a two @-@ game losing streak that again led Sutter to criticize the efforts of his team , especially captain Jarome Iginla , and prompted the coach to put the players through an intense practice session prior to the game in Dallas . Kiprusoff surrendered only two goals in the Flames next three games as Calgary opened November with four consecutive wins , including a 1 – 0 shutout in Montreal against the Canadiens that was his 200th win as a Flame .
In spite of losing Curtis Glencross to a three @-@ game suspension in early November , and suffering an embarrassing 7 – 1 loss at home to the Blackhawks in which leading scorer Rene Bourque suffered an undisclosed injury , the Flames continued their torrid pace through November . Calgary moved past the Colorado Avalanche , into the division lead late in the month following a 3 – 0 shutout victory over the Detroit Red Wings . Victories over the Columbus Blue Jackets and Nashville Predators saw the Flames finish the month of November with a 10 – 2 – 2 record and tie a franchise record for points in consecutive road games at ten . Jarome Iginla led the Flames offensively in the month , recording 13 goals and 20 points in 12 games and was named the first star of the month of November .
The Flames struggled in December , losing six of seven games during one stretch in the middle of the month that was punctuated with a 5 – 1 loss on home ice to the Canucks that the players described as embarrassing and which briefly dropped the Flames to eighth place in the Western Conference . The loss to Vancouver also began the busiest part of the schedule for the Flames , who ended 2009 in the middle of a five game in seven night stretch and nine games in two weeks . The Flames entered the new year on a three @-@ game winning streak that included two more victories over the Oilers , and were looking forward to putting their disappointing month of December behind them .
Rosters for the 2010 Winter Olympics were announced in December . Olli Jokinen joined Kiprusoff in being named to the Finnish team , while Jarome Iginla was named an alternate captain for Team Canada . Dion Phaneuf , Jay Bouwmeester and Robyn Regehr , whom all attended the summer Olympic camp , were left off the Canadian roster . Jokinen felt that the teams poor December played a role in their being left off , and expressed that the team felt they let the three defencemen down as a result . At the Olympic tournament , Iginla led the tournament with five goals , and assisted on Sidney Crosby 's overtime winning goal in the gold medal final against the United States . Kiprusoff , along with Niklas Hagman , who was acquired from Toronto before the Games , both won bronze medals .
Two wins to begin January extended the Flames ' winning streak to five games . An extended scoring slump led the team to struggle for the rest of the month , culminating in a nine @-@ game losing streak ; the longest the team has endured since an 11 @-@ game losing streak in 1985 – 86 . The Flames finally ended the skid with a 6 – 1 victory , led by Iginla 's four points and Gordie Howe hat trick , over the Oilers , who had their own losing streak extended to 13 games . In doing so , the Flames won all six games against Edmonton , the first time either team has swept the other in the 30 @-@ year history of the rivalry . The following day , on January 31 , Darryl Sutter completed a seven player trade with the Toronto Maple Leafs that saw Dion Phaneuf sent to Toronto . Olli Jokinen and Brandon Prust were then sent to the New York Rangers for Ales Kotalik and Christopher Higgins a day later in a trade that was first rumoured the evening before but was delayed so that Jokinen and Prust could play with the Flames against the Philadelphia Flyers .
Three losses in four games , capped by a 5 – 0 defeat against the Boston Bruins on March 27 left the Flames six points out of the eighth and final playoff spot with seven games remaining . The team also lost second @-@ line centre Daymond Langkow after he was taken off the ice on a stretcher in Minnesota after being struck in the back of the neck by a slapshot . However , a 5 – 3 road victory against the Eastern Conference leading Washington Capitals and a 2 – 1 home win against the Phoenix Coyotes , coupled with the Colorado Avalanche losing six of their final seven games to end the month of March , left the Flames two points behind the Avalanche heading into April .
The Flames struggled on the power play , finishing 30th overall in power @-@ play goals , with 43 . They did , however , tie the Detroit Red Wings for the fewest shorthanded goals allowed , with just 1 .
= = Playoffs = =
Consecutive losses to Chicago and San Jose , coupled with two victories by Colorado eliminated the Flames from playoff contention in the final week of the season . The Flames failed to qualify for the post season for the first time since 2003 . Flames players lamented their inability to score goals at key times as a primary reason for the team 's failure . The dismal result for the Flames led fans and media to question whether the team needed to make significant changes in the off @-@ season . The future of General Manager Darryl Sutter with the team was called into question , while many wondered if it was time to part ways with captain Jarome Iginla , who had been with the team since 1996 . For
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22 , Degesch was purchased by Degussa , where a team of chemists that included Walter Heerdt and Bruno Tesch developed a method of packaging hydrogen cyanide in sealed canisters along with a cautionary eye irritant and adsorbent stabilizers . The new product was also named Zyklon , but it became known as Zyklon B to distinguish it from the earlier version . Uses included delousing clothing and disinfecting ships , warehouses , and trains .
In early 1942 , Zyklon B emerged as the preferred killing tool of Nazi Germany for use in extermination camps during the Holocaust . Around a million people were killed using this method , mostly at Auschwitz . Tesch was executed in 1946 for knowingly selling the product to the SS for use on humans . Hydrogen cyanide is now rarely used as a pesticide , but still has industrial applications . Firms in several countries continue to produce Zyklon B under alternative brand names , including Detia @-@ Degesch , the successor to Degesch , who renamed the product to Cyanosil in 1974 .
= = Mechanism = =
Hydrogen cyanide is a poisonous gas that interferes with cellular respiration . Cyanide prevents the cell from producing adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) by binding to one of the proteins involved in the electron transport chain . This protein , cytochrome c oxidase , contains several subunits and has ligands containing iron groups . The cyanide component of Zyklon B can bind at one of these iron groups , heme a3 , forming a more stabilized compound through metal @-@ to @-@ ligand pi bonding . As a result of this new iron @-@ cyanide complex , the electrons that would situate themselves on the heme a3 group can no longer do so . Instead , these electrons destabilize the compound ; thus , the heme group no longer accepts them . Consequently , electron transport is halted , and cells can no longer produce the energy needed to synthesize ATP . In a human weighing 68 kilograms ( 150 lb ) , death occurs within two minutes of inhaling 70 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 0025 oz ) of hydrogen cyanide .
= = History = =
Hydrogen cyanide , discovered in the late 18th century , was used in the 1880s for the fumigation of citrus trees in California . Its use spread to other countries for the fumigation of silos , goods wagons , ships , and mills . Its light weight and rapid dispersal meant its application had to take place under tents or in enclosed areas . Research by Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry led to the founding in 1919 of Deutsche Gesellschaft für Schädlingsbekämpfung mbH ( Degesch ) , a state @-@ controlled consortium formed to investigate military use of the chemical . Chemists at Degesch added a cautionary eye irritant to a less volatile cyanide compound which reacted with water in the presence of heat to become hydrogen cyanide . The new product was marketed as the pesticide Zyklon ( cyclone ) . As a similar formula had been used as a weapon by the Germans during World War I , Zyklon was soon banned .
Deutsche Gold- und Silber @-@ Scheideanstalt ( German Gold and Silver Refinery ; Degussa ) became sole owners of Degesch in 1922 . There , beginning in 1922 , Walter Heerdt , Bruno Tesch , and others worked on packaging hydrogen cyanide in sealed canisters along with a cautionary eye irritant and adsorbent stabilizers such as diatomaceous earth . The new product was also labelled as Zyklon , but it became known as Zyklon B to distinguish it from the earlier version . Heerdt was named the inventor of Zyklon B in the Degesch patent application ( number DE 438818 ) dated 20 June 1922 . The German Patent Office awarded the patent on 27 December 1926 .
= = Corporate structure and marketing = =
In 1930 , Degussa ceded 42 @.@ 5 per cent ownership of Degesch to IG Farben and 15 per cent to Th . Goldschmidt AG , in exchange for the right to market pesticide products of those two companies through Degesch . Degussa retained managerial control .
While Degesch owned the rights to the brand name Zyklon and the patent on the packaging system , the chemical formula was owned by Degussa . Schlempe GmbH , which was 52 per cent owned by Degussa , owned the rights to a process to extract hydrogen cyanide from waste products of sugar beet processing . This process was performed under license by two companies , Dessauer Werke and Kaliwerke Kolin , who also combined the resulting hydrogen cyanide with stabilizer from IG Farben and a cautionary agent from Schering AG to form the final product , which was packaged using equipment , labels , and canisters provided by Degesch . The finished goods were sent to Degesch , who forwarded the product to two companies that acted as distributors : Heerdt @-@ Linger GmbH ( Heli ) of Frankfurt and Tesch & Stabenow ( Testa ) of Hamburg . Their territory was split along the Elbe river , with Heli handling clients to the west and south , and Testa those to the east . Degesch owned 51 per cent of the shares of Heli , and until 1942 owned 55 per cent of Testa .
Prior to World War II Degesch derived most of its Zyklon B profits from overseas sales , particularly in the United States , where it was produced under license by Roessler & Hasslacher prior to 1931 and by American Cyanamid from 1931 to 1943 . From 1929 , the United States Public Health Service used Zyklon B to disinfect freight trains and clothes of Mexican immigrants entering the United States . Uses in Germany included delousing clothing ( often using a portable sealed chamber invented by Degesch in the 1930s ) and disinfecting ships , warehouses , and trains . By 1943 , sales of Zyklon B accounted for 65 per cent of Degesch 's sales revenue and 70 per cent of its gross profits .
= = Use in the Holocaust = =
In early 1942 , Zyklon B emerged as the preferred killing tool of Nazi Germany for use in extermination camps during the Holocaust . The chemical claimed the lives of roughly one million people in gas chambers installed in extermination camps at Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau , Majdanek , and elsewhere . Most of the victims were Jews , and by far the majority killed using this method died at Auschwitz . Zyklon B was supplied to concentration camps at Mauthausen , Dachau , and Buchenwald by the distributor Heli , and to Auschwitz and Majdanek by Testa . Camps also occasionally bought Zyklon B directly from the manufacturers . Of the 729 metric tons of Zyklon B sold in Germany in 1942 – 44 , 56 metric tons ( about 8 per cent of domestic sales ) were sold to concentration camps . Auschwitz received 23 @.@ 8 tons , of which 6 tons were used for fumigation . The remainder was used in the gas chambers or lost to spoilage ( the product had a shelf life of only three months ) . Testa conducted fumigations for the Wehrmacht and supplied them with Zyklon B. They also offered courses to the SS in the safe handling and use of the material for fumigation purposes . In April 1941 , the German agriculture and interior ministries designated the SS as an authorized applier of the chemical , and thus they were able to use it without any further training or governmental oversight .
Rudolf Höss , commandant of Auschwitz , said that the use of Zyklon @-@ B to kill prisoners came about on the initiative of one of his subordinates , SS @-@ Hauptsturmführer ( captain ) Karl Fritzsch , who used the substance to kill some Russian POWs in late August 1941 in the basement of Block 11 in the main camp . The experiment was repeated on more Russian POWs , with Höss watching , in September . Block 11 proved unsuitable for mass killings , as the basement was difficult to air out afterwards and the crematorium ( Crematorium I , which operated until July 1942 ) was some distance away . The site of the killings was moved to Crematorium I , where more than 700 victims could be killed at once . By the middle of 1942 , the operation was moved to Auschwitz II – Birkenau , a nearby satellite camp which had been under construction since October 1941 .
The first gas chamber at Auschwitz II – Birkenau was the " red house " ( called Bunker 1 by SS staff ) , a brick cottage converted to a gassing facility by tearing out the inside and bricking up the windows . It was operational by March 1942 . A second brick cottage , the " white house " or Bunker 2 , was converted some weeks later . According to Höss , Bunker 1 held 800 victims and Bunker 2 held 1 @,@ 200 victims . These structures were in use for mass killings until early 1943 . At that point , the Nazis decided to greatly increase the gassing capacity of Birkenau . Crematorium II , originally designed as a mortuary , with morgues in the basement and ground @-@ level incinerators , was converted into a killing factory by installing gas @-@ tight doors , vents for the Zyklon B to be dropped into the chamber , and ventilation equipment to remove the gas afterwards . Crematorium III was built using the same design . Crematoria IV and V , designed from the start as gassing centers , were also constructed that spring . By June 1943 , all four crematoria were operational . Most of the victims were killed using these four structures .
The Nazis began shipping large numbers of Jews from all over Europe to Auschwitz in the middle of 1942 . Those who were not selected for work crews were immediately gassed . The group selected to die , about three @-@ quarters of the total , included almost all children , women with small children , all the elderly , and all those who appeared on brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor not to be completely fit . The victims were told they were to undergo delousing and a shower . They were stripped of their belongings and herded into the gas chamber .
The Zyklon B was delivered by ambulance to the crematoria by a special SS bureau known as the Hygienic Institute . The actual delivery of the gas to the victims was always handled by the SS , on the order of the supervising SS doctor . After the doors were shut , SS men dumped in the Zyklon B pellets through vents in the roof or holes in the side of the chamber . The victims were dead within 20 minutes . Johann Kremer , an SS doctor who oversaw gassings , testified that the " shouting and screaming of the victims could be heard through the opening and it was clear that they fought for their lives " .
Sonderkommandos ( special work crews forced to work at the gas chambers ) wearing gas masks then dragged the bodies from the chamber . The victims ' glasses , artificial limbs , jewelry , and hair were removed , and any dental work was extracted so the gold could be melted down . If the gas chamber was crowded , which they typically were , the corpses were found half @-@ squatting , their skin discolored pink with red and green spots , with some found foaming at their mouths , or bleeding from their ears . The corpses were burned in the nearby incinerators , and the ashes were buried , thrown in the river , or used as fertilizer . With the Soviet Red Army approaching through Poland , the last mass gassing at Auschwitz took place on 30 October 1944 . In November 1944 , Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler , head of the SS , ordered gassing operations to cease across the Reich .
= = Legacy = =
After World War II ended in 1945 , Bruno Tes
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Lanka , instead of Sarama . The Balaramadasa Ramayana makes Trijata the saviour of Sita , when she stops Ravana from killing Sita in the Ashoka Vatika ; this role was originally assigned to Mandodari . Trijata again saves Sita 's life when a vengeful Ravana rushes to slay his captive after his son Indrajit is killed in the war . In the Ramayana , Suparshva – a minister of Ravana – stops him , while other adaptations attribute the act variously to Avindhya or Mandodari .
Besides crediting Trijata for acts attributed to others in the original epic , later literature adds new elements which grant Trijata a bigger role . In the Ramayana , just before meeting Hanuman , the thought of suicide crosses Sita 's mind , but she never attempts it . In the Prasannaraghava , Trijata and Sita engage in a " friendly conversation " before Ravana comes to meet her . After Ravana 's departure , Sita tells Trijata of her intent to commit suicide and urges Trijata to help her create a wood pyre . Trijata , however , refuses , saying there is not enough firewood . The Kakawin Ramayana also narrates that , when Sita sees the illusory severed heads of Rama and Lakshmana , she prepares a pyre . Trijata is ready to die with Sita , but first wants to inform her father Vibhishana . She returns with the news of Rama 's well @-@ being . Later on , after seeing Rama and Lakshmana bound by Indrajit 's Nagapasha , Sita instructs Trijata to again create a pyre , but Trijata holds off until she can confirm the truth from her father , and returns with the news that Rama is alive .
Many adaptations of the Ramayana narrate the friendship and companionship developed between Trijata and Sita . Trijata fulfils two important objectives : she comforts Sita and constantly updates Sita about the happenings of the war and the welfare of Rama . The Balaramadasa Ramayana describes Trijata assuaging Sita 's grief when they hear that Indrajit has wounded Rama and Lakshmana a second time . In the Balaramayana of Rajasekhara , Trijata employs two rakshasas to bring her news from the battlefield . The Ananda Ramayana narrates that , upon hearing Lakshmana 's conch sound , Sita urges Trijata to find out what has happened . Trijata learns of the death of Indrajit by Lakshmana and passes the news to Sita . The Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas also depicts Trijata breaking the news of Indrajit 's death to Sita , upon her inquiry . In another episode in the text , the two discuss the impending duel between Rama and Ravana on the final day of war . Sita is concerned that the ten @-@ headed Ravana is invincible and will magically regrow his severed heads . Trijata reassures Sita that Rama will slay Ravana by shooting an arrow through the demon @-@ king 's heart . The text emphasizes that Trijata is a devotee of Rama , a feature also found in the Bhavartha Ramayana .
The Kakawin Ramayana says that , when Sita is tormented by her 300 rakshasi guards , only Trijata comes to her rescue and offers her solace , keeping her company and playing games with her . In the Seri Rama , Trijata ( here called " Dewi Srijati " ) is in charge of Sita 's custody in Lanka . Sita tells Ravana that she will not even consider Ravana 's marriage proposal while her husband is alive , and will believe he 's dead only if she sees his head in Ravana 's hands . To trick Sita , Ravana visits her with two heads and proclaims that they belong to Rama and Lakshmana , but Trijata stops him and asks him to return the next day . She presents the heads to Sita , who decides to commit suicide , but Trijata asks her to wait until she can verify the truth . Carrying Sita 's dagger , she meets Rama and in return receives a girdle woven by Sita from Rama . She is carried back to Lanka by Hanuman . When Ravana arrives the next day , Trijana rebukes him for his deception and informs him that she had met Rama herself the previous day . An enraged Ravana tries to kill Trijata , who runs and seeks refuge in Sita , who takes all the blame . Trijata is recused of her duties and Sita is transferred to an iron castle , guarded by an army commanded by one of Ravana 's ministers .
= = Trijata as Ravana 's agent = =
While Trijata is generally portrayed in a positive light , the early Jain versions of the Ramayana either ignore her or demonize her as an agent of Ravana . Svayambhudeva 's Paumacriu , as well as Hemachandra 's Yogashastra and Ramayana , say that when Hanuman meets Sita and shows her Rama 's signet @-@ ring , Sita is overjoyed ; Trijata reports this to her master Ravana . Hemachandra emphasizes that Trijata 's job was to " tempt " Sita at Ravana 's behest . The Krittivasi Ramayana , possibly influenced by Jain narratives , portrays Trijata appealing to Sita to wed Ravana and rule as the queen of Lanka ; it is Sarama who functions as Sita 's friend in this version .
= = After the war = =
Numerous Ramayana adaptations record the gratitude of Sita and Rama who reward Trijata richly . In the Mahabharata version , Trijata is rewarded and honoured by Rama at the end of the war .
The Balaramayana mentions that after the war , Trijata accompanies Sita to her kingdom Ayodhya in the Pushpaka Vimana ; Rama uses the Pushpaka Vimana to return to Ayodhya . In the Ananda Ramayana , both Trijata and Sarama journey to Ayodhya in the Pushpaka Vimana . Later , when Sita visits Lanka , she tells Sarama to treat Trijata as if she would her . The Kakawin Ramayana mentions how Trijata is honoured with rich gifts by Sita at Ayodhya as her loyal companion and solace , and the one who saved her life twice .
The oldest Indian manuscript to mention Trijata 's presence in Ayodhya is the Paumacriu . Many suggest that , after Sita 's exile and the subsequent battle between Rama and his sons , Sita be reaccepted by Rama . Trijata and Lankasundari are called from Lanka to attest to Sita 's chastity and both of them suggest an ordeal to convince the world of her purity .
In the Thai Ramakien , Hanuman helps Vibhishana ( here called Phipek ) kill a demon . Hanuman then marries Trijata ( Benchakai ) ; their union results in the birth of a son , Asurapada , a demon with a monkey head . In the Malay version , after the great war , Vibhishana requests that Hanuman wed his daughter Trijata ( Seri Jati ) . Hanuman agrees , on the condition that he remain with her for only a month . While Hanuman leaves for Ayodhya with Rama , Trijata gives birth to his son Hanuman Tegangga ( Asurapada ) . The Javanese Wayang golek puppet tradition also portrays Trijata as the wife of Hanuman .
= = Remembrance and assessment = =
Trijata is remembered as a friend and loyal companion of Sita in her time of need . Camille Bulcke , an expert on the literature of Rama , summarizes Trijata 's character :
For more than twenty centuries the poets , who retold the Rāma @-@ story , have dealt lovingly on Trijatā 's friendship for Sītā . [ ... ] [ Trijatā ] conquered the heart of those poets , and through them , the heart of all those who become acquainted with the Rāma @-@ story . [ ... ] the poets of the Rāmāyana [ ... ] conferred on the humble Trijatā the boon of immortality . No dream is better known in India than the dream of Trijatā , who will live for ever in the hearts of millions as the ideal of a true friend , because she comforted Sītā in her darkest hour : A FRIEND IN NEED IS A FRIEND INDEED .
A temple dedicated to Trijata ( called Tirjata in this region ) is situated near the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , the most prominent temple in Varanasi . As per local lore , Trijata wanted to accompany Sita to Ayodhya , but Sita said that she would not be allowed in Ayodhya as she was a demoness . Sita suggested her to visit Varanasi and attain moksha ( emancipation ) and blessed her to be worshipped as a goddess . Trijata enjoys daily worship as a local goddess . Flowers and green vegetables are offered to appease her . Women - who worship at her shrine for seven consecutive Wednesdays - are believed to be blessed with progeny and with the goddess ' protective glaze on their family . Many devotees flock the shrine on Kartik Poornima , the last day of the Hindu month of Kartik and its next day , the first day of Margashirsha month . It is believed that the goddess will fulfill the wishes of all who worship at her shrine , after paying obeisance at Kashi Vishwanath Temple on Kartik Poornima . On the first day of Margashirsha , worshippers who had observed a vrata ( fast ) in the previous month of Kartik conclude the vrata by bathing in the Ganges at the Dashashwamedh Ghat in the name of Trijata . Local lore holds that Rama granted a boon to Trijata : those who do not bathe in her honour after observing the vrata will lose all merit ( punya ) – gained from the fast – to her .
A temple of Trijata also exists in the temple complex of Balveer Hanuman Temple , Ujjain . Special puja ( worship rituals ) is offered to the goddess for 3 days , starting from Kartik Poornima .
In the Telugu Sita Puranamu , Ramaswami Chaudari portrays Trijata as the daughter of the Dravidian Vibhishana and the Aryan Gandharva Sarama . Trijata , a half @-@ Aryan , is labelled a traitor , who betrays her uncle Ravana and helps Sita . Vibhishana 's betrayal towards his brother and defection to Rama is also blamed on his Aryan wife .
= Public Relations ( Mad Men ) =
" Public Relations " is the season premiere of the fourth season of the American television drama series Mad Men , and the 40th overall episode of the series . It was written by series creator and executive producer Matthew Weiner , and directed by Phil Abraham . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on July 25 , 2010 . The episode takes place in November 1964 , as the advertisement agency Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce has just started up , and Don Draper ( Jon Hamm ) is struggling with his divorce . The agency partners are concerned about the narrow breadth of their client base , which is not helped by Don coming across as less than sympathetic in an interview with a trade magazine . Peggy Olson ( Elisabeth Moss ) attempts a viral marketing stunt to bring back a disgruntled client , with unexpected repercussions . Meanwhile , Don 's ex @-@ wife Betty ( January Jones ) is struggling to fit in with her new family , and Don encounters problems in his romantic life .
" Public Relations " was heavily promoted in the weeks leading up to its airing , with an endorsement by President Obama and product tie @-@ in by Mattel toys helping with publicity . Weiner expressed displeasure with what he considered a media revelation of plot details , though other journalists called his objections unwarranted . " Public Relations " was critically acclaimed by television critics , who expressed that the series returned to form . Upon airing , the episode was viewed by 2 @.@ 92 million viewers and attained a 0 @.@ 9 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings .
= = Plot = =
Don Draper ( Jon Hamm ) is being interviewed by a reporter from Advertising Age and declines to speak about his personal life . As a result , he comes across as arrogant and a cipher in the published story , a fact that senior partners Roger Sterling ( John Slattery ) and Bert Cooper ( Robert Morse ) lament . The effects of the bad publicity is brought home just after Harry Crane ( Rich Sommer ) has sold a Jai Alai special to ABC , but it must be pulled because the client , Pete Campbell 's ( Vincent Kartheiser ) college friend , Horace Cook Jr . , nicknamed " Ho Ho " , fires the agency because Draper did not mention the client in his interview . Because of the agency 's narrow client base , the loss is financially detrimental . Bert suggests Don do an interview with The Wall Street Journal to make amends , but Don demurs . Later , Peggy Olson ( Elisabeth Moss ) comes up with an idea to regain the Sugarberry Ham account . She hires two actresses to fight over a ham in a grocery store . The plan goes awry when the fight turns real and one of the women sues the other for assault , and Peggy has to ask Don for bail and hush money . Don disapproves of the stunt ( which was carried out behind his back ) , but Peggy points out that they did retain the account .
Don settles in as a bachelor after last season 's divorce from his wife Betty ( January Jones ) . Roger sets him up on a date with a friend of his wife Jane . After the date , Bethany ( Anna Camp ) expresses interest in seeing Don again , but rejects his sexual advances . On Thanksgiving Day , Don spends time with a prostitute , and Betty has problems fitting in with the family of her new husband Henry ( Christopher Stanley ) . At Thanksgiving dinner with his family , Betty 's daughter Sally ( Kiernan Shipka ) makes a scene when she complains about the food . Henry 's mother later privately expresses displeasure with her son 's new wife , observing that her children are clearly scared of her . The next day , Don picks up his two oldest children for an overnight visit , and Don is disappointed he can 't see baby Gene , whom Betty sent to Carla 's . Betty curtly tells Don to have the kids back by 9 . When he returns the next evening , the house is empty and he has to wait for Betty and Henry to come back . When they return , at 10 : 30 pm , an argument ensues about the house ; Don angrily reminds them they were supposed to be out a month ago , and to either buy him out , pay him rent , or leave . A minor argument later sparks between Henry and Betty , when Henry agrees with Don 's point . Betty stubbornly reiterates that they will leave on her time , not Don 's .
A different client , Jantzen swimwear , asks for help to maintain a family @-@ friendly image in a field where bikinis are becoming more common and more revealing . Don Draper tries to sell a pitch wherein the model 's breasts are covered by the slogan , " So well built , we can 't show you the second floor " . The Jantzen representatives reject the ad as overly risque , and Draper - exasperated by the clients ' refusal to acknowledge a changing culture and the realities of their business - ends up throwing the men out of the meeting room . As they leave , he finally agrees to do the interview with The Wall Street Journal . As the episode ends , Don is seen telling the journalist the swashbuckling story of how he instigated the formation of SCDP by having Lane Pryce fire them .
= = Production = =
" Public Relations " was heavily advertised in the weeks prior to its broadcasting . Producers of the series ' entered into a cross @-@ promotional deal with Banana Republic , and Janie Bryant , the show 's costume designer , collaborated with QVC to design a clothing line inspired by mod subculture . President Barack Obama , a fan of Mad Men , had sent series creator Matthew Weiner a letter to express his admiration . Attention was further boosted by the release of a series of Barbie dolls based on characters from the show by toy manufacturer Mattel . A week prior to the premiere of the episode , recurring cast member Crista Flanagan ( who plays Lois Sadler ) posed nude for Playboy .
Screenings for the episode was shown in Los Angeles , California on July 21 , 2010 , and again five days later at Duffy Square in New York City an hour before it was televised nationwide . An estimated 10 @,@ 000 people appeared at the screening in New York City . The designs of costumes were altered , according to Bryant , to reflect the general fashion development and changes in mainstream pop culture during the 1960s . In an interview with the San Francisco Chronicle , she teased : " My characters are in an office environment in New York ; it 's very different from what was going on in London at the time . But there will be some progression in their costumes , just like in real life .
The press were given advanced copies of the episode . Matthew Weiner pronounced himself shocked by what he considered spoilers in the review . Weiner criticized the episode 's review by Alessandra Stanley of the New York Times , expressing that the publication revealed too much information . He continued : " I 'm kind of powerless . It 's the bargain you make . I wanted to have press , and it was nice to get that kind of space with those pictures . The alternative is not to share these things with the press any more – but how can you expect journalists to write about the show if you don ’ t ? It was all very disappointing to me .
" Public Relations " features several references to media , music , film , and other pop culture phenomena . Peggy and a coworker engage in a humorous conversation , in which they subsequently refer to " A Dear John and Marsha Letter " by Stan Freberg . The episode depicts the growing acceptance of the bikini in mainstream popular culture in the United States during the 1960s .
= = Reception = =
" Public Relations " first aired in the United States on July 25 , 2010 on AMC . It was watched by 2 @.@ 92 million viewers , and attained a 0 @.@ 9 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . Total viewership increased 5 % from the previous season premiere , " Out of Town " , which was viewed by 2 @.@ 76 million viewers . In contrast , ratings for " Public Relations " were constant to that of " Out of Town " . Likewise , total viewership were significantly up from the previous episode , " Shut the Door . Have a Seat " , which attained 2 @.@ 32 million viewers .
The episode was critically acclaimed by television critics . Alessandra Stanley of the New York Times opined , " Those cues also hold out the promise that the coming season will once again pivot the story on the workplace . It ’ s where Mad Men started and where it was best . A fresh start at the rat race is just what the series needs . " Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode a nine out of ten , signifying an " amazing " rating . Goldman felt that it start of the season on a strong note , writing , " It 's a clever beat to start out with , leading into a strong premiere that quickly drops us into what can be described as Mad Men 2 @.@ 0 . " Praise was also directed to the musical selection of the episode , which Goldman described as excellent . In concurrence , Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the episode an ' A ' grade , praising the character development of Don Draper and Peggy Olson . Expressing that she had more confidence , Phipps said of Peggy : " [ She 's ] the person who 's changed most notably over the last year . She drinks at work like the boys and [ ... ] goes into a Don @-@ like trance as she searches for inspiration . She bosses Joey around and tells him when he ’ s gone too far . And she ’ s not afraid to get creative to sell ham and wants credit for her idea , even if it encounters a minor disaster along the way . Most significantly , she ’ s standing up to Don at every turn now . He bullies her in front of her fiancé but hears about it later . And she provides a devastating mixture of admiration and chiding when she reminds Don that everyone at SCDP is there because of him and out of a desire to make him happy . " Similarly , James Poniewozik of Time praised the performance of Elisabeth Moss , exclaiming that " she
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