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. Gants Mill at Pitcombe , near Bruton , is a watermill which is still used to mill cattle feed . A 12 kilowatts ( 16 hp ) hydroelectric turbine was recently installed at the site . There has been a mill here since the 13th century , but the current building was built in 1810 .
Following summer floods of 1997 and the prolonged flooding of 1999 – 2000 the Parrett Catchment Project was formed , partly funded by the European Union Regional Development Fund , by 30 organisations , including British Waterways , Campaign to Protect Rural England , Countryside Agency , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs , Environment Agency , Kings Sedgemoor and Cary Vale Internal Drainage Board ( now part of Parrett Internal Drainage Board ) , Levels and Moors Partnership , National Farmers Union , Sedgemoor , Somerset County Council , South Somerset District Council , Taunton Deane and Wessex Water . They aim to tackle twelve areas , which , when combined , will make a significant contribution to reducing the adverse effects of flooding . These include the conversion of arable land , adoption of the Sustainable Drainage Systems ( SuDS ) approach to controlling rainwater runoff from developed areas , dredging , raising riverbanks and improving pumping facilities . Further studies of the possible beneficial effects of woodland in reducing flooding have also been undertaken .
During the winter flooding of 2013 – 14 on the Somerset Levels the River Brue overflowed at new year , during the rain and storms from Storm Dirk , with many residents asking for the Environment Agency to resume river dredging . On 24 January 2014 , in light of the continued flooded extent of the Somerset Moors and forecast new rainfall as part of the winter storms of 2013 – 14 in the United Kingdom , both Somerset County Council and Sedgemoor District Council declared a major incident , as defined under the Civil Contingencies Act 2004 . At this time , with 17 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 900 ha ) of agricultural land having been under water for over a month , the village of Thorney was abandoned and Muchelney was cut off by flood waters for almost a month . Northmoor Green , which is more commonly known as Moorland , was also severely affected . By the end of January , 17 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 900 ha ) of agricultural land , including North Moor , Curry and Hay Moors and Greylake , had been under water for over a month . Bridgwater was partly flooded on 10 February 2014 , when with 20 @,@ 000 sandbags ready to be deployed . Over 600 houses were flooded , and both flooding and groundwater disrupted services including trains on the Bristol to Exeter Line between Bridgwater and Taunton . Further preventative work under the title of the " Brue Catchment River Maintenance Pilot Project " has led to controversy about the need for dredging and maintenance of the river .
= = Hydrology and water quality = =
At Bruton Dam , the nearest measuring station to the source of the river , the normal level of the river is between 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 ft 0 in ) and 2 @.@ 08 metres ( 6 ft 10 in ) with the highest level ever recorded being 10 @.@ 7 metres ( 35 ft ) in 2007 . Within the town of Bruton at Bruton Surgery the normal level is between 0 @.@ 17 metres ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) and 0 @.@ 69 metres ( 2 ft 3 in ) . Further downstream at Lovington the normal level is between 0 @.@ 08 metres ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) and 0 @.@ 56 metres ( 1 ft 10 in ) . The furthest downstream monitoring station at Clyse Hole near Street records a normal range of 0 @.@ 15 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and 0 @.@ 49 metres ( 1 ft 7 in ) .
For the purposes of monitoring of water quality the Brue and Axe are considered together . In 2013 19 water bodies within the area were considered to have moderate water quality with two being poor and four good quality . Agriculture and rural land management is the largest factor affecting water quality followed by the water industry . Transport , industry and manufacturing also have an effect .
= = Ecology = =
The Brue Valley Living Landscape is a UK conservation project managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust . The project commenced in January 2009 and aims to restore habitat . It aims to help wildlife sustain itself in the face of climate change while guaranteeing farmers and other landowners can continue to use their land profitably . It is one of an increasing number of landscape scale conservation projects in the UK .
The project covers an area of approximately 12 @,@ 500 hectares ( 31 @,@ 000 acres ) encompassing the floodplain of the River Brue from a little east of Glastonbury to beyond the Catcott , Edington and Chilton Moors SSSI in the west . Almost a quarter of the project area is designated as Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , Special Protection Area ( SPA ) and Ramsar site . The project area accounts for almost half of the Somerset Levels and Moors Special Protection Area . The area includes land already managed for conservation by organisations including Somerset Wildlife Trust , Natural England , the Hawk and Owl Trust and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds . These include Shapwick Heath national nature reserve , Westhay Moor , Catcott Lows National Nature Reserve , Ham Wall and Shapwick Moor . There are 25 scheduled monuments and 746 Historic Environment Records in the project area including internationally important sites such at the Glastonbury Lake Village and Sweet Track . Research on the Somerset Levels and Moors has been crucial to the understanding of the natural and human history of wetlands . The project is based solely on the peat @-@ based soils of the Somerset Moors . It does not extend on to the marine clay soils of the more westerly Levels .
The project has set out their major objectives . These include mapping and research on the Brue Valley , engagement with local government , farmers , the conservation sector and other interest community members , to produce a shared local vision . It is hoped to create larger and better connected patches of important habitats , in a way which also benefits the local economy and rural society . The project has received funding from the European Regional Development Fund ( via the WAVE project ) , Natural England 's Wetland Vision and the Viridor Credits scheme .
One of the project 's goals is to protect , restore and create areas of reedbed , grazing marsh , fen , raised bog , lowland meadow , purple moor grass and rush pastures and wet woodland . Species of conservation concern ( UK Biodiversity Action Plan priority species ) that are likely to benefit from this project include plants such as : Divided sedge ( Carex divisa ) , English sticky eyebright ( Euphrasia anglica ) , Greater water parsnip ( Sium latifolium ) , Lesser butterfly orchid ( Platanthera bifolia ) , Marsh stitchwort ( Stellaria palustris ) and Tubular water dropwort ( Oenanthe fistulosa ) . The flora provides a habitat for several species of invertebrates . These include moths such as the Argent and sable moth ( Rheumaptera hastata ) , Narrow bordered bee hawk @-@ moth ( Hemaris tityus ) and Narrow bordered bee hawk @-@ moth ( Hemaris tityus ) . While butterfly species include the Small heath ( Coenonympha pamphilus ) , Pearl @-@ bordered fritillary ( Boloria euphrosyne ) and Small pearl @-@ bordered fritillary ( Boloria selene ) . Beetles found in the valley include the Lesser silver water beetle ( Hydrochara caraboides ) and One @-@ grooved diving beetle ( Bidessus unistriatus ) . There are also Shining ram 's @-@ horn snails ( Segmentina nitida ) and Shrill carder bees ( Bombus sylvarum ) .
The River Brue and its tributaries support a population of European eels ( Anguilla anguilla ) . Reptiles found include the European adder ( Vipera berus ) and Grass snake ( Natrix natrix ) . Multiple bird species include Bewick 's swan ( Cygnus columbianus bewickii ) , Eurasian bittern ( Botaurus stellaris ) , Eurasian bullfinch ( Pyrrhula pyrrhula ) , * Eurasian wigeon ( Anas penelope ) , European starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) , Gadwall ( Anas strepera ) , Grasshopper warbler ( Locustella naevia ) , Hen harrier ( Circus cyaneus ) , House sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) , Linnet ( Carduelis cannabina ) , Marsh harrier ( Circus aeruginosus ) , Marsh tit ( Poecile palustris ) , Merlin ( Falco columbarius ) , Northern lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus ) , Peregrine ( Falco peregrinus ) , Reed bunting ( Emberiza schoeniclus ) , Short @-@ eared owl ( Asio flammeus ) , Skylark ( Alauda arvensis ) , Song thrush ( Turdus philomelos ) , Teal ( Anas cracca ) , Willow tit ( Poecile montanus ) and Yellowhammer ( Emberiza citrinella ) .
Mammalian species of interest include the Brown hare ( Lepus europaeus ) , Eurasian harvest mouse ( Micromys minutus ) , European otter ( Lutra lutra ) and Water vole ( Arvicola terrestris ) .
= = Recreation = =
Anglers will find pike in excess of 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) , with good stocks of chub , dace , roach , bream , tench , perch , rudd , and gudgeon . There are trout in the upper reaches . There are several access points along the river suitable for canoeing , and the river has been paddled as far up as Bruton , but above West Lydford only after recent rain . There are public footpaths alongside many stretches of the river .
= Westonzoyland Pumping Station Museum =
The Westonzoyland Pumping Station Museum of Steam Power and Land Drainage is a small industrial heritage museum dedicated to steam powered machinery at Westonzoyland in the English county of Somerset . It is a Grade II * listed building .
The museum is housed in a 1830 brick @-@ built pumping station which was the first of several similar pumping stations to be built on the Somerset Levels which are prone to flooding . The main attraction is the 1861 Easton and Amos steam engine and pump , the only one still in its original location and in working order . The museum , which is run by a charity , also restores and displays a number of other steam engines and pumps . The steam for the moving exhibits is provided by a Marshall portable boiler . The Westonzoyland Light Railway , a short 2 ft ( 610 mm ) narrow @-@ gauge railway runs the length of the site and is used to carry wood for the boiler .
= = History = =
The Somerset Moors and Levels , formed from a submerged and reclaimed landscape , consist of a coastal clay belt only slightly above mean sea level , with an inland peat belt at a lower level behind it . Early attempts to control the water levels were possibly made by the Romans ( although records only date from the 13th century ) , but were not widespread . The Domesday Book of 1086 recorded that drainage of the higher grounds was under way . In the Middle Ages , the monasteries of Glastonbury , Athelney and Muchelney were responsible for much of the drainage . Efforts to control flooding on the Parrett were recorded around 1129 . In 1234 , 722 acres ( 2 @.@ 9 km2 ) were reclaimed near Westonzoyland and , from the accounts in Glastonbury Abbey 's rent books , this had increased to 972 acres ( 393 ha ) by 1240 . Flooding of adjacent moor land was partially addressed during the 13th century by the construction of a number of embankment walls to contain the Parrett . They included Southlake Wall , Burrow Wall and Lake Wall . The River Tone was diverted by the Abbot of Athelney and other land owners into a new embanked channel , joining the Parrett upstream from its original confluence .
In 1500 , there was 70 @,@ 000 acres ( 283 km2 ) of floodable land of which only 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 km2 ) had been reclaimed . In 1597 , 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land were recovered near the Parrett estuary ; a few years later , 140 acres ( 57 ha ) near Pawlett were recovered by means of embankments ; and three further reclamations , totalling 110 acres ( 45 ha ) , had been undertaken downstream of Bridgwater by 1660 . In the early 17th century , during the time of King James I , abortive plans were made to drain and enclose much of Sedgemoor , which the local Lords supported but opposed by the Commoners who would have lost grazing rights . In 1632 , Charles I sold the Crown 's interest in the scheme , and it was taken over by a consortium that included Sir Cornelius Vermuyden , a Dutch drainage engineer . However , the work was delayed by the English Civil War and later defeated in Parliament after local opposition . In 1638 , it was reported that nearly 2 @,@ 600 acres ( 11 km2 ) of Tealham and Tadham Moors were not reclaimed , with a total of 30 @,@ 500 acres ( 123 @.@ 43 km2 ) being undrained . Between 1785 and 1791 , much of the lowest part of the peat moors was enclosed . In 1795 , John Billingsley advocated enclosure and the digging of rhynes ( a local name for drainage channels , pronounced " reens " in the east and rhyne to the west ) between plots , and wrote in his Agriculture of the County of Somerset that 4 @,@ 400 acres ( 18 km2 ) had been enclosed in the last 20 years in Wedmore and Meare , 350 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 km2 ) at Nyland , 900 acres ( 3 @.@ 64 km2 ) at Blackford , 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 km2 ) at Mark , 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 4 km2 ) in Shapwick and 1 @,@ 700 acres ( 7 km2 ) at Westhay . Little attempt was made during the 17th and 18th centuries to pump water , possibly because the coal @-@ driven Newcomen steam engines would have been uneconomical . It is unclear why windmills were not employed , as they were on the Fens of East Anglia , but only two examples have been recorded on the Levels : one at Bleadon at the mouth of the River Axe , where a sea wall had been built , and the other at Common Moor north of Glastonbury , which was being drained following a private Act of Parliament in 1721 .
The first mechanical pumping station on the Somerset Levels was built in 1830 to drain the area around Westonzoyland , Middlezoy and Othery . The success of the drainage system led to the formation of other drainage boards and the construction of other pumping stations . The pump at Westonzoyland originally comprised a beam engine and scoop wheel ( like a water wheel running backwards ) but , after 25 years , there were problems pumping the water away because the land had dropped as it dried out despite the wheel being raised 15 inches ( 380 mm ) in 1843 . A better method was sought , and in 1861 the present Easton and Amos pump was installed . The Westonzoyland pump lifts water from the rhyne ( pronounced ' reen ' ) into the River Parrett . The pump operated until 1951 , by which time the local drainage system had been linked into King 's Sedgemoor Drain , which discharged further down the River Parrett ; the water levels dropped and the pump was unable to draw the water from the rhyne . Additionally , the Parrett riverbank has now been raised by some 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in the vicinity of the pumping station and the opening to the river , from the base of the pump @-@ well , is now bricked up . In 1951 a diesel pump , with a capacity of 50 tons per minute , was installed by the Environment Agency in an adjacent building meaning that the steam pump was no longer needed .
The station itself is a Flemish bond brick @-@ built property with a slate hipped roof and chimney rising to 71 feet ( 22 m ) in height . A cottage section was added alongside it in the 1860s , to provide accommodation for the station @-@ keeper . Originally given a Grade II listing , the property was upgraded to Grade II * by English Heritage since it is now the only surviving station that still houses a functioning engine . Beside the cottage is a long single @-@ storey building that houses a 1914 Lancashire boiler ; this was used to provide steam . Next to it is a forge , where the keeper would have made a number of his own tools . The boiler required constant running and thus consumed a good deal of coal .
= = = Restoration = = =
In 1976 , members of the Somerset Industrial Archaeology Society began restoration of the site . The Westonzoyland Engine Trust achieved charitable status in 1980 and in 1990 bought the site from the owners , Wessex Water . The structure of the engine house has been stabilised and the pump house and chimney rebuilt . A new exhibition hall has also been built .
Up until early 2010 , the keeper 's cottage had been off @-@ limits to visitors . Two of the ground @-@ floor rooms have now been opened : the living @-@ room is furnished in a 1930s / 40s style , while the old kitchen area currently holds a couple of display cases , with a view to showing hitherto unseen artefacts from the museum 's collection of smaller items . The upper floors remain closed to visitors .
= = Museum = =
At the western end of the site is the pump house . It houses the 1861 engine which was built by Easton and Amos of London , to a design patented in 1858 by Charles Amos . It is a twin @-@ cylinder , vertical condensing engine , driving a centrifugal pump developed by John Appold . A similar engine was on display at The Great Exhibition of 1851 and was shown to be able to lift 100 tons of water per minute , to a height of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . The engine was originally powered by Cornish boilers , but these were replaced in with 1914 Lancashire boiler , with two fire tubes , made by Fred Danks . The boiler is beyond economic restoration .
In addition to the Easton and Amos pump , a collection of steam and diesel engines with connections either to the area or to pumping have been assembled on site and regular steam days are held . The oldest item dates from the early 19th century , through to several Victorian engines and onward to the 20th century . These are housed in several different buildings and areas : the exhibition hall , the courtyard , the " wiggly shed " , the pump room and the engine house itself . Most of the machines are in running order , although some are still awaiting restoration .
Steam is provided by an elderly Marshall portable boiler – essentially a portable engine without the actual engine . It was built in Gainsborough , Lincolnshire in 1938 before being used by Thames Water as a stand by steam generator . It was given to Kew Bridge Steam Museum ( now the London Museum of Water & Steam ) before being passed on to the Westonzoyland Museum and then restored with a grant from the Preservation of Industrial and Scientific Materials Foundation ( PRISM ) . The boiler provides steam at 50 Pounds per square inch ( psi ) to the other exhibits . It has been fitted with two whistles , one from Wattstown and the other from Ty Mawr Collieries in Wales , both of which were donated by the National Coal Board . Along with the boiler in the outdoor courtyard area are a waterwheel pump unit built by G. H. Harris of Wadebridge , a Lee Howl pump and Lister deep well pump .
Engines by a range of other manufacturers are on display . These include ' quick revolution ' engines by Belliss and Morcom , Robey & Co . , Easton and Johnson and Sissons . There are horizontal engines by W. and F. Wills and by J. Culverwell , of Bridgwater . The Culverwell machine is a horizontal single cylinder steam engine originally used in Holt 's Brewery at Burnham @-@ on @-@ Sea , while the Wills engine was used in a brickworks .
Additional exhibits include two small de Laval steam turbines by Greenwood & Batley , and a small ' Wessex ' steam turbine milk bottle washer . A winch used to move railway wagons at Hemyock Dairy near Wellington was built by J. Lynn of Sunderland . There is a runnable Crossley diesel engine dating from 1935 . There is a Spirax Sarco ' Ogden pump ' used to pump condensate from steam lines . The collection includes the boiler which powered the Telescopic Bridge , Bridgwater .
Westonzoyland Light Railway is a short 2 ft ( 610 mm ) narrow @-@ gauge railway running alongside the pumping station . It was constructed after the closure of the pumping station to move heavy machinery around the site and is used to transport timber from the wood pile to the boiler . The engines used are a Simplex diesel locomotive , built in 1968 , which was previously at the Minworth Sewage Treatment Works in Sutton Coldfield and a 1949 Lister rail @-@ truck previously used by the Eclipse Peat Company at Ashcott . A steam winch built by John Lynch of Sunderland is used to move one of the truck up an inclined place to demonstrate how this would have been done in goods yards and docks .
= Delaware Route 24 =
Delaware Route 24 ( DE 24 ) is a state highway located in Sussex County , Delaware . The route runs east from Maryland Route 348 ( MD 348 ) at the Maryland border east of Sharptown , Maryland to an intersection with DE 1 in Midway , between Lewes and Rehoboth Beach . Along the way , DE 24 passes through Laurel , Millsboro , and Long Neck . DE 24 intersects U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Laurel , US 113 / DE 20 in Millsboro , and DE 5 and DE 23 in Long Neck . The road runs concurrent with DE 30 between Mission and Millsboro . DE 24 features an alternate alignment , DE 24 Alternate ( DE 24 Alt . ) , that runs to the north of the route from US 113 in Stockley to DE 24 near Midway . DE 24 was built as a state highway throughout the 1920s , with completion of the entire route by 1931 . DE 24 was assigned onto its current alignment by 1936 . DE 24 Alt. was designated by 2006 .
= = Route description = =
DE 24 begins at the Maryland border , where it continues west into that state as MD 348 . From the state line the route heads east on two @-@ lane undivided Sharptown Road . The road heads through agricultural areas with some woods and homes , curving to the northeast . DE 24 runs to the south of Laurel Airport and enters the town of Laurel , passing homes . Following this , the route turns north onto West Street . DE 24 curves east and becomes West Market Street , crossing Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line as it continues into the downtown of Laurel . At the Central Avenue intersection , the route becomes East Market Street and runs southeast , bending east onto East 4th Street and heading through areas of homes to the south of Records Pond . At the eastern edge of Laurel , DE 24 comes to an intersection with US 13 .
Past Laurel , DE 24 heads east on Laurel Road through farmland with some woodland and homes . The route then passes to the north of Trap Pond State Park . The road continues east through a mix of farms and woods with occasional residences , reaching an intersection with DE 30 in Mission . Here , DE 24 turns north to form a concurrency with DE 30 on Millsboro Highway , with the road running northeast . Farther along , residential development increases as the road crosses into Millsboro . At this point the road name becomes Laurel Road as it passes homes and reaches an intersection with US 113 / DE 20 . Past this intersection , DE 24 / DE 30 turns north @-@ northeast on Washington Street . The two routes split into a one @-@ way pair following Main Street northbound and Washington Street southbound , crossing Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line . The one @-@ way pair heads through the downtown area of Millsboro , rejoining along two @-@ way Main Street and crossing Indian River to the east of Millsboro Pond . A short distance later , DE 24 and DE 30 split at an intersection .
Upon splitting from DE 30 , DE 24 heads northeast on John J. Williams Highway , soon curving to the east . The road passes through farmland with some woods and homes and bends to the northeast , coming to an intersection with DE 5 near Oak Orchard . At this point DE 5 turns northeast to form a concurrency with DE 24 . The road heads north through residential and commercial development with some fields as it enters the Long Neck area , where it intersects DE 23 . Here , DE 5 splits from DE 24 by turning northwest onto DE 23 , and DE 24 continues north through a mix of farms , woods , and residential neighborhoods . The road runs through Angola and curves to the northeast , crossing Love Creek . The route continues northeast and intersects DE 1D / DE 24 Alt . Here , DE 1D turns northeast to join DE 24 and the two routes pass homes and businesses as a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane . DE 24 / DE 1D becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road as it comes to its end at an intersection with DE 1 in Midway .
DE 24 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 20 @,@ 273 vehicles at the northern edge of Millsboro to a low of 1 @,@ 386 vehicles at the intersection with Mt . Pleasant Road west of Laurel . None of DE 24 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 what is now DE 24 existed as a state highway between Mission and Phillips Hill , with the remainder of the route existing as an unimproved county road . At this time the road was under contract as a state highway between Laurel and Pepper and from Phillips Hill to east of Millsboro . The sections under contract were completed by 1924 and the remainder of present @-@ day DE 24 was proposed as a state highway a year later . Completion of these final segments occurred by 1931 . DE 24 was assigned to its current alignment between the Maryland border west of Laurel and DE 14 ( now DE 1 ) in Midway by 1936 . In 1940 , a new bridge was built over Love Creek as part of improving the route east of Millsboro for traffic heading to the beaches in the summer . DE 24 has remained on the same alignment since its inception .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
= = Bannered routes = =
Delaware Route 24 Alternate ( DE 24 Alt . ) is an alternate route of DE 24 between US 113 in Stockley and DE 24 in Midway . The route heads east from US 113 on two @-@ lane undivided Speedway Road , passing to the north of Georgetown Speedway . DE 24 Alt. then heads southeast onto Zoar Road , passing through agricultural areas with some woods and homes and crossing Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line . The road continues east through more areas of farms , woods , and residences , turning north and east before crossing DE 30 in Zoar . The route heads east @-@ northeast through more rural areas , turning north onto Hollyville Road . DE 24 Alt. turns northeast and comes to a junction with DE 5 in Hollyville . The road continues east and intersects DE 23 in Hollymount . Here , DE 24 Alt. turns north to join DE 23 on Beaver Dam Road and the two routes continue through agricultural and wooded areas with residential developments , curving to the northeast . In Five Points the road intersects DE 1D , with DE 23 turning to the north and DE 24 Alt. continuing northeast along with DE 1D on Plantation Road . The two routes curve southeast immediately to the south of the intersection between US 9 / DE 404 and DE 1 and head through a mix of farmland and residential development . Finally , the road reaches an intersection with DE 24 where DE 24 Alt. ends and DE 1D turns northeast to join DE 24 . DE 24 Alt. was designated by 2006 .
Major intersections
The entire route is in Sussex County .
= Ronnie Barker =
Ronald William George " Ronnie " Barker , OBE ( 25 September 1929 – 3 October 2005 ) was an English actor , comedian and writer . He was known for roles in British comedy television series such as Porridge , The Two Ronnies and Open All Hours .
Barker began acting in repertory theatre and decided he was best suited to comic roles . He had his first success at the Oxford Playhouse and in roles in the West End including Tom Stoppard 's The Real Inspector Hound . During this period , he was in the cast of BBC radio and television comedies such as The Navy Lark . He got his television break with the satirical sketch series The Frost Report in 1966 , where he met future collaborator , Ronnie Corbett . He joined David Frost 's production company and starred in ITV shows including a short film .
After rejoining the BBC , Barker found fame with the sketch show The Two Ronnies ( 1971 – 1987 ) , with Ronnie Corbett . He starred in the sitcoms Porridge , its sequel Going Straight and Open All Hours . He wrote comedy under his own name , though for much of his written material after 1968 he adopted pseudonyms ( including " Gerald Wiley " ) to avoid pre @-@ judgments of his writing talent . He won a BAFTA for best light entertainment performance four times , among other awards , and received an OBE in 1978 .
Later television sitcoms such as The Magnificent Evans and Clarence were less successful and he retired in 1987 . The following year , he opened an antiques shop with his wife , Joy . After 1999 , he appeared in smaller , non @-@ comic roles in films . He died of heart failure on 3 October 2005 , aged 76 .
= = Early life = =
Barker was born Ronald William George Barker on 25 September 1929 in Bedford , Bedfordshire , to Leonard ( known as " Tim " ) and Edith ( known as " Cis " ) Barker . Barker 's elder sister Vera was born in 1926 and his younger sister Eileen was born in 1933 . His father was a clerk for Shell @-@ Mex , and this job saw the family move to Church Cowley Road in Cowley , Oxford when Barker was four . < Barker 's biographer Bob McCabe described his childhood as " a happy time , marred by no ructions or family tensions , apart from the occasional wet sock . " As a child , Barker enjoyed dressing up , particularly in his father 's pierrot outfit , as well as films , comics and animals . He developed a love of the theatre , often attending plays with his family . The first play he saw was Cottage to Let and he once skipped school to see Laurence Olivier in Henry V. He frequently stood outside stage @-@ doors to collect autographs , his first being the actress Celia Johnson .
Barker grew up in the Florence Park area of Cowley , Oxford , and went to Donnington Junior School , Florence Park , Oxford and then the City of Oxford High School for Boys . Barker 's chemistry textbook at Oxford was previously owned by T.E. Lawrence . He found his talent for humour at school and developed his musical ability by singing in the choir at St James 's , his local church . He got in to the sixth form a year early after gaining the School Certificate but he felt what he was learning would be of no use to him in later life and so left as soon as he could . After leaving school he trained as an architect but gave it up after six months , feeling he was not skilled enough . Barker took his sister Vera 's job as a bank clerk at the Westminster Bank ( after she had left to become a nurse ) . Barker harboured dreams of becoming an actor , and took up amateur dramatics , although initially he just saw the pastime as a chance to meet girls . For 18 months while at the bank he worked as an actor and stage manager , making his first appearance in A Murder Has Been Arranged as the musical director of the play @-@ within @-@ a @-@ play . Eventually he gave up his job to become a professional actor . His father did not support his acting ambition .
= = Career = =
= = = Theatrical career = = =
Barker failed to get into the Young Vic School , but joined the Manchester Repertory Company , which was based in Aylesbury , Buckinghamshire , often taking comic roles in their weekly shows . Initially he was employed as the assistant to the assistant stage manager , earning £ 2.10s.0d ( £ 2 @.@ 50 ) a week . He made his debut as a professional actor on 15 November 1948 as Lieutenant Spicer in a performance of J.M. Barrie 's Quality Street . He went on to play the organist in When We Are Married and by his third role , the chauffeur Charles in Miranda , Barker realised he wanted to be a comic actor . He was described as " ha [ ving ] the talent to be a great straight actor " , but noted : " I want to make people laugh . Never mind about Hamlet . Forget Richard the Second . Give me Charley 's Aunt . My mission in life was now crystal clear . " He appeared in stage adaptations of Treasure Island and Red Riding Hood before getting his first leading role in The Guinea Pig as a working class boy at a public school . When the production moved to Rhyl , Barker followed . The Manchester Repertory Company closed , as
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did the Rhyl company shortly after . Barker , aged 20 , then spent some time as a porter at Wingfield Hospital ; he became distressed through his contact with polio patients and so opted to take on the persona of " Charlie " so as not to be himself . He and a male nurse often entertained the patients with comedy routines . He found work at the Mime Theatre Company , performing mimed folk music and dance , which soon folded in Penzance . He made his way back to Oxford and then worked in Bramhall for the Famous Players . There he met actor Glenn Melvyn ; the two became firm friends and Barker stated Melvyn taught him everything he " ever learned about comedy . "
He joined the Oxford Playhouse in 1951 and worked there for three years , appearing in plays such as He Who Gets Slapped as the clown . Peter Hall worked with Barker at Oxford and gave him his break , casting him as the Chantyman and Joe Silva in his production of Mourning Becomes Electra at the Arts Theatre in London 's West End in 1955 . By the time he had made it to the West End , Barker had appeared in an estimated 350 plays . Barker remained a West End actor for several years , appearing in numerous plays between 1955 and 1968 . These included , in 1955 , two performances each night as he played a gypsy in Listen to the Wind at the Arts Theatre and then a peasant in Summertime later in the evening . Other roles included Mr Thwaites in Double Image in 1956 ( with Olivier ) , Camino Real ( directed by Hall ) in 1957 , French gangster Robertoles @-@ Diams in Irma La Douce for two years from 1958 , Lord Slingsby @-@ Craddock in Mr Whatnot in 1964 and Birdboot in The Real Inspector Hound in 1968 . He also appeared in several Royal Court Theatre productions , including A Midsummer Night 's Dream as Quince .
= = = Early media career = = =
Barker 's theatrical success enabled him to move into radio work . Barker , who had previously been known by his birth name " Ronald " , was now referred to as the shortened form " Ronnie " , after a director changed it in the credits , although he did not tell Barker . His first radio appearance was in 1956 , playing Lord Russett in Floggit 's . He went on to play multiple characters , but primarily the lookout Able Seaman ' Fatso ' Johnson and Lieutenant @-@ Commander Stanton , in The Navy Lark , a navy based sitcom on the BBC Light Programme , which ran from 1959 to 1977 , with Barker featuring in some 300 episodes . He also featured in the show 's radio spin @-@ off The TV Lark as Fatso Johnson , a camera operator , and as a trainee chef in Crowther 's Crowd in 1963 , and had roles on Variety Playhouse . Barker soon began working in film and television . His first acting job on television was in Melvyn 's show I 'm Not Bothered . He appeared in various roles in the comedy series The Seven Faces of Jim from 1962 , alongside Jimmy Edwards and June Whitfield , as well as parts in Bold as Brass and Foreign Affairs ( as Russian embassy worker Grischa Petrovitch ) . This was followed with dramatic parts in A Tale of Two Cities as Jerry Cruncher in 1965 as well as single episode roles in The Saint and The Avengers , in which he played Cheshire , a cat lover . In 1964 he appeared in Galton & Simpson 's gentle comedy , The Bargee , as Ronnie , the illiterate cousin of Harry H Corbett 's racsally Hemmel Pike . Other film work at that time included : Doctor in Distress ( 1963 ) , Father Came Too ! ( 1963 ) and A Home of Your Own ( 1965 ) .
In 1966 , Barker got his break with the satirical sketch series The Frost Report , having been recommended for the show by producer James Gilbert . The show starred David Frost , John Cleese and Barker 's future comedy partner Ronnie Corbett , whom he had met in 1963 when Corbett was the barman at the Buckstone Club near the Haymarket Theatre , and the two became friends . Corbett stated in his autobiography that the two had gravitated towards each other because of their similar backgrounds ; neither had attended university , while many of the other Frost Report cast and writers had . Each episode of the show , which was performed and broadcast live , was focused on a single topic and principally revolved around a continuous monologue from Frost , with sketches from Barker , Corbett and Cleese as the show went on . Barker starred alongside Cleese and Corbett in The Frost Report 's best known sketch , which satirised the British class system , with Barker representing the middle class .
After the first series , the special Frost Over England was produced , winning the Golden Rose at the Montreux Television Festival . With a second series of the show announced , Frost , recognising their potential , signed both Barker and Corbett up to his production company David Paradine Productions . As part of the deal Barker was given his own show in 1968 , The Ronnie Barker Playhouse , which comprised six separate , thirty @-@ minute plays . Barker starred in each piece as a different character . After two series of The Frost Report on the BBC , totalling 26 half @-@ hour episodes , Frost moved to ITV after helping to set up London Weekend Television . There , Frost hosted Frost on Sunday , with Barker and Corbett following and again performing sketches on the programme . Barker began writing sketches for the programme under the pseudonym Gerald Wiley . Barker and Corbett had a greater role on the show than on The Frost Report and Corbett felt " more aware of what [ they ] were doing . "
Barker began using the pseudonym Gerald Wiley when writing sketches because he wished the pieces to be accepted on merit and not just because he , as a star of the programme , had written them ; he continued this tradition with the material he wrote later in his career . Barker brought his sketches in , claiming they had come from Wiley through Barker 's agent Peter Eade , and they were very well received . To maintain the deception , Barker had criticised material he himself had submitted under the pseudonym ; when a Wiley @-@ credited sketch about a ventriloquist had been poorly received by the audience Barker told Corbett " Well , Gerald Wiley let us down there " , and on another occasion , when looking at a script , " I don 't understand this line . What 's he getting at ? " One of the first sketches he wrote was called " Doctor 's Waiting Room " , with the main part written for Corbett . Barker encouraged Corbett to buy the rights to the sketch and , further maintaining the myth , told him to reject Wiley 's ' request ' for £ 3 @,@ 000 as too expensive , before giving Corbett the sketch for free . Speculation began about Wiley 's identity , with Tom Stoppard , Frank Muir , Alan Bennett and Noël Coward all rumoured . After the second series of Frost on Sunday , the cast and crew were invited to a Chinese restaurant , while Wiley said that he would reveal himself . Barker , who had told Corbett earlier in the day , stood up and announced he was Wiley , although initially nobody believed him .
In 1969 Barker was able to write , produce and star as General Futtock in the film Futtocks End which featured no dialogue and only " grumble [ s ] and grunt [ s ] " . The Ronnie Barker Playhouse had been designed to find a successful idea for a sitcom , and the episode " Ah , There You Are " by Alun Owen , which introduced the bumbling aristocratic character Lord Rustless , was chosen . The character returned for the 1969 – 1970 series Hark at Barker as the main character ; Barker wrote for the show under the name Jonathan Cobbald . As Wiley he wrote the 1971 series Six Dates with Barker . Despite Barker 's success on ITV , LWT 's programme controller Stella Richman opted to fire Frost 's company Paradine ( Frost was sacked from the LWT board ) and as Barker was contracted to the company rather than the network , he lost his job , as did Corbett .
= = = Move to the BBC and The Two Ronnies = = =
Soon after , Barker , Corbett and Josephine Tewson performed a sketch about Henry VIII at the 1971 BAFTAs , with Barker playing Henry . The two also had to keep the audience entertained for eight or so minutes as the show was stopped because of technical difficulties . Their performance at the award show impressed the BBC 's Head of Light Entertainment Bill Cotton and Controller of BBC One Paul Fox , who were sitting in the audience . Not knowing they were both essentially unemployed , although still contracted to Paradine , Cotton signed the duo up for their own show together , and a series each on their own ; he later joked he " must have offered them too much money . " Barker and Corbett wished to avoid being remembered primarily as a duo , and felt they could not work in the same way as a conventional double act like Morecambe and Wise , and so each maintained their solo careers as well . They each were given a one @-@ off variety special ; Barker 's , called The Ronnie Barker Yearbook , featured a sketch for each month of the year , although because of time constraints the first two had to be cut . Barker also reprised his character Lord Rustless in the sitcom His Lordship Entertains in 1972 . Barker wrote all seven episodes , again with the pseudonym Jonathan Cobbald .
Their show together was The Two Ronnies , a sketch show which aired for twelve series and eight specials between 1971 and 1987 , to immediate success . The show , as described by Anthony Hayward of The Independent , was " a cocktail of comedy sketches , playlets , songs and parodies , a long @-@ winded Corbett monologue and a singing star , sandwiched between the opening and closing news summaries . " The usual format consisted of many sketches between the two , an ongoing filmed serial , a solo character sketch from Barker , Corbett 's monologue , a musical number , a special guest , bookended by joke news items , delivered from a desk by the two in the style of newsreaders , before ending with the catchphrase " It 's good night from me – and it 's good night from him . " This was a set format which was used for almost the entirety of the show 's run . The end catchphrase and newsreader characters were devised because Barker found it difficult to appear as himself : Corbett explained that Barker " was a very private man , a quiet man ... He found it almost impossible to talk directly , as himself , to an audience . " Each also had their own solo segments to help ensure they were not totally associated as a double act . Filming took place over four months of each year . After outdoor and serial sketches were filmed on location , the studio material was filmed on Sunday evenings at BBC Television Centre in front a live audience ; the musical finale was filmed the day before without the audience .
Barker wrote much of the show 's material , roughly three
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the lilies of the valley ; Lal argues that she has reddish @-@ brown hair and wears a grey , sleeveless robe . The Grey Lady 's husband has been reported to haunt the stables and the chapel drawing room . The ghost of a young child allegedly haunts the library and the Fleur de Lys room ; the child has supposedly been heard crying , and attempts to hold visitors ' hands . Folklore holds that the Grey Lady was the child 's mother . A lady dressed in the style of Queen Anne , and a knight in armour , are reported to have been seen in the chapel drawing room . The chapel itself is purportedly frequented by the ghost of a lady in 17th @-@ century dress , and by that of a nun . A young man dressed in 1920s tennis garb , reputed to be a Cope family member who fell from a train , has supposedly been seen in the reception area of the house . A small boy documented to haunt the terrace is said to have fallen from the roof sometime in the 18th century .
In addition , Bramshill House was cited by the historian William Page as a possible location for the Legend of the Mistletoe Bough , a ghost story associated with several English country mansions . This legend tells of a bride who supposedly hid in a wooden chest during a game of hide and seek on her wedding night . In the case of Bramshill House , the story has it that this happened at Christmas time , and that the bride was found fifty years later still wearing her wedding dress and with a sprig of mistletoe in her hand ; the chest is on display in the entrance hall . The woman is sometimes identified as John Cope 's daughter Anne , who married Hugh Bethell of Yorkshire . An alternative claim is that she was Genevre Orsini , who was married in 1727 , and that her ghost came to Bramshill from Italy together with the chest . In his monograph on the house , the Victorian writer Sir William Cope preferred this theory and added that the chest on display was not the original , which had been proved large enough by " a woman of comely proportions " who had tested it by lying down in it , but which had been taken away by Sir Denzil Cope 's widow in 1812 . The ghost of the bride is referred to as the White Lady , and she is said by Legg to haunt the Fleur de Lys room . According to Legg , Michael I of Romania asked to be moved to another room during a stay there , in order to not be disturbed by the young woman in white who passed through his bedroom every night . An old man with a grey beard , thought by Legg to be the father or husband of the White Lady , is reported to stare through windows and at the Mistletoe Chest .
= California State Route 186 =
State Route 186 ( SR 186 ) is a route that connects Interstate 8 ( I @-@ 8 ) with the U.S. – Mexico border near the Colorado River . Its southern terminus is near Los Algodones , Baja California , and its northern terminus is near Winterhaven , California in the location of Araz Junction . The route is only 2 @.@ 070 miles ( 3 @.@ 331 km ) long , heading along the length of the Alamo Canal and the All @-@ American Canal within the boundaries of the Fort Yuma @-@ Quechan Reservation . The route was assigned in 1972 in Imperial County , and the interchange with I @-@ 8 was constructed a year later .
= = Route description = =
SR 186 begins at the United States – Mexico border ( near Avenue International ) in the community of Los Algodones . The route heads to the northeast along the Alamo Canal and crosses the center of the Fort Yuma @-@ Quechan Reservation . Most of the surroundings of SR 186 are desolate , compared to the developed region across the border in Mexico . The highway continues northward , crossing the All @-@ American Canal , where it turns to the north . SR 186 continues northward to an interchange with I @-@ 8 in Araz Junction , where the route terminates at the northbound ramps . The route continues northward as locally maintained Araz Road . Near the interchange is a casino operated by the Quechan Native American tribe that opened in 2009 .
SR 186 is not part of the National Highway System , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In 2013 , SR 186 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 3 @,@ 700 at the southern end , and 8 @,@ 100 at the junction with I @-@ 8 , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
A road south from the Ocean @-@ to @-@ Ocean Highway to the Mexican border just west of the Colorado River existed by 1917 , and was paved between 1956 and 1965 . The Andrade Port of Entry at the southern end of the highway was built in 1970 . The current alignment of SR 186 was assigned in 1972 by the California State Legislature .
There are two bridges along the alignment of SR 186 . The first one to be constructed was a concrete slab bridge over the All @-@ American Canal , with the structure opening in 1938 . The bridge is 140 @.@ 09 feet ( 42 @.@ 70 m ) long , and is considered unable to sustain the traffic it was designed to handle . The second bridge is located at the interchange with I @-@ 8 in Araz Junction . This bridge , constructed in 1973 ( a year after the route was assigned ) , is a 227 @.@ 03 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 69 @.@ 20 m ) concrete box beam structure . This structure , unlike the other , is recorded to be in usable shape .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Imperial County .
= Vicinage Clause =
The Vicinage Clause is a provision in the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution regulating the vicinity from which a jury pool may be selected . The clause says that the accused shall be entitled to a jury " of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed , which district shall have been previously ascertained by law " . The Vicinage Clause limits the vicinity of criminal jury selection to both the state and the federal judicial district where the crime has been committed whereas the venue provision of Article Three of the United States Constitution regulates the location of the actual trial .
The Vicinage clause has its roots in medieval English criminal procedure , the perceived abuses of criminal vicinage and venue during the colonial period and Anti @-@ federalist objections to the United States Constitution . The clause is one of the few constitutional criminal procedure provisions that has not been incorporated to apply to proceedings in state courts , along with the Grand Jury Clause of the Fifth Amendment and ( maybe ) the Excessive Bail Clause of the Eighth Amendment .
The Clause has led to very little litigation , in part because of its overlap ( as a practical matter ) with the venue provision of Article Three and Rule 18 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure . Further , with the exception of the District of Wyoming , which includes the portions of Yellowstone National Park in Idaho and Montana ( see below ) , no federal judicial district includes the territory of two or more states ( although the short @-@ lived District of Potomac once did ) .
= = Background = =
= = = English law during the Colonial period = = =
The Oxford English Dictionary defines " vicinage " as " A number of places lying near to each other taken collectively ; an area extending to a limited distance round a particular spot ; a neighbourhood . " The OED cites Thomas Fuller 's Church History ( 1655 ) : " King Ethelred . . . began the tryal of Causes by a Jury of twelve men to be chosen out of the Vicenage . " According to Blackstone , in medieval England , the " vicinage of the jury " referred to a jury drawn from the relevant county .
A 1543 statute of Henry VIII of England permits treason committed outside the " realm " to be tried " before such commissioners , and in such shire of the realm , as shall be assigned by the King 's majesty 's commission . " Parliament renewed the statute in 1769 . This law was used to try colonists accused of treason in England .
A 1772 statute of George III of the United Kingdom permits destruction of dockyards , magazines , ships , ammunition , and supplies committed outside the " realm " to be tried in any " shire or county within this realm . " A 1772 statute permitted capital crimes committed in Massachusetts to be tried in England or a neighboring province if " an indifferent trial cannot be had within " Massachusetts .
= = = Protests from the Revolutionary period = = =
The Virginia House of Burgesses condemned the renewal of the treason law on May 16 , 1769 in the Virginia Resolves :
[ A ] ll Trials for Treason , Misprison for Treason , and for any Felony or Crime whatsoever , committed and done in this his Majesty 's said Colony and Dominion , by any Person or Persons residing therein , ought of right to be had , and conducted in and before his Majesty 's Courts , held within the said Colony , according to the fixed and known Course of Proceedings ; and that the seizing of any Person or Persons , residing in this Colony , suspected of any Crime whatsoever , committed therein , and sending such Person or Persons to Places beyond the Sea , to be tried , is highly derogatory of the Rights of British subjects . . . .
The same resolution referred to the " inestimable Privilege of being tried by a Jury from the Vicinage . "
The Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress adopted on October 14 , 1774 , resolved :
That the respective colonies are entitled to the common law of England , and more especially to the great and inestimable privilege of being tried by their peers of the vicinage , according to the course of that law .
On October 26 , 1774 , the Continental Congress approved an address to the people of Quebec , drafted by Thomas Cushing , Richard Henry Lee , and John Dickinson , arguing that :
[ One ] great right is that of trial by jury . This provides , that neither life , liberty nor property , can be taken from the possessor , until twelve of his unexceptionable countrymen and peers of his vicinage , who from that neighbourhood may reasonably be supposed to be acquainted with his character , and the characters of the witnesses . . . .
The United States Declaration of Independence ( 1776 ) accuses King George III of " transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences . "
= = = Drafting of the Constitution = = =
The New Jersey Plan contained a provision that : " [ N ] o person shall be liable to be tried for any criminal offense , committed within any of the United States , in any other state than that wherein the offense shall be committed . . . . " The proposals of Alexander Hamilton and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney were similar . The Committee of Detail and Committee of the Whole amended this language and included it within Article Three , Section Two , Clause Three . Article III provides : " The Trial of all Crimes . . . shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed . " This provision received almost no debate in the Constitutional Convention .
The omission of a vicinage right from the United States Constitution was among the objections of the Anti @-@ federalists to the ratification of the Constitution . James Madison explained the omission of a vicinage clause in the Virginia Ratifying Convention as follows :
It was objected yesterday , that there was no provision for a jury from the vicinage . If it could have been done with safety , it would not have been opposed . It might so happen that a trial would be impracticable in the county . Suppose a rebellion in a whole district , would it not be impossible to get a jury ? The trial by jury is held as sacred in England as in America . There are deviations of it in England : yet greater deviations have happened here since we established our independence , than have taken place there for a long time , though it be left to the legislative discretion . It is a misfortune in any case that this trial should be departed from , yet in some cases it is necessary . It must be therefore left to the discretion of the legislature to modify it according to circumstances . This is a complete and satisfactory answer .
Virginia ratified the Constitution , with a proviso that a Bill of Rights , including a right to " trial by an impartial jury of his vicinage , " be added by amendment . North Carolina adopted the same proviso as Virginia , but refused to ratify the Constitution in its absence . New York and Rhode Island ratified the constitution with similar provisos as Virginia ( but , in the case of Rhode Island , the Sixth Amendment had already been sent to the states for ratification ) . The ratifying provisos of Massachusetts did not include a vicinage right ; a proviso including a vicinage right was considered and rejected in Pennsylvania .
= = Drafting of the Clause = =
= = = House = = =
James Madison 's ( A @-@ VA ) original draft of the jury provision of the Sixth Amendment provided :
The trial of all crimes ( except in cases of impeachment , and cases arising in the land or naval forces , or the militia when on actual service , in time of war or public danger ) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage , with the requisite of unanimity for conviction , of the right of challenge , and other accustomed requisites . . . provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy , or in which a general insurrection may prevail , the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same state , as near as may be to the seat of the offence .
Madison intended this language to replace Article Three , Section Two , Clause Three , rather than be appended to the Constitution . The Committee of Eleven of the House amended Madison 's language as follows :
The trial of all crimes ( except in cases of impeachment , and in cases arising in the land or naval forces , or in the militia when on actual service in the time of war , or public danger , ) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage , with the requisite of unanimity for conviction , the right of challenge , and other accustomed requisites . . . . [ B ] ut if a crime be committed in a place in the possession of an enemy , or in which an insurrection may prevail , the indictment and trial may by law be authorized in some other place within the same State ; and if it be committed in a place not within a state , the indictment and trial may be at such place or places as the law may have directed .
Aedanus Burke ( A @-@ SC ) proposed that " vicinage " be replaced by " district or county in which the offence has been committed . " Richard Henry Lee ( A @-@ VA ) argued that " vicinage " was better , " it being a term well understood by every gentleman of legal knowledge . " Rep. Burke 's amendment was defeated . As amended by the Committee of Eleven , this language passed the House . The Committee of Three , undertaking the task of transforming the amendments to the body of the Constitution into a separate Bill of Rights , moved the language to Article X and deleted the language concerning crimes not committed within a state .
= = = Senate = = =
The Senate debated the Bill of Rights from September 2 to September 9 and returned a version to the House on September 10 . The Senate deleted every clause from the House version of the Sixth Amendment , with the exception of the grand jury indictment clause . A motion to restore the House wording failed .
Little is known about the Senate debate due to the illness of Senator Samuel Maclay whose journal is a key source for the proceedings of the Senate during the first Congress . A September 14 , 1789 letter from Madison to Edmund Pendleton reports :
The Senate have sent back the plan of amendments with some alternations , which strike , in my opinion , at the most salutary articles . In many of the States , juries , even in criminal cases , are taken from the State at large ; in others , from districts of considerable extent ; in very few from the County alone . Hence a dislike to the restraint with respect to vicinage , which has produced a negative on that clause . . . . Several others have had a similar fate .
= = = Conference Committee = = =
The altered form in which the Senate returned the Bill of Rights to the House lead to a conference committee composed of members of both bodies . The members of the committee from the House proposed that the jury simply be defined as comporting with " the accustomed requisites . "
The members of the committee from the Senate were opposed to constitutionalizing the vicinage requirement , believing that the vicinage provisions of the first Judiciary Act ( already being debate ) were sufficient . A second letter from Madison to Pendleton recounts that the Senators were
inflexible in opposing a definition of the locality of Juries . The vicinage they contend is either too vague or too strict a term ; too vague if depending on limits to be fixed by the pleasure of the law , too strict if limited to the county . It was proposed to insert after the word Juries , " with the accustomed requisites , " leaving the definition to be construed according to the judgment of professional men . Even this could not be obtained . The truth is that in most of the States the practice is different , and hence the irreconcilable difference of ideas on the subject . In most States , jurors are drawn from the whole body of the community indiscriminately ; in others , from large districts comprehending a number of Counties ; and in a few only from a single County . The Senate suppose , also , that the provision for vicinage in the Judiciary bill will sufficiently quiet the fears which called for an amendment on this point .
The committee adopted the version that passed Congress and was ratified by the states :
In all criminal prosecutions , the accused shall enjoy the right to a . . . trial by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed , which district shall have been previously ascertained by law . . . .
= = Interpretation = =
" Jury ... "
The Vicinage Clause applies only to petit juries , not grand juries ( although some cases finding no violation of the Clause have assumed without deciding that the Clause does apply to grand juries ) .
" ... of the State and district ... "
In murder cases arising from the Indian Territory , Navassa Island , and the No Man 's Land of the Oklahoma Panhandle , the Supreme Court has held that the Clause places no limits on the prosecution of crimes committed outside the territory of a state .
The Clause does not require a jury drawn from the judicial division ( a subset of a federal judicial district ) within which the crime occurred ; rather , the jury may be drawn from any division of the district . Nor does the Clause prevent the jury from being drawn solely from a judicial division , or any other subset of a judicial district ( rather than the entire judicial district ) .
" ... wherein the crime shall have been committed , ... "
The " wherein the crime shall have been committed " language of the clause is in parallel with the venue provision of Article Three — " where the said Crimes shall have been committed . " — and with Rule 18 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure — " where the offense was committed . " The three provisions have been interpreted in tandem to refer to the locus delicti of the offense .
" ... which district shall have been previously ascertained by law "
Lower courts are split on whether the Clause requires that the defendant be tried in a judicial district that was in existence at the time the crime was committed . Some courts have held that it does . Others have held that it does not and that the district need only be ascertained prior to trial . Even proponents of the former view have found no infirmity when Congress prospectively divides a judicial district , but retains the former configuration for past offenses .
= = = Incorporation = = =
The Third , Fifth , and Sixth Circuits have held that the Vicinage Clause was not incorporated against the states by the Fourteenth Amendment .
= = = The perfect crime ? = = =
Professor Brian C. Kalt of Michigan State University College of Law argues that the Vicinage Clause may permit the commission of the " perfect crime " in the portion of Yellowstone National Park within the state of Idaho because the entire park is within the District of Wyoming and the Idaho portion of the park has no residents ( and that a less perfect crime could be committed in the lightly populated Montana portion of the park ) . Kalt argues that two arguments the government might make in favor of prosecution would be unsuccessful : that the Idaho portion of the park is not part of a state and that the judicial district could be changed after the crime .
However , Kalt argues that the Vicinage Clause might permit a variety of prosecutorial strategies that would at least partially close this loophole . First , the government might be able to charge other crimes that did not occur exclusively within the Idaho portion of the park ( for example , if the defendant ( s ) conspired elsewhere ) . Second , the government could charge crimes for which the maximum authorized sentence is six months or less , to which the jury right does not attach . Third , the Clause might permit the government to encourage potential jurors to move into the Idaho portion of the park after the crime . Fourth , the government might argue for a purposive , rather than textualist , interpretation of the Clause by arguing that a jury drawn from elsewhere could satisfy the purposes of the Clause . Kalt also notes that the Vicinage Clause would not protect against civil liability or vigilante justice .
This same problem also was cited by the Nevada Legislature as a reason to dissolve Bullfrog County , Nevada , a short @-@ lived county specially created in 1987 for purposes of shifting federal transfer payments related to the creation of the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste facility directly to the state treasury .
= = Similar provisions in state constitutions = =
Before the adoption of the federal Constitution , only two state constitutions provided an explicit vicinage right . The Virginia Constitution of 1776 provided : " in all capital or criminal prosecutions a man hath a right to . . . an impartial jury of twelve men of his vicinage . " The Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 read similarly , but said " county " instead of " vicinage " ; it was amended in 1790 to say " vicinage . "
By contrast , four of the original thirteen state constitutions contained explicit criminal venue provisions . New Hampshire ( 1784 ) and Georgia ( 1777 and 1789 ) required crimes to be tried in the county where committed . Maryland ( 1776 ) and Massachusetts ( 1780 ) contained similar provisions .
In Coleman 's Appeal ( 1874 ) , the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania held that " a man shall only be liable to be called on to answer for civil wrongs in the forum of his home , and the tribunal of his vicinage . "
= Alucard ( Castlevania ) =
Adrian Fahrenheit Ţepeş ( アドリアン ・ ファーレンハイツ ・ ツェペシュ , Adorian Fārenhaitsu Tsepeshu ) , better known as Alucard ( アルカード , Arukādo ) , is a character in Konami 's Castlevania series of video games . His first appearance in the series was in the 1989 game Castlevania III : Dracula 's Curse , but he is best known for his role in the critically acclaimed Castlevania : Symphony of the Night , released in 1997 . His design in Symphony of the Night was created by Ayami Kojima , marking her first contribution to the Castlevania franchise .
In the series , Alucard is the son of Dracula , the antagonist of the Castlevania series . Due to his human mother , Lisa , Alucard is a dhampir , a half @-@ human , half @-@ vampire . His mother 's death and admonition not to hate humanity caused him to take up arms against his father . In Dracula 's Curse and Castlevania Legends , he fights against his father alongside the vampire hunters of the Belmont clan , and he is featured as the protagonist of Symphony of the Night . Alucard additionally is present in Castlevania : Aria of Sorrow and the follow @-@ up sequel Castlevania : Dawn of Sorrow , where he interacts with the protagonist of both games , Soma Cruz , as the Japanese government agent Genya Arikado ( 有角 幻也 , Arikado Gen 'ya ) . The Lords of Shadow reboot series , starting with the character 's introduction in Castlevania : Lords of Shadow - Mirror of Fate , changes Alucard 's backstory , revealing him as Trevor Belmont , once a mortal who was transformed into a vampire after his death at the hands of his biological father , the remorseful Dracula .
Several video game publications have provided praise and criticism on Alucard 's character . In Aria of Sorrow and Dawn of Sorrow , where Alucard was present as Genya Arikado , reviewers noted that although he fell into a stereotypical character mold , the greater concentration on supporting characters was a welcomed change from previous Castlevania games .
= = Conception and design = =
Alucard debuted in Castlevania III : Dracula 's Curse for the Nintendo Entertainment System , where he was designed by T. Fujimoto and I. Urata . He was intended to be a mirror image of his father , as evidenced by his name , his father 's name spelled backwards . Much of the original artwork for the game was lost during the Great Hanshin earthquake . Alucard 's subsequent appearances would largely be designed by Ayami Kojima , who managed the character designs for Castlevania : Symphony of the Night and Castlevania : Aria of Sorrow .
Kojima 's work in Symphony of the Night was her first breakthrough into the gaming industry , and her dark , gothic style borrows heavily from bishōnen @-@ style art . In Aria of Sorrow , Kojima 's designs followed the " different route " theme that producer Koji Igarashi was attempting to pursue with Aria of Sorrow by placing it in a futuristic setting . Following this theme , Alucard 's appearance as Genya Arikado was made much more contemporary , featuring modern attire as versus the medieval appearance of previous Castlevania characters . Kojima was not present in the design team for Castlevania : Dawn of Sorrow , and Arikado , along with the rest of the cast , were drawn in an anime style . Igarashi , also the producer of Dawn of Sorrow , wished to utilize the anime style as a marketing technique due to his belief that the Nintendo DS targeted a younger audience than previous Castlevania games had . The anime style would also serve as a litmus test as to whether future Castlevania games would incorporate the style .
= = = Voice actors = = =
Symphony of the Night was the second Castlevania game to use voice actors for the characters ( the first being the Akumajō Dracula X Chi no Rondo for the PC Engine Super CD @-@ ROM ² , which released only in Japan at the time ) . The Japanese voice actor for Alucard was Ryōtarō Okiayu , and the English voice actor was Robert Belgrade . In Castlevania The Dracula X Chronicles , Castlevania Judgment and Castlevania : Harmony of Despair , Alucard was English voiced by Yuri Lowenthal . Igarashi noted that due to fan complaints over the poor voice acting in a majority of the original cast in Symphony of the Night , a new script for the game better translating the original Japanese text , as well as a set of new voice actors were used .
= = Appearances = =
In the 1989 Castlevania III : Dracula 's Curse for the NES , Alucard is initially a boss encountered over the course of the game by the primary protagonist , Trevor Belmont . If the player defeats Alucard , he can be utilized as a playable character in the game . This was a significant departure from the first two Castlevania games for the NES , and the fourth installment on the Super NES , which only featured Simon Belmont as the primary playable character , and Alucard 's abilities , a fireball attack and the ability to transform into a bat , were unique elements introduced into the series . Following the defeat of Dracula and the game 's conclusion , Alucard voluntarily goes into a protracted sleep to ease his feelings of patricide and to prevent his powers from harming the world .
Alucard 's following appearance in the series is in the 1997 Castlevania : Symphony of the Night for the PlayStation and Sega Saturn , where he is featured as the game 's protagonist and primary playable character . He is described as a man of great strength and inhuman beauty . Due to the brainwashing of the current member of the Belmont clan , Richter Belmont , Alucard heads to his father 's castle to find Richter and ensure that Dracula does not return into the world . He encounters Richter , who has been controlled by the dark priest Shaft into believing he is the lord of Dracula 's castle , and Alucard manages to free him from the spell controlling him . In response , Shaft creates an inverted version of Dracula 's castle for Alucard to travel through , and Alucard defeats Shaft , and ultimately , Dracula as well . Symphony of the Night also expands on Alucard 's background , revealing how his human mother , Lisa , was hunted down and executed by humans who believed her to be a witch . Despite this , Lisa admonished Alucard to respect humans and not hate them as his father did . Alucard 's placement as a protagonist was unusual for the series up to that point , as previous Castlevania games had featured often members of the Belmont clan as the protagonists . Symphony of the Night would later be re @-@ released as part of the Xbox Live Arcade for the Xbox 360 , on the PlayStation Network for the PlayStation 3 , and part of Castlevania The Dracula X Chronicles , a compilation that contained Symphony of the Night alongside Akumajō Dracula X Chi no Rondo . Aside from the changing of the script and Alucard 's voice actor to Yuri Lowenthal , his role in the Symphony of the Night portion of The Dracula X Chronicles remains the same .
The 1997 Castlevania Legends for the Game Boy was Alucard 's third appearance in the series . Similar to his initial appearance in Dracula 's Curse , he is a boss challenging the skills of the game 's protagonist , Sonia Belmont . After she defeats him , he accepts her strength and decides to submerge his powers by sleeping , believing that she will defeat Dracula in his stead . Koji Igarashi later removed Castlevania Legends from the official canon of the series , meaning that the plot of the game never occurred in the series ' continuity .
In the 2003 Castlevania : Aria of Sorrow for the Game Boy Advance , Alucard is present in disguise as the enigmatic Japanese government agent Genya Arikado in order to prevent the powers of his father , who was finally killed by Julius Belmont , from ending up in the wrong hands . He meets the game 's protagonist , Soma Cruz , and explains his " power of dominance , " or his ability to absorb the souls of the monsters he defeats and use their abilities . He instructs him to seek out the castle 's throne room , where Soma realizes that he is Dracula 's reincarnation . Arikado subsequently advises Soma to destroy the flow of chaos in the castle to free himself from his fate , which Soma succeeds in doing .
Alucard reprises his role as Arikado in the sequel to Aria of Sorrow , the 2005 Castlevania : Dawn of Sorrow for the Nintendo DS , where he works to stop the machinations of a cult headed by Celia Fortner to create a new dark lord by killing Soma . Arikado initially requests that Soma does not become involved , but gives him a letter and talisman from Mina when he encounters him later in the game . After both of Celia 's " dark lord 's candidates , " Dmitrii Blinov and Dario Bossi , are defeated , Arikado stops Celia 's attempt to force Soma to awaken into the new dark lord , but inadvertently allows Dmitrii to revive himself . He confronts him , but is stopped when Dmitrii uses Celia as a sacrifice to seal his powers . Following Soma 's battle with Menace , a giant demon that sprouts from Dmitrii , Arikado explains to Soma that he is not destined to become the dark lord , nor does he need to . In the game 's Julius Mode , Arikado is playable as Alucard after he is found in the castle .
Alucard was one of the playable characters in Castlevania Judgment for the Nintendo Wii , a fighting game based on the series .
= = = Lords of Shadow = = =
Alucard appears in Castlevania : Lords of Shadow – Mirror of Fate , a chapter of the Lords of Shadow reboot series . It is revealed that this version of Alucard was originally Trevor Belmont , the son of Gabriel and Marie Belmont , conceived before Gabriel was turned into a vampire and became the dark lord Dracula . Trevor grew up not knowing of his true origin until the Brotherhood of Light reveals to him who his parents were . Believing that his father Gabriel murdered his mother in cold blood , he decides to pursue him in the hopes of destroying him and bringing peace to the land . After infiltrating the castle , Trevor successfully fights his way to the throne room , where he confronts Dracula without letting on that he is his son , or telling Dracula his name . Although Trevor puts up a valiant effort , in the end he is defeated and stabbed in the heart with his own Combat Cross . Dying and gazing at the Mirror of Fate he finally realizes the truth of what really happened to Gabriel and feels sorry for him , calling him his father . Dracula , confused , gazes at the mirror as well and learns who Trevor was all along . Remorseful and horrified for killing his own son who had been unknown to him the entire time , Dracula desperately tries to bring him back to life by giving him his blood , which seems to be in vain . Dracula mourns over his loss , and places Trevor in a coffin with the name Alucard , since he never learned his son 's real name . Many years later Alucard awakens , with pale white skin , white hair , and glowing orange eyes . He meets up with Dracula and his own son , Simon . Alucard tries to finish what he started , angry that his father turned him into a vampire . Dracula asks Alucard to join him in remaking the world and destroying the brotherhood , but Alucard refuses . Dracula proceeds to attack Simon for being a Belmont , wishing to end the Belmont bloodline due to his hatred of his past life . Alucard and Simon manage to defeat Dracula , and part ways as Dracula 's castle crumbles .
Alucard appears in the sequel Castlevania : Lords of Shadow 2 as a supporting character . Since the game takes place centuries later , Alucard 's personality and standing towards his father has drastically changed . He believes that Dracula can still be redeemed and makes it his goal to free the world from tyranny and vanquish the evil that had corrupted him and his father . He concocts a centuries spanning plan to put his father into a deep sleep by piercing his heart with the Crissaegrim sword , in order to make both the lord of the dead , Zobek and Satan himself , believe that Dracula is dead , so they can come out in the open . Once they do , Alucard would remove the sword so Dracula can resurrect and then destroy Zobek and Satan for good . Dracula agrees with his son 's plan and awakens centuries later during modern times . Throughout the game Alucard also appears as a younger Trevor Belmont and guides Dracula through his Castle to help him recover his old powers and missing
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Saga immediately after the death of Hunde and the earl 's consequent break with Olaf Tryggvasson , Thomson ( 2008 ) views this nuptial arrangement as a joint attempt by the Orcadians and Scots to align themselves against the " common threat from Moray " rather than as a slight to Norway .
When the sagas were written down Orkney had been Christian for 200 years or more and the conversion tale itself is " blatantly unhistorical " . When the Norse arrived in the Northern Isles they would have found organised Christianity already thriving there , although there is no mention of this at all in the sagas . Furthermore , the Norse dragon motif of the whale @-@ bone plaque found at the Scar boat burial was found in conjunction with the grave of an elderly woman who had died by 950 AD at the latest , and the weight of archaeological evidence suggests that Christian burial was widespread in Orkney by Sigurd 's time . The intention may have been to disown the influence of indigenous elements of Orcadian and Shetlandic culture and emphasise that positive cultural developments came from Scandinavia , whilst at the same time critiquing the unduly blunt method of Norwegian interference in this case . The inclusion of the tale of the raven banner in the saga material may convey the idea of a revival of heathenism in Orcadian society and a reaction to Norwegian attempts to control the islands . However , in the Orkneyinga Saga there is a vivid contrast between Sigurd 's death clutching the raven banner and the later career of his son Thorfinn , who is credited with several achievements in bringing Orkney into mainstream Christendom . Taken as a whole the intention may be to draw attention to this transition .
= Just Be Free =
Just Be Free is a demo album released by Warlock Records featuring music recorded by American recording artist Christina Aguilera . After finishing her run on The New Mickey Mouse Club , a then fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Aguilera began recording the album with New Jersey @-@ based producers Roberts Alleca and Michael Brown . The pair gave Aguilera the opportunity to use a recording studio and presented her with demo music with the understanding that they could use the material for their own purpose , but also claiming they would not commercially release the recordings . Musically , the album consisted of dance style tracks as well as ballads , and saw Aguilera performing in Spanish language songs . The record was conceived to showcase Aguilera 's vocals in an effort to reach out to record labels , a venture which actually backfired after the recordings were not very well received among critics . Six years after the completion of the album and Aguilera had achieved mainstream success , Brown and Allecca released the record and Just Be Free has sold over 128 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Background = =
After news that The New Mickey Mouse Club would be filming its final season , Aguilera sought out a record deal . She spent time in Philadelphia to record demo tracks with various producers , hoping to have an album released by the time she had finished high school . While taping the final season of the show , she began working with New Jersey based producers Roberts Alleca and Michael Brown . The pair eventually built a relationship with Aguilera and her family , offering her studio time . They told her that the demo recordings she would produce would be their property , but also that they would never commercially release the material . She recorded eleven " rough and unfinished " tracks which then went on to become the Just Be Free studio sessions .
= = = Musical style = = =
The early tapes were conceived as a way of introducing Aguilera to the music industry , described as a " foot in the door " attempt to build interest in her musical abilities . During the recording sessions , Aguilera experimented with different languages , recording songs such as the title track " Just Be Free " in Spanish . Although the rightful writers of the content have been disputed , the recording sessions have been described as influential on future recordings from Aguilera . Musically the album generally consisted of ballad material which was created in an effort to showcase Aguilera 's vocal talents although in addition to the ballads recorded in these sessions , dance music became a prominent theme throughout the eleven tracks she recorded during this time .
= = Lawsuit and release = =
After discovery that Alleca and Brown would be releasing the album , Aguilera started developments to sue the pair in an effort to stop the release . Aguilera filed a suit against Warlock Records and the affiliates Platinum Recordings and JFB Music for " improper use of her name and license on the upcoming album Just Be Free " . Carla Christofferson , her lawyer at the time , explained that " We 're trying to stop them from releasing these early recordings which is not the quality she is associated with right now . " However , Warlock Records president Adam Levy felt that despite Aguilera disliking the material , he found it to be a look into her life at the time of recording . He stated " It 's a great look at what she was doing , We 're pleased [ to be putting the record out ] . I 'm more pleased for the album 's producers who wanted to get it out . I hope the fans can appreciate it . " Christofferson responded by alleging that Warlock Records tried to " boot strap " on Aguilera 's success . In response to the lawsuit , Warlock Records filed their own lawsuit in an attempt to ensure the release of the record . During the proceedings , Aguilera agreed to let Warlock Records release Just Be Free after reaching a settlement with the company and its affiliates . She allowed the release under the condition that the label would have to include a letter written by Aguilera in each album released . Since November 13 , 2015 , the album is available to stream on Spotify and Deezer .
= = Reception = =
The album received generally negative reviews from critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic understood why Aguilera was dissatisfied with the release of the material , calling the songs " pre @-@ professional " and " generic early- ' 90s dance @-@ pop " . He noted that Just Be Free did not match the quality of her self @-@ titled debut album due to its " bland " production . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a D @-@ rating , citing the album 's production and describing the content as " teen @-@ jailbait " due to lyrics such as " Why don 't you stay with me tonight " .
Pier Dominguez , author of A Star is Made , commented that the sessions demonstrated " Christina 's raw vocal agility " despite calling the content " dull " , adding " Christina 's hunger for success actually comes through in these songs , as she sings her heart out with strained emotion , trying to sound as if she 's letting all her inhibitions run free . If she did in fact co @-@ write the songs then they were also a demonstration of Christina 's songwriting dexterity , because the album 's lyrics could be called unoriginal and perhaps even cheesy , it could not be said that they were not catchy " . Similarly , Stephanie McGrath from JAM ! Music also saw why Aguilera would not want the album released . Although she recognized Aguilera 's potential as a vocalist , she wrote " The songs themselves are terrible , dated club tracks , overwhelmed by poor effects and mundane beats . " Despite the negative critical reception , the album has sold over 128 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and peaked at number 71 on the Billboard 200 .
= = Track listing = =
" Just Be Free " ( Bob Allecca ; Michael Brown ; Christina Aguilera ) – 3 : 43
" By Your Side " ( Bob Allecca ; Michael Brown ; Christina Aguilera ) – 4 : 07
" Move It " ( Bob Allecca ; Michael Brown ; Christina Aguilera ) – 3 : 44
" Our Day Will Come " ( Mort Garson ; Bob Hilliard ) – 4 : 05
" Believe Me " ( Bob Allecca ; Michael Brown ; Christina Aguilera ) – 4 : 17
" Make Me Happy " ( LaForest Cope ; Michael Brown ) – 3 : 54
" Dream a Dream " ( Bob Allecca ; Michael Brown ; Christina Aguilera ) – 4 : 51
" The Way You Talk to Me " ( Bob Allecca ; Michael Brown ; Christina Aguilera ) – 3 : 37
" Running out of Time " ( Bob Allecca ; Michael Brown ; Christina Aguilera ) – 4 : 05
" Move It " ( Dance Mix ) ( Bob Allecca ; Michael Brown ; Christina Aguilera ) – 3 : 55
" Believe Me " ( Dance Remix ) ( Bob Allecca ; Michael Brown ; Christina Aguilera ) – 4 : 36
" Se Libre " ( Just Be Free Spanish Version ) ( Bob Allecca ; Michael Brown ; Christina Aguilera ) – 3 : 41
= = Personnel = =
Christina Aguilera – vocals , background vocals
Bob Alecca – Executive Producer
Michael Brown – Executive Producer
Bryan N. Calhoun – A & R Supervision
Amy Knong – Art Direction & Design
Eliud " Liu " Ortiz – Mixing Engineer
Greg Smith – Assistant Mix Engineer
Chris Gehringer – Mastering Engineer
= Astronomical Observatory ( University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign ) =
The University of Illinois Astronomical Observatory , located at 901 S. Mathews Avenue in Urbana , Illinois , on the campus of the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign , was built in 1896 , and was designed by Charles A. Gunn . It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since November 6 , 1986 , and on December 20 , 1989 , was designated a National Historic Landmark .
Though none of the astronomical instruments are being used for professional research today , the observatory still contains a 12 " Brashear refractor . The observatory played a key role in the development of astronomy as it was home to a key innovation in the area of astronomical photometry . The facility has been directed by such noted scientists as Joel Stebbins and Robert Horace Baker .
Erected at the behest of the Illinois General Assembly , the University of Illinois Observatory became important in the development of astronomy due , in large part , to pioneering research by Dr. Stebbins , from 1907 to 1922 . Joel Stebbins left the University of Illinois in 1922 but left behind a legacy of discovery that helped alter the face of modern astronomy . The building served the University of Illinois astronomy department from its opening until 1979 , when the department moved into a new , larger building to house its growing staff .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Astronomy classes at the University of Illinois date to its earliest days . The first courses focused on measurement of the night sky and was taken by civil engineering students to sharpen their surveying skills . A small observatory consisting of a 4 @-@ inch refractor and a small transit telescope was constructed by 1872 . The astronomy courses were typically taught by the mathematics department and by the early 1890s , several mathematics instructors wanted to do more with astronomy . An expanded astronomy curriculum would require a new larger facility . The Illinois state legislature voted in 1895 to fund a new teaching observatory at the University of Illinois , providing $ 15 @,@ 000 for construction . The site chosen was a grass knoll between Matthews Avenue and Burrill Avenue , just north of the Morrow Plots , a National Historic Landmark that is the nation 's oldest experimental field . Contracts were extended to Charles A. Gunn , the architect and an instructor on campus , and Bevis and Company in Urbana as the general contractor with construction beginning in April 1896 . The building was completed by August at a total cost of $ 6 @,@ 800 . The principle telescope was installed in November and the final telescope was in place by February 1897 .
The first director of the observatory was George W. Myers . Myers was an Champaign county native who graduated from the university in 1888 . He remained as a mathematics instructor also teaching the spring Descriptive Astronomy course . In preparation for the directorship he spent two years in Munich earning his Ph.D in astronomy . In his first year as director , G.W. Myers announced the discovery of the source of the variability in the star Beta Lyrae at the opening conference for Yerkes Observatory . He served as director from 1897 until 1900 when he left for the University of Chicago . W.C. Brenke , an astronomy instructor , served as acting director until a new director was hired in 1903 .
= = = Stebbins ' research = = =
Before 1907 , all magnitude measurements for stars were obtained through visual comparison of relative brightness , a process that was slow and inexact . Later photographic methods would use starlight to make a representation on a photographic plate . Regardless , neither method was adequate for quantitative measurements . The drawback of previous methods of measuring stellar magnitude made the use of electricity for empirically gathering astronomical data revolutionary for the science of astronomy . Joel Stebbins ' pioneering research for astronomical photometry took place at the observatory .
Stebbins arrived as director of the University of Illinois Observatory after he completed his Ph.D. at the University of California , Berkeley in 1903 . Once Stebbins arrived fresh from his dissertation completed at Lick Observatory , he began a two @-@ year study of the brightness of 107 binary stars using a Pickering visual photometer . The research , with the assistance of his wife , May Stebbins , investigated the relative brightness on binary stars using visual techniques . In a 1957 speech at the American Astronomical Society , Stebbins recalled the events which led up to the electric cells :
" She ( May Stebbins ) wrote down the numbers as the observer called them , but after some nights of recording a hundred readings just to get one magnitude , she said it was pretty slow business . I responded that someday we would do all this by electricity . That was a fatal remark . Thereafter she would often prod me with the question , " When are you going to change to electricity ? " It happened that within two or three months , the Department of Physics gave an open house , and one of the exhibits was in ( the ) charge of a young instructor , F.C. Brown . He showed how , when he turned on a lamp to illuminate a selenium cell , a bell would ring , when the lamp was off , the bell would stop . Here was the idea : Why not turn on a star to a cell on a telescope and measure a current ? "
Stebbins and Fay C. Brown soon became friends and in time , they had a selenium cell positioned on the 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) telescope at the observatory . In the summer of 1907 , after several attempts , the two achieved a light curve for Earth 's moon and measured the moon 's brightness during a lunar eclipse . This marked the first time in America that electricity was used to measure astronomical brightness . Later Stebbins went further , discovering that by cooling the cell to zero degrees Fahrenheit he would double the cell sensitivity and diminish irregularities in the circuit tenfold , still further , by reducing the size of the cell the irregularities were reduced more . The pair went on to detect stellar intensity and activity that were previously unrecorded . In 1909 their observations of Algol detected for the first time the second minimum as well as limb brightening . The coming of Comet Halley in 1910 allowed Stebbins , in May , to use his selenium photometer to study the comet . Two years later Stebbins used the photometer and discovered four stars to be eclipsing binary stars : Beta Aurigae , Spica , Alpha Coronae Borealis and Delta Orionis .
Although the selenium cell photometer was proving successful , it was difficult to use and not very sensitive . Illinois physics professor Jakob Kunz suggested that Stebbins try a photoelectric cell . Kunz had been doing experimentation on an improved photoelectric cell which was alkali based . Kunz 's cell was the predecessor of the modern day " electric eye . " Stebbins left for a sabbatical in Europe in fall of 1912 . While he was gone , Kunz and another Illinois physicists W.F. Schulz successfully tested a photoelectric cell photometer at the Observatory .
Upon his return from sabbatical in August 1913 , Stebbins ended his pioneering work with the selenium cell and began working with Kunz on the new photometer . A number of other notable astronomical discoveries occurred at the observatory through the years . In 1915 Stebbins ' object of study became the star involved in Myers ' first big discovery at the observatory , Beta Lyrae . He thus began an aggressive research program produced a series of papers in the Astrophysical Journal on eclipsing binaries Lambda Tauri , Algol , 1H Cassiopeiae ( HR 8926 ) , ellipsoidal variables π5 Orionis , and b Persei , and Nova Aquilae ( V603 Aquilae ) in 1918 . Stebbins and Kunz also travelled to Wyoming to study the solar eclipse . . Dr. Elmer Dershem joined the Observatory staff in 1917 and rebuilt the photometer in the summer of 1919 . By 1922 , Charles Wylie completed the first Illinois astronomy doctorate for his photoelectric studies of the Cepheid Η Aquilae , and Sigma Aquilae noting its variations due to tidal distortions .
Stebbins research earned him several honors while at Illinois . In 1913 he was awarded the Rumford Prize of the American Academy of Arts and Science , and in 1915 the Henry Draper Medal of the National Academy of Sciences . The research was also supported by grants from the Draper fund of the National Academy of Sciences and the Rumford Fund of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . He served as an officer of the American Astronomical Society and was one of the American delegates in 1918 to attend the organizational meeting of the International Astronomical Union in Brussels . After numerous discoveries , Stebbins left the University of Illinois in 1922 for the Washburn Observatory in Wisconsin and Dr. Robert H. Baker took over as the new Director of the University of Illinois Observatory . However , because the observatory lost its pioneering researcher in Stebbins did not mean that discovery and science did not continue at the university 's observatory .
= = = Robert Baker , third director = = =
When Robert Baker arrived he continued a photoelectric photometry program focusing on variable stars . He continued to use the 12 @-@ inch refractor until 1927 when a new photometer was constructed and attached it to the 30 @-@ inch reflector telescope in the Observatory annex . He supervised two graduate students who worked on this equipment in the early 1930s . On May 27 , 1933 the star Arcturus provided light which fell onto a photo cell in the observatory 's annex and sent a signal to open the Chicago World 's Fair .
The Great Depression was soon in full swing. and the department budget fell from $ 1000 to a mere $ 200 . It was during this time that Dr. Baker authored a number of books . Baker was an extremely gifted writer whose clear simple work helped him explain what was going on up there to an entire generation . In 1930 , he authored the textbook Astronomy , followed in 1932 by The Universe Unfolding , and his revision of Simon Newcomb 's Astronomy for Everyone . In 1934 Baker described an imaginary trip to the moon in When the Stars Come Out . His second textbook , An Introduction to Astronomy also appeared in 1934 . Introducing the Constellation was published in 1937 and , with the help of Howard Zim in 1951 , Stars : A Guide to the Heavens . His textbooks were used across the entire country for undergraduate astronomy courses and praised as classics .
After two sabbaticals to Harvard , Baker 's interest moved from photometry to the Milky Way . In 1939 the 30 @-@ inch reflector was replaced with a Ross photographic telescope and for more than ten years after that , 1939 through 1951 Baker used the observatory 's photographic telescope to help count the stars in the Milky Way and determine their distribution as part of Harvard 's Star Counting Circuit . This would be the primary research until Baker 's retirement in 1951 . The 12 @-@ inch refractor was only used for instruction , public open houses and for visiting school groups .
= = = Modern department = = =
The university decided that it was time to increase the size of the department and hired Dr. George C. McVittie as the next director . After his arrival in the fall of 1952 , McVittie began the refurbishment of the Observatory 's major instruments . The 12 @-@ inch refractor and the 3 @-@ inch transit telescope were restored in 1954 by J.W. Fecker Company . He also began expanding the faculty . Dr. Stanley Wyatt joined the faculty in 1953 , George Swenson and Ivan King in 1956 , Kennth Yoss , John Dickel and James Kaler in 1964 and Edward Olson in 1966 . With George Swenson 's arrival , Illinois began a program of radio astronomy resulting in the Vermillion River Radio Observatory that opened in 1962 . Prairie Observatory was an optical observatory consisting of a 40 @-@ inch telescope and was completed in 1967 . By the time of Dr. McVittie 's retirement in 1971 , the one @-@ astronomer department had expanded to nine faculty with research interests in relativity , cosmology , celestial mechanics , perturbation theory , dynamics of star clusters , planetary nebulae , planets , supernovae and radio astronomy . The department which produced only five advanced degrees prior to 1951 graduated 29 Masters and 14 Doctoral student during the McVittie administration .
On October 4 , 1957 , the very evening of the launch of Sputnik , students and faculty met at the Observatory and constructed an improvised radio interferometer . They published the first precise ephemeris in Nature in November . Their success helped gather momentum and funding for the radio astronomy program .
= = = Current history = = =
The observatory underwent major renovations and additions in 1956 and 1966 to accommodate the growing faculty ( see architecture section below ) . In 1967 , the 12 inch telescope at the observatory made its last professional photometric observations . The University of Illinois ' Astronomy Department moved out of the building in 1979 . The same year the observatory received recognition by the National Register of Historic Places , 1986 , thousands gathered at the site to observe Comet Halley 's journey into the inner solar system .
The observatory is no longer used for research purposes , though the telescope is still used as a teaching tool in the university 's astronomy classes . In addition , a University of Illinois student astronomy organization uses the telescope . The observatory dome underwent a renovation that included repainting in 1996 .
= = Equipment = =
The primary instrument is a refractor of 12 @.@ 4 inches clear aperture and of 15 ft. focal length . The optics are by John A. Brashear of Pittsburgh and the mechanical parts by the Warner & Swasey Company of Cleveland . Eyepieces provide magnification ranging from 130 to 720 power .
It is mounted on a rectangular cast @-@ iron column of two @-@ tons weight that rests on the masonry pier . Through a glass door in the column you can see the driving clock that keeps the telescope turning westward just as fast as the stars go , so that a star remains in view as long as the astronomer wishes to observe it . The telescope turns on two axes at the top of the column . One axis slants upwards toward the north pole of the heavens ; the other at right angles to it , and it is to this one that the tube of the telescope is attached . Two large circles provide graduated scales for locating objects by their coordinates . The instrument can be turned on these axes toward any part of the sky . It is a heavy instrument , but so perfectly balanced that the astronomer moves it easily with one hand .
The principle transit circle was a 3 @-@ inch Combined Transit and Zenith telescope designed by Warner & Swasey especially for Illinois . The objective , by John Brashear , was held in place by a special cell that compensated for the different temperature conductivities of the brass and glass so that temperature had no effect on the location or separation of the lenses . Designated as model M @-@ 505 , the transit included a handing level , micrometer and a built in reversing mechanism . This transit was located in the east @-@ central transit room allowing direct access to the clock room through a small window . The instrument cost $ 1200 in 1896 .
The transit circle was capable of determining both right ascension and declination of a star , unlike the more simple and common transit instrument that can only determine the right ascension . Such an instrument could also be used to set the Observatory ’ s clocks by observing standard stars whose position was precisely known .
In addition there were three other smaller transit telescopes , two clocks by Clemens Riefler of Munich , and other accessories including sextants , chronometers , and teaching tools .
= = Architecture = =
The building , itself , is in a traditional observatory design , Colonial Revival style , following a T @-@ plan . The dome rises 35 feet ( 11 m ) in the air . The observatory was built on a one story T @-@ plan , facing north , of buff @-@ colored Roman brick ( from Indiana ) and features limestone lintels and sills . The cross of the T is 75 feet ( 23 m ) long east to west and 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) deep , its stem is located to the south , centered along the east @-@ west axis and is 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) deep by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide . The octagonal observation tower rises 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) into the air at the intersection of the T where it becomes a dome and continues to a height of 35 feet ( 11 m ) . At floor level of the second equatorial room a balustrade circles around the exterior of the tower . The tower is capped by a great circular limestone plate , which carries the dome track . Internally , the diameter of the dome is 24 @.@ 5 feet ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) and its zenith 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) above the floor . The dome slit , which still operates , has an opening of 44 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) and can be opened or closed by hand in seconds . The dome tower and equatorial room are original save
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a motor drive which replaced the old rope and sheave method of rotating the dome . As of September 2014 , the motor drive is being serviced and the rope and sheave method is once again in use .
In the center of the equatorial room is the 1896 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) refractor telescope . Built by the firm of Warner and Swasey , Cleveland , Ohio , the scope is stabilized on a brick pier which extends down into the bedrock and is not attached to the building in any way . The telescope cost $ 4 @,@ 500 and still has the original observer 's chair mentioned in the contract with Bevis and Company at a cost of $ 25 . The entrance hall , below the equatorial room , octagonal in shape , is centered on a brick pier . The entrance hall retains original stairs , newel posts , balustrades , and wood floors ; it is still used for its original purpose , storage .
The east and west wings of the building once each contained a transit room . Each of the rooms had a mounted transit telescope on a brick pier ; the piers are still visible in the basement below the transit rooms . The western transit rooms were converted into office space by the 1920s . The eastern transit rooms were converted to office space more recently .
The exterior of the observatory building has a brick cornice , with stone sills and lintels , stone water course , ornamental gutters , and original copper downspouts . Most of the building 's windows are of the wooden double @-@ hung variety and original , as are the front entrance door transom and concrete stoop . The original front balustrade has been replaced , however , the western stoop and ornamental iron balustrade is still original .
Aside from the transit room conversion to office space the building has seen other major work in the past . The southwest corner of the building was built in 1956 , of cream colored brick , to house additional classrooms and office space . The addition of 1956 took special care to replicate nearly every aspect of the original building except for color . Another major addition occurred in 1966 with the construction of the large east wing . Of the same cream colored brick as the 1956 addition , it also tried to mimic the building 's finer details . The 1966 east wing addition provided for , again , more office space , but this project also included space for a new darkroom and a radio telescope laboratory . The observatory basement and the dome housing the refractor are still in use by the astronomy department at U of I and the University of Illinois Astronomical Society , a student organization on campus .
= = Historic significance = =
The observatory holds significance in astronomy because of its association with the development of selenium and photoelectric cell . The cell revolutionized the science of astronomical photoelectric photometry by the use of electricity to measure the brightness of stars by providing a more precise and accurate measurement compared to the visual and photographic methods common at that time . This branch of astronomy measures stellar magnitude . The research regarding photometry was conducted on a 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) Warner and Swasey refractor telescope in the second @-@ story equatorial room . As a result of Dr. Stebbins ' work determining stellar magnitude using photoelectric photometry , it became standard technique . Due to this astronomical importance the observatory was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 6 , 1986 and on December 20 , 1989 the U.S. Department of Interior designated the U of I Observatory a National Historic Landmark .
= California State Route 16 =
State Route 16 ( SR 16 ) is a state highway in the northern region of the U.S. state of California that runs from Route 20 in Colusa County to Route 49 just outside Plymouth in Amador County . It is discontinuous through Sacramento , specifically between Interstate 5 in Woodland and U.S. Route 50 east of Sacramento .
= = Route description = =
SR 16 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System . However , it is not designated as a scenic highway by Caltrans . It is known as the Stanley L. Van Vleck Memorial Highway from Dillard Road in Sacramento County to the Amador County line , honoring a former prominent leader in the state 's agricultural organizations .
= = = Western section = = =
State Route 16 begins in Colusa County near Wilbur Springs at the junction with State Route 20 . SR 16 goes south alongside Bear Creek , which enters a narrow canyon and joins with Cache Creek near the Yolo County line . SR 16 continues in the canyon , running close to the river , passing Cache Creek Canyon Regional Park , and emerging from the canyon north of Rumsey . This section is so prone to rock slides that there are permanent gates at each end .
SR 16 continues to parallel Cache Creek , at a greater distance , going south @-@ east through Capay Valley , with Blue Ridge to its west and the Capay Hills ( including Bald Mountain ) to its east . It goes through Rumsey , Guinda , Brooks , Cache Creek Casino Resort , Capay , Esparto ( intersecting with County Route E4 to Dunnigan ) , and Madison .
East of Madison , and now in the Central Valley , SR 16 interchanges with Interstate 505 before heading east toward Woodland . In west Woodland it merges with County Road 22 and then turns north , concurrently with County Route E7 and Interstate 5 Business , until it meets its interchange with Interstate 5 .
= = = Eastern section = = =
The eastern segment of SR 16 begins at U.S. Route 50 east of Sacramento . SR 16 heads east through Perkins as Jackson Road . After it passes near Bridge House and Rancho Murieta , where it crosses the Cosumnes River , SR 16 enters Amador County . SR 16 then ascends into the Sierra Nevada foothills , leaving the Central Valley . In Amador County , SR 16 passes near Forest Home before intersecting with State Route 124 and terminating at State Route 49 .
= = History = =
The two ends of SR 16 were added to the state highway system by the third bond issue , passed by the state 's voters in 1919 : Route 50 from Lower Lake east to Rumsey and Route 54 from the Sacramento @-@ Amador County line east to Drytown . Each was connected to Sacramento by existing or planned paved county highways . Although the exact alignment of Route 50 was not specified , the state Department of Engineering had already surveyed a 35 @-@ mile ( 56 km ) route through Cache Creek Canyon pursuant to a 1915 law , which defined the Yolo and Lake Highway " following generally , the meanderings of Cache creek " but did not make it a state highway . By 1924 , the California Highway Commission 's engineers had realized that building Route 50 through the canyon was impractical , and adopted a substitute plan for two highways connecting Lower Lake and Rumsey with the planned Route 15 ( Tahoe @-@ Ukiah Highway , now State Route 20 ) to the north in September 1925 . The western connection , to Lower Lake , became part of Route 49 ( now State Route 53 there ) , which continued south from Lower Lake to Calistoga .
Each route was extended to Sacramento in 1933 over the aforementioned county highways , taking Route 50 southeast from Rumsey to Woodland near Cache Creek and then alongside the Sacramento River to the I Street Bridge , and Route 54 west from the county line to Route 11 just outside Sacramento . The entirety of both routes , from SR 20 near Wilbur Springs through Sacramento to State Route 49 just north of Drytown ( and initially overlapping SR 49 to Jackson ) , was included in the initial state sign route system in 1934 as Sign Route 16 . Through downtown Sacramento , SR 16 followed U.S. 40 ( Legislative Route 6 ) and U.S. 50 ( Legislative Route 11 ) , mostly on Capitol Avenue , while Legislative Route 50 continued south on 5th Street ( later a one @-@ way pair of 3rd and 5th Streets ) and turned east on Broadway , carrying Sign Route 24 most of the way to Freeport Boulevard . In the 1964 renumbering , Route 16 became the new legislative designation , and Sign Route 24 through Sacramento was replaced with State Route 99 and State Route 160 . As neither of these used what had been Sign Route 24 along 3rd and 5th Streets and Broadway , part of Route 16 's new definition ( " Route 5 near Woodland to Sacramento " ) was used for several years on this alignment until it became part of State Route 99 later that decade . This left the western segment of SR 16 ending at Interstate 5 near the east end of the I Street Bridge until 1984 , when the Woodland @-@ Sacramento portion , which had become redundant with the parallel Interstate 5 complete , was deleted from the legislative definition . It was at about this time that SR 16 was rerouted from the intersection with County Route E7 to continue north on a bypass of Woodland instead of east to Interstate 5 .
On September 15 , 2014 , Assembly Bill No. 1957 was passed , authorizing relinquishment of the segment of SR 16 in Eastern Sacramento near US 50 .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace =
" The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace " is the second episode of the tenth season of The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 20 , 1998 . In the episode , Homer has a midlife crisis realizing his life is half over and he has not accomplished anything . He begins to admire Thomas Edison and decides to create inventions to follow in Edison 's footsteps and make his life worthwhile .
The idea behind " The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace " came from Dan Greaney , who assigned John Swartzwelder to write the episode . While directing the episode , Mark Kirkland visited the Thomas Edison National Historical Park in West Orange , New Jersey to receive inspiration for several scenes in the episode that take place in this museum . William Daniels made a guest appearance in the episode as the character KITT from the television series Knight Rider .
" The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace " was viewed in approximately 7 @.@ 95 million households . In general , it received positive reviews from television critics , with many singling it out as a strong beginning to a season .
= = Plot = =
Homer is shocked to hear on the radio that the average life expectancy for men is now 76 @.@ 2 years , which makes him realize that , at 38 @.@ 1 , his life is half over . Marge informs him that he is actually 39 , which depresses him even more . Homer thinks he has not accomplished anything that will be considered worthwhile after he dies . His family tries to cheer him up by showing him a film of his accomplishments and a special appearance by the character KITT from the Knight Rider television series that Homer is a fan of . When the film projector stops working , Lisa mentions that Thomas Edison invented the projector as well as many other inventions . Homer decides to learn more about Edison and eventually idolizes him . He becomes so obsessed with him that he unknowingly begins to annoy people with stories about Edison 's life and inventions . In an attempt to follow in Edison 's footsteps , Homer quits his job at the power plant to become an inventor .
Homer gets to work and develops a few inventions , such as an alarm that beeps every three seconds when everything is okay , a shotgun which shoots make @-@ up onto women 's faces , an electric hammer , and a reclining chair which has a built @-@ in toilet . None of these inventions are well received by his family and he feels disappointed over his failure to invent anything useful . However , he soon becomes encouraged when he discovers that the family likes one of his other inventions – a chair with two hinged legs on the back , making it impossible to tip over backwards . His hopes are destroyed when he notices his poster of Edison , which shows Edison sitting in the same type of chair , indicating that he has already invented Homer 's untippable chair . Bart points out that the chair is not featured on a list of Edison 's inventions , and that maybe no one knows he invented it .
Homer and Bart therefore set out to the Thomas Edison National Historical Park in West Orange , New Jersey with his electric hammer to destroy the chair . Before he smashes the chair , Homer notices a poster of Edison 's which shows he had fewer inventions than Leonardo da Vinci . This means that Edison compared himself to Leonardo , much like Homer compares himself to Edison . Feeling a renewed connection to Edison , Homer decides not to destroy the chair . Homer also suggests that they destroy some of Leonardo 's creations , but when Bart points out those are in Italy , Homer settles for taking it out on Eli Whitney .
Homer and Bart return to Springfield , without knowing that they left Homer 's electric hammer behind at the museum . Later when the family watches the news on television , Kent Brockman announces that the chair and the electric hammer have just been discovered at the Edison Museum and are expected to generate millions for Edison 's already wealthy heirs . After Lisa complains that it should have been Homer 's money , Homer angrily comments that it is a good thing he is sitting on his reclining toilet chair .
= = Production = =
" The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace " was written by John Swartzwelder , who had a deal with the producers of the show to write five scripts for season ten . Although he was the one who wrote the episode , Dan Greaney was the one who came up with the idea for it . Greaney based Homer 's intense obsession with Edison on the fact that when he himself would have an obsession with something in life , he would badger and bore people with
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achieved third place podium finishes .
A pneumatic value failure in the preceding race , the United States Grand Prix , had forced Häkkinen to retire from the Grand Prix . With two races of the season remaining and an eight @-@ point deficit after losing the lead in the Drivers ' Championship , Häkkinen remained confident about his title chances : " I know that what happened to me in the last Grand Prix , when I had to retire , can happen to anyone , It could happen to Michael . So I am very optimistic . I have come here prepared and thinking about these two races together . Not one , two . " Michael Schumacher emphasised the pressure of leading the championship going into Japan : " It hasn 't been a relaxing time at all and I still haven 't completely got over the jetlag from the States . But I 'm prepared to sacrifice this and a lot more to bring the title back to Maranello . And the same can be said of the entire team . " Ferrari team principal Jean Todt and former World Champion Jody Scheckter called for Barrichello and Coulthard to race fairly as both drivers were ordered by their teams to assist their teammates in the Championship battle .
Following the United States Grand Prix on 24 September , the teams conducted testing sessions at various racing circuits across Europe between 26 – 29 September to prepare for the Grand Prix . McLaren 's test driver Olivier Panis flew to the Circuit de Nevers Magny @-@ Cours to undertake preparations for Suzuka and development work on their 2001 car . Ferrari test driver Luca Badoer spent two days at the Fiorano Circuit testing mechanical components and ran on an artificially wet track for testing of Bridgestone 's wet weather tyre compounds . Williams , with rookie competitor Jenson Button , went to the Autódromo do Estoril for two days and tried wet weather tyres and different aerodynamic configurations . Prost travelled to Magny @-@ Cours and their test driver Stéphane Sarrazin collected three days of chassis design data for the upcoming AP04 chassis . Benetton opted to miss testing prior to the event but their test driver Mark Webber tried developments at the Circuit de Catalunya that were incorporated into their 2001 car .
At the drivers meeting held the Friday before the event , the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) Race Director Charlie Whiting announced that any potential blocking manoeuvres that interfered with the World Championship battle would result in a driver being shown a waved black and white flag , before giving a black flag to signal disqualification from the race . The penalty also had a potential ban for up to three Formula One World Championship events for any driver found to have breached the new ruling . Ralf Schumacher agreed with the penalties . However , McLaren team principal Ron Dennis was more vocal in opposing the new rules as he believed they were arbitrary and were against choosing team tactics . He was also unhappy with the inclusion of Italian lawyer Roberto Causo as a race steward because Dennis held the view that any decision would be biased towards Ferrari .
Some teams had made modifications to their cars in preparation for the event . Honda introduced a more powerful version of its V10 engine for Saturday 's qualifying session and the race . Sauber brought lighter components to reduce the weight of their cars and the Williams team arrived with a revised rear wing . Williams engine suppliers BMW confirmed that they would be running the same specification of engine introduced in Belgium .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and two on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted an hour . The third and final practice sessions were held on Saturday morning and lasted 45 minutes . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions were held in dry and warm weather conditions . Michael Schumacher was fastest in the first practice session with a time of 1 : 38 @.@ 474 , ahead of Häkkinen and Coulthard . Barrichello set the fourth quickest time and caused the session to be yellow flagged when he lost control of his car and spun at the hairpin between turns ten and eleven and crashed into the perimeter fencing . Ralf Schumacher was fifth fastest , ahead of Fisichella . Frentzen and Jarno Trulli set the seventh and ninth fastest times respectively for Jordan ; they were separated by Jaguar 's Eddie Irvine . Jacques Villeneuve in the BAR completed the top ten despite spinning off the circuit which caused grass to penetrate his radiators . In the second practice session , Michael Schumacher set the fastest lap of the day , a 1 : 37 @.@ 728 , six @-@ tenths of a second faster than Häkkinen . Barrichello had trouble selecting first gear on his final run although he set the third quickest time . Coulthard was fourth fastest , ahead of Button . Frentzen and Trulli continued their good form setting the sixth and seventh fastest times . Arrows driver Pedro de la Rosa , Villeneuve and Ricardo Zonta completed the top ten fastest drivers . During the session , an earthquake measuring 7 @.@ 1 on the richter scale was felt at Suzuka , although no structural damage was reported around the circuit despite mild alarm .
The weather remained dry and warm for the Saturday morning practice sessions . Michael Schumacher again set the fastest time for the third session , a 1 : 37 @.@ 176 , quicker than his best on Friday . The Williams drivers were running quicker ; Ralf Schumacher in second and Button in fourth . They were separated by Coulthard . Fisichella set the fifth quickest time , ahead of Villeneuve , who spun into the gravel late in the session . Barrichello , Irvine , Johnny Herbert and de la Rosa completed the top ten . In the final practice session , Häkkinen set the quickest time , a 1 : 37 @.@ 037 , one @-@ tenth of a second faster than Michael Schumacher . Button was happy with the performance of his car and was third fastest . Barrichello maintained his consistent performance and set the fourth fastest time despite again spinning into the gravel traps . He was ahead of Ralf Schumacher who had his fastest time revoked after exceeding track limits . Coulthard was sixth , two @-@ tenths of a second faster than Fisichella . Irvine , Alexander Wurz and Villeneuve completed the top ten ahead of qualifying .
Saturday 's afternoon qualifying session lasted for an hour . Each driver was limited to twelve laps , with the grid order decided by the drivers ' fastest laps . During this session , the 107 % rule was in effect , which necessitated each driver set a time within 107 % of the quickest lap to qualify for the race . The session was held in dry weather conditions . The air temperature ranged between 23 – 24 ° C ( 73 – 75 ° F ) and the track temperature was between 27 – 31 ° C ( 81 – 88 ° F ) . Michael Schumacher clinched his eighth pole position of the season , his fifth at the circuit , in a time of 1 : 35 @.@ 825 . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Häkkinen , who was nine thousands of a second slower than his championship rival and battled him for grid position throughout the session . Häkkinen 's teammate Coulthard qualified third , and conceded that he was not quick enough to challenge for pole position . The two Williams drivers qualified on the third row of the grid ; Button ahead of Ralf Schumacher although both drivers had mixed feelings over their performance . Both Jaguar drivers took seventh and tenth and were satisifed with their pace . Frentzen reported that his car was difficult to handle but was happy to manage an qualifying position of eighth . Villeneuve took ninth despite suffering from excessive oversteer and was unable to improve his time because he changed his car in the opposite direction . Herbert who rounded out the top ten felt he could have qualified on the fourth row despite changes to his set @-@ up . Wurz qualified eleventh and missed on qualifying in the top ten by nearly two thousands of a second . His teammate Fisichella started from twelfth position and reported his car lost performance after the morning practice sessions . Both Arrows drivers filled the seventh row of the grid – de la Rosa was faster than Verstappen – and were afflicted with problems on the cars limiting their running . Trulli had issues with his car 's handling and qualified 15th . Heidfeld qualified 16th , ahead of teammate Jean Alesi . Zonta had limited qualifying time because of an engine change and managed 18th overall . The tenth row of the grid was filled by both Sauber drivers ; Mika Salo in front of Pedro Diniz . Salo used the spare Sauber because his race car had issues with its alternator Both of Diniz 's two fastest qualifying times were disallowed because of him laying oil on the circuit in the morning practice sessions . The two Minardi drivers qualifed at the rear of the grid with Marc Gené faster than Gastón Mazzacane .
= = = Race = = =
The drivers took to the track at 10 : 00 JST ( UTC + 9 ) for a 30 @-@ minute warm @-@ up session . It took place in dry weather conditions . Both Ferrari cars maintained their good performance from qualifying ; Michael Schumacher set the fastest time of 1 : 38 @.@ 005 . Barrichello was third in the other Ferrari car . They were split by the McLaren drivers — Häkkinen was second and Coulthard rounded out the top four .
The race started at 14 : 30 local time . The conditions for the race were dry and overcast for the race . The air temperature was at 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) and the track temperature at 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . Approximately 151 @,@ 000 people attended the race . During the final parade lap , Häkkinen 's car developed an leak in the hydraulic system which caused smoke to depart but managed to take the start . Frentzen started the race using Jordan 's spare monocoque . Häkkinen accelerated faster than Michael Schumacher off the line , withstanding the German 's attempts to maintain his position to clinch the lead heading into the first corner . Behind the leading three in the run down into the first corner , Ralf Schumacher moved ahead of Barrichello and Coulthard withstood his attempts to pass for third position . Verstappen made the best start in the field , moving from 14th to tenth at the end of the first lap , while Fisichella made a poor start and lost eight places over the same distance ; the result of his anti @-@ stall system activating . At the completition of the first lap , Häkkinen led from Michael Schumacher , Coulthard , Ralf Schumacher , Irvine , Barrichello , Button , Herbert , Villeneuve , Verstappen , Frentzen , Trulli , de la Rosa , Wurz , Salo , Alesi , Heidfeld , Zonta , Diniz , Fisichella , Gené and Mazzacane .
Häkkinen set the fastest lap of the race on lap two and began to maintain the gap between himself and Michael Schumacher while both drivers pulled away from the rest of the field . Villeneuve moved into eighth position when he passed Herbert on lap seven , while Trulli clinched 11th from teammate Frentzen . Verstappen became the first retirement of the race when he coasted across the circuit with gearbox problems on lap nine and drove to his garage . Diniz made his first pit stop on lap 13 , starting the first round of pit stops . At the front of the field , Häkkinen increased the gap between himself and Michael Schumacher to two seconds , who in turn was a further ten seconds ahead of Coulthard in third . Ralf Schumacher was a further 8 @.@ 8 seconds behind the second McLaren driver , but was drawing ahead of Irvine in fifth . Further back , Trulli made a pit stop from tenth on lap 15 and emerged in 18th position . Irvine became the first of the front runners to pit the following lap and emerged behind Frentzen .
Wurz , Herbert , Salo and Heidfeld all made pit stops on lap 18 , while Trulli lost time after going off the track . On the 19th lap , Ralf Schumacher , Villeneuve , Frentzen , Pedro de la Rosa and Fisichella made their first pit stops . Barrichello and Button made pit stops on the following lap , and rejoined ahead of Irvine . Alesi retired from the race with an engine failure and spun off onto the circuit on lap 21 . Häkkinen made a pit stop on lap 22 . Michael Schumacher took over the lead for one lap before his pit stop on lap 23 giving it to Coulthard . The Scot took his pit stop on lap 24 handing back the lead to teammate Häkkinen . On the same lap , Villeneuve passed Irvine into turn 16 for seventh position . All of the drivers had made pit stops by the end of lap 25 . The race order was Häkkinen , Michael Schumacher , Coulthard , Barrichello , Ralf Schumacher , Button , Irvine , Herbert , Frentzen , Trulli , Diniz , Zonta , Salo , de la Rosa , Heidfeld , Fisichella , Gené , Wurz and Mazzacane . Häkkinen set a new fastest lap of the race on lap 26 , a 1 : 39 @.@ 189 , as he built a gap between himself and Michael Schumacher to 2 @.@ 9 seconds .
Trulli became the first driver to make a second pit stop on lap 28 . Light rain began to fall on lap 29 and track started to become slippery . The gap between Häkkinen and Michael Schumacher fell by one second after the McLaren driver encountered lapped traffic on lap 30 . Ralf Schumacher lost sixth position to teammate Button after making a mistake on the same lap , while Frentzen pulled off the track at the entry of First Curve to retire from a hydraulic pump issue which caused his gearbox to fail . Michael Schumacher closed the gap to Häkkinen by 0 @.@ 7 seconds by lap 31 , although he made minor contact with Zonta two laps later . Further down the order , Heidfeld overtook Trulli for 13th position on lap 34 . The second round of pit stops began on the same lap when Irvine made a pit stop . Häkkinen made his second stop on lap 37 , and came out of the pit lane 25 @.@ 8 seconds behind rival Michael Schumacher but ahead of Coulthard . Michael Schumacher began to immediately pull away from Häkkinen . Coulthard , Barrichello and Button remained in third , fourth and fifth positions respectively , during their second stops on lap 38 and 39 . Wurz went into retirement when he spun sideways near the entry of the pit lane on lap 40 . Michael Schumacher took his final pit stop on the same lap , and emerged 4 @.@ 1 seconds in front of Häkkinen .
Ralf Schumacher became the sixth retirement of the race when he lost the rear @-@ end and spun into the gravel trap when trying to lap Gené at turn two on lap 42 . This allowed Villeneuve to enter the points @-@ scoring positions in sixth . Heidfeld became the final driver to make a scheduled pit stop on the same lap . At the conclusion of lap 42 , with the scheduled pit stops completed , the order was Michael Schumacher , Häkkinen , Coulthard , Barrichello , Button , Villeneuve , Herbert , Irvine , Zonta , Salo , Diniz , Trulli , Fisichella , de la Rosa , Gené , Heidfeld and Mazzacane . Heidfeld retired from a suspension failure on lap 43 as de la Rosa passed Fisichella for 13th position on the same lap , and Fisichella was forced onto the gravel to avoid contact. de la Rosa made up a further position overtaking Trulli five laps later . Gené became the race 's final retirement with an expired engine on lap 49 . Michael Schumacher maintained his lead throughout the remaining four laps and crossed the finish line on lap 53 to win his eighth race of the 2000 season in a time of 1 ' 29 : 53 @.@ 435 , at an average speed of 128 @.@ 902 miles per hour ( 207 @.@ 448 km / h ) . Michael Schumacher was crowned 2000 Drivers ' Champion as Häkkinen could not catch his points total in the one remaining race . He also became the first driver to clinch the title with Ferrari since Jody Scheckter in 1979 . Häkkinen finished second in his McLaren , 1 @.@ 8 seconds behind , ahead of teammate Coulthard in third , Barrichello in fourth , Button in fifth , and Villeneuve rounding out the points scoring positions in sixth . Herbert , Irvine , Zonta , Salo and Diniz rounded out the next five positions. de la Rosa , Trulli , Fisichella and Mazzacane were the last of the classified finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and in the subsequent press conference . Michael Schumacher revealed that he took a cautious approach when the track became slippery due to rain in the second stint . He also added his team made adjustments during the first stop which helped to contribute to his quick pace . Häkkinen congratulated Michael Schumacher on clinching the Drivers ' Championship and said that although he felt naturally disappointed , he admitted that " to be a good winner , sometimes you also have to be a good loser " . He also confirmed that Ferrari 's strategy lost him the chance of victory and acknowledged that Schumacher was at an advantage after his second pit stop . Coulthard described his race as " quiet " because of the lack of action he encountered . He also admitted that he struggled to handle the car in the wet conditions .
Michael Schumacher 's title triumph was well received in the Formula One paddock and in the media . German national newspaper Die Welt said : " A dream has been fulfilled and it will have far @-@ reaching consequences . Ferrari and Formula One are alive again in this season and a new monument has been created ... Hard work and self @-@ sacrifice have been rewarded . " In Italy , events were held across the country to celebrate Michael Schumacher 's championship victory . Candido Cannavò , director of the Italian sports newspaper La Gazzetta dello Sport described the moment as : " On the dawn of a luminous autumn Sunday Ferrari reconciled itself with history . "
Ferrari president Luca di Montezemolo described Michael Schumacher 's title victory as the " most beautiful day of my life " . He further dedicated the championship to the Ferrari team , their worldwide fan base , Ferrari 's majority owner FIAT , and the team 's sponsors and suppliers for their continued support . Former World Champion Scheckter praised both Ferrari and Michael Schumacher , though he expressed disappointment at losing his status as the final World Champion for Ferrari . However , the former President of Italy Francesco Cossiga criticised Michael Schumacher 's conduct during the Italian National Anthem where the German traditionally imitated a conductor when it was heard . Michael Schumacher responded by saying that he did not mean to cause offence and insisted that he was respectful to the national anthem .
Off track , the argument over the new rules implemented at the Grand Prix and the inclusion of lawyer Roberto Causo as a race steward was renewed . FIA president Max Mosley published a letter dated from 19 October to Ron Dennis which accused him of damaging the image of Formula One with his recent stream of comments over the issues . Mosley also defended Race Director Charlie Whiting 's announcement that marshals could use racing flags to caution drivers over unsportsmanlike behaviour . Dennis responded by apologising for his comments , saying that he did not intend to bring Formula One into disrepute and cause disrespect to Causo . " It certainly has not ever been my intention to damage a sport to which I have devoted most of my working life . " he said .
As a consequence of the race , Michael Schumacher won the Drivers ' Championship with a twelve @-@ point gap over championship rival Häkkinen , who in turn was confirmed as the runner @-@ up in the Championship . Coulthard maintained third with 67 points , nine points ahead of Barrichello , and 43 in front of Ralf Schumacher . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari increased their lead to thirteen points . Williams , with 36 points , increased the gap to their rivals Benetton by 16 points , while BAR passed Jordan for fifth place on 18 points , with one race of the season remaining .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Bold text indicates who still has a theoretical chance of becoming World Champion .
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Spider @-@ Man Unlimited ( video game ) =
Spider @-@ Man Unlimited is an endless runner video game developed and published by Gameloft based on the Marvel Comics superhero Spider @-@ Man . The player controls the title character and his alternate versions during his fight against the members of the Sinister Six and their multiverse counterparts . The game 's main mode features definitive goals in contrast to the traditional aim of running as far as possible . The game is also known for having regular , special , time @-@ limited , community events .
First announced in June 2014 , Spider @-@ Man Unlimited was released for Apple iOS , Android and Windows Phone on September 10 , 2014 . Starting in October 2014 , Gameloft released seven updates that added new chapters to the story mode , Spider @-@ Men and Spider @-@ Women , enemies , events and stages . Since its release , it has been downloaded 30 million times and has been well received by gaming critics . Reviewers praised the game 's controls , sound , animation and the variety of characters , while criticizing its energy system , which they considered a limit to the playability .
= = Plot = =
After Spider @-@ Man defeats a figure known as the Gold Goblin , Nick Fury tells him the Green Goblin has used a portal to assemble a multiverse Sinister Six and plans to take over Spider @-@ Man 's dimension . S.H.I.E.L.D. then used the portal to assemble alternative versions of Spider @-@ Man and other spider @-@ powered heroes like Spider @-@ Girl , Spider @-@ Ham , and Spider @-@ Man 2099 to aid in the battle . Spider @-@ Man pursues the Green Goblin and his alternative versions . After he defeats the alternative Goblins , Spider @-@ Man fights various versions of Vulture , Electro , Sandman , Doctor Octopus , and Mysterio , as well as the Sinister Soldiers — armored soldiers working for the multiverse Sinister Six .
= = Gameplay = =
Spider @-@ Man Unlimited is an endless runner game in which Spider @-@ Man runs across New York rooftops , including that of the Oscorp building , as well as Sinister Six spaceships and a giant Doctor Octopus machine , as he dodges obstacles , defeats enemies , and collect power @-@ ups and vials . Regular enemies are defeated by slide attacks and punches , while bosses requires the player to fling projectiles at them . Players earn combos by overthrowing enemies ; almost hitting an obstacle or going through a ring also increases the player 's combo count . Sections in which Spider @-@ Man swings through streets , climbs the sides of buildings and free @-@ falls from buildings are interspersed with the running portions of the game .
The game has a story mode that , in contrast to traditional endless runners , features definitive goals — for example defeating a predetermined number of enemies , collecting random items , reaching a specific point , or defeating the boss . It is divided into chapters , called " issues " , each having 5 main missions that end with a boss fight , and various side missions . Some missions can only be completed by a specific version of Spider @-@ Man . Others were restricted to characters of a certain level ; but with the third update , it was modified to require a certain amount of " Spidey Power " , or the player 's team multiplier . By completing missions , the player can win experience points to reach the next level and in @-@ game currency : regular vials or rarer ISO @-@ 8 . Players can improve their power @-@ ups and buy alternate versions of Spider @-@ Man by spending vials .
To get a new version of Spider @-@ Man as a " card " , players can use their vials or ISO @-@ 8 to open portals to an alternate dimension from which a randomly selected Spider @-@ Man arrives . Each card can be leveled up and has a star rating called the level cap . To level up a card , players can earn experience points during a run . A card can also be sacrificed to level up another , and by fusing two equal cards , players can increase a card 's level cap . By using vials , which usually gives players a 3- or 4 @-@ star character , players have a small chance of acquiring a rare version of Spider @-@ Man , while ISO @-@ 8 ensures they get a rare one . Each card has a score multiplier that is raised once a Spider is leveled up and a special ability . For example , Spider @-@ Armor increases by 30 % the score earned by running . Each card occupies a character slot , of which six are available . Players can unlock slots by completing an issue , or can buy it using vials and , as the price increases , ISO @-@ 8s .
In addition to the story mode , the game features an unlimited , de facto endless runner @-@ style mode and time @-@ limited events , both of which are score @-@ based games . The leaderboard of the unlimited mode awards prizes based on daily rank . In events , players can compete against other players and win rewards ; players earn the Spider @-@ Man featured in that event by ranking at certain positions on the leaderboard or reaching certain objectives . The seventh update added an alliance mode for online players ; it is a territorial competition to gain the possession of New York streets , in which a player can join an alliance or create one 's own to confront other 's alliances . Additionally , players can complete extra missions called " Spidey Ops " , in which one or more characters , up to a maximum of six , become unavailable for a set period of time ; when they return they gain experience and vials .
The game 's energy system gives players 5 energy points at the start . Beginning a run in any mode costs one point , and it takes 10 minutes for a point to recharge . Players can pay to refill energy by spending ISO @-@ 8s . Players can make friends at the leaderboard ; once per day they can send and request 5 energy points , which are stored in their inboxes .
= = Development and release = =
Spider @-@ Man Unlimited was developed and published by Paris @-@ based company Gameloft . Its soundtrack was composed by Pascal Dion , and it was directed by Baptiste Marmey , produced by Steve Melanson , designed by Corentin Delprat , and programmed by Jerome Chen . At a press release on June 6 , 2014 , Gameloft announced it had formed a partnership with Marvel Entertainment and was developing a Spider @-@ Man @-@ based game for smartphones and tablets . Later that month , during the Electronic Entertainment Expo , an announcement trailer was exhibited and the game was made playable . A second trailer was shown at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International that July . The game was released for iOS , Android OS , and Windows Phone on September 10 , 2014 .
The idea for the game was first conceived as the production team thought that endless runner games were popular but were always too similar . To create an endless runner that would differentiate itself from others in the genre , the staff focused on Spider @-@ Man 's main powers , which originally led to a swinger @-@ only game . However , they found it " a bit boring " , and it was complicated to have boss fights and to add new systems and gameplay styles . Then they reconceptualized the game as a runner with elements of swinging , fighting , wall @-@ climbing , and free @-@ falling . The storyline of the game was created to focus on the Sinister Six and the multiple versions of Spider @-@ Man . Gameloft was allowed to explore other stories such as the Spider @-@ Verse , but they were required to consult with Marvel to decide which were to be featured . The product manager , Tatiana Nahai , was the responsible for choosing among the options and she discusses the ideas with the narrative designer . After the narrative designer creates the main plotline and dialogues , they consult Marvel writer Fred Van Lente for feedback . The same process of having Marvel feedback occurs for the addition of new characters and environments . Environments were created by the level design team , which was responsible for deciding which obstacles or types of boss attacks fit best , based on how distinct they would be from other levels . As new updates were released , new environments like the New York Highline , 2099 New York and snowy New York were added .
The animation techniques for the characters were based on previous Spider @-@ Man games , films and comics . Characters were designed to be balanced and , with this in mind , the production team tried to implement similar abilities for the Spider @-@ Men and Spider @-@ Women , despite giving them different skills . Originally , Marvel only allowed the staff to use 30 characters , but the developers felt it was limited — only having 1 female character , for example — and requested more variety . Requests on their forums , Facebook page , subreddit , and Twitch.tv were also considered , but they always focus on thematic releases ; for example , " Monster Spiders " ( Spider @-@ X and Tarantula ) or dimensional variations of Spider @-@ Man . Since the inception of the game , the production team planned to add a character with a level cap higher than 100 as they imagined players would eventually master all the available characters . This resulted in the creation of the " Titan " characters to expand the game replay value . To avoid overpowering them and reducing other characters ' value , however , they made Titans difficult to acquire .
As of 2015 , Gameloft was frequently releasing updates to the game . The main reason for adding new updates is to group characters thematically and to synchronize with Marvel Comics . As such , the first update , released in October 2014 , started the " Spider @-@ Verse " storyline ; this remained the main theme until the fourth update , released in April 2015 . The main villains of this storyline , the Inheritors , were faced in the " Great Hunt " event ; first Karn and Morlun , then Daemos and Jennix , and ultimately Solus . The seventh update , released in September 2015 , added events and environments based on the Spider @-@ Island storyline into the game . The eighth , released in October 2015 , continued Spider @-@ Island , and added Renew Your Vows character Annie Parker and costumes from the All @-@ New , All @-@ Different storyline . The game even anticipated the comics when a new Spider @-@ Woman 's costume debuted in the second update , released in December 2014 , before its March 2015 comics debut .
The updates also contribute to the main story mode ; the first added Sandman as its boss , while the fourth added Doctor Octopus , and the sixth added Mysterio . New characters are frequently added through the updates , and some of them , such as Spider @-@ Gwen , Silk , Spider @-@ Punk , and Aracnido Jr . , made their first appearances in Spider @-@ Man Unlimited . Other common update content includes thematic fights against specific villains , such as Jack O 'Lantern , Hydro @-@ Man , and Silver Sable . The sixth improved objective counters for events , while the seventh added short mission @-@ style events . Some updates like the first and the sixth also included bug fixes , while the first adapted it to run on Windows Phone devices with 512 megabytes of RAM , and the sixth also made it compatible with the MFi Program .
= = Reception = =
Spider @-@ Man Unlimited has been well received by customers ; as of December 2014 , it has been downloaded more than 30 million times . Critics have provided " generally favorable reviews " , according to Metacritic , which assigns a score of 79 out of 100 based on 10 reviews . Jim Squires , writing for Gamezebo , stated the game " is both how you do a runner right AND how you do a superhero game right . " Shaun Musgrave of TouchArcade recommended it to both Spider @-@ Man fans and endless runner fans . Polygon 's Justin McElroy said " Spider @-@ Man Unlimited [ sic ] is a top @-@ notch game all on its own " . The staff of Download.com appreciated its combination of " great graphics , super @-@ spidey skills , and the old @-@ school feel of a classic runner game " . For 148Apps.com , Jennifer Allen wrote , " Despite [ some problems ] , Spider @-@ Man Unlimited is a surprisingly well @-@ made endless runner " . Peter Willington of Pocket Gamer wrote that those waiting for a Spider @-@ Man game would " be disappointed " but that it is " a high quality auto @-@ runner " .
Squires , Willington , and McElroy praised the responsiveness of the game 's controls , and the Download.com staff enjoyed its intuitiveness . Regarding the audio , Musgrave and Willington praised the voice acting , Musgrave commended the soundtrack , and Willington praised the sound effects . Musgrave , Willington , and McElroy also commended the animation ; Musgrave and Willington mainly appreciated the comic book @-@ like style , and Musgrave and McElroy the varied environments . Squires said it has " a perfect mix of speed , humor , missions , and collectibles " , while McElroy and the Download.com staff highlighted the possibility of having collectible Spider @-@ Men . Squires and Musgrave praised the variability between running , swinging , climbing and free @-@ falling ; the former stated , " The result is a game that continues to feel fresh long after the hundredth play " .
Musgrave commented , " the art style does sometimes hinder the gameplay " , and Willington was critical of the story mode , which he said had a " weak plot " and lacked character development . The Download.com staff also noted some lags and software bugs , while Musgrave and Allen stated the controls sometimes had problems recognizing swipes . Squires commented that a problem of the game is its level cap limit when the player is using only one character . However , according to Musgrave , the game 's energy system was " the biggest point of controversy " ; he , Willington , Allen , and Mike Fahey of Kotaku criticized it . In opposition , McElroy said the energy system is a " microtransaction hook " that is easily surmountable without spending any real money , and Squires affirmed that because of the duration of a run it " ends up feeling a lot fairer in practice than it sounds on paper " .
= Another Simpsons Clip Show =
" Another Simpsons Clip Show " is the third episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 25 , 1994 . In the episode , Marge reads a romance novel in bed , and it prompts her to have a family meeting , where the Simpson family recall their past loves in form of clips from previous episodes .
The episode was written by Jon Vitti ( credited as " Penny Wise " ) and directed by David Silverman . It is the second Simpsons episode featuring a clip show format and uses clips from all the previous five seasons . The episode features cultural references to the 1992 book The Bridges of Madison County and the 1967 film The Graduate . The episode has received rather negative reviews , since clip shows tend to be the least favorite episodes among fans . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 and was the fourth highest rated show on the Fox network that week .
= = Plot = =
Marge is reading The Bridges of Madison County one night and wakes up Homer to ask if he thinks the romance has gone out of their marriage . He grumbles , saying that he was working all day , but Marge points out that it is actually Saturday night at 9PM ; Homer ignores her and tosses the book into the newly built fireplace in their bedroom . Marge groans and falls asleep .
In the morning , Marge gets the family together to discuss romance , but they can only come up with vignettes from their failed relationships ( and in the parents ' case , near @-@ extramarital affairs ) in the form of clips from previous episodes
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10th Battalion returned to the order of battle , readopting the designation of The Adelaide Rifles . Throughout the 1950s , as part of Central Command , the battalion provided training for national servicemen until 1960 , when a widespread re @-@ organisation of the CMF saw the creation of six state @-@ based multi @-@ battalion regiments as the smaller , regional regiments of the past were consolidated . As a result , the 10th Battalion was subsumed into the Pentropic 1st Battalion , Royal South Australia Regiment , providing two companies : ' D ' ( The Adelaide Company ) and ' E ' ( The Port Adelaide Company ) . In 1961 , the battalion , although technically off the Army 's order of battle , was entrusted with the 12 battle honours that had been earned by the 2 / 10th Battalion during World War II .
In 1965 , the Australian Army ended its brief experiment with the Pentropic divisional establishment , and on 1 July 1965 the 10th Battalion , Royal South Australia Regiment , was re @-@ raised as a unit in its own right . This battalion remained on the order of battle as a Reserve unit until 29 November 1987 , when it was amalgamated with the 27th Battalion , to form the 10th / 27th Battalion , Royal South Australia Regiment ( 10 / 27 RSAR ) . This battalion has adopted the 10th Battalion 's Unit Colour Patch , carries the colours of both the 10th and 27th Battalions , and perpetuates the battle honours of both of these units and several South Australian battalions of the 2nd AIF that were raised for service during World War II ; it also recruits from the same areas , being headquartered in Adelaide with depots across South Australia and in Broken Hill .
= = Battle honours = =
The 10th Battalion received the following battle honours :
South Africa 1899 – 1902 ( inherited ) ;
World War I : Somme 1916 – 18 , Pozières , Bullecourt , Ypres , Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle , Passchendaele , Lys , Hazebrouck , Kemmel , Amiens , Albert 1918 , Hindenburg Line , Epehy , France and Flanders 1916 – 18 , ANZAC , Landing at ANZAC , Defence at ANZAC , Suvla , Sari Bair , Gallipoli 1915 , Egypt 1915 – 16 .
World War II : North Africa 1941 , Defence of Tobruk , The Salient 1941 , South West Pacific 1942 – 45 , Buna – Gona , Cape Endaiadere – Sinemi Creek , Sanananda – Cape Killerton , Milne Bay , Liberation of Australian New Guinea , Shaggy Ridge , Borneo , Balikpapan ( inherited ) .
= Joseph Dennie =
Joseph Dennie ( August 30 , 1768 – January 7 , 1812 ) was an American author and journalist who was one of the foremost men of letters of the Federalist Era . A Federalist , Dennie is best remembered for his series of essays entitled The Lay Preacher and as the founding editor of Port Folio , a journal espousing classical republican values . Port Folio was the most highly regarded and successful literary publication of its time , and the first important political and literary journal in the United States . Timothy Dwight IV once referred to Dennie as " the Addison of America " and " the father of American Belles @-@ Lettres . "
= = Early life and career = =
Dennie was born on August 30 , 1768 , in Boston , Massachusetts to Joseph Dennie , a member of a well @-@ to @-@ do merchant family , and his wife Mary Green , whose father was Bartholomew Green , Jr . The Greens were a prominent printing family in colonial America ; the progenitor of the family , Samuel Green , emigrated from England with John Winthrop and was one of the first printers in the colonies . Having moved to Lexington at the age of seven , Dennie returned to Boston in 1783 to study bookkeeping and later clerk in a counting house . He began preparing to enter Harvard College in 1785 , under the guidance of Reverend Samuel West . West had a significant impact on Dennie , fostering his pupil 's interest in literature , as well as instilling in Dennie a decidedly pro @-@ British mindset .
In 1787 Dennie was admitted to the sophomore class of Harvard College , where he was very popular with his peers . This popularity did not extend to his tutors , and he was suspended in December 1789 for six months after insulting the faculty . Dennie had difficulty finding suitable employment after earning his degree in 1790 , but by 1793 he was practicing law ( though earning very little for his work ) . In a January 1794 letter to his parents , however , Dennie reports that he had been appointed as a reader for the Episcopalian church in Charlestown , New Hampshire . Nevertheless , he insisted that this new vocation would not deter him from his goal of practicing law , though by then he was planning on remaining in New Hampshire to practice rather than returning to Massachusetts . Shortly after writing the letter , Dennie was admitted to the Court of Common Pleas and opened a practice in Charlestown . However , he rarely appeared in open court ; indeed , he probably made only one appearance .
= = Publishing career = =
Throughout the 1790s Dennie contributed to various journals , including the Federal Orrery and the Massachusetts Magazine , often using pen names such as Academicus and Socialis . In 1795 , his writing being enthusiastically received , Dennie was persuaded to begin a literary journal , The Tablet . William Spotswood , a Boston printer and bookseller , agreed to oversee the entire enterprise , splitting the profits evenly with Dennie . Such a literary journal was a novel idea at the time , and it was well received among the city 's elite . Despite the initial excitement surrounding the project and content from noted writers such as John Sylvester John Gardiner , The Tablet lasted only a few months before folding , having published thirteen issues .
Dennie 's disappointment over the failure of The Tablet inspired him to begin work on The Lay Preacher , the first of which appeared in The Farmer 's Weekly Museum , a New Hampshire newspaper which was the leading literary journal of the 1790s . After Dennie took over as editor of the paper in 1796 , its circulation increased dramatically , stretching , as one commentator put it , " from Maine to Georgia . " Under Dennie 's leadership the paper had a decidedly Federalist slant , supporting both the Quasi @-@ War and the Alien and Sedition Acts . Dennie collaborated often with his friend Royall Tyler ; the two wrote a satirical column by the name of " The Shop of Messrs. Colon and Spondee " which appeared in the Museum . In 1798 Dennie lost a considerable amount of money when the paper 's printer went bankrupt . He remained as editor for a few months afterward at a reduced salary , but was soon replaced by the printer 's brother . The paper 's circulation dropped precipitously following Dennie 's departure . Later in the year Dennie ran an unsuccessful campaign for Congress ; following this defeat , he turned down offers to edit several prominent journals , including a generous offer from Boston 's Independent Chronicle , as he refused to work for a Democratic paper . Instead , he accepted an appointment from Timothy Pickering ( at the time United States Secretary of State ) to a position as Pickering 's personal secretary .
Once in Philadelphia , Dennie resumed his editorial career with the Gazette of the United States , a Federalist @-@ friendly newspaper . In 1800 Dennie , along with Philadelphia bookseller Asbury Dickens , began work on the Port Folio . Under the pseudonym Oliver Oldschool , Esq . , Dennie wrote , in 1803 , a scathing attack on Jeffersonian democracy , for which he was brought up on charges of seditious libel . Dennie wrote , in part :
A democracy is scarcely tolerable at any period of national history . Its omens are always sinister , and its powers are unpropitious . It is on its trial here , and the issue will be civil war , desolation , and anarchy . No wise man but discerns its imperfections , no good man but shudders at its miseries , no honest man but proclaims its fraud , and no brave man but draws his sword against its force . The institution of a scheme of policy so radically contemptible and vicious is a memorable example of what the villany of some men can devise , the folly of others receive , and both establish in spite of reason , reflection , and sensation .
This paragraph was reprinted in Federalist newspapers throughout the country . While Dennie was acquitted , the severity of the attacks leveled in Port Folio would henceforth be lessened . However , when Dennie criticized democracy , it was not the republican democracy found in the United States today , but rather the " democracy " found in France under Robespierre and Napoleon . Dennie was invoking Aristotle 's argument that " an absolute democracy is not to be reckoned among the legitimate forms of government . It is the corruption and degeneracy , and not the sound constitution of a republic . "
= = Death = =
Dennie had health trouble throughout his life , as well as a predilection for wine . His father ( who had battled mental illness ) died on September 28 , 1811 ; Dennie was not able to attend his father 's funeral , as he himself was gravely ill at the time , and this caused him great grief . He briefly recovered , but succumbed to cholera morbus four months after his father 's death . Dennie died on January 7 , 1812 , and was interred two days later at St. Peter 's Church , Philadelphia . His epitaph was written by John Quincy Adams . The epitaph erroneously gives Lexington , Massachusetts as his birthplace ; in fact , Dennie was born in Boston , but his family moved to Lexington shortly thereafter .
= = Works = =
Dennie , Joseph ; Pedder , Laura Green ( 2008 ) . The Letters Of Joseph Dennie 1768 @-@ 1812 . Kessinger Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 4366 @-@ 9456 @-@ 6 .
Dennie , Joseph ; Hall , John E. ( 1817 ) . The Lay Preacher . Harrison Hall .
= = Supplemental bibliography = =
Rothman , Irving N. ( 1973 ) . " Alexander Wilson 's Forest Adventure : the Sublime and the Satirical in Wilson 's Poem ' The Foresters . ' " Journal of the Society in the Bibliography of Natural History [ British Museum ] 6142 @-@ 54 . [ The Port Folio ]
Rothman , Irving N. ( 1979 ) . " An Imitation of Boileau 's Fourth Satire in the American Republic . " Revue de Litérature Comparée 53 ( Jan.-March ) : 76 @-@ 85 . [ The Port Folio ]
Rothman , Irving N. ( 1973 ) . " John Trumbull 's Parody of Spenser 's Epithalamium , " The Yale University Library Gazette 47 ( April ) : 193 @-@ 215 . [ The Port Folio ]
Rothman , Irving N. ( 2003 ) . “ Joseph Dennie , a Sceptic , and Philip Freneau , a Celebrant , on Ballooning in Early America . ” Y2002 Annual Report of the Institute for Space Systems Operations . Houston : ISSO , 118 @-@ 23 . [ The Port Folio ]
Rothman , Irving N. ( 1973 ) . “ Niagara Falls and The Port Folio . ” Aldus [ University of Houston ] 11 : 242 @-@ 54 . [ The Port Folio ]
Rothman , Irving N. ( 1968 ) . " Structure and Theme in Samuel Ewing 's Satire , the ' American Miracle , ' " American Literature 40 ( November ) : 294 @-@ 308 . [ The Port Folio ]
Rothman , Irving N. ( 1971 ) . " Two Juvenalian Satires by John Quincy Adams . " Early American Literature 6 : 234 @-@ 51 . [ The Port Folio ]
Rothman , Irving N. ( 1967 ) . Verse Satire in The Port Folio , an Early American Magazine , Edited by Joseph Dennie , 1801 @-@ 1812 . Ph.D. Dissertation , University of Pittsburgh. i @-@ viii , 1 @-@ 220 .
= Die Hand Die Verletzt =
" Die Hand Die Verletzt " is the fourteenth episode of the second season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 27 , 1995 . It was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , directed by Kim Manners , and featured guest appearances by Susan Blommaert , Dan Butler , and Heather McComb . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Die Hand Die Verletzt " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 7 , being watched by 10 @.@ 2 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode received positive reviews , with many critics praising its writing . The title translates from German as " the hand that wounds . "
The X @-@ Files series centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode Mulder and Scully are called to Milford Falls , New Hampshire to investigate the death of a teenager who seems to have died during an occult ritual of some sort . As a result of their arrival in town a few of the local high school 's faculty , who had self @-@ stylized as devil @-@ worshipers when they were teens but long ago stopped worshiping the devil , decide they should take steps to conceal their past activities . Matters are further complicated when the devil seems to have decided to personally interfere .
Die Hand Die Verletzt uses the lapsed devil @-@ worshipers as a way to parody insincere followers of mainstream religions . When confronted with proof of their religion 's claims the school faculty members are mostly worried about how their obligations could impact their secular lives , several being either scared or annoyed by the prospect of having to become devout . This was the last episode written by Morgan and Wong before they left to create Space : Above and Beyond . They decided to add several in @-@ jokes with The X @-@ Files creative team . The episode has several scenes involving animals , each filmed with living creatures . In one such scene frogs rain from the sky . Actor Dan Butler has been quoted as being terrified of an anaconda used during one scene .
= = Plot = =
In fictional Milford Haven , New Hampshire , a group of high school faculty members meet to discuss various social events . The adults initially appear to be socially conservative , debating whether students should perform the musical Grease or Jesus Christ Superstar . However , when the group ends the meeting in a prayer , they recite a Satanic chant .
Later , a group of students go out into the woods at night to play with black magic , an attempt to " score " on the part of the boys in the group . The experiment causes unexplainable things to happen , causing all but one of the teenagers to flee . The remaining teen 's mutilated body is discovered the next day , leading Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) to investigate . Locals — including the faculty members — claim that the children have unleashed a demonic force with their rituals ; a theory which is given validity by strange occurrences , such as frogs falling from the sky and water in the drinking fountain draining counter @-@ clockwise , contrary to the Coriolis effect . Unknown to the agents , substitute teacher Mrs. Paddock ( Susan Blommaert ) is behind the murder , keeping the eyes and heart of the victim in her desk . One of the faculty members , Jim Ausbury ( Dan Butler ) suspects one of his colleagues killed the boy , but the others believe it was an outside force . Ausbury 's stepdaughter , Shannon ( Heather McComb ) , suffers a breakdown during science class while dissecting a pig foetus .
Meeting with Mulder and Scully , Shannon tearfully tells them that Ausbury and the other Satanists repeatedly raped and impregnated her as part of their rituals , sacrificing her babies . When the agents confront Ausbury with the accusations , he is shocked , and denies them . Shannon stays after school to make up her assignment of dissecting the pig . Mrs. Paddock takes her bracelet and uses it as part of a spell that causes Shannon to slit her wrists . When Ausbury learns that the other faculty members plan to use Shannon as a scapegoat , he admits the sect 's existence to Mulder . He confirms that rituals did happen while Shannon was present , but said that exposure to sensational media coverage led her to " remember " the sexual abuse . Meanwhile , Scully researches Mrs. Paddock and finds that no one knows anything about her or her background . During a sudden power outage , Mrs. Paddock steals Scully 's pen and uses it to impersonate her in a call to Mulder , pretending to be in trouble . Mulder handcuffs Ausbury in the basement to prevent his possible escape , then leaves to help Scully . Soon after , a giant snake appears and devours Ausbury .
Mulder arrives at the school , where Scully claims that she never called him . They find Mrs. Paddock seemingly attacked by the remaining faculty members , and go to search for them . The faculty members capture the two agents , convinced that they need to perform a sacrifice to regain favor with the Devil and make up for their diluted faith before it is too late . As they are about to kill Mulder and Scully , Mrs. Paddock causes them to instead kill themselves , confirming that their attempt was indeed too late . The agents escape their bonds and find Mrs. Paddock missing , with only a parting message on the chalkboard stating , " Goodbye . It 's been nice working with you . "
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Die Hand Die Verletzt " was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , who were co @-@ executive producers for the series as well as writers . The episode originally stemmed from an idea of Glen Morgan 's to have a scene where a snake eats a man . Series creator Chris Carter described the episode as " a cautionary tale about playing with fire , playing with things bigger and badder than you might imagine " . In an interview , he also praised the purposefully clashing tones of the entry , noting that it begins almost comical , with the PTC saying Satanic prayers and toads raining from the skies . However , as it goes on , it becomes increasingly more and more dark . Morgan and co @-@ writer James Wong left the series after this episode to produce the series Space : Above and Beyond . The line written by Mrs. Paddock on a chalkboard at the end of the episode , " It 's been nice working with you , " also acted as a goodbye to the crew of the show . The two later returned to the show in the fourth season .
Crowley High School refers to British ceremonialist and occultist Aleister Crowley . The character names Deborah Brown and Paul Vitaris were based on fans of the series who were active on the internet . In fact , the inspiration for Vitaris — Paula Vitaris — wrote episode reviews of the series for the magazine Cinefantastique , starting with the third season of the show . Mrs. Paddock 's name comes from Shakespeare 's MacBeth . Paddock is the toad demon that calls the witches away in the first scene of the play . The episode 's title means " The hand that wounds " in German . The title is taken from a part of the prayer that the PTA says near the beginning , which , in its entirety is " Sein ist die Hand die verletzt " , meaning " His is the hand that wounds " .
= = = Directing and filming = = =
" Die Hand Die Verletzt " was the first episode of the series to be directed by Kim Manners , who would go on to direct many of the series ' episodes . Originally , another director was supposed to helm this episode , but plans fell through and Manners was hired . The production staff was initially worried about Manners , because he subscribed to the Stephen J. Cannell school of thought regarding television directing ; Cannell felt that the writers and directors should both work together to cast characters , look at locations , and film the episode . This school of thought was perceived , at the time , " as a lesser kind " of directing , according to Morgan . However , Morgan was a proponent of Manners , and eventually secured his position for the episode .
While fake frogs were considered for the scene where they fall from the sky , the producers decided to make use of real frogs instead , dropped from a short distance . According to Carter , the " fake ones looked too bad and didn 't hop away after command " . The snake going down the stairs proved difficult to film as the animal kept on falling onto the floor after slithering down the steps . Actor Dan Butler was terrified of the animal , being unable to talk while shooting the scene in the basement . The actor 's fright meant the make @-@ up team did not need to apply fake sweat to his face .
= = Themes = =
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , proposed that the episode is a parody of organized religion , most specifically those who follow a religion , but only pay it lip service . The two argue that the principal joke in the episode is " to look at the way religious faith has been so watered down and paid nothing but lip service , its rituals and doctrines reinterpreted so that only what 's comfortable is adhered to . " This parody , however , is turned on its head : the followers paying lip service in " Die Hand Die Verletzt " are not stereotypical Christians , but rather , devil worshippers . Shearman and Pearson compare Mrs. Paddock — which the episode insinuates to be the devil incarnate — coming to Milford Haven , New Hampshire to judge his followers to St. Paul " coming back and taking a pop at all fair weather Christians who only affirm their faith at their own convenience . "
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club noted the recurring motif of doors . He highlighted various examples — such as the light emanating behind the door in the beginning of the episode , the door in which Mrs. Paddock hides when she kills people , and the door to Mr. Ausbury 's basement in which the Satanic rituals took place — noting that " there 's the whole notion of opening a door to another world and letting an ancient evil into our own " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Die Hand Die Verletzt " premiered on the Fox network on January 27 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 7 , with an 18 share . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the U.S. This means that roughly 10 @.@ 7 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were watching the episode . It was viewed by 10 @.@ 2 million households and over 17 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode later debuted in the United Kingdom on May 23 , 1995 on Sky One .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Die Hand Die Verletzt " received early praise from critics . Entertainment Weekly gave " Die Hand Die Verletzt " an " A – " , noting that , in the episode , " Mulder and Scully largely step aside in this wacky , wicked effort chock @-@ full of stunning imagery and wry comment . " The magazine praised Blommaert 's acting , calling her " juicily diabolical " . Paul Cornell , Martin Day , and Keith Topping , in their book X @-@ Treme Possibilities , gave the episode mostly positive reviews , although they criticized the ending . Day applauded the episode 's themes of " loss of faith … ritual abuse [ and ] repressed memories " , along with the " great set pieces " , and the plot twists . However , he was slightly critical that the episode did not have a solid conclusion , and that the identity of Mrs. Paddock was never revealed . Cornell was even more critical about the lack of closure , calling it " a vast unanswered question " and " very troubling in a show that 's concerned with seeing the truth " . However , he too was also complimentary towards the set pieces , calling them " groovy " .
Later reviews were also complimentary . VanDerWerff gave the episode an " A " and called it " a good example of the show heading in a different direction but still largely feeling like the same show . " He praised the episode for being " fun [ and ] creepy " . VanDerWerff also praised the final scene , noting that " rare that Mulder and Scully completely get played , but they do here , and it makes the episode an even better sick joke . " Ultimately , he praised the " sick sense of humor " , the " outright left turns into demented darkness " , and " the horrifying visuals " . Shearman and Pearson awarded the episode five stars out of five , citing the " very good " conceit about organized religion , the humor , and the " great set pieces " as positive factors .
Nick De Semlyen and James White of Empire named it the fourth " greatest " episode of the series , describing it as a " thoroughly dark and creepy episode " . Katie Anderson of Cinefantastique named the scene in which Shannon begins hallucinating that the pig fetus that she is dissecting is alive and screaming the fifth " Scariest Moment " in The X @-@ Files . Connie Ogle from PopMatters ranked the members of the Satanic PTA as some of the " greatest " monsters @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week , writing , " You don ’ t want to cross the Satan @-@ worshiping teachers at this high school , but there are more vengeful evil forces to displease . "
= 1971 Iraq poison grain disaster =
The 1971 Iraq poison grain disaster was a mass methylmercury poisoning incident that began in late 1971 . Grain treated with a methylmercury fungicide and never intended for human consumption was imported into Iraq as seed grain from Mexico and the United States . Due to a number of factors , including foreign @-@ language labelling and late distribution within the growing cycle , this toxic grain was consumed as food by Iraqi residents in rural areas . People suffered from paresthesia ( numbness of skin ) , ataxia ( lack of coordination of muscle movements ) and vision loss , symptoms similar to those seen when Minamata disease affected Japan . The recorded death toll was 650 people , but figures at least ten times greater have been suggested . The 1971 poisoning was the largest mercury poisoning disaster when it occurred , with cases peaking in January and February 1972 and stopping by the end of March .
Reports after the disaster recommended tighter regulation , better labelling and handling of mercury @-@ treated grain , and wider involvement of the World Health Organization in monitoring and preventing poisoning incidents . Investigation confirmed the particular danger posed to fetuses and young children .
= = Context = =
The properties of mercury make it an effective fungicide . However , in Europe and America , its health risks ( even when consumed in small quantities ) were known . Methylmercury had been banned in Sweden in 1966 , the first country to do so , and the United Kingdom followed in 1971 . Previous mercury @-@ poisoning incidents had occurred in Iraq in 1956 and 1960 . In 1956 , there had been around 200 cases , and 70 deaths ; in 1960 there had been 1000 cases and 200 deaths , in both cases due to ethylmercury compounds . Among the recommendations made after the 1960 incident had been to colour any toxic grain for easy identification . Before the 1971 incident , around 200 – 300 cases of methylmercury poisoning had been reported worldwide . Drought had reduced harvests in 1969 , affecting 500 @,@ 000 people , and in 1970 . Saddam Hussein , as the government 's no . 2 behind Ahmed Hassan al @-@ Bakr , decided to import mercury @-@ coated seed grain for the late 1971 planting season . Hussein himself may have worked in the Department of Agriculture in the aftermath of the 1960 incident .
= = Causes = =
Some 95 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 93 @,@ 000 long tons ; 105 @,@ 000 short tons ) of grain ( 73 @,@ 201 tonnes of wheat grain and 22 @,@ 262 tonnes of barley ) , coloured a pink @-@ orange hue , were shipped to Iraq from the United States and Mexico . The wheat arrived in Basra on SS Trade Carrier between 16 September and 15 October , barley between 22 October and 24 November 1971 . Iraq 's government chose Mexipak , a high @-@ yield wheat seed developed in Mexico by Norman Borlaug . The seeds contained an average of 7 @.@ 9 μg / g of mercury , with some samples containing up to nearly twice that . The decision to use mercury @-@ coated grain has been reported as made by the Iraqi government , rather than the supplier , Cargill . The three Northern governorates of Ninawa , Kirkuk and Erbil together received more than half the shipments . Contributing factors to the epidemic included the fact that distribution started late , and much grain arrived after the October – November planting season .
Farmers holding grain ingested it instead , since their own planting had been completed . Distribution was hurried and open , with grain being distributed free of charge or with payment in kind . Some farmers sold their own grain lest this new grain devalue what they had . This left them dependent on tainted grain for the winter . Many Iraqis were either unaware of the significant health risk posed , or chose to ignore the warnings . Initially , farmers were to certify with a thumbprint or signature that they understood the grain was poison , but according to some sources , distributors did not ask for such an indication . Warnings on the sacks were in Spanish and English , not at all understood , or included the black @-@ and @-@ white skull and crossbones design , which meant nothing to Iraqis . The long latent period may have granted farmers a false sense of security , when animals fed the grain appeared to be fine . The red dye washed off the grain ; the mercury did not . Hence , washing may have given only the appearance of removing the poison .
Mercury was ingested through the consumption of homemade bread , meat and other animal products obtained from livestock given treated barley , vegetation grown from soil contaminated with mercury , game birds that had fed on the grain and fish caught in rivers , canals , and lakes into which treated grain had been dumped by the farmers . Ground seed dust inhalation was a contributing factor in farmers during sowing and grinding . Consumption of ground flour through homemade bread is thought to have been the major cause , since no cases were reported in urban areas , where government flour supplies were commercially regulated .
= = Symptoms , outbreak and treatment = =
The effect of mercury took some time – the latent period between ingestion and the first symptoms ( typically paresthesia – numbness in the extremities ) was between 16 and 38 days . Paresthesia was the predominant symptom in less serious cases . Worse cases included ataxia ( typically loss of balance ) , blindness or reduced vision , and death resulting from central nervous system failure . Anywhere between 20 and 40 mg of mercury has been suggested as sufficient for paresthesia ( between 0 @.@ 5 and 0 @.@ 8 mg / kg of body weight ) . On average , individuals affected consumed 20 kg or so of bread ; the 73 @,@ 000 tonnes provided would have been sufficient for over 3 million cases .
The hospital in Kirkuk received large numbers of patients with symptoms that doctors recognised from the 1960 outbreak . The first case of alkylmercury poisoning was admitted to hospital on 21 December . By 26 December , the hospital had issued a specific warning to the government . By January 1972 , the government had started to strongly warn the populace about eating the grain , although dispatches did not mention the large numbers already ill . The Iraqi Army soon ordered disposal of the grain and eventually declared the death penalty for anyone found selling it . Farmers dumped their supplies wherever possible , and it soon got into the water supply ( particularly the River Tigris ) , causing further problems . The government issued a news blackout and released little information about the outbreak .
The World Health Organization assisted the Iraqi government through the supply of drugs , analytical equipment and expertise . Many new treatments were tried , since existing methods for heavy metal poisoning were not particularly effective . Dimercaprol was administered to several patients , but caused rapid deterioration of their condition . It was ruled out as a treatment for this sort of poisoning following the outbreak . Polythiol resins , penicillamine and dimercaprol sulfonate all helped , but are believed to have been largely insignificant in overall recovery and outcomes . Dialysis was tested on a few patients late in the treatment period , but they showed no clinical improvement . The result of all treatments was varied , with some patients ' blood mercury level being dramatically reduced , but a negligible effect in others . All patients received periods of treatment interspersed with lay periods ; continuous treatment was suggested in future cases . Later treatment was less effective in reducing blood toxicity .
= = Effects = =
6 @,@ 530 patients were admitted to hospitals with poisoning , and 459 deaths reported . Cases reached a peak of hundreds per day in January , and had largely subsided by the beginning of March . The last admittance was on 27 March ; admissions represented every age and gender stratum , although those under the age of ten represented a third of admitted cases . This number is " certainly an underestimate " , because of the availability of hospital treatment , hospital overcrowding and lack of faith in treatment . In the most severely affected areas , prevalence was 28 % and mortality was 21 % of the cases . Some Iraqi doctors believe both the number of cases and fatalities are at least ten times too low , with perhaps 100 @,@ 000 cases of brain damage . One suggested reason for the vast discrepancy between reported and estimated numbers of deaths is the Iraqi custom , common to large parts of the Middle East , for a person to die at home when possible . Home deaths would not have been recorded .
A large number of patients with minor symptoms recovered completely ; those with more serious symptoms improved . This was in contrast to expected outcomes , largely based on analysis of Minamata disease in Japan . In boys with mercury levels below clinical poisoning , a reduction in school performance was noted , although this correlation could not be confirmed . In infants , the mercury poisoning caused central nervous system damage . Relatively low doses caused slower development in children , and abnormal reflexes . Different treatments for mercury poisoning have since been developed , and " quiet baby syndrome " , characterised by a baby who never cries , is now a recognised symptom of methylmercury @
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-@ induced brain damage . Ongoing recommendations of the food regulation authorities have focused on consumption by pregnant women and infant children , noting the particular susceptibility of fetuses and infants to methylmercury poisoning . Data from Iraq have confirmed that methylmercury can pass to a child in utero , and mercury levels were equal to or higher in the newborn child than in the mother .
In 1974 , a joint Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) and World Health Organisation ( WHO ) meeting made several recommendations to prevent a similar outbreak . These included stressing the importance of labelling bags in the local language and with locally understood warning symbols . The possibility of an additive creating a strong bitter taste was studied . The meeting urged governments to strictly regulate methyl- and ethylmercury use in their respective countries , including limiting use to where no other reasonable alternative was available . It also recommended the involvement of the FAO and WHO in assisting national governments in regulation and enforcement , and the setting up of national poison control centres . Over 9 – 13 November , a Conference on Intoxication due to Alkylmercury @-@ Treated Seed was held in Baghdad . It supported the recommendations of the FAO / WHO report and further suggested that local and national media should publicise outbreaks , including size and symptoms ; it considered the distribution of this information crucial . It also laid out a general plan as to the collection of relevant information from the field and potential analysis for further investigation . It called on national governments to make use of WHO involvement whenever feasible , and absolved world governments in clear terms , saying that " No country should ever feel that any blame will attach to it for allowing an outbreak to occur " .
Iraq now has the highest incidence of Parkinson 's in the world . Parkinson 's symptoms are very similar to mercury poisoning symptoms . Mercury that enters the brain has a half @-@ life of 27 @.@ 5 years and chelators are not able to remove it .
= H @-@ 63 ( Michigan county highway ) =
H @-@ 63 is a county @-@ designated highway ( CDH ) in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The highway parallels the Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) corridor between St. Ignace and Sault Ste . Marie . The road is called Mackinac Trail after the Upper Peninsula branch of an Indian trail used before European settlers reached the area . Originally , the roadway was built as a section of US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) before being added to the CDH system in the 1970s .
H @-@ 63 serves as a two @-@ lane alternative to the I @-@ 75 freeway across the eastern end of the Upper Peninsula . Between the northern side of St. Ignace , the roadway has connections to two state highways before running concurrently with M @-@ 48 near Rudyard . H @-@ 63 ends on the south side of Sault Ste . Marie .
= = Route description = =
H @-@ 63 starts a winding trail at Business Loop I @-@ 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 ) north of St. Ignace in rural Mackinac County . From there , the highway heads northward towards the Kewadin Casino . The road then passes within viewing distance of I @-@ 75 past the Horseshoe Bay Wilderness . As it continues , H @-@ 63 has a connection to the southern terminus of M @-@ 123 with access to I @-@ 75 via a connecting road to M @-@ 123 . After crossing to the west side of I @-@ 75 , H @-@ 63 has access to I @-@ 75 via a connecting road to the western terminus of M @-@ 134 . The CDH runs to the north and into Chippewa County . As it does so , H @-@ 63 turns away from I @-@ 75 as the latter curves northeastward . South of Rudyard and into center of the community , H @-@ 63 runs concurrently with M @-@ 48 for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) .
From Rudyard northward , H @-@ 63 turns northeasterly toward , and runs parallel to , I @-@ 75 . At Kinross , there is an interchange between I @-@ 75 and M @-@ 80 ; H @-@ 63 has a brief concurrency with M @-@ 80 so that the latter can connect to all of the ramps in the interchange . The trail then crosses to the eastern side of I @-@ 75 . Near Dafter , the CDH intersects M @-@ 28 . Along this section , H @-@ 63 is roughly a half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) away from the I @-@ 75 freeway at any given point as it continues northward to the Sault Ste . Marie area . H @-@ 63 terminates at its intersection with Business Spur I @-@ 75 ( BS I @-@ 75 ) on the south side of the city .
= = History = =
The first transportation route in the area was the Mackinac Trail , used by Native Americans before the Europeans arrived in the area ; the trail in the area was the Upper Peninsula branch of a longer route that also connected the modern @-@ day Saginaw with Mackinaw City and the Straits of Mackinac . Until 1933 , no roadway was built along the path of the Indian trail . After that year , US 2 was rerouted between St. Ignace and Sault Ste . Marie using the modern routing of H @-@ 63 . This placed the Mackinac Trail on the state trunkline highway system for the first time . In 1962 and 1963 , the state transferred the highway to county control when US 2 was rerouted to follow the completed I @-@ 75 freeway . With the transfer to local control , Mackinac Trail became a county road . Later , it was given the H @-@ 63 designation after October 5 , 1970 as part of the County @-@ Designated Highway System . The designation on the 1971 state map follows the routing used today .
= = Major intersections = =
= Tropical Storm Soudelor ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Storm Soudelor , known in the Philippines as Tropical Depression Gorio , was a weak tropical cyclone that produced deadly flooding in the Philippines , China and Vietnam in July 2003 . Forming out of an area of low pressure on July 9 , Soudelor failed to maintain deep convection around its center for the duration of its existence . On July 10 , the depression brushed the northern Philippines and intensified into a tropical storm on July 11 . Later that day , the storm crossed the Leizhou Peninsula . The last public advisory from the JMA was issued the following day after Soudelor made landfall in southern China .
In the Philippines , Soudelor produced severe flooding that killed one person and resulted in the issuance of a state of calamity . The storm later killed 15 people in southern China after a group of hikers were washed away in a flash flood on Hainan Island . In Vietnam , rainfall up to 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) caused widespread flooding . Lightning triggered by the storm killed two people in the country .
= = Meteorological history = =
Late on 7 July 2009 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) reported that an area of disturbed weather had formed 900 km ( 560 mi ) to the northwest of Yap . Deep convection was embedded in a broad , weak , poorly defined circulation that was starting to be enhanced by a Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough to the east of the system . Over the next couple of days , gradual development took place and early on July 9 , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was issued by the JTWC . Around the same time , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) designated the system as a tropical depression , giving it the name Gorio . Later that day both the JMA and the JTWC reported that the depression had formed and started to issue warnings on the depression , with the JTWC designating it as 05W ;
On July 10 , PAGASA issued their final advisory on Tropical Depression Gorio as it moved out of their area of responsibility . Hampered by an unfavorable upper @-@ level environment , the depression barely intensified into a tropical storm early on July 11 . Upon becoming a tropical storm , the JMA named the system Soudelor reporting peak winds of 65 km / h , ( 40 mph ) . Later that day the JTWC reported that Soudelor had weakened into a depression ; however they re @-@ upgraded it to a tropical storm as it moved closer to Hainan Province . Shortly before landfall in Leizhou Peninsula , China , the JTWC downgraded the storm to a tropical depression . After moving back over water in the Gulf of Tonkin , the JTWC issued their final advisory on the depression . The JMA , however , continued to monitor Soudelor until it made landfall near Fangchenggang , China several hours later .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Philippines = = =
The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration issued public storm signal one for nine regions of the northern Philippines . As a tropical depression , Soudelor brushed northern Luzon in the Philippines , producing upwards of 330 mm ( 13 in ) of rainfall which resulted in flash flooding and landslides . In Ilocos Norte , major roadways were completely blocked by high waters . The storm affected 19 @,@ 845 people throughout the Philippines and one person was killed after being swept away by a fast current . At least ten villages were flooded during the storm . Three homes were destroyed and two more were damaged by Soudelor . A total of 42 barangays were flooded by the storm , killing 21 cows and isolating low @-@ lying areas . On July 10 , a battalion from the army engineers were deployed to the affected region to repair infrastructure . Following the storm , the hardest hit town Bacarra , Ilocos Norte , was put under a state of calamity and regional aid was deployed to the area . Total damage was estimated at PHP 205 million $ 4 @.@ 4 ( US 2009 ) .
= = = China = = =
In Hong Kong , the Hong Kong Observatory issued standby signal No. 1 as Soudelor neared the region on July 11 . The following day , the signal was raised to strong wind No. 3 due to the possibility of landfall near the region . The signal was lowered back to No. 1 later that day before they were all canceled early on July 12 . The emergency response system was put at level four water @-@ disaster in preparation for torrential rainfall from Soudelor . A red alert was also declared for the affected regions . Torrential rains in Hainan caused significant flooding that killed 15 hikers and left several others missing . Numerous roads were also cut off or destroyed by landslides and 30 villages were inundated with flood waters . In Hong Kong , outer bands of Soudelor produced squally rain showers on July 11 . About 20 trees reportedly fell within Hong Kong , one of which struck a mini bus terminal . The direct economic loss to china was estimated at about RMB 1.71billion , ( $ 5 @.@ 4 million 2009 USD ) .
= = = Vietnam = = =
Ahead of the storm , 4 @,@ 000 fishing vessels were ordered to return to port and up to 200 volunteers were mobilized to deal with damages from the storm . Officials evacuated people from 297 residences to higher grounds and reported that 977 other homes were in threatened areas . Roughly VND71 billion ( US $ 3 @.@ 98 million ) was set aside by the Government of Vietnam to assist residents in natural disasters , including Soudelor . An estimated 5 @,@ 000 sandbags and 1 @,@ 000 cubic meters of canvas were distributed to flood @-@ prone areas . The remnants of Soudelor produced widespread torrential rains in Northern Vietnam on July 13 . Rainfall totals peaked at 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) in the region . Heavy rainfall , amounting to 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) , was also recorded in Hanoi . The capital city experienced flash flooding , inundating numerous streets and buildings . Two men were killed by lightning strikes associated with the storm . Officials reported that at least 13 large trees had been downed by high winds . Flood waters in the hardest @-@ hit areas reached a depth of 0 @.@ 35 m ( 1 @.@ 1 ft ) . One person was killed after being swept away . A tornado also touched down during the storm , destroying the roofs of three homes . Thousands of hectares of croplands were inundated by flood waters . Following the storm , 1 @,@ 000 tonnes of rice was allocated for victims of the floods .
= Goodbye Mr. Fish =
" Goodbye Mr. Fish " or sometimes " Good @-@ bye Mr. Fish " , " Goodbye , Mr. Fish " or just " Mr. Fish " is the second episode of the first season of the American sitcom The Cosby Show . The episode was directed by Jay Sandrich and written by Earl Pomerantz . " Goodbye Mr. Fish " originally aired in the United States on NBC on Thursday September 27 , 1984 , at 8 : 00 PM Eastern time .
The episode focuses on the death of Rudy 's pet goldfish , which was difficult to explain to her and difficult for her to deal with . The episode was a critical and commercial success , achieving both high ratings and positive critical feedback . Its viewer ratings placed it third for the opening week of the 1984 – 85 United States network television season and it earned Primetime Emmy Award and Writers Guild Award nominations for its writing .
Several critics either describe this as the most memorable episode of the series or mention it first when describing the series ' memorable episodes . Other critics as well as Bill Cosby include it on short lists of series highlights . Clips of this episode are included in the season 4 two @-@ part " Looking Back " episode .
= = Plot = =
Cliff ( Bill Cosby ) comes home from a long day at work and tries to take a nap . Vanessa ( Tempestt Bledsoe ) disturbs him to say that Rudy 's ( Keshia Knight Pulliam ) goldfish , Lamont , has died , but she does not realize it yet . They have a hard time explaining to Rudy what has happened . Once they do , Rudy becomes depressed . Later that day , the older kids start making fun of Lamont 's death , Theo saying they should hold a memorial service for the fish around the family toilet . When Cliff feels that the rest of the family is insensitive to Rudy 's loss , he requires the entire family to participate in a memorial service for Lamont in the bathroom in proper funeral attire . Rudy loses interest in the funeral and leaves to watch television , ending the ceremony abruptly . She later returns to the bathroom and asks for privacy , not because she wants to say goodbye to Lamont as Cliff thinks , but because she needs to use the toilet .
= = Cast = =
Bill Cosby as Cliff Huxtable
Phylicia Ayers @-@ Allen as Clair Huxtable
Malcolm @-@ Jamal Warner as Theo Huxtable
Keshia Knight Pulliam as Rudy Huxtable
Tempestt Bledsoe as Vanessa Huxtable
Lisa Bonet as Denise Huxtable
= = Production = =
This was first episode taped and produced for the show , on August 1 , 1984 , following the " Pilot " taped much earlier in May 1984 . The show originated at the NBC studio in Brooklyn before a live studio audience with six different sets : a living room , a master bedroom , a kitchen , a child 's bedroom , a hallway , and a bathroom . The taping endured so many retakes that it took three times as long as was scheduled . The set used was notably different from the one used during the pilot . In the first episode , the first floor has extra rooms that it does not have in the rest of the series , beginning with this episode . As of 1987 , this was one of the few sitcom episodes that showed the bathroom , according to Patricia Leigh Brown of The New York Times .
= = Reception = =
In 2009 , TV Guide created TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All @-@ Time , with this episode ranked number 15 . Earl Pomerantz was nominated for the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay - Episodic Comedy and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for this episode . The episode was also nominated for an Emmy in the category of Outstanding Live and Tape Sound Mixing and Sound Effects for a Series . The episode finished third in the Nielsen Media Research ratings for the week with a 19 @.@ 1 million person viewership and a 22 @.@ 5 share for the week ending September 30 behind Dallas ( 22 @.@ 4 million ) and Falcon Crest ( 19 @.@ 8 million ) . This followed a first @-@ place ranking for the " Pilot " the week before . This was the first episode of the series to air after the September 24 date that marked the official beginning of the 1984 – 85 United States network television season .
David Hinckley of the Daily News describes Rudy as " impossibly cute " in this episode . Producer Marcy Carsey considered the episode to be an example of how the series dealt with the " reactions to small @-@ scale events " . According to Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly , this is considered by many to be the most memorable episode of the series . Other critics consider it to be among the highlights of the series including Allison Samuels of Newsweek who remembered Cosby for two performances in the series in which he " hid his potato @-@ chip habit from his wife and delivered a deadpan eulogy as he flushed his daughter 's goldfish down the toilet " . William Raspberry of The Washington Post and Graham Jefferson of USA Today considered the episode to be a highlight of the series . Cosby was quoted in Ebony as counting the episode on the short list of highlights from the series . This was the first episode mentioned by several writers discussing the series , including Renee Graham of the Boston Globe , Matt Roush of USA Today ( in 1987 after the first 81 episodes ) , and Candace Murphy of the Oakland Tribune . In the fourth season two @-@ part November 12 , 1987 " Looking Back " episode , the family tries to help the newlywed Sondra Huxtable and Elvin reconcile after their first fight . The episode recounts highlights of the first 81 episodes to help Elvin understand Sondra and her family and this episode is highlighted . According to TBS , the following lines in the funeral part of the script were among the most memorable in the entire series :
Cliff : " We 're here to say goodbye to a cherished friend : Lamont , the goldfish . "
Vanessa : " I always felt safe with him around . "
= Alain Prost =
Alain Marie Pascal Prost , OBE , Chevalier de la Légion d 'honneur ( born 24 February 1955 ) is a French former racing driver . A four @-@ time Formula One Drivers ' Champion , only Sebastian Vettel ( four championships ) , Juan Manuel Fangio ( five championships ) , and Michael Schumacher ( seven championships ) have equalled or surpassed his number of titles . From 1987 until 2001 Prost held the record for most Grand Prix victories . Schumacher surpassed Prost 's total of 51 victories at the 2001 Belgian Grand Prix . In 1999 , Prost received the World Sports Awards of the Century in the motor sport category .
Prost discovered karting at the age of 14 during a family holiday . He progressed through motor sport 's junior ranks , winning the French and European Formula Three championships , before joining the McLaren Formula One team in 1980 at the age of 24 . He finished in the points on his Formula One début at the San Martin Autodrome in Buenos Aires , Argentina ( where he took his first podium a year later ) and took his first race victory at his home Grand Prix in France a year later , driving for the factory Renault team .
During the 1980s and early 1990s , Prost formed a fierce rivalry mainly with Ayrton Senna , but also Nelson Piquet and Nigel Mansell . In 1986 , at the last race of the season , he beat Mansell and Piquet of Williams to the title after Mansell retired late on in the race , and Piquet was pulled in for a late precautionary pit stop . Senna joined Prost at McLaren in 1988 and the two had a series of controversial clashes , including a collision at the 1989 Japanese Grand Prix that gave Prost his third Drivers ' Championship . A year later at the same venue they collided again , but this time Prost , driving for Ferrari , lost out . Before the end of a winless 1991 season Prost was fired by Ferrari for his public criticism of the team . After a sabbatical in 1992 , Prost joined the Williams team , prompting reigning drivers ' champion Mansell to leave for CART . With a competitive car , Prost won the 1993 championship and retired from Formula One driving at the end of the year .
In 1997 , Prost took over the French Ligier team , running it as Prost Grand Prix until it went bankrupt in 2002 . From 2003 to 2012 he competed in the Andros Trophy , which is an ice racing championship , taking 38 race victories and winning the championship 3 times .
Prost employed a smooth , relaxed style behind the wheel , deliberately modeling himself on personal heroes like Jackie Stewart and Jim Clark . He was nicknamed " The Professor " for his intellectual approach to competition . Though it was not a name he particularly cared for , he would admit later that it was an appropriate summation of his approach to his racing . Skilled at setting up his car for race conditions , Prost would often conserve his brakes and tyres early in a race , leaving them fresher for a challenge at the end .
= = Personal and early life = =
Alain Prost was born near the town of Saint @-@ Chamond , close to the cities of Lyon and Saint @-@ Etienne in the département of Loire , France , to André Prost and Marie @-@ Rose Karatchian , born in France of Armenian descent . Prost had one younger brother called Daniel , who died of cancer in September 1986 . Although short , standing at 1 @.@ 67 m ( 5 ft 6 in ) Prost was an active , athletic child , who enthusiastically took part in diverse sports , including wrestling , roller skating and football . In doing so he broke his nose several times . He considered careers as a gym instructor or a professional footballer before he discovered kart racing at the age of 14 while on a family holiday . This new sport quickly became his career of choice .
Prost is married to Anne @-@ Marie ( born 14 February 1955 ) . They have two sons , Nicolas ( born 18 October 1981 ) and Sacha Prost ( born 30 May 1990 ) . Prost also has a daughter , Victoria . As of 2015 , Nicolas races in Formula E for e.dams Renault , a team partially run by his father . Prost lived in his hometown , Saint @-@ Chamond , until he and his Renault team fell out in the early 1980s . In April 1983 the Prost family moved to Sainte @-@ Croix , Switzerland , and shortly after to Yens , Switzerland . They moved to Switzerland after Renault workers went to Prost 's house in France and burned his Mercedes @-@ Benz . They lived there until November 1999 , when they moved to Nyon in the same country .
In 1985 Prost was awarded the Légion d 'Honneur by President François Mitterrand .
= = Driving career = =
= = = Pre @-@ Formula One = = =
Prost won several karting championships in his teens . In 1974 he left school to become a full @-@ time racer , supporting himself by tuning engines and becoming a kart distributor . His prize for winning the 1975 French senior karting championship was a season in French Formula Renault , a category in which he won the title and all but one race in 1976 .
Prost went on to win the 1977 Formula Renault European championship before moving up to Formula Three ( F3 ) in 1978 . In 1979 he won both the French and European F3 championships , by which time he was on the shopping lists of several Formula One teams . After carefully considering his options , he chose to sign with McLaren for 1980 . He surprised the British team by declining their offer of a race drive in a third car at the final race of the 1979 season at Watkins Glen — reasoning that the token effort would benefit neither him nor the team .
= = = Formula One = = =
= = = = 1980 : McLaren = = = =
Prost began his career with McLaren ( being run by Teddy Mayer ) in 1980 alongside Ulsterman John Watson . On his debut in Buenos Aires he finished in sixth place earning one point , something achieved by only a handful of drivers . Prost added four more points to his tally during the season , scoring points at Interlagos , Brands Hatch and Zandvoort . Prost finished the year 15th in the drivers ' championship , equalling points with former world champion Emerson Fittipaldi . Despite the encouraging debut season , Prost had several accidents , breaking his wrist during practice at Kyalami and suffering a concussion during practice at Watkins Glen . He also retired from the Canadian round in Montreal a week earlier because of rear suspension failure . At the end of the season , despite having two years remaining on his contract , he left McLaren and signed with Renault . Prost has said that he left because of the large number of breakages on the car and because he felt the team blamed him for some of the accidents .
= = = = 1981 – 1983 : Renault = = = =
1981
Prost was partnered with fellow Frenchman René Arnoux for 1981 . Motor sports author Nigel Roebuck reports that there were problems between Prost and Arnoux from the start of the season , Prost being immediately quicker than his more experienced teammate . He did not finish the first two Grands Prix , due to collisions with Andrea de Cesaris in Long Beach and Didier Pironi at Jacarepaguá , but scored his first podium finish at Buenos Aires . He also did not finish in the next four races , and then won his first Formula One race at his home Grand Prix in France at the fast Dijon circuit , finishing two seconds ahead of his old teammate John Watson .
For Prost , his debut victory was memorable mostly for the change it made in his mindset . " Before , you thought you could do it , " he said . " Now you know you can . " Prost led from the start the next 5 races , and won two more races during the season , took his first pole position in Germany and finished on the podium every time he completed a race distance . He won again in Holland and Italy , and finished fifth in the drivers ' championship , seven points behind champion Nelson Piquet .
1982
Prost won the first two Grands Prix of the 1982 season in South Africa , where Prost recovered from losing a wheel , and Brazil , where he finished 3rd but was awarded the win after Piquet ( 1st ) and Keke Rosberg ( 2nd ) were disqualified . He finished in the points on four other occasions , but did not win again . Despite retiring from seven races , Prost improved on his drivers ' championship position , finishing in fourth , but with nine fewer points than the previous year . His relationship with Arnoux deteriorated further after the French Grand Prix . Prost believes that Arnoux , who won the race , went back on a pre @-@ race agreement to support Prost during the race . His relationship with the French media was also poor . He has since commented that " When I went to Renault the journalists wrote good things about me , but by 1982 I had become the bad guy . I think , to be honest , I had made the mistake of winning ! The French don 't really like winners . "
In November 1982 , three years before it became a round of the F1 World Championship , Prost , along with fellow F1 drivers Jacques Laffite and Nelson Piquet , made the trip to Melbourne , Australia to drive in the non @-@ championship 1982 Australian Grand Prix at the short ( 1 @.@ 609 km ( 1 @.@ 000 mi ) ) Calder Park Raceway . Driving a Formula Pacific spec Ralt RT4 powered by a 1 @.@ 6 litre Ford engine , Prost sat on pole for the race with a time of 39 @.@ 18 . He then led every lap to win what would be the first of 3 Australian Grand Prix wins . He finished 15 @.@ 32 seconds clear of Laffite , with 1981 AGP winner , young Brazilian driver Roberto Moreno finishing third .
1983
Arnoux left Renault in 1983 , and American Eddie Cheever replaced him as Prost 's partner . Prost earned a further four victories for Renault during the season and finished second in the drivers ' championship , two points behind Nelson Piquet . Piquet and the Brabham team overhauled Prost and Renault in the last few races of the season . Prost , who felt the team had been too conservative in developing the car , found himself increasingly at odds with Renault 's management , who made him the scapegoat for failing to win a championship . In addition to that , the French fans recalled the bitter fight that had caused their favourite , Arnoux , to leave the team . Prost said in an interview with ESPN during the final race that his car was " not competitive " and that he " didn 't lose by my own fault " Renault fired Prost only two days after the South African race . He re @-@ signed for McLaren for the 1984 season within days and moved his family home to Switzerland after Renault factory workers burned the second of 2 of Prost 's cars , one of them being a Mercedes @-@ Benz .
= = = = 1984 – 1989 : Return to McLaren = = = =
1984
The Frenchman joined double world champion Niki Lauda at McLaren ( now being run by Ron Dennis ) in 1984 , driving the John Barnard designed McLaren MP4 / 2 which used a 1 @.@ 5 litre TAG @-@ Porsche V6 engine . He lost the world championship to Lauda in the final race of the season in Portugal by half a point , despite winning seven races to Lauda 's five , including winning in Portugal . The half point came from the Monaco Grand Prix , where Prost had been leading , albeit with Ayrton Senna ( Toleman ) and Stefan Bellof ( Tyrrell ) closing on him rapidly , when Clerk of the Course Jacky Ickx stopped the race at half distance due to heavy rain , which was controversial as Ickx displayed the red flag without consulting the race officials . Under Formula One regulations , Prost received only half of the nine points normally awarded for a victory .
Prost 's seven wins in 1984 equalled the record set by Jim Clark in 1963 .
1985
In 1985 Prost became the first French Formula One World Champion . He won five of the sixteen Grands Prix during the season . He had also won the San Marino Grand Prix , but was disqualified after his car was found to be 2 kg underweight in post @-@ race scrutineering . Prost finished 20 points ahead of his closest rival , Michele Alboreto . Prost 's performance in 1985 earned him the Légion d 'honneur distinction in France .
While proud to be the first French World Champion , Prost , annoyed that French journalists were proclaiming it as a win for France , pointed out in interviews that other than himself , nothing about the car ( the MP4 / 2B ) had anything to do with France . The team was British ( having been founded by a New Zealander ) , the tyres were American Goodyears , the TAG @-@ Porsche engine was German , the chassis itself was built by Hercules Aerospace in the USA , and was sponsored by an American tobacco company ( Marlboro ) and the Saudi Arabian owned company Techniques d 'Avant Garde ( TAG ) .
1986
Niki Lauda retired for good at the end of 1985 , and was replaced at McLaren by 1982 World Champion Keke Rosberg for 1986 . Prost successfully defended his title , despite his car struggling against the Honda @-@ powered Williams cars driven by Nelson Piquet and Nigel Mansell . Until the latter stages of the final race of the 1986 season , the Australian Grand Prix , Prost appeared set to finish second in the Championship , behind
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giant when using their engines with Lotus in 1987 and both were keen to continue their association ) . However , this began the rivalry that pushed two of the sport 's greatest drivers to unprecedented heights of success and controversy . McLaren @-@ Honda dominated the season , winning 15 out of 16 races . Prost finished first or second in every race other than his two retirements at Silverstone and Monza . He won seven races and in total outscored his new teammate Ayrton Senna by 11 points , despite Senna winning one more race than Prost . However , only the 11 best results from the season counted toward the championship total , and this gave Senna the title by three points . Prost went on to be a proponent of essentially the 1990s scoring system – all results counting to the final results with the winner scoring 10 , not 9 , points .
In November of that year , Prost had a meeting with the head of Honda 's R & D department and F1 racing program , Nobuhiko Kawamoto in Geneva . He expressed his feelings that Honda was giving Senna preferential treatment , and Kawamoto then confirmed Prost 's fears , explaining that the Honda engineers were of a new generation , and that they liked Senna 's panache and samurai @-@ like driving . Kawamoto was able to convince Prost that he would work something out on the Honda end of the McLaren @-@ Honda partnership for the 1989 season , but this was not to be .
1989
McLaren 's domination continued throughout 1989 , and the Prost @-@ Senna struggle for supremacy put them on a collision course . Mutual admiration turned to all @-@ out hatred , with the Frenchman accusing his Brazilian teammate of " dangerous driving " and of receiving more than a fair share of attention from both McLaren and Honda . For his part , Senna accused Prost of being in the pocket of FISA 's French president Jean @-@ Marie Balestre . The animosity between the two drivers came to a head at Round 2 in San Marino . The drivers made an agreement between them that whoever won the start would not be challenged by the other going into the first turn ( in this case , the Tosa bend on the Imola circuit ) . Prost kept to the agreement after Senna won the first start . Prost however won the restart ( caused by Gerhard Berger 's fiery crash in his Ferrari ) , but was passed by Senna under brakes for Tosa . Prost went to a friend of his , a French journalist , and told him about the broken agreement between him and Senna . Against Prost 's wishes , the journalist went public with the story . During testing at Pembrey in Wales , Senna denied in public any such agreement had ever existed between himself and Prost , but the Frenchman 's claim was backed up by Marlboro 's John Hogan who had been present when the agreement was made .
Their embittered season ended as many pundits had feared . In the Japanese Grand Prix at the end of lap 46 , Senna made his move at the Casino Chicane . Prost , turning into the corner , turned into his teammate 's path resulting in a collision and the cars sliding interlocked down the escape road . Prost , thinking the World Championship was over , climbed out of his stalled car . To separate the cars , the marshals pushed Senna 's McLaren backwards onto the track . This left it in a dangerous position , so they pushed it forwards again . As they did so , Senna bump @-@ started the engine . He drove through the chicane and rejoined . The nose of his car was damaged and he had to pit , but he rejoined only five seconds behind the Benetton of Alessandro Nannini . On lap 50 , Ayrton sliced past Nannini at the chicane to take the lead and won the race . But it was Nannini who appeared on the top step of the podium , race officials having excluded Senna for missing the chicane . McLaren appealed the decision , but the FIA Court of Appeal not only upheld the decision but fined Senna US $ 100 @,@ 000 and gave him a suspended six @-@ month ban . Thus Prost clinched his third driver 's title in controversial circumstances .
However , Prost had the firm belief that Honda and Ron Dennis viewed Senna as the future of the team . Prost recalled that by the Italian Grand Prix he had one car with maybe four or five mechanics , while his teammate had two cars and 20 people around him . Before the race Prost , who had announced in July 1989 that he would depart from McLaren , announced he was joining Ferrari . Although Prost was forced to make a public apology to both McLaren and Honda over his Monza comments , he received support from Nigel Mansell ( who would be his 1990 team mate at Ferrari ) , and former team mate Rosberg who claimed that once it became known they would not be using the Japanese engines the next season , their Honda engines did not seem to work as well as was once normal . Prost actually won the Italian Grand Prix , after Senna 's engine blew with only 9 laps remaining . Until that point Prost 's MP4 / 5 had not been a match for Senna 's on Monza 's long straights , which had many , especially those in the press , wondering if there was actually truth to Prost 's claim that his Honda engines were not as good as the ones Senna was able to use .
As 1989 wore on , Prost continually claimed his Honda V10s were not producing the same amount of power as those in Senna 's car . It actually got to the point where Honda F1 boss Osamu Goto felt compelled to speak to the specialist British media on the matter . He claimed that Senna 's foot @-@ tapping style with the accelerator helped keep the RA109 @-@ E 's revs up in the engine 's mid @-@ range where most of the power was , while Prost 's smoother style dropped the engines into low revs where they had a pick @-@ up problem . Apparently the talk was convincing until most of those present noticed Goto continually called them Ayrton and Prost respectively . An example of Prost 's claims came during the Mexican Grand Prix . Despite his car running less wing than Senna 's which theoretically would give him greater top speed , Prost 's McLaren was not able to pass Senna 's on the long front straight even though he came of the final Peraltada Curve clearly faster than the Brazilian and also had the benefit of a tow . In stark contrast , late in the race when Senna was lapping Prost ( who was on fresh tyres ) , Senna was easily able to power past Prost on the straight .
= = = = 1990 – 1991 : Ferrari = = = =
1990
The Frenchman replaced Gerhard Berger at Ferrari and was partnered with Britain 's Nigel Mansell for 1990 ( Berger took Prost 's seat at McLaren ) . As reigning world champion , Prost took over as the team 's lead driver and was said to have played on Mansell 's inferiority complex . Mansell recalls one incident where at the 1990 British Grand Prix , the car he drove didn 't handle the same as in the previous race where he had taken pole position , and later found out from team mechanics that Prost saw Mansell as having a superior car and had them swapped without Mansell knowing . Prost won five races for Ferrari that year , in Brazil , Mexico , France , Britain and Spain . Notable among these was the Mexican Grand Prix , where he won after starting in 13th position . In both the Mexican and Spanish races , he led Mansell to Ferrari 1 – 2 finishes . The championship once again came to the penultimate round of the season in Japan with Prost trailing his McLaren adversary , Ayrton Senna , by nine points . As in 1989 , a controversial collision between the two settled the race . At the first corner Senna , as admitted a year later , intentionally drove his race car into Prost 's , taking them both out of the race and sealing the title in his favour . " What he did was disgusting , " Prost said . " He is a man without value . " Prost finished the season seven points behind Senna , and his Ferrari team were runners @-@ up to McLaren .
1991
Mansell left the Scuderia due to his unstable relationship with Prost , to rejoin Williams for the 1991 Formula One season . Mansell 's replacement was Frenchman Jean Alesi , who had been impressive during the previous two years at Tyrrell . Ferrari had entered a downturn , partially as their famous V12 engine was no longer competitive against the smaller , lighter and more fuel efficient V10s of their competitors . The Ferrari chassis , despite a major revision by the French Grand Prix ( F @-@ 643 ) was also not up to the level of the McLaren and the Williams models . Prost won no races , only getting onto the podium five times . He took this out on the team , publicly criticising the team and the Ferrari 643 , and subsequently had his contract terminated before the end of the season , immediately prior to the Australian Grand Prix . He was replaced by Italian driver Gianni Morbidelli for the final race of the 1991 season and by another Italian , Ivan Capelli , for the following season . Despite being sacked , Prost received a significant payment from Ferrari to not drive for any other team .
It was the second time in his career that Alain Prost had been fired by a factory backed team for his public criticism of the team and car , having been fired under similar circumstances by Renault at the end of the 1983 season .
In Japan , the car was like a horrible truck to drive . No pleasure at all . I 've underlined the defects of the Ferrari throughout the season , but no @-@ one has listened to a word .
1991 was the first time since his debut year in 1980 in which Alain Prost did not win a Formula One Grands Prix .
= = = = 1993 : Williams = = = =
Prost went on to a sabbatical year in 1992 , which was dominated by Nigel Mansell in a Williams @-@ Renault . Prost performed pre @-@ season testing for Ligier early in 1992 and later turned down an offer to drive for the team . After hearing that Prost would be his teammate again in 1993 , Mansell left Williams to race in the CART series . The Frenchman had a clause in his contract which prevented rival Ayrton Senna from joining the team that year . Prost was part of a new @-@ look driver line @-@ up at Williams , with test driver Damon Hill coming in to replace Riccardo Patrese , who had left to join Benetton .
Prost won his fourth , and final , title , but in a year where he was regularly challenged by teammate Hill , and Ayrton Senna . Shortly before the Portuguese Grand Prix in October 1993 , Prost announced he would not defend his world title , as the clause in the Frenchman 's contract did not extend to 1994 and Senna would be able to join Williams for the upcoming season , and instead opted to retire as the driver with the record for most grand prix victories — a record which stood for almost a decade . On the podium in Adelaide in 1993 , Prost 's last race , he and Senna embraced , and it was as if — now that Prost was no longer a rival — Senna saw no reason for any more hostility . Prost was surprised by the gesture . Prost 's performances earned him an OBE .
German Michael Schumacher broke Prost 's record of 51 Grand Prix wins during the 2001 season . However , the Frenchman still holds the records for the most Grand Prix starts in turbo powered cars ( 126 ) , most wins at home Grand Prix ( six at the French Grand Prix ) and wins with most different teams ( 4 : Renault , McLaren , Ferrari , and Williams ) . He also shares the record for starting every race of the season from the front row ( 16 in 1993 ) , with Ayrton Senna in 1989 , and Damon Hill in 1996 .
He is also thus far the most recent Frenchman to win his home Grand Prix .
= = = = Rivalry with Ayrton Senna = = = =
Prost 's battles with Ayrton Senna were particularly notable . The rivalry originated in 1988 , when Senna joined Prost at the McLaren team . The most notable event during the season between the two occurred during the Portuguese Grand Prix , where Senna tried to block Prost from taking the lead by forcing the Frenchman to run close to the pitwall ; Prost managed to edge Senna outwards , taking the lead as they went into the first corner but he remained angered by the Brazilian 's manoeuvre .
The rivalry intensified after the 1989 San Marino Grand Prix , where the two drivers had an agreement that neither would get in each other 's way to the first corner ( cf . 1982 San Marino Grand Prix ) . At the start , Senna got away in the lead and Prost followed him through the first corner without getting in Senna 's way . Gerhard Berger 's crash on lap four stopped the race . At the restart , it was Prost this time that got away the better of the two ; but Senna forced his way past Prost in the first corner , breaking the pair 's agreement at the start of the race , leaving the Frenchman furious with Senna . Senna argued it was the restart . Prost himself was angered by McLaren apparently favouring Senna because of Senna 's better relationship with engine supplier Honda , so he announced mid @-@ season that he had signed to race for Ferrari the following season .
The rivalry reached its peak at the end of 1989 , when the title was to be decided between Senna and Prost at Suzuka . The two McLarens collided at the Casio Triangle chicane when Prost blocked an attempted pass by Senna . Prost walked away while Senna returned to the track . Senna went on to win the race , but was later disqualified in a highly controversial ruling over his path back to the track . After an unsuccessful appeal by McLaren , the Brazilian received a further US $ 100 @,@ 000 fine and a six @-@ month suspension , leading Senna to accuse FIA president Jean @-@ Marie Balestre of favoring his compatriot Prost . Senna 's disqualification meant that it was mathematically impossible for him to overhaul Prost 's points total , and so the 1989 Championship went to the Frenchman . There has been much debate as to whether Senna was overambitious in his overtaking manoeuver , whether Prost intentionally ran into Senna , or whether the collision was simply a racing incident between two team @-@ mates who were embittered with each other .
The following season saw the two drivers collide again . With Senna leading Prost , now in a Ferrari , in the world drivers ' championship , Prost qualified second for the penultimate race of the season in Suzuka with Senna on pole . Between the end of qualifying and race day , pole position was switched to the other side of the track without explanation . Senna complained that no longer being on the racing line , his side of the grid was dirty , meaning he would get less grip and therefore a slower start compared to Prost who had been moved to the clean side of the grid . The Brazilian 's appeal was rejected . At the start of the race , Prost got the better start of the two ; but whilst braking for the first corner , Senna refused to back off and collided with Prost at 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , clinching the title for the Brazilian . Prost almost retired from the sport , saying " What he did was disgusting . He is a man without value . " A year later , Senna admitted that the move was premeditated , in retaliation for the collision at the chicane on the same course the previous year .
There was another controversial incident in 1991 . Prost 's inferior Ferrari was unable to put up a challenge regularly to Senna 's frontrunning McLaren . At the German Grand Prix at Hockenheim , Prost battled Senna for 4th place , however he felt Senna defended too aggressively and at the first chicane forced Prost to take avoiding action by using the escape road . Prost stalled his car rejoining the race . Coincidentally , Senna ran out of fuel on the last lap at the very same point .
The Frenchman took a sabbatical in 1992 after being fired from Ferrari for publicly criticizing the car and the team , while the Brazilian struggled as McLaren was no longer competitive with Williams . Prost announced his signing with Williams for the upcoming 1993 season . Senna had wanted to join Williams too , as they were the most competitive , but Prost had a clause in his contract forbidding the Brazilian as a teammate . An infuriated Senna called the Frenchman a " coward " during a press conference at Estoril , and decried his unwillingness to compete for the drivers ' championship on equal sporting terms :
I think if Prost wants to be called the sole champion , three @-@ times world champion , come back in a sportive way , maybe win another championship , he should be sportive . The way he 's doing , he 's behaving like a coward . And if he wants to be sportive , he must be prepared to race anybody , at any condition , at equal terms .
During the 1993 season , Prost and Senna continued their on @-@ track rivalry . Prost was escorted by police to the Interlagos circuit for the 1993 Brazilian Grand Prix due to the hostility of Brazilians towards him . The two continued their on @-@ track battles at Silverstone where Senna aggressively defended his position against Prost . At Prost 's last Grand Prix , the 1993 Australian Grand Prix , he was pulled up by Senna onto the top step of the podium for an embrace .
On 1 May 1994 , Ayrton Senna was killed during the San Marino Grand Prix . Prost was a pallbearer at the Brazilian 's funeral . Speaking four years after the Brazilian 's death , Prost told Nigel Roebuck that he had " always refused to speak about him " . When Senna died , Prost stated that " a part of himself had died also " , because their careers had been so bound together . Senna had also felt the same when Prost had retired at the end of 1993 , when he admitted to a close friend that he had realised how much of his motivation had come from fighting with Prost . Only a couple of days before his death , when filming an in @-@ car lap of Imola for French television channel TF1 , he greeted Prost , by then a pundit on the channel : " A special hello to my , ... to our dear friend Alain . We all miss you Alain . " Prost said that he was amazed and very touched by the comment .
= = = Helmet = = =
Prost uses a helmet design based on the three colours of the French flag , those being blue , white and red , along with his name along the side . During his early career however , Prost used a basic design of white all over with some blue detail around the visor ( blue helmet with a white 180 ° flipped Y and red lines in the lower branch of the flipped Y and in the upper branch , surrounding the top ) . During Prost 's time at Renault , he used more blue details , most notably around the rear of his helmet . Prost 's helmet changed in 1985 , as his helmet now had the blue detail around the front , surrounding the visor ( with also a blue stripe on the side region , making the white area become a P ) and a white ring with red lines surrounding the top ( forming a white circle with a blue half in the rear of the top ) . . Prost kept a similar design for his entry at Ferrari and Williams . Sometimes , Prost used variants of his helmet design , in 2007 he used his original design , but with the circle top all red and a red line in the lower chin area . In 2010 , he used a pearl white helmet with silver flames and a blue @-@ white @-@ red @-@ white @-@ blue stripe trepassing the visor ,
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October 2012 , " Fearless " has sold over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , and has since been certified platinum by the RIAA .
On the week ending November 29 , 2008 , " Fearless " debuted and peaked at number sixty @-@ nine in Canada , spending a total of five weeks on the chart . The song peaked at number thirty @-@ two in Spain .
= = Live performances = =
Swift 's first televised performance of " Fearless " was on November 10 , 2008 on the Late Show with David Letterman . She went on to perform the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show and Clear Channel Communications 's Stripped . Swift performed the song on all venues of her first headlining concert tour , the Fearless Tour , which extended from April 2009 to July 2010 . During each performance , Swift escorted a silver sparkly dress and black boots and played an acoustic guitar as floral patterns with a moving butterfly were projected on the stage . Alice Fisher of The Observer attended the May 7 , 2009 concert at Shepherd 's Bush Empire in London and said that while Swift drifted off during the performance , it " clearly made perfect sense to the girls in the audience . " Jocelyn Vena of MTV News reported that the audience loudly sang along to the performance of " Fearless " at the August 27 , 2009 concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City . The song is also performed on the Speak Now World Tour .
Various tour performances were used to comprise a music video for " Fearless " , directed by Todd Cassetty . The video premiered on February 17 , 2010 on CMT . It begins when Swift tells her band before they step onstage , " You guys , this tour has been the best experience of my entire life . " The video intermingles footage from the tour itself with fans excitedly showing off signs to Swift with behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of Swift and her band as they travel on the Fearless Tour . It ends with the singer waving goodbye as she exits the stage . Upon watching the video , Vena interpreted it to be " Swift 's love letter to her fans " , as it showed an " inside view of what it 's like to go on tour " . To date , the video has over 23 million views on YouTube .
= = Track listings = =
U.S. digital download
" Fearless " ( single version ) – 4 : 01
U.S. / EU CD single
" Fearless " ( radio edit ) – 4 : 01
= = Charts = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= Typhoon Rananim =
Typhoon Rananim , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Karen , was the strongest typhoon to make landfall on the Chinese province of Zhejiang since 1956 . It formed on August 6 , 2004 , intensifying into a tropical storm on August 8 . Rananim gradually intensified , initially moving northward before turning to the northwest and attaining typhoon status . After developing a small eye , the typhoon attained peak winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) as it passed between Taiwan and Okinawa . On August 12 , Rananim moved ashore in China , and it dissipated three days later . The name Rananim means " hello " in the Chuukese language .
Impact outside of China was minimal and largely limited to heavy rains , although one death was reported in Taiwan . In the country , strong winds and heavy rainfall left heavy damage near the coast , as well as to farms further inland . Rananim destroyed 64 @,@ 300 houses and damaged another 125 @,@ 000 . The typhoon affected 75 counties , affecting 18 million people , and overall damage was estimated at ¥ 20 @.@ 1 billion ( $ 2 @.@ 44 billion 2004 USD , $ 3 @.@ 06 billion 2016 USD ) , primarily in Zhejiang . There were 168 deaths in China , which caused the name Rananim to be retired from the naming list .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Rananim were from an area of convection that persisted west @-@ northwest of Guam in early August . The system tracked generally westward in an area of moderate wind shear , maintaining a weak circulation center . On August 6 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated the system developed into a tropical depression . Shortly before that time , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) initiated advisories on the system , giving it the name Karen .
Further convective organization occurred as the circulation consolidated , and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert late on August 6 . The next day , the agency initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 16W about 780 km ( 485 mi ) east of the Philippines island of Luzon . Subsequently , the depression maintained a northward track , due to its location along the northwest periphery of a near @-@ equatorial ridge , as well as the presence of a tropical upper tropospheric trough . Although the circulation was broad , the winds intensified enough for the JMA to upgrade the depression to Tropical Storm Rananim on August 8 .
Upon intensifying into a tropical storm , Rananim had a better @-@ defined circulation than earlier in its duration ; however , the convection was displaced from the center . The structure gradually organized , with increasing outflow and convective symmetry . On August 9 , the storm turned toward the northwest due to a building ridge the northeast . At 0600 UTC on August 10 , Rananim intensified into a typhoon about 715 km ( 445 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Taiwan . Steady strengthening continued , and the storm passed about 365 km ( 225 mi ) southwest of Okinawa early on August 11 . Shortly thereafter , Rananim left the PAGASA area of warning responsibility . A small eye became evident on satellite imagery , and late on August 11 the JMA estimated the typhoon attained peak winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . The JTWC , however , assessed Rananim as intensifying slightly more despite decreased outflow , reaching peak winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) .
After passing north of Taiwan , Rananim made landfall at peak intensity around 1300 UTC on August 12 , near Wenling in Zhejiang province in China . The China Meteorological Administration reported that the typhoon was the strongest to hit Zhejiang since Typhoon Sally in 1956 . Moving over land , the typhoon quickly weakened to tropical storm status as it turned toward the west . Early on August 13 , the JMA downgraded Rananim to a tropical depression and issued the last warning ; by that time , the circulation was over Jiangxi . The depression lasted another two days before dissipating over northwest Hunan .
= = Preparations and impact = =
After receiving heavy damage from Typhoon Mindulle a month earlier , residents in Taiwan prepared for Rananim by erecting sandbags along flood prone areas , while the Central Weather Bureau advised mariners to be on alert due to the storm . As it passed to the north of the country , the typhoon dropped moderate rainfall , reaching 345 mm ( 13 @.@ 6 in ) in Hsinchu . There was one death on the island . Around the same time as affecting Taiwan , Rananim passed southwest of Okinawa , producing wind gusts up to 176 km / h ( 109 mph ) , as well as heavy rainfall totaling 229 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) on Miyako @-@ jima .
Prior to the typhoon 's arrival in China , officials evacuated 467 @,@ 900 people , many of them to government shelters across the region . It was estimated that about 30 % of coastal houses were too weak to withstand the winds from the typhoon . In addition , officials ordered the closure of all restaurants and entertainment venues . Ferry service near Shanghai was disrupted , and 9 @,@ 900 ships were moved to safer areas . In addition , several airports across the region were closed , including in Shanghai .
As it moved ashore in Zhejiang , Rananim produced widespread rainfall across the country , primarily along its path . 20 stations reported totals of over 300 mm ( 12 in ) , including Yueqing where rainfall reached 703 @.@ 5 mm ( 27 @.@ 70 in ) in 24 hours , setting a new record . Rananim also produced strong winds as it moved through the region , with a record @-@ breaking gust of 211 km / h ( 131 mph ) reported in the offshore Dachen Islands . Wenling City , where the typhoon moved ashore , reported a peak gust of 192 km / h ( 120 mph ) . High waves were also observed as Rananim made landfall , and a storm tide of 7 @.@ 42 m ( 24 @.@ 3 ft ) in Haimen .
Upon moving ashore , Rananim destroyed hundreds of homes near the coast , with destroyed traffic signs and billboards , as well as widespread flooding . Strong winds caused widespread power outages and uprooted thousands of trees . About 64 @,@ 300 houses were destroyed , and another 125 @,@ 000 were damaged , leaving thousands of people homeless . Overall , the typhoon affected 75 counties , with 302 villages isolated due to high water . The combination of strong winds and flooding left heavy crop damage , killing 55 @,@ 000 livestock , primarily cattle , and affecting 4 @,@ 000 km2 ( 1 @,@ 545 mi2 ) of fields ; an estimated 230 km2 ( 89 mi2 ) of crops were destroyed . The typhoon severely impacted the infrastructure along its path , with 1 @,@ 163 km ( 721 mi ) of roads damaged . Further inland , the rains produced a landslide in Yueqing , which destroyed 52 houses and killed 25 people . In Shanghai , about 145 km ( 90 mi ) north of the landfall location , Rananim left little damage , although its rainfall alleviated a heat wave . Across the country , damage was estimated at ¥ 20 @.@ 1 billion ( $ 2 @.@ 44 billion 2004 USD , $ 3 @.@ 06 billion 2016 USD ) , primarily in Zhejiang .
Overall , Rananim affected about 18 million people in China . A total of 3 @,@ 321 people were injured , 185 of them seriously . By the day after Rananim moved ashore , the death toll was estimated at 29 , although by the next day the total reached 115 . Four days after landfall , there were 147 known deaths , which increased to 164 the following day . The final death toll was set at 168 , although 24 people were missing as of the last count . Most of the deaths were from collapsed houses , with others due to flooding , landslides , or flying debris .
= = Aftermath = =
Immediately after Rananim dissipated , the government of China allocated ¥ 61 million ( $ 7 @.@ 4 million 2004 USD ) for the affected people . Officials deployed over 200 members of the People 's Liberation Army to assist in rescues . They used steel bars , ropes , and their hands to search through rubble for storm survivors . At the same time , utility crews worked to restore power and water in the affected areas . A few weeks after the typhoon , an earthquake and another typhoon struck the same region as Rananim had , creating additional flooding , damage , and deaths . The series of natural disasters stretched the resources of the local agencies , although the local Red Cross was still able to provide food , clothing , and blankets . The agency also launched appeals for additional relief supplies . The affected storm victims collectively received 50 tons of rice , 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) of pork , and 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) of salt , vegetables , and water . A damaged school in Yueqing required additional buildings to be built for classes to resume by September . An estimated 85 % of the destroyed homes were built before or during the 1980s , compared to 10 % built in the 1990s . As a result , the government rebuilt homes across the affected area to higher building standards in order to mitigate future losses from typhoons .
Due to the heavy damage in China , the name Rananim was retired during the 38th session of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific and World Meteorological Organization typhoon committee in November 2005 ; it was replaced with the name Fanapi . The name Fanapi was later also retired in 2010 and replaced with Rai . Rananim was the eighth Pacific typhoon to be retired .
= American Sign Language =
American Sign Language ( ASL ) is the predominant sign language of Deaf communities in the United States and most of anglophone Canada . Besides North America , dialects of ASL and ASL @-@ based creoles are used in many countries around the world , including much of West Africa and parts of Southeast Asia . ASL is also widely learned as a second language , serving as a lingua franca . ASL is most closely related to French Sign Language ( LSF ) . It has been proposed that ASL is a creole language of LSF , although ASL shows features atypical of creole languages , such as agglutinative morphology .
ASL originated in the early 19th century in the American School for the Deaf ( ASD ) in Hartford , Connecticut , from a situation of language contact . Since then , ASL use has propagated widely via schools for the deaf and Deaf community organizations . Despite its wide use , no accurate count of ASL users has been taken , though reliable estimates for American ASL users range from 250 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 persons , including a number of children of deaf adults . ASL users face stigma due to beliefs in the superiority of oral language to sign language , compounded by the fact that ASL is often glossed in English due to the lack of a standard writing system .
ASL signs have a number of phonemic components , including movement of the face and torso as well as the hands . ASL is not a form of pantomime , but iconicity does play a larger role in ASL than in spoken languages . English loan words are often borrowed through fingerspelling , although ASL grammar is unrelated to that of English . ASL has verbal agreement and aspectual marking , and has a productive system of forming agglutinative classifiers . Many linguists believe ASL to be a subject @-@ verb @-@ object ( SVO ) language , but there are several alternative proposals to account for ASL word order .
= = Classification = =
ASL emerged as a language in the American School for the Deaf ( ASD ) , founded in 1817 . This school brought together Old French Sign Language , various village sign languages , and home sign systems ; ASL was created in this situation of language contact . ASL was influenced by its forerunners but distinct from all of them .
The influence of French Sign Language ( LSF ) on ASL is readily apparent ; for example , it has been found that about 58 % of signs in modern ASL are cognate to Old French Sign Language signs . However , this is far less than the standard 80 % measure used to determine whether related languages are actually dialects . This suggests that nascent ASL was highly affected by the other signing systems brought by the ASD students , despite the fact that the school 's original director Laurent Clerc taught in LSF . In fact , Clerc reported that he often learned the students ' signs rather than conveying LSF :
I see , however , and I say it with regret , that any efforts that we have made or may still be making , to do better than , we have inadvertently fallen somewhat back of Abbé de l 'Épée . Some of us have learned and still learn signs from uneducated pupils , instead of learning them from well instructed and experienced teachers .
It has been proposed that ASL is a creole with LSF as the superstrate language and with the native village sign languages as substrate languages . However , more recent research has shown that modern ASL does not share many of the structural features that characterize creole languages . ASL may have begun as a creole and then undergone structural change over time , but it is also possible that it was never a creole @-@ type language . There are modality @-@ specific reasons that sign languages tend towards agglutination , for example the ability to simultaneously convey information via the face , head , torso , and other body parts . This might override creole characteristics such as the tendency towards isolating morphology . Additionally , Clerc and Gallaudet may have used an artificially constructed form of manually coded language in instruction rather than true LSF .
Although the United States , the United Kingdom , and Australia share English as a common oral and written language , ASL is not mutually intelligible with British Sign Language ( BSL ) or Auslan . All three languages show degrees of borrowing from English , but this alone is not sufficient for cross @-@ language comprehension . It has been found that a relatively high percentage ( 37 – 44 % ) of ASL signs have similar translations in Auslan , which for oral languages would suggest that they belong to the same language family . However , this does not seem justified historically for ASL and Auslan , and it is likely that this resemblance is due to the higher degree of iconicity in sign languages in general , as well as contact with English .
American Sign Language is growing in popularity among many states . Many people in high school and colleges wanting to take it as a foreign language , but until recently , it was not a creditable foreign language elective . The issue was that many didn 't consider it a foreign language . ASL users , however , have a very distinct culture and way they interact when talking . Their facial expressions and hand movements reflect what they are conveying . They also have their own sentence structure which sets the language apart .
American sign language is now being accepted by many colleges as a foreign language credit ; many states are making it mandatory to accept it .
= = History = =
Prior to the birth of ASL , sign language had been used by various communities in the United States . In the United States , as elsewhere in the world , hearing families with deaf children have historically employed ad @-@ hoc home sign , which often reaches much higher levels of sophistication than gestures used by hearing people in spoken conversation . As early as 1541 at first contact by Francisco Vásquez de Coronado , there were reports that the Plains Indians had developed a sign language to communicate between tribes of different languages .
In the 19th century , a " triangle " of village sign languages developed in New England : one in Martha 's Vineyard , Massachusetts ; one in Henniker , New Hampshire , and one in Sandy River Valley , Maine . Martha 's Vineyard Sign Language ( MVSL ) , which was particularly important for the history of ASL , was used mainly in Chilmark , Massachusetts . Due to intermarriage in the original community of English settlers of the 1690s , and the recessive nature of genetic deafness , Chilmark had a high 4 % rate of genetic deafness . MVSL was used even by hearing residents whenever a deaf person was present .
ASL is thought to have originated in the American School for the Deaf ( ASD ) , founded in Hartford , Connecticut in 1817 . Originally known as The American Asylum , At Hartford , For The Education And Instruction Of The Deaf And Dumb , the school was founded by the Yale graduate and divinity student Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet . Gallaudet , inspired by his success in demonstrating the learning abilities of a young deaf girl Alice Cogswell , traveled to Europe in order to learn deaf pedagogy from European institutions . Ultimately , Gallaudet chose to adopt the methods of the French Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris , and convinced Laurent Clerc , an assistant to the school 's founder Charles @-@ Michel de l 'Épée , to accompany him back to the United States . Upon his return , Gallaudet founded the ASD on April 15 , 1817 .
The largest group of students during the first seven decades of the school were from Martha 's Vineyard , and they brought MVSL with them . There were also 44 students from around Henniker , New Hampshire , and 27 from the Sandy River valley in Maine , each of which had their own village sign language . Other students brought knowledge of their own home signs . Laurent Clerc , the first teacher at ASD , taught using French Sign Language ( LSF ) , which itself had developed in the Parisian school for the deaf established in 1755 . From this situation of language contact , a new language emerged , now known as ASL .
More schools for the deaf were founded after ASD , and knowledge of ASL spread to these schools . In addition , the rise of Deaf community organizations bolstered the continued use of ASL . Societies such as the National Association of the Deaf and the National Fraternal Society of the Deaf held national conventions that attracted signers from across the country . This all contributed to ASL 's wide use over a large geographical area , atypical of a sign language .
Up to the 1950s , the predominant method in deaf education was oralism – acquiring oral language comprehension and production . Linguists did not consider sign language to be true " language " , but rather something inferior . Recognition of the legitimacy of ASL was achieved by William Stokoe , a linguist who arrived at Gallaudet University in 1955 when this was still the dominant assumption . Aided by the civil rights movement of the 1960s , Stokoe argued for manualism , the use of sign language in deaf education . Stokoe noted that sign language shares the important features that oral languages have as a means of communication , and even devised a transcription system for ASL . In doing so , Stokoe revolutionized both deaf education and linguistics . In the 1960s , ASL was sometimes referred to as " Ameslan " , but this term is now considered obsolete .
= = Population = =
Counting the number of ASL signers is difficult because ASL users have never been counted by the American census . The ultimate source for current estimates of the number of ASL users in the United States is a report for the National Census of the Deaf Population ( NCDP ) by Schein and Delk ( 1974 ) . Based on a 1972 survey of the NCDP , Schein and Delk provided estimates consistent with a signing population between 250 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 . The survey did not distinguish between ASL and other forms of signing ; in fact , the name " ASL " was not yet in widespread use .
Incorrect figures are sometimes cited for the population of ASL speakers in the United States based on misunderstandings of known statistics . Demographics of the deaf population have been confused with those of ASL use , since adults who become deaf late in life rarely use ASL in the home . This accounts for currently cited estimations which are greater than 500 @,@ 000 ; such mistaken estimations can reach as high as 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . A 100 @,@ 000 @-@ person lower bound has been cited for ASL users ; the source of this figure is unclear , but it may be an estimate of prelingual deafness , which is correlated with but not equivalent to signing .
ASL is sometimes incorrectly cited as the third- or fourth @-@ most @-@ spoken language in the United States . These figures misquote Schein and Delk ( 1974 ) , who actually concluded that ASL speakers constituted the third @-@ largest population requiring an interpreter in court . Although this would make ASL the third @-@ most used language among monolinguals other than English , it does not imply that it is the fourth @-@ most @-@ spoken language in the United States , since speakers of other languages may also speak English .
= = Geographic distribution = =
ASL is used throughout Anglo @-@ America . This contrasts with Europe , where a variety of sign languages are used within the same continent . The unique situation of ASL seems to have been caused by the proliferation of ASL through schools influenced by the American School for the Deaf , wherein ASL originated , and the rise of community organizations for the Deaf .
Throughout West Africa , ASL @-@ based sign languages are spoken by educated deaf adults . These languages , imported by boarding schools , are often considered by associations to be the official sign languages of their countries , and are named accordingly , e.g. Nigerian Sign Language , Ghanaian Sign Language . Such signing systems are found in Benin , Burkina Faso , Ivory Coast , Ghana , Liberia , Mauritania , Mali , Nigeria , and Togo . Due to lack of data , it is still an open question how similar these sign languages are to the variety of ASL used in America .
In addition to the aforementioned West African countries , ASL is reported to be used as a first language in Barbados , Bolivia , Cambodia , the Central African Republic , Chad , China ( Hong Kong ) , the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Gabon , Jamaica , Kenya , Madagascar , the Philippines , Singapore , and Zimbabwe . ASL is also used as a lingua franca throughout the deaf world , widely learned as a second language .
= = Varieties = =
Varieties of ASL are found throughout the world . There is little difficulty in comprehension among the varieties of the United States and Canada .
Just as there are accents in speech , there are regional accents in sign . People from the South sign slower than people in the North — even people from northern and southern Indiana have different styles .
Mutual intelligibility among these ASL varieties is high , and the variation is primarily lexical . For example , there are three different words for English about in Canadian ASL ; the standard way , and two regional variations ( Atlantic and Ontario ) , as shown in the videos on the right . Variation may also be phonological , meaning that the same sign may be signed in a different way depending on the region . For example , an extremely common type of variation is between the handshapes / 1 / , / L / , and / 5 / in signs with one handshape .
There is also a distinct variety of ASL used by the Black Deaf community . Black ASL evolved as a result of racially segregated schools in some states , which included the residential schools for the deaf . Black ASL differs from standard ASL in vocabulary , phonology , and some grammatical structure . While African American Vernacular English ( AAVE ) is generally viewed as more innovating than standard English , Black ASL is more conservative than standard ASL , preserving older forms of many signs . Black sign language speakers use more two @-@ handed signs than in mainstream ASL , are less likely to show assimilatory lowering of signs produced on the forehead ( e.g. KNOW ) , and use a wider signing space . Modern Black ASL borrows a number of idioms from AAVE ; for instance , the AAVE idiom " I feel you " is calqued into Black ASL .
ASL is used internationally as a lingua franca , and a number of closely related sign languages derived from ASL are used in many different countries . Even so , there have been varying degrees of divergence from standard ASL in these imported ASL varieties . Bolivian Sign Language is reported to be a dialect of ASL , no more divergent than other acknowledged dialects . On the other hand , it is also known that some imported ASL varieties have diverged to the extent of being separate languages . For example , Malaysian Sign Language , which has ASL origins , is no longer mutually comprehensible with ASL and must be considered its own language . For some imported ASL varieties , such as those used in West Africa , it is still an open question how similar they are to American ASL .
When communicating with hearing English speakers , ASL @-@ speakers often use what is commonly called Pidgin Signed English ( PSE ) or ' contact signing ' , a blend of English structure with ASL . Various types of PSE exist , ranging from highly English @-@ influenced PSE ( practically relexified English ) , to PSE which is quite close to ASL lexically and grammatically , but may alter some subtle features of ASL grammar . Fingerspelling may be used more often in PSE than it is normally used in ASL . There have been some constructed sign languages , known as Manually Coded English ( MCE ) , which match English grammar exactly and simply replace spoken words with signs ; these systems are not considered to be varieties of ASL .
Tactile ASL ( TASL ) is a variety of ASL used throughout the United States by and with the deaf @-@ blind . It is particularly common among those with Usher 's syndrome . This syndrome results in deafness from birth followed by loss of vision later in life ; consequently , those with Usher 's syndrome often grow up in the Deaf community using ASL , and later transition to TASL . TASL differs from ASL in that signs are produced by touching the palms , and there are some grammatical differences from standard ASL in order to compensate for the lack of non @-@ manual signing .
= = Stigma = =
In 2013 the White House published a response to a petition that gained over 37 @,@ 000 signatures to officially recognize American Sign Language as a community language and a language of instruction in schools . The response is titled " there shouldn 't be any stigma about American Sign Language " and addressed that ASL is a vital language for the Deaf and hard of hearing . Stigmas associated with sign languages and the use of sign for educating children often lead to the absence of sign during periods in children 's lives when they can access languages most effectively . Scholars such as Beth S. Benedict advocate not only for bilingualism ( using ASL and English training ) but also for early childhood intervention for children who are deaf .
The majority of children born to deaf parents are hearing . These children , known as CODAs ( " Children Of Deaf Adults " ) are often more culturally Deaf than deaf children , the majority of whom are born to hearing parents . Unlike many deaf children , CODAs acquire ASL as well as Deaf cultural values and behaviors from birth . These bilingual hearing children may be mistakenly labeled as being " slow learners " or as having " language difficulties " due to preferential attitudes towards spoken language .
= = Writing systems = =
Although there is no well @-@ established writing system for ASL , written sign language dates back almost two centuries . The first systematic writing system for a sign language seems to be that of Roch @-@ Ambroise Auguste Bébian , developed in 1825 . However , written sign language remained marginal among the public . In the 1960s linguist William Stokoe created Stokoe notation specifically for ASL . It is alphabetic , with a letter or diacritic for every phonemic ( distinctive ) hand shape , orientation , motion , and position , though it lacks any representation of facial expression , and is better suited for individual words than for extended passages of text . Stokoe used this system for his 1965 A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles .
SignWriting , proposed in 1974 by Valerie Sutton , is the first writing system to gain use among the public and the first writing system for sign languages to be included in the Unicode Standard . SignWriting consists of more than 5000 distinct iconic graphs / glyphs . Currently it is in use in many schools for the Deaf , particularly in Brazil , and has been used in international sign language forums with speakers and researchers in more than 40 countries , including Brazil , Ethiopia , France , Germany , Italy , Portugal , Saudi Arabia , Slovenia , Tunisia , and the United States . Sutton SignWriting has both a printed and an electronically produced form so that persons can use the system anywhere that oral languages are written ( personal letters , newspapers and media , academic research ) . The systematic examination of the International Sign Writing Alphabet ( ISWA ) as an equivalent usage structure to the International Phonetic Alphabet for spoken languages has been proposed . According to some researchers , SignWriting is not a phonemic orthography , and does not have a one @-@ to @-@ one map from phonological forms to written forms . This assertion has been disputed and the process for each country to look at the ISWA and create a phonemic / morphemic assignment of features of each sign language was proposed by researchers Msc . Roberto Cesar Reis da Costa and Madson Barreto in a thesis forum on June 23 , 2014 . The SignWriting community has an open project on Wikimedia Labs to support the various Wikimedia projects on Wikimedia Incubator and elsewhere involving SignWriting . The ASL Wikipedia request was marked as eligible in 2008 and the test ASL Wikipedia has 50 articles written in ASL using SignWriting .
The most widely used transcription system among academics is HamNoSys , developed at the University of Hamburg . Based on Stokoe Notation , HamNoSys was expanded to about 200 graphs in order to allow transcription of any sign language . Phonological features are usually indicated with single symbols , though the group of features that make up a handshape is indicated collectively with a symbol .
Several additional candidates for written ASL have appeared over the years , including SignFont , ASL @-@ phabet , and Si5s .
For English @-@ speaking audiences , ASL is often glossed using English words . These glosses are typically all @-@ capitalized and are arranged in ASL order . For example , the ASL sentence DOG NOW CHASE > IX = 3 CAT , meaning " the dog is chasing the cat " , uses NOW to mark ASL progressive aspect and shows ASL verbal inflection for the third person ( written with > IX = 3 ) . However , glossing is not used to write the language for speakers of ASL .
= = Phonology = =
Each sign in ASL is composed of a number of distinctive components . A sign may use one hand or both . Each hand assumes a handshape with a particular orientation in a particular location on the body or in the " signing space " , and may involve movement . Changing any one of these may change the meaning of a sign , as illustrated by the ASL signs THINK and DISAPPOINTED :
There are also meaningful non @-@ manual signals in ASL . This may include movement of the eyebrows , the cheeks , the nose , the head , the torso , and the eyes .
William Stokoe proposed that these components are analogous to the phonemes of spoken languages . There has also been a proposal that these are analogous to classes like place and manner of articulation . As in spoken languages , these phonological units can be split into distinctive features . For instance , the handshapes / 2 / and / 3 / are distinguished by the presence or absence of the feature [ ± closed thumb ] , as illustrated to the right . ASL has processes of allophony and phonotactic restrictions . There is ongoing research into whether ASL has an analog of syllables in spoken
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language .
= = Grammar = =
= = = Morphology = = =
ASL has a rich system of verbal inflection . This involves both grammatical aspect — how the action of verbs flows in time — and agreement marking . Aspect can be marked by changing the manner of movement of the verb ; for example , continuous aspect is marked by incorporating rhythmic , circular movement , while punctual aspect is achieved by modifying the sign so that it has a stationary hand position . Verbs may agree with both the subject and the object , and are marked for number and reciprocity . Reciprocity is indicated by using two one @-@ handed signs ; for example , the sign SHOOT , made with an L @-@ shaped handshape with inward movement of the thumb , inflects to SHOOT [ reciprocal ] , articulated by having two L @-@ shaped hands " shooting " at each other .
ASL has a productive system of classifiers , which are used to classify objects and their movement in space . For example , a rabbit running downhill would use a classifier consisting of a bent V classifier handshape with a downhill @-@ directed path ; if the rabbit is hopping , the path is executed with a bouncy manner . In general , classifiers are composed of a " classifier handshape " bound to a " movement root " . The classifier handshape represents the object as a whole , incorporating such attributes as surface , depth , and shape , and is usually very iconic . The movement root consists of a path , a direction and a manner .
= = = = Fingerspelling = = = =
ASL possesses a set of 26 signs known as the American manual alphabet , which can be used to spell out words from the English language . These signs make use of the 19 handshapes of ASL . For example , the signs for ' p ' and ' k ' use the same handshape but different orientations . A common misconception is that ASL consists only of fingerspelling ; although such a method ( Rochester Method ) has been used , it is not ASL .
Fingerspelling is a form of borrowing , a linguistic process wherein words from one language are incorporated into another . In ASL , fingerspelling is used for proper nouns and for technical terms with no native ASL equivalent . There are also some other loan words which are fingerspelled , either very short English words or abbreviations of longer English words , e.g. O @-@ N from English ' on ' , and A @-@ P @-@ T from English ' apartment ' . Fingerspelling may also be used to emphasize a word that would normally be signed otherwise .
= = = Syntax = = =
The basic word order of ASL is disputed . Most linguists agree that ASL is a subject @-@ verb @-@ object ( SVO ) language with various phenomena affecting this basic word order . Basic SVO sentences are signed without any pauses :
FATHER – LOVE – CHILD
" The father loves the child . "
However , other word orders may also occur , as ASL allows the topic of a sentence to be moved to sentence @-@ initial position , a phenomenon known as topicalization . In object @-@ subject @-@ verb ( OSV ) sentences , the object is topicalized , marked by a forward head @-@ tilt and a pause :
CHILDtopic , FATHER – LOVE
" The father loves the child . "
Even more word orders can be obtained through the phenomenon of subject copy . In subject copy , the subject is repeated at the end of the sentence , accompanied by head nodding , either for clarification or emphasis :
FATHER – LOVE – CHILD – FATHERcopy
" The father loves the child . "
ASL also allows null subject sentences , where the subject is implied rather than stated explicitly . Subjects can be copied even in a null subject sentence , in which the subject is omitted from its original position , yielding a verb @-@ object @-@ subject ( VOS ) construction :
LOVE – CHILD – FATHERcopy
" The father loves the child . "
Topicalization , accompanied with a null subject and a subject copy , can produce yet another word order , object @-@ verb @-@ subject ( OVS ) .
CHILDtopic , LOVE – FATHERcopy
" The father loves the child . "
These properties of ASL allow it a variety of word orders , leading many to question which is the true , underlying , " basic " order . There are several other proposals that attempt to account for the flexibility of word order in ASL . One proposal is that languages like ASL are best described with a topic – comment structure , where words are ordered by their importance in the sentence rather than by their syntactic properties . Another hypothesis is that ASL exhibits free word order , in which syntax is not encoded in word order whatsoever , but can be encoded by other means ( e.g. head nods , eyebrow movement , body position ) .
= = Iconicity = =
A common misconception is that signs are iconically self @-@ explanatory , that they are a transparent imitation of what they mean , or even that they are pantomime . In fact , many signs bear no resemblance to their referent , either because they were originally arbitrary symbols or because their iconicity has been obscured over time . Even so , in ASL iconicity plays a significant role ; a high percentage of signs resemble their referents in some way . This may be due to the fact that the medium of sign — three @-@ dimensional space — naturally allows more iconicity than oral language .
In the era of the influential linguist Ferdinand de Saussure , it was assumed that the mapping between form and meaning in language must be completely arbitrary . Although onomatopoeia is a clear exception , since words like ' choo @-@ choo ' bear clear resemblance to the sounds that they mimic , the Saussurean approach was to treat these as marginal exceptions . ASL , with its significant inventory of iconic signs , directly challenges this theory .
Research on acquisition of pronouns in ASL has shown that children do not always take advantage of the iconic properties of signs when interpreting their meaning . It has been found that when children acquire the pronoun " you " , the iconicity of the point ( at the child ) is often confused , being treated more like a name . This is a similar finding to research in oral languages on pronoun acquisition . It has also been found that iconicity of signs does not affect immediate memory and recall ; less iconic signs are remembered just as well as highly iconic signs .
= Common raven =
The common raven ( Corvus corax ) , also known as the northern raven , is a large all @-@ black passerine bird . Found across the Northern Hemisphere , it is the most widely distributed of all corvids . There are at least eight subspecies with little variation in appearance , although recent research has demonstrated significant genetic differences among populations from various regions . It is one of the two largest corvids , alongside the thick @-@ billed raven , and is possibly the heaviest passerine bird ; at maturity , the common raven averages 63 centimetres ( 25 inches ) in length and 1 @.@ 2 kilograms ( 2 @.@ 6 pounds ) in mass . Common ravens can live up to 21 years in the wild , a lifespan exceeded among passerines by only a few Australasian species such as the satin bowerbird and probably the lyrebirds . Young birds may travel in flocks but later mate for life , with each mated pair defending a territory .
Common ravens have coexisted with humans for thousands of years and in some areas have been so numerous that people have regarded them as pests . Part of their success as a species is due to their omnivorous diet ; they are extremely versatile and opportunistic in finding sources of nutrition , feeding on carrion , insects , cereal grains , berries , fruit , small animals , and food waste .
Some notable feats of problem @-@ solving provide evidence that the common raven is unusually intelligent . Over the centuries , it has been the subject of mythology , folklore , art , and literature . In many cultures , including the indigenous cultures of Scandinavia , ancient Ireland and Wales , Bhutan , the northwest coast of North America , and Siberia and northeast Asia , the common raven has been revered as a spiritual figure or god .
= = Taxonomy = =
The common raven was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work , Systema Naturae , and it still bears its original name of Corvus corax . It is the type species of the genus Corvus , derived from the Latin word for " raven " . The specific epithet , corax / κοραξ , is the Ancient Greek word for " raven " or " crow " .
The modern English word raven has cognates in all other Germanic languages , including Old Norse ( and subsequently modern Icelandic ) hrafn and Old High German ( h ) raban , all which descend from Proto @-@ Germanic * khrabanas . An old Scottish word corby or corbie , akin to the French corbeau , has been used for both this bird and the carrion crow . Obsolete collective nouns for a group of ravens ( or at least the common raven ) include " unkindness " and " conspiracy " . In practice , most people use the more generic " flock " .
= = = Classification = = =
The closest relatives of the common raven are the brown @-@ necked raven ( C. ruficollis ) , the pied crow ( C. albus ) of Africa , and the Chihuahuan raven ( C. cryptoleucus ) of the North American southwest . While some authorities recognized as many as 11 subspecies , others only recognize eight :
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
The common raven evolved in the Old World and crossed the Bering land bridge into North America . Recent genetic studies , which examined the DNA of common ravens from across the world , have determined that the birds fall into at least two clades : a California clade , found only in the southwestern United States , and a Holarctic clade , found across the rest of the Northern Hemisphere . Birds from both clades look alike , but the groups are genetically distinct and began to diverge about two million years ago .
The findings indicate that based on mitochondrial DNA , common ravens from the rest of the United States are more closely related to those in Europe and Asia than to those in the California clade , and that common ravens in the California clade are more closely related to the Chihuahuan raven ( C. cryptoleucus ) than to those in the Holarctic clade . Ravens in the Holarctic clade are more closely related to the pied crow ( C. albus ) than they are to the California clade . Thus , the common raven species as traditionally delimited is considered to be paraphyletic .
One explanation for these genetic findings is that common ravens settled in California at least two million years ago and became separated from their relatives in Europe and Asia during an ice age . One million years ago , a group from the California clade evolved into a new species , the Chihuahuan raven . Other members of the Holarctic clade arrived later in a separate migration from Asia , perhaps at the same time as humans .
A recent study of raven mitochondrial DNA showed that the isolated population from the Canary Islands is distinct from other populations . The study did not include any individuals from the North African population , and its position is therefore unclear , though its morphology is very close to the population of the Canaries ( to the extent that the two are often considered part of a single subspecies ) .
= = Description = =
A mature common raven ranges between 54 and 67 cm ( 21 " and 26 " ) long , with a wingspan of 115 to 130 cm ( 45 @-@ 51 " ) . Recorded weights range from 0 @.@ 69 to 2 kg ( 1 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 4 lb ) , thus making the common raven one of the heaviest passerines . Birds from colder regions such as the Himalayas and Greenland are generally larger with slightly larger bills , while those from warmer regions are smaller with proportionally smaller bills . Representative of the size variation in the species , ravens from California weighed an average of 784 g ( 1 @.@ 728 lb ) , those from Alaska weighed an average of 1 @,@ 135 g ( 2 @.@ 502 lb ) and those from Nova Scotia weighed an average of 1 @,@ 230 g ( 2 @.@ 71 lb ) . The bill is large and slightly curved , with a culmen length of 5 @.@ 7 to 8 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 3 in ) , easily one of the largest bills amongst passerines ( perhaps only the thick @-@ billed raven has a noticeably larger bill ) . It has a longish , strongly graduated tail , at 20 to 26 @.@ 3 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 to 10 @.@ 4 in ) , and mostly black iridescent plumage , and a dark brown iris . The throat feathers are elongated and pointed and the bases of the neck feathers are pale brownish @-@ grey . The legs and feet are good @-@ sized , with a tarsus length of 6 to 7 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 8 in ) . Juvenile plumage is similar but duller with a blue @-@ grey iris .
Apart from its greater size , the common raven differs from its cousins , the crows , by having a larger and heavier black beak , shaggy feathers around the throat and above the beak , and a wedge @-@ shaped tail . Flying ravens are distinguished from crows by their tail shape , larger wing area , and more stable soaring style , which generally involves less wing flapping . Despite their bulk , ravens are easily as agile in flight as their smaller cousins . In flight the feathers produce a creaking sound that has been likened to the rustle of silk . The voice of ravens is also quite distinct , its usual call being a deep croak of a much more sonorous quality than a crow 's call . In North America , the Chihuahuan raven ( C. cryptoleucus ) is fairly similar to the relatively small common ravens of the American southwest and is best distinguished by the still relatively smaller size of its bill , beard and body and relatively longer tail . All @-@ black carrion crow ( C. corone ) in Europe may suggest a raven due to their largish bill but are still distinctly smaller and have the wing and tail shapes typical of crows .
In the Faroe Islands a now extinct colour @-@ morph of this species existed , known as the pied raven .
White ravens are occasionally found in the wild . Birds in British Columbia lack the pink eyes of an albino , and are instead leucistic , a condition where an animal lacks any of several different types of pigment , not simply melanin .
Common ravens have a wide range of vocalizations which are of interest to ornithologists . Gwinner carried out important studies in the early 1960s , recording and photographing his findings in great detail . Fifteen to 30 categories of vocalization have been recorded for this species , most of which are used for social interaction . Calls recorded include alarm calls , chase calls , and flight calls . The species has a distinctive , deep , resonant prruk @-@ prruk @-@ prruk call , which to experienced listeners is unlike that of any other corvid . Its very wide and complex vocabulary includes a high , knocking toc @-@ toc @-@ toc , a dry , grating kraa , a low guttural rattle and some calls of an almost musical nature .
Like other corvids , ravens can mimic sounds from their environment , including human speech . Non @-@ vocal sounds produced by the common raven include wing whistles and bill snapping . Clapping or clicking has been observed more often in females than in males . If a member of a pair is lost , its mate reproduces the calls of its lost partner to encourage its return .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Common ravens can thrive in varied climates ; indeed this species has the largest range of any member of the genus , and one of the largest of any passerine . They range throughout the Holarctic from Arctic and temperate habitats in North America and Eurasia to the deserts of North Africa , and to islands in the Pacific Ocean . In the British Isles , they are more common in Scotland , Wales , northern England and the west of Ireland . In Tibet , they have been recorded at altitudes up to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) , and as high as 6 @,@ 350 m ( 20 @,@ 600 ft ) on Mount Everest . The population sometimes known as the Punjab raven — described as Corvus corax laurencei ( also spelt lawrencii or laurencii ) by Allan Octavian Hume but more often considered synonymous with subcorax — is restricted to the Sindh district of Pakistan and adjoining regions of northwestern India . Except in Arctic habitats , they are generally resident within their range for the whole year . Young birds may disperse locally .
Most common ravens prefer wooded areas with large expanses of open land nearby , or coastal regions for their nesting sites and feeding grounds . In some areas of dense human population , such as California in the United States , they take advantage of a plentiful food supply and have seen a surge in their numbers . On coasts , individuals of this species are often evenly distributed and prefer to build their nest sites along sea cliffs . Common ravens are often located in coastal regions because these areas provide easy access to water and a variety of food sources . Also , coastal regions have stable weather patterns without extreme cold or hot temperatures .
In general , common ravens live in a wide array of environments but prefer heavily contoured landscapes . When the environment changes in vast degrees , these birds will respond with a stress response . The hormone known as corticosterone is activated by the hypothalamic – pituitary – adrenal axis . Corticosterone is activated when the bird is exposed to stress , such as migrating great distances .
= = Behaviour = =
Common ravens usually travel in mated pairs , although young birds may form flocks . Relationships between common ravens are often quarrelsome , yet they demonstrate considerable devotion to their families .
= = = Diet = = =
Common ravens are omnivorous and highly opportunistic : their diet may vary widely with location , season and serendipity . For example , those foraging on tundra on the Arctic North Slope of Alaska obtained about half their energy needs from predation , mainly of microtine rodents , and half by scavenging , mainly of caribou and ptarmigan carcasses .
In some places they are mainly scavengers , feeding on carrion as well as the associated maggots and carrion beetles . With large @-@ bodied carrion , which they are not equipped to tear through as well as birds such as hook @-@ billed vultures , they must wait for the prey to be torn open by another predator or flayed by other means . Plant food includes cereal grains , berries and fruit . They prey on small invertebrates , amphibians , reptiles , small mammals and birds . Ravens may also consume the undigested portions of animal feces , and human food waste . They store surplus food items , especially those containing fat , and will learn to hide such food out of the sight of other common ravens . Ravens also raid the food caches of other species , such as the Arctic fox . They sometimes associate with another canine , the grey wolf , as a kleptoparasite , following to scavenge wolf @-@ kills in winter . Ravens are regular predators at bird nests , brazenly picking off eggs , nestlings and sometimes adult birds when they spot an opportunity . They are considered perhaps the primary natural threat to the nesting success of the critically endangered California condor , since they readily take condor eggs and are very common in the areas where the species is being re @-@ introduced .
Common ravens nesting near sources of human garbage included a higher percentage of food waste in their diet , birds nesting near roads consumed more road @-@ killed vertebrates , and those nesting far from these sources of food ate more arthropods and plant material . Fledging success was higher for those using human garbage as a food source . In contrast , a 1984 – 1986 study of common raven diet in an agricultural region of south @-@ western Idaho found that cereal grains were the principal constituent of pellets , though small mammals , grasshoppers , cattle carrion and birds were also eaten .
One behavior is recruitment , where juvenile ravens call other ravens to a food bonanza , usually a carcass , with a series of loud yells . In Ravens in Winter , Bernd Heinrich posited that this behavior evolved to allow the juveniles to outnumber the resident adults , thus allowing them to feed on the carcass without being chased away . A more mundane explanation is that individuals co @-@ operate in sharing information about carcasses of large mammals because they are too big for just a few birds to exploit . Experiments with baits however show that such recruitment behaviour is independent of the size of the bait .
Furthermore , there has been research suggesting that the common raven is involved in seed dispersal . In the wild , the common raven chooses the best habitat and disperses seeds in locations best suited for its survival .
= = = Predation = = =
Owing to its size , gregariousness and its defensive abilities , the common raven has few natural predators . Predators of its eggs include owls , martens , and sometimes eagles . Ravens are quite vigorous at defending their young and are usually successful at driving off perceived threats . They attack potential predators by flying at them and lunging with their large bills . Humans are occasionally attacked if they get close to a raven nest , though serious injuries are unlikely . There are a few records of predation by large birds of prey . Their attackers in America have reportedly included great horned owls , northern goshawks , bald eagles , golden eagles and red @-@ tailed hawks , it is possible that the two hawks only have attacked young ravens , as had a peregrine falcon who in one instance swooped at a newly fledged raven but was successfully chased off by the parent ravens . In Eurasia , their reported predators include , in addition to golden eagles , Eurasian eagle @-@ owls , white @-@ tailed eagles , Steller 's sea @-@ eagles , eastern imperial eagles and gyrfalcons . Because they are potentially hazardous prey for raptorial birds , raptors must usually take them by surprise and most attacks are on fledgling ravens . More rarely still , large mammalian predators such as lynxes , coyotes and cougars have also attacked ravens . This principally occurs at a nest site and when other prey for the carnivores are scarce . Ravens are highly wary around novel carrion sites and , in North America , have been recorded waiting for the presence of American crows and blue jays before approaching to eat .
= = = Breeding = = =
Juveniles begin to court at a very early age , but may not bond for another two or three years . Aerial acrobatics , demonstrations of intelligence , and ability to provide food are key behaviors of courting . Once paired , they tend to nest together for life , usually in the same location . Instances of non @-@ monogamy have been observed in common ravens , by males visiting a female 's nest when her mate is away .
Breeding pairs must have a territory of their own before they begin nest @-@ building and reproduction , and thus aggressively defend a territory and its food resources . Nesting territories vary in size according to the density of food resources in the area . The nest is a deep bowl made of large sticks and twigs , bound with an inner layer of roots , mud , and bark and lined with a softer material , such as deer fur . The nest is usually placed in a large tree or on a cliff ledge , or less frequently in old buildings or utility poles .
Females lay between three and seven pale bluish @-@ green , brown @-@ blotched eggs . Incubation is about 18 to 21 days , by the female only . However , the male may stand or crouch over the young , sheltering but not actually brooding them . Young fledge at 35 to 42 days , and are fed by both parents . They stay with their parents for another six months after fledging .
In most of their range , egg laying begins in late February . In colder climates , it is later , e.g. April in Greenland and Tibet . In Pakistan , egg @-@ laying takes place in December . Eggs and hatchlings are preyed on , rarely , by large hawks and eagles , large owls , martens and canids . The adults , which are very rarely predated , are often successful in defending their young from these predators , due to their numbers , large size and cunning . They have been observed dropping stones on potential predators that venture close to their nests .
Common ravens can be very long @-@ lived , especially in captive or protected conditions ; individuals at the Tower of London have lived for more than 40 years . Lifespans in the wild are considerably shorter at typically 10 to 15 years . The longest known lifespan of a banded wild common raven was 23 years , 3 months .
= = = Intelligence = = =
Crows , ravens , magpies , and jays are not just feathered machines , rigidly programmed by their genetics . Instead , they are beings that , within the constraints of their molecular inheritance , make complex decisions and show every sign of enjoying a rich awareness .
The brains of common ravens count among the largest of any bird species . Specifically , their hyperpallium is large , for a bird . They display ability in problem @-@ solving , as well as other cognitive processes such as imitation and insight .
Linguist Derek Bickerton , building on the work of biologist Bernd Heinrich , has argued that ravens are one of only four known animals ( the others being bees , ants , and humans ) who have demonstrated displacement , the capacity to communicate about objects or events that are distant in space or time from the communication . Young , unmated common ravens roost together at night , but usually forage alone during the day . However , when one discovers a large carcass guarded by a pair of adult ravens , the unmated raven will return to the roost and communicate the find . The following day , a flock of unmated ravens will fly to the carcass and chase off the adults . Bickerton argues that the advent of linguistic displacement was perhaps the most important event in the evolution of human language , and that ravens are the only other vertebrate to share this with humans .
One experiment designed to evaluate insight and problem @-@ solving ability involved a piece of meat attached to a string hanging from a perch . To reach the food , the bird needed to stand on the perch , pull the string up a little at a time , and step on the loops to gradually shorten the string . Four of five common ravens eventually succeeded , and " the transition from no success ( ignoring the food or merely yanking at the string ) to constant reliable access ( pulling up the meat ) occurred with no demonstrable trial @-@ and @-@ error learning . " This supports the hypothesis that common ravens are ' inventors ' , implying that they can solve problems . Many of the feats of common ravens were formerly argued to be stereotyped innate behaviour , but it now has been established that their aptitudes for solving problems individually and learning from each other reflect a flexible capacity for intelligent insight unusual among non @-@ human animals .
Another experiment proved that some could deceive intentionally at least to other common ravens .
Common ravens have been observed calling wolves to the site of dead animals . The wolves open the carcass , leaving the scraps more accessible to the birds . They watch where other common ravens bury their food and remember the locations of each other 's food caches , so they can steal from them . This type of theft occurs so regularly that common ravens will fly extra distances from a food source to find better hiding places for food . They have also been observed pretending to make a cache without actually depositing the food , presumably to confuse onlookers .
Common ravens are known to steal and cache shiny objects such as pebbles , pieces of metal , and golf balls . One theory is that they hoard shiny objects to impress other ravens . Other research indicates that juveniles are deeply curious about all new things , and that common ravens retain an attraction to bright , round objects based on their similarity to bird eggs . Mature birds lose their intense interest in the unusual , and become highly neophobic .
= = = Play = = =
There has been increasing recognition of the extent to which birds engage in play . Juvenile common ravens are among the most playful of bird species . They have been observed to slide down snowbanks , apparently purely for fun . They even engage in games with other species , such as playing catch @-@ me @-@ if @-@ you @-@ can with wolves , otters and dogs . Common ravens are known for spectacular aerobatic displays , such as flying in loops or interlocking talons with each other in flight .
They are also one of only a few wild animals who make their own toys . They have been observed breaking off twigs to play with socially .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Conservation and management = = =
Compared to many smaller Corvus species ( such as American crow ) , ravens prefer undisturbed montane or forest habitat or rural areas over urban areas . In other areas , their numbers have increased dramatically and they have become agricultural pests . Common ravens can cause damage to crops , such as nuts and grain , or can harm livestock , particularly by killing young goat kids , lambs and calves . Ravens generally attack the faces of young livestock , but the more common raven behaviour of scavenging may be misidentified as predation by ranchers .
In the western Mojave Desert , human settlement and land development have led to an estimated 16 @-@ fold increase in the common raven population over 25 years . Towns , landfills , sewage treatment plants and artificial ponds create sources of food and water for scavenging birds . Ravens also find nesting sites in utility poles and ornamental trees , and are attracted to roadkill on highways . The explosion in the common raven population in the Mojave has raised concerns for the desert tortoise , a threatened species . Common ravens prey upon juvenile tortoises , which have soft shells and move slowly . Despite this , and there being no danger of extinction , the US Congress added ravens to the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 in 1971 . Plans to control the population have included shooting and trapping birds , as well as contacting landfill operators to ask that they reduce the amount of exposed garbage . A hunting bounty as a method of control was historically used in Finland from the mid @-@ 18th century until 1923 . Culling has taken place to a limited extent in Alaska , where the population increase in common ravens is threatening the vulnerable Steller 's eider ( Polysticta stelleri ) .
= = = Cultural depictions = = =
Across its range in the Northern Hemisphere , and throughout human history , the common raven has been a powerful symbol and a popular subject of mythology and folklore .
In some Western traditions , ravens have long been considered to be birds of ill omen , death and evil in general , in part because of the negative symbolism of their all @-@ black plumage and the eating of carrion . In Sweden , ravens are known as the ghosts of murdered people , and in Germany as the souls of the damned . In Danish folklore , valravne that ate a king 's heart gained human knowledge , could perform great malicious acts , could lead people astray , had superhuman powers , and were " terrible animals " .
As in traditional mythology and folklore , the common raven features frequently in more modern writings such as the works of William Shakespeare , and , perhaps most famously , in the poem " The Raven " by Edgar Allan Poe . Ravens have appeared in the works of Charles Dickens , J. R. R. Tolkien , Stephen King , George R. R. Martin and Joan Aiken among others .
It continues to be used as a symbol in areas where it once had mythological status : as the national bird of Bhutan ( Kings of Bhutan wear the Raven Crown ) , official bird of the Yukon territory , and on the coat of arms of the Isle of Man ( once a Viking colony ) .
The modern unisex given name Raven is derived from the English word " raven " . As a masculine name , Raven parallels the Old Norse Hrafn , and Old English * Hræfn , which were both bynames and personal names .
= = = = Mythology = = = =
In Tlingit and Haida cultures , raven was both a trickster and creator god . Related beliefs are widespread among the peoples of Siberia and northeast Asia . The Kamchatka Peninsula , for example , was supposed to have been created by the raven god Kutkh . There are several references to common ravens in the Old Testament of the Bible and it is an aspect of Mahakala in Bhutanese mythology .
In Norse mythology , Huginn ( from the Old Norse for " thought " ) and Muninn ( Old Norse for " memory " or " mind " ) are a pair of ravens that fly all over the world , Midgard , and bring the god Odin information . Additionally among the Norse , raven banner standards were carried by such figures as the Jarls of Orkney , King Cnut the Great of England , Norway and Denmark , and Harald Hardrada . In the British Isles , ravens also were symbolic to the Celts . In Irish mythology , the goddess Morrígan alighted on the hero Cú Chulainn 's shoulder in the form of a raven after his death . In Welsh mythology they were associated with the Welsh god Bran the Blessed , whose name translates to " raven . " According to the Mabinogion , Bran 's head was buried in the White Hill of London as a talisman against invasion .
A legend developed that England would not fall to a foreign invader so long as there were ravens at the Tower of London ; although this is often thought to be an ancient belief , the official Tower of London historian , Geoff Parnell , believes that this is actually a romantic Victorian invention .
In the Jewish , Christian and Islamic traditions , the raven was the first animal to be released from Noah 's Ark . " So it came to pass , at the end of forty days , that Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made . Then he sent out a raven , which kept going to and fro until the waters had dried up from the earth . He also sent out from himself a dove , to see if the waters had receded from the face of the ground . " The raven is mentioned a dozen times in the Bible . In the New Testament Jesus tells a parable using the raven to show how people should rely on God for their needs and not riches ( Luke 12 : 24 ) . The raven is also mentioned in Quran at the story of Cain and Abel . Adam 's firstborn son Cain kills his brother Abel but he doesn 't know what to do with the corpse : " Then Allah sent a raven scratching up the ground , to show him how to hide his brother 's naked corpse . He said : Woe unto me ! Am I not able to be as this raven and so hide my brother 's naked corpse ? And he became repentant . "
= 1927 FA Charity Shield =
The 1927 Football Association Charity Shield was the 14th FA Charity Shield , an annual English association football match . The match , held at Stamford Bridge on 12 October 1927 , was contested by Cardiff City , who beat Arsenal in the final of the 1926 @-@ 27 FA Cup , and amateur side Corinthian . This was the first FA Charity Shield appearance for both sides , although Corinthian had previous won the Sheriff of London Charity Shield on several occasions .
After a goalless first half , Corinthian went ahead early in the second half with a goal from Gilbert Ashton . There were a large number of attacks from both sides , but it took until the 77th minute before Cardiff equalised with a header by Hughie Ferguson after a series of passing plays . With only a few minutes remaining on the clock , Cardiff won a corner kick and from the cross , and Len Davies tapped the ball into the net to put them ahead . The game finished with the score two goals to one in
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in starting Troop 1 of Oceanside , Long Island , New York in November 1910 . Troop 1 was fully uniformed and their appearance so impressed Chief Scout Executive James E. West that he asked the troop to serve as honor guard for the visit of Baden @-@ Powell , the founder of Scouting . West paid the expenses for the troop to travel to New York on January 31 , 1912 . Baden @-@ Powell inspected Troop 1 , and spoke with Eldred at some length .
In March 1911 , Eldred earned First Class rank . In April 1912 , he completed the 21 merit badges required for Eagle Scout . Merit badges are awards for mastering skills taught in the Scouting program . At the time , only 141 merit badges had then been earned by about 50 Scouts . As originally implemented , Eagle Scout was part of the merit badge system and was not a rank . Thus Eldred , like several of the early Eagles , did not earn the Life or Star awards that later preceded Eagle Scout . Eldred 's merit badges were noted in the Honor Roll of the August 1912 edition of Boys ' Life .
Eldred did not have a troop board of review , a review by the adult troop leaders to ensure eligibility . Instead , Eldred had a thorough National Board of Review consisting of West , Ernest Thompson Seton , Daniel Carter Beard , and Wilbert E. Longfellow , who wrote in the Handbook for Boys on life @-@ saving and swimming . At the time there had still not been a council @-@ level system for Eagle Scouts boards of review . West informed Eldred of his Eagle award in a letter dated August 21 , 1912 . This letter also informed Eldred of the delay in the medal , caused by the fact that the design of the Eagle Scout medal had not been finalized . Eldred was presented Eagle Scout on Labor Day , September 2 , 1912 , becoming the first to earn Scouting 's highest rank , just two years after the founding of the BSA itself .
In August 1912 , Eldred was camping with the troop in Orange Lake , New York . While swimming in the lake , fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Melvin Daly , another Scout who was a non @-@ swimmer , began to drown . Eldred rescued Daly with the assistance of Merritt Cutler . Chief Scout Seton presented Eldred with the Honor Medal for this action .
= = Education and career = =
Eldred entered Cornell University in 1912 and graduated in 1916 having studied agriculture . At the university , Eldred was a member of the Alpha Zeta fraternity , president of the Agricultural Association and participated in track and cross @-@ country .
= = = Naval service = = =
Eldred enlisted in the United States Navy in January 1918 , during World War I. He was initially assigned to the Philadelphia Naval Yard before shipping out on the transport USS Henderson ( AP @-@ 1 ) on Sunday , June 30 , 1918 from Bush Terminal in Brooklyn , New York for overseas duty . On July 1 , 1918 his convoy spotted two enemy submarines and attacked them with depth charges . It is not known whether the submarines were damaged . During the Henderson 's seventh troop transport voyage to France there was a fire on board on July 2 , 1918 , that resulted in the ship returning to the United States . All but one or two of those on board were rescued by the destroyers USS Mayrant ( DD @-@ 31 ) and USS Paul Jones ( DD @-@ 10 ) and eventually taken aboard the USS Von Steuben ( ID @-@ 3017 ) , which continued to Brest , France , where Eldred 's knowledge of French proved useful . From there , he was sent by train to Italy .
Eldred arrived in Italy in July 1918 and eventually at Sub Chaser Base 25 , located in Corfu , Greece in September 1918 . There he served as a machinist aboard submarine chaser SC @-@ 244 , where they patrolled the Strait of Otranto and were engaged in combat . While in Corfu , Eldred and many others got sick with the flu during the 1918 flu pandemic . The conditions at the hospital were so bad that he had to crawl to a stream to get water , which resulted in a permanent scar on his left hip . Eldred began his return to the United States and arrived in Malta on December 25 , 1918 . By February 1919 , he was in Gibraltar . He was given the option of staying in the Navy until they arrived home in six months or being discharged and paying his own way home . He elected the discharge and was separated from the Navy on March 4 , 1919 . He met some U.S. Army soldiers who were en route to America aboard an Army troop ship . They took him aboard as a stowaway and loaned him an Army uniform . Eldred slept in a life boat on the way back to America .
= = = Business and civic endeavors = = =
After the war , Eldred worked for a dairy , then became the agricultural agent for Atlantic County , New Jersey in 1921 and established the Atlantic City municipal market . He later promoted produce transportation for the Reading Railroad . As the trucking industry became a major competitor for the carriage of agricultural products , Eldred became the manager of the Eastern Railroad Association 's Motor Carrier Committee . He also served on the Camden County Council , the Clementon School District Board of Education , and also served as Overbrook Regional school board president .
= = Adult Scouting life , descendants , and legacy = =
Eldred was a board of review examiner throughout the 1920s . He was later the troop committee chairman for Troop 77 in Clementon , New Jersey . Eldred 's descendants have followed in his footsteps . Eldred was present when his eldest son , Willard " Bill " G. Eldred , had his Eagle Scout ceremony on October 27 , 1944 . Eldred also had a younger son , Arthur , and one daughter , Patricia . Two of Eldred 's grandsons are also Eagle Scouts : James I. Hudson III ( 1968 ) and Willard " Bill " Eldred ( 1977 ) . Four of his great @-@ grandsons , Kyle Kern , Tyler Eldred , Tennessee Abbott , and Bobby Hitte , were Scouts as of March 2007 , working towards Eagle Scout . Tyler Eldred and Kyle Kern did not make Eagle Scout and were no longer in Scouting as youths by July 2009 . Tennessee Abbott had his Eagle Scout ceremony on May 2 , 2010 . Bobby Hitte became an Eagle Scout in 2012 , 100 years after Arthur and another Eldred descendant , Jack Eldred , had joined Scouting .
Eldred died at the age of 55 from colon cancer on January 4 , 1951 at his home in Clementon . He is buried in Berlin Cemetery , Berlin , New Jersey . The National Eagle Scout Association chapter of the BSA 's Theodore Roosevelt Council in Massapequa , New York is named in honor of Eldred . In October 1976 the Village of Rockville Centre , New York honored Arthur Eldred by dedicating Eagle Scout Park in the village in his memory . The ceremony was attended by his widow , son Bill and grandsons .
= Dear Doctor =
" Dear Doctor " is the thirteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise and originally aired on January 23 , 2002 , on UPN . The episode was written by Maria and Andre Jacquemetton , and was directed by James A. Contner .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , Doctor Phlox ( John Billingsley ) faces a serious dilemma as a dying race begs for help from the crew of the Enterprise . The culture consists of two related races , but only the more genetically advanced race has been stricken by a planet @-@ wide plague .
UPN requested that the ending of the episode be changed , something that Billingsley did not like . However , he and other members of the cast and crew approved of the final episode . Due to the subject matter and the ending , it is seen as a controversial episode by fans . Although " Dear Doctor " received the same audience share as the previous episode , there was a 6 @.@ 6 % drop in viewers to 5 @.@ 7 million viewers for its first broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Doctor Phlox receives a letter from his Interspecies Medical Exchange counterpart , Doctor Jeremy Lucas , who is serving a term on Denobula . He begins to compose a letter back , describing his experiences with the crew , and the ways in which humans are different . Meanwhile , on the Bridge , the crew are discussing a pre @-@ warp vessel they have encountered . The alien they speak with , a Valakian , begs them to assist with a medical emergency their species is facing . Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol reveals that the Vulcans are unaware of the species , but she agrees with Captain Archer to help them . Phlox continues his letter , describing the challenges of treating the disease – with over fifty million lives at stake .
Enterprise arrives at the Valakian homeworld , where they are met by Esaak , the Valakian director of a clinic , and Larr , a Menk orderly . T 'Pol , Phlox , Archer , and Ensign Sato make a tour of the medical facility . Sato discovers that there is a second lesser @-@ evolved yet unaffected race , the Menk , who live alongside the Valakians . Phlox makes the startling discovery that the Valakians are slowly dying out , not from an easily curable medical condition , but because of a genetic disease which is experiencing an accelerated rate of mutation . He also believes that the answer to a cure may lie in the Menk .
Archer , meanwhile , is debating whether to provide the Valakians with Warp drive , ultimately deciding against it . Upon further investigation , Phlox learns that the Valakians suffer from the illness because their gene pool has reached a " dead end " and that the Menk are undergoing an " awakening process . " He also finds that the Valakians have been stifling and underestimating the Menk . He has found a cure , but does not believe it would be ethical to administer . Archer considers how a " primary directive " would be helpful , and provides the Valakians with medicine that will diminish the symptoms for a decade , anticipating the Menks ' natural evolution and new levels of understanding between them .
= = Production = =
UPN requested a modified ending to the episode , as the original version had Phlox and Archer disagreeing over what to do with the Valakians . Archer would have wanted to save the race , while Phlox would have wanted evolution to take its course . John Billingsley , who played Doctor Phlox in Enterprise , didn 't agree with the changed version , saying " the ending that had initially been created I was fairly comfortable with . But the head of the studio suggested some revisions on the ending . What do you do ? I wasn 't as happy with the revisions , but it 's not my show , you have to sort of adjust , even if sometimes it does seem a bit of a contradiction in terms for what your character is supposed to be about . "
Billingsley also enjoyed the romantic subplot with Kellie Waymire as Elizabeth Cutler , however he was concerned that Waymire 's working schedule wouldn 't allow her to return to the show easily and so he wasn 't anticipating the romance being followed up upon in future episodes . She had previously appeared as Cutler in the episode " Strange New World " , and was pleased for her character to be involved with Phlox saying that she 'd be interested to see if the romantic plot was brought back by writers in a future episode . Waymire made one final appearance as Cutler in " Two Days and Two Nights " , before her death on November 13 , 2003 of an undiagnosed medical condition . Amongst other guest stars in this episode was Karl Wiedergott , who is better known for his voice work on The Simpsons .
= = Reception and home media = =
" Dear Doctor " was first aired on UPN on January 23 , 2002 . The episode was watched by 5 @.@ 7 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 7 / 6 percent share . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was the same share as the previous episode , " Silent Enemy " , but a 6 @.@ 6 % drop in the number of actual viewers overall .
Michelle Erica Green , whilst writing for Trek Nation described " Dear Doctor " as the " first truly great episode " of Enterprise and compared it to " Pen Pals " from Star Trek : The Next Generation and " Tuvix " from Star Trek : Voyager in the way that the ethical dilemma is presented . She enjoyed the " seamlessly interwoven subplots and moving character development " and the pace of the episode , but wanted to see more of the society of the two races . Peter Schorn , writing a review for the first season for IGN , described " Dear Doctor " as one of the more solid episodes . Jamahl Epsicokhan , on his website Jammer 's Reviews , said that it was " by miles the best episode so far " . He calls it a " real story " with an actual issue , and praises the performance of John Billingsley as Phlox .
The episode was received warmly by members of the Enterprise cast and crew . Anthony Montgomery said prior to the end of the first series that he " absolutely loved ' Dear Doctor ' ; I thought that was fantastic " . After the end of the series , John Billingsley named the episode as one of his favourites as it was the first time he felt the character was three @-@ dimensional , and executive producer Brannon Braga subsequently called the episode a " classic " . Writer André Bormanis said that " Dear Doctor " was " great example of a classic Star Trek / Science Fiction " what if " scenario that raised interesting and complex social issues . "
The first home media release of the episode was on VHS in the UK on August
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July 1841 and reached Brighton on 21 September 1841 . It ran through Three Bridges , which was then a small village east of Crawley , and a station was built to serve it .
A line to Horsham , now part of the Arun Valley Line , was opened on 14 February 1848 . A station was provided next to Crawley High Street from that date . A new station was constructed slightly to the east , in conjunction with the Overline House commercial development , and replaced the original station which closed on 28 July 1968 . The ticket office and Up ( London @-@ bound ) platform waiting areas form the ground floor of the office building .
The urban area of Crawley is served by a total of three rail stations including Ifield railway station . Due to Crawley 's expansion this station is now surrounded by the town 's western areas . Opened as Lyons Crossing Halt on 1 June 1907 to serve the village of Ifield , it was soon renamed Ifield Halt , dropping the " Halt " suffix in 1930 .
Regular train services run from Crawley , and also Ifield , to London Victoria and London Bridge stations , Gatwick Airport , East Croydon , Horsham , Bognor Regis , Chichester , Portsmouth and Southampton . Three Bridges has direct " Thameslink " trains to Bedford & Brighton .
= = = Bus and Fastway = = =
Crawley was one of several towns where the boundaries of Southdown Motor Services and London Transport bus services met . In 1958 the companies reached an agreement which allowed them both to provide services in all parts of the town . When the National Bus Company was formed in 1969 , its London Country Bus Services subsidiary took responsibility for many routes , including Green Line Coaches cross @-@ London services which operated to distant destinations such as Watford , Luton and Amersham . A coach station was opened by Southdown in 1931 on the A23 at County Oak , near Lowfield Heath : it was a regular stopping point for express coaches between London and towns on the Sussex coast . This traffic started to serve Gatwick when the airport began to grow , however . When the National Bus Company was broken up , local services were provided by the new South West division of London Country Bus Services , which later became part of the Arriva group . Metrobus acquired these routes from Arriva in March 2001 , and is now Crawley 's main operator . It provides local services between the neighbourhoods and town centre , and longer @-@ distance routes to Horsham , Redhill , Tunbridge Wells , Worthing and Brighton .
In September 2003 a guided bus service , Fastway , began operating between Bewbush and Gatwick Airport . A second route , from Broadfield to the Langshott area of Horley , north of Gatwick Airport , was added on 27 August 2005 .
= = = Gatwick Airport = = =
Gatwick Airport was licensed as a private airfield in August 1930 . It was used during the Second World War as an RAF base , and returned to civil use in 1946 . There were proposals to close the airport in the late 1940s , but in 1950 the government announced that it was to be developed as London 's second airport . It was closed between 1956 and 1958 for rebuilding . Her Majesty The Queen reopened it on 9 June 1958 . A second terminal , the North Terminal , was built in 1988 . An agreement exists between BAA and West Sussex County Council preventing the building of a second runway before 2019 . Nevertheless , consultations were launched in 2002 by the Department for Transport , at which proposals for additional facilities and runways were considered . It was agreed that there would be no further expansion at Gatwick unless it became impossible to meet growth targets at London Heathrow Airport within existing pollution limits .
= = Sport and leisure = =
Crawley Town F.C. is Crawley 's main football team . Formed in 1896 , it moved in 1949 to a ground at Town Mead adjacent to the West Green playing fields . Demand for land near the town centre led to the club moving in 1997 to the new Broadfield Stadium , now owned by the borough council . As of the 2012 / 2013 season , Crawley Town play in League One , the third tier of league football in England . Perhaps the pinnacle of the club 's history was in February 2011 when they played against Manchester United at Old Trafford in the fifth round of the F.A. Cup , a match which saw 9 @,@ 000 Crawley fans make the trip to Manchester . Three other local teams play in the Sussex County Football League : Three Bridges F.C. , Oakwood F.C. and Ifield Edwards F.C .. Crawley Rugby Club is based in Ifield , and a golf course was constructed in 1982 at Tilgate Park . Crawley Hockey Club plays their home matches at Hazelwick School , Three Bridges
The new town 's original leisure centre was in Haslett Avenue in the Three Bridges neighbourhood . Building work started in the early 1960s , and a large swimming pool opened in 1964 . The site was extended to include an athletics arena by 1967 , and an additional large sports hall was opened by the town mayor , Councillor Ben Clay and Prime Minister Harold Wilson in 1974 . However , the facilities became insufficient for the growing town , even though an annexe was opened in Bewbush in 1984 . Athlete Zola Budd had been asked to take part in a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ metre race as part of the opening celebrations , but her invitation was withdrawn at short notice because of concerns raised by council members about possible " political connotations and anti @-@ apartheid demonstrators " .
In 2005 , Crawley Leisure Centre was closed and replaced by a new facility , the K2 Leisure Centre , on the campus of Thomas Bennett Community College near the Broadfield Stadium . Opened to the public on 14 November 2005 , and officially by Lord Coe on 24 January 2006 , the centre includes the only Olympic @-@ sized swimming pool in South East England . In March 2008 the centre was named as a training site for the 2012 Olympics in London .
Crawley Development Corporation made little provision for the arts in the plans for the new town , and a proposed arts venue in the town centre was never built . Neighbourhood community centres and the Tilgate Forest Recreational Centre were used for some cultural activities , but it was not until 1988 that the town had a dedicated theatre and arts venue , at the Hawth Theatre . ( The name derives from a local corruption of the word " heath " , which came to refer specifically to the expanse of wooded land , south of the town centre , in which the theatre was built . ) Crawley 's earliest cinema , the Imperial Picture House on Brighton Road , lasted from 1909 until the 1940s ; the Embassy Cinema on the High Street ( opened in 1938 ) replaced it . A large Cineworld cinema has since opened in the Crawley Leisure Park , which itself also includes ten @-@ pin bowling , various restaurants and bars and a fitness centre . The Liquid nightclub on Station Way can accommodate 1 @,@ 900 people .
Each neighbourhood has self @-@ contained recreational areas , and there are other larger parks throughout the town . The Memorial Gardens , on the eastern side of Queen 's Square , feature art displays , children 's play areas and lawns , and a plaque commemorating those who died in two Second World War bombing incidents in 1943 and 1944 . Goffs Park in Southgate covers 50 acres ( 20 ha ) , and has lakes , boating ponds , a model railway and many other features . Tilgate Park and Nature Centre has walled gardens , lakes , large areas of woodland with footpaths and bridleways , a golfing area and a collection of animals and birds .
= = Heritage = =
Crawley Museum is based in Goffs Park . Stone Age and Bronze Age remains discovered in the area are on display , as well as more recent artefacts including parts of Vine Cottage , an old timber @-@ framed building on the High Street which was once home to former Punch editor Mark Lemon and which was demolished when the ASDA development was built .
Crawley has three Grade I listed buildings ( the parish church of St Margaret in Ifield , the parish church of St Nicholas , Worth , and the Friends Meeting House in Langley Lane , Ifield ) , 12 Grade II * listed buildings and 85 Grade II listed buildings . The borough council has also awarded locally listed building status to 58 buildings .
= = Education = =
Maintained primary and secondary schools were reorganised in 2004 following the Local Education Authority 's decision to change the town 's three @-@ tier system of first , middle and secondary schools to a more standard primary / secondary divide . Since the restructuring , Crawley has had 17 primary schools ( including two Church of England and two Roman Catholic ) and four pairs of infant and junior Schools . Most of these were opened in 2004 ; others changed their status at this date ( for example , from a middle to a junior School ) . Secondary education is provided at one of six secondary schools :
Ifield Community College
Hazelwick School
Holy Trinity Church of England School
Oriel High School
St Wilfrid 's Catholic School
Thomas Bennett Community College
All six of these have a sixth form , the newest opening at Oriel High in September 2008 .
There is also a Primary / Secondary School called The Gatwick School , which is a Free School that opened in 2014 . It currently has 4 years , R , 1 , 7 and 8 .
The schools at Ifield and Thomas Bennett are also bases for the Local Authority 's adult education programmes . Pupils with special needs are educated at the two special schools in the town , each of which covers the full spectrum of needs : Manor Green Primary School and Manor Green College .
The Discovery New School , based in Broadfield House , was opened in September 2011 . It was one of the first free schools in the country , set up as a result of changes to the legislation on school funding by the Conservative @-@ Liberal Democrat Coalition government . The school was a Montessori school , the first state funded Montessori school in the UK , quoted as having a Christian ethos in the Anglican tradition . The school closed to children for the last time on 3 April 2014 , following a series of inspection failures and withdrawal of its funding .
Further education is provided by Central Sussex College . Opened in 1958 as Crawley Technical College , it merged with other local colleges to form the new institute in August 2005 . The college also provides higher education courses in partnership with the universities at Chichester and Sussex . In 2004 , a proposal was made for an additional campus of the University of Sussex to be created in Crawley , but as of 2008 no conclusion has been reached .
= = Media = =
Crawley has three local newspapers , of which two have a long history in the area . The Crawley Observer began life in 1881 as Simmins Weekly Advertiser , became the Sussex & Surrey Courier and then the Crawley and District Observer , and took its current name in 1983 . The newspaper is now owned by Johnston Press . The Crawley News was first published in 1979 , and later took over the operations of the older Crawley Advertiser which closed in 1982 . The newspaper is now owned by the Trinity Mirror group and is a free publication . In September 2008 Johnston Press launched a new weekly broadsheet newspaper called the Crawley Times based on the companies paper produced in Horsham , the West Sussex County Times .
The town is served by the London regional versions of BBC and ITV television from the Crystal Palace or Reigate transmitters — although some terrestrial aerials in the town may pick up BBC South and ITV Meridian signals from the Midhurst transmitter .
Radio Mercury began broadcasting on 20 October 1984 from Broadfield House in Broadfield . The station , now owned by Global Radio , broadcasts as Heart from Brighton , with the studios in Kelvin Way in Crawley closed in August 2010 . On 1 February 2011 , the local Gold transmitter on 1521 AM closed and listeners were advised to retune to 1548 AM ( Gold London ) or 1323 AM ( Gold Sussex ) . Local BBC radio was provided by BBC Radio Sussex from 1983 ; this became part of BBC Southern Counties Radio following a merger with BBC Radio Surrey in 1994 . From March 2009 , BBC Southern Counties Radio became BBC Sussex on 104.5FM & BBC Surrey on 104FM . Due to the positioning of their transmitters , when broadcasting separately both stations cover Crawley stories .
= = Twin town = =
Dorsten , Germany , since 1973
= = Notable people = =
Patrick Allen ( music educator ) , an award @-@ winning author and teacher , lives and works in the town .
Tony Barrell , a journalist for The Sunday Times and other publications , was born in the town .
Jerzy Braun , a Polish rower who competed in the 1932 Summer Olympics and in the 1936 Summer Olympics , died in Crawley .
Simon Calder , a journalist for The Independent , was born in the town .
Matt Charman , playwright , was born in Crawley .
Rebecca Cooke , freestyle swimmer and Commonwealth Games gold medallist , was born in Crawley .
Sir Charles Court , the 21st Premier of Western Australia , was born in Crawley , but migrated to Australia with his family before his first birthday .
John George Haigh , the " Acid Bath Murderer " , carried out some of his murders at a workshop in the West Green area .
Simon Jeffes , classically trained guitarist , composer , arranger and founder of the Penguin Cafe Orchestra , was born here .
Philip Lawson , first baritone with The King 's Singers was born and raised in Crawley .
Mark Lemon , first editor of Punch , lived on the High Street from 1858 until his death in 1870 . A blue plaque outside the George Hotel commemorates his time in the town .
Alan Minter , who won bronze at the 1972 Munich Olympic Games in the light middleweight boxing category and in 1980 became the WBC world middleweight champion , was born in the town in 1951 .
Kevin Muscat , a footballer who has played for Australia since 1994 and had a nine @-@ year spell in Britain , playing for four different clubs , was born in the town .
Craig Pickering , an Olympic sprinter and bobsleigher , was born in the town .
Gareth Southgate ( who was manager of Middlesbrough F.C. and a former England international ) attended the town 's Hazelwick School .
Daley Thompson used facilities in Crawley to train for the Olympics in 1980 and 1984 .
Peter Vaughan , the actor , who starred in the TV show Porridge , used to live in the town .
Tom Wort , sophomore All @-@ American linebacker with the Oklahoma Sooners , lived in Crawley until age 14 .
The Cure were formed in Crawley in 1976 by Robert Smith , Michael Dempsey and Lol Tolhurst , all of whom attended St Wilfrid 's RC School .
The Feeling 's drummer Paul Stewart , guitarist Kevin Jeremiah and keyboard player Ciaran Jeremiah were also at St Wilfrid 's .
2D , the fictional character from Damon Albarn 's virtual band Gorillaz , comes from Crawley , according to the back @-@ story created for them .
Yousseph " Chico " Slimani , who had a number one UK hit , was a Hazelwick pupil and spent his teenage years in Crawley .
Dan Walker , the British sports presenter , was born and raised in Crawley .
= Earle C. Clements =
Earle Chester Clements ( October 22 , 1896 – March 12 , 1985 ) was an American farmer and politician . He represented the state of Kentucky in both the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate and was its 47th Governor , serving from 1947 to 1950 . For three decades , he was the leader of a faction of the state 's Democratic Party that stood in opposition to the faction led by two @-@ time governor and senator A. B. " Happy " Chandler .
After following his father into the local politics of his home county , Clements agreed to chair the gubernatorial campaign of Thomas Rhea in 1935 . Already committed to Rhea , he turned down an offer from Happy Chandler to chair his campaign , beginning the rift between the two men . Clements went on to the Kentucky Senate in 1941 . In 1944 , he was selected as Democratic floor leader of the senate and successfully campaigned for a larger budget than that proposed by Republican governor Simeon Willis . His stand against Willis made him popular in the Democratic Party , and he went on to serve two terms in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1944 to 1948 .
In 1947 , Clements succeeded Willis as governor , defeating Harry Lee Waterfield , Chandler 's preferred candidate , in the Democratic primary . As governor , Clements raised taxes and used the revenue to increase funding for the state park system and construct and maintain more roads . He also achieved advancements in education , including some progress toward desegregation . In 1950 , Clements was elected to the U.S. Senate . He resigned as governor to accept his Senate seat . While in the Senate , he served as chairman of the Senate Democratic Reelection Committee and as Democratic party whip under party leader Lyndon Johnson . He was defeated by Thruston Morton in his re @-@ election bid in 1956 ; a lack of support from Chandler ( then serving his second term as governor ) contributed to Clements ' defeat . At Johnson 's insistence , Clements resumed chairing the Senate Democratic Reelection Committee in 1957 and 1959 .
Clements had supported Bert T. Combs for governor against Chandler in 1955 , and did so again against Harry Lee Waterfield in 1959 . Combs defeated Waterfield and rewarded Clements by appointing him state highway commissioner . In 1961 , Clements and Combs split over a proposed deal to lease dump trucks from a Louisville car dealer . State newspapers charged that the deal was payback to the dealer , a Combs supporter . When Combs canceled the deal Clements took it as a public rebuke and soon after resigned to work on the presidential campaign of his friend , Lyndon Johnson . Following his split with Combs , Clements allied himself with the Chandler faction , opposing Combs ' lieutenant governor , Wilson Wyatt in his bid to unseat Senator Thruston Morton . Clements ' influence declined rapidly after the split with Combs , and by the 1963 gubernatorial race , he was unable to deliver his home county for Chandler in the primary against Edward T. Breathitt . Clements died in his hometown of Morganfield , Kentucky on March 12 , 1985 .
= = Early life = =
Earle C. Clements was born in Morganfield , Kentucky on October 22 , 1896 . He was the youngest of two sons and four daughters born to Aaron Waller and Sallie Anna ( Tuley ) Clements . His father was a popular county judge and sheriff in Union County , but Clements at first shunned a political career . He obtained his early education in the public schools , and graduated from Morganfield High School in 1915 . Later in 1915 , he enrolled at the University of Kentucky 's College of Agriculture . In 1915 and 1916 , he played center on the football team , and was named to the " All @-@ Southern Team " in 1916 . He was also a member of the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity .
Clements ' studies were interrupted by World War I. On July 9 , 1917 , he enlisted as a private in Company M of the Kentucky National Guard . The company was ordered to Camp Taylor near Louisville , Kentucky where they were mustered into the infantry of the U.S. Army . Clements first served as a guard at Camp Taylor and later entered the Officers Training School at Fort Benjamin Harrison near Indianapolis , Indiana . He graduated with the rank of first lieutenant and remained stateside as a professor of military science . He served for a total of 28 months , attaining the rank of captain , and was discharged on September 12 , 1919 .
After the war , Clements worked as a rigger in the oil fields of east Texas . In 1921 , however , his father 's health began to fail , and he returned to Kentucky to help him on the farm and served as his deputy sheriff . As a hobby , he also coached football at his high school alma mater . One of his assistant coaches , Rodes K. Myers , would go on to be lieutenant governor under Keen Johnson . On January 18 , 1927 , Clements married Sara M. Blue . Their only child , Elizabeth ( Bess ) Hughes Clements Abell , became social secretary to Lady Bird Johnson and Walter Mondale .
= = Political career = =
In 1922 , Clements ' father died , and Clements was appointed to serve out the remainder of his term . He was subsequently elected to the office ; his term ended in 1925 . In 1926 , he was elected county clerk . He served two terms in that office , with his tenure ending January 1 , 1934 . Later in 1934 , he was elected county judge . During his two terms , which lasted until 1941 , he ordered the paving of 123 miles of road in the county — more than all the previous county judges combined — despite the financial hardships of the Great Depression .
In 1935 , Thomas Rhea asked Clements to serve as his campaign chairman for the 1935 gubernatorial race . Clements accepted , and consequently had to refuse a later request from his boyhood friend , A. B. " Happy " Chandler , to fill the same position for his campaign . Chandler won the Democratic primary , and for decades following , Clements and Chandler led opposite factions of the Kentucky Democratic Party . Chandler claimed that Clements bolted the party and supported Republican candidate King Swope in the general election ; Clements denied this , but admitted that he gave Chandler 's campaign only minimal support .
Clements was elected to the Kentucky Senate in 1941 , representing Union , Webster , and Henderson counties . By 1944 , he had risen to the post of majority leader in that body and played a central role in writing the state 's budget that year . Due to Clements ' efforts , educational appropriations were increased far above what had been called for by Republican governor Simeon Willis .
Clements ' face @-@ off with Willis won him popularity and helped him win a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives , representing Kentucky 's second district , in 1944 . He was re @-@ elected in 1946 . A New Deal Democrat , Clements voted to increase funding to the Rural Electrification Administration and advocated for the 1945 National School Lunch Act . He supported expansion of agricultural research and reorganization of the Farm Security Administration . He endorsed conservation and wildlife programs and additional funding to federal parks . He supported civil rights legislation , including bans on lynching and poll taxes . He opposed the Taft @-@ Hartley Act and voted to disband the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . His service on the Select House Committee on Food Shortages gave him the chance to interact closely with President Harry S. Truman .
= = = Governor = = =
Though encouraged to run for a seat in the Senate in 1946 , Clements instead made the race for governor in 1947 . In the Democratic primary , he faced Harry Lee Waterfield , a former Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives . Not known for his oratory or personality , Clements was a masterful campaign organizer . He secured the support of western Kentucky Democrats by allying himself with Logan County political boss Emerson " Doc " Beauchamp . He chose Lexington Herald @-@ Leader editor Tom Underwood as his campaign manager , strengthening his influence in central Kentucky . He befriended Lawrence Wetherby of Jefferson County which helped him with the urban vote and Carl D. Perkins of Knott County which helped him in rural eastern Kentucky .
During the primary campaign , two major issues surfaced . First , Waterfield favored a tax on parimutuel betting , while Clements opposed it . Second , Waterfield supported the development of electric power generation through public utilities , while Clements favored private development ( which won him the support of the Kentucky Utilities company ) . The Clements campaign also attacked Waterfield for being deemed physically unfit for military service . Clements received a late boost when he gained the endorsement of John Y. Brown , Sr. , garnering added support from organized labor . Ultimately , Clements defeated Waterfield by over 30 @,@ 000 votes .
In the general election , Clements faced Republican state attorney general Eldon S. Dummit . While Clements managed to keep the Democrats united following the primary , Dummit had fractured the Republicans by attacking the administration of sitting Republican governor Simeon S. Willis and his preferred successor during the Republican primary . Dummit mounted a meager challenge by citing Clements ' opposition to the Taft @-@ Hartley Act , but this was not very effective . Dummit had replaced his campaign manager from the primary election , and when the ousted manager turned against him in the general election , it sounded the death knell for his campaign . Clements won the election by a vote of 387 @,@ 795 to 287 @,@ 756 . He resigned his seat in the U.S. House to accept the governorship .
As governor , Clements enjoyed a three @-@ to @-@ one Democratic majority in both houses of the state legislature . As a result , much of his proposed legislative agenda was passed . In the 1948 legislative session , the General Assembly attracted new businesses by lowering taxes on stocks and bonds and the inheritance tax , but offset these cuts by approving Clements ' proposals to increase taxes on gasoline and distilled spirits . Clements also reversed his campaign stance against a tax on parimutuel betting , reportedly proposing a three percent tax because he feared a higher rate would be proposed if he did not take the initiative . With this new revenue , Clements authorized $ 6 million to improve and expand the state park system . The improvement program included twelve large parks and several smaller ones , with Kentucky Dam Park being the centerpiece . To oversee the developments , he appointed Henry Ward as commissioner of conservation . Between 1948 and 1950 , New York was the only state that spent more than Kentucky on its park system . Clements was one of several people who have been referred to as the " father of Kentucky 's state parks " . Although the park system was started in 1926 by Willard Rouse Jillson , Clements did much to develop them during his administration .
Clements authorized significant road building projects . During his administration , the state funded or built 3 @,@ 800 miles of rural roads and 4 @,@ 000 miles of primary roads . Further , he initiated construction of the Kentucky Turnpike and the Western Kentucky Parkway . The state also assumed maintenance of 6 @,@ 000 miles of county roads under Clements . During Clements ' tenure , only Texas spent more money on developing its roads . Besides improving the roadways themselves , Clements replaced the Kentucky Highway Patrol , which had become a corrupt vehicle of political patronage , with the Kentucky State Police . Clements also used some of the revenue generated from his tax increases to raise the salaries of the state 's public school teachers . He approved a 15 % increase in funding to the Minimum Foundation Program which provided funding for poor school districts . This was not enough , however , to stave off a 1950 protest march on his office by teachers demanding that he raise another $ 10 million for education . Clements ' lieutenant governor and successor , Lawrence Wetherby , was able to meet this demand in 1951 by using increased tax revenue resulting from the Korean War .
Leading national accreditation groups attempted to disaccredit many of Kentucky 's public colleges during Clements administration in order to end longstanding political interference in the higher education system . Clements worked to help these colleges maintain their accreditation and to secure re @-@ accreditation for Morehead State Teachers College . In 1948 , he weakened Kentucky 's Day Law — which enforced segregation of the state 's education system — by providing an exception for black medical personnel to take post @-@ graduate courses in white public hospitals . He also supported a 1948 bill that allowed blacks to pursue medical training at the University of Louisville . His efforts to secure a similar arrangement at the University of Kentucky were not successful , despite the governor 's status as ex @-@ officio chairman of the Board of Trustees . In 1949 , the federal district court in Lexington granted blacks admission to programs at the University of Kentucky if an equivalent program was not available at Kentucky State College , the state 's historically black college .
Clements also created or reorganized several government agencies . In cooperation with Pennsylvania governor James H. Duff , he created the Ohio River Sanitation Commission ( ORANSCO ) to combat pollution in the Ohio River and its tributaries . He curbed fraud in the insurance industry by reorganizing the state Insurance Commission and hiring a national prominent expert to rewrite the state 's entire insurance code . To assist the General Assembly in writing more effective and efficient legislation , Clements created the non @-@ partisan Legislative Research Commission , stocked with professionals from various disciplines , to conduct governmental research . He created the Kentucky Agriculture and Industrial Board ( the predecessor of the current Kentucky Department of Commerce ) , which attracted 250 new industries to the state and created 40 @,@ 000 new jobs during its first three years . He also created the Kentucky Building Commission to manage and plan all new state buildings . Among the commission 's first projects were a new $ 6 million capitol annex and the construction of a new state fairgrounds . To retain the most qualified government employees , he supported a constitutional amendment that quadrupled the minimum annual salary for state employees from $ 5 @,@ 000 to $ 20 @,@ 000 .
Though a strong governor with many successes , Clements was not able to enact his full legislative agenda . In 1948 , his proposal to create a centralized board that governed all Kentucky colleges failed in the General Assembly . In both the 1948 and 1950 legislative sessions , Clements failed to convince the General Assembly to regulate strip mining . He also failed in his attempts to establish statewide pension and civil service programs , and was unable to enact a merit system for state employees . Attempts to fund a veterans ' bonus passed the two houses of the General Assembly in different forms and were unable to be reconciled .
= = = Senator = = =
When Alben Barkley resigned his Senate seat to assume the office of vice president in 1948 , Clements had appointed Garrett L. Withers to fill the vacancy . Barkley 's term was to expire in 1950 , and near the end of the term , Withers resigned , allowing Clements to run in a special election to fill both the remainder of Withers ' term and a full six @-@ year term simultaneously . He won the election over Republican Charles I. Dawson by a vote of 300 @,@ 276 to 256 @,@ 876 . On November 27 , 1950 , he resigned as governor to assume the seat .
The Democrats lost seats in the Senate in the 1950 election cycle , and party leader Ernest McFarland removed Clinton Anderson as chairman of the Senate Democratic Reelection Committee , replacing him with Clements for the 1952 election cycle . Clements advocated better cooperation between his committee and the Democratic National Committee in 1952 . However , Republicans won the presidency and both houses of Congress in 1952 , and the Democratic National Committee talked openly of disbanding the Reelection Committee . Clements instead advised that his committee 's responsibilities be expanded and that its activities become year @-@ round rather than seasonal .
In 1953 , Clements was appointed Democratic party whip , serving under party leader Lyndon B. Johnson . In addition , he retained his chairmanship of the Senate Democratic Reelection Committee for the 1954 election cycle . He and Democratic National Committee chair Stephen Mitchell agreed that the two committees should conduct separate fund @-@ raising operations in order to maximize donations for Democratic candidates . Democrats regained control of the Senate in 1954 , and Clements instituted the practice of having his committee provide transition services for freshman senators . That practice continues today .
Clements remained active in state politics , leading a faction of the Democratic party that opposed Happy Chander . As the 1955 gubernatorial election grew closer , Chandler announced he would seek a second term in office , having previously served from 1935 to 1939 . With Clements ' former lieutenant governor , Lawrence Wetherby , ineligible to succeed himself as governor , the Clements faction scrambled to find a candidate to challenge Chandler . The most likely choice was Wetherby 's lieutenant governor , Emerson " Doc " Beauchamp , but his uninspiring persona and ties to boss @-@ dominated Logan County made him unacceptable to Clements . Instead , Clements threw his support to Bert T. Combs , a Court of Appeals judge nominated by Wetherby . Since Combs had little in the way of a political record to run against , Chandler focused his campaign attacks on factional leaders Clements and Wetherby , who he nicknamed " Clementine and Wetherbine " . These attacks , combined with a poorly run campaign by Combs , allowed Chandler to win the Democratic primary by a margin of 18 @,@ 000 votes . He went on to win the general election and a second gubernatorial term .
Clements began his campaign for re @-@ election in 1956 by defeating Joe Bates , the candidate favored by Chandler , in the Democratic senatorial primary . On April 30 , 1956 , Kentucky senator Alben Barkley died suddenly of a heart attack . With the Democratic primary already over , the Democratic State Central Committee was charged with selecting a candidate to run for Barkley 's seat . They chose Wetherby , Clements ' former lieutenant governor . Journalist John Ed Pearce later recorded that Clements had favored Chandler 's choice , Joseph Leary , as a candidate rather than Wetherby . Clements didn 't think Leary had a very good chance of winning , but he felt Leary 's selection would keep Chandler from throwing his support to the Republican candidates .
Republican president Dwight D. Eisenhower convinced John Sherman Cooper , a former senator and ambassador who was immensely popular in Kentucky , to challenge Wetherby , hoping his presence on the ticket would aid his own re @-@ election bid . In the Republican primary , voters chose Thruston B. Morton to challenge Clements . With two of his factional enemies as candidates for the Senate , Governor Chandler bolted the party and supported the Republican candidates . Further complicating Clements ' campaign was the fact that Senate majority leader Lyndon Johnson suffered a heart attack in 1956 , and as majority whip , Clements had to spend much of his time in Washington , D.C. covering Johnson 's duties in the Senate . What time he was in Kentucky was usually devoted to Wetherby 's campaign , since the Democrats believed Clements would be re @-@ elected easily while Wetherby faced much stiffer odds . These factors , combined with the landslide of support for Eisenhower , the Republican presidential candidate , contributed to the defeat of both Wetherby and Clements . Cooper defeated Wetherby by 65 @,@ 000 votes , while Clements lost to Morton by a margin of 7 @,@ 000 votes out of more than 1 million that were cast in the election . It was Clements ' first defeat for elected office in a career that spanned thirty years .
= = Later life = =
Clements never again sought an elected office after his defeat by Morton , though he remained active in state politics and continued to lead the anti @-@ Chandler faction of his party . From 1957 to 1959 , at the insistence of Lyndon Johnson , he served as executive director of the United States Senate Democratic Campaign Committee and helped ensure the election of a fourteen @-@ seat Democratic majority in the Senate . He considered running for governor again in 1959 , but ultimately decided against it . Without Clements in the race , the
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mm Parabellum cartridge . The tests compared the relative merits of the FN 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge and the HK 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm cartridge , which was created by German small arms manufacturer Heckler & Koch as a competitor to the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm . The results of the NATO tests were analyzed by a group formed of experts from Canada , France , the United Kingdom , and the United States , and the group 's conclusion was that the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm was " undoubtedly " the more efficient cartridge .
However , the German delegation and others rejected the NATO recommendation that 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm be standardized , halting the standardization process indefinitely . As a result , both the 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm and 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridges ( and the associated weapons ) have been independently adopted by various NATO countries , according to preference ; the Five @-@ seven pistol is currently in service with military and police forces in over 40 nations throughout the world .
= = = Present = = =
Historically , sales of the Five @-@ seven pistol were restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers , but in 2004 the new Five @-@ seven IOM model was introduced and offered to civilian shooters for use with 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm sporting ammunition . The IOM model incorporated several modifications to the weapon 's design , such as the addition of an M1913 accessory rail , a magazine safety mechanism , and fully adjustable sights . Although offered only with sporting ammunition , the Five @-@ seven 's introduction to civilian shooters was met with strong opposition from gun control organizations such as the Brady Campaign .
Further development of the Five @-@ seven pistol led to the introduction of the Five @-@ seven USG model , which was approved by the ATF as a sporting firearm in 2004 . The USG model incorporates a conventionally shaped square trigger guard , a reversible magazine release , and other minor changes .
In 2013 , the Five @-@ seven MK2 model was introduced , replacing the USG model . The MK2 model has cocking serrations on the front of the slide , all black controls , and slightly different iron sights .
= = Design = =
The Five @-@ seven is a semi @-@ automatic delayed blowback pistol chambered for FN 's 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition . The pistol has a concealed hammer . Polymer materials are used extensively in the pistol 's design , and even the steel slide is encased in a polymer shell . In addition to providing reduced weight and greater resistance to corrosion , this also prevents unwanted light reflection . The slide 's polymer shell gives the pistol the appearance of being constructed entirely of polymers , but the slide interior , barrel , trigger , springs , pins , and similar parts are all steel . However , the pistol is unusually lightweight , weighing only 744 g ( 1 @.@ 6 lb ) with a loaded 20 @-@ round magazine .
The Five @-@ seven is a full @-@ size pistol , having an overall length of 208 mm ( 8 @.@ 2 in ) , a height of 137 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) , and a max width of 36 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) . It has the same grip angle as the distinguished Browning Hi @-@ Power and M1911 pistols . Despite the considerable length of the pistol 's 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition , the grip is not particularly unwieldy — the distance from the trigger to the back of the grip measures 69 @.@ 85 mm ( 2 @.@ 750 in ) , which is identical to a U.S. Military issue M9 pistol chambered in 9 × 19mm Parabellum . The Five @-@ seven barrel is cold hammer @-@ forged and chrome @-@ lined , with a total length of 122 mm ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) and a rifled length of 94 mm ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) . The barrel has eight rifling grooves with a right @-@ hand twist rate of 1 : 231 mm ( 1 : 9 @.@ 1 in ) , and it weighs 113 g ( 0 @.@ 249 lb ) . The small caliber gives the barrel a length in calibers of more than 20 , 58 % more than a comparable 9 mm barrel . It has a stated service life of 20 @,@ 000 rounds and the Five @-@ seven is noted for being very accurate .
Current models of the Five @-@ seven are single @-@ action , having a short and light trigger pull of 20 to 30 N ( 4 @.@ 4 to 6 @.@ 6 lbF ) . They have a Picatinny rail for mounting accessories , and a magazine safety mechanism that prevents the pistol from firing without a magazine inserted . The grip texture on current pistols is extensively checkered for a superior hold , and each side of the slide has a series of narrow ridges at the rear to aid grasping . The trigger and trigger guard surfaces also have grooves to reduce finger slip , and the trigger guard is elongated to ease firing while wearing gloves . The Five @-@ seven is currently offered in two different frame finishes ( standard black or flat dark earth ) , and two different iron sight systems ( adjustable sights or low profile fixed sights ) .
= = = Ammunition = = =
Particularly significant to the design of the Five @-@ seven pistol is the small caliber , high velocity bottlenecked cartridge it uses . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge was created by FN Herstal in response to NATO requests for a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge , which is commonly used in pistols and submachine guns . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge weighs 6 @.@ 0 g ( 93 grains ) — roughly half as much as a typical 9 × 19mm cartridge — making extra ammunition less burdensome , or allowing more ammunition to be carried for the same weight . Since the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge also has a relatively small diameter , an unusually high number of cartridges can be contained in a magazine . The cartridge has a loud report and produces considerable muzzle flash , but it has roughly 30 percent less recoil than the 9 × 19mm cartridge , improving controllability . Due to its high velocity , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm also exhibits an exceptionally flat trajectory .
One of the design intents for the standard 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge type , the SS190 , was that it have the ability to penetrate Kevlar protective vests — such as the NATO CRISAT vest — that will stop conventional pistol bullets . Fired from the Five @-@ seven , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS190 has a muzzle velocity of roughly 650 m / s ( 2 @,@ 130 ft / s ) and is capable of penetrating the CRISAT vest at a range of 100 m ( 110 yd ) , or 48 layers of Kevlar material ( roughly equivalent to two stacked Level II Kevlar vest panels ) at a range of 50 m ( 55 yd ) . It is also capable of penetrating a PASGT vest at a range of 300 m ( 330 yd ) or a PASGT helmet at a range of 240 m ( 260 yd ) . FN states an effective range of 50 m ( 55 yd ) and a maximum range of 1 @,@ 510 m ( 1 @,@ 650 yd ) for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge when fired from the Five @-@ seven pistol .
In testing conducted by Passaic County , New Jersey Sheriff 's Department , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS190 penetrated to a depth of 27 cm ( 11 in ) in bare ballistic gelatin , and a depth of 23 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) in gelatin protected with a Kevlar vest . In testing , the SS190 and similar 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm projectiles consistently turn base over point ( " tumble " ) as they pass through ballistic gelatin and other media , using the 21 @.@ 6 @-@ mm ( .85 in ) projectile length to create a larger wound cavity . However , some are skeptical of the bullet 's terminal performance , and it is a subject of debate among civilian shooters in the United States .
The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm projectile potentially poses less risk of collateral damage than conventional pistol bullets , because the projectile design limits overpenetration , as well as risk of ricochet . The lightweight projectile also poses less risk of collateral damage in the event of a miss , because it loses much of its kinetic energy after traveling only 400 m ( 440 yd ) , whereas a conventional pistol bullet such as the 9 × 19mm retains significant energy beyond 800 m ( 870 yd ) . This range exceeds the engagement distances expected for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge 's intended applications , so the cartridge 's limited energy at long range is not considered to be disadvantageous . Since the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS190 projectile does not rely on fragmentation or the expansion of a hollow @-@ point bullet , the cartridge and pistol are considered suitable for military use under the Hague Convention of 1899 , which prohibits the use of expanding bullets in warfare .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Five @-@ seven pistol feeds from detachable box magazines , but it is unconventional in that it feeds cartridges into the chamber without the use of a barrel feed ramp , having a beveled chamber only — the pistol 's feeding is inherently reliable because of its use of bottlenecked cartridges . The pistol is supplied with 20 @-@ round magazines as standard , or 10 @-@ round magazines for jurisdictions where magazines are restricted by law to a maximum capacity of 10 rounds . The Five @-@ seven will also accept an aftermarket extended 30 @-@ round magazine , which protrudes an additional 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) from the base of the pistol . With an additional cartridge in the chamber , the Five @-@ seven pistol has a total capacity of 11 , 21 , or 31 rounds depending on which magazine type is used . Magazine pouches for the Five @-@ seven magazine are available from various manufacturers .
The Five @-@ seven 's magazine can be disassembled for cleaning or lubrication by removing the polymer floorplate . The magazine body is constructed of polymer , with steel inserts at the feed lips . Unlike a conventional pistol magazine , it feeds from dual feed lips , with a follower that has the same appearance as that of an M16 rifle 's magazine , and which is loaded in the same manner : by pushing cartridges straight down into the magazine , rather than pushing them down and back . This setup makes it very easy to load individual cartridges into the magazine . The magazine floorplate has a slight finger spur , and four holes in the left side of the magazine body allow a convenient estimate of the amount of remaining ammunition .
= = = Controls = = =
All controls ( excluding the trigger ) on the Five @-@ seven USG and earlier models are grey polymer , in contrast to the black polymer frame and slide cover . Similarly , all of the controls on the Five @-@ seven FDE and Five @-@ seven ODG models are black polymer , in contrast to the flat dark earth and olive drab polymer frames . A takedown lever is located at the front on the left side of the weapon 's frame , and a slide release is located at the rear on the left side of the frame ; these controls are protected from accidental movements by slight projections in the frame contour . A chamber indicator , in the form of a pin inside a tiny hole , is provided on the left side of the slide . When a round has been chambered , this pin will protrude 1 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 063 in ) , which is sufficient to provide both visible and tactile indication of the chamber 's status .
Current models of the Five @-@ seven have an ambidextrous manual safety device , which is located in an unconventional position : one control is found on each side of the frame above the trigger guard , where it is reachable with the trigger finger or support hand thumb . A red dot is visible here when the safety is deactivated and the pistol is ready to fire ; when the safety is moved to the raised position , it is activated and the red dot is no longer visible . The Five @-@ seven 's push @-@ button magazine release , located on the left side of the frame where the trigger guard intersects with the grip , is square @-@ shaped and reversible for left @-@ handed shooters .
The Five @-@ seven can be disassembled quickly and easily , by using the left hand to retract and hold the slide 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) rearwards , while simultaneously using the left @-@ hand thumb to push and hold the takedown lever rearwards . When the slide is released , it moves forward freely and the complete slide assembly can be disengaged from the frame , whereupon the barrel ( and captured recoil spring ) can be removed from the slide . This level of disassembly is sufficient to perform thorough cleaning of the pistol , and FNH USA recommends no further disassembly except by an authorized armorer , FN Herstal , or FNH USA . Reassembly of the pistol is done in the reverse order , except no use of the disassembly lever is necessary .
= = = Sights and accessories = = =
The Five @-@ seven has a sight radius of 178 mm ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) ; the pistol is currently offered with either adjustable sights or fixed sights . The " three @-@ dot " type adjustable sights consist of a 2 @.@ 9 @-@ mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) square notch rear and a 3 @.@ 6 @-@ mm ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) blade front , which has a height of 9 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 36 in ) . The sights are targeted at 91 @.@ 4 m ( 100 @.@ 0 yd ) , but can be adjusted for either windage or elevation . The " three @-@ dot " type C @-@ More fixed sights , which are offered as a low profile alternative to the adjustable sights , can only be adjusted for windage . The fixed sights are targeted at 7 @.@ 6 m ( 25 ft ) using SS195LF ammunition , and are available with or without tritium @-@ illuminated inserts ( " night sights " ) to aid use of the pistol in dim lighting .
The Five @-@ seven is supplied with a lockable hard case , a locking device and keys , a magazine release reversal tool , a sight adjustment tool ( not included with the fixed sights model ) , a cleaning kit , an owner 's manual , and three 20 @-@ round magazines ( or three 10 @-@ round magazines , where restricted by law ) .
The Five @-@ seven can be used in conjunction with a wide range of firearm accessories ; holsters are offered by various manufacturers , and the pistol 's MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 ( Picatinny ) accessory rail will accept tactical lights or laser aiming devices . With the use of an extended , threaded barrel , the pistol can also be fitted with various sound suppressors developed by Advanced Armament Corporation , Gemtech , Silencerco , and other manufacturers . The Gemtech SFN @-@ 57 , which was developed in 1998 specifically for use with the Five @-@ seven , is a matte black aluminum suppressor with a length of 147 mm ( 5 @.@ 8 in ) , a diameter of 32 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) , and a weight of 147 g ( 0 @.@ 324 lb ) . Israeli manufacturer FAB Defense offers a complete PDW conversion kit for the Five @-@ seven , designated the KPOS G2 FN 5 @.@ 7 , that allows the pistol to be reconfigured into a shoulder @-@ fired personal defense weapon , and CornerShot offers a weapon system compatible with the Five @-@ seven that allows the shooter to aim and fire around corners without being exposed .
= = Variants = =
Five @-@ seven
The original Five @-@ seven was introduced in 1998 , and it is now discontinued . It had no manual safety device and it was double @-@ action only , with a heavy trigger pull of 4 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 5 daN ( 10 to 14 lbF ) ; its double @-@ action only trigger was harshly criticized . The original Five @-@ seven had a pebbled grip pattern , a smoothly contoured accessory rail , low profile fixed sights and a large circular @-@ shaped trigger guard designed to facilitate gloved use . It did not have a slide release and the slide was not serrated as on newer models , but a portion at the rear of the slide was instead slightly concave to aid grasping . The pistol also had slightly different markings , with an FN logo placed on the left side of the frame above the trigger guard .
Five @-@ seven Tactical
The Five @-@ seven Tactical was introduced shortly after the original double @-@ action only model , as a single @-@ action alternative . It had a short and light trigger pull of 2 to 3 daN ( 4 @.@ 4 to 6 @.@ 6 lbF ) , as on current models . It also had the addition of an ambidextrous manual safety device ( located on each side of the frame , as on current models ) , and a slide release . Aside from these modifications , the Tactical model was identical to the original double @-@ action only Five @-@ seven . It was discontinued following the introduction of the IOM model .
Five @-@ seven IOM
The Five @-@ seven IOM ( Individual Officer Model ) was the first model of the Five @-@ seven pistol to be offered to civilian shooters , debuting in 2004 . It is now discontinued in favor of the USG model . The IOM was similar in its basic design to the Tactical version , but differed in that it had a MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 ( Picatinny ) accessory rail , a serrated slide and trigger guard , and fully adjustable sights . It also had a magazine safety mechanism incorporated into the design , to prevent the pistol from being fired without a magazine inserted .
Five @-@ seven USG
The Five @-@ seven USG ( United States Government ) model was approved by the ATF as a sporting firearm in 2004 , replacing the IOM model . The USG retained the changes that were incorporated in the IOM , but it had further modifications , including a conventionally shaped square trigger guard , a tightly checkered grip pattern , and a larger , reversible magazine release . It was originally offered with adjustable sights , but starting in 2009 it was also offered with low profile fixed sights . The USG model had a black frame finish with grey controls as standard , but it was also offered in limited quantities with black controls . Since 2013 , the USG model is no longer listed by FNH USA .
Five @-@ seven FDE
The Five @-@ seven FDE ( Flat Dark Earth ) model was built to the same specifications as the Five @-@ seven USG , but it had a brown frame finish and black controls , as opposed to the standard black frame finish and grey controls of the Five @-@ seven USG . Like the USG model , the FDE was offered with either adjustable sights or low profile fixed sights . Since 2013 , the original FDE model is no longer listed by FNH USA , although a flat dark earth version of the new MK2 is available .
Five @-@ seven ODG
The Five @-@ seven ODG ( Olive Drab Green ) model was built to the same specifications as the Five @-@ seven USG model , but it had an olive drab frame finish and black controls , as opposed to the standard black frame finish and grey controls of the Five @-@ seven USG . Like the USG model , the ODG model was offered with either adjustable sights or low profile fixed sights . Since 2012 , the ODG model is no longer listed by FNH USA .
= = = Current model = = =
Five @-@ seven MK2
The Five @-@ seven MK2 model was introduced in 2013 , and is now the standard version of the Five @-@ seven offered by FN Herstal . This new model has cocking serrations on the front of the slide , and has been reported to have a one @-@ piece metal slide ( under the polymer cover ) , whereas the previous models have a two @-@ piece welded metal slide . There is apparently still a choice of fixed or adjustable sights : the model shown on FNH 's site is a fixed @-@ sight version ; a model with adjustable sights was photographed at the 2013 SHOT show . The rear sight on the adjustable @-@ sight version has also been changed , with beefed @-@ up construction and white straight @-@ edge sight references compared to the present three @-@ dot target @-@ style sights ; these have been described as " combat adjustable sights " .
The MK2 has a black frame and slide , with flat black controls in place of the grey controls of the IOM and USG models . It is also available with a flat dark earth frame color .
Note : The MK2 is slightly wider than previous models and will not fit most custom holsters made for earlier versions of the Five @-@ seven .
= = Controversy = =
The Five @-@ seven pistol and 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition were originally restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers , but in 2004 the new Five @-@ seven IOM model was introduced , and offered to civilian shooters for use with 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS192 ammunition . FNH USA has marketed the Five @-@ seven to civilian shooters as a pistol suitable for personal protection , target shooting , and similar uses , but the Five @-@ seven 's introduction to civilian shooters was strongly opposed by U.S. gun control organizations such as the Brady Campaign ; by the end of 2004 , sales of the Five @-@ seven pistol had increased dramatically .
In early 2005 , the pistol was subject to controversy in the United States after the Brady Campaign stated that commercially available 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS192 ammunition penetrated a Level IIA Kevlar vest in testing . The National Rifle Association ( NRA ) shortly countered the Brady Campaign 's claim by stating that the gun control group may not have adhered to standard testing procedures , and that FN offers armor @-@ piercing varieties of the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge only to military and law enforcement customers . Varieties offered to civilians are classified by the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives ( ATF ) as not armor @-@ piercing , and it was stated that the SS192 and SS196 cartridge variations were unable to penetrate various types of Kevlar vests in tests conducted by FNH USA .
Michael D. Barnes , then @-@ president of the Brady Campaign , responded to the NRA 's statements on the Five @-@ seven by challenging NRA Executive Vice President Wayne LaPierre to be shot with the pistol while wearing a Kevlar vest . The NRA again responded to the Brady Campaign 's statements , saying that " Barnes demonstrated his group 's complete and utter disregard for gun safety and its flaming zeal to further restrict the rights of law @-@ abiding gun owners . " In the same year , two pieces of legislation were introduced in the United States Congress , specifically targeting the Five @-@ seven pistol and 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition for a federal ban : the H.R. 1136 : PLEA Act was introduced in the House of Representatives by Rep. Eliot Engel ( D @-@ NY ) , and the S. 527 : PLEA Act was introduced in the Senate by Sen. Frank Lautenberg ( D @-@ NJ ) ; neither bill proceeded to a vote by the House or Senate .
In March 2007 , legislation was again introduced in the United States Congress by Rep. Engel , under the new designation H.R. 1784 : PLEA Act . Once again , the bill failed to proceed to a vote . In the following years , the Five @-@ seven was subject to further controversy due to reports of the pistol 's use by drug cartels in the Mexican Drug War . In the United States , the Five @-@ seven has never been used to kill a police officer , but various news sources such as The Boston Globe and La Jornada reported incidents in which the pistol was used to shoot and kill police officers or civilians in Mexico . According to the ATF , the Five @-@ seven is one of the weapons favored by drug cartels in the Mexican Drug War , and a smuggled Five @-@ seven pistol can sell for up to 66 @,@ 000 pesos ( US $ 5 @,@ 000 ) in Mexico . From Mexico , the pistols have been smuggled into other South American countries ; in a July 2010 drive @-@ by shooting in Envigado , Colombia , two cartel gunmen armed with Five @-@ seven pistols opened fire on a group of bystanders outside a nightclub , leaving 9 people dead and 10 wounded .
In November 2009 , the Five @-@ seven again became subject to controversy in the United States , following the shooting at Fort Hood military base , in Texas . A U.S. Army psychiatrist , Major Nidal Malik Hasan , opened fire on fellow soldiers with a Five @-@ seven pistol , killing 13 people and wounding 29 in the worst shooting ever to take place on an American military base . Shortly after the shooting , FNH USA responded with a fact sheet dismissing allegations about the nature of the pistol , stating that it is only offered to civilians with sporting ammunition . Later in the month , a number of gun control organizations such as the Brady Campaign wrote a collaborative letter to U.S. President Barack Obama , citing the weapon 's use by the Fort Hood shooter and Mexican drug cartels , and calling on him to ban importation of the Five @-@ seven pistol and 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition . In July 2010 , legislation was introduced in the United States Congress by Rep. Engel , for a third time , under the new designation H.R. 6030 : PLEA Act . Like its previous incarnations , the H.R. 6030 bill failed to proceed to a vote by either the House of Representatives or Senate .
= = Users = =
The first military organization to adopt the Five @-@ seven was the Cypriot National Guard ( Greek : Εθνική Φρουρά ) , which purchased 250 pistols in May 2000 for its special forces group . By 2009 , the Five @-@ seven was in service with military and police forces in over 40 nations throughout the world . In 2009 , the Military of Libya purchased 367 Five @-@ seven pistols from FN Herstal , along with various other FN weapons , in a controversial sale valued at 11 @.@ 5 million euros ( US $ 15 @.@ 8 million ) . In 2011 , these weapons were used by Muammar Gaddafi 's military forces in the 2011 Libyan civil war , and Libyan rebel forces were also photographed using captured examples in the war .
In the United States , the Five @-@ seven is currently used by over 300 law enforcement agencies , including the U.S. Secret Service . Military and law enforcement organizations using the Five @-@ seven include :
= Langit Makin Mendung =
" Langit Makin Mendung " ( " The Sky is Increasingly Cloudy " ) is a controversial Indonesian short story . Published in Sastra magazine under the pen name Kipandjikusmin in August 1968 , it tells the story of Muhammad descending to Earth with the angel Gabriel to investigate the decreasing number of Muslims entering heaven , only to find that Muslims in Indonesia have begun fornicating , drinking alcohol , waging war on Muslims , and otherwise going against the tenets of Islam because of nasakom , a government policy during Sukarno 's administration that combined nationalism , religion , and communism . Unable to do anything to stop the rampant sinning , Muhammad and Gabriel watch the political maneuvering , crime , and famine in Jakarta in the form of eagles .
Upon publication , " Langit Makin Mendung " drew heavy criticism for its depictions of Allah , Muhammad , and Gabriel . Sastra was banned in North Sumatra , and the magazine 's offices in Jakarta were attacked . Despite published apologies from the writer and publisher , the head editor of Sastra , HB Jassin , was tried for blasphemy ; he was later sentenced to a one @-@ year suspended sentence . Critical views of the story vary ; the story has been compared to Dante 's Divine Comedy for its depiction of a man on a spiritual quest with a spiritual companion , yet criticized for depicting Allah , Muhammad , and Gabriel in a negative light . The legal case itself has been subject to debate , with both sides arguing freedom of expression and the scope of imagination .
= = Background = =
Indonesia is the world 's largest majority @-@ Muslim country . This has had a large influence on the development of Indonesia , both in its national revolution and in modern times . However , it has been used to justify and promote political positions . The Dutch colonial government minimized the role of the religious leaders , the kyai and ulama , in an attempt to prevent them using their influence to lead resistance . Modern rulers have used it to " maintain the status quo " , while those pushing for change use Islam as a means for justice or other political ends . This has led to a general fragmentation .
During the early 1960s then @-@ President Sukarno declared a new state ideology of Nasakom , which stood for Nasionalisme , Agama , dan Komunisme ( Nationalism , Religion , and Communism ) , which would complement the existing policy of Pancasila . This declaration , viewed as proof of increasing Indonesian Communist Party ( Partai Komunis Indonesia , or PKI ) power , led to conflict between the PKI and the military . In the midst of an escalating confrontation with Malaysia ( 1963 – 1966 ) , Sukarno demoted General Abdul Haris Nasution , Commander of the Army , and promoted Ahmad Yani , while the PKI spread rumours that a CIA @-@ sponsored board of generals ( Dewan Jenderal ) were plotting against the government , using the Gilchrist Document as proof . Eventually , a coup on 30 September 1965 , thought to have been sponsored by the PKI , killed six generals , leading to the massacre of suspected communists and the fall of Sukarno 's government over the next two years .
= = Plot = =
Muhammad and the other prophets of Islam , bored of living in jannah ( heaven ) and weary of singing the praises of Allah , request permission to return to Earth . Disappointed by the prophets ' request , Allah calls on Muhammad to explain why he wishes to return , as Allah had already granted him many things . Muhammad replies that he wishes to conduct research , to discover why so few
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Muslims are coming to heaven . Allah , after removing his glasses , responds that the people had been poisoned by Sukarno 's policy of Nasakom and grants Muhammad permission to investigate further .
After much fanfare , Muhammad departs jannah 's airport , riding a buraq , or winged horse . The Archangel Gabriel accompanies him . On the way , they encounter a Soviet spacecraft . Hearing that they are infidels , Muhammad approaches to investigate , only to crash into the spacecraft , obliterating it and the buraq and killing the three cosmonauts ; Muhammad and Gabriel are able to catch a cloud . Later , they pass Jakarta , which Gabriel describes as the most sinful place on Earth . Angered by Gabriel 's statement that less than a million of Indonesia 's 90 million Muslims are true believers , as well as the fact that it is the birthplace of Nasakom , Muhammad declares that Islam will never die and waits on the cloud .
Meanwhile , in Jakarta , an epidemic of the flu is underway . Among those who fall ill is President Sukarno , who writes to Chairman Mao Zedong to request some doctors . Mao sends doctors , who give Sukarno poison to paralyze him and aid the 30 September Movement in overthrowing the government . The slow acting poison causes Sukarno to faint after he and his ministers have a large party with haraam events , including the consumption of pork and frog and zina ( sex outside of marriage ) .
Muhammad and Gabriel , having transformed into eagles to observe Jakarta , see prostitution , adultery , theft , and drinking . Muhammad is shocked that zina and theft continue unabated , calling for Gabriel to help him stone the adulterers and cut the hands off the thieves . Gabriel replies that there are not enough stones for the adulterers , and the swords have been replaced by guns bought by the " infidel " Soviets and Americans who " worship dollars " . They later see a minister , referred to only as Togog , attempting to use the Gilchrist Document to overthrow Sukarno . Muhammad gives up on Indonesia , planning to install television in jannah .
Eventually , Sukarno recovers from the poison and is told about the Gilchrist Document , also being told that the Chinese are reneging on their agreement to supply nuclear weapons for Indonesia 's confrontation with Malaysia . Sukarno uses the Gilchrist Document to spread rumours and distrust among the populace , demoting his commander of the military , while the Chinese ambassador is sent home .
= = Writing and influences = =
" Langit Makin Mendung " was written under the pen name Kipandjikusmin . HB Jassin , head editor of Sastra , said that Kipandjikusmin had been born to a Muslim family but educated in a Catholic junior school prior to being sent to a naval academy ; Jassin noted that this Catholic education , with literature which personifies God and angels , may have influenced his writing style . Another influence was Javanese wayang , or shadow puppets , with stories which traditionally have a hierarchy of anthropomorphic deities . Jassin also notes influences from the culture of the Guided Democracy era , evidenced from terms like sputnik and the social commentary , with strong condemnation of prostitution in Indonesia and Sukarno 's Nasakom .
Kipandjikusmin later wrote to Ekspres magazine that his goal in writing the short story was to expose the corruption in Sukarno 's government , focusing on the religious leaders who had agreed with Nasakom when it was politically expedient to do so , yet turned against the PKI when the party was hunted and its members killed . He also admitted the influences proposed by Jassin , writing that he had often thought of the Catholic heaven as being similar to the Javanese Kahyangan , with God being similar to Batara Guru . His depictions of Muhammad and Gabriel transforming into eagles were influenced by images of Christ as the Lamb of God . It was originally meant to be a serial , and Jassin had already received the second instalment by the time the controversy began .
= = Style = =
" Langit Makin Mendung " has been described as being written with crude and offensive expressions . Jassin argues that the style , though direct and at times discourteous , indicates a sense of irony , humor , sarcasm , and cynicism .
= = Release and reception = =
" Langit Makin Mendung " was published in the literary magazine Sastra , headed by HB Jassin , in August 1968 , under the pen name Kipandjikusmin . It became instantly controversial , with Indonesian Muslims considering it blasphemous and an insult to Islam . Among the points of contention were the anthropomorphic personification of Allah , as well as the " less than respectful " treatment of Muhammad and other Islamic figures . It was banned in North Sumatra on 12 October and groups of young Muslims attacked Sastra 's headquarters in Jakarta . After threats of prosecution , Jassin and his co @-@ editor Rachman issued a public apology ; despite this , the magazine was banned . On 22 or 25 October 1968 , Kipandjikusmin followed suit , with a statement submitted to Kami .
In April 1969 or February 1970 , the High Prosecutor 's office in Medan filed charges against Jassin , charging him with blasphemy after he was unwilling to divulge Kipandjikusmin 's true name . At trial , Jassin argued that , as the story was a product of the author 's imagination , it should not be considered an insult to Islam ; he also cited physical descriptions of Allah from the Quran and Sufi literature , as well as the writer 's Christian influences . A witness for the prosecution , noted ulama and writer Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah ( Hamka ) , testified that a depiction of Allah wearing glasses implied that Allah was imperfect , as opposed to the personifications cited by Jassin , which were based on man 's love for Allah . Hamka later stated that nobody had been able to incite hatred against Muhammad like Kipandjikusmin since the Crusades . Jassin was sentenced to a one @-@ year suspended sentence .
= = Polemics = =
= = = Literary = = =
Jassin writes that " Langit Makin Mendung " , as a result of its author 's imagination , is not dogma , history , ethics , or an objective reality , but a work within its own world . As a result , Allah , Muhammad , and other religious figures are fictional characters and not representative of their counterparts . He further argues that " Langit Makin Mendung " is not written as an insult , but social criticism on perceived mistakes and corruption during the Sukarno period . He draws on parallels between " Langit Makin Mendung " , Dante 's Divine Comedy , and Allama Muhammad Iqbal 's Javid Nama , focusing on the journey of a person and a guide , with objections being raised due to readers identifying imagination with religion .
Another critic , Bahrum Rangkuti , wrote that " Langit Makin Mendung " had to be judged based on Kipandjikusmin 's intentions , which he interpreted as ridding Islam of Nasakom , which he saw as not being compatible . He noted that the Muslims criticized in the story are those who act in ways that are not permitted in Islam , such as drinking and committing zina , while other targets include inept leadership and corruption . Like Jassin , Rangkuti notes numerous instances of Allah being personified in the Quran and hadiths ; he views the personification of Allah in " Langit Makin Mendung " as an attempt to draw Muslims closer to Allah .
Sukarsono argues that " Langit Makin Mendung " would have been a " monumental " critique , with a good description of degeneration and immorality in the early 1960s , if written during Sukarno 's regime , like Machiavelli 's The Prince was for its time , but as it was released in the New Order it lost some of its impact . He notes that in most cases the personification of Allah as being compatible with Islamic views of Allah . However , Allah 's donning of gold spectacles is seen as being in contradiction to the tenets of Islam .
An opposing view , offered by Indonesian literary critic M. Jusuf Lubis , is that " Langit Makin Mendung " , as it is based on actual events and dogma , including Muhammad 's night journey . He rejects the view that the controversy arose from a misunderstanding of the story , writing that Indonesian Muslims reacted because they will not accept works that they see as denying the existence of Allah or comparing Pancasila to Nasakom . He notes that Jassin is inconsistent in his defense , calling the representations of Allah , Muhammad , and Gabriel figments of the author 's imagination , but citing Sukarno and Nasakom as influences .
= = = Legal = = =
Many studies have been made pertaining to the legal aspects of the " Langit Makin Mendung " case . One opinion is that the prosecution office had no legal basis for acting as both judge and literary critic in the case , with the blasphemy laws used in prosecution not being at least government or parliamentary level . The banning of Sastra is criticized for having no legal basis , as laws pertaining to the banning of print media at the time only applied to foreign publications ; per the then @-@ applicable Press Laws , any banning of a magazine would require approval of the Press Board . The need for freedom of speech is also mentioned .
Another view is that the prosecution 's actions were justified , pointing to the obscurity of the press laws , as well as the intent to publish , indicated by the story 's prominent placement in the magazine . In response to arguments that the banning of Sastra was a violation of the right to freedom of speech , Sju 'bah Asa argues that the public and prosecutors have the same right , which can exercised through protests or legal action . Poet Taufiq Ismail notes that most protests against the prosecution 's actions were for their motion to ban Sastra , a reputable and respected publication , which does not indicate that " Langit Makin Mendung " was being supported .
= Breaking Benjamin =
Breaking Benjamin is an American rock band from Wilkes @-@ Barre , Pennsylvania , founded in 1999 by lead singer and guitarist Benjamin Burnley and drummer Jeremy Hummel . The first lineup of the band also included guitarist Aaron Fink and bassist Mark Klepaski . This lineup released two albums , Saturate ( 2002 ) and We Are Not Alone ( 2004 ) , before Hummel was replaced by Chad Szeliga in 2005 . The band released two more studio albums , Phobia ( 2006 ) and Dear Agony ( 2009 ) , before entering an extended hiatus in early 2010 due to Burnley 's recurring illnesses .
The release of a compilation album amid the hiatus , Shallow Bay : The Best of Breaking Benjamin ( 2011 ) , unauthorized by Burnley , brought about legal trouble within the band resulting in the dismissal of Fink and Klepaski . Szeliga later announced his departure in 2013 citing creative differences . Burnley remained the sole member of the band until late 2014 , when the current lineup was announced , including bassist and backing vocalist Aaron Bruch , guitarist and backing vocalist Keith Wallen , guitarist Jasen Rauch , and drummer Shaun Foist . The band afterward released Dark Before Dawn in 2015 .
Despite significant lineup changes , the band 's musical style and lyrical content has remained consistent , with Burnley serving as the primary composer and lead vocalist since the band 's inception . The band has commonly been noted for its formulaic hard rock tendencies with angst @-@ heavy lyrics , swelling choruses , and " crunching " guitars . In the United States alone , the band has sold more than 7 million units and yielded two RIAA @-@ certified platinum records , two gold records , and several certified singles , including one multi @-@ platinum , three platinum , and three gold . The band has also produced one number one record on the Billboard 200 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and Saturate ( 1998 – 2003 ) = = =
Benjamin Burnley was originally in a band named Breaking Benjamin in 1998 that played " softer music " such as Weezer and The Beatles covers , and was " nothing like " subsequent lineups . The name originates from an incident in which Burnley broke a borrowed microphone , prompting its owner to retort , " Thanks to Benjamin for breaking my fucking mic . " This band included guitarist Aaron Fink , bassist Nick Hoover , and drummer Chris Lightcap , but soon broke up when Burnley moved to California . After returning to Pennsylvania with drummer Jeremy Hummel , Burnley formed Plan 9 , which also included bassist Jason Davoli . Plan 9 , a reference to Plan 9 from Outer Space , was continually misnamed as " Planet 9 " , therefore the group reclaimed the name Breaking Benjamin from the previous band , as Burnley still had promotional stickers with that name .
The three @-@ piece first gained attention when Freddie Fabbri , a DJ for active rock radio station WBSX , put the group 's track " Polyamorous " in rotation . After it became the number one requested track on the station , Fabbri financed the recording of the group 's eponymous EP , which sold all 2 @,@ 000 copies that were printed in 2001 . Jonathan " Bug " Price was credited on bass , replacing Davoli . After growing dissatisfied with their previous band , former band mate Aaron Fink and bassist Mark Klepaski joined Breaking Benjamin . In early 2002 , over a dozen record companies visited a two @-@ night showcase where Breaking Benjamin was playing , and the group subsequently signed with Hollywood Records . Shortly afterward , Breaking Benjamin began recording their first full @-@ length major @-@ label record , Saturate , which was released on August 7 , 2002 and produced by Ulrich Wild . It peaked at No. 136 on the Billboard 200 , and was later certified gold on September 25 , 2015 . In early 2003 , Breaking Benjamin participated in the Jägermeister Music Tour , then toured as a supporting act for Godsmack .
Of the little media coverage received , Saturate garnered positive reception , with Jason Taylor from AllMusic stating that the album " has serious potential to become one of 2002 's most successful debuts , " feeling that " although it is repetitive and generic , it is undeniably addictive " , ultimately scoring the album 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 . The disc received a favorable review from Schwegweb 's Vin Cherubino , who noted , " The music has just as much quality as any popular artist in the same genre . Influences from bands such as Tool can be heard , making the music seem all so familiar and palatable . "
= = = We Are Not Alone ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = =
Breaking Benjamin returned to the studio in October 2003 with producer David Bendeth for their sophomore effort We Are Not Alone . Burnley also worked with The Smashing Pumpkins front man Billy Corgan over the course of six days in December 2003 to write the songs " Rain " , " Forget It " , and " Follow " . Despite initially being nervous , Burnley felt it was one of the highlights of his career .
The album was released on June 29 , 2004 and sold 48 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , peaking at No. 20 on the Billboard 200 . It was later certified gold on October 21 , 2004 , then platinum on June 13 , 2005 . The record features singles such as " So Cold " and " Sooner or Later " , both of which peaked at No. 2 on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart . " So Cold " became a platinum single on September 25 , 2015 . MTV writer Jon Wiederhorn writes that the initial commercial success of the album can be attributed to a tour two weeks prior to the album 's debut which " generated prerelease buzz " . They later co @-@ headlined a tour with Evanescence , Seether , and Three Days Grace .
We Are Not Alone garnered mixed reviews . It was met with high acclaim from IGN 's Colin Moriarty , who felt " extremely satisfied , " saying " safely and confidently " that it " might be my personal favorite album of the year , " giving it a score of 9 @.@ 3 out of 10 . Conversely , Exclaim ! writer Amber Authier felt that , " On first listen its simply generic sound did nothing for me , " though later admitted , " I listened to Breaking Benjamin several times over a week and several elements of the disc started to grow on me , even appeal to me . " The writer concluded , " Breaking Benjamin created a standard of quality for themselves that they simply couldn 't meet on the entire disc . "
On November 3 , 2004 , a non @-@ album single named " Blow Me Away " was released , to commercial success , ultimately going gold on November 24 , 2015 . On November 23 , 2004 , Breaking Benjamin released the So Cold EP , which features live versions of the songs " Away " and " Breakdown " , a live acoustic version of " So Cold " , and studio acoustic recordings of " Blow Me Away " and " Lady Bug " .
In late 2005 , drummer Hummel filed a federal lawsuit against Breaking Benjamin . According to the lawsuit , Hummel requested earlier that year to take a paternity leave to be with his wife during the birth of their first child , to which all members of the band agreed and hired Kevin Soffera as a temporary substitute on drums . However , Burnley later called Hummel and terminated him , citing chemistry issues . In the lawsuit , Hummel contended wrongful termination and lack of compensation for profits accrued by We Are Not Alone and other non @-@ album tracks that appeared in Halo 2 and National Treasure 2 . The band 's manager , Larry Mazer ( who was also named in the lawsuit ) , asserted that the lawsuit was " totally frivolous " and his termination had " nothing to do with the paternity leave . " Mazer said the band received no payment for the Halo 2 appearance , adding that the song was included for promotional reasons and Burnley was happy to have it in the video game . The band received minimal payment for the National Treasure 2 appearance , and Mazer stated that otherwise , " [ Hummel ] is 100 per cent current . " Ben " B.C. " Vaught served as a sit @-@ in drummer for the band , and they later toured with 3 Doors Down and Staind in November 2005 . The lawsuit was settled for an undisclosed amount in April 2006 .
= = = Phobia ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = =
After the departure of Jeremy Hummel , Breaking Benjamin auditioned fifteen drummers , of whom Chad Szeliga stood out for his ability as a stage performer and the fact that he had " serious problem @-@ solving skills " , according to Burnley . The group 's next album , Phobia , was again produced by Bendeth and was the first to be recorded with Szeliga . The concept of the album is dedicated to Burnley 's various phobias . The cover of the album depicts a winged man suspended over a runway , which represents the singer 's fear of flying . Burnley also suffers from death anxiety , a fear of the dark , driving anxiety , and hypochondriasis . Burnley cites his fear of flying as for why he did not perform overseas , saying , " I 'll go as far as a boat will take me " , though at the time the band 's record label had not facilitated travel by boat . Phobia 's " Intro " and " Outro " tracks feature sound effects of an airport intercom , airplane turbulance , car doors , and crowd panic .
Phobia was released on August 8 , 2006 to commercial success . The album sold more than 131 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of sales and peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 . It went gold on November 8 , 2006 , then platinum on May 21 , 2009 . Its lead single , " The Diary of Jane " , peaked at No. 2 on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart and was the fastest single added to radio playlists in the history of Hollywood Records , later receiving a double platinum certification on November 24 , 2015 . " Breath " , the record 's second single , spent seven weeks at No. 1 on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart , and went platinum on November 24 , 2015 . The third single , " Until the End " , peaked at No. 6 on the same chart , and became a gold single on February 11 , 2014 .
In February 2007 in support of Phobia , AXS TV ( then known as HDNet ) aired a one @-@ hour Breaking Benjamin concert from Stabler Arena in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania . The broadcast recording was included on the re @-@ released Phobia DVD in April , billed as " The Homecoming " . A music video was created for " Breath " which was made from footage of the song 's performance at the show . Breaking Benjamin followed with Spring and Fall tours alongside Three Days Grace , accompanied by Puddle of Mudd during the Spring tour , and Seether , Skillet , and Red during the Fall tour .
Phobia received mixed critical reception . It received praise for general composition and musicianship , but received criticism for a lack of originality . AllMusic 's Corey Apar found the album " nothing if not consistent , " and while generally regarding the disc with positive sentiments , noted a lack of distinction from the " rest of the post @-@ grunge / alt @-@ metal pack " aside from " a certain charm " . IGN 's Spence D. gave the disc a negative review , citing tedium and lack of vocal distinction , feeling that the group 's " intersection of hard rock and emo @-@ oriented introspection " is " not a bad thing , but also not a terribly memorable or earth @-@ shattering one , either . " However , the writer praised the musicianship of Fink , Klepaski , and Szeliga , ultimately giving the album a score of 5 @.@ 7 out of 10 . Entertainment Weekly graded the album C + and noted its angst @-@ ridden themes , saying , " as pathological angst goes , it 's expertly done , with expansive choruses and epic riffs — not that that matters , when , like , we 're all going to die cold and alone anyway . "
= = = Dear Agony ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = =
Breaking Benjamin began working on a fourth album , titled Dear Agony , in 2009 . It was the first album Burnley wrote while completely sober . In 2007 , Burnley experienced fatigue and phosphenes following three consecutive days of no sleep and heavy drinking , after which he decided to remain sober . Burnley acknowledged an improved clarity and coherence within Dear Agony due to his sobriety . The album cover features Burnley 's brain scan , representing the recurrent themes on Dear Agony related to the singer 's chronic illnesses caused by alcohol consumption .
Burnley collaborated with then @-@ Red guitarist Jasen Rauch on various tracks for Dear Agony : The two equally wrote together the songs " Without You " and " Hopeless " , and Rauch wrote the outro for " I Will Not Bow " , also helping write " Lights Out " . Burnley said of the collaboration , " I love writing with him because he does stuff exactly like I would 've done , " adding , " writing @-@ wise , we 're like the same person . "
Dear Agony was released on September 9 , 2009 , and peaked at No. 4 on the Billboard 200 . The disc initially outsold its predecessor in its first week , moving more than 134 @,@ 000 copies . It ultimately achieved gold certification on February 16 , 2010 . The album 's lead single " I Will Not Bow " reached No. 1 on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart , and went platinum on November 24 , 2015 . The other two singles , " Lights Out " and " Give Me a Sign " , peaked at No. 9 and No. 6 on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart , respectively ( the latter of which also receiving a gold certification on November 24 , 2015 ) .
Breaking Benjamin toured in support of the album in January and February 2010 with Three Days Grace and Flyleaf , then with Red , Chevelle , and Thousand Foot Krutch in March 2010 . In April , Breaking Benjamin began touring with Nickelback , Shinedown , and Sick Puppies on their Dark Horse Tour . Prior to the last show of the Dark Horse Tour , Burnley stated he was ill and therefore no longer able to tour in support of the album , placing the band on hiatus . After internet rumors began to circulate that the band had broken up , Burnley released a statement " officially letting everyone know that Breaking Benjamin has not broken up . "
Dear Agony received mixed critical reception . AllMusic 's James Monger gave the album a positive review , stating it " feels a lot like their first three " , noting a consistency that " feels like a well @-@ oiled machine . " The disc received a negative review from Consequence of Sound 's Alex Young , who complained of over @-@ production and the disc 's sell @-@ out nature at the hands of three @-@ time Breaking Benjamin producer David Bendeth : " Dear Agony is the unfortunate side effect of a trend in ' producer ' David Bendeth 's world , training wild chimpanzees to be more tasteful whilst handling silverware " , ultimately giving the record a half @-@ star " for teaching Breaking Benjamin 's peers who not to hire for production credit . " About Entertainment gave the record a mixed review , feeling that " Though it lacks the breakthrough singles of Phobia , Dear Agony does have its moments , " adding , " frustratingly , Dear Agony never reaches greatness , settling for an admirable competency that 's still the envy of many of their contemporaries . "
= = = Hiatus and Shallow Bay ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = =
In March 2010 , Hollywood Records requested that the band produce two new master recordings and a greatest hits album , and also sought permission to release a new version of the hit song " Blow Me Away " featuring Sydnee Duran of Valora . In May 2011 , Fink and Klepaski granted the record company 's requests after they were offered a $ 100 @,@ 000 payment . Burnley , alleging that Fink and Klepaski acted unilaterally on both the song remix and the compilation album , not informing him or the band 's management , fired the two via email , demanding at least $ 250 @,@ 000 in punitive fees and compensatory damages , as well as the exclusive right to the name Breaking Benjamin . Fink and Klepaski 's attorneys stated the two " dispute and strictly deny " Burnley 's allegations , instead asserting that a January 2009 agreement ( allowing Burnley to dismiss them for " just cause " ) was no longer valid because of the singer 's status of indefinite hiatus . The case was ordered by a judge to arbitration . Burnley 's attorney , Brian Caplan , told the Associated Press , " The relationship between Mr. Burnley and the two other members of the band has ended ... Mr. Burnley intends on moving forward using the name Breaking Benjamin and the band will continue . It just won 't continue in its prior configuration . He 's not retiring . "
In August 2011 , Hollywood Records scheduled the release of the Shallow Bay : The Best of Breaking Benjamin compilation album , featuring every single from the band 's catalog , including the remix of " Blow Me Away " . A two @-@ disc deluxe edition was released alongside it , with the second disc containing altered versions of b @-@ sides and rarities . Burnley publicly opposed the album 's release , saying content had been altered without his consent and did not meet his standards . Burnley later elaborated , saying that the rarities were taken off of his laptop without his consent , and were intended for in @-@ studio reference and not public release , but that he was otherwise content with previously @-@ released tracks on Shallow Bay . The album was released on August 16 , 2011 and peaked at No. 22 on the Billboard 200 , also topping the Hard Rock Albums chart in 2011 , 2012 , and 2013 . The disc received positive critical reception . The Daily Trojan 's Krishna Jetti praised it for balance and a progressive retrospective history . AllMusic 's Gregory Heaney felt similarly , saying , " Shallow Bay is a great jumping @-@ on point for new fans , capturing the band at their height delivering some of their best moments in one convenient package . For older fans , this collection may just serve as a reminder of a crucial turning point in Breaking Benjamin 's career . "
In April 2013 , Burnley announced that the dispute involving Fink and Klepaski was resolved and that he would retain the right to continue the band under the name Breaking Benjamin . Three days later , Szeliga announced his departure , citing creative differences .
= = = Return and Dark Before Dawn ( 2014 – present ) = = =
In August 2014 , Breaking Benjamin announced via Facebook that the band reformed as a quintet with , except for Burnley , all new members , including : Dear Agony co @-@ writer Jasen Rauch ( guitar , originally from Red ) ; Keith Wallen ( guitar and backing vocals , originally from Adelitas Way ) ; Aaron Bruch ( bass and backing vocals ) ; and Shaun Foist ( drums , originally from Picture Me Broken ) . Burnley said of the lineup : " Everybody that 's in the band now is deliberately handpicked , " noting that " Keith [ Wallen ] and Aaron [ Bruch ] are really , really amazing singers . That 's kind of what the band always needed . " On March 18 , 2015 , a new single entitled " Failure " as well as a new album , Dark Before Dawn , were announced for release on March 23 and June 23 , respectively .
The new lineup debuted with acoustic shows in late 2014 , then went on a four @-@ venue winter tour in the north @-@ eastern United States . The band afterward announced 2015 spring , summer , and fall tour dates , supported by bands such as Young Guns and Starset . In July 2015 , the band announced their first overseas performance , in which they headlined a four @-@ day cruise venue in February 2016 along with Yngwie Malmsteen , Zakk Wylde , Flyleaf , et al . The band also performed on a joint U.S. tour with Shinedown in October and November along with Sevendust , and proceeded to play further outside of the United States in June 2016 at venues such as the Download Festival in the United Kingdom , Rock am Ring in Germany , and Nova Rock in Austria .
Burnley explained that writing for Dark Before Dawn was intermittent and fragmentary , taking place throughout the hiatus , though it was toward the end of the hiatus in 2013 when it became cohesive . After growing frustrated with the lack of answers regarding his health condition , Burnley decided to abandon searching for a diagnosis and focus on the album . Recorded and produced at a personal studio of Burnley 's , Dark Before Dawn is the first album with the front man credited as the producer . The singer stated that " I would say that I did the same amount of producing on this album as I 've done on other albums , just never had my name [ on it ] " , adding , " You know , I 'm not doing anything different here than I have done in the past . Why shouldn 't I be known to be doing it ? "
Within an hour of pre @-@ order availability , Dark Before Dawn reached No. 1 on the rock albums chart on iTunes and No. 3 on the overall album chart . It sold 135 @,@ 000 pure album units and 141 @,@ 000 equivalent album units in its first week , debuting at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 , making the album the group 's heretofore most successful sales effort . The disc 's lead single " Failure " spent nine weeks at No. 1 on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart as well . Billboard 's Jason Lipshutz felt the album 's success was " eyebrow @-@ raising " , noting that , in addition to the band 's lineup change , " 135 @,@ 000 in pure album sales is a hefty number in 2015 — it 's a bigger number than the respective bows of recent Madonna , ASAP Rocky , and Kelly Clarkson albums " . Joe DeTomaso , program director of active rock station WAQX @-@ FM , added that , " They 've always been a top @-@ level band for the format , but not quite on the level of Disturbed or Shinedown or bands like that . They always seem to put out hit records without getting the kind of recognition that they deserved . " Forbes ' Hugh McIntyre writes that runner @-@ up Tori Kelly 's 75 @,@ 000 copies " puts Breaking Benjamin 's figures into perspective " and that despite " a pretty extensive lineup change , it looks like fans were awaiting their return with open arms . "
The album was met with mostly positive critical reception , many critics praising the album for staying true to the group 's sound , though others criticized it for sounding too similar to previous material . Dan Marsicano from About Entertainment stated , " Burnley could have made his creation just another dose of the glitzy , overproduced crap that is heard on every rock radio station in the world . Instead , Breaking Benjamin hardly deviate from the hooky jams that were present on Dear Agony . " Conversely , AllMusic 's James Monger felt that " it 's hard to conceal the fact that most of these songs are nearly interchangeable with the band 's older material . " Revolver 's Jeremy Borjon felt that " the music 's true force only becomes apparent through deeper and repeated listenings , as the songs , on the surface , have a tendency to blend into one another . "
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Breaking Benjamin 's musical style is primarily classified as hard rock and alternative rock , more specifically post @-@ grunge and alternative metal , and has commonly been noted for its consistency . Corey Apar felt that " Breaking Benjamin are nothing if not consistent " , and Alex Young felt that " Breaking Benjamin is one of the few modern rock bands on the radio that , if you have heard any song in its catalog prior , could be immediately recognized . " Despite a complete lineup change prior to the release of Dark Before Dawn , Dan Marsicano stated , " Breaking Benjamin hardly deviate from the hooky jams that were present on Dear Agony . They have had an established sound since their breakout We Are Not Alone — hard @-@ edged riffs with emotional upheaval — and that isn 't tampered with on Dark Before Dawn . "
Their style is described by Apar as " mixing heavy hard rock dynamics with a moody demeanor that never slips into full @-@ on dejection . " Spence D. characterizes the band as " [ persisting ] in delivering crunching guitars topped off with somewhat generic , angst @-@ ridden [ lyrics ] that waffle between being plaintive and aggressive " with vocals that " [ deliver ] just the right amount of emotion , fluctuating between contemplative subjectivity and growling anger . " Young felt that Breaking Benjamin is " indicative of early ' 00s modern rock , while also now and then being more Filter @-@ esque or technically proficient , primarily on guitar during 2002 's Saturate , and from then on with bass and drums . "
= = = Composition = = =
Burnley is the primary songwriter in the band . Music industry attorney and author Martin Frascogna writes that " it 's unmistakably clear that Burnley started the group , is the creative force behind the group and essentially dictates the group 's decisions . " Bands such as Nirvana , Live , Bush , Pearl Jam , Stone Temple Pilots , and The Beatles have been cited as influences . Burnley remarked in 2009 that while the other band members did contribute , it was " always left up to me to put all the pieces together and make it so that it 's even anything at all . " However , Burnley expressed how he considered Rauch to be his " writing partner " during Dear Agony , and that he looked forward to writing with him in the future . After joining the band in 2014 as part of the new lineup , Rauch provided writing contributions on Dark Before Dawn , writing the intro and outro tracks as well as riffs on two other tracks . Burnley revealed in 2015 that the whole band would write songs for Breaking
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Benjamin in the future , and that " It just so happens that when they came on board for this album , I was already 95 percent done " , adding , " I 'm really looking forward to writing the next one all together . "
Breaking Benjamin 's lyrical content evolved as a product of Burnley 's sobriety , the front man noting that the lyricism in Dear Agony is more thought out . Rito Asilo of the Inquirer writes that Burnley " owes the improved clarity and coherence in Breaking Benjamin 's music to sobriety . " Burnley has said that before sobriety , anything that made sense thematically was a coincidence , and that he would take shots if he were dissatisfied with a lyric . Breaking Benjamin 's lyrics have been noted for their vague , angst @-@ heavy themes , Burnley saying that " I try to keep my writing vague so people can draw their own conclusions . "
= = = Live performance = = =
Breaking Benjamin 's live sound has corresponded with lineup arrangements . The band originally lacked backing vocalists and tertiary instrumentation , requiring them to rely on pre @-@ recorded tracks during live performances . However , the band was noted for a change in such respects with the second iteration of the band assembled in 2014 . Bruch and Wallen were selected in part for their ability as singers , providing all backing vocals on both new studio recordings and during live shows . Burnley noted that it was important to add two new singers in order to replicate vocal techniques such as three @-@ part harmonies , octave range , and layered vocals . Rauch , acting as a third guitarist , provides the band with " more freedom while simultaneously thickening up their live sound " , as some songs feature three guitar parts , layered guitars , or are meant to feature Burnley only performing vocals , such as " I Will Not Bow " and " Lights Out " . Foist utilizes Roland V @-@ Kit electronic drums during live performances and triggers certain sounds as heard in studio recordings , such as the piano notes in " Breakdown " . Additionally , Rauch is equipped with a Roland GR @-@ 55 guitar synthesizer allowing him to play orchestral strings and choir sound effects , further eliminating any reliance on pre @-@ recorded tracks .
= = Members = =
Current members
Benjamin Burnley – lead vocals , rhythm guitar ( 1999 – present )
Jasen Rauch – lead guitar , electronic strings , programming ( 2014 – present )
Keith Wallen – rhythm guitar , backing vocals ( 2014 – present )
Aaron Bruch – bass , backing vocals ( 2014 – present )
Shaun Foist – drums , electronic percussion , programming ( 2014 – present )
Former members
Chad Szeliga – drums , percussion ( 2005 – 2013 )
Aaron Fink – lead guitar ( 2002 – 2011 )
Mark Klepaski – bass guitar ( 2002 – 2011 )
Jeremy Hummel – drums , percussion ( 1999 – 2004 )
Jonathan " Bug " Price – bass guitar ( 2001 )
Jason Davoli – bass guitar ( 1999 )
Touring members
Kevin Soffera – drums , percussion ( 2004 )
Ben " BC " Vaught – drums , percussion ( 2004 – 2005 )
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Saturate ( 2002 )
We Are Not Alone ( 2004 )
Phobia ( 2006 )
Dear Agony ( 2009 )
Dark Before Dawn ( 2015 )
= Polish – Russian War of 1792 =
The Polish – Russian War of 1792 ( also , War of the Second Partition , and in Polish sources , War in Defence of the Constitution ( Polish : wojna w obronie Konstytucji 3 maja ) ) was fought between the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth on one side , and the Targowica Confederation ( conservative nobility of the Commonwealth opposed to the new Constitution of 3 May 1791 ) and the Russian Empire under Catherine the Great on the other .
The war took place in two theaters : northern in Lithuania and southern in Ukraine . In both , the Polish forces retreated before the numerically superior Russian forces , though they offered significantly more resistance in the south , thanks to the effective leadership of Polish commanders Prince Józef Poniatowski and Tadeusz Kościuszko . During the three @-@ month @-@ long struggle several battles were fought , but no side scored a decisive victory . The largest success of the Polish forces was the defeat of one of the Russian formations at the Battle of Zieleńce on 18 June ; in the aftermath of the battle the Polish highest military award , Virtuti Militari , was established . The war ended when the Polish King Stanisław August Poniatowski decided to seek a diplomatic solution , asked for a ceasefire with the Russians and joined the Targowica Confederation , as demanded by the Russian Empire .
= = Background = =
= = = Decline of the Commonwealth = = =
By the early 18th century , the magnates of Poland and Lithuania controlled the state – or rather , they managed to ensure that no reforms would be carried out that might weaken their privileged status ( the " Golden Freedoms " ) . Through the abuse of the liberum veto rule which enabled any deputy to paralyze the Sejm ( Commonwealth 's parliament ) proceedings , deputies bribed by magnates or foreign powers or those simply content to believe they were living in an unprecedented " Golden Age " , paralysed the Commonwealth 's government for over a century .
The idea of reforming the Commonwealth gained traction from the mid @-@ 17th century ; it was however viewed with suspicion not only by its magnates but also by neighboring countries , which had been content with the deterioration of the Commonwealth and abhorred the thought of a resurgent and democratic power on their borders . With the Commonwealth Army reduced to around 16 @,@ 000 , it was easy for its neighbors to intervene directly ( The Imperial Russian Army numbered 300 @,@ 000 troops overall ; The Prussian Army and Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Empire , 200 @,@ 000 each ) .
= = = Attempts at reform = = =
A major opportunity for reform presented itself during the " Great Sejm " of 1788 – 92 . Poland 's neighbors were preoccupied with wars and unable to intervene forcibly in Polish affairs . Russian Empire and Archduchy of Austria were engaged in hostilities with the Ottoman Empire ( the Russo – Turkish War , 1787 – 1792 and the Austro @-@ Turkish War , 1787 – 1791 ) ; the Russians also found themselves simultaneously fighting in the Russo @-@ Swedish War , 1788 – 1790 . A new alliance between the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth and Prussia seeming to provide security against Russian intervention , and on 3 May 1791 the new constitution was read and adopted to overwhelming popular support .
With the wars between Turkey and Russia and Sweden and Russia having ended , Tsarina Catherine was furious over the adoption of the document , which she believed threatened Russian influence in Poland . Russia had viewed Poland as a de facto protectorate . " The worst possible news have arrived from Warsaw : the Polish king has become almost sovereign " was the reaction of one of Russia 's chief foreign policy authors , Alexander Bezborodko , when he learned of the new constitution . The Kingdom of Prussia was also strongly opposed to the new Polish constitution , and Polish diplomats received a note that the new constitution changed the Polish state so much that Prussia did not consider its obligations binding . Just like Russia , Prussia was concerned that the newly strengthened Polish state could become a threat and the Prussian Foreign Minister , Friedrich Wilhelm von Schulenburg @-@ Kehnert , clearly and with rare candor told Poles that Prussia did not support the constitution and refused to help the Commonwealth in any form , even as a mediator , as it was not in Prussia 's interest to see the Commonwealth strengthened so that it could threaten Prussia in some future . The Prussian statesman Ewald von Hertzberg expressed the fears of European conservatives : " The Poles have given the coup de grâce to the Prussian monarchy by voting a constitution " , elaborating that a strong Commonwealth would likely demand the return of the lands Prussia acquired in the First Partition .
The Constitution was not adopted without dissent in the Commonwealth itself , either . Magnates who had opposed the constitution draft from the start , namely Franciszek Ksawery Branicki , Stanisław Szczęsny Potocki , Seweryn Rzewuski , and Szymon and Józef Kossakowski , asked Tsarina Catherine to intervene and restore their privileges such as the Russian @-@ guaranteed Cardinal Laws abolished under the new statute . To that end these magnates formed the Targowica Confederation . The Confederation 's proclamation , prepared in St. Petersburg in January 1792 , criticized the constitution for contributing to , in their own words , " contagion of democratic ideas " following " the fatal examples set in Paris " . It asserted that " The parliament ... has broken all fundamental laws , swept away all liberties of the gentry and on the third of May 1791 turned into a revolution and a conspiracy . " The Confederates declared an intention to overcome this revolution . We " can do nothing but turn trustingly to Tsarina Catherine , a distinguished and fair empress , our neighboring friend and ally " , who " respects the nation 's need for well @-@ being and always offers it a helping hand " , they wrote . The Confederates aligned with Tsarina Catherine and asked her for military intervention . On 18 May 1792 Russian ambassador to Poland , Yakov Bulgakov , delivered a declaration of war to the Polish Foreign Minister Joachim Chreptowicz . Russian armies entered Poland and Lithuania on the same day , starting the war .
= = Opposing forces = =
The Russian army numbered nearly 98 @,@ 000 . It was commanded by generals Mikhail Krechetnikov and Mikhail Kakhovsky . The Russians also had an advantage in combat experience . The Russian plan called for Kakhovsky to advance through Ukraine , taking Kamieniec Podolski , Chełm and Lublin , and approach Polish capital of Warsaw from the south . Krechetnikov was to advance through Minsk , Wilno , Brześć Litewski and Białystok , and approach Warsaw from the north , where he was to link with Kakhovsky . Whereas the Russians had good intelligence network in Poland , and were mostly aware of Polish army distribution and strength ; the Poles had much less intelligence , receiving contradictory and often erroneous reports , and unsure whether the war would even start up to the point the Russian troops crossed the border .
Stanisław August Poniatowski , King of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , was the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Polish forces , but in practice he delegated this position to his nephew , Prince Józef Poniatowski . Poniatowski had in theory at his disposal a 48 @,@ 000 strong Crown army and the Lithuanian army more than half that size to confront them . In practice , Polish forces , still forming following the reforms of the Constitution of 3 May ( which specified an army size of 100 @,@ 000 ) numbered only 37 @,@ 000 . The army was in the midst of reorganizing , with key documents on unit numbers and composition passed as recently as in April ; it was also short on equipment and experienced personnel .
In the southeast corner of the country – the Ukrainian lands – the Polish forces were initially concentrated separately in three regions of the expected front , under Tadeusz Kościuszko , Michał Wielhorski and Prince Poniatowski himself . The Polish Crown army in Ukraine , led by Prince Poniatowski , and supported by Kościuszko , was about 17 @,@ 000 , 21 @,@ 000 or 24 @,@ 000 strong ( Derdej distinguishes between the primary force of 17 @,@ 000 and Prince Michał Lubomirski 's reserve division , of 4 @,@ 500 ) . They were faced on this southeastern war theater with a nearly four times larger enemy army under General Mikhail Kakhovsky , who had about 64 @,@ 000 men under his command . Kakhovsky 's forces were divided into four corps : 1st , 17 @,@ 000 strong , under the command of General Mikhail Golenishchev @-@ Kutuzov , 2nd , under General Ivan Dunin , 3rd , under General Otto Wilhelm Derfelden , and 4th , under General Andrei Levanidov . The Targowica Confederates did not represent any real strength ; and their attempts to gather popular support in Poland upon crossing borders failed miserably , with only few dozens joining at first ; later the number would grow but not significantly , and even the Russians saw them as not having any military value , keeping them from frontlines .
In Lithuania , Commonwealth Lithuanian Army numbered about 15 @,@ 000 , with an additional Crown detachment of about 3 @,@ 000 . They were commanded by Duke Louis of Württemberg . Württemberg made no plans for the war , and the troops were not readied for action by the time the war started . The Russian army in that theatre under General Mikhail Krechetnikov was 33 @,@ 700 strong or 38 @,@ 000 strong . The Russian army was also divided into four corps : 1st under one of Targowica Confederate leaders , Szymon Kossakowski 7 @,@ 300 strong , 2nd under General Boris Mellin , 7 @,@ 000 strong , 3rd under General Yuri Dolgorukov , 15 @,@ 400 strong , and 4th under General Ivan Fersen , 8 @,@ 300 strong .
Additional Polish forces , about 8 @,@ 000 strong , were to concentrate in Warsaw under command of King Poniatowski as reserve .
Tadeusz Kościuszko proposed a plan where the entire Polish army would be concentrated and would engage one of the Russian armies , in order to assure numerical parity and to boost the morale of mostly inexperienced Polish forces with a quick victory ; this plan was however rejected by Prince Poniatowski . ( Only a few months ago , however , both commanders had the opposite idea – Poniatowski wanted the troops concentrated , and Kościuszko , dispersed ) . Poniatowski also planned to avoid serious engagements in the first phase of the war , hoping to receive the expected Prussian reinforcements of 30 @,@ 000 which would bring parity to the two sides .
= = War = =
= = = Southern theater = = =
First Russian forces crossed the border in Ukraine on the night of 18 / 19 May 1792 . The Russians in that theater would encounter significantly more resistance than they expected , as Commonwealth 's top commanders , Prince Poniatowski and Kościuszko were stationed there . Kościuszko joined Prince Poniatowski near Janów on 29 May . The Crown Army was judged too weak to oppose the four columns of enemy armies advancing into West Ukraine and began a fighting withdrawal to the western side of the Southern Bug River , towards Lubar and Połonne , with Kośiuszko commanding the rear guard . Poniatowski , in face of a significant numerical inferiority of his forces , and promised reinforcements by King Poniatowski , decided to abandon Ukraine and move to Volhynia , where Połonne was to be fortified as a major defensive point , and where Lubomirski was tasked with gathering supplies .
On 14 June Wielhorski 's unit was defeated at the Battle of Boruszkowce . On 17 June Poniatowski finally received awaited reinforcements , about 2 @,@ 000 troops led by Michał Lubomirski . Next day the Poles , led by Prince Poniatowski , defeated one of the Russian formations of general Irakly Morkov at the Battle of Zieleńce on 18 June . The victory was celebrated by King Poniatowski , who sent the new Virtuti Militari medals for the campaign leaders and soldiers , as " the first since John III Sobieski " .
The Russian forces , however , kept advancing . The Polish army , under the command of Józef Poniatowski , was still retreating in order , yielding to the more powerful enemy as necessary to avoid annihilation , according to the Prince 's judgement . In early July , near Dubno , Prince Poniatowski and Kościuszko were betrayed by Michał Lubomirski , who was tasked with King Poniatowski with resupplying the troops ; instead Lubomirski joined the Russian side , and either hid the supplies for the Polish army , or outright passed them to the Russians . Lubomirski , however , was a powerful magnate , and it took until late May for the King to officially relieve him of his command . Within about a month of the Russian invasion , the Poles have mostly retreated from Ukraine . On 7 July Kościuszko 's forces fought a delaying battle with the Russians at Volodymyr @-@ Volynskyi ( Battle of Włodzimierz ) . Meanwhile , Poniatowski 's army retreated to the Bug River , where Kościuszko 's units fought the Battle of Dubienka on 18 July to a draw . With about 5 @,@ 300 troops Kościuszko defeated the attack of 25 @,@ 000 Russians under General Michail Kachovski . Kośicuszko then had to retreat from Dubienka , as the Russians begun flanking his positions crossing the nearby Austrian border . Although the Poles had to retreat from the Bug River line , they were not defeated so far , and a decisive battle or battles at more favorable locations closer to Warsaw were expected .
= = = Northern theater = = =
In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania the Russians crossed the Commonwealth border four days later than in the south , on 22 May . Poland 's ally , the Kingdom of Prussia , broke its alliance with Poland and the Prussian commander of the Lithuanian army , Duke Württemberg , betrayed the Polish @-@ Lithuanian cause by refusing to fight the Russians . He never reached the frontlines , feigned illness in Wołczyn , and issued contradictory orders to his troops .
Thus the Army of Lithuania did little to oppose the advancing Russians , and kept withdrawing before their advance . Minsk was abandoned , after some skirmishes , on 31 May . Only after a change of commander on 4 June , did the Army , now under General Józef Judycki , try to stand and fight the Russians . The Russians however defeated Judycki at the battle of Mir on 11 June and kept advancing through the Grand Duchy . The Commonwealth army retreated towards Grodno . On 14 June the Russians took Wilno , after only a small skirmish with local garrison ; on 19 June , incompetently defended Nieśwież ; and on 20 June , Kaunas , this time without any opposition . Judycki , disgraced , was replaced by Michał Zabiełło on 23 June . Nonetheless , since Mir , no decisive engagements occurred in the northern theater , as Polish army withdrew in relative order towards Warsaw , after minor defeat at Zelwa , eventually taking defensive positions along the Bug river near Brest . Russians took Grodno on 5 July and Białystok on 17 July . On 23 July the Russians took Brest , defeating the local garrison , but on 24 they were defeated near Krzemień @-@ Wieś ; this last battle was the first significant Commonwealth victory on the northern front .
= = = War ends = = =
While Prince Poniatowski and Kościuszko considered the outcome of the war still open , and were planning to use the combined Polish @-@ Lithuanian forces to defeat the still separate Russian forces , King Poniatowski , with the consent of the Guardians of the Laws ( cabinet of ministers ) decided to ask for a ceasefire . Tsarina Catherine demanded that the King Poniatowski joins the pro @-@ Russian aristocratic faction , the Targowica Confederation ; with his cabinet split , he gave in to her demand around 22 – 23 July , which effectively forced Prince Poniatowski to terminate military resistance . The last military confrontation of the war was fought on 26 July at Markuszów in Lublin province , where an enemy attack was repelled by Polish cavalry led by Poniatowski .
At the time King Poniatowski decided to sue for peace , the Polish army was still in good fighting condition , not suffering from any major defeat nor from lack of supplies . King Poniatowski thought that due to Russian numerical superiority defeat was nonetheless imminent , and more could be gained through negotiations with the Russians , with whom he hoped a new alliance could be formed . Although subsequent events would prove him wrong , the question of whether this could have been foreseen , and prevented through continued military resistance , has been subject to much debate among historians .
The Polish military was widely dissatisfied with the ceasefire ; Kościuszko , Prince Poniatowski and many others would criticize the King 's decision and many , including Kościuszko , would resign their commission in the coming weeks . Prince Poniatowski even considered rebelling against his uncle 's orders , and even issued orders to bring the King to the army 's camp by force if necessary , as was postulated by the more radical faction . Ultimately he decided not to continue fighting against his uncle 's will , and the order was rescinded at the last moment before the departure of the group charged with capturing the King .
= = Aftermath = =
Most Polish historians agree that the Polish capitulation was a mistake both from the military perspective , and the political one . In the realm of military , the Poles had reasonable chances to defend the Vistula river line , and exhaust the Russian invading forces . From the political one , showing willingness to fight could have persuaded the partitioning powers that their plan was too costly .
King Poniatowski 's hopes that the capitulation will allow an acceptable diplomatic solution to be worked out were soon dashed . With new deputies bribed or intimidated by the Russian troops , a new session of parliament , known as the Grodno Sejm , took place , in fall 1793 . On 23 November 1793 , it concluded its deliberations under duress , annulling the constitution and acceding to the Second Partition . Russia took 250 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 97 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , while Prussia took 58 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 22 @,@ 000 sq mi ) of the Commonwealth 's territory . This event reduced Poland 's population to only one @-@ third of what it was before the First Partition . The rump state was garrisoned by Russian troops and its independence was strongly curtailed .
This outcome came also as a surprise to most of the Targowica Confederates , who had wished only to restore the status quo ante bellum ( Commonwealth magnate @-@ favoring Golden Freedoms ) and had expected that the overthrow of the 3 May Constitution would achieve that end , and nothing more . The last bid to restore the reformed Commonwealth came with the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794 . The uprising failed and resulted in the Third Partition in 1795 , in which the country lost all its remaining territories and the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist .
= Aliens ( film ) =
Aliens is a 1986 American military science fiction action horror film written and directed by James Cameron , produced by his then @-@ wife Gale Anne Hurd , and starring Sigourney Weaver , Carrie Henn , Michael Biehn , Paul Reiser , Lance Henriksen , William Hope , and Bill Paxton . It is the sequel to the 1979 film Alien and the second installment in the Alien franchise . The film follows Weaver 's character Ellen Ripley as she returns to the planet where her crew encountered the hostile Alien creature , this time accompanied by a unit of space marines .
Gordon Carroll , David Giler and Walter Hill of Brandywine Productions , who produced the first film and the later sequels , were executive producers of Aliens . They were interested in a follow @-@ up to Alien as soon as its 1979 release , but the new management at 20th Century Fox postponed those plans until 1983 . That year Brandywine picked Cameron to write after reading his script for The Terminator ; when that film became a hit in 1984 , Fox greenlit Aliens with Cameron as director and a budget of approximately $ 18 million . The script was written with a war film tone influenced by the Vietnam War to contrast the horror motifs of the original Alien . It was filmed in England at Pinewood Studios and at a decommissioned power plant in Acton , London .
Aliens grossed $ 180 million worldwide . It was nominated for seven Academy Awards , including a Best Actress nomination for Sigourney Weaver , winning both Sound Effects Editing and Visual Effects ( that latter delivered to special effects supervisor John Richardson ) . It won eight Saturn Awards , including Best Science Fiction Film , Best Actress for Weaver and Best Direction and Best Writing for Cameron . Aliens is considered one of the best films in its genre .
= = Plot = =
Ellen Ripley ( Sigourney Weaver ) is rescued after drifting through space in stasis for 57 years . She is debriefed by her employers at the Weyland @-@ Yutani Corporation over the destruction of her ship , the Nostromo ; they are skeptical of her claims that an Alien killed the ship 's crew and forced her to destroy the ship .
Zeta Reticuli , the exomoon LV @-@ 426 , where the USCSS Nostromo encountered the alien eggs , is now home to the terraforming colony Hadleys [ sic ] Hope . When contact is lost with Hadleys Hope , Weyland @-@ Yutani representative Carter Burke ( Paul Reiser ) and Colonial Marine Lieutenant Gorman ( William Hope ) ask Ripley to accompany Burke and a Colonial Marine unit to investigate the disturbance . Traumatized by her encounter with the Alien , Ripley initially refuses , but she relents after experiencing recurring nightmares about the creature ; she makes Burke promise to destroy , and not capture , the Aliens . Aboard the spaceship USS Sulaco , she is introduced to the Colonial Marines and the android Bishop , toward whom Ripley is initially hostile following her experience with the traitorous android Ash aboard the Nostromo .
A dropship delivers the expedition to
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— he was named as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in the 2005 edition .
= = = England in South Africa , 2004 – 05 = = =
Following on from his performances during the series against the West Indies , Key was taken on England 's tour of South Africa over the English close @-@ season . However , with Mark Butcher returning to the side following injury , Key lost his place . This was despite him scoring 87 in a warm @-@ up game against a Nicky Oppenheimer XI , a match in which Butcher had scored just six . Returning to the side for the third Test after Butcher had sustained a wrist injury , Key made a duck in the first innings , before " defending resolutely " in accumulating 41 before being stumped charging Nicky Boje .
The fourth Test , played at the Wanderers , saw Key hit 83 , in a partnership of 182 with Andrew Strauss that Wisden described as including " hard @-@ hitting support from Key " . He added a further eighteen to his match tally in the second innings , a contribution which helped England to an eventual victory . Key returned single figure scores of one and nine in his two innings in the final Test , being dismissed by Shaun Pollock on both occasions in a rain @-@ affected draw .
= = = ICC World Twenty20 = = =
Key briefly returned to international cricket for the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 competition . On 5 June 2009 , he made his only appearance in the competition , against the Netherlands at Lords as a replacement for the injured Kevin Pietersen . Coming in during the 18th over , with England at 144 / 4 , he managed to knock 10 from 11 balls however could not find the boundary . The Netherlands successfully chased down the target from the final ball .
= = Career records and statistics = =
= = = Test matches = = =
Records :
Lord 's Cricket Ground second wicket partnership record : 291 with Andrew Strauss , 2004 v West Indies
Wanderers Stadium second wicket partnership record : 182 with Andrew Strauss , 2004 – 05 v South Africa
Test centuries :
Career performances :
= = = One Day Internationals = = =
Career performances :
= = = Career Best Performances = = =
as of 10 August 2014
= Emma Watson =
Emma Charlotte Duerre Watson ( born 15 April 1990 ) is a British actress , model , and activist . Born in Paris and brought up in Oxfordshire , Watson attended the Dragon School as a child and trained as an actress at the Oxford branch of Stagecoach Theatre Arts . She rose to prominence after landing her first professional acting role as Hermione Granger in the Harry Potter film series , appearing in all eight Harry Potter films from 2001 to 2011 , previously having acted only in school plays . The franchise earned Watson worldwide fame , critical accolades , and more than £ 10 million . She continued to work outside of the Harry Potter films , first lending her voice to The Tale of Despereaux and appearing in the television adaptation of the novel Ballet Shoes . Since then , she has taken on starring roles in The Perks of Being a Wallflower and The Bling Ring , made a brief appearance as an " exaggerated " version of herself in This Is the End , and portrayed the title character 's adopted daughter in Noah .
From 2011 to 2014 , Watson split her time between working on film projects and continuing her education , studying at Brown University and Worcester College , Oxford and graduating from Brown with a bachelor 's degree in English literature in May 2014 . Her modelling work has included campaigns for Burberry and Lancôme . As a fashion consultant , she helped create a line of clothing for People Tree . She was honoured by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts in 2014 , winning for British Artist of the Year . That same year , she was appointed as a UN Women Goodwill Ambassador and helped launch the UN Women campaign HeForShe , which calls for men to advocate gender equality .
= = Early life = =
Watson was born in Paris , France , the daughter of English lawyers Jacqueline Luesby and Chris Watson . Watson lived in Paris until the age of five . Her parents separated when she was young ; following their divorce , Watson moved back to England to live with her mother in Oxfordshire while spending weekends at her father 's house in London . Watson has stated that she speaks some French , though " not as well " as she used to . After moving to Oxford with her mother and brother , she attended the Dragon School in Oxford , remaining there until 2003 . From the age of six , she wanted to become an actress , and trained at the Oxford branch of Stagecoach Theatre Arts , a part @-@ time theatre school where she studied singing , dancing , and acting .
By the age of ten , Watson had performed in various Stagecoach productions and school plays , including Arthur : The Young Years and The Happy Prince , but she had never acted professionally before the Harry Potter series . Following the Dragon School , Watson moved on to Headington School . While on film sets , she and her peers were tutored for up to five hours a day . In June 2006 , she took GCSE school examinations in ten subjects , achieving eight A * and two A grades .
= = Career = =
= = = 1999 – 2003 : Beginnings and breakthrough = = =
In 1999 , casting began for Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone ( released as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone in the United States ) , the film adaptation of British author J. K. Rowling 's best @-@ selling novel . Casting agents found Watson through her Oxford theatre teacher , and producers were impressed by her confidence . After eight auditions , producer David Heyman told Watson and fellow applicants Daniel Radcliffe and Rupert Grint that they had been cast for the roles of the schoolfriends Hermione Granger , Harry Potter and Ron Weasley , respectively . Rowling supported Watson from her first screen test .
The release of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone in 2001 was Watson 's debut screen performance . The film broke records for opening @-@ day sales and opening @-@ weekend takings and was the highest @-@ grossing film of 2001 . Critics praised the performances of the three leads , often singling out Watson for particular acclaim ; The Daily Telegraph called her performance " admirable " , and IGN said she " stole the show " . Watson was nominated for five awards for her performance in Philosopher 's Stone , winning the Young Artist Award for Leading Young Actress .
A year later , Watson again starred as Hermione in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , the second instalment of the series . Reviewers praised the lead actors ' performances . The Los Angeles Times said Watson and her peers had matured between films , while The Times criticised director Chris Columbus for " under @-@ employing " Watson 's hugely popular character . Watson received an Otto Award from the German magazine Bravo for her performance .
= = = 2004 – 2011 : Continued success with Harry Potter and other roles = = =
In 2004 , Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released . Watson was appreciative of the more assertive role Hermione played , calling her character " charismatic " and " a fantastic role to play " . Although critics panned Radcliffe 's performance , labelling him " wooden " , they praised Watson ; The New York Times lauded her performance , saying " Luckily Mr. Radcliffe 's blandness is offset by Ms. Watson 's spiky impatience . Harry may show off his expanding wizardly skills ... but Hermione ... earns the loudest applause with a decidedly unmagical punch to Draco Malfoy 's deserving nose . " Although Prisoner of Azkaban proved to be the lowest @-@ grossing Harry Potter film of the entire series , Watson 's personal performance won her two Otto Awards and the Child Performance of the Year award from Total Film .
With Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire ( 2005 ) , both Watson and the Harry Potter film series reached new milestones . The film set records for a Harry Potter opening weekend , a non @-@ May opening weekend in the US , and an opening weekend in the UK . Critics praised the increasing maturity of Watson and her teenage co @-@ stars ; The New York Times called her performance " touchingly earnest " . For Watson , much of the humour of the film sprang from the tension among the three lead characters as they matured . She said , " I loved all the arguing . ... I think it 's much more realistic that they would argue and that there would be problems . " Nominated for three awards for Goblet of Fire , Watson won a bronze Otto Award . Later that year , Watson became the youngest person to appear on the cover of Teen Vogue , an appearance she reprised in August 2009 . In 2006 , Watson played Hermione in The Queen 's Handbag , a special mini @-@ episode of Harry Potter in celebration of Queen Elizabeth II 's 80th birthday .
The fifth film in the Harry Potter franchise , Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix , was released in 2007 . A huge financial success , the film set a record worldwide opening @-@ weekend gross of $ 332 @.@ 7 million . Watson won the inaugural National Movie Award for Best Female Performance . As the fame of the actress and the series continued , Watson and fellow Harry Potter co @-@ stars Daniel Radcliffe and Rupert Grint left imprints of their hands , feet and wands in front of Grauman 's Chinese Theater in Hollywood on 9 July 2007 .
By July 2007 , Watson 's work in the Harry Potter series was said to have earned her more than £ 10 million , and she acknowledged she would never have to work for money again . In March 2009 , she was ranked 6th on the Forbes list of " Most Valuable Young Stars " , and in February 2010 , she was named as Hollywood 's highest paid female star , having earned an estimated £ 19 million in 2009 .
Despite the success of Order of the Phoenix , the future of the Harry Potter franchise became surrounded in doubt , as all three lead actors were hesitant to sign on to continue their roles for the final two episodes . Radcliffe eventually signed for the final films on 2 March 2007 , but Watson was considerably more hesitant . She explained that the decision was significant , as the films represented a further four @-@ year commitment to the role , but eventually conceded that she " could never let [ the role of ] Hermione go " , signing for the role on 23 March 2007 .
Watson 's first non @-@ Potter role was the 2007 BBC film Ballet Shoes , an adaptation of the novel of the same title by Noel Streatfeild . The film 's director , Sandra Goldbacher , commented that Watson was " perfect " for the starring role of aspiring actress Pauline Fossil : " She has a piercing , delicate aura that makes you want to gaze and gaze at her . " Ballet Shoes was broadcast in the UK on Boxing Day 2007 to an audience of 5 @.@ 7 million viewers , to mixed reviews .
Watson also lent her voice to the role of Princess Pea in the animated film The Tale of Despereaux , a children 's comedy starring Matthew Broderick , with Harry Potter co @-@ star Robbie Coltrane ( Rubeus Hagrid ) also starring in the film . The Tale of Despereaux was released in December 2008 and grossed $ 87 million worldwide .
Principal photography for the sixth Harry Potter film began in late 2007 , with Watson 's part being filmed from 18 December to 17 May 2008 . Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince premiered on 15 July 2009 , having been delayed from November 2008 . With the lead actors now in their late teens , critics were increasingly willing to review them on the same level as the rest of the film 's all @-@ star cast , which the Los Angeles Times described as " a comprehensive guide to contemporary UK acting " . The Washington Post felt Watson to have given " [ her ] most charming performance to date " , while The Daily Telegraph described the lead actors as " newly liberated and energised , eager to give all they have to what 's left of the series " . In December 2008 , Watson stated she wanted to go to university after she completed the Potter series .
Watson 's filming for the final instalment , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , began on 18 February 2009 and ended on 12 June 2010 . For financial and scripting reasons , the original book was divided into two films which were shot consecutively . Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 was released in November 2010 while the second film was released in July 2011 .
She also appeared in a music video for One Night Only , after meeting lead singer George Craig at the 2010 Winter / Summer Burberry advertising campaign . The video , " Say You Don 't Want It " , was screened on Channel 4 on 26 June 2010 and released on 16 August .
In her first post @-@ Harry Potter film , Watson appeared in 2011 's My Week with Marilyn as Lucy , a wardrobe assistant who is flirted with by the main character , Colin Clark , and has a few dates with him .
= = = 2012 – present = = =
In May 2010 , Watson was reported to be in talks to star in a film adaptation of The Perks of Being a Wallflower . Filming began in summer 2011 , and the film was released in September 2012 .
In The Bling Ring ( 2013 ) , Watson stars as Nicki . The film is based on the real @-@ life Bling Ring robberies , with Watson playing a fictionalised version of Alexis Neiers , a television personality who was one of seven teenagers involved in the robberies . While the film mostly received mixed reviews , critics gave almost unanimous praise for Watson 's portrayal of Nicki in the film . Watson also had a supporting role in the apocalyptic comedy This Is the End ( 2013 ) , in which she , Seth Rogen , James Franco and many others played " exaggerated versions of themselves " and Watson memorably dropped the " f @-@ bomb " . She said she could not pass up the opportunity to make her first comedy and " work with some of the best comedians ... in the world right now " .
In June 2012 , Watson was confirmed for the role of Ila in Darren Aronofsky 's Noah , which began filming the following month , and was released in March 2014 . In March 2013 , it was reported that Watson was in negotiations to star as the title character in a live @-@ action Disney adaptation of Cinderella . Kenneth Branagh was attached to direct the adaptation , while Cate Blanchett had reportedly agreed to play the evil stepmother . Watson was offered the role , but turned it down .
Watson was attached in 2012 to the role of Emma Forrest in a film adaptation of her memoir Your Voice in My Head . At the time , Harry Potter director David Yates was attached . In a May 2013 interview , it appeared that Watson was no longer attached as the film 's star . Stanley Tucci stated that the role would instead be played by Emily Blunt . However , by September 2013 , it was confirmed that Watson was once again involved in the production in the role of Forrest and that filming would begin in November that year with a new director , Francesca Gregorini .
As of June 2013 , Watson is set to work with Harry Potter producer David Heyman for her next film Queen of the Tearling , based on a yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released book trilogy . She will lead the film as heroine Kelsea Glynn as well as being an executive producer . Warner Bros. will distribute the film .
It was reported in September 2013 that Watson would star in While We 're Young , the film adaptation of Adena Halpern 's 2010 novel 29 , which focuses on a young @-@ at @-@ heart grandmother who would rather spend time with her granddaughter ( Watson ) than her daughter . The film was directed by Stephen Chbosky , with whom Watson had collaborated on The Perks of Being a Wallflower . Watson also has been cast opposite Ethan Hawke in thriller Regression . Alejandro Amenábar wrote and directed the film , which was released in 2015 .
In October 2013 , Watson was chosen as the Woman of the Year by British GQ . That same month she was one of two British actors to land atop a readers ' poll of the sexiest movie stars of 2013 , beating Scarlett Johansson and Jennifer Lawrence for the actresses ' title in an online poll of more than 50 @,@ 000 film fans . Benedict Cumberbatch took the men 's vote .
Watson joined Judi Dench , Robert Downey Jr . , Mike Leigh , Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus and Mark Ruffalo as recipients of the 2014 Britannia Awards , presented on 30 October in Los Angeles . Watson won for British Artist of the Year and dedicated her award to Millie , her pet hamster who died as Watson filmed Philosopher 's Stone .
2015 releases in which Emma stars include Colonia , a thriller co @-@ starring Daniel Brühl and Michael Nyqvist . Watson will play Belle in a 2017 live @-@ action adaptation of Beauty and the Beast opposite Dan Stevens as the Beast . She will sing in a film for the first time , which she called " terrifying in and of itself " . She also starred in Regression , a thriller released in August 2015 , alongside Ethan Hawke and her Harry Potter colleague David Thewlis. and has signed up to star opposite Tom Hanks in the film adaptation of The Circle .
In February 2016 , Watson announced she was taking a year @-@ long break from acting . She planned to spend the time on her " personal development " and her women 's rights work .
= = Modelling and fashion = =
In 2005 , Watson began her modelling career with a photo shoot for Teen Vogue and was the youngest star to grace its cover . Three years later , the British press reported that Watson was to replace Keira Knightley as the face of the fashion house Chanel , but this was denied by both parties . In June 2009 , following several months of rumours , Watson confirmed that she would be partnering with Burberry as the face of their Autumn / Winter 2009 campaign , for which she received an estimated six @-@ figure fee . She also appeared in Burberry 's 2010 Spring / Summer campaign alongside her brother Alex , musicians George Craig and Matt Gilmour , and model Max Hurd . In February 2011 , Watson was awarded the Style Icon award from British Elle by Dame Vivienne Westwood . Watson continued her involvement in fashion advertising when she announced she had been chosen as the face of Lancôme in March 2011 .
In September 2009 , Watson announced her involvement with People Tree , a Fair Trade fashion brand . Watson worked as a creative advisor for People Tree to create a spring line of clothing , which was released in February 2010 ; the range featured styles inspired by southern France and London . The collection , described by The Times as " very clever " despite their " quiet hope that [ she ] would become tangled at the first hemp @-@ woven hurdle " , was widely publicised in magazines such as Teen Vogue , Cosmopolitan , and People . Watson , who was not paid for the collaboration , admitted that competition for the range was minimal , but argued that " Fashion is a great way to empower people and give them skills ; rather than give cash to charity you can help people by buying the clothes they make and supporting things they take pride in " ; adding , " I think young people like me are becoming increasingly aware of the humanitarian issues surrounding fast fashion and want to make good choices but there aren 't many options out there . " Watson continued her involvement with People Tree , resulting in the release of a 2010 Autumn / Winter collection .
Watson was awarded Best British Style at the 2014 British Fashion Awards . The competition included David Beckham , Amal Clooney , Kate Moss and Keira Knightley .
= = Education = =
After leaving school , Watson took a gap year to film Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows beginning in February 2009 , but said she intended to continue her studies and later confirmed that she had chosen Brown University in Providence , Rhode Island . In March 2011 , after 18 months at the university , Watson announced that she was deferring her course for " a semester or two " , though she attended Worcester College , Oxford during the 2011 – 12 academic year as a " visiting student " .
Watson told Ellen DeGeneres just before graduation that it took five years to finish instead of four because , due to her acting work , she " ended up taking two full semesters off " . On 25 May 2014 , she graduated from Brown University with a bachelor 's degree in English literature . In 2013 , she became certified to teach yoga and meditation . As part of this certification , she attended a week @-@ long meditation course at a Canadian facility , in which residents are not allowed to speak , in order " to figure out how to be at home with myself " . She told
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Elle Australia that an uncertain future meant finding " a way to always feel safe and at home within myself . Because I can never rely on a physical place . "
= = Personal life = =
Watson met and started dating fellow Oxford student Will Adamowicz in 2011 , during her first year at the university . He accompanied her to the 2013 MTV Movie Awards , where she was given the Trailblazer Award . The couple split up in early 2014 . Later in 2014 , Watson began dating Oxford rugby player Matthew Janney . The relationship ended in November ; a spokesman for Watson said the split was due to her " unrelenting work schedule " .
While working on the film Noah , Watson was questioned about her faith , and she described herself as a spiritual Universalist .
= = Women 's rights work = =
Watson has promoted education for girls , visiting Bangladesh and Zambia to do so . In July 2014 , she was appointed as a UN Women Goodwill Ambassador . In September that year , an admittedly nervous Watson delivered an address at UN Headquarters in New York City to launch the UN Women campaign HeForShe , which calls for men to advocate for gender equality . In that speech she said she began questioning gender @-@ based assumptions at age eight when she was called " bossy " ( a trait she has attributed to her being a " perfectionist " ) whilst boys were not , and at 14 when she was " sexualised by certain elements of the media " . Watson 's speech also called feminism " the belief that men and women should have equal rights and opportunities " and declared that the perception of " man @-@ hating " is something that " has to stop " . Watson later said she received threats within 12 hours of making the speech , which left her " raging . ... If they were trying to put me off [ of doing this work ] , it did the opposite " . In 2015 , Malala Yousafzai told Watson she decided to call herself a feminist after hearing Watson 's speech .
Also in September , Watson made her first country visit as a UN Women Goodwill Ambassador to Uruguay where she gave a speech highlighting the need for women 's political participation . In December , the Ms. Foundation for Women named Watson its Feminist Celebrity of 2014 following an online poll . Watson also gave a speech about gender equality in January 2015 , at the World Economic Forum 's annual winter meeting .
Watson took the top spot on the AskMen " Top 99 Outstanding Women 2015 " list on the strength of having " thrown her back " into women 's rights issues . The day after she turned 25 , Watson placed number 26 on the TIME 100 list of the world 's most influential people ; her first @-@ ever appearance on the list . For its recap , former New York Times editor Jill Abramson noted Watson 's " gutsy , smart take on feminism " and called the effort to get men involved " refreshing " .
In January 2016 , Emma Watson started a feminist Goodreads book club : Our Shared Shelf . The goal of the club is to share feminist ideas and encourage discussion on the topic . One book is selected per month and is discussed in the last week of that month . The first book to be selected was My Life on the Road by Gloria Steinem , who Emma Watson would later interview on February 24th at the How to : Academy in London .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Neoromicia malagasyensis =
Neoromicia malagasyensis is a vespertilionid bat of Madagascar in the genus Neoromicia . It is known only from the vicinity of the Isalo National Park in the southwestern part of the island , where it has been caught in riverine habitats . After the first specimen was caught in 1967 , it was described as a subspecies of Eptesicus somalicus ( now Neoromicia somalica ) in 1995 . After four more specimens were collected in 2002 and 2003 , it was recognized as a separate species . Because of its small distribution and the threat of habitat destruction , it is considered " Endangered " in the IUCN Red List .
Neoromicia malagasyensis is a relatively small species , with a forearm length of 30 to 32 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) and a body mass of 3 @.@ 9 to 9 g ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 3 oz ) . The fur is dark brown above and mixed buff and gray below . The ears are translucent and the tibia is short . The baculum ( penis bone ) resembles that of N. melckorum , but is smaller . The duration of the echolocation call , which consists of a component with rapidly falling frequency and one showing more stable frequency , averages 4 @.@ 9 ms and the interval between calls averages 69 @.@ 1 ms .
= = Taxonomy = =
In their 1995 review of Malagasy bats , Randolph Peterson and colleagues established Eptesicus somalicus malagasyensis , a new subspecies of Eptesicus somalicus ( currently Neoromicia somalica ) . They had only a single specimen and noted that further material was needed to assess the new form 's relationship with E. somalicus . Studies in 2001 and 2002 provided evidence that E. somalicus and related species are not closely related to Eptesicus ( nor to Pipistrellus , where they have also been placed ) , so that these species were allocated to the separate genus Neoromicia . In 2004 , Steven Goodman and Julie Ranivo reviewed the Malagasy subspecies after collecting two more specimens and concluded that it was distinct enough to be classified as a separate species , Neoromicia malagasyensis . Two years later , Paul Bates and colleagues reported on two more specimens and showed that the bacula ( penis bones ) of N. malagasyensis and N. somalica are different , providing further evidence that they are distinct species . However , they recommended that further research assess the degree of difference between N. malagasyensis and N. matroka ( formerly in Eptesicus , but placed in Neoromicia by Bates and colleagues ) , which occurs further east in Madagascar . The IUCN Red List currently again classifies the species in Eptesicus , as Eptesicus malagasyensis .
Neoromicia malagasyensis is one of at least six species of small vespertilionid bats ( " pipistrelles " ) on Madagascar , in addition to N. matroka , N. melckorum , Pipistrellus hesperidus , P. raceyi , and Hypsugo anchietae . The classification of these bats has historically been controversial , leading to many changing identifications and generic assignments . The genus Neoromicia is exclusively African and included 11 species in the 2005 third edition of Mammal Species of the World ; more species , like N. malagasyensis and N. matroka , have been added since . Common names proposed for this species include " Isalo Serotine " and " Peterson 's ' pipistrelle ' " .
= = Description = =
Neoromicia malagasyensis is a relatively small " pipistrelle " , but larger than N. somalica . The fur on the back is long and dark brown and the underparts contain both gray and dark buff hairs ; there , the fur becomes lighter towards the tail . The fur is darker than in N. somalica , but paler than in N. matroka . The brown ears are translucent . The tragus ( a projection on the inner side of the outer ear ) is similar to that of N. somalica , but may be a little narrower . Relative to the two other Malagasy Neoromicia species , the tibia is short . A single baculum ( penis bone ) , 2 @.@ 2 mm long , has been studied . It resembles the baculum of N. melckorum , but is smaller . As in N. matroka , the distal ( far ) end is flat and displaced downwards , but the N. malagasyensis baculum has a smaller area and less well @-@ developed flanges at the sides and a smaller vertical extension of the bone .
The skull is somewhat smaller than that of N. matroka and the braincase and palate are narrower . Compared to N. somalica , the skull is broader . The ridge on the lacrimal bone is better developed , the palate is broader , the frontal bones contain a depression and are swollen at the sides , the mastoid bones are smaller , and the coronoid and angular processes of the mandible ( lower jaw ) are more prominent .
The echolocation call of this species was reported in a 2007 study that consists of a component with rapidly falling frequency followed by one with more slowly changing frequency . The call takes 3 @.@ 6 to 6 @.@ 3 ms , averaging 4 @.@ 9 ms , and the period between two calls is 34 @.@ 2 to 94 @.@ 4 ms , averaging 69 @.@ 1 ms . The maximum frequency averages 79 @.@ 8 kHz , the minimum frequency averages 40 @.@ 5 kHz , and the call emits the most energy at a frequency of 45 @.@ 7 kHz .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Neoromicia malagasyensis is known only from the vicinity of Isalo National Park , an area of about 2000 km2 ( 800 sq mi ) , in interior southwestern Madagascar . The holotype was caught in 1967 in a mistnet set in a row of palms along a river in dry savannah habitat . Peterson and colleagues reported that it had been collected near the village of Marinday , but Goodman and Ranivo suggested that it may instead have come from near Ilakaka . Two specimens , a male and a female , were collected at different localities in Isalo National Park in early December 2002 , both in mistnets near rivers . The male had enlarged testes and the female had recently stopped lactating and had large mammae . Two others followed in 2003 , also from the national park , and caught in woodland near rivers . A 2009 study on echolocation described the call of six individuals of N. malagasyensis from an unspecified site within the national park . In view of its small known range and the threat of habitat destruction , the IUCN Red List assesses the species as " Endangered " ; further research is recommended on its roosting and dietary habits .
= SeaCity Museum =
The SeaCity Museum is a museum in Southampton , England , which opened on 10 April 2012 to mark the centenary of RMS Titanic 's departure from the city . It is housed within a part of the Grade II * listed civic centre building which previously housed the magistrates ' court and police station . The museum contains two permanent exhibitions , one dedicated to Southampton 's connection with RMS Titanic , and the other to the city 's
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15 and 24 , and includes lessons on how to write and record music . Their curriculum is based on the teaching philosophy and pedagogy of Dr. Donda West with a focus on collaborative and experiential learning .
West has additionally appeared and participated in many fundraisers , benefit concerts , and has done community work for Hurricane Katrina relief , the Kanye West Foundation , the Millions More Movement , 100 Black Men of America , a Live Earth concert benefit , World Water Day rally and march , Nike runs , and a MTV special helping young Iraq War veterans who struggle through debt and PTSD a second chance after returning home .
= = Controversies = =
= = = General media = = =
West has been an outspoken and controversial celebrity throughout his career , receiving both criticism and praise from many , including the mainstream media , other artists and entertainers , and two U.S. presidents . On September 2 , 2005 , during a benefit concert for Hurricane Katrina relief on NBC , A Concert for Hurricane Relief , West ( a featured speaker ) accused President George W. Bush of not " car [ ing ] about black people " . When West was presenting alongside actor Mike Myers , he deviated from the prepared script to criticize the media 's portrayal of hurricane victims , saying :
I hate the way they portray us in the media . You see a black family , it says , ' They 're looting . ' You see a white family , it says , ' They 're looking for food . ' And , you know , it 's been five days [ waiting for federal help ] because most of the people are black . And even for me to complain about it , I would be a hypocrite because I 've tried to turn away from the TV because it 's too hard to watch . I 've even been shopping before even giving a donation , so now I 'm calling my business manager right now to see what is the biggest amount I can give , and just to imagine if I was down there , and those are my people down there . So anybody out there that wants to do anything that we can help — with the way America is set up to help the poor , the black people , the less well @-@ off , as slow as possible . I mean , the Red Cross is doing everything they can . We already realize a lot of people that could help are at war right now , fighting another way — and they 've given them permission to go down and shoot us !
Myers spoke next and continued to read the script . Once it was West 's turn to speak again , he said , " George Bush doesn 't care about black people . " At this point , telethon producer Rick Kaplan cut off the microphone and then cut away to Chris Tucker , who was unaware of the cut for a few seconds . Still , West 's comment reached much of the United States .
Bush stated in an interview that the comment was " one of the most disgusting moments " of his presidency . In November 2010 , in a taped interview with Matt Lauer for the Today show , West expressed regret for his criticism of Bush . " I would tell George Bush in my moment of frustration , I didn 't have the grounds to call him a racist " , he told Lauer . " I believe that in a situation of high emotion like that we as human beings don 't always choose the right words . " The following day , Bush reacted to the apology in a live interview with Lauer saying he appreciated the rapper 's remorse . " I 'm not a hater " , Bush said . " I don 't hate Kanye West . I was talking about an environment in which people were willing to say things that hurt . Nobody wants to be called a racist if in your heart you believe in equality of races . " Reactions were mixed , but some felt that West had no need to apologize . " It was not the particulars of your words that mattered , it was the essence of a feeling of the insensitivity towards our communities that many of us have felt for far too long " , argued Def Jam co @-@ founder Russell Simmons . Bush himself was receptive to the apology , saying , " I appreciate that . It wasn 't just Kanye West who was talking like that during Katrina , I cited him as an example , I cited others as an example as well . You know , I appreciate that . "
In September 2013 , West was widely rebuked by human rights groups for performing in Kazakhstan at the wedding of authoritarian President Nursultan Nazarbayev 's grandson . He traveled to Kazakhstan , which has one of the poorest human rights records in the world , as a personal guest of Nazarbayev . Other notable Western performers , including Sting , have previously cancelled performances in the country over human rights concerns . West was reportedly paid US $ 3 million for his performance . West had previously participated in cultural boycotts , joining Shakira and Rage Against The Machine in refusing to perform in Arizona after the 2010 implementation of stop and search laws directed against potential illegal aliens .
Later in 2013 , West launched a tirade on Twitter directed at talk show host Jimmy Kimmel after his ABC program Jimmy Kimmel Live ! ran a sketch on September 25 involving two children re @-@ enacting West 's recent interview with Zane Lowe for BBC Radio 1 in which he calls himself the biggest rock star on the planet . Kimmel reveals the following night that West called him to demand an apology shortly before taping .
During a November 26 , 2013 radio interview , West explained why he believed that President Obama had problems pushing policies in Washington : " Man , let me tell you something about George Bush and oil money and Obama and no money . People want to say Obama can 't make these moves or he 's not executing . That 's because he ain 't got those connections . Black people don 't have the same level of connections as Jewish people ... We ain 't Jewish . We don 't got family that got money like that . " In response to his comments , the Anti @-@ Defamation League stated : " There it goes again , the age @-@ old canard that Jews are all @-@ powerful and control the levers of power in government . " On December 21 , 2013 , West backed off of the original comment and told a Chicago radio station that " I thought I was giving a compliment , but if anything it came off more ignorant . I don 't know how being told you have money is an insult . "
In February 2016 , West again became embroiled in controversy when he posted a tweet seemingly asserting Bill Cosby 's innocence in the wake of over 50 women making allegations of sexual assault directed at Cosby . That same month , West became embroiled in a short @-@ lived social media altercation with rapper Wiz Khalifa on Twitter that eventually involved their mutual ex @-@ partner , Amber Rose , who protested to West 's mention of her and Khalifa 's child . The feud involved allegations by Rose concerning her sexual relationship with West , and received significant media attention . As of February 2 , 2016 , West and Khalifa had reconciled .
= = = Award shows = = =
In 2004 , West had his first of a number of public incidents during his attendance at music award events . At the American Music Awards of 2004 , West stormed out of the auditorium after losing Best New Artist to country singer Gretchen Wilson . He later commented , " I felt like I was definitely robbed [ ... ] I was the best new artist this year . " After the 2006 Grammy nominations were released , West said he would " really have a problem " if he did not win the Album of the Year , saying , " I don 't care what I do , I don 't care how much I stunt – you can never take away from the amount of work I put into it . I don 't want to hear all of that politically correct stuff . " On November 2 , 2006 , when his " Touch the Sky " failed to win Best Video at the MTV Europe Music Awards , West went onto the stage as the award was being presented to Justice and Simian for " We Are Your Friends " and argued that he should have won the award instead . Hundreds of news outlets worldwide criticized the outburst . On November 7 , 2006 , West apologized for this outburst publicly during his performance as support act for U2 for their Vertigo concert in Brisbane . He later spoofed the incident on the 33rd season premiere of Saturday Night Live in September 2007 .
On September 9 , 2007 , West suggested that his race had something to do with his being overlooked for opening the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards ( VMAs ) in favor of Britney Spears ; he claimed , " Maybe my skin 's not right . " West was performing at the event ; that night , he lost all five awards that he was nominated for , including Best Male Artist and Video of the Year . After the show , he was visibly upset that he had lost at the VMAs two years in a row , stating that he would not come back to MTV ever again . He also appeared on several radio stations saying that when he made the song " Stronger " that it was his dream to open the VMAs with it . He has also stated that Spears has not had a hit in a long period of time and that MTV exploited her for ratings .
On September 13 , 2009 , during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards while Taylor Swift was accepting her award for Best Female Video for " You Belong with Me " , West went on stage and grabbed the microphone to proclaim that Beyoncé 's video for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , nominated for the same award , was " one of the best videos of all time " . He was subsequently removed from the remainder of the show for his actions . When Beyoncé later won the award for Best Video of the Year for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , she called Swift up on stage so that she could finish her acceptance speech . West was criticized by various celebrities for the outburst , and by President Barack Obama , who called West a " jackass " . In addition , West 's VMA disruption sparked a large influx of Internet photo memes with blogs , forums and " tweets " with the " Let you finish " photo @-@ jokes . He posted a Tweet soon after the event where he stated , " Everybody wanna booooo me but I 'm a fan of real pop culture ... I 'm not crazy y 'all , I 'm just real . " He then posted two apologies for the outburst on his personal blog ; one on the night of the incident , and the other the following day , when he also apologized during an appearance on The Jay Leno Show . After Swift appeared on The View two days after the outburst , partly to discuss the matter , West called her to apologize personally . Swift said she accepted his apology .
In September 2010 , West wrote a series of apologetic tweets addressed to Swift including " Beyonce didn 't need that . MTV didn 't need that and Taylor and her family friends and fans definitely didn 't want or need that " and concluding with " I 'm sorry Taylor . " He also revealed he had written a song for Swift and if she did not accept the song , he would perform it himself . However , on November 8 , 2010 , in an interview with a Minnesota radio station , he seemed to recant his past apologies by attempting to describe the act at the 2009 awards show as " selfless " and downgrade the perception of disrespect it created . In " Famous , " a track from his 2016 album The Life of Pablo , West implies that this incident led to Swift 's stardom , rapping , " I feel like me and Taylor might still have sex / Why ? I made that bitch famous . " After some media backlash about the reference , West posted on Twitter " I did not diss Taylor Swift and I 've never dissed her ... First thing is I 'm an artist and as an artist I will express how I feel with no censorship . " He continued by adding that he had asked both Swift and his wife , Kim Kardashian , for permission to publish the line .
On February 8 , 2015 , at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards , West walked on stage as Beck was accepting his award for Album of the Year and then walked off stage , leaving the audience to think he was joking . After the awards show , West stated in an interview that he was not joking and that " Beck needs to respect artistry , he should have given his award to Beyoncé " . On February 26 , 2015 , he publicly apologized to Beck on Twitter .
On August 30 , 2015 , West was presented with the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award at the MTV Video Music Awards . In his acceptance speech , he stated , " Y 'all might be thinking right now , ' I wonder did he smoke something before he came out here ? ' And the answer is : ' Yes , I rolled up a little something . I knocked the edge off . ' " At the end of his speech , he announced , " I have decided in 2020 to run for president . "
= = = Petitions = = =
Music fans have turned to Change.org around the globe to try and block West 's participation at various events . The largest unsuccessful petition has been to the Glastonbury Festival 2015 with 133 @,@ 000 + voters stating they would prefer a rock band to headline . On July 20 , 2015 , within five days of West 's announcement as the headlining artist of the closing ceremonies of the 2015 Pan American Games , Change.org user XYZ collected over 50 @,@ 000 signatures for West 's removal as headliner , on the grounds that the headlining artist should be Canadian . In his Pan American Games Closing Ceremony performance , close to the end of his performance , West closed the show by tossing his faulty microphone in the air and walked off stage .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships = = =
West began an on @-@ and @-@ off relationship with designer Alexis Phifer in 2002 , and they became engaged in August 2006 . The pair ended their 18 @-@ month engagement in 2008 . West subsequently dated model Amber Rose from 2008 until the summer of 2010 . West began dating reality star and longtime friend Kim Kardashian in April 2012 . West and Kardashian became engaged in October 2013 , and married on May 24 , 2014 at Fort di Belvedere in Florence , Italy . Their private ceremony was subject to widespread mainstream coverage , with West taking issue with the couple 's portrayal in the media . They have two children : daughter North " Nori " West ( born June 15 , 2013 ) and son Saint West ( born December 5 , 2015 ) . In April 2015 , West and Kardashian traveled to Jerusalem to have North baptized in the Armenian Apostolic Church at the Cathedral of St. James . The couple 's high status and respective careers have resulted in their relationship becoming subject to heavy media coverage ; The New York Times referred to their marriage as " a historic blizzard of celebrity . "
= = = Mother 's death = = =
On November 10 , 2007 , at approximately 7 : 35 pm , paramedics responding to an emergency call transported West 's mother , Donda West , to the nearby Centinela Freeman Hospital in Marina del Rey , California . She was unresponsive in the emergency room , and after resuscitation attempts , doctors pronounced her dead at approximately 8 : 30 pm , at age 58 . The Los Angeles County coroner 's office said in January 2008 that West had died of heart disease while suffering " multiple post @-@ operative factors " after plastic surgery . She had undergone liposuction and breast reduction . Beverly Hills plastic surgeon Andre Aboolian had refused to do the surgery because West had a health condition that placed her at risk for a heart attack . Aboolian referred her to an internist to investigate her cardiac issue . She never met with the doctor recommended by Aboolian and had the procedures performed by a third doctor , Jan Adams .
Adams sent condolences to Donda West 's family but declined to publicly discuss the procedure , citing confidentiality . West 's family , through celebrity attorney Ed McPherson , filed complaints with the Medical Board against Adams and Aboolian for violating patient confidentiality following her death . Adams had previously been under scrutiny by the medical board . He appeared on Larry King Live on November 20 , 2007 , but left before speaking . Two months later , he appeared again , with his attorney , stating he was there to " defend himself " . He said that the recently released autopsy results " spoke for themselves " . The final coroner 's report January 10 , 2008 , concluded that Donda West died of " coronary artery disease and multiple post @-@ operative factors due to or as a consequence of liposuction and mammoplasty " .
The funeral and burial for Donda West was held in Oklahoma City on November 20 , 2007 . West played his first concert following the funeral at The O2 in London on November 22 . He dedicated a performance of " Hey Mama " , as well as a cover of Journey 's " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , to his mother , and did so on all other dates of his Glow in the Dark tour .
At a December 2008 press conference in New Zealand , West spoke about his mother 's death for the first time . " It was like losing an arm and a leg and trying to walk through that " , he told reporters .
California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed the " Donda West Law " , legislation which makes it mandatory for patients to provide medical clearance for elective cosmetic surgery .
= = = Legal issues = = =
In December 2006 , Robert " Evel " Knievel sued West for trademark infringement in West 's video for " Touch the Sky " . Knievel took issue with a " sexually charged video " in which West takes on the persona of " Evel Kanyevel " and attempts flying a rocket over a canyon . The suit claimed infringement on Knievel 's trademarked name and likeness . Knievel also claimed that the " vulgar and offensive " images depicted in the video damaged his reputation . The suit sought monetary damages and an injunction to stop distribution of the video . West 's attorneys argued that the music video amounted to satire and therefore was covered under the First Amendment . Just days before his death in November 2007 , Knievel amicably settled the suit after being paid a visit from West , saying , " I thought he was a wonderful guy and quite a gentleman . "
On September 11 , 2008 , West and his road manager / bodyguard Don " Don C. " Crowley were arrested at Los Angeles International Airport and booked on charges of felony vandalism after an altercation with the paparazzi in which West and Crowley broke the photographers ' cameras . West was later released from the Los Angeles Police Department 's Pacific Division station in Culver City on $ 20 @,@ 000 bail bond . On September 26 , 2008 , the Los Angeles County District Attorney 's Office said it would not file felony counts against West over the incident . Instead the case file was forwarded to the city attorney 's office , which charged West with one count of misdemeanor vandalism , one count of grand theft and one count of battery and his manager with three counts of each on March 18 , 2009 . West 's and Crowley 's arraignment was delayed from an original date of April 14 , 2009 .
West was arrested again on November 14 , 2008 at the Hilton hotel near Gateshead after another scuffle involving a photographer outside the famous Tup Tup Palace nightclub in Newcastle upon Tyne . He was later released " with no further action " , according to a police spokesperson .
On July 19 , 2013 , West was leaving LAX as he was surrounded by dozens of paparazzi . West became increasingly agitated as a photographer , Daniel Ramos , continued to ask him why people were not allowed to speak in his presence . West then says , " I told you don 't talk to me , right ? You trying to get me in trouble so I steal off on you and have to pay you like $ 250 @,@ 000 and shit . " Then he allegedly charged the man and grabbed him and his camera . The incident captured by TMZ , took place for a few seconds before a female voice can be heard telling West to stop . West then released the man , and his camera , and drove away from the scene . Medics were later called to the scene on behalf of the photographer who was grabbed . It was reported West could be charged with felony attempted robbery behind the matter . However , the charges were reduced to misdemeanor criminal battery and attempted grand theft . In March 2014 , West was sentenced to serve two years ' probation for the misdemeanor battery conviction and required to attend 24 anger management sessions , perform 250 hours of community service and pay restitution to Ramos .
= = = Religious beliefs = = =
After the success of his song " Jesus Walks " from the album The College Dropout , West was questioned on his beliefs and said , " I will say that I 'm spiritual . I have accepted Jesus as my Savior . And I will say that I fall short every day . " In a 2008 interview with The Fader , West stated that " I 'm like a vessel , and God has chosen me to be the voice and the connector . "
In a 2009 interview with online magazine Bossip , West clarified that he believed in God , but " would never go into a religion , " explaining that " I feel like religion is more about separation and judgment than bringing people together and understanding . That 's all I 'm about . " More recently , in September 2014 , West referred to himself as a Christian during one of his concerts .
= = Legacy = =
West is among the most critically acclaimed artists of the twenty @-@ first century , receiving praise from music critics , fans , fellow musicians , artists , and wider cultural figures for his work . AllMusic editor Jason Birchmeier writes of his impact , " As his career progressed throughout the early 21st century , West shattered certain stereotypes about rappers , becoming a superstar on his own terms without adapting his appearance , his rhetoric , or his music to fit any one musical mold . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said that West has been " a frequent lightning rod for controversy , a bombastic figure who can count rankling two presidents among his achievements . " Village Voice Media senior editor Ben Westhoff dubbed him the greatest hip hop artist of all time , writing that " he 's made the best albums and changed the game the most , and his music is the most likely to endure , " while Complex called him the 21st century 's " most important artist of any art form , of any genre . " In 2016 , The Guardian compared West to the late David Bowie within the " modern mainstream " , arguing that " there is nobody else who can sell as many records as West does [ ... ] while remaining so resolutely experimental and capable of stirring things up culturally and politically . "
= = = Influence = = =
Rolling Stone credited West with transforming hip hop 's mainstream , " establishing a style of introspective yet glossy rap [ ... ] " , and called him " as interesting and complicated a pop star as the 2000s produced — a rapper who mastered , upped and moved beyond the hip @-@ hop game , a producer who created a signature sound and then abandoned it to his imitators , a flashy , free @-@ spending sybarite with insightful things to say about college , culture and economics , an egomaniac with more than enough artistic firepower to back it up . " West 's middle @-@ class background , flamboyant fashion sense and outspokenness have set him apart from other rappers . Early in his career , he was among the first rappers to publicly criticize the preponderance of homophobia in hip hop . The sales competition between rapper 50 Cent 's Curtis and West 's Graduation altered the direction of hip hop and helped pave the way for new rappers who did not follow the hardcore @-@ gangster mold . Rosie Swash of The Guardian viewed the sales competition as a historical moment in hip @-@ hop , because it " highlighted the diverging facets of hip @-@ hop in the last decade ; the former was gangsta rap for the noughties , while West was the thinking man 's alternative . "
West 's 2008 album 808s & Heartbreak polarized both listeners and critics upon its release , but was commercially successful and impacted hip hop and pop stylistically , as it laid the groundwork for a new wave of artists who generally eschewed typical rap braggadocio for intimate subject matter and introspection , including Frank Ocean , The Weeknd , Drake , Future , Kid Cudi , Childish Gambino , Lil Durk , Chief Keef , and Soulja Boy . According to Ben Detrick of XXL magazine , West effectively led a new wave of artists , including Kid Cudi , Wale , Lupe Fiasco , Kidz in the Hall , and Drake , who lacked the interest or ability to rap about gunplay or drug @-@ dealing . In 2013 , Julianne Escobedo Shepherd of Spin described West as fronting a " new art @-@ pop era " in contemporary music , in which musicians draw widely on the visual arts as a signifier of both creative exploration and extravagant wealth .
Drake , Nicki Minaj and Casey Veggies have acknowledged being influenced directly by West . Non @-@ rap artists such as English singer @-@ songwriters Adele and Lily Allen , New Zealand artist Lorde , English rock band Arctic Monkeys , American pop singer Halsey , American pop rock singer Andy Grammar , Sergio Pizzorno of English rock band Kasabian and the American indie rock bands MGMT and Yeah Yeah Yeahs have cited West as an influence . Experimental and electronic artists such as James Blake Daniel Lopatin , and Tim Hecker have also cited West 's work as an inspiration .
= = = Accolades = = =
A substantial number of artists and other figures have professed admiration for West 's work , including hip hop artists Rakim , RZA of Wu @-@ Tang Clan , Chuck D of Public Enemy , and DJ Premier of Gang Starr . Experimental rock pioneer and Velvet Underground founder Lou Reed said of West that " the guy really , really , really is talented . He 's really trying to raise the bar . No one 's near doing what he 's doing , it 's not even on the same planet . " Musicians such as Paul McCartney and Prince have also commended West 's work . Famed Tesla Motors CEO and inventor Elon Musk complimented West in a piece for Time Magazine 's 100 most influential people list , writing that :
" Kanye West would be the first person to tell you he belongs on this list . The dude doesn 't believe in false modesty , and he shouldn 't [ ... ] He fought for his place in the cultural pantheon with a purpose . In his debut album , over a decade ago , Kanye issued what amounted to a social critique and a call to arms ( with a beat ) : " We rappers is role models : we rap , we don 't think . " But Kanye does think . Constantly . About everything . And he wants everybody else to do the same : to engage , question , push boundaries . Now that he 's a pop @-@ culture juggernaut , he has the platform to achieve just that . He 's not afraid of being judged or ridiculed in the process . Kanye 's been playing the long game all along , and we 're only just beginning to see why . "
West 's first six solo studio albums , all of which have gone platinum , have received numerous awards and critical acclaim . All of his albums have been commercially successful , with Yeezus , his sixth solo album , becoming his fifth consecutive No. 1 album in the U.S. upon release . West has had six songs exceed 3 million in digital sales as of December 2012 , with " Gold Digger " selling 3 @,@ 086 @,@ 000 , " Stronger " selling 4 @,@ 402 @,@ 000 , " Heartless " selling 3 @,@ 742 @,@ 000 , " E.T. " selling over 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , " Love Lockdown " selling over 3 @
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,@ 000 @,@ 000 , and " Niggas in Paris " selling over 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , placing him third in overall digital sales of the past decade . He has sold over 30 million digital songs in the United States making him one of the best @-@ selling digital artists of all @-@ time .
As of 2013 , West has won a total of 21 Grammy Awards , making him one of the most awarded artists of all @-@ time . About.com ranked Kanye West No. 8 on their " Top 50 Hip @-@ Hop Producers " list . On May 16 , 2008 , Kanye West was crowned by MTV as the year 's No. 1 " Hottest MC in the Game . " On December 17 , 2010 , Kanye West was voted as the MTV Man of the Year by MTV . Billboard ranked Kanye West No. 3 on their list of Top 10 Producers of the Decade . West ties with Bob Dylan for having topped the annual Pazz & Jop critic poll the most number of times ever , with four number @-@ one albums each . West has also been included twice in the Time 100 annual lists of the most influential people in the world as well as being listed in a number of Forbes annual lists .
In its 2012 list of " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , Rolling Stone included three of West 's albums — The College Dropout at number 298 , Late Registration at number 118 , and My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy at number 353 .
The Pitchfork online music publication ranked My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy as the world 's best album of the decade " so far " — between 2010 and 2014 — on August 19 , 2014 , while Yeezus was ranked in the eighth position of a list of 100 albums . During the same week , the song " Runaway " ( featuring Pusha T ) was ranked in the third position in the publication 's list of the 200 " best tracks " released since 2010 .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
The College Dropout ( 2004 )
Late Registration ( 2005 )
Graduation ( 2007 )
808s & Heartbreak ( 2008 )
My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ( 2010 )
Watch the Throne ( with JAY @-@ Z ) ( 2011 )
Yeezus ( 2013 )
The Life of Pablo ( 2016 )
= = Videography = =
The College Dropout Video Anthology ( 2004 )
Late Orchestration ( 2006 )
VH1 Storytellers ( 2010 )
= = Tours = =
Touch The Sky Tour ( 2005 )
Glow in the Dark Tour ( 2008 )
Fame Kills : Starring Kanye West and Lady Gaga ( Cancelled ) ( 2009 – 10 )
Watch the Throne Tour ( With JAY @-@ Z ) ( 2011 – 12 )
The Yeezus Tour ( 2013 – 14 )
Saint Pablo Tour ( 2016 )
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= Driving Emotion Type @-@ S =
Driving Emotion Type @-@ S ( ドライビング ・ エモーション ・ タイプエス ) is a racing game developed by Escape , a subsidiary of Square . It was published in Japan on March 30 , 2000 and was Square 's first release for the PlayStation 2 console . After criticisms of the game 's handling , the European and North American versions of the game feature revised controls and additional contents , and were released on January 26 , 2001 and January 29 , 2001 respectively .
The game features officially licensed cars from international manufacturers . Several modes of playing are present , including a training mode and a two @-@ player mode . The game 's music , primarily composed by Shinji Hosoe , was published as a soundtrack in Japan . Sales for the game were low and professional reviews very mixed , with either praises or criticism of the game 's graphics , controls and sounds .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Driving Emotion Type @-@ S follows general conventions of racing games . The game 's physics and controls intend to be realistic and are based on vehicular weight . The player competes in races with other computer controlled cars in order to unlock new cars and tracks . Car settings can be customized , as well as their colors , before each course . The game includes 43 officially licensed cars from thirteen Japanese and European manufacturers , including BMW , Toyota , Nissan , Mazda , Porsche , Subaru , Mitsubishi , TVR , Alfa Romeo , Ferrari , Which Was First Game to include The All New Ferrari 360 and Lexus Which Was exclusive to the Western versions of the game . Fourteen courses are available in total , including two fictional circuit and real circuit like The Home of Formula One Circuit in Japan Suzuka Circuit and the home of Super Lap in Japan Tsukuba Circuit , and one exclusive to the Western versions of the game called West Coast .
There are four game modes . The " Arcade Type @-@ S " mode is the main part of the game , and allows the play to immediately join a race . Only four cars are available at the beginning of the game , but as the player wins more races , more cars and tracks are unlocked . The " Line Training " mode enables the player to try out any of the tracks and improve their driving techniques , without any computer @-@ controlled car . An ideal racing line is shown in red on the track and becomes jagged when the suggested braking points are approached . This mode features four autocross tracks that do not feature in the other modes . A " Time Attack " and split @-@ screen two @-@ player " Vs Mode " fill out the gameplay .
= = Development = =
Announced in January 2000 under the working title of Type @-@ S , Driving Emotion Type @-@ S was developed by Escape , a subsidiary of Square . Its development team had previously worked with DreamFactory on Ehrgeiz and the Tobal series for the PlayStation . The announcement was later followed by a four @-@ page advertisement in the Japanese gaming magazine Weekly Famitsu , which stated that the game would be Square 's first release for the PlayStation 2 .
In Japan , a playable version of the game was showcased at Square 's " Millennium Event " , a show held on January 29 , 2000 in Yokohama . Television advertisements of the game were among the first ones to air in Japan for the PlayStation 2 . The game was also showcased in the United States at the Electronic Entertainment Expo of Los Angeles , from May 11 to May 13 of the same year . This demonstration was not playable however , as focus groups were revising the game to improve upon the Japanese version . According to the American website GameSpot , the level of body details and shading was also refined . The European and North American versions of the game were eventually released ten months after the Japanese one .
= = Audio = =
The music of the game was primarily composed by Shinji Hosoe , with contributions by Ayako Saso and Takayuki Aihara . The soundtrack was published in Japan by Hosoe 's label Super Sweep Records , on December 29 , 2001 , and was sold bundled with the soundtrack of the video game Bushido Blade . The music is mostly techno @-@ based , with rock and jazz elements . According to the game music website Chudah 's Corner , one of the more varied track is the opener " Rush About " , which features electronic beats , a duet of saxophone and electric guitar , and a piano . The site also mentions the synth @-@ influenced " Best Tone " and its bass solo as Ayako Saso 's most enjoyable contribution , while Takayuki Aihara 's is the catchy 80s rock tune " F @-@ Beat " . Finally , the site cites the piano @-@ based " Recollections of Sepia " as the calmest track of the album .
All songs written and composed by Shinji Hosoe , except where noted .
= = Reception = =
A week after its Japanese release , Driving Emotion Type @-@ S had sold 46 @,@ 600 copies . The game made a more mediocre start outside Japan , with only 2 @,@ 500 copies sold in the United States a week after its North American release . The American website Allgame noted that while the game sold poorly , it nevertheless benefited commercially from having been released before Gran Turismo 3 : A @-@ Spec , a better title according to the site as well as GamePro , GameSpot , GameZone and IGN .
The game received very mixed reviews from gaming publications . The Japanese magazine Weekly Famitsu gave the title a score of 28 out of 40 , praising its graphics , usage of real cars and innovative driver 's view perspective . The American magazine Game Informer and website GameZone also lauded the game 's realistic car interiors and highly detailed environments , putting them on par with those of Ridge Racer V and Gran Turismo 3 : A @-@ Spec . Still , Allgame noted the presence of a subtle shimmering effect in the graphics , an effect typically seen on early PlayStation 2 titles , while the American website Game Revolution found the graphics " severely jagged " . The shimmering and jaggedness were also noted by GameSpot and the American website IGN , which did not feel they were that irritating .
Concerning the game 's playability , the Japanese release was judged " impossible to play " by GameSpot and IGN , which both felt the Western versions were an improvement , even though the game was still " far more sensitive than it ought to be " . Still , Game Revolution found the car default settings unbalanced and hard to re @-@ adjust properly , and criticized the game 's inconsistent AI , like Allgame and IGN . Famitsu reported long load times and a high difficulty level , noting that the game was aimed more toward fans of sim racing than fans of arcade @-@ style gameplay , due to the difficulty of steering . Game Informer and GameZone echoed Famitsu 's review , stating that the load times quickly become a " game @-@ ending nightmare " , and calling the game 's handling " touchy " , " intense " and " revolutionary " , but acknowledging that most players would simply find it too challenging and frustrating to be fun . While Game Informer alleged that " there is a masterpiece for driving simulator buffs buried in here " , Allgame was much more negative , stating that the cars " seem overly light on their tires " and that it " feels like you 're driving on ice " .
Reviews for the game 's audio were also mixed . The music was praised by Chudah 's Corner , which called it the game 's " saving grace " and " a marvel of its own " , while Game Informer called it " decent " but felt Square should have enlisted big bands to match the music of the competitor series Gran Turismo . GameSpot called the music " solid , albeit imperfect " and also thought that it lacked impact compared to that of Gran Turismo 2 , R4 : Ridge Racer Type 4 or Ridge Racer V. While the site praised the game 's ambient sound effects as realistic and detailed , IGN and GameZone felt they were too muted and " nothing special " . GameZone , Game Revolution and the American magazine GamePro felt the music was " intolerable " and " out @-@ of @-@ tune " , " cheesy and annoying " , and sounded like " a flock of seagulls being maimed and tortured " .
= 2008 NHL Winter Classic =
The 2008 NHL Winter Classic ( known via corporate sponsorship as the AMP Energy NHL Winter Classic ) an outdoor regular season National Hockey League ( NHL ) game played on January 1 , 2008 , at Ralph Wilson Stadium in Orchard Park , New York . The Pittsburgh Penguins defeated the Buffalo Sabres , 2 – 1 , in a shootout , on a goal by captain Sidney Crosby . It was the first outdoor regular @-@ season professional ice hockey game to be played in the United States , and was sponsored by AMP Energy . It was the successor to the 2003 Heritage Classic , the NHL 's first regular @-@ season outdoor game , played in Edmonton , Alberta , Canada . The game was televised in the United States on NBC and in Canada on CBC and RDS . Due to the snowy conditions , the game was at the time colloquially referred to as the " Ice Bowl " by residents of the area and Sabres fans .
The game , which was played at a temporary ice rink built on the football field , set an NHL attendance record of 71 @,@ 217 . The Sabres held a Winter Classic " house party " at HSBC Arena during the game where another 11 @,@ 000 fans saw the game shown live on the arena 's video scoreboard with synched @-@ up audio from the team 's radio coverage . The Buffalo Sabres Alumni Hockey Team played a pre @-@ game at the HSBC Arena as part of the house party festivities . Buffalo Sabres anthem singer Doug Allen sang the Canadian national anthem , as is customary at Sabres home games . Irish tenor Ronan Tynan performed " God Bless America " before the game at the stadium .
The success of the event has led to subsequent outdoor hockey games being scheduled and helped establish the Winter Classic as an annual NHL tradition .
= = Preparations = =
Construction of the outdoor rink began on December 24 , the day after the Buffalo Bills played their last home game of the 2007 NFL season . It was built between the 16 @-@ yard lines of the football field , under the supervision of NHL facilities operations manager Dan Craig . Initially , six inches ( 150 mm ) of the nine @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) crown of the football field had
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B ) on the Dorchester / Caroline County line near Preston .
MD 331D is the designation for the 0 @.@ 21 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 34 km ) section of Payne Road from MD 331 to the terminus of County Route 201 southeast of Preston .
= Aloe vera =
Aloe vera ( / ˈæloʊiː / or / ˈæloʊ / ) is a succulent plant species of the genus Aloe . It grows wild in tropical climates around the world and is cultivated for agricultural and medicinal uses . Aloe also is used for decorative purposes and grows successfully indoors as a potted plant .
It is found in many consumer products . There is little scientific evidence of the effectiveness or safety of Aloe vera extracts for either cosmetic or medicinal purposes . Studies finding positive evidence are frequently contradicted by other studies .
= = Description = =
Aloe vera is a stemless or very short @-@ stemmed succulent plant growing to 60 – 100 cm ( 24 – 39 in ) tall , spreading by offsets . The leaves are thick and fleshy , green to grey @-@ green , with some varieties showing white flecks on their upper and lower stem surfaces . The margin of the leaf is serrated and has small white teeth . The flowers are produced in summer on a spike up to 90 cm ( 35 in ) tall , each flower being pendulous , with a yellow tubular corolla 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) long . Like other Aloe species , Aloe vera forms arbuscular mycorrhiza , a symbiosis that allows the plant better access to mineral nutrients in soil .
Aloe vera leaves contain phytochemicals under study for possible bioactivity , such as acetylated mannans , polymannans , anthraquinone C @-@ glycosides , anthrones , other anthraquinones , such as emodin , and various lectins .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The species has a number of synonyms : A. barbadensis Mill . , Aloe indica Royle , Aloe perfoliata L. var. vera and A. vulgaris Lam . Common names include Chinese Aloe , Indian Aloe , True Aloe , Barbados Aloe , Burn Aloe , First Aid Plant . The species epithet vera means " true " or " genuine " . Some literature identifies the white @-@ spotted form of Aloe vera as Aloe vera var. chinensis ; however , the species varies widely with regard to leaf spots and it has been suggested that the spotted form of Aloe vera may be conspecific with A. massawana . The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 as Aloe perfoliata var. vera , and was described again in 1768 by Nicolaas Laurens Burman as Aloe vera in Flora Indica on 6 April and by Philip Miller as Aloe barbadensis some ten days after Burman in the Gardener 's Dictionary .
Techniques based on DNA comparison suggest Aloe vera is relatively closely related to Aloe perryi , a species endemic to Yemen . Similar techniques , using chloroplast DNA sequence comparison and ISSR profiling have also suggested it is closely related to Aloe forbesii , Aloe inermis , Aloe scobinifolia , Aloe sinkatana , and Aloe striata . With the exception of the South African species A. striata , these Aloe species are native to Socotra ( Yemen ) , Somalia , and Sudan . The lack of obvious natural populations of the species has led some authors to suggest Aloe vera may be of hybrid origin .
= = Distribution = =
The natural range of A. vera is unclear , as the species has been widely cultivated throughout the world . Naturalised stands of the species occur in the southern half of the Arabian Peninsula , through North Africa ( Morocco , Mauritania , Egypt ) , as well as Sudan and neighbouring countries , along with the Canary , Cape Verde , and Madeira Islands . This distribution is somewhat similar to the one of Euphorbia balsamifera , Pistacia atlantica , and a few others , suggesting that a dry sclerophyll forest once covered large areas , but has been dramatically reduced due to desertification in the Sahara , leaving these few patches isolated . Several closely related ( or sometimes identical ) species can be found on the two extreme sides of the Sahara : dragon trees ( Dracaena ) and Aeonium being two of the most representative examples .
The species was introduced to China and various parts of southern Europe in the 17th century . The species is widely naturalised elsewhere , occurring in temperate and tropical regions of Australia , Barbados , Belize , Curaçao , Nigeria , Paraguay , Mexico and the US states of Florida , Arizona and Texas . The actual species ' distribution has been suggested to be the result of human cultivation ( anthropogenic ) .
= = Cultivation = =
Aloe vera has been widely grown as an ornamental plant . The species is popular with modern gardeners as a putatively medicinal plant and for its interesting flowers , form , and succulence . This succulence enables the species to survive in areas of low natural rainfall , making it ideal for rockeries and other low water @-@ use gardens . The species is hardy in zones 8 – 11 , although it is intolerant of very heavy frost or snow . The species is relatively resistant to most insect pests , though spider mites , mealy bugs , scale insects , and aphid species may cause a decline in plant health . This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit .
In pots , the species requires well @-@ drained , sandy potting soil and bright , sunny conditions ; however , Aloe plants can burn under too much sun or shrivel when the pot does not drain water . The use of a good @-@ quality commercial propagation mix or packaged " cacti and succulent mix " is recommended , as they allow good drainage . Terra cotta pots are preferable as they are porous . Potted plants should be allowed to completely dry prior to rewatering . When potted , aloes become crowded with " pups " growing from the sides of the " mother plant " , they should be divided and repotted to allow room for further growth and help prevent pest infestations . During winter , Aloe vera may become dormant , during which little moisture is required . In areas that receive frost or snow , the species is best kept indoors or in heated glasshouses .
There is large @-@ scale agricultural production of Aloe vera in Australia , Bangladesh , Cuba , the Dominican Republic , China , Mexico , India , Jamaica , Kenya , Tanzania and South Africa , along with the USA to supply the cosmetics industry .
= = Uses = =
= = = Research = = =
There is little scientific evidence of the effectiveness or safety of Aloe vera extracts for either cosmetic or medicinal purposes . A research study finding positive evidence is frequently contradicted by other studies .
Despite this , the cosmetic and alternative medicine industries regularly make claims regarding the soothing , moisturizing , and healing properties of aloe vera .
Two 2009 reviews of clinical studies determined that all were too small and faulty to allow strong conclusions to be drawn , but concluded : " there is some preliminary evidence to suggest that oral administration of aloe vera might be effective in reducing blood glucose in diabetic patients and in lowering blood lipid levels in hyperlipidaemia . The topical application of aloe vera does not seem to prevent radiation @-@ induced skin damage . The evidence regarding wound healing is contradictory . More and better trial data are needed to define the clinical effectiveness of this popular herbal remedy more precisely . " One of the reviews found that Aloe has not been proven to offer protection for humans from sunburn .
A 2007 review of aloe vera use in burns concluded , " cumulative evidence tends to support that aloe vera might be an effective intervention used in burn wound healing for first- to second @-@ degree burns . Further , well @-@ designed trials with sufficient details of the contents of aloe vera products should be carried out to determine the effectiveness of aloe vera . " Topical application of aloe vera may also be effective for genital herpes and psoriasis . A 2014 Cochrane review found no strong evidence for the value of topical application of aloe vera to treat or prevent phlebitis caused by intravenous infusion .
Aloe vera gel is used commercially as an ingredient in yogurts , beverages , and some desserts , although at certain doses , its toxic properties could be severe whether ingested or topically applied . The same is true for aloe latex , which was taken orally for conditions ranging from glaucoma to multiple sclerosis until the FDA required manufacturers to discontinue its use .
= = = Dietary supplement = = =
Aloin , a compound found in the exudate of some Aloe species , was the common ingredient in over @-@ the @-@ counter ( OTC ) laxative products in the United States until 2002 when the Food and Drug Administration banned it because the companies manufacturing it failed to provide the necessary safety data . Aloe vera has potential toxicity , with side effects occurring at some dose levels both when ingested or applied topically . Although toxicity may be less when aloin is removed by processing , Aloe vera that contains aloin in excess amounts may induce side effects .
Aloe vera juice is marketed to support the health of the digestive system , but there is neither scientific evidence nor regulatory approval to support this claim . The extracts and quantities typically used for such purposes appear to be dose @-@ dependent for toxic effects .
= = = Traditional medicine = = =
Aloe vera is used in traditional medicine as a multipurpose skin treatment . In Ayurvedic medicine it is called kathalai , as are extracts from agave . Early records of Aloe vera use appear in the Ebers Papyrus from the 16th century BC , and in Dioscorides ' De Materia Medica and Pliny the Elder 's Natural History – both written in the mid @-@ first century AD . It is also written of in the Juliana Anicia Codex of 512 AD . The plant is used widely in the traditional herbal medicine of many countries .
= = = Commodities = = =
Aloe vera is used on facial tissues where it is promoted as a moisturiser and anti @-@ irritant to reduce chafing of the nose . Cosmetic companies commonly add sap or other derivatives from Aloe vera to products such as makeup , tissues , moisturizers , soaps , sunscreens , incense , shaving cream , or shampoos . A review of academic literature notes that its inclusion in many hygiene products is due to its " moisturizing emollient effect " .
Other potential uses for extracts of Aloe vera include the dilution of semen for the artificial fertilization of sheep , as a fresh food preservative , or for water conservation in small farms . It has also been suggested that biofuels could be obtained from Aloe vera seeds .
= = Toxicity = =
Under the guidelines of California Proposition 65 , orally ingested non @-@ decolorized aloe vera leaf extract has been listed by the OEHHA , along with goldenseal , among " chemicals known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity " .
Use of topical aloe vera is not associated with significant side effects . Oral ingestion of aloe vera , however , may cause abdominal cramps and diarrhea which in turn can decrease the absorption of drugs . IARC studies have found ingested non @-@ decolorized liquid aloe vera to be carcinogenic in animals , and state that it is a possible carcinogen in humans as well .
= Henry Alexander Stuart @-@ Menteth =
Commander Henry Alexander Stuart @-@ Menteth DSC , usually shortened to Alex Stuart @-@ Menteth ( 26 August 1912 – 14 May 2000 ) was a British naval officer famous for his service in the Royal Navy , particularly during World War II where he assisted in the sinking of two U @-@ boats ; and helped capture Enigma code fragments which enabled Bletchley Park to decipher the code . He commanded six ships during his career . He married in 1952 , having two sons and a daughter , and seven grandchildren in turn .
Stuart @-@ Menteth was born as one of four . He joined a navy cadet force in Devon , serving on several ships . After his promotion course , he served both abroad and in the United Kingdom . He joined HMS Hunter shortly before World War II , before in April 1940 his ship was torpedoed after a raid on a German held port . He was kept in a hospital by the Germans , and was listed at home as killed in action . When the British liberated the area , he was freed . On his next ship , HMS Somali , he helped capture Enigma code fragments which enabled Bletchley Park to decipher the code , again capturing code in 1941 , and in the same year was given his first command , HMS Berkeley . He was mentioned in despatches in 1942 , whilst working on HMS Aldenham after the ship sunk a U @-@ boat , and a Distinguished Service Cross for sinking another U @-@ boat . Stuart @-@ Menteth was entrusted to the Royal Australian Navy in 1949 , where he commanded two destroyers . He ran the Scottish Corps of Commissionaires for 20 years after his 1958 retirement .
= = Early life = =
Henry Alexander Stuart @-@ Menteth , often abbreviated to Alex Stuart @-@ Menteth , was born on 26 August 1912 in Merstham , Surrey . He was the son of Walter Stuart @-@ Menteth and Violet Stuart @-@ Menteth ( née Lafone ) , one of four : Walter Granville Stuart @-@ Menteth ( 1906 – 1970 ) , Frances Bevyl Stuart @-@ Menteth ( 1907 – 1957 ) , and Lucy Violet Stuart @-@ Menteth ( 1911 – ) . In 1926 , he became a cadet in Dartmouth , Devon . With the cadets , he served on the ships HMS Renown in the Atlantic , HMS Dragon in the West Indies and America , and on the shore establishment HMS President on his promotion course .
= = Naval career = =
Alex Stuart @-@ Menteth served on the destroyers HMS Whitehall in the Mediterranean in 1934 and 1935 , HMS Windsor in the home fleet in 1935 and 1936 , the minesweeper HMS Elgin in the reserve fleet in 1935 , and HMS Defender in 1935 serving in China .
= = = World War II = = =
On 28 August 1939 , shortly before the outbreak of World War II , Stuart @-@ Menteth joined the destroyer HMS Hunter . Hunter was in Captain Warburton @-@ Lee 's 2nd Flotilla , along with four other destroyers . On 10 April 1940 , in a snowstorm , the Flotilla attacked the port of Narvik , held by the Germans . Four German destroyers were sunk and seven damaged , notably sinking SS Rauenfels , an 8 @,@ 500 @-@ ton ship transporting ammunition . Hunter was set alight and torpedoed , leading to her sinking . As she sank , Stuart @-@ Menteth was trapped by a malfunctioning davit with a leg wound on the upper deck . A rating saved Stuart @-@ Menteth , and they were both picked up by German sailors .
Stuart @-@ Menteth was taken to Narvik , at a civilian hospital . He remained in the town until its eventual liberation by the Allies . However , whilst he was in hospital , Stuart @-@ Menteth was listed as killed in action , and had an obituary in The Times as such , which he later read . After further hospitalisation in Britain from April to December 1940 , on 3 December Stuart @-@ Menteth became the first lieutenant of the Tribal @-@ class destroyer HMS Somali . She partook in Operation Claymore , an operation to disrupt supplies , to ferry commandoes to shore , and to capture German code . Somalia brought to a stop Krebs , a German trawler , by firing at her , forcing her to stop . A boarding party found cryptographic keys and rotor machines . This assisted Bletchley Park to decipher several Enigma codes .
In May 1941 , Stuart @-@ Menteth again assisted the capture of Enigma material from the German ship München , enabling Bletchley Park to begin to decipher German Enigma codes . Several months later , he was given command of his first ship , HMS Berkeley , a Hunt @-@ class destroyer . Stuart @-@ Menteth joined HMS Aldenham in March 1942 , and helped sink the German submarine U @-@ 58 . He was mentioned in despatches on 2 June 1943 as " Lieutenant @-@ Commander Henry Alexander Stuart @-@ Menteth , Royal Navy " ; after commanding Aldenham in a disastrous mission in the Aegean Sea . In late 1943 , Stuart @-@ Menteth took command of HMS Dinosaur , and partook in training officers of landing craft . His last command in the war was HMS Havelock , with which he assisted in the sinking of U @-@ 242 , for which he was awarded a Distinguished Service Cross .
= = = After war = = =
After World War II on 13 February 1946 Stuart @-@ Menteth became first lieutenant on HMS Birmingham , followed by HMS Superb on 4 September 1946 , before being entrusted to the Royal Australian Navy in 1949 . There he commanded his last two ships , the destroyers HMS St. James and HMS Obdurate . He went on to work with Lord Mountbatten in Malta , and in 1958 he retired , moving to Scotland . He did , however , operate the Scottish Corps of Commissionaires for close to 20 years , and was chairman of the Edinburgh World Wildlife Fund for 10 years .
= = Personal life = =
Stuart @-@ Menteth met Penelope Giles in 1952 in Australia , the couple married , having a daughter and two sons : Andrew Alexander ( 1954 ) , Walter Henry ( 1957 ) , and Harriet Lucy ( 1959 ) ; and seven grandchildren . He died on 14 May 2000 in Edinburgh , Lothian .
= NextWorth =
NextWorth is an electronics trade @-@ in and recycling service . Users of the service exchange used electronics for cash or discounts on newer models . NextWorth was founded by business students at Babson College in 2005 . It started as a commission @-@ based service to help businesses setup online auctions for their used items , then changed its business model to focus on electronics trade @-@ ins in 2006 . As of late 2012 , NextWorth was one of the best @-@ known and largest electronics trade @-@ in and recycling services in the United States , although it handles only a small percentage of total trade @-@ in traffic .
= = History = =
NextWorth was founded by David Chen , Andrew Walsh and Scott Richardson while they were students at Babson College . The company was selected for Babson College 's 2005 Business Hatcheries program , which provides free resources to student @-@ led startups . NextWorth Inc. began operations the following year . It was originally a service that helped businesses and non @-@ profits prepare luxury items for online auctions in exchange for a 20 @-@ 33 percent commission . In the spring of 2006 , NextWorth changed its business model and services to focus on electronics trade @-@ ins . In January 2007 , NextWorth raised $ 1 @.@ 5 million in its first round of funding .
= = Services = =
NextWorth purchases used electronics and resells about 80 @-@ 85 percent of them , while the remainder are sent to a network of partners for recycling . Many used iPhones are resold in countries where new ones are more expensive . Sellers can fill out an online form to describe the used products they want to sell , then get a quote through the website . After receiving the quote , sellers have thirty days to ship the product using a pre @-@ paid shipping label provided by NextWorth . The company wipes the device 's memory and inspects the item before sending the seller reimbursement in 3 @-@ 15 days depending on the payment method . If NextWorth appraises a product at a lower condition than the seller expected , they can get an explanation from NextWorth , challenge the quote , or reject it and get the product back .
Sellers can also do trade @-@ ins in @-@ person and get reimbursed immediately at partnered retailers like Target . The Target trade @-@ in program began as a pilot project in 2009 , and expanded to 190 locations by 2010 and almost 1 @,@ 500 stores by 2011 . A similar partnership was in place with Circuit City before it went out of business in 2009 . A company spokesperson stated in 2009 that the company was also partnered with 15 smaller retailers for in @-@ person trade @-@ ins .
= = Pricing = =
NextWorth sets its prices through an algorithm developed by MBA students and a professor at Babson College . Sellers can obtain better prices by reselling their electronics directly through services like eBay or Craigslist , but services like NextWorth are more convenient and have predictable pricing . A CNET editor found most of the trade @-@ in prices at NextWorth to be " pretty fair " , though he was expecting higher prices for some items . Variations in price between trade @-@ in services and products depend on timing ( release of new models and market fluctuations ) , the model being sold , and the product 's condition .
According to About.com , how fair the seller is in describing the condition of the product " will determine whether your experience with NextWorth is satisfying or not . " Some sellers get higher or lower prices than they were originally quoted , depending on how NextWorth 's assessment of the product 's condition compares to the seller 's description .
NextWorth has experienced spikes in trade @-@ in activity from sellers when newer models are announced , such as when the iPad 2 was announced in March 2011 , and when the iPhone 5 was announced
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in September 2012 These announcements also caused the trade @-@ in price of older models to decrease , due to over @-@ supply. as well as after the holiday season .
= Silky shark =
The silky shark ( Carcharhinus falciformis ) , also known by numerous names such as blackspot shark , grey whaler shark , olive shark , ridgeback shark , sickle shark , sickle @-@ shaped shark , and sickle silk shark , is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , named for the smooth texture of its skin . It is one of the most abundant sharks in the pelagic zone , and can be found around the world in tropical waters . Highly mobile and migratory , this shark is most often found over the edge of the continental shelf down to 50 m ( 164 ft ) . The silky shark has a slender , streamlined body and typically grows to a length of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) . It can be distinguished from other large requiem sharks by its relatively small first dorsal fin with a curving rear margin , its tiny second dorsal fin with a long free rear tip , and its long , sickle @-@ shaped pectoral fins . It is a deep , metallic bronze @-@ gray above and white below .
With prey often scarce in its oceanic environment , the silky shark is a swift , inquisitive , and persistent hunter . It feeds mainly on bony fishes and cephalopods , and has been known to drive them into compacted schools before launching open @-@ mouthed , slashing attacks . This species often trails schools of tuna , a favored prey . Its sense of hearing is extremely acute , allowing it to localize the low @-@ frequency noises generated by other feeding animals , and , by extension , sources of food . The silky shark is viviparous , meaning that the developing embryos are sustained by a placental connection to their mother . Significant geographical variation is seen in its life history details . Reproduction occurs year @-@ round except in the Gulf of Mexico , where it follows a seasonal cycle . Females give birth to litters of up to 16 pups annually or biennially . The newborn sharks spend their first months in relatively sheltered reef nurseries on the outer continental shelf , growing substantially before moving into the open ocean .
The large size and cutting teeth of the silky shark make it potentially dangerous , and it has behaved aggressively towards divers . However , attacks are rare , as few humans enter its oceanic habitat . Silky sharks are valued for their fins , and to a lesser extent their meat , hide , liver oil , and jaws . Because of their abundance , they form a major component of commercial and artisanal shark fisheries in many countries . Furthermore , their association with tuna results in many sharks being taken as bycatch in tuna fisheries . Although slow @-@ reproducing like most other sharks , the wide distribution and large population size of the silky shark was once thought to buffer the species against these fishing pressures . However , data now suggest that silky shark numbers are declining around the world , which prompted the IUCN to reassess its conservation status from Least Concern to Near Threatened in 2007 .
= = Taxonomy = =
A scientific description of the silky shark was first published by the German biologists Johannes Müller and Jakob Henle under the name Carcharias ( Prionodon ) falciformis , in their 1839 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen . Subsequent authors have assigned this species to the genus Carcharhinus . Because Müller and Henle 's type specimen was a 53 @-@ cm @-@ long female fetus from Cuba , adult silky sharks were historically not recognized as C. falciformis and were described as a separate species , Carcharhinus floridanus , by Henry Bigelow , William Schroeder , and Stewart Springer in 1943 . Jack Garrick , Richard Backus , and Robert Gibbs , Jr. synonymized C. floridanus with C. falciformis in 1964 .
The specific epithet falciformis is Latin for " sickle @-@ shaped " , which refers to the outline of the dorsal and pectoral fins . The silky shark 's common name comes from the fine texture of its skin compared to other sharks , a product of its tiny , densely packed dermal denticles . It may also be referred to as blackspot shark ( usually used for C. sealei ) , grey reef shark ( usually used for C. amblyrhynchos ) , grey whaler shark , olive shark , reef shark , ridgeback shark , sickle shark , sickle silk shark , sickle @-@ shaped shark , silk shark , and silky whaler .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
Fossilized teeth belonging to the silky shark have been found in North Carolina : from the vicinity of two baleen whales , one in mud dating to the Pleistocene @-@ Holocene ( circa 12 @,@ 000 years ago ) and the other in Goose Creek Limestone dating to the Late Pliocene ( circa 3 @.@ 5 million years ago – Mya ) , as well as from the Pungo River , dating to the Miocene ( 23 – 5 @.@ 3 Mya ) . Fossil teeth have also been found in Pliocene strata at the Cava Serredi quarry in Tuscany , Italy . Carcharhinus elongatus , an earlier representative of its lineage with smooth @-@ edged teeth , is known from Oligocene ( 34 – 23 Mya ) deposits in the Old Church formation of Virginia , and the Ashley formation of South Carolina . A set of poorly described , Eocene ( 56 – 34 Mya ) teeth resembling those of this species are known from Egypt .
Initial efforts to resolve the evolutionary relationships of the silky shark were inconclusive ; based on morphology , Jack Garrick in 1982 suggested the blackspot shark ( C. sealei ) as its closest relative . In 1988 , Leonard Compagno assigned it phenetically to an informal " transitional group " also containing the blacknose shark ( C. acronotus ) , the blacktip reef shark ( C. melanopterus ) , the nervous shark ( C. cautus ) , the copper shark ( C. brachyurus ) , and the night shark ( C. signatus ) .
More recently , Gavin Naylor 's 1992 phylogenetic analysis , based on allozyme sequence data , found that the silky shark is part of a group containing large sharks with a ridge between the dorsal fins . One branch within this group contains the sandbar shark ( C. plumbeus ) and the bignose shark ( C. altimus ) , while the silky shark is the basal member of the other branch and the sister taxon to a clade containing the Caribbean reef shark ( C. perezi ) , Galapagos shark ( C. galapagensis ) , oceanic whitetip shark ( C. longimanus ) , dusky shark ( C. obscurus ) , and blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) . Mine Dosay @-@ Abkulut 's 2008 ribosomal DNA analysis , which included the silky , blue , and bignose sharks , confirmed the closeness of those three species .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The silky shark has a cosmopolitan distribution in marine waters warmer than 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . In the Atlantic Ocean , it is found from the U.S. state of Massachusetts to Spain in the north , and from southern Brazil to northern Angola in the south , including the Mediterranean Sea , Gulf of Mexico , and Caribbean Sea . It occurs throughout the Indian Ocean , as far south as Mozambique in the west and Western Australia in the east , including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf . In the Pacific Ocean , the northern extent of its range runs from southern China and Japan to southern Baja California and the Gulf of California , while the southern extent runs from Sydney , Australia , to northern New Zealand to northern Chile . Based on life history differences , four distinct populations of silky sharks have been identified in ocean basins worldwide : in the northwestern Atlantic , in the western and central Pacific , in the eastern Pacific , and in the Indian Ocean .
Primarily an inhabitant of the open ocean , the silky shark is most common from the surface to a depth of 200 m ( 660 ft ) , but may dive to 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) or more . Tracking studies in the tropical eastern Pacific and northern Gulf of Mexico have found that cruising silky sharks spend 99 % of their time within 50 m ( 160 ft ) of the surface , and 80 – 85 % of their time in water with a temperature of 26 – 30 ° C ( 79 – 86 ° F ) ; the pattern was constant regardless of day or night . This species favors the edges of continental and insular shelves , often over deepwater reefs and around islands . Its range extends farther north and south along continental margins than in oceanic waters . On occasion , it may venture into coastal waters as shallow as 18 m ( 59 ft ) . Silky sharks are highly mobile and migratory , though the details of their movements are little @-@ known . Tagging data have recorded individual sharks moving up to 60 km ( 37 mi ) per day , and covering distances up to 1 @,@ 339 km ( 832 mi ) . Larger sharks generally move longer distances than smaller ones . In the Pacific Ocean and possibly elsewhere , it spends the summer at slightly higher latitudes , particularly during warmer El Niño years . In the northern Atlantic , most sharks follow the Gulf Stream northward along the U.S. East Coast . In the Gulf of Aden , it is most common in late spring and summer .
= = Description = =
Slim and streamlined , the silky shark has a fairly long , rounded snout with barely developed flaps of skin in front of the nostrils . The circular , medium @-@ sized eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . Short , shallow furrows are present at the corners of the mouth . Fourteen to 16 and 13 – 17 tooth rows are found on either side of the upper and lower jaws , respectively ( typically 15 for both ) . The upper teeth are triangular and strongly serrated , with a notch in the posterior edge ; they are erect at the center and become more oblique towards the sides . The lower teeth are narrow , erect , and smooth @-@ edged . The five pairs of gill slits are moderate in length .
The dorsal and pectoral fins are distinctive and help to distinguish the silky shark from similar species . The first dorsal fin is relatively small , measuring less than a tenth as high as the shark is long , and originates behind the free rear tips of the pectoral fins . It has a rounded apex , an " S " -shaped rear margin , and a free rear tip about half as long as the fin is tall . The second dorsal fin is tiny , smaller than the anal fin , with a drawn @-@ out free rear tip up to three times as long as the fin is tall . A narrow dorsal ridge runs between the dorsal fins . The pectoral fins are narrow and sickle @-@ shaped , and particularly long in adults . The anal fin originates slightly ahead of the second dorsal fin and has a deep notch in the posterior margin . The caudal fin is fairly high with a well @-@ developed lower lobe .
The skin is densely covered by minute , overlapping dermal denticles . Each dermal denticle is diamond @-@ shaped and bears horizontal ridges leading to posterior marginal teeth , which increase in number as the shark grows . The back is metallic golden @-@ brown to dark gray and the belly is snowy white , which extends onto the flank as a faint lighter stripe . The fins ( except for the first dorsal ) darken at the tips ; this is more obvious in young sharks . The coloration quickly fades to a dull gray after death . One of the larger members of its genus , the silky shark commonly reaches a length of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , with a maximum recorded length and weight of 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) and 346 kg ( 763 lb ) , respectively . Females grow larger than males .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The silky shark is one of the three most common pelagic sharks along with the blue and oceanic whitetip sharks , and counts among the most numerous large oceanic animals in the world with a population of at least tens of millions . Compared to the other two species , it is less strictly pelagic with the greatest numbers found in offshore waters associated with land , where food is more readily obtained than farther out in the truly open ocean . The silky shark is an active , inquisitive , and aggressive predator , though it will defer to the slower but more powerful oceanic whitetip shark in competitive situations . When approaching something of interest , it may seem inattentive , sedately circling and sometimes swinging its head from side to side . However , it can respond with startling swiftness to any shift in its immediate surroundings . This shark is often found around floating objects such as logs or tethered naval buoys .
Younger silky sharks are known to form large , loosely organized aggregations , possibly for mutual defense . During migrations , over a thousand individuals may gather . These groups are generally segregated by size , and in the Pacific perhaps also by sex . Silky sharks within a group have been observed to " tilt " , presenting their full lateral profile towards each other , as well as gape their jaws or puff out their gills . On occasion , sharks have also been seen suddenly charging straight up , veering away just before reaching the surface and gliding back down to deeper water . The significance of these behaviors is unknown . When confronted , the silky shark may perform a threat display , in which it arches its back , drops its tail and pectoral fins , and elevates its head . The shark then proceeds to swim in tight loops with a stiff , jerky motion , often turning broadside towards the perceived threat .
Potential predators of the silky shark include larger sharks and killer whales ( Orcinus orca ) . Known parasites of this shark include the isopod Gnathia trimaculata , the copepod Kroeyerina cortezensis , and the tapeworms Dasyrhynchus variouncinatus and Phyllobothrium sp . Silky sharks frequently intermingle with schools of scalloped hammerheads ( Sphyrna lewini ) , and have been known to follow marine mammals . One account from the Red Sea describes 25 silky sharks following a large pod of bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops sp . ) , along with 25 grey reef sharks ( C. amblyrhynchos ) and a lone silvertip shark ( C. albimarginatus ) . Silky sharks are themselves accompanied by juvenile pilot fish ( Naucrates ductor ) , which " ride " the pressure wave ahead of the shark , as well as by jacks , which snatch scraps of food and rub against the shark 's skin to scrape off parasites .
= = = Feeding = = =
The silky shark is an opportunistic predator , feeding mainly on bony fishes from all levels of the water column , including tuna , mackerel , sardines , mullets , groupers , snappers , mackerel scads , sea chubs , sea catfish , eels , lanternfishes , filefishes , triggerfishes , and porcupinefishes . It may also take squid , paper nautilus , and swimming crabs , and fossil evidence indicates it scavenged on whale carcasses . Good feeding opportunities can draw silky sharks in large numbers ; one such feeding aggregation in the Pacific has been documented " herding " a school of small fishes into a compact mass ( a bait ball ) and trapping it against the surface , whereupon the sharks consumed the entire school . When attacking tightly packed fish , silky sharks charge through the ball and slash open @-@ mouthed , catching the prey fish at the corners of their jaws . Although multiple individuals may feed at once , each launches its attack independently .
Studies conducted off the Florida coast and the Bahamas have shown that silky sharks are highly sensitive to sound , in particular low @-@ frequency ( 10 – 20 Hz ) , irregular pulses . Experiments in which these sounds were played underwater attracted sharks from hundreds of meters away . Silky sharks likely orient to these sounds because they are similar to the noise generated by feeding animals such as birds or dolphins , thus indicating promising sources of food . These studies have also demonstrated that a silky shark attracted by one sound will quickly withdraw if that sound abruptly changes in amplitude or character ; this change need not be a sound produced by a predator to evoke the reaction . Over repeated exposures , silky sharks habituate to the sound change and stop withdrawing , though it takes them much longer to do so compared to the bolder oceanic whitetip shark .
The bite force of a 2 @-@ m @-@ long silky shark has been measured at 890 newtons ( 200 lbf ) . A well @-@ established association exists between this species and tuna : off Ghana , almost every tuna school has silky sharks trailing behind , and in the eastern Pacific , these sharks inflict such damage to tuna fishing gear and catches that fishery workers have given them the moniker " net @-@ eating sharks " . Silky sharks and bottlenose dolphins compete when both species target the same school of fish ; the amount eaten by the dolphins decreases relative to the number of sharks present . If a large number of sharks is present , they tend to remain inside the prey school , while the dolphins consign themselves to the periphery , possibly to avoid incidental injury from the sharks ' slashing attacks . Conversely , if a large enough group of dolphins gathers , they become able to chase the sharks away from the prey school . Regardless of which one dominates , the two predators do not engage in any overtly aggressive behavior against each other .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other members of its family , the silky shark is viviparous : once the developing embryo exhausts its supply of yolk , the depleted yolk sac is converted into a placental connection through which the mother delivers nourishment . Relative to other viviparous sharks , the placenta of the silky shark is less similar to the analogous mammalian structure in that no interdigitation exists between the tissues of the fetus and mother . Furthermore , the fetal red blood cells are much smaller than maternal blood cells , which is opposite the pattern seen in mammals . Adult females have a single functional ovary ( on the right side ) and two functional uteri , which are divided lengthwise into separate compartments for each embryo .
Silky sharks in most parts of the world are thought to reproduce year @-@ round , whereas mating and birthing in the Gulf of Mexico take place in late spring or early summer ( May to August ) . However , in some cases , the presence of reproductive seasonality may have been obscured by biases in data collection . Females give birth after a gestation period of 12 months , either every year or every other year . The litter size ranges from one to 16 and increases with female size , with six to 12 being typical . The pups are born in reef nursery areas on the outer continental shelf , where ample food supplies and protection from large pelagic sharks occur . The risk of predation has selected for fast growth in young sharks , which add 25 – 30 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 8 in ) to their length within their first year of life . After a few months ( or by the first winter in the Gulf of Mexico ) , the now @-@ subadult sharks migrate out from the nursery into the open ocean .
The life history characteristics of the silky shark differ across its range ( see table ) . Northwestern Atlantic sharks tend to be larger than those in the western @-@ central Pacific at all ages , while eastern Pacific sharks tend to be smaller than sharks in other regions . Eastern Atlantic and Indian Ocean sharks seem to match or exceed the size of northwestern Atlantic sharks , but the figures are based on relatively few individuals and more data are needed .
The overall growth rate of the silky shark is moderate compared to other shark species and similar for both sexes , though it varies significantly between individuals . One central Pacific study has found females growing much slower than males , but the results may have been skewed by missing data from large females . The highest reported growth rates are from sharks in the northern Gulf of Mexico , and the lowest from sharks off northeastern Taiwan . Males and females reach sexual maturity at ages of 6 – 10 years and 7 – 12 + years , respectively . Sharks from more temperate waters may grow slower and mature later than those in warmer regions . The maximum lifespan is at least 22 years .
= = Human interactions = =
Given its formidable size and dentition , the silky shark is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans . However , it only rarely comes into contact with people due to its oceanic habits . Its natural curiosity and boldness may lead it to repeatedly and closely approach divers , and it can become dangerously excited in the presence of food . The silky shark tends to be more aggressive if encountered on a reef than in open water . Cases of individual sharks persistently harassing divers and even forcing them out of the water have been reported . As of May 2009 , the International Shark Attack File lists six attacks attributable to the silky shark , three of them unprovoked and none fatal .
Large numbers of silky sharks are caught by commercial and artisanal multispecies shark fisheries operating off Mexico , Guatemala , El Salvador , Costa Rica , the United States , Ecuador , Spain , Portugal , Sri Lanka , the Maldives , Yemen , and Côte d 'Ivoire . Even greater numbers are caught incidentally by tuna longline and purse seine fisheries throughout its range , particularly those using fish aggregating devices . It is the most common shark caught as bycatch in the eastern Pacific and Gulf of Mexico tuna fisheries , and the second @-@ most common shark caught as bycatch ( next to the blue shark ) overall . The fins are valued as an ingredient in shark fin soup , with captured sharks often finned at sea and the rest of the body discarded . Fins from an estimated one @-@ half to one and a half million silky sharks are traded globally per year ; it is the second- or third @-@ most common species auctioned on the Hong Kong fin market , which represents over half the global trade . The meat ( sold fresh or dried and salted ) , skin , and liver oil may also be used , as well as the jaws : this species is the predominant source of dried shark jaw curios sold to tourists in the tropics . Some sport fishers catch silky sharks .
= = = Conservation = = =
As one of the most abundant and widely distributed sharks on Earth , the silky shark was once thought to be mostly immune to depletion despite heavy fishing mortality . In 1989 alone , some 900 @,@ 000 individuals were taken as bycatch in the southern and central Pacific tuna longline fishery , seemingly without effect on the total population . Fishery data on this shark are often confounded by under @-@ reporting , lack of species @-@ level separation , and problematic identification . Nevertheless , mounting evidence indicates the silky shark has , in fact , declined substantially worldwide , a consequence of its modest reproductive rate which is unable to sustain such high levels of exploitation . The total annual catch reported to the Food and Agricultural Organization fell steadily from 11 @,@ 680 tons in 2000 to 4 @,@ 358 tons in 2004 . Regional assessments have found similar trends , estimating declines of some 90 % in the central Pacific from the 1950s to the 1990s , 60 % off Costa Rica from 1991 to 2000 , 91 % in the Gulf of Mexico from the 1950s to the 1990s , and 85 % ( for all large requiem sharks ) in the northwestern Atlantic from 1986 to 2005 . The silky shark fishery off Sri Lanka reported a drop from a peak catch of 25 @
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,@ 400 tons in 1994 to only 1 @,@ 960 tons in 2006 , indicative of a local stock collapse . However , Japanese fisheries in the Pacific and Indian Oceans have recorded no change in catch rate between the 1970s and the 1990s , and the validity of the methodologies used to assess declines in the Gulf of Mexico and the northwestern Atlantic have come under much debate .
In light of recent findings , in 2007 , the IUCN reassessed the silky shark from Least Concern to Near Threatened worldwide . Regionally , it is listed as Near Threatened in the southwestern Atlantic , Indian Ocean , and western central Pacific , and as Vulnerable in the eastern central and southeastern Pacific and the northwestern and western central Atlantic . The silky shark is listed on Annex I , Highly Migratory Species , of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea , though this has yet to result in any management schemes . The species should benefit from bans on shark finning , which are being increasingly implemented by nations and supranational entities , including the United States , Australia , and the European Union . Organizations such as the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas and the Inter @-@ American Tropical Tuna Commission have also taken steps to improve fishery monitoring , with the ultimate goal of reducing shark bycatch . However , given the highly migratory nature of the silky shark and its association with tuna , no simple way is known to reduce bycatch without also affecting the economics of the fishery .
= Edward Scissorhands =
Edward Scissorhands is a 1990 American romantic dark fantasy film directed by Tim Burton , produced by Denise Di Novi and Tim Burton , and written by Caroline Thompson from a story by Tim Burton and Caroline Thompson , starring Johnny Depp as an artificial man named Edward , an unfinished creation who has scissors for hands , who is taken in by a suburban family and falls in love with their teenage daughter Kim ; additional roles were portrayed by Winona Ryder , Dianne Wiest , Anthony Michael Hall , Kathy Baker , Vincent Price and Alan Arkin .
Burton conceived Edward Scissorhands from his childhood upbringing in suburban Burbank , California . During pre @-@ production of Beetlejuice , Caroline Thompson was hired to adapt Burton 's story into a screenplay , and the film began development at 20th Century Fox , after Warner Bros. denied . Edward Scissorhands was then fast tracked after Burton 's critical and financial success with Batman . The majority of filming took place in Lakeland , Florida between March 10 and June 10 , 1990 . The film also marks the fourth collaboration between Burton and film score composer Danny Elfman .
The leading role of Edward had been connected to several actors prior to Depp 's casting : a meeting between Burton and the preferred choice of the studio , Tom Cruise , was not fruitful , and Gary Oldman and Tom Hanks turned down the part . The character of The Inventor was devised specifically for Vincent Price , and would be his last major role . Edward 's scissor hands were created and designed by Stan Winston .
Edward Scissorhands was released to positive feedback from critics , and was a financial success . The film received numerous nominations at the Academy Awards , British Academy Film Awards , Saturn Awards , as well as winning the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation . Both Burton and Elfman consider Edward Scissorhands their most personal and favorite work .
= = Plot = =
An elderly woman tells her granddaughter a bedtime story of where snow comes from , by telling her the story of a young man named Edward who has scissors for hands . As the creation of an old Inventor , Edward was a human @-@ like boy who was in the penultimate stage of work . The Inventor homeschooled Edward , but suffered a fatal heart attack and died just as he was about to fasten hands on Edward .
Local Avon saleswoman Peg Boggs visits the decrepit Gothic mansion on the hill where Edward lives . She finds Edward alone – at first startled , but , upon realizing he means well and is virtually harmless , takes him to her home . Edward becomes friends with Peg 's young son Kevin and her husband Bill . He later falls in love with the Boggs ' beautiful teenage daughter Kim , despite her initial fear of him .
Peg 's neighbors are impressed by Edward 's adept hedge @-@ trimming and hair @-@ cutting skills , though an eccentric religious fanatic named Esmeralda and Kim 's overbearing boyfriend Jim are fearful and contemptuous of him . Joyce , an ageing , unfaithful housewife in the Boggs ' neighborhood , has become fascinated with Edward and suggests that Edward open a hair @-@ cutting salon with her . While examining a proposed site , she attempts to seduce him in the back room , causing Edward to leave in a panic , and Joyce rumoring of him trying to rape her .
Wanting money for a van , Jim takes advantage of Edward 's ability to pick locks to break into his parents ' house to steal from his wealthy but bullying father . The burglar alarm sounds and everyone except Edward flees after he is trapped by the automatic locks triggered by the alarm , despite Kim 's insistence that they return for him , as the police have him arrested . He is released when a psychological examination reveals that his isolation allowed him to live without a sense of reality and common sense . Upon questioning by Peg , Edward takes full blame for the robbery , and is scrutinized for his behavior , believed to have committed the robbery as earlier he was denied a bank loan for his hair salon . During Christmas , Edward is cast out by almost everyone except the Boggs family . When Edward returns home , he reveals that he knew it was Jim 's house and that he did it because she asked him to , much to Kim 's shock , which causes her to break up with Jim .
While the family is setting up Christmas decorations , Edward creates a large angel ice sculpture ( modelled on Kim ) . The shavings create an effect of falling snow , which Kim dances under . Jim arrives and calls out to Edward , startling him , resulting in Edward accidentally cutting Kim 's hand . Jim accuses Edward of intentionally harming her and attacks him . Edward runs away , wandering the neighborhood in a rage , ruining one of his earlier hedge works , pokes a hole in the tire on someone 's car , and trims a bush in Esmeralda 's front yard into the shape of the devil . However , when a shaggy puppy comes near , Edward calms down , smiles at the dog and give it a trim . While Peg and Bill search for Edward , he returns and finds Kim alone in the Boggs ' house . She asks Edward to hold her , but he is afraid that he will hurt her again – she pulls his arms around her and they embrace . Jim returns to the Boggs ' house in a drunken rage to confront Kim , forcing his friend to drive his van while inebriated . Kevin is almost run over , but Edward pushes him out of the way , cutting Kevin 's arms and face , causing witnesses to think he is attacking him . Jim then attacks him furiously and Edward cuts Jim 's right arm . When the police arrive , Edward flees to the mansion as the neighbors pursue .
Kim runs to the mansion , reuniting with Edward . Jim follows her and attacks them with a handgun , beating Edward severely , who refuses to fight until Jim strikes Kim across the face when she intervenes . Edward stabs Jim in the stomach , causing him to fall out of a window to his death . Kim confesses her love for Edward and they share a kiss before saying goodbye . Kim tells the townspeople that Edward and Jim fought each other to death and tells them that the roof caved in on Edward , showing them a discarded scissor @-@ hand from the Inventor 's lab . The neighbors return home with Joyce feeling guilty for framing Edward and causing the neighbors to hate him .
The elderly woman finishes telling her granddaughter the story , revealing that she is Kim and saying that she never saw Edward again . She chose not to visit him because decades have passed and she wanted him to remember her the way she was in her youth . She believes that Edward is still alive , immortal because he is artificial , and because of the winter " snow " that Edward creates by carving ice sculptures that scatter shavings over the neighborhood , and remind her of dancing in the snow long ago .
= = Cast = =
Johnny Depp – Edward Scissorhands
Winona Ryder – Kim Boggs
Dianne Wiest – Peg Boggs
Anthony Michael Hall – Jim
Kathy Baker – Joyce
Robert Oliveri – Kevin Boggs
Conchata Ferrell – Helen
Caroline Aaron – Marge
Dick Anthony Williams – Officer Allen
O @-@ Lan Jones – Esmeralda
Vincent Price – The Inventor
Alan Arkin – Bill Boggs
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The genesis of Edward Scissorhands came from a drawing by then @-@ teenaged director Tim Burton , which reflected his feelings of isolation and being unable to communicate to people around him in suburban Burbank . Burton stated that he was often alone and had trouble retaining friendships . " I get the feeling people just got this urge to want to leave me alone for some reason , I don 't know exactly why . " During pre @-@ production of Beetlejuice , Burton hired Caroline Thompson , then a young novelist , to write the Edward Scissorhands screenplay as a spec script . Burton was impressed with her short novel , First Born , which was " about an abortion that came back to life " . Burton felt First Born had the same psychological elements he wanted to showcase in Edward Scissorhands . " Every detail was so important to Tim because it was so personal " , Thompson remarked . She wrote Scissorhands as a " love poem " to Burton , calling him " the most articulate person I know , but couldn 't put a single sentence together " .
Shortly after Thompson 's hiring , Burton began to develop Edward Scissorhands at Warner Bros. , with whom he worked on Pee @-@ wee 's Big Adventure and Beetlejuice . However , within a couple of months , Warner sold the film rights to 20th Century Fox . Fox agreed to finance Thompson 's screenplay while giving Burton complete creative control . At the time , the budget was projected to be around $ 8 – 9 million . When writing the storyline , Burton and Thompson were influenced by Universal Horror films , such as The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1923 ) , The Phantom of the Opera ( 1925 ) , Frankenstein ( 1931 ) , and Creature from the Black Lagoon ( 1954 ) , as well as King Kong ( 1933 ) and various fairy tales . Burton originally wanted to make Scissorhands as a musical , feeling " it seemed big and operatic to me " , but later dropped the idea . Following the enormous success of Batman , Burton arrived to the status of being an A @-@ list director . He had the opportunity to do any film he wanted , but rather than fast track Warner Bros. ' choices for Batman Returns or Beetlejuice Goes Hawaiian , Burton opted to make Edward Scissorhands for Fox .
= = = Casting = = =
Although Winona Ryder was the first cast member attached to the script , Dianne Wiest was the first to sign on . " Dianne , in particular , was wonderful " , Burton said . " She was the first actress to read the script , supported it completely and , because she is so respected , once she had given it her stamp of approval , others soon got interested " . When it came to casting the lead role of Edward , several actors were considered ; Fox was insistent on having Burton meet with Tom Cruise . " He certainly wasn 't my ideal , but I talked to him " , Burton remembered . " He was interesting , but I think it worked out for the best . A lot of questions came up " . Cruise asked for a " happier " ending . Gary Oldman and Tom Hanks turned down the part , the latter in favor of critical and commercial flop The Bonfire of the Vanities . Oldman found the story absurd , and declined without meeting with Burton . He said of the finished film , however : " Literally two minutes in , I went , ' Yeah , I get it ' . I just got it too late . " Jim Carrey was also considered for the role , while Thompson favored John Cusack . Elsewhere , William Hurt , Robert Downey Jr. and musician Michael Jackson expressed interest , although Burton neglected to converse with Jackson .
Though Burton was unfamiliar with Johnny Depp 's then @-@ popular performance in 21 Jump Street , he had always been Burton 's first choice . At the time of his casting , Depp was wanting to break out of the teen idol status which his performance in 21 Jump Street had afforded him . When he was sent the script , Depp " wept like a newborn " and immediately found personal and emotional connections with the story . In preparation for the role , Depp watched many Charlie Chaplin films to study the idea of creating sympathy without dialogue . Fox studio executives were so worried about Edward 's image , that they tried to keep pictures of Depp in full costume under wraps until release of the film . Burton approached Ryder for the role of Kim Boggs based on their positive working experience in Beetlejuice . Drew Barrymore previously auditioned for the role . Crispin Glover auditioned for the role of Jim before Anthony Michael Hall was cast .
Kathy Baker saw her part of Joyce , the neighbor who tries to seduce Edward , as a perfect chance to break into comedy . Alan Arkin says when he first read the script , he was " a bit baffled . Nothing really made sense to me until I saw the sets . Burton 's visual imagination is extraordinary " . The role of The Inventor was written specifically for Vincent Price , and would ultimately be his final feature film role . Burton commonly watched Price 's films as a child , and , after completing Vincent , the two became good friends . Robert Oliveri was cast as Kevin , Kim 's younger brother . Nick Carter from The Backstreet Boys was an uncredited casting as the blond boy playing on the Slip ' n Slide when Edward was riding in Peg 's car through suburbia .
= = = Filming = = =
Burbank , California was considered as a possible location for the suburban neighborhoods , but Burton believed the city had become too altered since his childhood so the Tampa Bay Area of Florida , including the town of Lutz and the Southgate Shopping Center of Lakeland was chosen for a three @-@ month shooting schedule . The production crew found , in the words of the production designer Bo Welch , " a kind of generic , plain @-@ wrap suburb , which we made even more characterless by painting all the houses in faded pastels , and reducing the window sizes to make it look a little more paranoid . " The key element to unify the look of the neighborhood was Welch 's decision to repaint each of the houses in one of four colors , which he described as " sea @-@ foam green , dirty flesh , butter , and dirty blue " . The facade of the Gothic mansion was built just outside Dade City . Filming Edward Scissorhands created hundreds of ( temporary ) jobs and injected over $ 4 million into the Tampa Bay economy . Production then moved to a Fox Studios sound stage in Century City , California , where interiors of the mansion were filmed .
To create Edward 's scissor hands , Burton employed Stan Winston , who would later design the Penguin 's prosthetic makeup in Batman Returns . Depp 's wardrobe and prosthetic makeup took one hour and 45 minutes to apply . The giant hedge sculptures that Edward creates in the film were made by wrapping metal skeletons in chicken wire , then weaving in thousands of small plastic plant sprigs . Rick Heinrichs worked as one of the art directors .
= = = Music = = =
Edward Scissorhands is the fourth feature film collaboration between director Tim Burton and composer Danny Elfman . The orchestra consisted of 79 musicians . Elfman cites Scissorhands as epitomizing his most personal and favorite work . In addition to Elfman 's music , three Tom Jones songs also appear : " It 's Not Unusual " , " Delilah " and " With These Hands " . " It 's Not Unusual " would later be used in Mars Attacks ! ( 1996 ) , another film of Burton 's with music composed by Elfman .
= = Themes = =
Burton acknowledged that the main themes of Edward Scissorhands deal with self @-@ discovery and isolation . Edward is found living alone in the attic of a Gothic castle , a setting that is also used for main characters in Burton 's Batman and The Nightmare Before Christmas . Edward Scissorhands climaxes much like James Whale 's Frankenstein and Burton 's own Frankenweenie . A mob confronts the " evil creature " , in this case , Edward , at his castle . With Edward unable to consummate his love for Kim because of his appearance , the film can also be
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Motionless in White have a song entitled " Scissorhands ( The Last Snow ) " , with its lyrics written about the film in homage to its legacy and impact on the gothic subculture . Scottish indie rock band The Twilight Sad named a mini @-@ album Here , It Never Snowed . Afterwards It Did after a line spoken in the final scene of the film .
An extinct lobster @-@ like sea creature called Kootenichela deppi is named after Depp because of its scissor @-@ like claws .
= = Stage adaptations = =
A theatrical ballet adaptation by the British choreographer Matthew Bourne premiered at Sadler 's Wells Theatre in London in November 2005 . After an 11 @-@ week season , the production toured the UK , Asia and the United States .
The British director Richard Crawford directed a stage adaptation of the Tim Burton film , which had its world premiere on June 25 , 2010 , at The Brooklyn Studio Lab and ended July 3 .
= Time Capsule ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" Time Capsule " is the third episode of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 33rd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 3 , 2011 . In the episode , Leslie tries to encourage civic pride through a time capsule , but it descends into chaos as Pawnee citizens argue over what to include . Meanwhile , Chris tries to help Andy win back April .
Written and directed by series co @-@ creator and executive producer Michael Schur , " Time Capsule " was one of six episodes filmed early after second season to accommodate Amy Poehler 's pregnancy . Although always meant as the third episode of the season , it was the last of the six filmed because it had the highest amount of props that could conceal Poehler 's belly . Saturday Night Live star Will Forte guest starred as Kelly Larson , a Pawnee citizen who passionately argues for including the Twilight books in the time capsule .
" Time Capsule " also included appearances by recurring guest stars Jama Williamson , Alison Becker , Darlene Hunt and Natalie Morales , who made her last in a string of performances as Tom 's girlfriend Lucy . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 4 @.@ 95 million household viewers , a 17 percent decline from the previous episode , " Flu Season " . It received generally positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) is organizing the making of a time capsule , meant to be opened 50 years in the future and filled with items that encapsulate the spirit of Pawnee . A citizen named Kelly Larson ( Will Forte ) comes to Leslie 's office and makes a passionate plea for the Twilight books to be included . When Leslie refuses because the books have no connection to Pawnee , Kelly handcuffs himself to a pipe in her office until she reconsiders . He is able to stay several days because he brought food , water and a pillow . During his stay , Kelly notices Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) appears sad , and correctly deduces Tom is having romantic issues ; Tom 's girlfriend Lucy ( Natalie Morales ) has dumped him because Tom cannot get over the fact that his ex @-@ wife , Wendy ( Jama Williamson ) , is dating Ron ( Nick Offerman ) . Kelly encourages Tom to read Twilight , to which he initially scoffs , but after reading them finds he loves the books . Lucy later visits Tom and tells him she still likes him , and if he ever gets past his Ron & Wendy @-@ jealousy problems he should call her .
After Leslie notices the name " Liz Waverly " in one of Kelly 's Twilight books , Kelly admits she is his 12 @-@ year @-@ old daughter . He is divorced from her mother , and wants to put Twilight into the time capsule to impress her . Leslie now wants to include it , but Ben ( Adam Scott ) says if she makes one exception , everyone will want their own item in the capsule . Leslie decides to hold a public meeting so all citizens can make suggestions for capsule items . The meeting descends into chaos when the participants argue over what to include and make absurd suggestions , like human ashes and dead cats . Conservative activist Marcia Langman ( Darlene Hunt ) argues Twilight should not be included because it is too anti @-@ Christian , while a civil liberties organization member says that the book isn 't suitable because it is pro @-@ Christian . Leslie tries to compromise by making multiple time capsules , but she ultimately decides to stick to one capsule and include nothing except a video recording of the meeting , which she said represents Pawnee because it shows " a lot of people with a lot of opinions arguing passionately for what they believed in " . Ben , a visiting state auditor , says he thinks the residents of Pawnee are strange , but he is impressed by their passion .
In the B story , Andy ( Chris Pratt ) still pines for April ( Aubrey Plaza ) , who remains angry at Andy and is now dating the handsome Eduardo ( Carlo Mendez ) . Chris ( Rob Lowe ) suggests Andy tap into the aspects of his personality April was attracted to in the first place . However , the only things he can think of are that he is nice and he is in a band . Andy decides to be nice to Eduardo , and the two realize they have similar musical tastes ( they both like the Dave Matthews Band ) and end up bonding over a guitar session . April becomes frustrated because she only dated Eduardo to make Andy jealous . She dumps Eduardo , which Chris interprets as a sign that his efforts are succeeding . Ann ( Rashida Jones ) , who was nervous about Andy and Chris spending time together , is relieved when Chris tells her that Andy had nothing but positive things to say about her . The episode ends with the Pawnee residents — including Kelly and his daughter — watching an outdoor screening of the Twilight film .
= = Production = =
" Time Capsule " was written and directed by Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator and executive producer Michael Schur . Like all six of the first third season episodes , it was written and filmed almost immediately after the second season ended as part of an early shooting schedule due to Amy Poehler 's pregnancy . However , although finished early in anticipation of a September 2010 release date , Parks was ultimately placed on hiatus until early 2011 , many months after production on " Time Capsule " was completed . " Time Capsule " was the last of these six episodes to be filmed , but as planned was shown third in the season . It was filmed last because the story presented the highest amount of props to place Poehler in front of objects that strategically concealed her pregnancy , most notably the time capsule itself .
The episode featured comedian Will Forte in a guest appearance as Kelly Larson , a Pawnee citizen obsessed with Twilight . Forte was a cast member of NBC 's sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live , where he previously worked with performer Poehler and writer Schur . " Time Capsule " featured the last in a string of guest performances by Natalie Morales as Lucy , a romantic interest for the Tom Haverford character . Darlene Hunt made a guest appearance as Marcia Langman , a member of the conservative group , the Society for Family Stability Foundation . Hunt previously portrayed Langman in the second season premiere , " Pawnee Zoo " , where she tried to have Leslie fired for holding a same @-@ sex wedding for two male penguins . The episode also featured appearances by Jama Williamson and Alison Becker in their recurring roles as Tom 's ex @-@ wife Wendy and reporter Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep , respectively .
" Time Capsule " continued what Michael Schur described as one of the primary story arcs of the third season : Ben Wyatt gradually falling in love not only with Leslie Knope , but with the town of Pawnee itself . This is particularly illustrated by how impressed Ben is with the Pawnee citizens who make impassioned cases for what they want inside the Pawnee time capsule : although he still considers them weirdos , he respectfully calls them " weirdos who care " . During the cold open , while discussing the time capsule , Leslie describes several former Pawnee town slogans . After each slogan , the camera switches to a different cut of Leslie reading another . This method of comedic narrative is frequently used in Parks and Recreation , in which Poehler and the other actors improvise several different jokes and the editors slice them all together into one scene .
= = Cultural references = =
A great deal of the plot in " Time Capsule " revolves around the Twilight series of novels and films . The popular book series was written by Stephenie Meyer . At one point , while trying to persuade Leslie to include Twilight in the capsule , Kelly Larson begins telling the entire story of the Twilight series , including Meyer 's birth and life story and shot @-@ for @-@ shot descriptions of the film adaptations . The stories are told from the perspective of high school student and outsider Bella Swan , who is pursued romantically by a vampire named Edward Cullen and a werewolf named Jacob Black . Elements of the story are raised in various scenes of " Time Capsule " , including when Tom tries to ask Lucy why she broke up with him : " Is it because I 'm not cool enough , like the normal kids compared to the vampires ? Is it an Edward @-@ Bella @-@ Jacob type situation , where you like me but there 's someone else you like more ? " Leslie claims to favor Harry Potter , the popular fantasy series by author J.K. Rowling , over Twilight . Parks department employee Donna professes an unhealthy infatuation with Robert Pattinson , the actor who played Edward Cullen in the Twilight films .
Among the town slogans Leslie described was " Pawnee : The Birthplace of Julia Roberts " , a reference to the Academy Award @-@ winning actress . Leslie subsequently explains Roberts is not from Pawnee and that she sued over the slogan , leading to a new slogan : " Pawnee : Home of the World Famous Julia Roberts Lawsuit " . During the public meeting , one resident proposes putting Crazy from the Heat , the autobiography of Van Halen lead vocalist David Lee Roth , into the time capsule . When Andy and Eduardo bond , they find they are both fans of Dave Matthews Band , an American jam band . After Lucy breaks up with Tom , he dismissingly claims she is crazy , which he claims is what the characters on the HBO comedy @-@ drama series Entourage always say whenever they break up with a woman .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Time Capsule " was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 95 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with an overall 2 @.@ 9 rating / 4 share , and 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . It marked a more than 17 percent decline compared to the previous episode , " Flu Season " , and an even further drop compared to the season premiere " Go Big or Go Home " , which was seen by 6 @.@ 19 million households . The night " Time Capsule " was broadcast , almost all of the comedy shows in NBC 's Thursday lineup lost viewership compared to the prior week : while 30 Rock remained flat , Perfect Couples was down 18 percent , Community dropped 9 percent , The Office was down 7 percent and Outsourced dropped 5 percent .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Time Capsule " received generally positive reviews . Alex Strachan of the Montreal Gazette called it a " near @-@ perfect episode " featuring brisk timing , laugh @-@ out @-@ loud jokes and heartwarming moments of civic unity . Strachan praised Michael Schur 's script for being " funny without being hurtful or vicious , heartwarming without being mawkish or sentimental " . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell said the fact that Will Forte 's character segued believably from a loon to a believable and sympathetic father was a sign of the script 's strength . Kandell said , " Could the character have been more over @-@ the @-@ top ? Sure . But in the long run , it ’ s not just funnier , but more dramatic , that he ’ s not . " Hillary Busis of Entertainment Weekly praised " Time Capsule " , which she said highlighted how the quirky setting of Pawnee itself contributed a major part to the show 's success . Busis said the town 's eccentricities were on great display during the public scenes , but did not feel forced or over @-@ the @-@ top . Barry Hertz of the National Post praised both the episode and Forte , whose eccentric performance he said fit in well with the rest of the show . Hertz said , " Every single element on this show is on fire right now , from Andy ’ s naive stupidity and infatuation with April to Ben ’ s continued surprise at what Pawnee has to offer . "
Matt Fowler of IGN said this episode highlighted how the show excelts as portraying small town life in a comedic way without ridiculing small towns . Fowler said the Twilight jokes felt a bit stale , but he praised Aziz Ansari 's performances and moments highlighting the supporting characters , like jokes at the expense of character Jerry Gergich and Ben 's developing respect for Pawnee . Zap2it writer Rick Porter said the series , and " Time Capsule " in particular , accurately captures the details and flavors of the local governments and the public in small towns , even if they exaggerate them . Porter praised the pairing of Chris and Andy and said the two conflicting character personalities worked well together . HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall said he did not feel Will Forte 's character was well integrated with the rest of the cast and that he dragged down the first episode of the series . However , Sepinwall said once Forte removed himself from Leslie 's office , the episode had a " terrific second half " , and that the public hearing in particular displayed the strengths of the show . Joel Keller of TV Squad had the opposite view of Alan Sepinwall and felt Forte 's character was the most interesting part of the episode , whereas the second half felt " dragged down " and less funny . Keller wrote , " It just lasted a scene too long ; we get it , the people in Pawnee are loopy . " Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com said Parks and Recreation is " at its best when its illustrating small @-@ town life in America " and that the public hearing meetings did so brilliantly . Sundermann praised Rob Lowe 's performance and said the new additions of the Chris and Ben characters was " exactly what the show needed to push itself to another level of silliness " .
The Atlantic writer Scott Meslow said Will Forte 's obsession with Twilight led to funny scenes , particularly an impromptu book club meeting with Tom and Donna , but said the character 's efforts to impress his daughter didn 't make much sense : " Is there a preteen on the planet who would be anything but mortified to find her middle school buzzing with gossip about her father 's Twilight @-@ based sit @-@ in ? " Steve Hesiler of The A.V. Club said the episode demonstrated how far the show has come because " it was only mid @-@ season two when Parks & Rec started producing episodes where Pawnee residents showed up two , three , or more at a time — and contributed to the larger town mythology . " Heisler also praised how the show could pair two seemingly random characters like Andy and Chris and make them so funny . Time magazine writer James Poniewozik called " Time Capsule " the weakest of the first seven third season episodes , but he said " that speaks more to the high quality of the rest " . Poniewozik said the episode demonstrated that , despite how bizarre the complaints of Pawnee residents are , " those concerns and arguments are what makes Pawnee Pawnee " . Some reviews were more negative . Matt Richenthal called " Time Capsule " mediocre at best , especially compared to the previous episode , " Flu Season " . He said the episode was too centered on the " one @-@ note joke " of Will Forte 's character , and that the jokes about Twilight felt dated . Richenthal wrote , " Parks and Recreation features too many hilarious characters to include such a gimmick . "
= Van Morrison =
Sir George Ivan " Van " Morrison , OBE ( born 31 August 1945 ) is a Northern Irish singer , songwriter and musician . He has received six Grammy Awards , the 1994 Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music , and has been inducted into both the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the Songwriters Hall of Fame . In 2016 he was knighted for his musical achievements and his services to tourism and charitable causes in Northern Ireland .
Known as " Van the Man " to his fans , Morrison started his professional career when , as a teenager in the late 1950s , he played a variety of instruments including guitar , harmonica , keyboards and saxophone for various Irish showbands covering the popular hits of the day . He rose to prominence in the mid @-@ 1960s as the lead singer of the Northern Irish R & B band Them , with whom he recorded the garage band classic " Gloria " . His solo career began under the pop @-@ hit oriented guidance of Bert Berns with the release of the hit single " Brown Eyed Girl " in 1967 . After Berns ' death , Warner Bros. Records bought out his contract and allowed him three sessions to record Astral Weeks ( 1968 ) .
Even though this album would gradually garner high praise , it was initially a poor seller ; Moondance ( 1970 ) , however , established Morrison as a major artist , and he built on his reputation throughout the 1970s with a series of acclaimed albums and live performances . Morrison continues to record and tour , producing albums and live performances that sell well and are generally warmly received , sometimes collaborating with other artists , such as Georgie Fame and the Chieftains . In 2008 he performed Astral Weeks live for the first time since 1968 .
Much of Morrison 's music is structured around the conventions of soul music and R & B , such as the popular singles " Brown Eyed Girl " , " Jackie Wilson Said ( I 'm in Heaven When You Smile ) " , " Domino " and " Wild Night " . An equal part of his catalogue consists of lengthy , loosely connected , spiritually @-@ inspired musical journeys that show the influence of Celtic tradition , jazz and stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness narrative , such as the album Astral Weeks and lesser @-@ known ones such as Veedon Fleece and Common One . The two strains together are sometimes referred to as " Celtic soul " .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life and musical roots : 1945 – 64 = = =
George Ivan " Van " Morrison was born on 31 August 1945 , at 125 Hyndford Street , Bloomfield , Belfast , Northern Ireland , as the only child of George Morrison , a shipyard electrician , and Violet Stitt Morrison , who had been a singer and tap dancer in her youth . Morrison 's family roots descend from the Ulster Scots population that settled in Belfast . From 1950 to 1956 , Morrison , who began to be known as " Van " during this time , attended Elmgrove Primary School . His father had what was at the time one of the largest record collections in Ulster ( acquired during his time in Detroit , Michigan , in the early 1950s ) and the young Morrison grew up listening to artists such as Jelly Roll Morton , Ray Charles , Lead Belly , Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee , and Solomon Burke ; of whom he later said , " If it weren 't for guys like Ray and Solomon , I wouldn 't be where I am today . Those guys were the inspiration that got me going . If it wasn 't for that kind of music , I couldn 't do what I 'm doing now . "
His father 's record collection exposed him to various musical genres , such as the blues of Muddy Waters ; the gospel of Mahalia Jackson ; the jazz of Charlie Parker ; the folk music of Woody Guthrie ; and country music from Hank Williams and Jimmie Rodgers , while the first record he ever bought was by blues musician Sonny Terry . When Lonnie Donegan had a hit with " Rock Island Line " , written by Huddie Ledbetter ( Lead Belly ) , Morrison felt he was familiar with and able to connect with skiffle music as he had been hearing Lead Belly before that .
Morrison 's father bought him his first acoustic guitar when he was eleven , and he learned to play rudimentary chords from the song book The Carter Family Style , edited by Alan Lomax . A year later , when he was twelve years old , Morrison formed his first band , a skiffle group , " The Sputniks " , named after the recently launched Soviet satellite , Sputnik 1 . In 1958 , the band played at some of the local cinemas , and Morrison took the lead , contributing most of the singing and arranging . Other short @-@ lived groups followed – at fourteen , he formed Midnight Special , another modified skiffle band and played at a school concert . Then , when he heard Jimmy Giuffre playing saxophone on " The Train and The River " , he talked his father into buying him a saxophone , and took lessons in tenor sax and music reading . Now playing the saxophone , Morrison joined with various local bands , including one called Deanie Sands and the Javelins , with whom he played guitar and shared singing . The line @-@ up of the band was lead vocalist Deanie Sands , guitarist George Jones and drummer , vocalist Roy Kane . Later the four main musicians of the Javelins , with the addition of Wesley Black as pianist , became known as the Monarchs .
Morrison attended Orangefield Boys Secondary School , leaving in July 1960 with no qualifications . As a member of a working @-@ class community , it was expected that he would get a regular full @-@ time job , so after several short apprenticeship positions , he settled into a job as a window cleaner — later alluded to in his songs " Cleaning Windows " and " Saint Dominic 's Preview " . However , he had been developing his musical interests from an early age and continued playing with the Monarchs part @-@ time . Young Morrison also played with the Harry Mack Showband , the Great Eight , with his older workplace friend , Geordie ( G. D. ) Sproule , whom he later named as one of his biggest influences .
At age 17 , Morrison toured Europe for the first time with the Monarchs , now calling themselves the International Monarchs . This Irish showband , with Morrison playing saxophone , guitar and harp , in addition to back @-@ up duty on bass and drums , toured steamy clubs and US Army bases in Scotland , England and Germany , often playing five sets a night . While in Germany , the band recorded a single , " Boozoo Hully Gully " / " Twingy Baby " , under the name Georgie and the Monarchs . This was Morrison 's first recording , taking place in November 1963 at Ariola Studios in Cologne with Morrison on saxophone ; it made the lower reaches of the German charts .
Upon returning to Belfast in November 1963 , the group disbanded , so Morrison connected with Geordie Sproule again and played with him in the Manhattan Showband along with guitarist Herbie Armstrong . When Armstrong auditioned to play with Brian Rossi and the Golden Eagles , later known as the Wheels , Morrison went along and was hired as a blues singer .
= = = Them : 1964 – 66 = = =
The roots of Them , the band that first broke Morrison on the international scene , came in April 1964 when he responded to an advert for musicians to play at a new R & B club at the Maritime Hotel – an old dance hall frequented by sailors . The new R & B club needed a band for its opening night ; however , Morrison had left the Golden Eagles ( the group with which he had been performing at the time ) , so he created a new band out of the Gamblers , an East Belfast group formed by Ronnie Millings , Billy Harrison , and Alan Henderson in 1962 . Eric Wrixon , still a schoolboy , was the piano player and keyboardist . Morrison played saxophone and harmonica and shared vocals with Billy Harrison . They followed Eric Wrixon 's suggestion for a new name , and the Gamblers morphed into Them , their name taken from the Fifties horror movie Them !
The band 's strong R & B performances at the Maritime attracted attention . Them performed without a routine and Morrison ad libbed , creating his songs live as he performed . While the band did covers , they also played some of Morrison 's early songs , such as " Could You Would You " , which he had written in Camden Town while touring with the Manhattan Showband . The debut of Morrison 's " Gloria " took place on stage here . Sometimes , depending on his mood , the song could last up to twenty minutes . Morrison has stated that " Them lived and died on the stage at the Maritime Hotel , " believing that the band did not manage to capture the spontaneity and energy of their live performances on their records . The statement also reflected the instability of the Them line @-@ up , with numerous members passing through the ranks after the definitive Maritime period . Morrison and Henderson would remain the only constants , and a less successful version of Them even soldiered on after Morrison 's departure .
Dick Rowe of Decca Records became aware of the band 's performances , and signed Them to a standard two @-@ year contract . In that period , they released two albums and ten singles , with two more singles released after Morrison departed the band . They had three chart hits , " Baby , Please Don 't Go " ( 1964 )
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, " Here Comes the Night " ( 1965 ) , and " Mystic Eyes " ( 1965 ) , but it was the B @-@ side of " Baby , Please Don 't Go " , the garage band classic " Gloria " , that went on to become a rock standard covered by Patti Smith , the Doors , the Shadows of Knight , Jimi Hendrix and many others .
Building on the success of their singles in the United States , and riding on the back of the British Invasion , Them undertook a two @-@ month tour of America in May and June 1966 that included a residency from 30 May to 18 June at the Whisky a Go Go in Los Angeles . The Doors were the supporting act on the last week , and Morrison 's influence on the Doors singer , Jim Morrison , was noted by John Densmore in his book Riders On The Storm . Brian Hinton relates how " Jim Morrison learned quickly from his near namesake 's stagecraft , his apparent recklessness , his air of subdued menace , the way he would improvise poetry to a rock beat , even his habit of crouching down by the bass drum during instrumental breaks . " On the final night , the two Morrisons and the two bands jammed together on " Gloria " .
Toward the end of the tour the band members became involved in a dispute with their manager , Decca Records ' Phil Solomon , over the revenues paid to them ; that , coupled with the expiry of their work visas , meant the band returned from America dejected . After two more concerts in Ireland , Them split up . Morrison concentrated on writing some of the songs that would appear on Astral Weeks , while the remnants of the band reformed in 1967 and relocated in America .
= = = Start of solo career with Bang Records and " Brown Eyed Girl " : 1967 = = =
Bert Berns , Them ’ s producer and composer of their 1965 hit , " Here Comes the Night " , persuaded Morrison to return to New York to record solo for his new label , Bang Records . Morrison flew over and signed a contract he had not fully studied . Then , during a two @-@ day recording session at A & R Studios starting 28 March 1967 , eight songs were recorded , originally intended to be used as four singles . Instead , these songs were released as the album Blowin ' Your Mind ! without Morrison being consulted . He said he only became aware of the album 's release when a friend mentioned on a phone call that he had just bought a copy of it . He later commented to Donal Corvin in a 1973 interview : " I wasn 't really happy with it . He picked the bands and tunes . I had a different concept of it . "
However , from these early sessions emerged " Brown Eyed Girl " . Captured on the 22nd take on the first day , this song was released as a single in mid @-@ June 1967 , reaching number ten in the US charts in 1967 . " Brown Eyed Girl " became Morrison 's most played song and over the years it has remained a classic ; forty years later in 2007 , it was the fourth most requested song of DJs in the US .
Following the death of Berns in 1967 , Morrison became involved in a contract dispute with Berns ' widow , Ilene Berns , that prevented him from performing on stage or recording in the New York area . The song " Big Time Operators " , released in 1993 , is thought to allude to his dealings with the New York music business during this time period . He then moved to Boston , Massachusetts , and was soon confronted with personal and financial problems ; he had " slipped into a malaise " and had trouble finding concert bookings . However , through the few gigs he could find , he regained his professional footing and started recording with Warner Bros. Records . The record company managed to buy out his contract with Bang Records . Morrison fulfilled a clause that bound him to submit thirty @-@ six original songs within a year to Web IV Music , Berns ' music publishing company , by recording thirty @-@ one songs in one session ; however , Ilene Berns thought the songs " nonsense music … about ringworms " and did not use them . The throwaway compositions would come to be known as the " revenge " songs .
= = = Astral Weeks : 1968 = = =
His first album for Warner Bros Records was Astral Weeks ( which he had already performed in several clubs around Boston ) , a mystical song cycle , often considered to be his best work and one of the best albums of all time . Morrison has said , " When Astral Weeks came out , I was starving , literally . " Released in 1968 , the album eventually achieved critical acclaim , but it originally received an indifferent response from the public . It was described by AllMusic 's William Ruhlmann as hypnotic , meditative , and as possessing a unique musical power . It has been compared to French Impressionism and mystical Celtic poetry .
A 2004 Rolling Stone magazine review begins with the words : " This is music of such enigmatic beauty that thirty @-@ five years after its release , Astral Weeks still defies easy , admiring description . " Alan Light would later describe Astral Weeks as " like nothing he had done previously — and really , nothing anyone had done previously . Morrison sings of lost love , death , and nostalgia for childhood in the Celtic soul that would become his signature . " It has been placed on many lists of best albums of all time . In the 1995 Mojo list of 100 Best Albums , it was listed as number two and was number nineteen on the Rolling Stone magazine 's The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2003 . In December 2009 , it was voted the top Irish album of all time by a poll of leading Irish musicians conducted by Hot Press magazine .
= = = From Moondance to Into the Music : 1970 – 79 = = =
Morrison 's third solo album , Moondance , which was released in 1970 , became his first million selling album and reached number twenty @-@ nine on the Billboard charts . The style of Moondance stood in contrast to that of Astral Weeks . Whereas Astral Weeks had a sorrowful and vulnerable tone , Moondance restored a more optimistic and cheerful message to his music , which abandoned the previous record 's abstract folk compositions in favor of more formally composed songs and a lively rhythm and blues style he would expand on throughout his career .
The title track , although not released in the US as a single until 1977 , received heavy play in FM radio formats . " Into the Mystic " has also gained a wide following over the years . " Come Running " , which reached the American Top 40 , rescued Morrison from what seemed then as Hot 100 obscurity . Moondance was both well received and favourably reviewed . Lester Bangs and Greil Marcus had a combined full page review in Rolling Stone , stating that Morrison now had " the striking imagination of a consciousness that is visionary in the strongest sense of the word . " " That was the type of band I dig , " Morrison said of the Moondance sessions . " Two horns and a rhythm section – they 're the type of bands that I like best . " He produced the album himself as he felt like nobody else knew what he wanted . Moondance was listed at number sixty @-@ five on the Rolling Stone magazine 's The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . In March 2007 , Moondance was listed as number seventy @-@ two on the NARM Rock and Roll Hall of Fame list of the " Definitive 200 " .
Over the next few years , he released a succession of albums , starting with a second one in 1970 . His Band and the Street Choir had a freer , more relaxed sound than Moondance , but not the perfection , in the opinion of critic Jon Landau , who felt like " a few more numbers with a gravity of ' Street Choir ' would have made this album as perfect as anyone could have stood . " It contained the hit single " Domino " , which charted at number nine in the Billboard Hot 100 .
In 1971 , he released another well @-@ received album , Tupelo Honey . This album produced the hit single " Wild Night " that was later covered by John Mellencamp . The title song has a notably country @-@ soul feel about it and the album ended with another country tune , " Moonshine Whiskey " . Morrison said he originally intended to make an all country album . The recordings were as live as possible – after rehearsing the songs the musicians would go into the studio and play a whole set in one take . His co @-@ producer , Ted Templeman , described this recording process as the " scariest thing I 've ever seen . When he 's got something together , he wants to put it down right away with no overdubbing . "
Released in 1972 , Saint Dominic 's Preview revealed Morrison 's break from the more accessible style of his previous three albums and moving back towards the more daring , adventurous , and meditative aspects of Astral Weeks . The combination of two styles of music demonstrated a versatility not previously found in his earlier albums . Two songs , " Jackie Wilson Said ( I 'm in Heaven When You Smile ) " and " Redwood Tree " , reached the Hot 100 singles chart . The songs " Listen to the Lion " and " Almost Independence Day " are each over ten minutes long and employ the type of poetic imagery not heard since Astral Weeks . It was his highest charting album in the US until his Top Ten debut on Billboard 200 in 2008 .
He released his next album Hard Nose the Highway in 1973 receiving mixed , but mostly negative , reviews . The album contained the popular song " Warm Love " but otherwise has been largely dismissed critically . In a 1973 Rolling Stone review , it was described as : " psychologically complex , musically somewhat uneven and lyrically excellent . "
During a three @-@ week vacation visit to Ireland in October 1973 , Morrison wrote seven of the songs that would make up his next album , Veedon Fleece . Though it attracted scant initial attention , its critical stature grew markedly over the years — with Veedon Fleece now often considered to be one of Morrison 's most impressive and poetic works . In a 2008 Rolling Stone review , Andy Greene writes that when released in late 1974 : " it was greeted by a collective shrug by the rock critical establishment " and concludes : " He 's released many wonderful albums since , but he 's never again hit the majestic heights of this one . " " You Don 't Pull No Punches , but You Don 't Push the River " , one of the album 's side closers , exemplifies the long , hypnotic , cryptic Morrison with its references to visionary poet William Blake and to the seemingly Grail @-@ like Veedon Fleece object .
Morrison would not release a follow @-@ up album for another three years . After a decade without taking time off , he said in an interview , he needed to get away from music completely and ceased listening to it for several months . Also suffering from writer 's block , he seriously considered leaving the music business for good . Speculation that an extended jam session would be released either under the title Mechanical Bliss , or Naked in the Jungle , or Stiff Upper Lip , came to nothing , and Morrison 's next album was A Period of Transition in 1977 , a collaboration with Dr. John , who had appeared at The Last Waltz concert with Morrison in 1976 . The album received a mild critical reception and marked the beginning of a very prolific period of song making .
Into the Music : " The album 's last four songs , " Angelou " , " And the Healing Has Begun " , and " It 's All in the Game / You Know What They 're Writing About " are a veritable tour @-@ de @-@ force with Morrison summoning every vocal trick at his disposal from " Angelou 's climactic shouts to the sexually @-@ charged , half @-@ mumbled monologue in " And the Healing Has Begun " to the barely audible whisper that is the album 's final sound . " ( Scott Thomas Review ' )
The following year , Morrison released Wavelength ; it became at that time the fastest @-@ selling album of his career and soon went gold . The title track became a modest hit , peaking at number forty @-@ two . Making use of 1970s synthesisers , it mimics the sounds of the shortwave radio stations that he listened to in his youth . The opening track , " Kingdom Hall " – the name given by Jehovah 's Witnesses to their places of worship – evoked Morrison 's childhood experiences of religion with his mother , and foretold the religious themes that would be more evident on his next album , Into the Music .
Considered by AllMusic as " the definitive post @-@ classic @-@ era Morrison " , Into the Music , was released in the last year of the 1970s . Songs on this album for the first time alluded to the healing power of music , which would become an abiding interest of Morrison 's . " Bright Side of the Road " was a joyful , uplifting song that would appear on the soundtrack of the movie , Michael .
= = = Common One to Avalon Sunset : 1980 – 89 = = =
With his next album , the new decade found Morrison following his muse into uncharted territory and sometimes merciless reviews . In February 1980 , Morrison and a group of musicians travelled to Super Bear , a studio in the French Alps , to record ( on the site of a former abbey ) what is considered to be the most controversial album in his discography ; later " Morrison admitted that his original concept was even more esoteric than the final product . " The album , Common One , consisted of six songs ; the longest , " Summertime in England " , lasted fifteen and one @-@ half minutes and ended with the words , " Can you feel the silence ? " . NME magazine 's Paul Du Noyer called the album " colossally smug and cosmically dull ; an interminable , vacuous and drearily egotistical stab at spirituality : Into the muzak . " Greil Marcus , whose previous writings had been favourably inclined towards Morrison , critically remarked : " It 's Van acting the part of the ' mystic poet ' he thinks he 's supposed to be . " Morrison insisted that the album was never " meant to be a commercial album . " Biographer Clinton Heylin concludes : " He would not attempt anything so ambitious again . Henceforth every radical idea would be tempered by some notion of commerciality . " Later the critics would reassess the album more favourably with the success of " Summertime in England " . Lester Bangs wrote in 1982 , " Van was making holy music even though he thought he was , and us rock critics had made our usual mistake of paying too much attention to the lyrics . "
Morrison 's next album , Beautiful Vision , released in 1982 , had him returning once again to the music of his Northern Irish roots . Well received by the critics and public , it produced a minor UK hit single , " Cleaning Windows " , that referenced one of Morrison 's first jobs after leaving school . Several other songs on the album , " Vanlose Stairway " , " She Gives Me Religion " , and the instrumental , " Scandinavia " show the presence of a new personal muse in his life : a Danish public relations agent , who would share Morrison 's spiritual interests and serve as a steadying influence on him throughout most of the 1980s . " Scandinavia " , with Morrison on piano , was nominated in the Best Rock Instrumental Performance category for the 25th Annual Grammy Awards .
Much of the music Morrison released throughout the 1980s continued to focus on the themes of spirituality and faith . His 1983 album , Inarticulate Speech of the Heart was " a move towards creating music for meditation " with synthesisers , uilleann pipes and flute sounds and four of the tracks were instrumentals . The titling of the album and the presence of the instrumentals were noted to be indicative of Morrison 's long @-@ held belief that " it 's not the words one uses but the force of conviction behind those words that matters . " During this period of time , Morrison had studied Scientology and gave " Special Thanks " to L. Ron Hubbard on the album 's credits .
A Sense of Wonder , Morrison 's 1985 album , pulled together the spiritual themes contained in his last four albums , which were defined in a Rolling Stone review as : " rebirth ( Into the Music ) , deep contemplation and meditation ( Common One ) ; ecstasy and humility ( Beautiful Vision ) ; and blissful , mantra like languor ( Inarticulate Speech of the Heart ) . " The single , " Tore Down a la Rimbaud " was a reference to Rimbaud and an earlier bout of writer 's block that Morrison had encountered in 1974 . In 1985 , Morrison also wrote the musical score for the movie , Lamb starring Liam Neeson .
Morrison 's 1986 release , No Guru , No Method , No Teacher , was said to contain a " genuine holiness ... and musical freshness that needs to be set in context to understand . " Critical response was favourable with a Sounds reviewer calling the album " his most intriguingly involved since Astral Weeks " and " Morrison at his most mystical , magical best . " It contains the song , " In the Garden " that , according to Morrison , had a " definite meditation process which is a ' form ' of transcendental meditation as its basis . It 's not TM " . He entitled the album as a rebuttal to media attempts to place him in various creeds . In an interview in the Observer he told Anthony Denselow :
There have been many lies put out about me and this finally states my position . I have never joined any organisation , nor plan to . I am not affiliated to any guru , don 't subscribe to any method and for those people who don 't know what a guru is , I don 't have a teacher either .
After releasing the " No Guru " album , Morrison 's music appeared less gritty and more adult contemporary with the well @-@ received 1987 album , Poetic Champions Compose , considered to be one of his recording highlights of the 1980s . The romantic ballad from this album , " Someone Like You " , has been featured subsequently in the soundtracks of several movies , including 1995 's French Kiss , and in 2001 , both Someone Like You and Bridget Jones 's Diary .
In 1988 , he released Irish Heartbeat , a collection of traditional Irish folk songs recorded with the Irish group the Chieftains , which reached number 18 in the UK album charts . The title song , " Irish Heartbeat " , was originally recorded on his 1983 album Inarticulate Speech of the Heart .
The 1989 album , Avalon Sunset , which featured the hit duet with Cliff Richard " Whenever God Shines His Light " and the ballad " Have I Told You Lately " ( on which " earthly love transmutes into that for God " ( Hinton ) ) , reached 13 on the UK album chart . Although considered to be a deeply spiritual album , it also contained " Daring Night " , which " deals with full , blazing sex , whatever its churchy organ and gentle lilt suggest " ( Hinton ) . Morrison 's familiar themes of " God , woman , his childhood in Belfast and those enchanted moments when time stands still " were prominent in the songs . He can be heard calling out the change of tempo at the end of this song , repeating the numbers " 1 – 4 " to cue the chord changes ( the first and fourth chord in the key of the music ) . He often completed albums in two days , frequently releasing first takes .
= = = The Best of Van Morrison to Back on Top : 1990 – 99 = = =
The early to middle 1990s were commercially successful for Morrison with three albums reaching the top five of the UK charts , sold @-@ out concerts , and a more visible public profile ; but this period also marked a decline in the critical reception to his work . The decade began with the release of The Best of Van Morrison ; compiled by Morrison himself , the album was focused on his hit singles , and became a multi @-@ platinum success remaining a year and a half on the UK charts . AllMusic determined it to be " far and away the best selling album of his career . " After Enlightenment which included the hit singles " Real Real Gone " and the title cut in 1990 , an ambitious double album " Hymns to the Silence " was released the following year , his only double studio album . Another compilation album , The Best of Van Morrison Volume Two was released in January 1993 , followed by Too Long in Exile in June , another top five chart success . The 1994 live double album A Night in San Francisco received favourable reviews as well as commercial success by reaching number eight on the UK charts . 1995 's Days Like This also had large sales – though the critical reviews were not always favourable . This period also saw a number of side projects , including the live jazz performances of 1996 's How Long Has This Been Going On , from the same year Tell Me Something : The Songs of Mose Allison , and 2000 's The Sk
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rival claims by relatives and neighbours . Because of this , he became financially dependent on the English king , and was continuously in his service . He was used as a hostage by Edward twice : first in 1288 to Aragon , secondly in 1294 to the French king , when he managed to escape and flee to England in 1297 . After returning home , he was back in England in 1300 , where he served with Edward I in the Scottish Wars . He died at some point before 18 May 1302 .
Little is known of Piers Gaveston 's early years ; even his year of birth is unknown . He and Prince Edward of Caernarfon ( born 25 April 1284 ) were said to be contemporaries ( coetanei ) , so it can be assumed that he was born in or around 1284 . Though one chronicle claims he accompanied his father to England in 1297 , the first reliable reference to him is from Gascony later that year , when he served in the company of Edward I. In 1300 he sailed to England with his father and his older brother , Arnaud @-@ Guillaume de Marsan . It was at this time that he became a member of the household of the young Prince Edward – the future Edward II . The King was apparently impressed by Gaveston 's conduct and martial skills , and wanted him to serve as a model for his son . In 1304 , the King awarded Gaveston the wardship of Roger Mortimer of Wigmore , after the death of Roger 's father , on the request of Edward , Prince of Wales . This put Gaveston in charge of Mortimer 's possessions during the latter 's minority , and served as proof of the King 's confidence in his son 's companion .
As part of the circle around the prince , however , Gaveston also became entangled in conflicts between the King and his son . These difficulties first materialised in a dispute between treasurer Walter Langton and Prince Edward . The case enraged King Edward to the point where he banned his son from court , and banished several men from the prince 's household . Though the two were reconciled at a later point , the King still prevented Gaveston from rejoining the prince . This matter was settled before 26 May 1306 , however , the date when Gaveston was knighted , four days after the prince . Later that year Gaveston was once more in trouble , when he and twenty @-@ one other knights deserted a Scottish campaign to attend a tournament . An arrest order was sent out for the deserters , but , at the insistence of Queen Margaret , they were all pardoned in January 1307 .
= = First exile and return = =
Gaveston 's return to grace was only temporary . On 26 February 1307 , Edward I announced that the prince 's favourite had to leave the realm shortly after 30 April that year . This time it seems the punishment was not intended for Gaveston , though , but for the Prince of Wales . According to Walter of Guisborough , the prince appeared before the King to request that his own county of Ponthieu be given to Gaveston . Edward I , enraged , tore out handfuls of his son 's hair and threw him out of the royal chambers . Though Guisborough cannot necessarily be trusted on the details of the events , the story reflects the general exasperation the King felt with the prince 's favouritism towards Gaveston , and the lavish gifts bestowed on the favourite . This extravagance was clearly seen on Gaveston 's departure , when Prince Edward equipped him with horses , luxurious clothes , and £ 260 of money .
Gaveston 's first exile was to be a short one . In early July 1307 , Edward I fell ill while once more campaigning in the north , and lay dying at Burgh by Sands near the Scottish border . According to one chronicle , he gathered some of his most trusted men around him , including Henry de Lacy , Earl of Lincoln ; Guy de Beauchamp , Earl of Warwick ; and Aymer de Valence , soon to be Earl of Pembroke . Edward entrusted the magnates with the care of his son , and instructed them particularly to prevent the return of Piers Gaveston from exile . Nevertheless , when the King died on 7 July , one of Edward II 's first acts as king was to recall his friend . Gaveston returned almost immediately , and the two were reunited by early August .
= = Earl of Cornwall = =
On 6 August 1307 , less than a month after succeeding , Edward II made Piers Gaveston Earl of Cornwall . According to contemporary narrative sources , this was a controversial decision . Gaveston came from relatively humble origins , and his rise to the highest level of the peerage was considered improper by the established nobility . Furthermore , the earldom of Cornwall had traditionally been reserved for members of the royal family , and Edward I had intended it for one of his two younger sons from his second marriage . The discontent reported by the chronicles may have been the result of hindsight , however ; there is no sign that the established nobility objected to the ennoblement of Gaveston at the time . The earldom gave Gaveston substantial landholdings over great parts of England , to the value of £ 4 @,@ 000 a year . These possessions consisted of most of Cornwall , as well as parts of Devonshire in the south @-@ west , land in Berkshire and Oxfordshire centred on the honour of Wallingford , most of the eastern part of Lincolnshire , and the honour of Knaresborough in Yorkshire , with the territories that belonged to it . In addition to this , Edward also secured a prestigious marriage between Gaveston and Margaret de Clare , sister of the powerful Earl of Gloucester . The possessions and family connection secured Gaveston a place among the highest levels of the English nobility .
Even though the new king was initially met with goodwill from his subjects , it was not long before certain members of the nobility became disaffected with Gaveston and the special relationship he enjoyed with Edward . On 2 December 1307 , exactly one month after Gaveston 's marriage , the King organised a tournament in Gaveston 's honour at Wallingford Castle . Here Gaveston and his companions in arms handed a humiliating defeat to the earls of Warenne , Hereford , and Arundel . Gaveston won , according to various accounts of the events , either by bringing too many knights to the field , or simply by having a better contingent . From this point on Warenne – and possibly also the other two earls – became hostile to Gaveston .
When Edward II left the country early in 1308 to marry the French king 's daughter Isabella , he appointed Gaveston regent in his place . This was a responsibility that would normally be given to a close family member of the reigning king . There is no sign that Gaveston exploited the regency for personal gains , but the other nobles were still offended by his arrogant behaviour . This behaviour continued at the coronation feast after the King 's return , during which the King largely ignored his new wife in favour of Gaveston . The collective grievances first found expression in the so @-@ called ' Boulogne agreement ' of January 1308 , in which the earls of Warenne , Hereford , Lincoln and Pembroke expressed concern about oppression of the people and attacks on the honour of the crown . Though not mentioned by name , Gaveston was the implied target of this document . Later that year , in the April parliament , the so @-@ called Declaration of 1308 demanded the renewed exile of Gaveston , again without explicitly mentioning the favourite by name . The King initially resisted , but had to give in to the demand once it became clear that the barons had the support of King Philip IV of France , who was offended by Edward 's treatment of his daughter . On 18 May , Edward consented to sending Gaveston into exile .
= = Ireland and return = =
Gaveston was not exiled immediately ; he did not have to leave the realm until 25 June , but faced excommunication by the Archbishop of Canterbury , Robert Winchelsey , should he return . Edward used the intervening period to provide for his favourite 's continued prosperity and political importance . As a compensation for the loss of the earldom of Cornwall , which was another condition of the exile , Gaveston was granted land worth 3 @,@ 000 marks annually in Gascony , and land amounting to the same value in England . Further to this , he was appointed the King 's Lieutenant of Ireland , so that a certain amount of honour could be maintained despite the humiliation of the exile . The appointment came the day after Richard de Burgh , Earl of Ulster , had been given the same position , indicating that it was an improvised measure . Gaveston 's appointment came with wider authority than Ulster 's , however , for he had full regal powers to appoint and dismiss any royal officers .
Gaveston 's lieutenancy was primarily of a military nature ; by the early 14th century , Ireland had become a rebellious and unruly dominion for the English crown . In this capacity Gaveston had considerable success , killing or defeating several major insurgents . He fortified the town of Newcastle McKynegan and Castle Kevin , and rebuilt the road from Castle Kevin to Glendalough . This helped pacify the county at least as far as the Wicklow Mountains , west of Dublin . In the field of administration he made less of a mark . The most notable issue with which he was involved concerned a dispute over murage – a toll on the town walls – between the citizens of Dublin . As during the regency , though , there is no evidence that Gaveston exploited his position for his own advantage and he did nothing to alienate the local elite .
Edward II began working towards a recall before Gaveston had even left . Through distribution of patronage and concessions to political demands , he won over several of the earls who had previously been of a hostile disposition . Lincoln , who was the leader of the baronial opposition due to his age and great wealth , was reconciled with Edward by late summer 1308 . Even Warwick , who had been the most unyielding of the King 's enemies , was gradually mollified . Significantly , though , Thomas , Earl of Lancaster , who had not been involved in the campaign to exile Gaveston , seems to have become disaffected at this time . Nevertheless , by 25 April 1309 , Pope Clement V was satisfied that the difficulties between the King and his magnates had been settled , and agreed to lift the interdict against Gaveston . At the parliament that met at Stamford in July , Edward had to agree to a series of political concessions . The so @-@ called Statute of Stamford was based on a similar document Edward I had consented to in 1300 , called the articuli super carta , which was in turn based on Magna Carta . Before the Stamford Parliament , however , on 27 June , Gaveston had returned to England .
= = Ordinances and final exile = =
On 5 August 1309 , Gaveston was reinstated with the earldom of Cornwall . It did not take long , however , for him to alienate the earls once more . The chronicles tell of how Gaveston gave mocking nicknames to other earls , calling Lincoln ' burst @-@ belly ' , Pembroke ' Joseph the Jew ' , Lancaster ' the fiddler ' and Warwick ' the black dog of Arden ' ( from the forest of Arden in Warwickshire ) . Gaveston also began to exploit his relationship with the King more ostentatiously , obtaining favours and appointments for his friends and servants . The political climate became so hateful that in February 1310 , a number of the earls refused to attend parliament as long as Gaveston was present . Gaveston was dismissed , and , when parliament convened , the disaffected barons presented a list of grievances they wanted addressed . On 16 March , the King was forced to appoint a group of men to ordain reforms of the royal household . This group of so @-@ called Lords Ordainers consisted of eight earls , seven bishops and six barons . Among the earls were supporters of the King , like Gloucester and John of Brittany , Earl of Richmond , as well as strong opponents , like Lancaster and Warwick .
While the Ordainers were at work drafting their reform document , Edward decided to address one of the main causes behind the discontent : the Scottish situation . Edward II had , almost immediately after his accession , abandoned the relentless Scottish campaigns of his father . As a result , Robert the Bruce had been able to regain the initiative in the war , reconquer lost territory , and stage destructive raids into the north of England . To aggravate matters , Edward had continued to raise extortionate taxes , ostensibly for the war in Scotland , but without showing any result . If the King could produce victory against the Scots , this would go a long way towards undermining the work of the Ordainers . In June , the King summoned the magnates for a military campaign , but most of the Ordainers refused on the basis of the work they were performing . When the King departed for Scotland in September , only Gloucester , Warenne and Gaveston among the earls accompanied him . The campaign proved frustrating for Edward , when Bruce refused to engage in open battle , or even get involved in negotiations . In February , Gaveston was sent with an army north from Roxburgh to Perth , but he failed to track down the Scottish army .
While the royal army was in the north , Edward received news from London that the Earl of Lincoln had died on 6 February 1311 . This meant that a moderating influence on the baronial party had been lost , at the same time as the antagonistic Earl of Lancaster – who was Lincoln 's son @-@ in @-@ law and heir – emerged as the leader of the Ordainers . With the Ordainers ready to present their programme of reform , Edward had to summon a parliament . In late July he appointed Gaveston Lieutenant of Scotland , and departed for London . Bruce still evaded the English successfully , in early August even staging a raid into northern England , and shortly after this Gaveston withdrew to Bamburgh Castle in Northumberland . When parliament met on 16 August , the King was presented with a set of proposed reforms of the royal household , as well as specific attacks on individuals , including a demand for the renewed exile of Piers Gaveston . Edward initially offered to agree to the reforms as long as Gaveston was allowed to stay , but the Ordainers refused . The King held out for as long as he could , but eventually had to agree to the Ordinances , which were published on 27 September . On 3 November , two days after the allotted deadline , Gaveston left England for the last time .
= = Return and death = =
It is not quite clear where Gaveston spent his time abroad ; the conditions of his exile banned him from staying in any of the lands of the English king . This precluded both Aquitaine and Ireland , where he had spent his previous exiles . There is some evidence that he might have gone to France initially , but considering the French king 's hostile attitude towards him , he is not likely to have stayed there long . Flanders is a much more likely candidate for Gaveston 's third and final exile . This time his absence was even shorter than the second time , lasting no more than two months . Returning around Christmas 1311 , he was reunited with the King early in 1312 , probably at Knaresborough on 13 January . The reason for his quick return might have been the birth of his child , a daughter named Joan , around this time . On 18 January , Edward declared the judgement against Gaveston unlawful , and restored all lands to him .
The royal and baronial parties now both began preparations for war . In March , Gaveston settled at Scarborough , and began to fortify the castle . Around the same time , he was pronounced excommunicate by Archbishop Winchelsey at St Paul 's . At the same meeting the barons – under the leadership of Lancaster – divided up the realm to oppose the King . Pembroke and Warenne were given the responsibility of capturing Gaveston . On 4 May , the King and Gaveston were at Newcastle , and barely escaped a force led by Lancaster , Henry Percy and Robert Clifford . Gaveston then returned to Scarborough , while the King left for York . Scarborough was soon besieged by Pembroke , Warenne , Percy and Clifford , and on 19 May Gaveston surrendered to the besiegers . The terms of the surrender were that Pembroke , Warenne and Percy would take Gaveston to York , where the barons would negotiate with the king . If an agreement could not be reached by 1 August , Gaveston would be allowed to return to Scarborough . The three swore an oath to guarantee his safety . After an initial meeting with the King in York , Gaveston was left in the custody of Pembroke , who escorted him south for safekeeping .
On 9 June , Pembroke left Gaveston at the rectory at Deddington in Oxfordshire , while he himself left to visit his wife . When Warwick found out about Gaveston 's whereabouts , he immediately rode out to capture him . The next morning he appeared at the rectory , where he took Gaveston captive and brought him back to his castle at Warwick . Pembroke , whose honour had been affronted , appealed for justice both to Gaveston 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Gloucester and to the University of Oxford , but to no avail . At Warwick , Gaveston was condemned to death for violating the terms of the Ordinances , before an assembly of barons , including Warwick , Lancaster , Hereford and Arundel . On 19 June , he was taken out on the road towards Kenilworth as far as Blacklow Hill , which was on the Earl of Lancaster 's land . Here , two Welshmen ran him through with a sword and beheaded him .
= = Aftermath = =
Gaveston 's body was simply left behind at the site of his execution . One chronicle tells of how four shoemakers brought it to Warwick , who refused to accept it , and ordered them to take it back outside his jurisdiction . Eventually , a group of Dominican friars brought it to Oxford . A proper burial could not be arranged while Gaveston was still excommunicate , and it was not until 2 January 1315 , after the King had secured a papal absolution for his favourite , that he could have his body buried in an elaborate ceremony at the Dominican foundation of King 's Langley Priory ; the tomb is now lost . In 1823 , a cross with inscription was erected at Blacklow Hill by local squire , Bertie Greathead , at the place believed to be the location of Gaveston 's execution .
Edward also provided a generous endowment for Gaveston 's widow Margaret , who in 1317 married Hugh de Audley , later Earl of Gloucester . The King tried to find a suitable marriage for Piers ' and Margaret 's daughter Joan , but these arrangements came to nothing when Joan died in 1325 , at the age of thirteen . There is also some evidence that Gaveston might have fathered another , extra @-@ marital daughter ; one contemporary document refers to an " Amie filie Petri de Gaveston " . This Amie was a chamberlain of Edward III 's wife , Queen Philippa , and later married John Driby , a yeoman of the royal family .
Edward 's initial reaction to the news of Gaveston 's execution was rage ; according to the Vita Edwardi he swore to avenge the act . Circumstances , however , prevented him from taking immediate action against the executioners . During the previous raid on Newcastle , the King and Gaveston had to flee quickly , leaving behind horses and jewels worth a great amount of money . At the same time , the barons ' extralegal action had alienated many of their former associates ; the Earl of Pembroke in particular became strongly tied to the King 's cause after the affront to his honour . Through the arbitration of the Earl of Gloucester and others , a settlement was finally reached on 14 October 1313 , whereby the barons were given a pardon and the horses and jewels were returned to the King . The following years were marked by a constant power struggle between Edward and Lancaster , centred on the maintenance of the Ordinances . The matter was not finally settled until 1322 , when Lancaster was defeated at the Battle of Boroughbridge , and executed .
= = Question of homosexuality = =
It was hinted at by medieval chroniclers , and has been alleged by modern historians , that the relationship between Gaveston and Edward was homosexual . The Annales Paulini claims that Edward loved Gaveston " beyond measure " , while the Lanercost says the intimacy between them was " undue " . The Chronicle of Melsa states that Edward " particularly delighted in the vice of sodomy " , without making special reference to Gaveston . The portrayal of Gaveston as homosexual continued in fictional portrayals , such as Christopher Marlowe 's play Edward II from the early 1590s , and the 1924 adaptation of that work by Bertolt Brecht and Lion Feuchtwanger .
Modern historians have been divided on the issue . T. F. Tout , writing in 1914 , rejected the idea . J. S. Hamilton , who wrote a biography of Gaveston in 1988 , on the other hand says that " there is no question that the king and his favourite were lovers . " Pierre Chaplais , writing a few years later , had more reservations . Chaplais cites the fact that Edward had four children with his wife – and even an extra @-@ marital son – as well as the relative silence of contemporary commentators on the topic . He also finds it hard to believe that Philip IV of France would have allowed the English king to marry his daughter Isabella if Edward was known to be homosexual . Mark Ormrod has pointed out the inherent anachronism of speaking of homosexuality in a medieval context . Instead Ormrod suggests the focus should be on the motivation behind the use of sexuality in contemporary attacks on the King and Gaveston .
If the King and Gaveston were indeed lovers , the question remains of what effect this had on their respective careers and eventual downfalls . John Boswell , in his Christianity , Social Tolerance , and Homosexuality , calls Gaveston Edward 's lover , and writes that there is little doubt " that [ Edward 's ] wife and the barons of England were violently hostile to Edward 's sexual proclivities , although he more than fulfilled his royal duties by fathering four children with Isabella . " Boswell argues that Edward and Gaveston fell victim to a new @-@ found concern about sexual morals among the secular powers of Europe , manifested shortly before in the trial of the Knights Templar in 1307 . This interpretation is disputed by Hamilton . " The favourite was murdered because of his control of patronage , " writes Hamilton , " not because of his access to the king 's bedchamber " . This same view is also expressed by Roy Martin Haines , in his 2003 biography of the King .
= = Historical assessment = =
Contemporary and near @-@ contemporary chroniclers were generally negative in their attitudes towards Gaveston , blaming the royal favourite for many of the problems of the reign . Gaveston was accused of such various crimes as draining the treasury , orchestrating the arrest of treasurer Walter Langton , and filling the court with foreigners . According to the Lanercost Chronicle , " There was not anyone who had a good word to say about the king or Piers . " Nevertheless , the chroniclers did not deny that he had certain good qualities . Irish chroniclers were appreciative both of his military and his administrative skills during his period in Ireland . Likewise , Geoffrey the Baker called him " graceful and agile in body , sharp witted , refined in manner , [ and ] sufficiently well versed in military matters . " Marlowe , however , focused exclusively on the negative aspects of Gaveston 's biography , portraying him – according to Hamilton – as " a sycophantic homosexual with a marked tendency towards avarice , nepotism , and especially overweening pride . " This was the impression that lived on in the popular imagination .
The first modern historians to deal with the reign of Edward II – William Stubbs , Thomas Frederick Tout and James Conway Davies – added little to the understanding of Gaveston . While generally agreeing with the chronicles , they allotted him no importance within their own main field of interest , that of constitutional history . For later generations of historians , the focus shifted from constitutional to personal issues . From the 1970s onwards , the topic of study became the personal relations between magnates and the crown , and the distribution of patronage . It is to this school of thought that Hamilton 's biography belongs , in which he argues that it was Gaveston 's exclusive access to royal patronage that was the driving force behind the baronial animosity towards him . Chaplais , on the other hand , takes a different approach to the study of Gaveston and his place in the reign of Edward II . According to Chaplais , Edward was more or less indifferent to the practice of kingship , and essentially delegated the job to Gaveston . As an alternative to a homosexual relationship , Chaplais suggests that the bond that existed between the King and Gaveston was that of an adoptive brotherhood . This concept had a Biblical precedent in the traditionalist , platonic interpretation of the relationship between David and Jonathan , and also existed in the Middle Ages , as exemplified in The Song of Roland , the story of Roland and Olivier .
In modern popular culture , Gaveston has been portrayed in a variety of ways . In Derek Jarman 's 1991 film , based on Marlow 's play , Edward and Gaveston are presented as victims of homophobia and prejudice . In the 1995 movie Braveheart , on the other hand , Gaveston ( thinly disguised as the character ' Phillip ' ) is again caricatured as arrogant and effeminate . There is also an Oxford University dining and drinking club called the Piers Gaveston Society .
= Linfield F.C. =
Linfield Football Club is a semi @-@ professional football club based in Belfast , Northern Ireland . The club was founded in 1886 as Linfield Athletic Club , and in 1905 moved into the current home of Windsor Park , which is also the home of the Northern Ireland national team . The club plays in the NIFL Premiership – the highest level of the Northern Ireland Football League . Linfield 's main rival is Glentoran – the other half of Belfast 's Big Two . This rivalry traditionally includes a league derby played on Boxing Day each year , which usually attracts the largest league attendance of the season . Linfield 's average league attendance at home is approximately 2 @,@ 000 , the highest average in the division and roughly twice as large as the league 's overall average , which has remained relatively steady at 800 – 900 spectators per game since the current league format began in 2008 . The Blues are managed by former Northern Ireland international and record goalscorer David Healy , who was appointed in October 2015 to succeed Warren Feeney . Feeney resigned in order to become assistant manager ( and later the manager ) of Newport County .
Historically , as the most dominant club in Northern Irish football , Linfield holds several domestic records and even two world records . The club was one of the eight founding members of the Irish League in 1890 , as well as the inaugural winners and one of only three clubs to have competed in every top division season , having never suffered relegation . Linfield has won a record 51 league championships to date – more than twice as many titles as any other Northern Irish club and the second @-@ highest tally of national top @-@ flight titles won by any club worldwide – behind the world record of 54 Scottish league titles won by Rangers . Linfield holds the world record for the most trophies won in a single season . In the 1921 – 22 season , Linfield became the first , and to date only club in the world to achieve the feat of winning seven titles in one season , and in the 1961 – 62 season they emulated the feat with a second seven @-@ trophy haul – the only recorded instances in the world of this feat being accomplished . In 2006 , the club also won all four available domestic trophies to achieve a quadruple , and has also won three domestic trebles along with a world record 23 domestic doubles . The club has lifted the Irish Cup a record 42 times , the League Cup a record nine times , and has been all @-@ Ireland champion ( excluding the 12 all @-@ Ireland league titles won prior to the partition of Ireland in 1921 ) on four occasions – 1962 , 1971 , 1980 and 2005 . The club has never won a European trophy , but did reach the quarter @-@ finals of the 1966 – 67 European Cup .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years ( 1886 – 1918 ) = = =
The club was founded in March 1886 in an area of south Belfast known as Sandy Row by workers at the Ulster Spinning Company 's Linfield Mill . Originally known as Linfield Athletic Club , the team played on ground at the back of the mill known as the Meadow . However , success on the field meant that the club had to accommodate bigger crowds , so this brought about a move to Ulsterville Avenue in 1889 . In 1890 , Bob Milne signed for the club from the Gordon Highlanders . The Scot would soon become a key member of the team , helping the Blues to lift the Irish Cup at the young age of 20 . The club stayed at Ulsterville for five years before housing development on the ground in 1894 meant that the club had to move on once again . Between 1894 and 1897 , Linfield played all of their home games at opponents ' grounds until the president of the club , Robert Gibson – who had donated the Gibson Cup trophy to the Irish League for the championship – along with other club members eventually secured a ground lease at Myrtlefield in the Balmoral area of the city .
However , this was another temporary home . The club stayed here until 1905 , when they moved into Windsor Park . The club 's first silverware at Windsor arrived in the 1906 – 07 season , with the club lifting both the league title and the County Antrim Shield . This would be the first of a trio of league titles , with the 1907 – 08 and 1908 – 09 league titles to follow .
In 1910 , team captain Bob Milne left the club with a legacy as one of Linfield 's best ever players . He had amassed nine Irish Cups , eight league titles , and had earned 27 international caps for Ireland during his time at the club . Another Scot , Marshall McEwan , joined Linfield in 1911 at the age of 26 . He had previously played for Blackpool , Bolton Wanderers and Chelsea . McEwan is perhaps best remembered for his performance in the 1913 Irish Cup final , described by some fans as the best in years . McEwan retired in 1916 , but remained in Belfast and later opened several businesses
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Mr. Hooper 's death . The episode focused on the life cycle of birth and death by also mentioning the birth of a baby , and by remembering Mr. Hooper . Stiles said , " We decided to say that while Mr. Hooper was not here anymore , we will always have that part of him that lives within the heart , that we have our love and that it will always stay " . Stiles wanted to convey that expressing grief for someone who had died was difficult for both adults and children . Instead of providing an explanation , the adults of Sesame Street tell Mr. Hooper 's friend Big Bird , when he asked why Mr. Hooper had died , that there was no real reason , that it happened , as Gordon tells Big Bird , " Just because " . The show 's outside experts advised Stiles and the producers to remove the line because they were concerned that an open @-@ ended explanation would not be enough for children , but Stiles kept the line because it was an acknowledgement , as Gikow stated , that there is never a good explanation about why people die .
The episode aired on Thanksgiving Day 1983 , a year after Lee 's final appearance as Mr. Hooper at the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day parade . The producers chose to air it the first week of the new season in order to explain Mr. Hooper 's absence as soon as possible , for maximum exposure , and to ensure that parents were at home with their children in order to discuss it . The illustrations used for the episode were drawn by Caroll Spinney , who performed Big Bird . Mr. Hooper 's picture remained on the set from then on , as a continuing memorial to Lee and Mr. Hooper . Spinney , speaking of the scene in which the pictures were passed out , reported , " When we finished that scene there wasn 't one of us whose face wasn 't streaked with tears " , even Spinney underneath his costume . Jon Stone , who directed the episode , wanted to do another take , although Spinney later said , " There was nothing wrong with that take . It was perfect " . Cameraman Frankie Biondo was touched by the performance .
A book , entitled I 'll Miss You , Mr. Hooper and based upon the script for the episode , was published in 1984 . The book was also written by Stiles . According to Renée Cherow @-@ O 'Leary , Stiles and the editorial staff of the CTW 's book division worked with the show 's research staff and used the same educational content information and research the show 's producers used to create the episode .
= 1984 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1984 Atlantic hurricane season was the busiest since 1971 . It officially began on June 1 , 1984 , and lasted until November 30 , 1984 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The 1984 season was an active one in terms of named storms , but most of them were weak and stayed at sea . Most of the cyclones tracked through the northwest subtropical Atlantic west of the 50th meridian to near the Eastern coast of the United States between mid @-@ August and early October . The most damaging storm was Hurricane Diana , which caused $ 65 @.@ 5 million ( 1984 dollars ) in damage in North Carolina . Diana was the first hurricane to strike a nuclear power plant without incident ; it was also the first major hurricane to strike the U.S. East Coast in nearly 20 years . Also of note was Hurricane Lili , which lasted well after the official end of the season . It was downgraded from a named storm on December 24 . Damage overall from the tropical cyclones in 1984 totaled $ 66 @.@ 4 million ( 1984 USD ) .
= = Season summary = =
Six storms during the season had subtropical characteristics at some point in their track , those being Subtropical Storm One , Tropical Storm Cesar , Hurricane Hortense , Hurricane Josephine , Hurricane Klaus , and Hurricane Lili .
The season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 84 , which is classified as " near normal " . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
By June 11 , an upper level low caused thunderstorm development off the Florida coast , which caused the formation of a tropical depression . Moving westward , the depression moved into St. Augustine , causing a total of 5 @.@ 02 inches ( 128 mm ) of rainfall at Jacksonville Beach , Florida as its main thunderstorm activity was concentrated north of the center . It dissipated as a tropical cyclone on June 14 while moving through the Florida panhandle . The small remnant low continued moving westward inland of the Gulf coast , causing occasional redevelopment of thunderstorm activity as the system moved into Louisiana , before both the thunderstorm activity and low pressure area dissipated by June 17 .
= = = Tropical Depression Two = = =
An upper level low moving across the southern Gulf of Mexico spawned an area of thunderstorm activity over the Mexican isthmus on June 16 . The thunderstorm area moved northwest , pulsing in intensity , until flaring up into a larger area of deeper convection early in the morning of June 18 . A surface low formed , and the system was considered well @-@ enough organized to be a tropical depression , the second of the season , while located southeast of Brownsville , Texas . On June 19 , vertical wind shear from the west @-@ southwest halted further development , and the tropical depression began a general weakening trend which continued past its landfall point in northeast Mexico . By early morning of June 20 , the system completely dissipated .
= = = Tropical Depression Three = = =
A tropical depression formed on July 25 and moved westward , producing rainfall up to six inches in Barbados on July 26 . The depression dissipated on July 26 . Two commercial fisherman were reported missing near St. Lucia .
= = = Subtropical Storm One = = =
A weak front generated a low pressure system that organized into a subtropical depression north of Bermuda on August 18 . The depression headed northeast and strengthened to a subtropical storm . It is believed to have merged with a front on August 21 . The history of Subtropical Storm One is not entirely certain , as satellite images were largely unavailable due to a failure of the VISSR unit on GOES EAST ( then GOES @-@ 5 ) , and this system remained at the fringe of the GOES WEST and Meteosat throughout its existence . Winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) was reported on the southwest coast of Newfoundland . In addition , a weather office on the island reported rainfall at 2 @.@ 1 in ( 53 mm ) .
= = = Tropical Storm Arthur = = =
The 1984 season 's first named storm occurred later than usual , forming on August 28 . Arthur formed east of the Windward Islands and tracked generally northwest . It was downgraded to a depression on September 1 after being negatively impacted by vertical wind shear , and dissipated several days later . Arthur was a minimal tropical storm , and caused no significant weather on land .
= = = Tropical Storm Bertha = = =
Bertha was a short @-@ lived tropical storm that formed in the mid @-@ Atlantic on August 31 , in close proximity to the east of Arthur . The storm took a parabolic path to the north and northeast before merging with a cold front on September 4 . Bertha never approached land and caused no reported damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Cesar = = =
A second storm formed on August 31 as a non @-@ tropical low strengthened into Tropical Storm Cesar off the East Coast of the United States . Cesar traveled east @-@ northeast and strengthened gradually until it became extratropical and merged with another system off the coast of Newfoundland on September 2 .
= = = Tropical Depression Seven = = =
A tropical wave moved across Central America into the far eastern north Pacific ocean by August 28 . The system moved westward with no signs of development until September 1 , when an upper level low to its north across the Gulf of Mexico caused an area of thunderstorms to form just south of the Mexican coastline . An upper trough developed across the southern Plains of the United States , which slowly lured the northern portion of this increasingly large disturbance northward through the Mexican Isthmus . The southern portion moved westward , developing into Hurricane Marie . For a short while , Marie acted as a source of vertical wind shear from the west for this system , halting further development .
By September 6 , the disturbance had emerged into the southwest Gulf of Mexico and consolidated into a smaller system which had enough organization to be classified as a tropical depression , the seventh of the season . The depression moved north @-@ northwest into northeast Mexico on the afternoon of September 7 , dissipating completely on September 8 .
= = = Hurricane Diana = = =
On September 8 , an extratropical cyclone organized into Tropical Storm Diana north of the Bahamas . Diana proved difficult for meteorologists to forecast , initially moving westward towards Cape Canaveral , but then turned to the north and paralleled the coastline . On September 11 , the storm reached hurricane strength , and continued to intensify to a Category 4 hurricane . Diana moved north @-@ northeast , and performed a small anti @-@ cyclonic loop before striking near Cape Fear as a minimal Category 2 hurricane on September 13 . A weakened Tropical Storm Diana curved back out to sea and headed northeast until it became extratropical near Newfoundland on September 16 .
Damage estimates were set at $ 65 @.@ 5 million . Three indirect deaths were associated with Diana . Diana was the first hurricane to strike a nuclear power plant — the Carolina Power and Light Brunswick Nuclear Power Plant recorded sustained hurricane @-@ force winds , but there was no damage to the facility .
= = = Tropical Storm Edouard = = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Edouard are unclear , but an area of persistent organized storms formed in the Bay of Campeche , which strengthened into a tropical storm on September 14 . Edouard rapidly intensified , with wind speeds reaching 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) in 18 hours . Following its strengthening , Edouard dissipated even more quickly , degenerating into an area of thunderstorms the next day . The remnants of Edouard moved over land near the port of Veracruz .
= = = Tropical Storm Fran = = =
On September 14 , a well @-@ defined tropical wave exited the coast of Africa . The next day , it had rapidly organized into a tropical depression . On the afternoon of September 16 the depression attained tropical storm strength , and it was given the name Fran . It turned to the northwest , and passed very near the Cape Verde . 31 people were killed in the country . Fran continued between the northwest and west @-@ northwest on September 17 – 18 as it continued to organize . During this period satellite imagery indicated that Fran peaked with winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and a minimum surface pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) . As Fran passed the Cape Verde islands weather stations reported 35 miles per hour ( 56 km / h ) winds , which is tropical depression force . During the period of September 19 – 20 Fran turned towards westward and began to encounter strong upper level wind shear , which caused Fran to dissipate on September 20 .
= = = Tropical Storm Gustav = = =
Gustav spent most of its life as a well @-@ organized tropical depression , which formed on September 16 in the open Atlantic south of Bermuda . The depression moved north , and its motion stalled over Bermuda on September 17 . A day later , the depression had strengthened to a tropical storm and was named Gustav . Tropical Storm Gustav headed northeast until it was absorbed by a front on September 19 .
= = = Hurricane Hortense = = =
A large frontal system spawned a subtropical depression early on September 23 , about 385 miles ( 620 km ) east of Bermuda . Ship and satellite data confirmed its development , and indicated the system intensified into a subtropical storm later on September 23 . Initially the cyclone moved toward the south @-@ southwest , although on September 24 it turned to the west . That day , the Hurricane Hunters reported that the system transitioned into a tropical cyclone ; as such , it was named Tropical Storm Hortense . The newly @-@ tropical storm quickly intensified while turning to the northwest , and late on September 25 Hortense attained hurricane status , about 300 miles ( 475 km ) southeast of Bermuda .
Twelve hours after reaching hurricane status , Hortense began a sharp weakening trend while passing east of Bermuda . By September 27 it was a minimal tropical storm , and subsequently it executed a clockwise loop to the southwest . The intensity of Hortense fluctuated slightly over the subsequent few days , although it never regained its former intensity . On September 30 , after turning to the west and later to the north , the storm passed just 7 mi ( 11 km ) west of Bermuda . As the storm was so weak , the island only reported winds of 18 mph ( 30 km / h ) . Hortense accelerated to the northeast , moving rapidly across the north Atlantic before being absorbed by a larger extratropical storm late on October 2 , northwest of the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Isidore = = =
A tropical depression formed on September 25 off the southeastern Bahamas . The depression headed west , and was upgraded to a tropical storm in the central Bahamas on September 26 . It struck the US coast near Jupiter , Florida . Retaining tropical storm strength , Isidore curved to the northeast , emerging over water near Jacksonville , Florida . Isidore continued northeast until it was absorbed by a front on October 1 . Total damages were estimated at over $ 750 @,@ 000 ( 1984 US dollars ) . One death from electrocution was reported .
= = = Hurricane Josephine = = =
Josephine became a named storm on October 8 while northeast of Puerto Rico . It briefly moved west then turned almost due north . While it stayed well away from the U.S. coast , Josephine was a large storm and sustained tropical storm winds were measured at the Diamond Shoals of Cape Hatteras . When it passed 36 ° N latitude ( roughly level with Norfolk , Virginia ) , Josephine curved to the southeast , then back to the northeast . It continued on this path until it made a cyclonic loop beginning on October 17 while becoming extratropical . The storm lost its identity on October 21 . The hurricane caused wave damage to coastal areas , but primarily posed a threat to the shipping lanes of the North Atlantic .
Offshore , a sailboat with six crewmen on it became disabled due to high waves , estimated to have exceeded 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) , produced by the hurricane . All of the people on the ship were quickly rescued after issuing a distress signal by a nearby tanker vessel . In Massachusetts , one man drowned after falling off his boat on North River amidst large swells produced by the storm . In Long Island , New York and parts of New Jersey , tides between 2 and 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 and 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal resulted in minor coastal flooding .
= = = Tropical Depression Seventeen = = =
This system was recognized as the seventeenth tropical depression of the season by the National Hurricane Center after the season ended . A retrograding upper @-@ level low spurred the development of a low east of the Bahamas on October 25 . The system tracked westward with limited shower and thunderstorm activity , crossing Florida on October 26 before moving into the Gulf of Mexico . Once the system moved into the north @-@ central Gulf , deep convection began to develop near its center , expanding in intensity and coverage near and after landfall in extreme southeast Mississippi . The small system accelerated rapidly to the north and northeast ahead of an approaching cold front , moving across the Tennessee Valley and central Appalachians before linking up with the front and becoming a weak extratropical cyclone . The nontropical cyclone then moved through coastal New England .
= = = Hurricane Klaus = = =
Forming from a broad area of low pressure on November 5 , Klaus maintained a northeast movement throughout much of its path . After making landfall on extreme eastern Puerto Rico , it passed to the north of the Leeward Islands , resulting in strong southwesterly winds and rough seas . Klaus attained hurricane status and reached peak winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) before becoming extratropical over cooler waters on November
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CoreStates , First Union Corp , Wachovia and finally Wells Fargo . Wells Fargo , which bought Wachovia in 2008 , is One Broad Street 's main tenant , occupying about half the building . Other tenants include various law firms , advertising firm Nitrogen US , public relations firm Tonic Life Communications , consulting company Electronic Ink , and the advertising agency Red Tettemer O 'Connell + Partners . Past tenants have included Sylvania Electric Products , law firm Drinker Biddle & Reath , and advertising and public relations firm Earle Palmer Brown .
The street @-@ level space was converted into a bank once PNB bought the building . The bank branch closed in the 1990s and was converted into two roughly 8 @,@ 000 square feet ( 740 m2 ) areas intended for retail or restaurant use . A McCormick & Schmick 's restaurant opened in the Broad @-@ Street – Penn @-@ Square corner in 2001 . In late 2002 , the Broad and Chestnut Streets corner was occupied by a Borders bookstore , which moved into the two @-@ story @-@ plus @-@ mezzanine 27 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 500 m2 ) space after vacating the 1727 Walnut Street location it had occupied since 1990 . Borders closed its store in 2011 . A three @-@ story Walgreens presently occupies the site ( 2014 ) and areas of the exceptionally beautiful Wanamaker Men 's Store plasterwork ceiling are visible at the upper stories .
= U.S. Route 13 in Maryland =
U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) is a U.S. Highway running from Fayetteville , North Carolina north to Morrisville , Pennsylvania . In the U.S. state of Maryland , the route runs 42 @.@ 48 mi ( 68 @.@ 36 km ) from the Virginia border south of Pocomoke City in Worcester County north to the Delaware border in Delmar , Wicomico County , where the route intersects Route 54 , which runs along the state line . The majority of the route within Maryland is a four @-@ lane divided highway that passes through rural areas of woodland and farmland . The route also runs through a few municipalities including Pocomoke City and Princess Anne and it bypasses Salisbury and Fruitland to the east on the Salisbury Bypass , which is a freeway . US 13 intersects many major roads including the southern terminus of US 113 in Pocomoke City , Maryland Route 413 ( MD 413 ) in Westover , and MD 12 and US 50 where the route is on the Salisbury Bypass . The route shares a concurrency with US 50 along a portion of the Salisbury Bypass .
US 13 was designated through Maryland when the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926 , running along existing roads . It formed a part of the Ocean Highway , a road that connected the New York City area to Florida , and still carries that name for much of its route in Maryland . Many realignments of the route occurred over the years . The route was realigned between Princess Anne and Fruitland in 1933 and between Westover and Princess Anne in 1935 . Between 1938 and 1942 , Salisbury Boulevard was built to carry US 13 through Salisbury ; the route previously followed Camden Avenue and Division Street . In the 1950s , portions of the route were widened to a divided highway and a bypass of Delmar was built . US 13 was rerouted to bypass Princess Anne in 1959 and Pocomoke City in 1963 . The remainder of US 13 in Maryland was widened into a divided highway in the 1960s . In 1973 , construction began to build the limited @-@ access Salisbury Bypass to the east of the city . US 13 was moved onto the completed Salisbury Bypass in 1981 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Worcester County = = =
Entering the state from Virginia , US 13 heads north on Ocean Highway , a four @-@ lane divided highway that runs a short distance to the east of the Bay Coast Railroad line . Upon entering Maryland , US 13 features a welcome center in the northbound direction . It continues north through wooded areas before heading into a mix of farmland and woodland with some residences and businesses along the road . As the road approaches Pocomoke City , more businesses start to line the road . Before entering Pocomoke City , US 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) heads northwest from US 13 on Market Street into the downtown area . Past this intersection , the road enters Pocomoke City . The route crosses MD 366 ( Stockton Road ) , which itself has its western terminus at US 13 Bus . , and continues north past a shopping center , meeting the southern terminus of US 113 , as well as MD 250A ( Old Virginia Road ) , along the eastern edge of town . Continuing around the northern edge of the town , the route passes residential areas to the southwest and rural areas to the northeast before heading into a commercial district and intersecting MD 756 ( Old Snow Hill Road ) . US 13 turns west into wooded areas before crossing the Pocomoke River upstream of US 13 Bus ..
= = = Somerset County = = =
Upon crossing the Pocomoke River , US 13 heads into Somerset County and intersects the northern terminus of US 13 Bus. and the southern terminus of MD 364 ( Dividing Creek Road ) . From here , the route curves to the northwest and runs through rural countryside . It features an intersection with the eastern terminus of MD 667 ( Rehobeth Road ) , and the route continues from farmland into heavy woodland . US 13 heads back into agricultural areas where it intersects many unsigned suffixed segments of MD 920 which are mostly short , dead @-@ end roads . The route continues west and northwest before it intersects MD 673 ( Sam Barnes Road ) , which provides a connection to southbound MD 413 and Crisfield . Past MD 673 , US 13 turns north and meets the northern terminus of MD 413 ( Crisfield Highway ) , with access to that route only in the southbound direction .
Now running north @-@ northeast , the highway heads through heavy woodland , with trees in the median . US 13 intersects MD 640 ( Revells Neck Road ) , which heads west to serve the Eastern Correctional Institution . From here , the road heads north through a mix of woods and farms , running a short distance to the west of a Norfolk Southern rail line . It is eventually paralleled to the west by the main segment of unsigned MD 920 ( Market Lane ) , which serves as a frontage road . Along this stretch , more development starts to line the road as it approaches Princess Anne . After the northern terminus of MD 920 , MD 675 heads north from US 13 into downtown Princess Anne on Somerset Avenue ( US 13 's original alignment through Princess Anne ) . The route curves northwest again as it bypasses the town .
Skirting the western edge of the town , the route intersects MD 363 ( Deal Island Road / Manokin Avenue ) next to Manokin River Park . Continuing north , the route soon intersects MD 362 and passes by some businesses past that intersection . The next intersection is for MD 822 ( UMES Boulevard ) , which heads east to provide access to the University of Maryland Eastern Shore campus . US 13 curves northeast and exits the town , intersecting the northern terminus of MD 675 in the town 's outskirts . It continues through wooded areas , again closely paralleling the Norfolk Southern rail line . US 13 intersects the northern terminus of MD 529 , a rural route that heads south back to Princess Anne on Loretto Road . Past MD 529 , the road continues northeast , intersecting Peggy Neck Road . From here , the highway heads through more woodland before passing through the community of Eden and continuing into open farmland .
= = = Wicomico County = = =
US 13 crosses the Passerdyke Creek into Wicomico County , where it continues northeast as South Fruitland Boulevard through a mix of woods and farms . Shortly after entering Wicomico County , the route diverges from US 13 Bus. at a semi @-@ directional wye junction . US 13 Bus. continues towards Fruitland and downtown Salisbury on South Fruitland Boulevard while US 13 turns northeast and upgrades into the Salisbury Bypass , a four @-@ lane freeway .
Bypassing the Salisbury area to the east , the route heads through farmland and meets MD 513 ( St. Lukes Road ) at a diamond interchange . MD 513 provides access from the US 13 bypass into Fruitland . Continuing northeast through a mix of farmland and woodland , with some housing developments nearby , US 13 meets MD 12 ( Snow Hill Road ) at a partial cloverleaf interchange . MD 12 serves as a direct link between Salisbury and Snow Hill , connecting with US 113 in Snow Hill . Turning north near Parker Pond the highway crosses over MD 350 ( Mt . Hermon Road ) with no interchange between the routes , and continues north to another partial interchange with US 50 and US 50 Bus. to the east of Salisbury .
The interchange between US 13 , US 50 , and US 50 Bus . , modified from a full cloverleaf with the completion of the Salisbury Bypass west of US 13 to US 50 , is the site of the eastern terminus of US 50 Bus . , US 50 's original route through Salisbury . US 50 joins US 13 at this interchange , and the two routes run concurrent along 3 miles ( 5 km ) of the Salisbury Bypass . Just beyond the interchange , the road passes over MD 346 ( Old Ocean City Road ) with no interchange . The Salisbury Bypass turns to the west and meets the northern terminus of US 13 Bus . ( North Salisbury Boulevard ) at the original northern terminus of the bypass . US 13 separates from US 50 at this interchange and rejoins its original northward route , while US 50 continues west on the Salisbury Bypass to rejoin its original route northwest of Salisbury .
US 13 , now known as North Salisbury Boulevard , continues north into a commercial area on a six @-@ lane divided highway , immediately passing by The Centre at Salisbury shopping mall . The road passes numerous businesses before crossing Leonard Pond , as the road narrows to five lanes ( with two lanes southbound and three lanes northbound ) , and becomes Ocean Highway again . It passes by a set of weigh stations located on both sides of the road and intersects the southern terminus of a separate MD 675 , which follows US 13 's original route through Delmar on Bi State Boulevard . US 13 continues north as a four @-@ lane highway ( with two lanes in each direction ) , through a mix of farms and woods with some businesses , skirting Delmar to the east . The route intersects DE / MD 54 ( Maryland Delaware Line Road ) , which runs along the Delaware @-@ Maryland border , and US 13 continues north into Delaware .
= = History = =
The original north – south highway through Fruitland and Salisbury followed Allen Road north from Allen on Wicomico County 's border with Somerset County to near the present intersection of Division Street and Camden Avenue on the west side of Fruitland . Division Street continued east to pass through the center of Fruitland before heading north to Salisbury , while Camden Avenue bypassed Fruitland to the west and headed directly toward Salisbury . The two roads reunited in downtown Salisbury just south of Main Street . Division Street continued north out of Salisbury toward Delmar . When the Maryland State Roads Commission ( SRC ) designated a state road system in 1909 , the highway between Allen and Salisbury using Camden Avenue was designated a state road . In 1911 , the road between Westover and Princess Anne was completed as a state highway while the portion between Salisbury and south of Delmar was completed as a state @-@ aid road . At this time , the road between Pocomoke City and Salisbury was proposed as a state road . The state road was completed from the southern limit of Salisbury to Main Street in Fruitland in 1912 and from there to Allen in 1913 . In 1914 , the state highway between Princess Anne and Allen was completed . The highway between the Virginia border through Pocomoke City to Westover and between Salisbury and Delmar was completed by 1921 .
With the creation of the U.S. Highway System on November 11 , 1926 , US 13 was designated through Maryland from the Virginia border south of Pocomoke City north to the Delaware border in Delmar . The route headed north to Pocomoke City , northwest to Westover , north to Princess Anne , northeast to Fruitland and Salisbury , and north to Delmar . The entire route of US 13 in Maryland became part of the Ocean Highway , an Atlantic coastal highway stretching from Jacksonville , Florida to New Brunswick , New Jersey that served as the quickest route between the New York City area and Florida before the introduction of the Interstate Highway System . US 13 is one of only four U.S. Routes that form the highway and Maryland was one of the states that participated in the highway 's formation .
In 1930 , US 13 along Division Street north of downtown Salisbury was placed on an overpass over the New York , Philadelphia and Norfolk Railroad . US 13 was relocated between Princess Anne and Fruitland in 1933 to bypass the circuitous route via Loretto Road and Allen Road and to eliminate two railroad crossings , running parallel to the Pennsylvania Railroad on a straight alignment . The former alignment became MD 529 in 1939 . US 13 was relocated between Princess Anne and Westover in 1935 , bypassing what is now known as Old Princess Anne Road . This former alignment became MD 598 in 1939 , and was removed from the state highway system by 1961 . The first portion of the first Salisbury Bypass , now named Salisbury Boulevard , was completed in 1938 between College Avenue and Main Street in Salisbury . The second segment , between the present intersection of US 13 Bus. and Camden Avenue south of Fruitland and College Avenue , was completed in 1939 . Upon completion of the first two sections , US 13 was moved to the bypass and Camden Avenue was designated MD 663 . The third and final section , from Main Street to Zion Road on the north side of Salisbury , was completed by 1942 . After US 13 moved to the new highway , Division Street north of Main Street was designated MD 475 . By 1946 , US 13 was realigned to a straighter alignment to the south of Pocomoke City , with the former alignment along Old Virginia Road becoming MD 250 . In 1949 , US 13 was rerouted to bypass Costen on a straight alignment to the southwest , with the former route through Costen becoming MD 673 .
In 1951 , a second bridge over the railroad was completed in north Salisbury and US 13 north of Zion Road was relocated and expanded to a divided highway . US 13 's present divided highway bypass of Delmar was completed in 1954 concurrent with the adjacent section of the route in Delaware bypassing Laurel and Seaford . The former alignment through Delmar was designated as US 13 Alt. between 1954 and 1957 and became MD 675 by 1983 . US 13 from Princess Anne to College Avenue in Salisbury was also dualized between 1954 and 1956 . In 1957 , US 13 was widened into a divided highway between the Virginia border and Pocomoke City . US 13 's bypass of Princess Anne was constructed between 1957 and 1959 . MD 675 was marked on the former alignment through Princess Anne by 1978 . In 1963 , US 13 was rerouted to bypass Pocomoke City to the northeast , with the former alignment through Pocomoke City becoming MD 675 , which was replaced by US 13 Bus. in 1994 . US 13 was expanded to a divided highway from the southern end of the Princess Anne bypass south past Kings Creek in 1962 , south through Westover in 1963 , and south to about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of MD 667 in 1964 . The Princess Anne bypass was expanded to a divided highway in 1965 . US 13 's expansion to a four @-@ lane highway in Maryland was completed in 1966 when the federal highway was expanded to a divided highway from north of MD 667 south past West Pocomoke to the southern end of the Pocomoke City bypass .
The next major upgrade to US 13 was the construction of the limited @-@ access Salisbury Bypass beginning from the northern end around 1973 . The Salisbury Bypass was completed south to MD 12 , including the interchange with US 50 , in 1975 . The US 13 portion of the bypass was completed in 1981 ; US 13 Bus. was assigned to the bypassed highway through Fruitland and Salisbury by 1983 . The interchange at the northern end
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of US 13 's part of the Salisbury Bypass had several ramps added during the extension of the bypass west to US 50 between 2000 and 2002 , which was completed on October 19 , 2002 , six months before it was originally planned to open . The extension of the bypass resulted in US 50 running concurrent with US 13 to the northeast of the city . This concurrent section features separate mile markers for both US 13 and US 50 , with shields on the mile markers to differentiate between the two routes .
= = Junction list = =
= = Related routes = =
= = = Pocomoke City business route = = =
U.S. Route 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) is a business route of U.S. Route 13 that passes through Pocomoke City in Worcester and Somerset Counties in Maryland . The route begins south of Pocomoke City ; US 13 's four @-@ lane divided mainline curves away to the right around the town , while US 13 Bus. continues straight ahead as a two @-@ lane town street . After intersecting MD 366 the route connects with the original southern terminus of US 113 , the latter having been rolled back to terminate at mainline US 13 . For a time , the marooned segment was part of MD 250 , but is now designated MD 250A . Continuing north the route heads towards the city waterfront and business district . The route soon reaches the Pocomoke River , crossing it on a drawbridge . After crossing the river the route heads out of town into rural surroundings before terminating on US 13 at the southern terminus of MD 364 . The route is the former alignment of US 13 that was bypassed in 1963 . The route was designated as MD 675 and was replaced by US 13 Bus. in 1994 .
= = = Salisbury business route = = =
U.S. Route 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) is a business route of U.S. Route 13 in the U.S. state of Maryland . The highway runs 8 @.@ 14 mi ( 13 @.@ 10 km ) between US 13 south of Fruitland and US 13 and US 50 on the north side of Salisbury . US 13 Bus. is a four @-@ lane highway with divided and undivided sections that provides access to downtown Salisbury , where the highway intersects US 50 Bus . , Salisbury University , and Fruitland , where the highway meets MD 513 . US 13 Bus. was constructed as a new alignment of US 13 in several steps in the 1930s and early 1940s . The section of the highway through Salisbury was originally constructed with four lanes , while the portion of the highway through Fruitland and at the northern end was expanded to a divided highway in the first half of the 1950s . US 13 Bus. was designated when US 13 was moved to the Salisbury Bypass upon its completion in 1982 .
= = = Auxiliary route = = =
US 13A runs along Camden Avenue from US 13 Bus. west to Disharoon Road in Fruitland , Wicomico County . The route is 0 @.@ 03 mi ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) long .
= French battleship Jauréguiberry =
Jauréguiberry was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the French Navy ( French : Marine Nationale ) , launched in 1893 . She was one of the class of five roughly similar battleships built in the 1890s , including Masséna , Bouvet , Carnot , and Charles Martel ; Jauréguiberry and the latter two are sometimes erroneously referenced as a single class . She was named after Admiral Bernard Jauréguiberry .
Jauréguiberry was in the Mediterranean when World War I began and she spent most of 1914 escorting troop convoys from North Africa and India to France . She supported French troops during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 before she became guardship at Port Said from 1916 for the rest of the war . Upon her return to France in 1919 she became an accommodation hulk until 1932 . She was sold for scrapping in 1934 .
= = Design and description = =
The Charles Martel group of battleships all shared the same layout for their main and secondary armament — a design that minimised the cramped upper decks produced by the pronounced tumblehome favoured by French designers , and capitalised on the bulging sides of the vessels . The bow and stern turrets had only a single gun and were placed uncomfortably close to the extremities of the ship in Jauréguiberry because she was some 7 metres ( 23 ft ) shorter than the other ships in the group . The single turrets of the secondary armament were mounted on the ship 's beam , while the 138 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns were mounted in four twin turrets sited symmetrically behind and outboard of the main gun turrets .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Jauréguiberry was 111 @.@ 9 metres ( 367 ft 2 in ) long overall . She had a maximum beam of 23 metres ( 75 ft 6 in ) and a draught of 8 @.@ 45 metres ( 27 ft 9 in ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 818 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 631 long tons ) at normal load and 12 @,@ 229 tonnes ( 12 @,@ 040 long tons ) at full load . In 1905 her captain described her as an excellent sea @-@ boat and a good fighting ship , although her secondary armament was too light . He also said that she was stable and well laid @-@ out with good living conditions .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Jauréguiberry had two vertical triple expansion steam engines , also built by Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée . On trials they developed 14 @,@ 441 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 769 kW ) and drove the ship to a maximum speed of 17 @.@ 71 knots ( 32 @.@ 80 km / h ; 20 @.@ 38 mph ) . Each engine drove a 5 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 18 ft 8 in ) propeller . Twenty @-@ four Lagraffel d 'Allest water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for the engines at a pressure of 15 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 471 kPa ; 213 psi ) . She normally carried 750 tonnes ( 738 long tons ) of coal , but could carry a maximum of 1 @,@ 080 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 063 long tons ) . This gave her a radius of action of 3 @,@ 920 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 260 km ; 4 @,@ 510 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Jauréguiberry 's main armament consisted of two 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1887 guns in two single @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . Each turret had an arc of fire of 250 ° . The guns could probably be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to 15 ° . They fired 340 @-@ kilogram ( 750 lb ) projectiles at the rate of 1 round per minute at a muzzle velocity of 780 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) which gave a range of 12 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation .
Her secondary armament consisted of two 274 @-@ millimetre ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) Canon de 274 mm Modèle 1887 guns in two single @-@ gun turrets , one amidships on each side , sponsoned out over the tumblehome of the ship 's sides . Eight 45 @-@ calibre 138 mm Canon de 138 @.@ 6 mm Modèle 1891 guns were mounted in manually operated twin turrets at the corners of the superstructure with 160 ° arcs of fire . The guns could depress to -10 ° and elevate to + 25 ° . They fired 36 @.@ 5 @-@ kilogram ( 80 lb ) armour @-@ piercing shells at a muzzle velocity of 725 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 380 ft / s ) which gave a range of 15 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation . Their rate of fire was about 4 rounds per minute .
Defense against torpedo boats was provided by a variety of light @-@ caliber weapons . Sources disagree on the number and types , possibly indicating changes over the ship 's lifetime . All sources agree on four 50 @-@ calibre 65 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) ( 9 @-@ pounder ) guns . These fired a 4 @.@ 1 @-@ kilogram ( 9 @.@ 0 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 715 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 350 ft / s ) . Gibbons and Gardiner agree on twelve , later eighteen , although d 'Ausson lists fourteen , 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 47 mm Modèle 1885 Hotchkiss guns that were mounted in the fighting tops and on the superstructure . They fired a 1 @.@ 49 @-@ kilogram ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) projectile at 610 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) . Their theoretical maximum rate of fire was fifteen rounds per minute , but only seven rounds per minute sustained . Gibbons and Gardiner agree that eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns were mounted on the fore and aft superstructures , although none are listed by d 'Ausson . They fired a shell weighing about 1 @.@ 1 lb ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) at a muzzle velocity of about 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ( 610 m / s ) at a rate of 30 rounds per minute to a range about 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) .
Six 450 @-@ millimetre ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes were initially fitted . Two each were above water in the bow and stern and one was on each broadside underwater . The above @-@ water tubes were removed during a refit in 1906 .
= = = Armour = = =
Jauréguiberry had a total of 3 @,@ 960 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 897 long tons ) of nickel steel armour ; equal to 33 @.@ 5 % of her normal displacement . Her waterline belt ranged from 160 – 400 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 – 15 @.@ 7 in ) in thickness . Above it was the upper belt that was 120 – 170 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) thick ; the thicker portions protecting the above @-@ water torpedo tubes . The 90 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) armoured deck rested on the top of the waterline belt . Her main gun turrets were protected by 280 – 370 mm ( 11 – 15 in ) of armour while her secondary turrets had 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of armour . Her conning tower walls were 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) thick .
= = Service = =
Jauréguiberry was ordered on 8 April 1891 and laid down that November at Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée in La Seyne @-@ sur @-@ Mer . She was launched on 27 October 1893 and was complete enough to begin her trials on 30 January 1896 . A tube in one of her boilers burst on 10 June during a 24 @-@ hour engine trial , killing six and wounding three . Two months later she suffered an accident during firing trials of her main armament . She was finally commissioned on 16 February 1897 , although the explosion of a torpedo 's air chamber on 30 March delayed her assignment to the Mediterranean Fleet until 17 May .
On 20 January 1902 the air chamber of another torpedo exploded , killing one sailor and wounding three . In September she transported the Minister of the Navy to Bizerte . Jauréguiberry was transferred to the Northern Squadron in 1904 and arrived at Brest on 25 March . She was lightly damaged when she touched a rock while entering Brest in fog on 18 July and in another incident her steering compartment was flooded when a torpedo air flask burst between her screws during a torpedo @-@ launching exercise on 18 May 1905 . While visiting Portsmouth on 14 August Jauréguiberry ran aground for a short time in the outer harbour . She returned to the Mediterranean Fleet in February 1907 where she was assigned to the Reserve Division , and the following year was reassigned to the Third Division . In 1909 the 3rd and 4th Divisions were reformed into the 2nd Independent Squadron and transferred to the Atlantic in 1910 . Beginning on 29 September 1910 her boiler tubes were renewed at Cherbourg . In October 1912 the Squadron was reassigned to the Mediterranean Fleet and a year later , in October 1913 , Jauréguiberry was transferred to the Training Division of which she became the flagship in April 1914 .
After the start of World War I Jauréguiberry was assigned to escort troop convoys between North Africa and France . She also escorted a convoy of Indian troops in September 1914 . She was stationed at Bizerte from December 1914 to February 1915 when she sailed to Port Said to become flagship of the Syrian Division . Jauréguiberry departed Port Said on 25 March for the Dardanelles to replace the pre @-@ dreadnoughts Suffren and Bouvet and upon her arrival became the flagship of Admiral Guépratte during the subsequent operations . She provided gunfire support to the troops during the initial landings on 25 April and subsequently until 26 May . She was lightly damaged by Turkish artillery on 30 April and 5 May , but continued to fire her guns as needed .
Jauréguiberry was recalled to Port Said on 19 July and bombarded Turkish @-@ owned Haifa on 13 August . She resumed her role as flagship of the Syrian Division on 19 August . She participated in the occupation of Ile Rouad on 1 September and other missions off the Syrian coast until she was transferred to Ismailia in January 1916 to assist in the defense of the Suez Canal , although she returned to Port Said shortly afterward . Jauréguiberry was refitted at Malta between 25 November and 26 December 1916 , returning to Port Said . She landed some of her guns to help defend the Canal in 1917 and was reduced to reserve in 1918 .
She arrived at Toulon on 6 March 1919 where she was decommissioned and transferred to the Engineer 's Training School on 30 March for use as an accommodation hulk . She was stricken from the Navy List on 20 June 1920 , but remained assigned to the Engineer 's School until 1932 . Jauréguiberry was sold for scrapping on 23 June 1934 for the price of 1 @,@ 147 @,@ 000 F.
= Italian cruiser Fiume =
Fiume was a Zara @-@ class heavy cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina . She was the second of four ships in the class , and was built between April 1929 and November 1931 . Armed with a main battery of eight 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns , she was nominally within the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) limit imposed by the Washington Naval Treaty , though in reality she significantly exceeded this figure .
Fiume saw extensive service during World War II , having participated in several sorties to catch British convoys in the Mediterranean . She was present during the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 , Battle of Cape Spartivento in November , and ultimately the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 . In the last engagement , Fiume and her sister ships Zara and Pola were sunk in a close @-@ range night engagement with three British battleships .
= = Design = =
Fiume was 182 @.@ 8 meters ( 600 ft ) long overall , with a beam of 20 @.@ 62 m ( 67 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 2 m ( 24 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 944 long tons ( 14 @,@ 168 t ) at full load , though her displacement was nominally within the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) restriction set in place by the Washington Naval Treaty . Her power plant consisted of two Parsons steam turbines powered by eight oil @-@ fired Yarrow boilers , which were trunked into two funnels amidships . Her engines were rated at 95 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 71 @,@ 000 kW ) and produced a top speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . She had a crew of 841 officers and enlisted men .
She was protected with a armored belt that was 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships . Her armor deck was 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick in the central portion of the ship and reduced to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) at either end . The gun turrets had 150 mm thick plating on the faces and the barbettes they sat in were also 150 mm thick . The main conning tower had 150 mm thick sides .
She was armed with a main battery of eight 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) Mod 29 53 @-@ caliber guns in four gun turrets . The turrets were arranged in superfiring pairs forward and aft . Anti @-@ aircraft defense was provided by a battery of sixteen 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) 47 @-@ cal. guns in twin mounts , four 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns in single mounts and eight 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) guns in twin mounts . She carried a pair of IMAM Ro.43 seaplanes for aerial reconnaissance ; the hangar was located in under the forecastle and a fixed catapult was mounted on the centerline at the bow .
Fiume 's secondary battery was revised several times during her career . Two of the 100 mm guns and all of the 40 mm and 12 @.@ 7 mm guns were removed in the late 1930s and eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 54 @-@ cal. guns and eight 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) guns were installed in their place . Two 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) 15 @-@ cal. starshell guns were added in 1940 .
= = Service history = =
Built in the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino in Trieste , Fiume was laid down on 29 April 1929 , the first member of the class to be laid down . She was launched nearly a year later on 27 April 1930 , the same day as her sister ship Zara . Fitting @-@ out work lasted another year and a half , and the new cruiser was commissioned into the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) on 23 November 1931 . In January 1935 , tests with autogyros were conducted aboard Fiume ; a wooden platform was built on the stern of the ship to support the aircraft . The experiments proved to be successful , although the autogyros themselves had very limited range and were unreliable . Fiume took part in a lavish ceremony held for the visit of Adolf Hitler , the dictator of Nazi Germany , in May 1938 . She and Zara conducted a gunnery demonstration while Hitler and the dictator of Italy , Benito Mussolini , observed from the battleship Conte di Cavour .
= = = World War II = = =
When Italy formally joined the Second World War by declaring war on France and Britain on 10 June 1940 , Fiume was assigned to the 1st Division with Zara and the four destroyers of the 9th Destroyer Flotilla . The unit was assigned to the 1st Squadron , under the command of Admiral Inigo Campioni . Two days later , Fiume and the rest of the 1st Division , along with the 9th Division , sortied in response to British attacks on Italian positions in Libya . While they were at sea , the British submarine HMS Odin unsuccessfully attacked Fiume and her sister Gorizia . On 6 July , a convoy left Naples , bound for North Africa ; the following day , Italian reconnaissance reported a British cruiser squadron to have arrived in Malta . The Italian naval high command therefore ordered the 1st Division and several other cruisers and destroyers to join the escort for the convoy . The battleships Conte di Cavour and Giulio Cesare provide distant support . Two days later , the Italian fleet briefly clashed with the British Mediterranean Fleet in an inconclusive action off Calabria .
In late September , the Italian fleet , including Fiume , made a sweep for a British troop convoy from Alexandria to Malta , but it made no contact with the British ships . Fiume was present in the harbor at Taranto when the British fleet launched the nighttime carrier strike on Taranto on the night of 11 – 12 November , but she was not attacked in the raid . Another attempt to intercept a British convoy in late November resulted in the Battle of Cape Spartivento . The Italian fleet left port on 26 November and clashed with the British fleet the next day , in an engagement that lasted for about an hour . Campioni broke off the action because he mistakenly believed he was facing a superior force , the result of poor aerial reconnaissance . The British heavy cruiser HMS Berwick was hit twice by 203 mm rounds during the engagement , either fired by Fiume or her sister Pola .
= = = = Battle of Cape Matapan = = = =
The Italian fleet , now commanded by Admiral Angelo Iachino , made another attempt to intercept a British convoy in late March 1941 . The fleet was supported by the Regia Aeronautica and the German Fliegerkorps X ( 10th Air Corps ) . This operation resulted in the Battle of Cape Matapan ; early in the battle , Fiume and the rest of the 1st Division were to the northeast of the rest of the Italian fleet , which had encountered the British to the southwest . The battleship Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed by British aircraft and forced to withdraw during this phase of the battle . The 1st Division remained on the port side of the Italian fleet as it began its return to port to screen against another possible British attack . A second British airstrike later in the day failed to locate the retiring Vittorio Veneto and instead torpedoed Pola , which left the cruiser immobilized . Fiume , Zara , and four destroyers were detached to protect Pola . The British fleet , centered on the battleships Valiant , Warspite , and Barham , was at this point only 50 nmi ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) away .
Guided by radar , the British fleet closed in on the crippled Pola in the darkness while Fiume , Zara , and the destroyers approached from the opposite direction . At 10 : 27 , the searchlights aboard Warspite , the leading British battleship , illuminated Fiume at a range of 2 @,@ 900 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) , followed immediately by a salvo of six 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) shells from her main battery ; five struck Fiume and caused serious damage . Her superfiring rear turret was blown overboard before a second salvo from Warspite struck the ship . Shortly thereafter , Valiant fired four 15 @-@ inch shells into Fiume , causing further devastation . Fiume , now a burning wreck , was spared further destruction as the British battleships turned their attention to Zara . Fiume fell out of line , listing badly to starboard , as Zara was similarly hammered by 15 @-@ inch broadsides . Fiume remained afloat for about 45 minutes before she capsized and sank stern first at 23 : 15 . Two of the destroyers , Alfieri and Carducci , were also sunk , as were Zara and Pola . The action had lasted a mere three minutes . 812 men were lost with Fiume , among them her commanding officer Capt. Giorgio Giorgis ; the survivors were picked up by British destroyers on the following morning , Greek destroyers in the evening of 29 March and the Italian hospital ship Gradisca between 31 March and 3 April .
= Antonin Scalia =
Antonin Gregory Scalia ( / skəˈliːə / ; March 11 , 1936 – February 13 , 2016 ) was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1986 until his death in 2016 . Appointed to the Court by President Ronald Reagan in 1986 , Scalia was described as the intellectual anchor for the originalist and textualist position in the Court 's conservative wing .
Scalia was born in Trenton , New Jersey . He attended public grade school , Xavier High School in Manhattan , and then college at Georgetown University in Washington , D.C. He obtained his law degree from Harvard Law School and spent six years in a Cleveland law firm , before he became a law school professor at the University of Virginia . In the early 1970s , he served in the Nixon and Ford administrations , eventually as an Assistant Attorney General . He spent most of the Carter years teaching at the University of Chicago , where he became one of the first faculty advisers of the fledgling Federalist Society . In 1982 , Ronald Reagan appointed him as judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit . In 1986 , Reagan appointed him to the Supreme Court . Scalia was unanimously confirmed by the Senate , becoming the first Italian @-@ American justice .
Scalia served on the Court for nearly thirty years , during which time he espoused a conservative jurisprudence and ideology , advocating textualism in statutory interpretation and originalism in constitutional interpretation . He was a strong defender of the powers of the executive branch , believing presidential power should be paramount in many areas . He opposed affirmative action and other policies that treated minorities as special groups . He filed separate opinions in many cases and often castigated the Court 's majority in his minority opinions using scathing language .
= = Early life and education = =
Antonin Scalia was born on March 11 , 1936 , in Trenton , New Jersey , and was an only child . His father , Salvatore Eugene Scalia ( 1903 – 1986 ) , an Italian immigrant from Sommatino , Sicily , was a graduate student at Columbia University and clerk at the time of his son 's birth . The elder Scalia would become a professor of Romance languages at Brooklyn College , where he was an adherent to the formalist New Criticism school of literary theory . His mother , Catherine Louise ( née Panaro ) Scalia ( 1905 – 1985 ) , was born in Trenton to Italian immigrant parents and worked as an elementary school teacher .
In 1939 , Scalia and his family moved to the Elmhurst section of Queens , New York , where he attended P.S. 13 . After completing eighth grade in public school , he obtained an academic scholarship to Xavier High School , a Jesuit military school in Manhattan , where he graduated first in the class of 1953 and served as the valedictorian . He later stated that he spent much of his time on schoolwork , and admitted , " I was never cool . " While a youth , he was also active as a Boy Scout and was part of Scouting 's national honor society the Order of the Arrow .
Classmate and future New York State official William Stern remembered Scalia in his high school days :
This kid was a conservative when he was 17 years old . An archconservative Catholic . He could have been a member of the Curia . He was the top student in the class . He was brilliant , way above everybody else .
In 1953 , Scalia enrolled at Georgetown University , where he graduated valedictorian and summa cum laude in 1957 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history . While in college , he was a champion collegiate debater in Georgetown 's Philodemic Society and a critically praised thespian . He took his junior year abroad at the University of Fribourg , Switzerland . Scalia studied law at Harvard Law School , where he was a Notes Editor for the Harvard Law Review . He graduated magna cum laude from Harvard in 1960 , becoming a Sheldon Fellow of Harvard University . The fellowship allowed him to travel throughout Europe during 1960 – 1961 .
= = Early legal career ( 1961 – 1982 ) = =
Scalia began his legal career at the international law firm Jones , Day , Cockley and Reavis in Cleveland , Ohio , where he worked from 1961 to 1967 . He was highly regarded at the law firm and would most likely have been made a partner , but later stated he had long intended to teach . He became a Professor of Law at the University of Virginia in 1967 , moving his family to Charlottesville .
After four years in Charlottesville , Scalia entered public service in 1971 . President Richard Nixon appointed him as the General Counsel for the Office of Telecommunications Policy , where one of his principal assignments was to formulate federal policy for the growth of cable television . From 1972 to 1974 , he was the chairman of the Administrative Conference of the United States , a small independent agency that sought to improve the functioning of the federal bureaucracy . In mid @-@ 1974 , Nixon nominated him as Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Counsel . After Nixon 's resignation , the nomination was continued by President Gerald Ford , and Scalia was confirmed by the Senate on August 22 , 1974 .
In the aftermath of Watergate , the Ford administration was engaged in a number of conflicts with Congress . Scalia repeatedly testified before congressional committees , defending Ford administration assertions of executive privilege regarding its refusal to turn over documents . Within the administration , Scalia advocated a presidential veto for a bill to amend the Freedom of Information Act , greatly increasing its scope . Scalia 's view prevailed and Ford vetoed the bill , but Congress overrode it . In early 1976 , Scalia argued his only case before the Supreme Court , Alfred Dunhill of London , Inc. v. Republic of Cuba . Scalia , on behalf of the U.S. government , argued in support of Dunhill , and that position was successful . Following Ford 's defeat by President Jimmy Carter , Scalia worked for several months at the American Enterprise Institute . He then returned to academia , taking up residence at the University of Chicago Law School from 1977 to 1982 , though he spent one year as a visiting professor at Stanford Law School . In 1981 , he became the first faculty adviser for the University of Chicago 's chapter of the newly founded Federalist Society .
= = D.C. Circuit Court Judge and nomination to the Supreme Court ( 1982 – 1986 ) = =
When Ronald Reagan was elected President in November 1980 , Scalia hoped for a major position in the new administration . He was interviewed for the position of Solicitor General of the United States , but the position went to Rex E. Lee , to Scalia 's great disappointment . Scalia was offered a seat on the Chicago @-@ based United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in early 1982 , but declined it , hoping to be appointed to the highly influential United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ( D.C. Circuit ) . Later that year , Reagan offered Scalia a seat on the D.C. Circuit , which Scalia accepted . He was confirmed by the US Senate on August 5 , 1982 , and was sworn in on August 17 , 1982 .
On the D.C. Circuit , Scalia built a conservative record , while winning applause in legal circles for powerful , witty legal writing , which was often critical of the Supreme Court precedents he felt bound as a lower @-@ court judge to follow . Scalia 's opinions drew the attention of Reagan administration officials , who , according to The New York Times , " liked virtually everything they saw and ... listed him as a leading Supreme Court prospect . " In 1985 , though there was then no vacancy on the Court , Reagan administration officials put Scalia on a short list with fellow D.C. Circuit Judge Robert Bork , to be considered if a justice left the Court . In 1986 , Chief Justice Warren Burger informed the White House of his intent to retire . Reagan first decided to nominate Associate Justice William Rehnquist to become Chief Justice . This choice meant that Reagan would also have to choose a nominee to fill Rehnquist 's seat as associate justice . Attorney General Edwin Meese , who advised Reagan on the choice , seriously considered only Bork and Scalia . Feeling that this might well be Reagan 's last opportunity to pick a Supreme Court justice , the President and his advisers chose Scalia over Bork . Many factors influenced this decision . Reagan wanted to appoint the first Italian @-@ American justice . In addition , Scalia was ten years younger , and would likely serve longer on the Court . Scalia also had the advantage of not having Bork 's " paper trail " ; the elder judge had written controversial articles about individual rights . Scalia was called to the White House , and accepted Reagan 's nomination .
When Senate Judiciary Committee hearings on Scalia 's nomination opened in August 1986 , he faced a committee that had just argued divisively over the Rehnquist nomination . Witnesses and Democratic senators contended that , before becoming a judge , Rehnquist had engaged in activities designed to discourage minorities from voting . Committee members had little taste for a second battle over Scalia and were in any event reluctant to oppose the first Italian @-@ American Supreme Court nominee . The judge was not pressed heavily on controversial issues such as abortion or civil rights . Scalia , who attended the hearing with his wife and nine children seated behind him , found time for a humorous exchange with Democratic Ohio Senator Howard Metzenbaum , whom he had defeated in a tennis match in , as the nominee put it , " a case of my integrity overcoming my judgment " .
Scalia met no opposition from the committee .
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The full Senate debated Scalia 's nomination only briefly , and confirmed him 98 – 0 on September 17 , 1986 , creating the first Italian @-@ American Justice . This vote followed Rehnquist 's confirmation as Chief Justice by a vote of 65 – 33 on the same day . He took his seat on September 26 , 1986 . One committee member , Democratic Delaware Senator Joe Biden , later stated that he regretted not having opposed Scalia " because he was so effective " .
= = Jurisprudence ( 1986 – 2016 ) = =
= = = Governmental structure and powers = = =
= = = = Separation of powers = = = =
It was Scalia 's view that clear lines of separation among the legislative , executive , and judicial branches follow directly from the Constitution , with no branch allowed to exercise powers granted to another branch . In his early days on the Court , he authored a powerful — and solitary — dissent in 1988 's Morrison v. Olson , in which the Court 's majority upheld the Independent Counsel law . Scalia 's thirty @-@ page draft dissent surprised Justice Harry Blackmun for its emotional content ; Blackmun felt " it could be cut down to ten pages if Scalia omitted the screaming " . Scalia indicated that the law was an unwarranted encroachment on the Executive Branch by the Legislative . He warned , " Frequently an issue of this sort will come before the Court clad , so to speak , in sheep 's clothing ... But this wolf comes as a wolf . "
The 1989 case of Mistretta v. United States challenged the United States Sentencing Commission , an independent body within the judicial branch whose members ( some of whom were federal judges ) were removable only for good cause . The petitioner argued that the arrangement violated separation of powers , and that the United States Sentencing Guidelines promulgated by the Commission were invalid . Eight justices joined in the majority opinion written by Blackmun , upholding the Guidelines as constitutional . Scalia dissented , stating that the issuance of the Guidelines was a lawmaking function that Congress could not delegate , and dubbed the Commission " a sort of junior @-@ varsity Congress " .
In 1996 , Congress passed the Line Item Veto Act which allowed the President to cancel items from an appropriations bill ( a bill authorizing spending ) once passed into law . The statute was challenged the following year . The matter rapidly reached the Supreme Court , which struck down the law as violating the Presentment Clause of the Constitution , which governs what the President may do with a bill once it has passed both Houses of Congress . Scalia dissented , seeing no Presentment Clause difficulties and feeling that the act did not violate separation of powers . Scalia indicated that he felt that authorizing the President to cancel an appropriation was no different from allowing him to spend an appropriation at his discretion , which had long been accepted as constitutional .
= = = = Detainee cases = = = =
In 2004 , in Rasul v. Bush , the Court held that federal courts had jurisdiction to hear habeas corpus petitions brought by detainees at the Guantanamo Bay detainment camp . Scalia accused the majority of " spring [ ing ] a trap on the Executive " by ruling that it could hear cases involving persons at Guantanamo when no federal court had ever ruled that it had the authority to hear cases involving people there .
Scalia ( joined by Justice John Paul Stevens ) also dissented in the 2004 case of Hamdi v. Rumsfeld , involving Yaser Hamdi , an American citizen detained in the United States on the allegation he was an enemy combatant . The Court held that although Congress authorized Hamdi 's detention , Fifth Amendment due process guarantees give a citizen held in the United States as an enemy combatant [ Hamdi ] the right to contest that detention before a neutral decision maker . Scalia wrote that the AUMF could not be read to suspend habeas corpus and that the Court , faced with legislation by Congress which did not grant the President power to detain Hamdi , was trying to " Make Everything Come Out Right " .
In March 2006 , Scalia gave a talk at the University of Fribourg , in Switzerland , where he was asked about detainee rights . He responded , " Give me a break ... I had a son on that battlefield and they were shooting at my son , and I 'm not about to give this man who was captured in a war a full jury trial . I mean it 's crazy . " Though Scalia was not referring to any particular individual , the Supreme Court was about to consider the case of Salim Ahmed Hamdan , supposed driver to Osama bin Laden , who was challenging the military commissions at Guantanamo Bay . A group of retired military officers that supported Hamdan 's position asked Scalia to recuse himself , or step aside from hearing the case , which he declined to do . The Court held , 5 – 3 , in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld , that the federal courts had jurisdiction to consider Hamdan 's claims ; Scalia , in dissent , contended that any ability by the Court to consider Hamdan 's petition had been eliminated by the jurisdiction stripping Detainee Treatment Act of 2005 .
= = = = Federalism = = = =
In federalism cases , pitting the powers of the federal government against those of the states , Scalia often took the states ' positions . In 1997 , the Supreme Court considered the case of Printz v. United States , a challenge to certain provisions of the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act which required chief law enforcement officers of localities in states to perform certain duties . In Printz , Scalia wrote the Court 's majority decision . The Supreme Court ruled the provision which imposed those duties unconstitutional as violating the Tenth Amendment , which reserves to the states and to the people those powers not granted to the federal government . In 2005 , Scalia concurred in Gonzales v. Raich , which read the Commerce Clause to hold that Congress could ban the use of marijuana even where states approve its use for medicinal purposes . Scalia opined that the Commerce Clause , together with the Necessary and Proper Clause , permitted the regulation . In addition , Scalia felt that Congress may regulate intrastate activities if doing so is a necessary part of a more general regulation of interstate commerce . He based this decision on Wickard v. Filburn , which he now writes " expanded the Commerce Clause beyond all reason . "
Scalia rejected the existence of the negative Commerce Clause doctrine , calling it " a judicial fraud " .
Scalia took a broad view of the Eleventh Amendment , which bars certain lawsuits against states in the federal courts . In his 1989 dissent in Pennsylvania v. Union Gas Co . , Scalia stated that there was no intent on the part of the Framers to have the states surrender any sovereign immunity , and that the case that provoked the Eleventh Amendment , Chisholm v. Georgia , came as a surprise to them . Professor Ralph Rossum , who wrote a survey of Scalia 's constitutional views , suggests that the justice 's view of the Eleventh Amendment is actually contradictory to the language of the Amendment .
= = = Individual rights = = =
= = = = Abortion = = = =
Scalia argued that there is no constitutional right to abortion , and that if the people desire legalized abortion , a law should be passed to accomplish it . Scalia wrote in his dissenting opinion in the 1992 case of Planned Parenthood v. Casey ,
The States may , if they wish , permit abortion on demand , but the Constitution does not require them to do so . The permissibility of abortion , and the limitations upon it , are to be resolved like most important questions in our democracy : by citizens trying to persuade one another and then voting .
Scalia repeatedly called upon his colleagues to strike down Roe v. Wade . Scalia hoped to find five votes to strike down Roe in the 1989 case of Webster v. Reproductive Health Services , but was not successful in doing so . Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor authored the decision of the Court , allowing the abortion regulations at issue in the case to stand , but not overriding Roe . Scalia concurred only in part . Scalia wrote that , " Justice O 'Connor 's assertion , that a ' fundamental rule of judicial restraint ' requires us to avoid reconsidering Roe , cannot be taken seriously . " He noted , " We can now look forward to at least another Term of carts full of mail from the public , and the streets full of demonstrators . "
The Court returned to the issue of abortion in the 2000 case of Stenberg v. Carhart , in which it invalidated a Nebraska statute outlawing partial @-@ birth abortion . Justice Stephen Breyer wrote for the Court that the law was unconstitutional as it did not allow an exception for the health of the mother . Scalia dissented , comparing the Stenberg case with two of the most reviled cases in Supreme Court history : " I am optimistic enough to believe that , one day , Stenberg v. Carhart will be assigned its rightful place in the history of this Court 's jurisprudence beside Korematsu and Dred Scott . The method of killing a human child ... proscribed by this statute is so horrible that the most clinical description of it evokes a shudder of revulsion . "
In 2007 , the Court upheld a federal statute banning partial @-@ birth abortion in Gonzales v. Carhart . University of Chicago law professor Geoffrey R. Stone , a former colleague of Scalia 's , criticized Gonzales , stating that religion had influenced the outcome as all five justices in the majority were Catholic , whereas the dissenters were Protestant or Jewish . This angered Scalia to such an extent that he stated he would not speak at the University of Chicago as long as Stone is there .
= = = = Race , gender , and sexual orientation = = = =
Scalia generally voted to strike down laws that make distinctions by race , gender , or sexual orientation . In 1989 , he concurred with the Court 's judgment in City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co . , in which the Court applied strict scrutiny to a city program requiring a certain percentage of contracts to go to minorities , and struck down the program . Scalia did not join the majority opinion , however . He disagreed with O 'Connor 's opinion , for the Court , that states and localities could institute race @-@ based programs , if they identified past discrimination , and if the program was designed to remedy the past racism . Five years later , in Adarand Constructors , Inc. v. Peña he concurred in the Court 's judgment and in part with the opinion which extended strict scrutiny to federal programs . Scalia noted in that matter his view that government can never have a compelling interest in making up for past discrimination by racial preferences ,
To pursue the concept of racial entitlement — even for the most admirable and benign of purposes — is to reinforce and preserve for future mischief the way of thinking that produced race slavery , race privilege and race hatred . In the eyes of government , we are just one race here . It is American .
In the 2003 case of Grutter v. Bollinger , involving racial preferences in the University of Michigan 's law school , Scalia mocked the Court majority 's finding that the school was entitled to continue using race as a factor in admissions to promote diversity , and to increase " cross @-@ racial understanding " . Scalia noted ,
This is not , of course , an " educational benefit " on which students will be graded on their Law School transcript ( Works and Plays Well with Others : B + ) or tested by the bar examiners ( Q : Describe in 500 words or less your cross @-@ racial understanding ) . For it is a lesson of life rather than law — essentially the same lesson taught to ( or rather learned by , for it cannot be " taught " in the usual sense ) people three feet shorter and twenty years younger than the full @-@ grown adults at the University of Michigan Law School , in institutions ranging from Boy Scout troops to public @-@ school kindergartens .
Scalia argued that laws that make distinctions between genders should be subjected to intermediate scrutiny , requiring that the gender classification be substantially related to important government objectives . When , in 1996 , the Court upheld a suit brought by a woman who wished to enter the Virginia Military Institute in the case of United States v. Virginia , Scalia filed a lone , lengthy dissent . Scalia felt that the Court , in requiring Virginia to show an " extremely persuasive justification " for the single @-@ sex admissions policy , had redefined intermediate scrutiny in such a way " that makes it indistinguishable from strict scrutiny " .
In one of the final decisions of the Burger Court , the Court ruled in 1986 in Bowers v. Hardwick that homosexual sodomy was not protected by the right of privacy and could be criminally prosecuted by the states . In 1995 , however , that ruling was effectively gutted by Romer v. Evans , which struck down a Colorado state constitutional amendment , passed by popular vote , which forbade anti @-@ discrimination laws being extended to sexual orientation . Scalia dissented from the opinion by Justice Kennedy , believing that Bowers had protected the right of the states to pass such measures , and that the Colorado amendment was not discriminatory , but merely prevented homosexuals from gaining favored status under Colorado law . Scalia later said of Romer , " And the Supreme Court said , ' Yes , it is unconstitutional . ' On the basis of — I don 't know , the Sexual Preference Clause of the Bill of Rights , presumably . And the liberals loved it , and the conservatives gnashed their teeth . "
In 2003 , Bowers was formally overruled by Lawrence v. Texas , from which Scalia dissented . According to Mark V. Tushnet in his survey of the Rehnquist Court , during the oral argument in the case , Scalia seemed so intent on making the state 's argument for it that the Chief Justice intervened . According to his biographer , Joan Biskupic , Scalia " ridiculed " the majority in his dissent for being so ready to cast aside Bowers when many of the same justices had refused to overturn Roe in Planned Parenthood v. Casey . In March 2009 , openly gay Congressman Barney Frank described him as a " homophobe " . Maureen Dowd described Scalia in a 2003 column as " Archie Bunker in a high @-@ backed chair " . In an op @-@ ed for The New York Times , federal appeals judge Richard Posner and Georgia State University law professor Eric Segall described as radical Scalia 's positions on homosexuality , reflecting an apparent belief that the religious stances supposedly held by the majority of US citizens should take precedence over the Constitution and characterizing Scalia 's " political ideal as verg [ ing ] on majoritarian theocracy . "
= = = = Criminal law = = = =
Scalia believed that the death penalty is constitutional . He dissented in decisions that hold the death penalty unconstitutional as applied to certain groups , such as those who were under the age of 18 at the time of offense . In Thompson v. Oklahoma ( 1988 ) , he dissented from the Court 's ruling that the death penalty could not be applied to those aged 15 at the time of the offense , and the following year authored the Court 's opinion in Stanford v. Kentucky sustaining the death penalty for those who killed at age 16 . However , in 2005 , the Court overturned Stanford in Roper v. Simmons and Scalia again dissented , mocking the majority 's claims that a national consensus had emerged against the execution of those who killed while underage , and noted that less than half of the states that permitted the death penalty prohibited it for underage killers . He castigated the majority for including in their count states that had abolished the death penalty entirely , stating that doing so was " rather like including old @-@ order Amishmen in a consumer @-@ preference poll on the electric car . Of course they don 't like it , but that sheds no light whatever on the point at issue . " In 2002 , in Atkins v. Virginia , the Court ruled the death penalty unconstitutional as applied to the mentally retarded . Scalia dissented , stating that it would not have been considered cruel or unusual to execute the mildly mentally retarded at the time of the 1791 adoption of the Bill of Rights , and that the Court had failed to show that a national consensus had formed against the practice .
Scalia strongly disfavored the Court 's ruling in Miranda v. Arizona , which held that a confession by an arrested suspect who had not been advised of his rights was inadmissible in court , and voted to overrule Miranda in the 2000 case of Dickerson v. United States , but was in a minority of two with Justice Clarence Thomas . Calling the Miranda decision a " milestone of judicial overreaching " , Scalia stated that the Court should not fear to correct its mistakes .
Although , in many areas , Scalia 's approach was unfavorable to criminal defendants , he took the side of defendants in matters involving the Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment , which guarantees defendants the right to confront their accusers . In multiple cases , Scalia wrote against laws that allowed alleged victims of child abuse to testify behind screens or by closed @-@ circuit television . In a 2009 case , Scalia wrote the majority opinion in Melendez @-@ Diaz v. Massachusetts , holding that defendants must have the opportunity to confront lab technicians in drug cases ; a certificate of analysis is not enough to prove a substance was drugs .
Scalia maintained that every element of an offense that helps determine the sentence must be either admitted by the defendant or found by a jury under the Sixth Amendment 's jury guarantee . In the 2000 case of Apprendi v. New Jersey , Scalia wrote the Court 's majority opinion that struck down a state statute that allowed the trial judge to increase the sentence if he found the offense was a hate crime . Scalia found the procedure impermissible because whether it was a hate crime had not been decided by the jury . In 2004 , he wrote for the Court in Blakely v. Washington , striking down Washington state 's sentencing guidelines on similar grounds . The dissenters in Blakely foresaw that Scalia would use the case to attack the federal sentencing guidelines ( which he had failed to strike down in Mistretta ) , and they proved correct , as Scalia led a five @-@ member majority in United States v. Booker , which made those guidelines no longer mandatory for federal judges to follow ( they remained advisory ) .
In the 2001 case of Kyllo v. United States , Scalia wrote the Court 's opinion in a 5 – 4 decision that cut across ideological lines . That decision found thermal imaging of a home to be an unreasonable search under the Fourth Amendment . The Court struck down a conviction for marijuana manufacture based on a search warrant issued after such scans were conducted , which showed that the garage was considerably hotter than the rest of the house because of indoor growing lights . Applying that Fourth Amendment prohibition on unreasonable search and seizure to arrest , Scalia dissented from the Court 's 1991 decision in County of Riverside v. McLaughlin , allowing a 48 @-@ hour delay before a person arrested without a warrant is taken before a magistrate , on the ground that at the time of the adoption of the Fourth Amendment , an arrested person was to be taken before a magistrate as quickly as practicable . In a 1990 First Amendment case , R.A.V. v. St. Paul , Scalia wrote the Court 's opinion striking down a St. Paul , Minnesota , hate speech ordinance in a prosecution for burning a cross . Scalia noted , " Let there be no mistake about our belief that burning a cross in someone 's front yard is reprehensible . But St. Paul has sufficient means at its disposal to prevent such behavior without adding the First Amendment to the fire . "
= = = = Litigation and " Standing " = = = =
Following the death of Scalia , Paul Barrett writing for Bloomberg News Weekly , reported that : " Translating into liberal argot : Scalia changed the rules for who could sue . " The issue elevated the recognition of Scalia as a notable influence on establishing and determining the conditions under which cases could be brought to trial and for litigation , and by whom such litigation could take place . David Rivkin , from the conservative standpoint , stated that : " He ( Scalia ) did more to clarify and limit the bounds and scope of judicial power than any Supreme Court Justice in history , particularly in the area of standing and class actions . " Scalia indicated his long held position from the time his 1983 law review article titled " The Doctrine of Standing as an Essential Element of the Separation of Powers " . As summarized by Barrett , " He ( Scalia ) wrote that courts had misappropriated authority from other branches of government by allowing too many people to sue corporations and government agencies , especially in environmental cases . " In a practical sense , Scalia brought to the attention of the Court the ability to restrict " standing " in class action suits in which the litigants may be defined in descriptive terms rather than as well @-@ defined and unambiguous litigants .
= = = Other cases = = =
Scalia concurred in the 1990 case of Cruzan v. Director , Missouri Department of Health in which the family of a woman in a vegetative state sought to have her feeding tube removed so she would die , believing that to have been her wish . The Court found for the State of Missouri , requiring clear and convincing evidence of such a desire . Scalia stated that the Court should have remained away from the dispute , and that the issues " are [ not ] better known to the nine Justices of this Court any better than they are known to nine people picked at random from the Kansas City telephone directory " .
Scalia joined the majority per curiam opinion in the 2000 case of Bush v. Gore , which effectively ended recounts of ballots in Florida following the 2000 US Presidential election , and also both concurred separately and joined Rehnquist 's concurrence . In 2007 , he said of the case , " I and my court owe no apology whatever for Bush v. Gore . We did the right thing . So there ! ... get over it . It 's so old by now . " During an interview on the Charlie Rose show , he defended the Court 's action :
The decision was not close , it was 7 – 2 on the principal issue of whether there had been a constitutional violation ... But what if it was unconstitutional to have that recount ? You 're going to let it continue and come to a conclusion ? And then overturn it ? The reason to stop it sooner was not , " Ooh , we 're worried that it 's going to come out the wrong way . " ... you forget what was going on at the time . We were the laughingstock of the world . The world 's greatest democracy that couldn 't conduct an election . We didn 't know who our next president was going to be . The lengthy transition that has become standard when you change from one president to another could not begin because you didn 't know who the new president was going to be . It was becoming a very serious problem . The issue before the United States Supreme Court is : having decided the case , having decided this is unconstitutional , should we nonetheless let the election go on ? Or is it time cut it off and let 's move on ?
In 2008 , the Court considered a challenge to the gun laws in the District of Columbia . Scalia wrote the majority opinion in District of Columbia v. Heller , which found an individual right to own a firearm under the Second Amendment . Scalia traced the word " militia " , found in the Second Amendment , as it would have been understood at the time of its ratification , and stated that it then meant " the body of all citizens " . The Court upheld Heller 's claim to own a firearm in the District .
Scalia 's opinion for the Heller Court was widely criticized by liberals , and applauded by conservatives . However ,
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first stage of Graffham began in March and April 1944 . Sir Victor Mallet , the British Minister to Sweden , was recalled to London for a briefing on the operation . On 25 March , Wulf Schmidt , a double agent with the code name Tate , transmitted a message to his handlers explaining that Mallet was in the country to receive instructions and would be returning to Sweden for " important negotiations " .
Mallet traveled to Stockholm on 4 April where he met with Erik Boheman , the Swedish State Secretary for Foreign Affairs . During the meeting he presented the proposals for British reconnaissance flights and for the transport collaboration . The Swedish government rejected the former but accepted the latter . However , privately Boheman indicated that Sweden 's air force would not pursue Allied planes in their airspace , and also that limitations of the transport collaboration meant it would have little benefit for the British .
This was not an encouraging start for the operation but despite this , the LCS decided to continue with the deception . Colonel Thornton 's trip was approved and he travelled to Stockholm toward the end of April . Thornton spent two weeks in Sweden , meeting with the head of the Royal Swedish Air Force , General Bengt Nordenskiöld . The conferences were treated with a high degree of secrecy in the hope this would emphasise their importance . It had the required effect ; Thornton 's conversations were recorded by a pro @-@ German chief of police and forwarded to Germany . Despite siding with the Allies , Nordenskiöld communicated very little sensitive information to Thornton . Nordenskiöld was convinced that the Allies intended to invade Norway , but he kept this conviction to himself , contrary to Allied hopes . Thornton returned to England on 30 April .
In tandem with these approaches , the British government began purchasing Norwegian securities . The operation was replaced by Operation Royal Flush in June 1944 , an expanded political deception also targeting Spain and Turkey .
= = Impact = =
Overall the operation appeared to meet few of its initial aims . The political approach did lead to an increased discussion amongst the lower levels of Swedish officialdom as to the possibility of an invasion in Norway . However , it failed to convince the higher levels of government ( with the exception of Nordenskiöld , who did not communicate his beliefs to anyone ) . Even the purchase of Norwegian securities went unnoticed . The overriding belief within the Swedish government was that any invasion of Norway would be diversionary , and that the European mainland would always be the main target of the Allies .
Graffham was envisioned as a way to bolster the aims of Fortitude North , and overall this aspect of the plan was successful . German documents , captured after the war , showed that , although they did not believe Norway to be the main invasion target , the Fortitude North units were considered capable of a diversionary attack . As a result of the deceptions , German forces in Scandinavia were put on higher alert and were not transferred south to reinforce France .
The extent to which both Graffham and Fortitude North influenced German strategy in Scandinavia is disputed , with some historians arguing that very little of either deception reached the enemy . While others argue that the existence of fictional units in Scotland helped confirm German fears of a diversionary attack in the region .
= Leslie Groves =
Lieutenant General Leslie Richard Groves Jr . ( 17 August 1896 – 13 July 1970 ) was a United States Army Corps of Engineers officer who oversaw the construction of the Pentagon and directed the Manhattan Project , a top secret research project that developed the atomic bomb during World War II . As the son of a United States Army chaplain , Groves lived at a number of Army posts during his childhood . He graduated fourth in his class at the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1918 and was commissioned into the US Army Corps of Engineers . In 1929 , he went to Nicaragua as part of an expedition whose purpose was to conduct a survey for the Inter @-@ Oceanic Nicaragua Canal . Following the 1931 Nicaragua earthquake , Groves took over responsibility for Managua 's water supply system , for which he was awarded the Nicaraguan Presidential Medal of Merit . He attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , in 1935 and 1936 , and the Army War College in 1938 and 1939 , after which he was posted to the War Department General Staff .
In 1940 Groves , who " had a reputation as a doer , a driver , and a stickler for duty " , became special assistant for construction to the Quartermaster General , tasked with inspecting construction sites and checking on their progress . In August 1941 , he was given responsibility for the gigantic office complex to house the War Department 's 40 @,@ 000 staff which would ultimately become the Pentagon . In September 1942 , Groves took charge of the Manhattan Project . He was involved in most aspects of the atomic bomb 's development . He participated in the selection of sites for research and production at Oak Ridge , Tennessee ; Los Alamos , New Mexico ; and Hanford , Washington . He directed the enormous construction effort , made critical decisions on the various methods of isotope separation , acquired raw materials , directed the collection of military intelligence on the German nuclear energy project and helped select the cities in Japan that were chosen as targets . Groves wrapped the Manhattan Project in security but failed to prevent the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics from conducting a successful espionage program that stole some of its most important secrets .
After the war , Groves remained in charge of the Manhattan Project until responsibility for nuclear weapons production was handed over to the United States Atomic Energy Commission in 1947 . He then headed the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , which had been created to control the military aspects of nuclear weapons . Groves realized that in the rapidly shrinking postwar military he would not be given any assignment approaching in importance the one he had held in the Manhattan Project , and he decided to leave the Army in 1948 . He was promoted to lieutenant general just before his retirement on 29 February 1948 in recognition of his leadership of the bomb program . By a special Act of Congress , his date of rank was backdated to 16 July 1945 , the date of the Trinity nuclear test . Groves went on to become a vice @-@ president at Sperry Rand .
= = Early life = =
Leslie Richard Groves Jr. was born in Albany , New York , on 17 August 1896 , the third son of four children of a pastor , Leslie Richard Groves Sr. , and his wife Gwen née Griffith . A descendant of French Huguenots who came to America in the 17th century , Leslie Groves Sr. resigned as pastor of the Sixth Presbyterian church in Albany in December 1896 to become a United States Army chaplain . He was posted to the 14th Infantry at Vancouver Barracks in Washington in 1897 . Following the outbreak of the Spanish – American War in 1898 , Chaplain Groves was sent to Cuba with the 8th Infantry . On returning to Vancouver Barracks , he was ordered to rejoin the 14th Infantry in the Philippines ; service in the Philippine – American War and the Boxer Rebellion followed . The 14th Infantry returned to the United States in 1901 and moved to Fort Snelling , Minnesota . The family relocated to there from Vancouver , then moved to Fort Hancock , New Jersey , the next year , and returned to Vancouver in 1905 . Chaplain Groves was hospitalized with tuberculosis at Fort Bayard in 1905 . He decided to settle in southern California and bought a house in Altadena . His next posting was to Fort Apache , Arizona . The family spent their summers there and returned to Altadena where the children attended school .
In 1911 , Chaplain Groves was ordered to return to the 14th Infantry , which was now stationed at Fort William Henry Harrison , Montana . Here young Dick Groves met Grace ( Boo ) Wilson , the daughter of Colonel Richard Hulbert Wilson , a career Army officer who had served with Chaplain Groves with the 8th Infantry in Cuba . In 1913 , the 14th Infantry moved once more , this time to Fort Lawton , Washington . Dick Groves entered Queen Anne High School in nearby Seattle in 1913 . In September of that year , he commenced his final year of high school , and also enrolled at the University of Washington . He attempted to secure an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1914 , earning a nomination from the president , which allowed him to compete for a vacancy , but did not score a sufficiently high enough mark on the examination . Charles W. Bell from California 's 9th congressional district accepted Groves as an alternate for one of his appointments , but the principal nominee accepted . Instead , Groves enrolled at Massachusetts Institute of Technology . In 1916 , Groves took the examinations for admission to West Point again and this time he was accepted . " Entering West Point fulfilled my greatest ambition . I had been brought up in the Army , and in the main had lived on Army posts all my life , " Groves said after the fact .
Groves ' class entered West Point on 15 June 1916 , but the United States declaration of war on Germany in April 1917 led to the course being shortened to what was known as the War Emergency Course ( WEC ) , which graduated early on 1 November 1918 . Groves came fourth in his class , and was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the United States Army Corps of Engineers . The Corps of Engineers was the usual appointment for the highest @-@ ranking cadets in a class .
= = Between the wars = =
After the traditional month 's leave following graduation from West Point , Groves reported to Camp A. A. Humphreys , Virginia , in December 1918 , where he was promoted to first lieutenant on 1 May 1919 . He was sent to France in June on an educational tour of the European battlefields of World War I. After returning from Europe , Groves became a student officer at the Engineer School at Camp Humphreys in September 1919 . On graduation he was posted to the 7th Engineers at Fort Benning , Georgia , as a company commander . He returned to Camp Humphreys in February 1921 for the Engineer Basic Officers ' Course . On graduation in August 1921 , he was posted to the 4th Engineers , stationed at Camp Lewis , Washington . He was then posted to Fort Worden in command of a survey detachment . This was close to Seattle , so he was able to pursue his courtship of Grace Wilson ( 1897 – 1986 ) , who had become a kindergarten teacher . They were married in St. Clement 's Episcopal Church in Seattle on 10 February 1922 . Their marriage produced two children : a son , Richard Hulbert , born in 1923 , and a daughter , Gwen , born in 1928 .
In November 1922 , Groves received his first overseas posting , as a company commander with the 3rd Engineers at the Schofield Barracks in Hawaii . He earned a commendation for his work there , constructing a trail from Kahuku to Pupukea . In November 1925 he was posted to Galveston , Texas , as an assistant to the District Engineer , Major Julian Schley . Groves ' duties included opening the channel at Port Isabel and supervising dredging operations in Galveston Bay . In 1927 he became commander of Company D , 1st Engineers , at Fort DuPont , Delaware . During the New England Flood of November 1927 he was sent to Fort Ethan Allen , Vermont , to assist with a detachment of the 1st Engineers . After a pontoon bridge they constructed was swamped and swept away by the flood waters , Groves was accused of negligence . A month later Groves and several of his men were seriously injured , one fatally , when a block of TNT prematurely detonated . Groves ' superior wrote a critical report on him , but the Chief of Engineers , Major General Edgar Jadwin , interceded , attributing blame to Groves ' superiors instead . Groves was returned to Fort DuPont .
In 1929 , Groves departed for Nicaragua in charge of a company of the 1st Engineers as part of an expedition whose purpose was to conduct a survey for the Inter @-@ Oceanic Nicaragua Canal . Following the 1931 Nicaragua earthquake , Groves took over responsibility for Managua 's water supply system , for which he was awarded the Nicaraguan Presidential Medal of Merit . Groves was promoted to captain on 20 October 1934 . He attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , in 1935 and 1936 , after which he was posted to Kansas City , Missouri , as assistant to the commander of the Missouri River Division . In 1938 and 1939 he attended the Army War College . On 1 July 1939 , he was posted to the War Department General Staff in Washington , D.C.
= = World War II = =
= = = Construction Division = = =
Groves was promoted to major on 1 July 1940 . Three weeks later , he became special assistant for construction to the Quartermaster General , Major General Edmund B. Gregory . The two men had known each other a long time , as Groves ' father was a close friend of Gregory 's . At this point , the US Army was about to embark on a national mobilization , and it was the task of the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps to prepare the necessary accommodations and training facilities for the vast army that would be created . The enormous construction program had been dogged by bottlenecks , shortages , delays , spiralling costs , and poor living conditions at the construction sites . Newspapers began publishing accounts charging the Construction Division with incompetence , ineptitude , and inefficiency . Groves , who " had a reputation as a doer , a driver , and a stickler for duty " , was one of a number of engineer officers brought in to turn the project around . He was tasked with inspecting construction sites and checking on their progress .
On 12 November 1940 , Gregory asked Groves to take over command of the Fixed Fee Branch of the Construction Division as soon as his promotion to colonel came through . Groves assumed his new rank and duties on 14 November 1940 . Groves later recalled :
During the first week that I was on duty there , I could not walk out of my office down the corridor to Hartman 's office without being literally assailed by the officers or civilian engineers with liaison responsibility for various camps . It is no exaggeration to state that during this period decisions involving up to $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 [ $ 84 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 with inflation ] were made at the rate of about one every 100 feet of corridor walked .
Groves instituted a series of reforms . He installed phone lines for the Supervising Construction Quartermasters , demanded weekly reports on progress , ordered that reimbursement vouchers be processed within a week , and sent expediters to sites reporting shortages . He ordered his contractors to hire whatever special equipment they needed and to pay premium prices if necessary to guarantee quick delivery . Instead of allowing construction of camps to proceed in whatever order the contractors saw fit , Groves laid down priorities for completion of camp facilities , so that the troops could begin moving in even while construction was still under way . By mid @-@ December , the worst of the crisis was over . Over half a million men had been mobilized and essential accommodations and facilities for two million men were 95 per cent complete . Between 1 July 1940 and 10 December 1941 , the Construction Division let contracts worth $ 1 @,@ 676 @,@ 293 @,@ 000 ( $ 26 @,@ 968 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 with inflation ) , of which $ 1 @,@ 347 @,@ 991 @,@ 000 ( $ 21 @,@ 686 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 with inflation ) , or about 80 per cent , were fixed @-@ fee contracts .
On 19 August 1941 , Groves was summoned to a meeting with the head of the Construction Division , Brigadier General Brehon B. Somervell . In attendance were Captain Clarence Renshaw , one of Groves ' assistants ; Major Hugh J. Casey , the chief of the Construction Division 's Design and Engineering Section ; and George Bergstrom , a former president of the American Institute of Architects . Casey and Bergstrom had designed an enormous office complex to house the War Department 's 40 @,@ 000 staff together in one building , a five @-@ story , five @-@ sided structure , which would ultimately become the Pentagon . The Pentagon had a total square footage of 5 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 470 @,@ 000 m2 ) — twice that of the Empire State Building — making it the largest office building in the world . The estimated cost was $ 35 million ( $ 563 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 with inflation ) , and Somervell wanted 500 @,@ 000 square feet ( 46 @,@ 000 m2 ) of floor space available by 1 March 1942 . Bergstrom became the architect @-@ engineer with Renshaw in charge of construction , reporting directly to Groves . At its peak the project employed 13 @,@ 000 persons . By the end of April , the first occupants were moving in and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space was ready by the end of May . In the end , the project cost some $ 63 million ( $ 1 @,@ 013 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 with inflation ) .
Groves steadily overcame one crisis after another , dealing with strikes , shortages , competing priorities and engineers who were not up to their tasks . He worked six days a week in his office in Washington , D.C. During the week he would determine which project was in the greatest need of personal attention and pay it a visit on Sunday . Groves later recalled that he was " hoping to get to a war theater so I could find a little peace . "
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
The Manhattan Engineer District ( MED ) was formally established by the Chief of Engineers , Major General Eugene Reybold on 16 August 1942 . The name was chosen by Groves and MED 's district engineer , Colonel James C. Marshall . Like other engineer districts , it was named after the city where its headquarters was located , at 270 Broadway . Unlike the others , however , it had no geographic boundaries , only a mission : to develop an atomic bomb . Moreover , Marshall had the authority of a division engineer head and reported directly to Reybold . Although Reybold was satisfied with the progress being made , Dr. Vannevar Bush was less so . He felt that aggressive leadership was required , and suggested the appointment of a prestigious officer as overall project director . Somervell , now Chief of Army Service Forces , recommended Groves . Somervell met Groves outside the hearing room where Groves had been testifying before a United States Congress committee on military housing and informed him that " The Secretary of War has selected you for a very important assignment , and the President has approved the selection ... If you do the job right , it will win the war . " Groves could not hide his disappointment at not receiving a combat assignment : " Oh , that thing , " he replied .
Groves met with Major General Wilhelm D. Styer in his office at the Pentagon to discuss the details . They agreed that in order to avoid suspicion , Groves would continue to supervise the Pentagon project . He would be promoted to brigadier general , as it was felt that the title " general " would hold more sway with the academic scientists working on the Manhattan Project . Groves therefore waited until his promotion came through on 23 September 1942 before assuming his new command . His orders placed him directly under Somervell rather than Reybold , with Marshall now answerable to Groves . Groves was given authority to sign contracts for the project from September 1 , 1942 . Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson ( retrospectively ) delegated his authority from the President under the War Powers Act of 1941 in a memorandum to Groves dated April 17 , 1944 . Groves delegated the authority to Nichols , except that contracts of $ 5 million or more required his authority . The written authority was only given in 1944 when Nichols was about to sign a contract with Du Pont , and it was found that Nichols original authority to sign project contracts from Colonel Marshall was based on a verbal authority from Styer , and Nichols only had the low delegated authority of a divisional engineer .
Groves soon decided to establish his project headquarters on the fifth floor of the New War Department Building ( now known as the Harry S Truman Building ) in Washington , D.C. , where Marshall had maintained a liaison office . In August 1943 , the MED headquarters ( and Nichols , who was in charge of the production facilities at Hanford and Oak Ridge ) moved to Oak Ridge , Tennessee , but the name of the district did not change .
Construction accounted for roughly 90 percent of the Manhattan Project 's total cost . The day after Groves took over , he and Marshall took a train to Tennessee to inspect the site that Marshall had chosen for the proposed production plant at Oak Ridge . Groves was suitably impressed with the site , and steps were taken to condemn the land . Protests , legal appeals , and congressional inquiries were to no avail . By mid @-@ November US Marshals were tacking notices to vacate on farmhouse doors , and construction contractors were moving in .
Meanwhile , Groves had met with J. Robert Oppenheimer , the University of California , Berkeley physicist , and discussed the creation of a laboratory where the bomb could be designed and tested . Groves was impressed with the breadth of Oppenheimer 's knowledge . A long conversation on a train in October 1942 convinced Groves and his deputy Kenneth Nichols that Oppenheimer thoroughly understood the issues involved in setting up a laboratory in a remote area . These were features that Groves found lacking in other scientists , and he knew that broad knowledge would be vital in an interdisciplinary project that would involve not just physics , but chemistry , metallurgy , ordnance and engineering .
In October 1942 Groves and Oppenheimer inspected sites in New Mexico , where they selected a suitable location for the laboratory at Los Alamos , New Mexico . Unlike Oak Ridge , the ranch school at Los Alamos , along with 54 @,@ 000 acres ( 22 @,@ 000 ha ) of surrounding forest and grazing land , was soon acquired . Groves also detected in Oppenheimer something that many others did not , an " overweening ambition " which Groves reckoned would supply the drive necessary to push the project to a successful conclusion . Groves became convinced that Oppenheimer was the best and only man to run the laboratory .
Few agreed with him in 1942 . Oppenheimer had little administrative experience and , unlike other potential candidates , no Nobel Prize . There was also concern about whether Oppenheimer was a security risk , as many of his associates were communists , including his brother Frank Oppenheimer , his wife Kitty and his girlfriend Jean Tatlock . Oppenheimer 's Communist Party connections soon came to light , but Groves personally waived the security requirements and issued Oppenheimer a clearance on 20 July 1943 . Groves ' faith in Oppenheimer was ultimately justified . Oppenheimer 's inspirational leadership fostered practical approaches to designing and building bombs . Asked years later why Groves chose him , Oppenheimer replied that the general " had a fatal weakness for good men . " Isidor Rabi considered the appointment " a real stroke of genius on the part of General Groves , who was not generally considered to be a genius ... "
Groves made critical decisions on prioritizing the various methods of isotope separation and acquiring raw materials needed by the scientists and engineers . By the time he assumed command of the project , it was evident that the AA @-@ 3 priority rating that Marshall had obtained was insufficient . The top ratings were AA @-@ 1 through AA @-@ 4 in descending order , although there was also a special AAA rating reserved for emergencies . Ratings AA @-@ 1 and AA @-@ 2 were for essential weapons and equipment , so Colonel Lucius D. Clay , the deputy chief of staff at Services and Supply for requirements and resources , felt that the highest rating he could assign was AA @-@ 3 , although he was willing to provide an AAA rating on request for critical materials to remove bottlenecks . Groves went to Donald M. Nelson , the chairman of the War Production Board and , after threatening to take the matter to the President , obtained a AAA priority for the Manhattan project . It was agreed that the AA @-@ 3 priority would still be used where possible .
The Combined Development Trust was established by the governments of the United Kingdom , United States and Canada in June 1944 , with Groves as its chairman , to procure uranium and thorium ores on international markets . In 1944 , the trust purchased 3 @,@ 440 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 560 @,@ 000 kg ) of uranium oxide ore from companies operating mines in the Belgian Congo . In order to avoid briefing US Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. on the project , a special account not subject to the usual auditing and controls was used to hold Trust monies . Between 1944 and the time he resigned from the Trust in 1947 , Groves deposited a total of $ 37 @.@ 5 million into the Trust 's account .
In 1943 , the Manhattan District became responsible for collecting military intelligence on Axis atomic research . Groves created Operation Alsos , special intelligence teams that would follow in the wake of the advancing armies , rounding up enemy scientists and collecting what technical information and technology they could . Alsos teams ultimately operated in Italy , France and Germany . The security system resembled that of other engineer districts . The Manhattan District organized its own counterintelligence which gradually grew in size and scope , but strict security measures failed to prevent the Soviets from conducting a successful espionage program that stole some of its most important secrets .
Groves met with the Chief of United States Army Air Forces , General Henry H. Arnold , in March 1944 to discuss the delivery of the finished bombs to their targets . Groves was hoping that the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress would be able to carry the finished bombs . The 509th Composite Group was duly activated on 17 December 1944 at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah , under the command of Colonel Paul W. Tibbets . A joint Manhattan District – USAAF targeting committee was established to determine which cities in Japan should be targets ; it recommended Kokura , Hiroshima , Niigata and Kyoto . At this point , Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson intervened , announcing that he would be making the targeting decision , and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto . Groves attempted to get him to change his mind several times and Stimson refused every time . Kyoto had been the capital of Japan for centuries , and was of great cultural and religious significance . In the end , Groves asked Arnold to remove Kyoto not just from the list of nuclear targets , but from targets for conventional bombing as well . Nagasaki was substituted for Kyoto as a target .
Groves was promoted to temporary major general on 9 March 1944 . After the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki became public knowledge , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal . His citation read :
Major General Leslie Richard Groves , as Commanding General , Manhattan Engineer District , Army Service Forces , from June 1942 to August 1945 coordinated , administered and controlled a project of unprecedented , world @-@ wide significance – the development of the Atomic Bomb . His was the responsibility for procuring materiel and personnel , marshalling the forces of government and industry , erecting huge plants , blending the scientific efforts of the United States and foreign countries , and maintaining completely secret the search for a key to release atomic energy . He accomplished his task with such outstanding success that in an amazingly short time the Manhattan Engineer District solved this problem of staggering complexity , defeating the Axis powers in the race to produce an instrument whose peacetime potentialities are no less marvellous than its wartime application is awesome . The achievement of General Groves is of unfathomable importance to the future of the nation and the world .
Groves had previously been nominated for the Distinguished Service Medal for his work on the Pentagon , but to avoid drawing attention to the Manhattan Project , it had not been awarded at the time . After the war , the Decorations Board decided to change it to a Legion of Merit . In recognition of his work on the project , the Belgian government made him a Commander of the Order of the Crown and the British government made him an honorary Companion of the Order of the Bath .
= = After the war = =
Responsibility for nuclear power and nuclear weapons was transferred from the Manhattan District to the United States Atomic Energy Commission on 1 January 1947 . On 29 January 1947 , Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson and Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal issued a joint directive creating the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) to control the military aspects of nuclear weapons . Groves was appointed its chief on 28 February 1947 . In April , AFSWP moved from the New War Department Building to the fifth floor of the Pentagon . Groves had already made a start on the new mission by creating Sandia Base in 1946 .
The Chief of Staff of the United States Army , General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower , met with Groves on 30 January 1948 to evaluate his performance . Eisenhower recounted a long list of complaints about Groves pertaining to his rudeness , arrogance , insensitivity , contempt for the rules and maneuvering for promotion out of turn . Eisenhower made it clear that Groves would never become Chief of Engineers . Groves realized that in the rapidly shrinking postwar military he would not be given any assignment approaching in importance the one he had held in the Manhattan Project , as such posts would go to combat commanders returning from overseas , and he decided to leave the Army . He was promoted to lieutenant general on 24 January 1948 , just before his retirement on 29 February 1948 in recognition of his leadership of the Manhattan Project . By special Act of Congress his date of rank was backdated to 16 July 1945 , the date of the Trinity nuclear test .
= = Later life = =
Groves went on to become a vice president at Sperry Rand , an equipment and electronics firm , and moved to Darien , Connecticut , in 1948 . He retired from Sperry Rand in 1961 . He also served as president of the West Point alumni organization , the Association of Graduates . He presented General of the Army Douglas MacArthur the Sylvanus Thayer Award in 1962 , which was the occasion of MacArthur 's famous Duty , Honor , Country speech to the United States Military Academy Corps of Cadets . In retirement , Groves wrote an account of the Manhattan Project entitled Now It Can Be Told , originally published in 1962 . In 1964 , he moved back to Washington , D.C.
Groves suffered a heart attack caused by chronic calcification of the aortic valve on 13 July 1970 . He was rushed to Walter Reed Army Medical Center , where he died that night . A funeral service was held in the chapel at Fort Myer , Virginia , after which Groves was interred in Arlington National Cemetery next to his brother Allen , who had died of pneumonia in 1916 . Groves is memorialized as the namesake of Leslie Groves Park along the Columbia River , near the Hanford Site in Richland .
= Oregon Civic Justice Center =
The Oregon Civic Justice Center is a three @-@ story former library building on the campus of Willamette University in downtown Salem , Oregon , United States . Built in 1912 as a Carnegie library for the city of Salem , the building now houses several programs of Willamette University College of Law . Prior to the law school 's moving into the facility in 2008 , the building was used by the adjacent Young Women 's Christian Association ( YWCA ) from 1971 to 2006 .
Willamette purchased the old library in 2003 and later selected the College of Law as the program at the school to gain use of the building . The university began renovations in 2007 to restore part of the original layout and modernize the facility to accommodate the needs of modern education . After the brick @-@ faced , Beaux Arts style structure was remodeled , community oriented programs from the law school relocated to the renamed Oregon Civic Justice Center . This center houses programs such as a legal clinic and the school 's law review journal .
= = History = =
On October 12 , 1901 , the Salem Woman 's Club was organized with the wife of Oregon Governor Theodore Thurston Geer serving as president of the organization . Two years later the group started the Salem Public Library at Geer 's home , and then later located at Chemeketa and High streets in downtown Salem in the then city hall , with the library 's collection totaling 50 books at that time . The library group hired a librarian , Miss F. Phillips , for a salary of $ 20 per month to run the library . In 1907 , the group explored options to build a stand @-@ alone library building using funds provided by Andrew Carnegie , who was providing funds for building libraries around the world .
In May 1909 , the Woman ’ s Club purchased an option to buy the property on the southwest corner of Winter and State streets for $ 5500 , which was located across State from Willson Park ( a city park at that time ) . This group then raised the funds to purchase the land for $ 12 @,@ 000 , and Salem applied for a grant from the Carnegie foundation . The city was allotted $ 14 @,@ 000 by the foundation to build a library , but the Women ’ s Club which owned the existing library and land had not been involved in the process . The organization was able to get the money rescinded , and in November 1910 , worked with the city to increase their maintenance fund for the library . Carnegie then raised the grant to $ 27 @,@ 500 at the lobbying of Lulu Bush ( daughter @
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B. spinulosa infructescence . Text accompanying the figure states
" [ W ] e cannot with certainty determine the species . The capsules are smooth , at least when ripe , and a little shining . We think this is neither the B. serrata , integrifolia , nor dentata of Linnaeus , nor probably his ericifolia ; so that it seems to be a species hitherto undescribed . The leaves and flowers we have not seen . "
English botanist James Edward Smith later tentatively attributed this figure to B. spinulosa :
" We suspect the fruit figured in Mr. White 's Voyage , page 225 , fig . I , may belong to this species , but we have no positive authority to assert it . "
More recently , however , Alf Salkin has argued that
" the cone illustrated by White is probably not as suggested from the B. spinulosa described by Smith but , may be from another member of the complex or from one of the forms of B. ericifolia . "
White probably collected the type material of B. spinulosa in 1792 . The following year , the species was formally described by Smith in his A Specimen of the Botany of New Holland . It was thus the seventh Banksia species collected , and the fifth described . Smith gave it the specific epithet spinulosa , a Latin term meaning having minute spines , probably in reference to the leaf tips . Thus the species ' full name is Banksia spinulosa Sm .
= = = Placement within Banksia = = =
In the first infrageneric arrangement of Banksia , that of Brown in 1830 , B. spinulosa was placed in subgenus Banksia verae , the " true banksias " , because its inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike . It was placed next to B. cunninghamii and B. collina , both now considered varieties of B. spinulosa ; these three were placed between B. ericifolia ( heath @-@ leaved banksia ) and B. occidentalis ( red swamp banksia ) . Banksia verae was renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher in 1847 . Carl Meissner demoted Eubanksia to sectional rank in his 1856 classification , and divided it into four series , with B. spinulosa placed in series Abietinae , while B. cunninghamii and B. collina were placed alongside each other in series Salicinae . When George Bentham published his 1870 arrangement in Flora Australiensis , he discarded Meissner 's series , placing all the species with hooked styles together in a section that he named Oncostylis . B. cunninghamii was reduced to synonymy with B. collina , as was the western species B. littoralis ( western swamp banksia ) . This arrangement would stand for over a century .
Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his landmark 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) . Endlicher 's Eubanksia became B. subg . Banksia , and was divided into three sections , one of which was Oncostylis . Oncostylis was further divided into four series , with B. spinulosa placed in series Spicigerae because its inflorescences are cylindrical .
In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus , after cladistic analyses yielded a cladogram significantly different from George 's arrangement . Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement retained B. spinulosa in series Spicigerae , placing it alone in B. subser . Spinulosae . This arrangement stood until 1999 , when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series .
Under George 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia , B. spinulosa 's taxonomic placement may be summarised as follows :
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Banksia
Section Banksia
Section Coccinea
Section Oncostylis
Series Spicigerae
B. spinulosa
B. spinulosa var. spinulosa
B. spinulosa var. collina
B. spinulosa var. neoanglica
B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii
B. ericifolia
B. verticillata
B. seminuda
B. littoralis
B. occidentalis
B. brownii
Series Tricuspidae
Series Dryandroidae
Series Abietinae
Subgenus Isostylis
More recent molecular research suggests that B. spinulosa and B. ericifolia may be more closely related to series Salicinae , with Banksia integrifolia and its relatives .
In 2005 , Austin Mast , Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia . They inferred a phylogeny very greatly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement , including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic with respect to Dryandra . A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time , but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. spinulosa is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae .
= = = Varieties = = =
Four varieties are currently recognised :
B. spinulosa var. spinulosa
The nominate race is an autonym , a name that was automatically created for the original material of the species as the other subspecies were described . The original hairpin banksia , this plant is coastal in Queensland , seen in such places as Walshs Pyramid ( near Cairns ) , Byfield National Park and the Blackdown Tableland , then again in New South Wales south of the Hawkesbury River , just north of Sydney , down the New South Wales South Coast and into Victoria . Northwards of the Hawkesbury River on Sydney 's northern outskirts there is a gradation between this and B. spinulosa var. collina . It commonly has black , maroon or claret styles on gold spikes but all @-@ gold inflorescences are seen , and leaves are generally narrower than other varieties at 1 – 2 mm in width and have several serrations toward the apex only .
B. spinulosa var. collina
Known as the hill banksia , it was first published as Banksia collina by Robert Brown in 1810 , and retained species rank until 1981 , when George demoted it to a variety of B. spinulosa . It differs from B. spinulosa var. spinulosa in having broader leaves 3 – 8 mm in width that have serrate margins . The leaf undersides have more prominent venation . Its flower spikes are usually gold , or sometimes gold with red styles , especially in New South Wales . It is found in inland gorges and tablelands such as Carnarvon Gorge , Expedition National Park , Isla Gorge and Dicks Tableland in a remote part of Eungella National Park , in Central Queensland but coastal on the New South Wales Central- and north coast .
B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii
This variety was published as B. cunninghamii in 1827 in honour of the botanist Allan Cunningham , and demoted to a variety of B. spinulosa in 1981 . The demotion has not been universally accepted however : in New South Wales it is still given species rank , and B. spinulosa var. neoanglica is considered a subspecies of it . George notes that at locations where both var. spinulosa and var. cunninghamii coexist , such as Fitzroy Falls in Lawson , no intermediate forms occur . This plant is a fast @-@ growing nonlignotuberous shrub or small tree to 6 metres ( 20 feet ) in height , occurring in the Great Dividing Range from southeast Queensland to southern New South Wales and also in Victoria . The juvenile leaves are highly serrated , new branchlets are hairy and leaf undersides are pale brown rather than white as in the two previous varieties . Inflorescences are gold with black styles , though an all @-@ yellow form from Victoria is known . The linear to oblanceolate adult leaves are 2 – 10 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 3 @.@ 94 in ) long by 2 – 7 mm wide ; those from Victoria having markedly longer juvenile leaves , and larger cotyledons .
B. spinulosa var. neoanglica
Known as the New England banksia , it was published by Alex George in 1988 , based on a specimen collected by him in 1986 . In New South Wales it is considered an unnamed subspecies of Banksia cunninghamii . This plant is found in the New England Region of far northern New South Wales and Southeastern Queensland . It is a short lignotuberous shrub to 1 metre ( 3 ft ) in height . Inflorescences are gold with black styles . It has hairy new branchlets and pale brown leaf undersides .
Some doubt exists as to whether the current classification accurately represents relationships within the Banksia spinulosa complex . B. spinulosa var. collina is a form of inland gorges and tablelands in central Queensland , but is a coastal plant on the New South Wales central and north coast . B. spinulosa var. spinulosa , on the other hand , is coastal in central Queensland and in New South Wales south of Sydney . Similarly , B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii is widely separated between New South Wales and Victorian forms ( where the longer leaved form was originally called B. prionophylla by Meissner ) . Notably both B. spinulosa var. spinulosa and B. spinulosa var. collina in northern Queensland have old spikes bare as opposed to them having persistent old flower parts in New South Wales and Victoria . Mast listed B. spinulosa var. collina and B. spinulosa var. neoanglica as sister clades in 1998 , with B. spinulosa var. spinulosa and B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii flanking these . Alex George also reports that the taxon should be reviewed . A molecular study with specimens of each subspecies from the three mainland eastern states they occur would shed light on this matter .
= = = Hybrids = = =
Natural hybrids between B. s. var. spinulosa and B. ericifolia subsp. ericifolia have been recorded at Pigeon House Mountain in Morton National Park . Banksia " Giant Candles " was a chance garden hybrid between B. ericifolia and B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The hairpin banksia occurs along the east coast of Australia from the Dandenong Ranges east of Melbourne , Victoria , north through New South Wales and into Queensland . It is common north to Maryborough , with disjunct populations occurring as far north as the Atherton Tableland near Cairns . It occurs in a variety of habitats , from coastal heath ( spinulosa and collina ) and elevated rocky slopes ( neoanglica and spinulosa ) to inland dry sclerophyll forest dominated by eucalypts , where they form part of the understorey . Plants in exposed areas are generally considerably shorter than those in sheltered areas . It usually occurs on sand , but can be found in rocky clays or loams .
Banksia spinulosa var. cunninghamii is found in 3 disjunct regions ; the Dandenong Ranges east of Melbourne , East Gippsland between Lakes Entrance and Eden , and in the Great Dividing Range in a band from Jervis Bay to Glen Davis in Central New South Wales , while there have been collections northwards in the Dividing Range up into southeast Queensland . It can be an understorey plant under dense as well as open forest cover .
= = Ecology = =
Like other banksias , Banksia spinulosa plays host to a wide variety of pollinators and is a vital source of nectar in autumn , when other flowers are scarce . Banksias have been the subject of many studies about their pollination ; B. spinulosa is no exception . A 1998 study in Bungawalbin National Park in Northern New South Wales found that B. spinulosa var. collina inflorescences are foraged by a variety of small mammals , including marsupials such as Antechinus flavipes ( yellow @-@ footed antechinus ) , which carry pollen loads comparable to those of nectar @-@ eating birds , making them effective pollinators . The same study noted that , unlike other banksias studied , B. spinulosa var. collina was visited predominantly by native bees rather than the introduced Apis mellifera ( European honeybee ) .
A great many bird species have been observed visiting this species . A 1982 study in the New England National Park in North @-@ eastern New South Wales found that a large influx of Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris ( eastern spinebill ) coincided with the start of local B. spinulosa 's flowering . In the Blackdown Tableland , Lichenostomus leucotis ( white @-@ eared honeyeater ) and Lichenostomus melanops ( yellow @-@ tufted honeyeater ) as well as pygmy possums visit B. spinulosa . Brown antechinus , sugar glider , and bush rat are also known to visit flowers . Additional species seen in The Banksia Atlas survey include Phylidonyris nigra ( white @-@ cheeked honeyeater ) , Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera ( crescent honeyeater ) , Meliphaga lewinii ( Lewin 's honeyeater ) , Lichmera indistincta ( brown honeyeater ) , Manorina melanocephala ( noisy miner ) , Philemon corniculatus ( noisy friarbird ) , Anthochaera carunculata ( red wattlebird ) and Eopsaltria australis ( eastern yellow robin ) .
Like most other Proteaceae , B. spinulosa has proteoid roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These enhance solubilisation of nutrients , allowing nutrient uptake in low @-@ nutrient soils such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia .
B. spinulosa does not appear to be under threat . It is resistant to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback , which poses a major threat to many other Banksia species ; and its wide distribution protects against the threat of habitat loss due to land clearing . As a result , it does not appear on the list of threatened Australian plants under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 .
Banksia spinulosa is listed in Part 1 Group 1 of Schedule 13 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 ; this means that as a common and secure species it is exempted from any licensing or tagging requirements under the 2002 – 2005 management plan to minimise and regulate the use of protected and threatened plants in the cut @-@ flower industry in New South Wales .
= = Cultivation = =
Banksia spinulosa var. spinulosa was introduced into cultivation in the United Kingdom in 1788 by Joseph Banks who supplied seed to Kew , Cambridge Botanic Gardens and Woburn Abbey among others ; var. collina followed in 1800 and var. cunninghamii in 1822 . It has proven a highly ornamental and bird @-@ attracting plant in cultivation . Southern and montane provenance forms are frost hardy . In general , all forms prefer sandy , well @-@ drained soils with sunny aspect , though some local forms hailing from Wianamatta shales may tolerate heavier soils . It is resistant to dieback , like most eastern banksias . As it grows naturally on acid soils , Banksia spinulosa is particularly sensitive to iron deficiency . Known as chlorosis , it manifests as yellowing of new leaves with preservation of green veins , and occurs when the plant is grown in soils of higher pH . This can also happen where soil contains quantities of cement , either as landfill or building foundations , and can be treated with iron chelate or sulfate .
Regular pruning is important to give the plant an attractive habit and prevent it from becoming leggy . As most cultivated forms of this species have a lignotuber , dormant buds exist below the bark that respond to pruning or fire , and hard @-@ pruning is possible almost to ground level as a plant can readily sprout from old wood . This is not the case for var. cunninghamii which should not be pruned below foliage . Flowering may take up to eight years from germination ; buying an advanced plant may hasten this process , as will getting a cutting @-@ grown plant . Banksia spinulosa can be propagated easily by seed , and is one of the ( relatively ) easier banksias to propagate by cutting . Named cultivars are by necessity propagated by cuttings as this ensures that the plant produced bears the same attributes as the original plant .
Both B. s. var. collina and var. spinulosa are commonly seen in nurseries ; given that the varieties can hybridise , attempting to find a local provenance form from a local community nursery , Bushcare or Australian Plants Society group is preferable environmentally if they are intended for planting in gardens near bushland where native populations occur . There are some dwarf forms available for the city gardener – ' Stumpy Gold ' is a form of variety collina originally from the Central Coast , while ' Birthday Candles ' , ' Coastal Cushion ' and ' Golden Cascade ' are forms of variety spinulosa from the South Coast of New South Wales .
= = = Cultivars = = =
There are a number of commercial varieties available from Australian retail nurseries , four have been registered under plant breeders ' rights legislation , and another with the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority . The lack of official names has led to some varieties bearing several different names .
B. s. var. collina ' Carnarvon Gold ' is an all @-@ gold flowered form from Carnarvon Gorge in central Queensland with long leaves and revolute margins which grows to around 2 – 5 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 16 @.@ 4 ft ) in height and 2 – 4 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) across . The old flowers fall from the spikes .
B. s. var. collina ' Stumpy Gold ' is a spreading form ( 40 centimetres or 16 inches high by up to 1 @.@ 2 metres or 3 @.@ 9 feet across ) with light gold flowers 15 centimetres ( 6 in ) high by 6 centimetres ( 2 in ) across from the vicinity of Catherine Hill Bay on the New South Wales Central Coast , propagated by Richard Anderson of Merricks Nursery . It arises from a silty loam so theoretically should tolerate a heavier soil than ' Coastal Cushion ' . Leaves are a more subdued green with greyish tinge than the south coast NSW spinulosa cultivars .
B. s. var. spinulosa ' Birthday Candles ' , the original trailblazer , is a compact plant growing to 45 centimetres ( 18 in ) tall and up to 1 metre ( 3 ft ) across with red @-@ styled gold flowers 15 cm high by 6 cm across . The leaves are narrow with attractive lime green new growth . Stems and branches naturally crooked . It was granted PBR status in 1989 , after an application by Bill Molyneux of Austraflora Pty Ltd . The provenance of the original material was an exposed headland hear Ulladulla on the New South Wales South Coast . It appears to fare better in Mediterranean climates with reports of patchy performance in Sydney ( though better in pots ) and unreliability in Brisbane . There are reports of it flowering in alternate years only . It is reported to be an unreliable survivor , although this may be due to it being popular among novices .
B. s. var. spinulosa ' Cherry Candles ' , bred by Bill Molyneux from the ' Birthday Candles ' cultivar , is a compact plant growing to 45 cm tall and up to 100 cm across with cherry red @-@ styled gold flowers , darker than its parent , 15 cm high by 6 cm across . It was released commercially in spring 2004 , and granted PBR status in February 2005 , after an application by Molyneux .
B. s. var. spinulosa ' Coastal Cushion ' ( = ' Schnapper Point ' ) was originally collected by Neil Marriott and called ' Schnapper Point ' from the same locality as ' Birthday Candles ' . This is a more spreading plant to 50 cm tall and up to 1 @.@ 5 – 2 m across with dark red @-@ styled gold flowers ( a couple of shades darker than ' Birthday Candles ' ) 15 cm high by 6 cm across . It is propagated by Richard Anderson of Merricks Nursery . It appears to be more adaptable to points north than other dwarf forms – growing reliably in southeastern Queensland . This form can be very floriferous , with some plants sporting more than 40 inflorescences at any one time .
B. s . ' Coastal Candles ' , propagated by Merv Hodge , came from Philip Vaughan 's ' Schnapper Point ' plant . Some plants are behaving differently , so it may be that not all material is exactly the same clone .
B. s. var. spinulosa ' Golden Cascade ' is yet another plant from the same locality as ' Birthday Candles ' ; this is more spreading again , to perhaps 30 cm tall and up to 1 @.@ 5 – 2 m across with red @-@ styled gold flowers 15 cm high by 6 cm across . It is also seen as B. spinulosa ' prostrate ' . Propagated by Gondwana Nursery , this is a relatively new release .
B. s. var. spinulosa ' Honey Pots ' is a form with all gold flowers to 20 cm high ( taller than forms listed above ) , however it is a little larger with reports of it growing to 1 m high , with odd reports of it getting taller than this , by 1 @.@ 2 m across . It comes from south coast in Victoria , propagated by Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery in Victoria .
B. s. var. spinulosa ( dwarf forms ) – Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery in Victoria has two red @-@ styled fairly compact dwarf forms , one ( all serrated – slow @-@ growing , possibly collina ) growing to 1 m , the ( leaf ends serrated only , faster @-@ growing ) other 1 @.@ 5 m – and there are others reported but not named .
B. s. var. cunninghamii ' Lemon Glow ' was registered with ACRA in 1982 by Alf Salkin and hails from French Island in Victoria , growing 2 – 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) with all lemon yellow flowers . Currently propagated by Phillip Vaughan and Kuranga Nursery , both in Melbourne . It is reported to be frost hardy and moderately resistant to drought .
There is a form sold as a Banksia ( spinulosa ) cunninghamii variant , propagated by Bournda Plants of Tura Beach on the NSW south coast . The plants reach 70 cm after four years and have black @-@ styled gold inflorescences . The form came from David Shiels of Wakiti Nursery in Victoria , who got it from Alf Salkin . It has a white underside ( not brownish ) and has a couple of serrations close to the tip of the leaf , typical of B. s. var. spinulosa .
= Hurricane Humberto ( 1995 ) =
Hurricane Humberto was the eighth named storm and fourth hurricane of the busy 1995 Atlantic hurricane season . This was the first time that the name " Humberto " was used as it replaced Hugo ( it was retired in 1989 ) . It was a Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that never approached land as it tracked across the central Atlantic Ocean .
The storm developed west of the Cape Verde islands on August 21 and was upgraded to a tropical storm on August 22 and a hurricane on August 23 . For the first several days , it followed the wave that became Iris until a Fujiwhara interaction took place about midway between Cape Verde and the Lesser Antilles on August 25 . Humberto peaked as a strong Category 2 hurricane and remained a hurricane until just before being absorbed by an extratropical cyclone on September 1 .
= = Meteorological history = =
The system originated out of one of several powerful tropical waves that moved off the west coast of Africa in the second half of August . When the wave came off the African coast , it already had a cyclonic rotation , although it was fairly disorganized . As the wave moved westward into open waters , it developed rapidly . Late on August 21 , it had developed a low @-@ level circulation and was declared Tropical Depression Nine . The system quickly organized itself and was quickly upgraded to Tropical Storm Humberto early on August 22 . Beginning on a west @-@ northwest track , it was clear from the outset that Humberto would not affect land , due to a weakness in the subtropical ridge to the north which would eventually turn the storm northward . An impressive outflow pattern and solid banding quickly formed in a very favorable environment with warm sea surface temperatures and low wind shear . Humberto quickly developed and intensified into a high @-@ end tropical storm on the afternoon and evening of August 22 . Early on August 23 , the storm was upgraded to Hurricane Humberto .
Humberto continued to intensify on the morning of the 23rd as the central dense overcast became well defined , despite the lack of a well @-@ defined eye feature . However , the intensification was slowed somewhat by the presence of Iris to the west , whose outflow intercepted with Humberto 's outflow somewhat . Early on August 24 , Humberto strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane , finally forming a well @-@ defined eye , as it slowed down as it entered a Fujiwhara interaction with Iris . That afternoon , while still moving west @-@ northwest , Humberto reached its peak intensity of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) , just under Category 3 intensity .
The Fujiwhara interaction had a profound impact on the track of Humberto , which made a quick turn to the northwest , and then to the north @-@ northwest , early on August 25 . The interaction came to an end that afternoon as Humberto completed the northerly turn , while remaining a Category 2 hurricane in the tropical waters of the central Atlantic . It began to gradually weaken on August 26 due to an increase in southwesterly shear from a nearby upper @-@ level low as it maintained a north @-@ northwest track . The slow weakening trend continued into August 27 as the eye became intermittent in the moderate @-@ shear environment , which was once again impacted by the outflow of Iris to the southwest . That evening , it dropped to a minimal hurricane with 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds , which was later confirmed to have been the low point . Operationally , Humberto was downgraded to a tropical storm for a while on August 28 , which was later confirmed to have been underestimated . As it tracked away from Iris and into a more open environment , it turned more to the north @-@ northeast and slowly re @-@ intensified again on August 29 . Its movement was now affected by an incoming mid @-@ latitude trough that turned Humberto northeast early on August 30 . Humberto reached its second intensity peak of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) at that time .
However , cooler waters eventually caught up to Humberto and it began to weaken once again early on August 31 as it tracked into the north Atlantic . That afternoon , Humberto weakened to a tropical storm as its circulation became embedded into a circulation of a nearby extratropical low in a high @-@ shear environment . It continued to weaken that evening , and early on September 1 , the tropical storm was absorbed by the larger system .
= = Impact , naming , and records = =
Humberto remained in the open Atlantic , and no damage or fatalities were reported . Several ships came in contact with Humberto while it roamed the open waters . The strongest winds came from call sign DVRUK4 , which reported peak winds of 70 mph ( 112 km / h ) in the central Atlantic on August 30 . Three other ships reported tropical storm @-@ force winds .
Humberto was the second of four tropical waves in quick succession in the tropical Atlantic that all eventually became tropical storms or hurricanes ; it was preceded by the wave that became Iris , and followed by the waves that became Karen and Luis . It was also the first of three tropical cyclones to form within a 24 @-@ hour period on August 21 and 22 ; Iris formed 12 hours later and Jerry formed 18 hours later . It was also the first of five named storms to form within a seven @-@ day period ; Karen formed on August 26 and Luis on August 27 .
= Live Forever as You Are Now with Alan Resnick =
Live Forever as You Are Now with Alan Resnick is a television special written , created and directed by Alan Resnick and Ben O 'Brien for Adult Swim . The special is presented as a parody of self @-@ help infomercials , advertising a four @-@ step program for creating a digital avatar that acts a backup of its host . The special is hosted by Alan Resnick as himself , and is presented by Dan Deacon . Both , along with O 'Brien , are members of the Baltimore @-@ based art collective Wham City , who co @-@ produced the episode under their video production division , AB Video Solutions .
The special aired on December 24 , 2013 at 4 a.m. on Cartoon Network 's late @-@ night programming block , Adult Swim . The special was viewed by 926 @,@ 000 viewers and received a Nielsen household rating of 0 @.@ 7 . Critical reception was positive , with both the humor and the performances receiving praise .
= = Summary = =
Alan Resnick ( portrayed by himself ) , an emerging young tech expert and innovator , is introduced to the viewer . He tells the audience of his four @-@ step program to create a digital avatar that acts as a backup of its host , granting " the secret to eternal life " . He tells the audience of his past : two years ago , Resnick was banished to his couch after getting into a lovers ' spat with his wife , Janet . He dreamt of himself in a foggy meadow with an attractive , nude young woman ( portrayed by " MKNZ " ) who calls for him to engage in sex . He initially refuses , but then changes his mind , but before they are able to do so , he is shot with a gun by a nameless man ( Ben O 'Brien ) , which totally destroys his face . This gave him the idea to come up with a way to digitally back himself up . Two months pass , and he is able to create a " exact digital copy " of himself who calls himself " Teddy " ( for unknown reasons ) . " Teddy " , a floating avatar head , acts as the co @-@ host for the remainder of the program , often interrupting Resnick 's speech to talk about his " wife " .
Resnick goes on to explain the four steps behind his process :
Subjects are instructed to look in a mirror every night for five hours and observe their facial features , sketching what they recall while in the dark ; subjects are then instructed to hang up said drawings around their house .
The subject comes over to Resnick 's house , where blindingly bright patterns are projected into their eyes and face while they spin around . These patterns will be " queered " by their head form , generating three @-@ point axes , which are then " booleaned " to generate a three @-@ dimensional mesh of their head . Resnick then goes on to explain the " uncanny valley " , which leads him into his third step :
The avatars are put through a series of intensive " skin stress tests " , including " ball tests " , " wiggle tests " and " durability and tear testing " .
Resnick comes into his subjects ' house for two months to analyze their interests and personality types ; he will ask " hundreds of personal questions " involving friends , furniture , romance , animals , food , events and touch . All the information will be scanned into the USB flash drive of the subject 's computer , which makes the " brain " of their avatar .
Various testimonials are then given ; a widower and " textbook salesman " Ryan Syrell ( Steve Izant ) tells of the reconstruction of his wife Morgan and the creation of his own avatar . Jordan Card , an elderly woman , shows off her digital avatar , who insists that their room " is too cold . " Chester Gwazda ( Caynen Couture ) , a young bedridden boy , says that it was
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is located in the village of Hasvik on the island of Sørøya . In 2012 , Hasvik Airport had 7 @,@ 629 passengers , making it the third @-@ least busy airport operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor . The airport consists of a 909 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 982 ft ) runway and is served by Widerøe with Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft .
Planning started in 1972 for an airport to serve air taxi and air ambulance services . The original 421 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 381 ft ) gravel runway opened on 17 May 1973 , allowing Norving to operate flights with their Britten @-@ Norman Islanders . The airport was upgraded with a longer runway and a larger terminal in 1983 , allowing Norving to start scheduled services to Alta and Hammerfest . Widerøe took over the routes in 1990 , at first using the de Havilland Canada Twin Otter . The runway was asphalted in 1995 , allowing Widerøe to introduce the Dash 8 . The airport was nationalized two years later .
= = History = =
The first aircraft in Hasvik was an emergency landing carried out en route to Svalbard in the early 1970s . The plain where the aircraft landed , located near the village , became the site of the airport . The regional airline Norving took the initiative in 1972 to construct a simple airfield at Hasvik ; they hoped to finance along with the municipality , the National Insurance Administration and the local chapter of the Norwegian Red Cross Search and Rescue Corps . In addition to being able to operate an air taxi service and land air ambulances , locals hoped that the construction would be a first step to becoming part of the state @-@ financed construction of regional airports in Finnmark . However , Hasvik was not selected as one of the original regional airports .
The initial airport consisted of a 421 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 381 ft ) gravel runway and a spartan terminal consisting of no more than a shack . The airport opened on 17 May 1973 and Norving started an air taxi service using the eight @-@ passenger Britten @-@ Norman Islander . Grants of 3 @.@ 5 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) were issued from the state in 1981 , which was supplemented with funding from Norving , the National Insurance Administration , Kommunalbanken and local interests . The new facilities opened in early 1983 , consisting of a larger terminal and control tower and a lengthening of the runway — although it retained the gravel surface . The upgrades cost NOK 5 @.@ 8 million ; they allowed Norving to operate a daily scheduled taxi route to Hammerfest and Alta , and for the first time Hasvik was able to receive same @-@ day newspapers . The flights corresponded with Scandinavian Airlines System 's Oslo @-@ flights at Alta Airport .
Norving operated at the airport until 1990 , when the route was taken over by Widerøe , who initially used the de Havilland Canada Twin Otter . The Ministry of Transport and Communications announced in February 1993 that they were considering taking over ownership and operations of the airport through the Civil Aviation Administration ( CAA , later renamed Avinor ) . Along with Båtsfjord Airport and Vardø Airport , Svartnes , Hasvik Airport was one of three regional airports in Finnmark with government @-@ subsidized routes which did not receive state operating grants . In December Widerøe articulated that Hasvik Airport did not meet the demands for future operation as it lacked proper instruments and did not have an asphalt runway . Widerøe stated that with the introduction of the Dash 8 they would no longer be able to serve the airport . Additional navigation aids were installed in 1993 and the runway was asphalted in 1995 , subsequently resulting in Dash 8 services being introduced . The state and the Civil Aviation Administration took over ownership and operations of the airport from 1 January 1997 . The runway lights were upgraded in 2008 and 2009 , followed by the installation of the Global Positioning System @-@ based landing system SCAT @-@ I.
Avinor wants to extend most short airports to 1200 m by year 2030 , because they see a lack of aircraft types which have more than 19 seats able to use 800 @-@ meter runways . Dash 8 built after 2009 can 't use them . Few countries apart from Norway have such short airports . There is however no room for this at Hasvik , so the plan here and for some other airports with few passengers , is to use small planes with less than 20 seats .
= = Facilities = =
Hasvik Airport has a simple terminal building with a capacity for 20 passengers per hour . It has a 909 @-@ by @-@ 30 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 982 by 98 ft ) asphalt runway aligned 11 / 29 . The tarmac has a place for one airliner . There is a harbor southeast of the runway which limits any expansion . The airport is located two minutes drive from the village center ; free parking is available .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
The airport is served by Widerøe , who operates flights based on a public service obligation contract with the Ministry of Transport and Communications . All flights are operated using 39 @-@ seat Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft . Flights are flown to Tromsø and Hammerfest and can continue to other villages and towns in Finnmark . In 2014 the airport served 7 @,@ 629 passengers , 1 @,@ 272 aircraft movements and handled 0 @.@ 2 tonnes of cargo . Hasvik is the third @-@ least busy airport operated by Avinor , ahead of Berlevåg Airport and Fagernes Airport , Leirin .
= Robert P. Letcher =
Robert Perkins Letcher ( February 10 , 1788 – January 24 , 1861 ) was a politician and lawyer from the US state of Kentucky . He served as a U.S. Representative , Minister to Mexico , and the 15th Governor of Kentucky . He also served in the Kentucky General Assembly where he was Speaker of the House in 1837 and 1838 . A strong supporter of the Whig Party , he was a friend of Henry Clay and John J. Crittenden .
Letcher 's family came to Kentucky around 1800 . Letcher attended the private academy of Joshua Fry , then studied law . He was briefly a judge advocate in John Allen 's volunteer militia during the War of 1812 . He began his political career in 1813 , representing Garrard County in the Kentucky House of Representatives . In 1823 , he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives , where he served for more than a decade . During the 1824 presidential election , he acted as an intermediary between John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay . Adams ' opponent , Andrew Jackson , charged that , through these negotiations , Clay agreed to support Adams for president in exchange for being named Secretary of State .
In 1840 , Letcher was chosen as the Whig nominee for governor of Kentucky over William Owsley . In the general election , Letcher won by landslide over Judge Richard French . Letcher 's fiscally conservative policies helped Kentucky recover from the financial Panic of 1837 . By the end of his term , the state was experiencing budget surpluses and state banks had resumed specie payments . After Letcher left office , he was appointed Minister to Mexico by President Zachary Taylor . Following this , he made an attempt to return to the U.S. House , but was defeated by Democrat John C. Breckinridge . Letcher 's defeat in Henry Clay 's home district was a strong indication of the decline of Whig influence in Kentucky . Though he remained active in politics , Letcher never again sought public office . He died on January 24 , 1861 .
= = Early life = =
Robert Perkins Letcher was born in Goochland County , Virginia , on February 10 , 1788 . He was seventh of twelve children born to Stephen Giles and Betsy ( Perkins ) Letcher . The family moved to Kentucky about 1800 , first living at Harrodsburg , then settling in Garrard County . For a time , Letcher attended the common schools of the area , but he was dismissed for being unruly . He studied the trade of masonry , though not very enthusiastically , at his father 's brickyard .
Letcher enrolled in Joshua Fry 's private academy near Danville , Kentucky , faring better under Fry 's instruction than he had in the common schools , and gained a sound education . Following his instruction at Fry 's academy , he returned to his father 's brickyard , where tradition holds that he helped build the state 's first governor 's mansion alongside future governor Thomas Metcalfe . He then read law in the office of Humphrey Marshall , was admitted to the bar , and commenced practice in Lancaster , Kentucky . He briefly served as a judge advocate in Colonel John Allen 's volunteer militia during the War of 1812 .
Letcher first married Susan Oden Epps . Epps died on March 9 , 1816 and did not bear any children . Following the death of his first wife , Letcher married Charlotte Robertson , sister of George Robertson , a congressman and future chief justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals . Historian Jennie Morton records that Letcher referred to his second wife as " the queen " . No children were born as a result of this marriage , but the couple raised one of their nieces from childhood . Charlotte Letcher survived her husband , and died October 29 , 1879 .
= = Political career = =
Nicknamed " Black Bob " , Letcher was known as a witty and gregarious campaigner . He was also known to distract audiences at his opponents ' campaign speeches by playing a fiddle . His political career began in 1813 when he was elected to represent Garrard County in the Kentucky House of Representatives . He served until 1815 , and after a respite of one term , was re @-@ elected in 1817 .
= = = In the House of Representatives = = =
Letcher was elected as a Democratic Republican to the Eighteenth Congress in 1823 . He represented the state 's fourth district until 1833 , when the General Assembly conducted a redistricting of the state . After the redistricting , Garrard County became part of the fifth district .
Letcher was a friend and ardent supporter of Henry Clay . When no candidate gained a two @-@ thirds majority of the electoral vote in the 1824 presidential election , the outcome fell to a vote of the House of Representatives . In the political wrangling that followed , Letcher served as an intermediary between Clay and John Quincy Adams . Eventually , Clay 's supporters threw their support behind Adams , reportedly in exchange for Clay 's being named Secretary of State . Andrew Jackson called the alleged deal the " corrupt bargain " .
Letcher supported Adams ' administration , but became anti @-@ administration when Jackson won the 1828 presidential contest . Consistent with his support of Clay , he promoted expansion of internal improvements , including the Maysville Road bill vetoed by Jackson . In 1833 , Clay proposed a compromise in the Senate to quell the Nullification Crisis ; Letcher introduced Clay 's compromise in the House .
In the 1833 election , Thomas P. Moore challenged Letcher for the fifth district 's seat in the House of Representatives . Moore had previously represented the counties in the fifth district ( Garrard excepted ) , and had just returned from a four @-@ year stint as U.S. minister to Grenada . The vote was so close that the House refused to seat either candidate and ordered a new election . Letcher won the new election by 258 votes . During this term , he served on the Committee on Foreign Affairs . He did not seek re @-@ election at the end of his term .
In 1836 , Letcher served as a presidential elector on the Whig ticket He returned to the Kentucky House later that year , and was re @-@ elected every year until 1838 . Each of these years , he sought to become Speaker of the House . In 1836 , he was defeated by incumbent speaker John L. Helm by a vote of 45 — 48 . The following year , there was a three @-@ way contest for speaker between Letcher , Helm , and James Turner Morehead . After nine ballots , Helm withdrew from the race , and Letcher defeated Morehead 50 — 48 . The next year , Letcher was re @-@ elected to the post without opposition .
= = = As governor of Kentucky = = =
The Whigs ' state nominating convention was held in Harrodsburg on August 26 , 1839 . Four candidates were initially put forward for the office of governor , but two withdrew from consideration , leaving the contest between Letcher and Judge William Owsley . Letcher won the nomination by a vote of 48 — 26 . In the general election , Letcher defeated his Democratic opponent , Judge Richard French , by a majority of over 15 @,@ 000 votes ( out of 95 @,@ 020 cast ) . The Whigs also captured large majorities in both houses of the state legislature .
Just weeks after Letcher 's inauguration , William Henry Harrison prevailed in the 1840 presidential election . Soon after , Harrison visited Letcher in Frankfort to discuss the appointment of Letcher 's friend John J. Crittenden to Harrison 's cabinet . On December 14 , 1840 , Letcher wrote Crittenden to tell him that the General Assembly would shortly re @-@ elect him to his Senate seat . If he ( Crittenden ) were going to accept a position in President Harrison 's cabinet , Letcher would prefer he do it before March 4 , 1841 so the General Assembly would still be in session to elect Crittenden 's replacement in the Senate . On January 11 , 1841 , Crittenden replied that he expected to be named attorney general and believed he could accept the post before Letcher 's preferred deadline . However , due to Harrison 's death only a month after his inauguration , Crittenden was not able to keep Letcher 's timeline ; he was appointed attorney general by John Tyler on March 5 , 1841 .
For the first half of Letcher 's term , the state was still struggling to recover from the financial Panic of 1837 . Consistent with his Whig views , Letcher blamed the crisis on the federal government 's failure to recharter the Second Bank of the United States . To ameliorate the state 's dire financial situation , Letcher drastically cut spending , including the suspension of turnpike construction and improvements on the Green , Kentucky , and Licking rivers . These actions greatly reduced the state 's deficit and improved its credit . In each of Letcher 's years in office , the state showed a small but growing budget surplus .
Although Letcher generally opposed debt relief measures , he did allow the passage of some minor legislation to aid those most in danger of foreclosure on their property . In 1842 , legislation was passed that expanded the types of personal property that were exempted from foreclosure . The next year , the General Assembly eliminated the summer terms of the circuit courts , effectively delaying some foreclosure hearings . Letcher also encouraged banks to make new small loans , and the legislature followed suit by moderately increasing the credit extended by state banks . As the state 's economy recovered , its banks resumed specie payments . State bonds increased in value . By the end of Letcher 's term , Kentucky had weathered the worst of the economic crisis .
In one of his final acts as governor , Letcher proclaimed the first thanksgiving day in Kentucky on September 26 , 1844 . After leaving office , he resumed his law practice in Frankfort . In 1847 , he was one of four contenders for a seat in the U.S. Senate . The other contenders consisted of two fellow Whigs and a Democrat . After twenty @-@ eight ballots , no winner emerged , and Letcher 's supporters withdrew his name and nominated Joseph R. Underwood , who eventually won the seat .
= = = As a diplomat to Mexico = = =
Letcher was a strong supporter of Whig candidate Zachary Taylor in the 1848 presidential election . When Taylor won the election , Letcher 's friend John J. Crittenden recommended Letcher for the post of postmaster general ; Taylor declined this suggestion , but instead appointed Letcher as the United States envoy and minister to Mexico . Letcher arrived in Mexico City on February 3 , 1850 .
Letcher 's primary responsibility was negotiating a treaty to protect the interests of some American citizens who had purchased the rights to construct a line of transit on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . He submitted a rough draft of the treaty to Mexican officials in March 1850 . After nearly three months of negotiation , Letcher signed a modified treaty on June 22 , 1850 . Among the modifications were a provision that tolls on Mexican @-@ produced goods transported on the route would be twenty @-@ percent less than those of United States goods and an increase in the authority exercised by Mexico in protecting the route . Letcher wrote to Secretary of State John M. Clayton that the treaty fell short of what he had hoped for , but that he believed that its provisions were the best that could be obtained .
A month after Letcher signed the treaty , Clayton was replaced as Secretary of State by Daniel Webster . In response to concerns raised by one of the Americans hoping to construct the line of transit , Webster asked that Letcher attempt to obtain certain modifications to the treaty . Letcher brought these modifications to the Mexican diplomats , but they steadfastly refused to accept them . Letcher , speaking with the blessing of the administration , intimated that the United States would take the region by force if the requested concessions were not made . The Mexican government conceded that they would not be able to resist such action , but still refused to accept the modifications to the treaty .
Upon learning of the strong Mexican resistance to his proposed modifications , Webster instructed Letcher to negotiate the most favorable terms to which the Mexicans would agree . On January 25 , 1851 , Letcher signed a second treaty that was slightly more favorable to the Americans . During the time it had taken both sides to negotiate the treaty , however , public sentiment in Mexico had turned decidedly against any form of treaty with the United States regarding Tehuantepec . On May 22 , 1851 , the Mexican government declared the agreement with the American investors null on grounds that the provisional government which granted it did not have the right to do so . Letcher attempted to negotiate a new treaty to re @-@ acquire the rights nullified by the Mexican government , but by February 14 , 1852 , he reported that he did not expect to be able to reach any kind of agreement . He returned home in August 1852 .
= = = Later political career = = =
On returning to Kentucky , Letcher resumed his legal practice . While he was away in Mexico , the congressional seat of Kentucky 's Eighth District was won by Democrat John C. Breckinridge . Known as the " Ashland district " because it contained Henry Clay 's Ashland estate and much of the territory he once represented , it was a Whig bastion that hadn 't been represented by a Democrat since 1828 . Whigs were eager to avenge the loss in 1853 , and Letcher wanted to be their candidate , but at their state convention , they chose Kentucky Attorney General James Harlan . The nomination was not well @-@ received among some Whig factions ; Harlan withdrew in March 1853 , and Letcher was chosen to replace him .
Letcher first met Breckinridge in debate at Nicholasville on April 18 , 1853 . As the incumbent , Breckinridge spoke first and focused on political issues like contrasting the higher revenue generated by the Democratic Walker tariff with that produced by the higher Tariff of 1842 favored by the Whigs . Letcher , as he did for much of the campaign , responded by appealing to party loyalty ; Breckinridge would misrepresent the district , he claimed , " because he is a Democrat " . While Breckinridge was typically well composed in debate , Letcher would often become angry . On one occasion , Letcher so frequently attempted to interrupt Breckinridge that John J. Crittenden grabbed him by the coat tails to restrain him . Breckinridge supporters derisively nicknamed Letcher " Coat Tails " for the remainder of the campaign .
When Letcher 's factional enemy , abolitionist Cassius Marcellus Clay , endorsed Breckinridge , Letcher charged that this , combined with the abolitionist views of Breckinridge 's uncle , Reverend Robert Jefferson Breckinridge , proved that Breckinridge was secretly an abolitionist , despite his consistent denial that Congress had the power to interfere with that institution . Breckinridge responded by citing newspaper accounts of an 1848 campaign speech Letcher had made in Indiana on behalf of Zachary Taylor . In the speech , he predicted that the constitutional convention then under way in Kentucky would produce a document that contained provisions for gradual emancipation , noting " It is only the ultra men in the extreme South who desire the extension of slavery . "
Both candidates received financial support from outside the district , some of which was used to buy votes or bribe voters to stay home . Breckinridge received several thousand dollars , with a substantial amount coming from Washington , D.C. banker William Wilson Corcoran ; estimates of Letcher 's support ranged from $ 30 @,@ 000 to $ 100 @,@ 000 . Breckinridge won the canvass by 526 votes and received 71 % of the vote in Owen County , which recorded 123 more votes than registered voters .
Letcher was considered the strongest Whig candidate in the state , and his inability to win the seat was a harbinger of the ultimate failure of the Whig Party in Kentucky . His loss to Breckinridge would be his last run for public office , though he remained active in politics until his death . During the 1856 presidential election , Letcher spoke on behalf of Millard Fillmore in Pennsylvania , New York , and Kentucky . In 1857 and 1858 , he urged John J. Crittenden to oppose the Lecompton Constitution for Kansas .
After the dissolution of the Whig Party , Letcher generally supported Know @-@ Nothing candidates in state politics . Letcher and Crittenden both supported National Union candidate John Bell in the 1860 presidential election , believing he represented the best hope of peacefully resolving the tension between the north and south . By election day , his health was beginning to fail . He died at his home in Frankfort on January 24 , 1861 , and was buried in Frankfort Cemetery . Letcher County , Kentucky is named in his honor .
= History of the National Hockey League ( 1917 – 42 ) =
The National Hockey League ( NHL ) was founded in 1917 following the demise of its predecessor league , the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) . In an effort to remove Eddie Livingstone as owner of the Toronto Blueshirts , a majority of the NHA franchises ( the Montreal Canadiens , Montreal Wanderers , Ottawa Senators and Quebec Bulldogs ) suspended the NHA and formed the new NHL . Quebec , while a member , did not operate in the NHL for the first two years . Instead the owners of the Toronto Arena Gardens operated a new Toronto franchise . While the NHL was intended as a temporary measure , the continuing dispute with Livingstone led to the four NHA owners meeting and making the suspension of the NHA permanent one year later .
The NHL 's first quarter @-@ century saw the league compete against two rival major leagues , the Pacific Coast Hockey Association and Western Canada Hockey League , for players and the Stanley Cup . The NHL first expanded into the United States in 1924 with the founding of the Boston Bruins , and by 1926 consisted of ten teams in Ontario , Quebec , the Great Lakes region , and the Northeastern United States . At the same time , the NHL emerged as the only major league and the sole competitor for the Stanley Cup .
The game itself continued to evolve during this time . Numerous innovations to the rules and equipment were put forward as the NHL sought to improve the flow of the game and make the sport more fan @-@ friendly . The NHL played with six men to a side rather than the traditional seven , and was among the first leagues to allow goaltenders to leave their feet to make saves . The NHL 's footprint spread across Canada as Foster Hewitt 's radio broadcasts were heard coast @-@ to @-@ coast starting in 1933 .
The Montreal Forum and Maple Leaf Gardens were built , and each played host to All @-@ Star benefit games held to raise money to support Ace Bailey and the family of Howie Morenz in Toronto and Montreal , respectively . Both players ' careers had ended due to an on @-@ ice incident , with Morenz eventually dying , a month after he sustained his initial injury . These early NHL All @-@ Star games would lead to the annual All @-@ Star games which continue today .
The Great Depression and World War II reduced the league to six teams by 1942 . Founding team Ottawa , and expansion teams New York Americans , Montreal Maroons and Pittsburgh Pirates / Philadelphia Quakers passed from the scene . Expansion team Detroit Falcons declared bankruptcy in 1932 and only survived through a merger with the Chicago Shamrocks of the American Hockey League and the pockets of prosperous owner James Norris to become the Detroit Red Wings . Desperate conditions in Montreal meant that the city nearly lost both of its teams in the 1930s ; the Canadiens nearly moved to Cleveland , but survived due to its stronger fan support . The six teams left standing in 1942 ( the Boston Bruins , Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , Montreal Canadiens , New York Rangers and Toronto Maple Leafs ) are known today as the " Original Six " .
= = Background = =
The first attempts to regulate competitive ice hockey matches came in the late 1880s . Before then , teams competed in tournaments and infrequent challenge contests that prevailed in the Canadian sports world at the time . In 1887 , four clubs from Montreal ( the Montreals , the Crystals , the Victorias , and McGill University ) and the Ottawa HC ) formed the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada ( AHAC ) and developed a structured schedule . Lord Stanley donated the Stanley Cup and appointed Sheriff John Sweetland and Philip Dansken Ross as its trustees ; they chose to award it to the best team in the AHAC , or to any pre @-@ approved team that won it in a challenge . Since the Cup carried an air of nobility , its prestige greatly benefited the AHAC .
The coordination and regularized schedule that the AHAC brought helped commercialize amateur ice hockey , which ran against the spirit of the prevailing amateur ethic . As the importance of winning grew , AHAC clubs began recruiting players from outside , and the disparity in skill between teams of the AHAC and those of other leagues became clearer . Since team owners in the AHAC wanted to defend the Stanley Cup and maintain the organization 's honour , and rink owners wanted senior hockey as their marquee attraction , AHAC clubs became increasingly reluctant about admitting new teams into the league and the senior series . When the relatively weak Ottawa Capitals joined in 1898 , the five original clubs withdrew from the AHAC to form the new Canadian Amateur Hockey League ( CAHL ) . In 1903 , four new teams created the Federal Amateur Hockey League ( FAHL ) , and in 1904 , the International Hockey League ( IHL ) , based in both Sault Ste . Maries , the Upper Peninsula of Michigan , and Pennsylvania , was created as the first fully professional league . The IHL 's ability to pay salaries caused an " Athletic War " that drained amateur clubs of top players , most noticeably in the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) .
By the 1905 – 06 season , several of the FAHL and CAHL markets were overcrowded ; Montreal alone had seven clubs . To solve the problem , the leagues merged into the new Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) , which kept four of the Montreal clubs . The new league mixed paid and amateur players in its rosters , which led to the demise of the IHL . With the IHL gone , teams from Toronto , Berlin ( now Kitchener ) , Brantford , and Guelph filled the void with the Ontario Professional Hockey League ( OPHL ) . Bidding wars for players led many ECAHA teams to lose money , and before the 1907 – 08 season , the Montreal Victorias and the Montreal HC left . The ECAHA dropped " Amateur " from its name for the 1909 season , and on November 25 , it folded . Ottawa HC , Quebec HC , and the Montreal Shamrocks founded the Canadian Hockey Association ( CHA ) , and the league later admitted the Montreal Le National and All @-@ Montreal HC . Rejected CHA applicants formed the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) .
When compared to the CHA , the geographical distances between NHA teams were much greater ; however , the NHA 's financial backers were more notable businessmen . These businessmen applied financial principles similar to those of early baseball , and the leagues quickly entered a bitter bidding war over players . In particular , after being rejected from the CHA , Renfrew aggressively pursued any players that the CHA 's Ottawa club wanted . Montreal became a notable battleground as the NHA established two franchises , including the modern @-@ day Montreal Canadiens . With its significantly wealthier backers , the NHA easily recruited the top players , leaving the CHA teams , except Ottawa , relatively mediocre . Ottawa regularly trounced its opponents , and league attendance and interest dropped . The CHA 's final season lasted eight games , and the league folded in 1910 , as its Ottawa and Montreal clubs joined the NHA .
= = Founding = =
In the 1916 – 17 season , the NHA was facing numerous problems . The Quebec Bulldogs were in financial difficulty , while the league 's most popular team , the Toronto 228th Battalion , was called away to fight in World War I. Several of the league 's team owners were growing frustrated with Toronto Blueshirts owner Eddie Livingstone , with whom they had been having problems since 1915 . Prior to the start of the season , the owners of the Montreal teams , Sam Lichtenhein of the Wanderers and George Kennedy of the Canadiens , threatened to drop the Blueshirts from the league over a player dispute Livingstone was having with the 228th Battalion . Livingstone was also in a dispute with the Ottawa Senators over the rights to Cy Denneny , while Kennedy and Livingstone had a mutual dislike that occasionally threatened to come to blows at league meetings .
The remaining owners used the loss of the 228th Battalion as a reason to eliminate the Blueshirts on February 11 , 1917 . The Montreal teams led a motion to reduce the NHA to four teams by removing the Blueshirts , ignoring Livingstone 's attempts to create a revamped five @-@ team schedule . Livingstone was promised that his players would be returned to him after the season . The dispersal of the Blueshirts ' players , organized by league secretary Frank Calder , was described by the Toronto Mail and Empire as a " raid of the Toronto players " . At the same meeting , the league adopted a motion commanding Livingstone sell the Blueshirts by June 1 .
By November 1917 , with the sale of Livingstone 's Blueshirts still not completed , the remaining owners , realizing they were powerless under the NHA constitution to forcibly eject Livingstone , decided to suspend the NHA and form a new league without Livingstone . On November 26 , 1917 , following several meetings of the NHA owners throughout the month , the National Hockey League was created at the Windsor Hotel in Montreal . The new league was represented by Lichtenhein 's Wanderers , Kennedy 's Canadiens , Tommy Gorman on behalf of the Senators , and Mike Quinn of the Bulldogs . A new team in Toronto , under the control of the Toronto Arena Company , completed the five @-@ team league . The NHL adopted the NHA 's constitution and named Calder its first president . Quebec retained membership in the NHL , but did not operate that season , so their players were dispersed by draft among the other teams .
= = = Minutes of the first meeting = = =
At a meeting of representatives of hockey clubs held at the Windsor Hotel , Montreal , November 22nd , 1917 [ , ] the following present [ , ] G.W. Kendall , S.E. Lichtenhein , T.P. Gorman , M.J. Quinn and Frank Calder , it was explained by the last named that in view of the suspension of operations by the National Hockey Association of Canada Limited , he had called the meeting at the suggestion of the Quebec Hockey Club to ascertain if some steps could not be taken to perpetuate the game of Hockey .
Frank Calder was elected to the Chair and a discussion ensued after which it was moved by T.P. Gorman , seconded by G.W. Kendall [ : ] " That the Canadien , Wanderer , Ottawa and Quebec Hockey Clubs unite to comprise the National Hockey League " . The motion was carried .
It was then moved by M.J. Quinn seconded by G.W. Kendall that : " This League agrees to operate under the rules and conditions governing the game of hockey prescribed by the National Hockey Association of Canada Limited " . The motion was carried .
At this stage , Mr. W.E. Northey , representing the Toronto Arena Company asked to be admitted to the meeting and was admitted . Mr. Northey explained that he was empowered by the interests he represented to say that in the event of a league being formed to contain four clubs , the Toronto Arena desired to enter a team in the competition .
Upon this assurance M.J. Quinn on behalf of Quebec Hockey Club declared the latter willing to withdraw provided a suitable arrangement could be made regarding players then the property of the Quebec Hockey Club .
After discussion it was unanimously agreed that the Quebec players be taken over by the league at a cost of $ 700 ( Seven Hundred Dollars ) of which amount 50 % should be paid to the Quebec Hockey Club by the club winning the championship , 30 % by the second club and 20 % by the third club in the race ....
The meeting then proceeded to the election of officers . The following directors were elected S.E. Lichtenhein ( Wanderers ) , Martin Rosenthal ( Ottawa ) , G.W. Kendall ( Canadiens ) and a director to be named by the Toronto club .
M.J. Quinn was elected Honorary President with power to vote on matters pertaining to the general welfare of the league .
Frank Calder was elected President and Secretary @-@ Treasurer at a salary of $ 800 ( Eight Hundred Dollars ) on the understanding that there could be no appeal from his decisions ....
The NHL was intended to be a temporary league , as the owners hoped to remove Livingstone from Toronto , then return to the NHA in 1918 – 19 . Livingstone had other ideas , filing lawsuits against the new league , the owners and the players in an attempt to keep his team operating . Nonetheless , the NHL began play three weeks after it was created , with the first games held on December 19 in
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oro and Badajoz . Brigadier @-@ general Manley Power was specifically mentioned by Parliament for distinguished exertions during the bloody siege of Badajoz where the 3rd was ordered to distract the enemy through a diversionary attack with ladders against the high walls of the fortress away from the main gates , but pressed the action to the point where it became the breakthrough into the fortress ( Picton was wounded scaling the ladders but continued on ) . Picton also led the 3rd when it broke through at Vitoria . According to Picton , the fighting by the 3rd was so intense at the Battle of Vitoria , that the division lost 1 @,@ 800 men ( over one third of all British losses at the battle ) having taken a key bridge and village , where they were subjected to fire by 40 to 50 cannons , and a counter @-@ attack on the right flank ( which was open because the rest of the army had not kept pace ) . Finally the 3rd was under the command of Charles Colville at the Battle of Nivelle where it took part in the main attack and then captured the bridge at Amotz under heavy resistance .
= = War of 1812 = =
Manley Power and two other successful Peninsular War veteran brigade leaders , Thomas Brisbane and Frederick Philipse Robinson , were sent to bolster British forces in the War of 1812 in North America ( and therefore did not participate in the Battle of Waterloo ) . The veteran brigade leaders were deeply disappointed by Sir George Prevost 's caution at the Battle of Plattsburgh . Prevost had placed Francis de Rottenburg in charge of infantry , with the brigades under his command ( Power with 3500 , Brisbane with 3500 , and Robinson with 2500 troops ) . The brigade leaders were dismayed with the decision to withdraw from battle because they felt they could have easily captured Plattsburgh despite the unsuccessful British naval action . Their opinions carried significant weight in Britain , which led to the removal of Prevost as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , North America . The Duke of Wellington wrote on 30 October 1814 @,@
It is very obvious to me that you must remove Sir George Prevost . I see he has gone to war about trifles with the general officers I sent him , which are certainly the best of their rank in the army ; and his subsequent failure and distresses will be aggravated by that circumstance ; and will probably with the usual fairness of the public be attributed to it .
In December , Wellington 's former Quartermaster General , Sir George Murray , was sent to Canada with the local rank of Lieutenant General , specifically to order Prévost to return to London to explain his conduct of the Plattsburg campaign . Another Peninsular War veteran and Manley Power 's previous commanding officer , Sir Edward Pakenham , became the commander of the British North American army . Manley Power took part in the Battle of New Orleans , where Pakenham was killed , which unbeknown to its participants occurred after the war had already been settled in Belgium .
= = Occupation of France = =
He was then reassigned to Europe in 1815 to rejoin the 3rd Division , which was still under the command of Charles Colville , to lead the 2nd Brigade , as part of the British army force occupying Flanders and France .
On 25 October 1818 , General Murray appointed him to be the commanding officer at Calais to oversee the evacuation of British troops from France . When it was completed , the mayor of Calais wrote a letter to express thanks for his " considerate treatment of the French and of the town of Calais during the embarkation . "
= = Later life = =
Sir Manley Power later served as the Lieutenant Governor of Malta for six years . Manley Power would have been familiar with the island , having been previously stationed there in 1802 with the 20th Regiment of Foot .
In addition to his battle honours , for his role in Peninsular War , Portugal conferred on him Knight Commander of the Order of the Tower and Sword . The honour Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath was conferred on him on 2 January 1815 .
When in England , Manley Power and his family lived in Hill Court Manor , Walford , near Ross @-@ on @-@ Wye , Herefordshire . Based on Burke 's records , he was likely Lord of the Manor of Walford , Ross , Ross Foreign , Aston Ingham , and Wilton . Sir Manley Power died on 7 July 1826 , in Bern , Switzerland , after a few hours illness while returning from Malta to England . He is buried at Bath Abbey in England .
A march named Sir Manley Power was the official quick march used by the 57th ( West Middlesex ) Regiment of Foot ( " the Die Hards " — a nickname earned at the Battle of Albuera ) ; presumably adopting the march sometime after serving in the 2nd Division during the Peninsular war , continuing to use it as the Middlesex Regiment formed in 1881 , and later as part of the 4th Battalion ( Middlesex ) of the Queen 's Regiment .
= Shane Hurlbut =
Shane Hurlbut ( born 1964 ) , also credited as L. Shane Hurlbut , is an American cinematographer . Originally from Ithaca , New York , he grew up near Cayuga Lake , and graduated from Southern Cayuga High School in 1982 . Hurlbut studied film at Emerson College , graduating with a degree in film and television in 1986 . His early career included work on music videos for Gloria Estefan and Smashing Pumpkins . He met director Rob Cohen while working on a music video for the 1996 disaster film Daylight , and again worked with Cohen as cinematographer for the television pilot of The Guardian .
Hurlbut received a nomination for an award from the American Society of Cinematographers for his work as director of cinematography on the 1998 television movie The Rat Pack – he was the youngest cinematographer ever to have been nominated for an American Society of Cinematographers award for a debut film .
He has received positive comments from film critics for his cinematography work on films including Drumline and Mr. 3000 , and in a review of the film Into the Blue Roger Ebert highlighted Hurlbut 's work . In a review of the 2005 film The Greatest Game Ever Played Joan E. Vadeboncoeur of The Post @-@ Standard described Hurlbut as a " splendid cinematographer " who contributed " beauty and atmosphere " to the film 's shots . His work on the 2006 romantic comedy Something New where he collaborated with director Sanaa Hamri was positively received in The Times @-@ Picayune and The Journal News , and his cinematography work on the 2006 film Waist Deep with director Vondie Curtis @-@ Hall was well received in The Seattle Times .
= = Early life = =
Hurlbut was raised in Ithaca , New York . His mother taught sixth grade , and his father worked as a professor 's assistant at Cornell University . He grew up on a 250 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) farm in Aurora , New York near Cayuga Lake , and graduated from Southern Cayuga High School in 1982 . He married Lydia Kunkler , a fellow graduate of Southern Cayuga .
Hurlbut attended Herkimer County Community College , graduating with a degree in radio and television broadcasting in 1984 , and he was inducted into the Alumni Hall of Honor by the Herkimer County Community College Alumni Association on April 4 , 2008 . Hurlbut received a bachelor 's degree from Emerson College , where he majored in film and television . He graduated from Emerson College in 1986 .
= = Career = =
= = = 1987 – 2004 = = =
Hurlbut moved to Los Angeles in 1987 , where he began work in film as a driver , key grip , and gaffer , before becoming a cinematographer . He was a grip truck driver for the 1988 film Phantasm II . His early career included work on music videos for Gloria Estefan and Smashing Pumpkins , photo shoot work with photographer Herb Ritts for an April 1997 Absolut Vodka spread in Vogue magazine , and work on a Nissan " Enjoy the Ride " commercial . He met director Rob Cohen while working on the Donna Summer / Bruce Roberts music video for the 1996 disaster film Daylight . Hurlbut again worked with Cohen as cinematographer for the 1997 NBC television pilot The Guardian . In 1997 Hurlbut 's career focused on light as applied to photography and film , and he owned a lighting business in Pasadena , California . Hurlbut assisted friends from Southern Cayuga in their film careers , including Dan Wade and Tim Carr .
Cohen selected Hurlbut as his cinematographer for the 1998 television movie The Rat Pack , which was Hurlbut 's feature film debut . His lighting style for the movie was heavily influenced by the glamour photography of George Hurrell . Hurlbut received a nomination for an award from the American Society of Cinematographers for his cinematography work on the movie , becoming the youngest cinematographer ever to have been nominated for an American Society of Cinematographers award for a debut film . Hurlbut worked again with Cohen on the 2000 film The Skulls , which was his first theatrical feature film .
He received positive comments for his work on the 2002 film Drumline , directed by Charles Stone III . Lou Lumenick of the New York Post wrote that the film was " Handsomely photographed by Shane Hurlbut " . " With 300 students dancing , running , jumping , singing and playing , Stone and cinematographer Shane Hurlbut bring you right inside the brassy band , nudged between the tubas , saxophones and clarinets , " wrote Clint O 'Connor of The Plain Dealer . Charles Taylor of Salon commented " The movie was shot by Shane Hurlbut and none of the shots call attention to themselves . Instead you 're struck by the beauty of watching a row of drummers ' hands as they blur with the rhythm their sticks are beating out . " Hurlbut worked with director Barry Levinson , as cinematographer for The Adventures of Seinfeld & Superman advertisements for American Express .
In 2004 , Hurlbut teamed up with director Charles Stone III again to work on the film Mr. 3000 . In a positive review of the film , Harper Barnes of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch highlighted Hurlbut , noting he had previously worked with the film 's editor , Bill Pankow , on Drumline . In a review of Mr. 3000 for The Manhattan Mercury , arts critic G.W. Clift specifically highlighted Hurlbut 's work on the film , commenting : " Mr. 3000 has several attractions , even unexpected ones like Shane Hurlbut 's heart @-@ stopping photography . ... one doesn 't mind that it lingers over scenes , in part because the scenes look so very good . " In his review Mr. 3000 for the Intelligencer Journal , Jack Roberts also highlighted Hurlbut 's work on the film .
= = = 2005 – present = = =
Hurlbut 's cinematography work on the 2005 film Into the Blue received positive reception from film critic Roger Ebert . In a review of Into the Blue for the San Francisco Chronicle , Peter Hartlaub noted " director of photography Shane Hurlbut does some nice work in tight places " . Lou Lumenick wrote in the New York Post that the " watery interludes " in Into the Blue were " gorgeously photographed by Shane Hurlbut " . Though Associated Press writer David Germain gave a negative review overall of Into the Blue , he wrote positively of Hurlbut 's cinematography work , commenting : " Shane Hurlbut 's cinematography buoys the movie , but his lovely pictures of the actors swimming among jellyfish and shimmery aquatic vegetation cannot compensate for everything else . "
Bob Strauss of the Los Angeles Daily News also wrote positively of Hurlbut 's work in his review of Into the Blue , writing : " The undersea photography , much of it shot amid schools of wild sharks , is exquisite ... " Strauss also commented positively on Hurlbut 's work on the 2005 film The Greatest Game Ever Played , writing he " does a great job of making golf look cinematic " . Soren Andersen of The News Tribune wrote of Hurlbut 's work on The Greatest Game Ever Played : " Shot by cinematographer Shane Hurlbut , the picture is extraordinarily handsome , with its velvety green fairways and its burnished , candlelit interiors . " Joan E. Vadeboncoeur of The Post @-@ Standard was critical of the film 's script , but praised Hurlbut 's work : " Director Bill Paxton does have a splendid cinematographer , Shane Hurlbut , contributing beauty and atmosphere . "
In 2005 , Hurlbut became the first cinematographer to utilize the InDI process developed by LaserPacific , while working on the film Something New . In 2006 , Hurlbut became a member of the American Society of Cinematographers . Hurlbut 's cinematography work on the 2006 romantic comedy was positively received by film critic Michael H. Kleinschrodt of The Times @-@ Picayune , who wrote : " Cinematographer Shane Hurlbut finds interesting angles from which to shoot and photographs a formal cotillion with panache . " Kevin Canfield of The Journal News noted that Hurlbut assisted director Sanaa Hamri with " one lovely scene of the lovers bathed in the orangy light of morning and another , shot from overhead , of couples twirling on a dance floor " .
Hurlbut worked on the 2006 film Waist Deep with director Vondie Curtis @-@ Hall , and Tom Keogh of The Seattle Times described their work on shots prior to a kidnapping scene in the film as " close to breathtaking " . Hurlbut worked as cinematographer on the 2008 film Semi @-@ Pro starring Will Ferrell , and Steven Boone of The Star @-@ Ledger noted : " ... Shane Hurlbut 's widescreen sports cinematography does conspire with two notorious disco covers of classical music to give us a thrill along with the cheap laughs . " Hurlbut collaborated with director McG as director of photography on the 2006 film We Are Marshall . Hurlbut and McG decided to use vintage lenses and film stock from the time period to evoke a feeling of the 1970s .
In 2008 , Hurlbut again worked with director McG , as director of photography on the film Terminator Salvation . During shooting for the film in July 2008 , Hurlbut faced an expletive @-@ ridden tirade from actor Christian Bale , who berated Hurlbut for walking into a scene involving Bale and actress Bryce Dallas Howard . Hurlbut responded calmly and apologized several times to Bale , and continued shooting for seven hours after the incident . On February 6 , 2009 , Bale told KROQ @-@ FM radio that he and Hurlbut talked after the incident and " resolved this completely " . Bale acknowledged the two worked together for several hours after the incident , and " at least a month after that " , and noted " I 've seen a rough cut of the movie and he has done a wonderful job . It looks fantastic " .
Charles Stone III , director of the original " Whassup ? " commercial campaign for Anheuser @-@ Busch Budweiser beer , remembered Hurlbut from their work together on Drumline , and contacted him in 2008 to make a video in support of Barack Obama 's 2008 campaign for President . The video , " Wassup 2008 " was posted to YouTube in October 2008 and received over 1 @.@ 8 million views .
= = Filmography = =
= Emily Dickinson =
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson ( December 10 , 1830 – May 15 , 1886 ) was an American poet . Dickinson was born in Amherst , Massachusetts . Although part of a prominent family with strong ties to its community , Dickinson lived much of her life highly introverted . After studying at the Amherst Academy for seven years in her youth , she briefly attended the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary before returning to her family 's house in Amherst . Considered an eccentric by locals , she developed a noted penchant for white clothing and became known for her reluctance to greet guests or , later in life , to even leave her bedroom . Dickinson never married , and most friendships between her and others depended entirely upon correspondence .
While Dickinson was a prolific private poet , fewer than a dozen of her nearly 1 @,@ 800 poems were published during her lifetime . The work that was published during her lifetime was usually altered significantly by the publishers to fit the conventional poetic rules of the time . Dickinson 's poems are unique for the era in which she wrote ; they contain short lines , typically lack titles , and often use slant rhyme as well as unconventional capitalization and punctuation . Many of her poems deal with themes of death and immortality , two recurring topics in letters to her friends .
Although Dickinson 's acquaintances were most likely aware of her writing , it was not until after her death in 1886 — when Lavinia , Dickinson 's younger sister , discovered her cache of poems — that the breadth of her work became apparent to the public . Her first collection of poetry was published in 1890 by personal acquaintances Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Mabel Loomis Todd , though both heavily edited the content . A complete , and mostly unaltered , collection of her poetry became available for the first time when scholar Thomas H. Johnson published The Poems of Emily Dickinson in 1955 . Despite some unfavorable reception and skepticism over the late 19th and early 20th centuries regarding her literary prowess , Dickinson is now almost universally considered to be one of the most significant of all American poets .
= = Life = =
= = = Family and early childhood = = =
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was born at the family 's homestead in Amherst , Massachusetts , on December 10 , 1830 , into a prominent , but not wealthy , family . Two hundred years earlier , her patrilineal ancestors had arrived in the New World — in the Puritan Great Migration — where they prospered . Emily Dickinson 's paternal grandfather , Samuel Dickinson , had almost single @-@ handedly founded Amherst College . In 1813 , he built the homestead , a large mansion on the town 's Main Street , that became the focus of Dickinson family life for the better part of a century . Samuel Dickinson 's eldest son , Edward , was treasurer of Amherst College for nearly forty years , served numerous terms as a State Legislator , and represented the Hampshire district in the United States Congress . On May 6 , 1828 , he married Emily Norcross from Monson . They had three children :
William Austin ( 1829 – 1895 ) , known as Austin , Aust or Awe
Emily Elizabeth
Lavinia Norcross ( 1833 – 1899 ) , known as Lavinia or Vinnie
By all accounts , young Emily was a well @-@ behaved girl . On an extended visit to Monson when she was two , Emily 's Aunt Lavinia described Emily as " perfectly well & contented — She is a very good child & but little trouble . " Emily 's aunt also noted the girl 's affinity for music and her particular talent for the piano , which she called " the moosic " .
Dickinson attended primary school in a two @-@ story building on Pleasant Street . Her education was " ambitiously classical for a Victorian girl " . Her father wanted his children well @-@ educated and he followed their progress even while away on business . When Emily was seven , he wrote home , reminding his children to " keep school , and learn , so as to tell me , when I come home , how many new things you have learned " . While Emily consistently described her father in a warm manner , her correspondence suggests that her mother was regularly cold and aloof . In a letter to a confidante , Emily wrote she " always ran Home to Awe [ Austin ] when a child , if anything befell me . He was an awful Mother , but I liked him better than none . "
On September 7 , 1840 , Dickinson and her sister Lavinia started together at Amherst Academy , a former boys ' school that had opened to female students just two years earlier . At about the same time , her father purchased a house on North Pleasant Street . Emily 's brother Austin later described this large new home as the " mansion " over which he and Emily presided as " lord and lady " while their parents were absent . The house overlooked Amherst 's burial ground , described by one local minister as treeless and " forbidding " .
= = = Teenage years = = =
Dickinson spent seven years at the Academy , taking classes in English and classical literature , Latin , botany , geology , history , " mental philosophy , " and arithmetic . Daniel Taggart Fiske , the school 's principal at the time , would later recall that Dickinson was " very bright " and " an excellent scholar , of exemplary deportment , faithful in all school duties " . Although she had a few terms off due to illness — the longest of which was in 1845 – 1846 , when she was enrolled for only eleven weeks — she enjoyed her strenuous studies , writing to a friend that the Academy was " a very fine school " .
Dickinson was troubled from a young age by the " deepening menace " of death , especially the deaths of those who were close to her . When Sophia Holland , her second cousin and a close friend , grew ill from typhus and died in April 1844 , Emily was traumatized . Recalling the incident two years later , Emily wrote that " it seemed to me I should die too if I could not be permitted to watch over her or even look at her face . " She became so melancholic that her parents sent her to stay with family in Boston to recover . With her health and spirits restored , she soon returned to Amherst Academy to continue her studies . During this period , she first met people who were to become lifelong friends and correspondents , such as Abiah Root , Abby Wood , Jane Humphrey , and Susan Huntington Gilbert ( who later married Emily 's brother Austin ) .
In 1845 , a religious revival took place in Amherst , resulting in 46 confessions of faith among Dickinson 's peers . Dickinson wrote to a friend the following year : " I never enjoyed such perfect peace and happiness as the short time in which I felt I had found my savior . " She went on to say that it was her " greatest pleasure to commune alone with the great God & to feel that he would listen to my prayers . " The experience did not last : Dickinson never made a formal declaration of faith and attended services regularly for only a few years . After her church @-@ going ended , about 1852 , she wrote a poem opening : " Some keep the Sabbath going to Church – / I keep it , staying at Home " .
During the last year of her stay at the
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After the song stops and the four girls are seen laying down tired , Spears turns around to them and say , " Way to rock the spots , ladies . "
= = Live performances and cover versions = =
Spears first performed " Till the World Ends " at Rain Nightclub in the Palms Casino Resort on March 25 , 2011 . After performances of " Hold It Against Me " and " Big Fat Bass " , Spears appeared wearing a black latex bodysuit covered in red lights and surrounded by her dancers , while the stage was filled with ladders and LED lighting . At the end , she ascended the ladders and ended up on a platform , gyrating from above the room . As fireworks lit the stage , Spears danced and tossed her hair as the song closed . She also taped performances of " Hold It Against Me " , " Big Fat Bass " and " Till the World Ends " at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium on March 27 , 2011 , that aired on Good Morning America on March 29 , 2011 . The same day , Spears performed the set on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . On May 22 , 2011 , she briefly performed the song at the Billboard Music Awards in the MGM Grand Garden Arena . After Minaj performed " Super Bass " , she started to sing the rap verse of The Femme Fatale Remix . Spears emerged onstage for the chorus and performed alongside Minaj and her back up dancers while walking to a minor stage .
Spears also performed " Till the World Ends " at the Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) . At the end of " Toxic " , she goes below the stage and returns wearing a black sparkly bodysuit for " Till the World Ends " . Halfway through the performance , Minaj appears on the backdrops rapping her verse of The Femme Fatale Remix of the song . She also joined Spears to perform the verse in select cities . After the song changes back to the original version , Spears starts flying in a platform with giant angel wings . The show ends with Spears and her dancers thanking the audience , as confetti falls and the " Femme Fatale " sign is lowered onstage . Jason L. Nelson of The Beaver County Times said that " encore hits ' Toxic ' and ' Till the World Ends ' kept the crowd beaming . " Spears also performed the song as part of the encore section from her Las Vegas residency Britney : Piece of Me . At the end of the performance , Spears ascended into the back of the stage in a globe @-@ cage .
During the Pink Friday Tour , Nicki Minaj included " Till the World Ends " as an interlude .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Till the World Ends liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Resident Evil 5 =
Resident Evil 5 , known in Japan as Biohazard 5 ( バイオハザード5 , Baiohazādo 5 ) , is a survival horror third @-@ person shooter video game developed and published by Capcom . The fifth major installment in the Resident Evil series , the game was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles in March 2009 and for Microsoft Windows in September of that year . Resident Evil 5 was re @-@ released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One In June 28 , 2016 . Resident Evil 5 's plot involves an investigation by Chris Redfield and Sheva Alomar of a terrorist threat in Kijuju , a fictional region of Africa . Chris soon learns that he must confront his past in the form of an old enemy , Albert Wesker .
The game was announced in 2005 , the same year predecessor Resident Evil 4 was released . Several staff members from the original Resident Evil worked on Resident Evil 5 . Motion capture was used for the game 's cutscenes , and it was the first video game to use a virtual camera system . Resident Evil 5 's gameplay was similar to that of the previous installment , and producer Jun Takeuchi said that themes from the original game were used . Resident Evil 5 had a mostly positive reception , although the game was criticised for problems with its controls . Outselling its predecessor , Resident Evil 5 became the franchise 's best @-@ selling individual game . A sequel , Resident Evil 6 , was released in 2012 .
= = Gameplay = =
Resident Evil 5 is a third @-@ person shooter with an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder perspective . Players can use a number of weapons ( including handguns , shotguns , automatic rifles , sniper rifles and grenade launchers ) in addition to melee attacks . Wounding an enemy with a firearm often causes them to stagger ; if the player is in close range , an icon will appear with the option of a melee attack such as an uppercut or a somersault kick . Players can make quick 180 @-@ degree turns to evade enemies . Many of the game 's cutscenes and boss battles involve quick time events .
Like its predecessor Resident Evil 4 , although players cannot run and shoot at the same time they can upgrade weapons with money and treasure and heal themselves with herbs . New features include infected enemies with guns and grenades , the ability to upgrade weapons at any time from the inventory screen ( rather than finding a merchant ) and the equipping of weapons and items in real time during gameplay . Each player can store nine items ( unlike the previous games , the item size is irrelevant ; an herb or a grenade launcher each occupy one space ) , and four items may be assigned to the D @-@ pad .
Resident Evil 5 supports two @-@ player co @-@ operative gameplay . The first player controls Chris Redfield , and a second player can control Sheva Alomar . If a person plays alone , Sheva is controlled by the game 's artificial intelligence . When the game has been completed once , there is an option to make Sheva the primary character . Two @-@ player mode is available online or split @-@ screen with a local player . A second player joining a split @-@ screen game in progress will make the game reload the last checkpoint ; the second player joining an online game will have to wait until the first player reaches the next checkpoint ( or restarts the previous one ) to play . Split @-@ screen mode presents the game in two windows with the wide @-@ screen proportions of one @-@ player mode , rather than splitting the screen in two , and the entire screen is not utilized . Players are separated at points during gameplay ; if one player has critical health , only their partner can resuscitate them . Players can trade items during gameplay , although weapons cannot be traded with online players .
A version of the Mercenaries minigame which debuted in Resident Evil 3 is included in Resident Evil 5 . When the game was released the minigame multiplayer mode was offline only , but a release @-@ day patch gave the game online multiplayer modes . Mercenaries unlocks when the game 's story mode has been completed . This minigame places the player in an enclosed environment with a time limit . Customised weapons cannot be used , and players must search for weapons , ammunition and time bonuses while fighting a barrage of enemies to score as many points as possible within the time limit .
= = Plot = =
Five years after the events of Resident Evil 4 Chris Redfield , a former Special Tactics and Rescue Service member and now part of the Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance ( BSAA ) , is dispatched to Kijuju in Africa . He and his new partner Sheva Alomar are tasked with apprehending Ricardo Irving before he can sell a bio @-@ organic weapon ( BOW ) on the black market . When they arrive , they discover that the locals have been infected by parasites ( those infected are called " Majini " ) and the BSAA Alpha Team have been killed . Chris and Sheva are rescued by BSAA 's Delta Team , which includes Sheva 's mentor Josh Stone . In Josh 's data Chris sees a photograph of Jill Valentine , his old partner , who is presumed dead after a confrontation with Albert Wesker . Chris , Sheva and Delta Team close in on Irving , but he escapes with the aid of a hooded figure . Wesker leaves documents which lead Chris and Sheva to marshy oilfields where Irving 's deal is to occur , but they discover that the documents are a diversion . When Chris and Sheva try to regroup with Delta Team , they find the team slaughtered by a BOW ; Sheva cannot find Josh among the dead . Determined to learn if Jill is still alive , Chris does not report to headquarters .
Continuing through the marsh , they find Josh injured but safe and track down Irving 's boat with his help . Irving injects himself with a parasite variant , Las Plagas , and mutates into a huge octopus @-@ like beast . Chris and Sheva defeat him , and his dying words lead them to a nearby cave to learn more . The cave is the source of a flower used to create the Progenitor virus , which led to the T- and G @-@ viruses and has been used to form Uroboros ( a new , powerful strain ) . Chris and Sheva find evidence that Tricell , the company funding the BSAA , took over a former Umbrella Corporation underground laboratory and continued Umbrella 's research . In the facility are thousands of capsules holding human test subjects . Although Chris discovers that one of the capsules is Jill 's , it is empty . When they leave , they discover that Tricell CEO Excella Gionne has been plotting with Wesker to launch missiles with the Uroboros virus across the globe ; it is eventually revealed that Wesker hopes to take a chosen few from the chaos of infection and rule them , creating a new breed of humanity . Chris and Sheva pursue Excella , but are stopped by Wesker and a mind @-@ controlled Jill . Excella and Wesker escape to a Tricell oil tanker ; Chris and Sheva fight Jill , subduing her and removing the mind @-@ control device before she orders Chris to follow Wesker .
Chris and Sheva board the tanker and encounter Excella , who escapes after dropping a case of syringes ; Sheva keeps several . When Chris and Sheva reach the main deck , Wesker announces over the ship 's intercom that he has betrayed and infected Excella with Uroboros . She mutates into a giant monster , which Chris and Sheva defeat . Jill radios in , telling Chris and Sheva that Wesker must take precise , regular doses of a virus to maintain his strength and speed ; a larger or smaller dose would poison him . Sheva realizes that Excella 's syringes are doses of the drug . Chris and Sheva follow Wesker to a bomber loaded with missiles containing the Uroboros virus , injecting him with additional doses . Wesker tries to escape on the bomber ; Chris and Sheva disable it , making him crash @-@ land in a volcano . Furious ‚ Wesker exposes himself to Uroboros and chases Chris and Sheva through the volcano . They fight him , and the weakened Wesker falls into the lava before Chris and Sheva are rescued by a helicopter piloted by Jill and Josh . As a dying Wesker attempts to drag the helicopter into the volcano , Chris and Sheva blast the rocket @-@ propelled grenades at Wesker 's position , finally killing him and ending his threat once and for all . In the game 's final cutscene , Chris wonders if the fight is worthwhile . Looking at Sheva and Jill , he decides to live in a world without fear .
= = Development = =
Resident Evil 5 was developed by Capcom and produced by Jun Takeuchi , who had directed Onimusha and produced Lost Planet : Extreme Condition . Keiji Inafune , promotional producer for Resident Evil 2 and executive producer of the PlayStation 2 version of Resident Evil 4 , supervised the project . In February 2007 , members of Capcom 's Clover Studio were asked to help develop the game ; many of the studio 's developers instead worked on Resident Evil : The Umbrella Chronicles , which debuted for the Wii . Several staff members who worked on the original Resident Evil were involved in Resident Evil 5 's development . The game 's scenario was written by Haruo Murata and Yoshiaki Hirabayashi , based on a story idea by concept director Kenichi Ueda . Takeuchi announced that the game would retain the gameplay model introduced in Resident Evil 4 , with themes from the original Resident Evil . Tsukasa Takenaka provided additional story background and created the in @-@ game files .
Takeuchi said that about three years of " actual development time " were spent on the game , after a year devoted to concept and planning . At its development peak , about 110 people worked on the project . The decision for co @-@ operative gameplay was made " part @-@ way " through development , for a new experience in a Resident Evil game . Despite initial concern that a second player would dampen the game 's tension and horror , it was later realized that a second player could increase tension in situations where one player had to be rescued . Takeuchi said that the decision to have both screens in their original 16 : 9 ratio in split @-@ screen mode was influenced by a desire to avoid stacking the screens ( which might be distracting ) , and the restriction on simultaneously moving and shooting was retained to increase player tension with the inability to move freely . Takeuchi cited the film Black Hawk Down and his experience working on Lost Planet : Extreme Condition as influences on Resident Evil 5 .
Although previous Resident Evil games are primarily set at night , the events of Resident Evil 5 occur almost entirely during the day . Director Yasuhiro Anpo said in July 2008 that the game 's daytime setting was due to advanced graphics capabilities , which gave the developers more lighting options . Takeuchi said that the film 28 Days Later , set primarily outdoors during the day , demonstrated that horror could be created without darkness . Anpo said that since Resident Evil 4 was " a very long game " and occasionally tedious , they would try to make Resident Evil 5 " a little shorter " and more exciting . Resident Evil 5 runs on version 1 @.@ 4 of Capcom 's MT Framework engine , with scenes recorded by motion capture . It was the first video game to use virtual cameras , which allowed the developers to see character movements in real time as the motion @-@ capture actors recorded . Actors Reuben Langdon , Karen Dyer and Ken Lally portrayed Chris Redfield , Sheva Alomar and Albert Wesker . Some of the game 's animation could not be recorded with motion capture and was hand @-@ keyed , and motion @-@ capture scenes were often retouched by hand to make them look more realistic or vivid .
Kota Suzuki was the game 's principal composer , with additional music by Hideki Okugawa , Akihiko Narita and Seiko Kobuchi . Suzuki said that the daytime setting of Resident Evil 5 did not significantly influence its score , although due to increased visibility it required the precise synchronisation of sound effects and on @-@ screen action . The composer 's electronic score includes 15 minutes of orchestral music , recorded at the Newman Scoring Stage of 20th Century Fox Studios in Los Angeles with the 103 @-@ piece Hollywood Studio Symphony . Additional orchestral music and the orchestral arrangements were by Wataru Hokoyama , who conducted the orchestra . Capcom recorded in Los Angeles because they wanted a Hollywood @-@ style soundtrack to increase the game 's cinematic value and global interest . Resident Evil 5 's soundtrack features an original theme song , composed by Kota Suzuki and sung by Oulimata Niang .
= = Marketing and release = =
Resident Evil 5 was introduced by Capcom on July 20 , 2005 , and the company showed a brief trailer for the game at E3 2007 . Its full E3 trailer became available on the Xbox Live Marketplace and the PlayStation Store on July 26 , 2007 . A new trailer , shown at the Captivate 08 media summit , debuted on Spike TV 's Gametrailers TV on May 31 , 2008 and on the GameTrailers website . A playable game demo was released in Japan on December 5 , 2008 for the Xbox 360 , in North America and Europe for the Xbox 360 on January 26 , 2009 and on February 2 for the PlayStation 3 . Worldwide downloads of the demo exceeded four million for the two consoles , with over 1 @.@ 8 million from January 26 to January 29 .
On January 21 , 2009 , D + PAD Magazine reported that Resident Evil 5 would be released with limited @-@ edition Xbox 360 box art ; pictures of the limited @-@ edition box claimed that it would allow two to sixteen players to play offline via System Link . Although Capcom said that their " box art isn 't lying " , the company did not provide any more details . Capcom soon issued another statement that the box @-@ art information was incorrect , and System Link could support only two players . Microsoft released a limited @-@ edition , red Xbox 360 Elite
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Life = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Hale was born on 1 November 1609 in West End House ( now known as The Grange or Alderley Grange ) in Alderley , Gloucestershire to Robert Hale , a barrister of Lincoln 's Inn , and Joanna Poyntz . His father gave up his practise as a barrister several years before Hale 's birth " because he could not understand the reason of giving colour in pleadings " . This refers to a process through which the defendant would refer a case over the validity of his title to land to a judge instead of a jury , through claiming a ( false ) allegation about this right . Such an allegation would be a question of law rather than a question of fact , and as such decided by the judge with no reference to the jurors . Although in common use , Robert Hale apparently saw this as deceptive and " contrary to the exactness of truth and justice which became a Christian ; so that he withdrew himself from the inns of court to live on his estate in the country " . John Hostettler , in his biography of Matthew Hale , points out that his father 's concerns about giving colour in pleadings could not have been very strong " since he not only retired to his estate at Alderley where he managed to live on his wife 's inherited income , but also directed in his will that Matthew should make a career in the law " .
Both of Hale 's parents died before he was five ; Joanna in 1612 , and Robert in 1614 . It was then revealed that Robert had been so generous in giving money to the poor that at his death his estate provided only £ 100 of income a year , of which £ 20 was to be paid to the local poor . Hale thus passed into the care of Anthony Kingscot , one of his father 's relatives . A strong Puritan , Kingscot had Hale taught by a Mr. Stanton , the vicar of Wotton known as the " scandalous vicar " due to his extremist puritan views . On 20 October 1626 , at the age of 16 , Hale matriculated at the University of Oxford as a member of Magdalen Hall , with the goal of becoming a priest . Both Kingscot and Stanton had intended this to be his career , and his education had been conducted with that in mind . He was taught by Obadiah Sedgwick , another Puritan , and excelled in both his studies and fencing . Hale also regularly attended church , private prayer @-@ meetings , and was described as " simple in his attire , and rather aesthetic " . After a company of actors came to Oxford , Hale attended so many plays and other social activities that his studies began to suffer , and he began to turn away from Puritanism . In light of this , he abandoned his desire to become a priest and instead decided to become a soldier . His relatives were unable to persuade him to become a priest , or even a lawyer , with Hale describing lawyers as " a barbarous set of people unfit for anything but their own trade " .
His plans to become a soldier died after a legal battle concerning his estate , in which he consulted John Glanville . Glanville successfully persuaded Hale to become a lawyer , and , after leaving Oxford at the age of 20 before obtaining a degree , he joined Lincoln 's Inn on 8 November 1628 . Fearing that the theatre might dissuade him from his legal studies as it had at Oxford , he swore " never to see a stage @-@ play again " . At around this time he was drinking with a group of friends when one of them became so drunk he fainted ; Hale prayed to God to forgive and save his friend , and forgive him for his previous excesses . His friend recovered , and Hale was restored to his Puritan faith , never drinking to someone 's health again ( not even drinking to the King ) and going to church every Sunday for 36 years . He instead settled into his studies , working for up to 16 hours a day during his first two years at Lincoln 's Inn before reducing it to eight hours due to health concerns . As well as reading the law reports and statutes , Hale also studied the Roman civil law and jurisprudence . Outside of the law , Hale studied anatomy , history , philosophy and mathematics . He refused to read the news or attend social events , and occupied himself entirely with his studies and visits to church .
= = = Civil War , Commonwealth and Protectorate = = =
= = = = Barrister = = = =
On 17 May 1636 , Hale was called to the Bar by Lincoln 's Inn , and immediately became the pupil of William Noy . Hale and Noy became close friends , to the point where he was referred to as " the young Noy " , and more crucially he also met and befriended John Selden , a " man of almost universal learning , whose theories were to dominate much of [ Hale 's ] later thought " . Selden persuaded him to continue with his studies outside the law , and much of Hale 's written work is concerned with theology and science as well as legal theory . Hale gained a good legal practise , although he allowed his Christian faith to govern his work . He sought to help the court reach a just verdict , whatever his client 's concerns , and normally returned half his fee or charged a standard fee of 10 shillings rather than allow costs to inflate . He refused to accept unjust cases , and always tried to be on the " right " side of any case ; John Campbell wrote that " If he saw that a cause was unjust , he for a great while would not meddle further in it but to give his advice that it was so ; if the parties after that would go on , they were to seek another counsellor , for he would assist none in acts of injustice " .
Despite this , he was wealthy enough to purchase land worth £ 4 @,@ 200 in 1648 . He was in great demand ; law reporters began recording his cases and in 1641 he advised Thomas Wentworth , the first Earl of Strafford , over his attainder for high treason . Although unsuccessful , Hale was then called to represent William Laud , the Archbishop of Canterbury , during his impeachment by the House of Lords in October 1644 . Hale , along with John Herne , argued that none of Laud 's alleged offences constituted treason , and that the Treason Act 1351 had abolished all common law treasons . John Wilde , arguing for the prosecution , admitted that none of Laud 's actions amounted to treason , but argued that all of them together did . Herne , in his arguments written by Hale , retorted that " I crave your mercy , [ Wilde ] . I never understood before this time that two hundred couple of black rabbits would make a black horse ! " The case against Laud began to fail , but Parliament issued an Act of Attainder which declared him guilty , and sentenced him to death . After the capture of Charles I , Hale was expected to defend him , and indeed offered to do so ; the King refused to submit to the court , claiming he did not recognise its jurisdiction . Edward Foss writes , based on the statement of Charles Runnington , that it was Hale who actually provided the King with this defence , and that it was only because the defence prevented any counsel being called for the King that Hale did not appear in court .
When it became clear that the King was losing the Civil War , and only Oxford held out , Hale decided to act as a commissioner to negotiate its surrender , fearing that the city might otherwise be destroyed . Thanks to his intercession , honourable terms were reached , and the libraries preserved . Despite practising in the politically charged environment of the English Civil War and primarily defending opponents of the resulting Commonwealth of England , Hale 's reputation did not suffer . First , he largely kept out of the war , even ignoring news of its progress , and instead translating The Life and Death of Pomponious Atticus into English . Second , he was acknowledged as universally able and of high integrity during his cases , retorting to those who complained of his defence of the Royalists that he was " pleading in defence of the laws which they professed they would maintain and preserve ; and that he was doing his duty to his client and was not to be daunted by such threatenings " .
= = = = Hale Commission = = = =
During the rule of both the Commonwealth and the Protectorate , there was considerable desire for law reform . Many judges and lawyers were corrupt , and the criminal law followed no real reason or philosophy . Any felony was punishable by death , proceedings were in a form of Norman French , and judges regularly imprisoned judges for reaching a verdict they disagreed with . Oliver Cromwell and the Rump Parliament aimed to establish a " new society " , which included reforming the law . To that end , on 30 January 1652 Hale was appointed chairman of a commission to investigate law reform , which soon became known as the Hale Commission . The Commission 's official remit was defined by the Commons ; " taking into consideration what inconveniences there are in the law ; and how the mischiefs which grow from delays , the chargeableness and irregularities in the proceedings in the law may be prevented , and the speediest way to reform the same , and to present their opinions to such committee as the Parliament shall appoint " . The Commission consisted of eight lawyers and 13 laymen , which sat from 23 January approximately three times a week .
The Commission recommended various changes , such as reducing the use of the death penalty , allowing defendants access to legal counsel , legal aid and the abolition of peine forte et dure as a torture mechanism . Dissolved on 23 July 1652 after producing 16 bills , none of the Commission 's recommendations immediately made it into law , although two ( to abolish fines for original writs and to develop procedures for civil marriages ) were brought into force through statutes by the Barebone 's Parliament . Almost all of the recommendations eventually became part of English law , with John Hostettler , in his biography of Hale , writing that if the measures had been put into law immediately , " we would have been honouring such pioneers for their farsightedness in enhancing our legal system and the concept of justice " .
= = = = Justice of the Common Pleas = = = =
Oliver Cromwell , noting Hale 's abilities , asked him to become a Justice of the Common Pleas . Although Hale considered that taking this commission would make others think he supported the Commonwealth , he was persuaded to do so , replacing John Puleston . Only Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law could become judges , and as such Hale was made a Serjeant on 25 January 1653 . He was formally appointed a Justice of the Court of Common Pleas , one of the three principal Westminster courts , on 31 January 1653 , on the condition that he " would not be required to acknowledge the usurper 's authority " . He also refused to put people to death for offences against the government ; he believed that because the government authorising him to do so was an illegal one , " putting men to death on that account was murder " . William Blackstone later wrote that " if judgment of death be given by a judge not authorized by lawful commission , and execution is done accordingly , the judge is guilty of murder ; and upon this argument Sir Matthew Hale himself , though he accepted the place of a judge of the Common Pleas under Cromwell 's government , yet declined to sit on the crown side at the assizes , and try prisoners , having very strong objections to the legality of the usurper 's commission " . Hale also made decisions which negatively impacted on the Commonwealth , executing a soldier for murdering a civilian in 1655 , and actively refusing to attend a court hearing outside term time . On another occasion , Cromwell personally selected a jury in a trial he was concerned with , something contrary to law ; as a result , Hale dismissed the jury and refused to hear the case . On 15 May 1659 , Hale chose to retire , and was replaced by John Archer .
= = = = Member of Parliament = = = =
On 3 September 1654 , the First Protectorate Parliament was called ; of the 400 English members , only two were lawyers — Hooke , a Baron of the Exchequer , and Hale , who was elected Member of Parliament for his home county of Gloucestershire . Hale was an active MP , persuading the Commons to reject a motion to destroy the Tower of London 's archives , and introducing several motions to preserve the authority of Parliament . The first was that the government should be " in a Parliament and a single person limited and restrained as the Parliament should think fit " , and he later proposed that the English Council of State be subject to re @-@ election every three years by the House of Commons , that the militia should be controlled by Parliament , and that supplies should only be granted to the army for limited periods . While these proposals got support , Cromwell refused to allow any MPs into the Commons until they signed an oath recognising his authority , which Hale refused to do . As such , none of them were passed . Dissatisfied with the First Protectorate Parliament , Cromwell dissolved it on 22 January 1655 .
A Second Protectorate Parliament was called on 17 September 1656 , which wrote a constitution titled Humble Petition and Advice that called for the creation of an Upper House to perform the job of the former House of Lords . Cromwell accepted this constitution , and in December 1657 nominated the Upper House 's members . Hale , as a judge , was called to it . This new House 's extensive jurisdiction and authority was immediately questioned by the Commons , and Cromwell responded by dissolving the Parliament on 4 February 1658 . On 3 September 1658 , Oliver Cromwell died and was replaced by his son , Richard Cromwell . Richard Cromwell summoned a new Parliament on 27 January 1659 , and Hale was returned as MP for Oxford University . Richard Cromwell was a weak leader , however , and ruled for only 8 months before resigning . On 16 March 1660 General Monck forced the Parliament to vote for its own dissolution and call new elections . At the same time , Charles II made the Declaration of Breda , and when the Convention Parliament met on 25 April 1660 ( with Hale a member from Gloucestershire again ) it immediately began negotiations with the King . Hale moved in the Commons that " a committee might be appointed to look into the overtures that had been made , and the concessions that had been offered , by [ Charles I ] " and " from thence to digest such propositions , as they should think fit to be sent over to [ Charles II ] " who was still in Breda . On 1 May Parliament restored the King , and Charles II landed in Dover three weeks later , prompting the English Restoration .
= = = English Restoration = = =
= = = = Chief Baron and Chief Justice = = = =
Hale 's first task in the new regime was as part of the Special Commission of 37 judges who tried the 29 regicides not included in the Declaration of Breda , between 9 and 19 October 1660 . All were found guilty of treason , and 10 of them were hanged , drawn and quartered . Sitting as a judge in this trial led to some viewing Hale as hypocritical , with F.A. Inderwick later writing " I confess to a feeling of pain at finding [ Hale ] in October 1660 , sitting as a judge at the Old Bailey , trying and condemning to death batches of the regicides , men under whose orders he had himself acted , who had been his colleagues in Parliament , with whom he had sat on committees to alter the law " . Perhaps as reward for this , he became Chief Baron of the Exchequer on 7 November 1660 , replacing Sir Orlando Bridgeman . Hale had no wish to receive the knighthood that accompanied this appointment and so tried to avoid being near the King ; in response , the Lord Chancellor Lord Clarendon invited him to his house , where the King was present . Hale was knighted on the spot .
There were many instances of parties to a case attempting to bribe Hale . When a Duke approached him before a case " to help the judge understand a case that was to come before him " , Hale said that he would only hear about cases in court . In another case , he was sent venison by a party . After noticing the man 's name and verifying that he had indeed sent Hale some venison , Hale refused to let the case proceed until he had paid the man for the food . When Sir John Croke , suspected in engaging in a conspiracy , sent him some sugar loaves to excuse his absence from a case , Hale remarked that " I cannot think that Sir John believes that the King 's Justices come into the country to take bribes . Some other person , having a design to put a trick upon him , sent them in his name " . Hale returned the loaves , and refused to continue until Croke appeared before him . Hale was noted during this period for giving latitude to those accused of religious impropriety , and through doing so " secured the confidence and affection of all classes of his countrymen " . His knowledge of equity was considered as great as his knowledge of the law , and Lord Nottingham , considered the " father of equity " , " worshipped Hale as a great master " .
On 2 September 1666 , the Great Fire of London broke out . Over 100 @,@ 000 people were made homeless , and by the time the fire ended over 13 @,@ 000 houses and 400 streets had been destroyed . An Act of Parliament enacted on 8 February 1667 constituted a Court of Fire , tasked with dealing with property disputes over ownership , liability and the rebuilding of the city . Hale was tasked with sitting in this court , which met in Clifford 's Inn , and heard 140 of the 374 cases the court dealt with during its first year in operation .
On 18 May 1671 , Hale was made Chief Justice of the King 's Bench after the death of John Kelynge . Edward Turnour replaced him as Chief Baron of the Exchequer . Hale was not noted as a particularly innovative judge , but took pains to ensure that his decisions were easy to understand and informative . Roger North wrote that " I have known the Court of King 's Bench sitting every day from eight to 12 , and the Lord Chief Justice Hale 's managing matters of law to all imaginable advantage to the students , and in that he took a pleasure or rather pride ; he encouraged arguing when it was to the purpose , and used to debate with counsel , so that the court might have been taken for an academy of sciences as well as the seat of justice " . He was noted for allowing counsel to fix any problems with pleadings , and for letting them correct him if he made an error in his summing up . He disliked eloquence , writing that " If the judge or jury has a right understanding it signifies nothing but a waste of time and loss of words , and if they are weak , and easily wrought upon , it is a more decent way of corrupting them by bribing their fancies and biassing their affections . " As a judge , however , he was noted by Lord Nottingham as the greatest orator on the bench .
= = = = Retirement and death = = = =
By 1675 , Hale had begun to suffer from ill @-@ health ; his arms became swollen , and although a course of bloodletting relieved the pain temporarily , by the next February his legs were so stiff he could not walk . His initial attempts to resign as Chief Justice were declined by the King , but when Hale applied for a writ of ease the King reluctantly allowed him to retire on 20 February 1676 , granting him a pension of £ 1 @,@ 000 a year . He was replaced as Chief Justice by Richard Raynsford . After suffering for ten more months , Hale died on 25 December 1676 at his country home , The Lower House ( now the site of the present day Alderley House ) . He was buried next to his first wife 's tomb in the churchyard of St Kenelm 's , the church which adjoined his home at Alderley , with a monument erected that reads :
Here is buried the body of Matthew Hale , Knight , the only son of Robert Hale , and Joanna his wife ; born in this parish of Alderley on the 1st day of November , in the year of our Lord 1609 , and died in the same place on the 25th day of December in the year of our lord 1676 ; in the 67th year of his age .
His estate was largely left for his widow , with his legal texts given to his grandson Gabriel if Gabriel chose to study the law , and his more valuable manuscripts and books given to Lincoln 's Inn . The male line of his family died out in 1784 with the death of Matthew Hale , his great grandson ; also a barrister .
= = = Personal life = = =
In 1642 Hale married Anne Moore , the daughter of Sir Henry Moore , a Royalist soldier , and the granddaughter of Sir Francis Moore , a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law under James I. Moore and Hale had 10 children , but she was evidently a highly extravagant woman , with Hale warning his children that " an idle or expensive wife is most times an ill bargain , though she bring a great portion " . Moore died in 1658 , and in 1667 Hale married Anne Bishop , his housekeeper . Descriptions of Bishop differ ; Roger North wrote that " [ Hale ] was unfortunate in his family ; for he married his own servant made , and then , for an excuse , said there was no wisdom below the girdle " . Richard Baxter , on the other hand , described Anne as " one of [ Hale 's ] own judgment and temper , prudent and loving , and fit to please him ; and that would not draw on him the trouble of much acquaintance and relations " . Hale himself described her as a " most dutiful , faithful , and loving wife " who was appointed an executrix on his death .
= = Legacy = =
Hale is universally considered an excellent judge and jurist , particularly due to his writings . Edward Foss wrote that he was an " eminent judge , whom all look up to as one of the brightest luminaries of the law , as well for the soundness of his learning as for the excellence of his life " . Similarly , John Campbell in his Lives of the Chief Justices of England , wrote that Hale was " one of the most pure , the most pious , the most independent , and the most learned " of judges . Henry Flanders , writing in the University of Pennsylvania Law Review , describes Hale during his lifetime as " the most learned , the most able , the most honorable man to be found in the profession of the law " . Hale 's writings have been cited as recently as 1993 , in the case of R v Kingston , where the Court of Appeal relied on his statement that " drunkenness is not a defence " to uphold a conviction . William Holdsworth argues that it was his learning in Roman law and jurisprudence which allowed him to work so effectively ; because he had seen other legal systems at work , he " could both criticise the defects of English law and state its rules in a more orderly form than they had ever been stated before " . Hale 's political neutrality and personal integrity has been attributed to his Puritanism , and his support of the common law ; " Regimes come and go , the common law abides ... For Hale ... legal continuity was vital for civic identity " .
Much comparison has been made of Hale with Edward Coke . Campbell considered Hale to be the superior lawyer , because while he failed to engage in public life he treated law as a science , and maintained judicial independence and neutrality . Hostettler , while considering Hale a better lawyer than Coke and more influential , says that Coke was better overall . While Hale was in possession of judicial impartiality , and his written works are considered highly important , his lack of venture into public affairs limited his progressive influence . Coke 's active intervention allowed him to " breath new life into medieval law and use it to oppose conciliar justice " , encouraging judges to be more independent and " unfettered except by the common law whose supremacy it was their duty to uphold " . J.H. Corbett , writing in the Alberta Law Quarterly , notes that with Hale 's popularity at the time ( Parliamentary constituencies " fought over the privilege of returning him " ) he could have been just as successful as Coke if he had chosen to take an active role in public affairs .
= = = Writings = = =
Hale 's posthumous legacy is his written work . He wrote a variety of texts , treatises and manuscripts , the most major of which are A History and Analysis of the Common Law of England , published in 1713 , and the Historia Placitorum Coronæ , or The History of the Pleas of the Crown , published in 1736 .
The Analysis was based on lectures he gave to students , and was most likely not intended to be published ; it is considered the first history of English law ever written . Divided into 13 chapters , the book dealt with the history of English law and some suggestions for reform . William Blackstone , when writing his Commentaries on the Laws of England , noted in his preface that " of all the earlier schemes for digesting the Laws of England the most natural and scientific , as well as the most comprehensive , appeared to be that of Sir Matthew Hale in his posthumous Analysis of the Law " . Hale proposed the creation of county courts , and also drew a strong distinction between written laws , such as statutes , and customary , unwritten laws . He also argued that the common law was subject to Parliament , far before the confirmation of Parliamentary supremacy , and that the law should protect the rights and civil liberties of the King 's subjects . He also argued for the confirmation of trial by jury , which he described as " the best mode of trial in the world " , while the 13th chapter divided the law into the laws of persons and of property , and dealt with the rights , wrongs and remedies recognised by the law at the time . William Holdsworth , himself considered one of the greatest common law historians , described it as " the ablest introductory sketch of a history of English law that appeared till the publication of Pollock and Maitland 's volumes in 1895 " .
The Historia is perhaps Hale 's most famous work . Pleas of the Crown were capital offences committed " against the peace of our Lord the King
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De Deo " ( ca . 1662 @-@ 1667 ) , consists of ten books filling five volumes and is estimated to contain nearly a million words . There are also three copies of a treatise on natural law at the British Library . A critical edition of this treatise on natural law has been published as Of the Law of Nature ( 2015 ) , which contains chapters on law in general and the law of nature . In the same work , Hale criticizes the reduction of natural law to self @-@ preservation as " the only Cardinall Law ” ( the view normally associated with Thomas Hobbes ) , cites John Selden 's De jure naturali et gentium juxta disciplinam Ebraeorum repeatedly , and appears to share conceptual continuities with both Hugo Grotius 's De jure belli ac pacis and Francisco Suárez 's Tractatus de legibus ac deo legislatore .
= = = Jurisprudence = = =
During Hale 's period as a barrister and judge , the general conclusion in England was that the repository of the law and conventional wisdom was not politics , as in Renaissance Europe , but the common law . This had been brought about thanks to Sir Edward Coke , who in his Institutes and practice as a judge advocated judge @-@ made law . Coke asserted that judge @-@ made law had the answer to any question asked of it , and as a result , " a learned judge ... was the natural arbiter of politics " . This principle was known as the " appeal to reason " , with " reason " referring not to rationality but the method and logic used by judges in upholding and striking down laws . Coke 's theory meant that certainty of the law and " intellectual beauty " was the way to see if a law was just and correct , and that the system of law could eventually become sophisticated enough to be predictable . John Selden held similar beliefs , in that he thought that the common law was the proper law of England . However , he argued that this did not necessarily create judicial discretion to play with it , and that proper did not necessarily equal perfect . The law was nothing more than a contract made by the English people ; this is known as the " appeal to contract " . Thomas Hobbes argued against Coke 's theory . Along with Francis Bacon , he argued for natural law , created by the King 's authority , not by any individual judge . Hobbes felt that there was no skill unique to lawyers , and that the law could be understood not through Coke 's " reason " ( the method used by lawyers ) but through understanding the King 's instructions . While the judges did make law , this was only valid because it was " tacitly confirmed ( because not disapproved ) by the [ King ] " .
Hale 's legal theory was highly influenced by both Coke and Selden . He argued that the making of the law was a contract , but that it was subject to a test of " reasonable " character , something that only the judges could rule on . In this way , he sat in a middle ground between Selden and Coke . This was in conflict with the argument of Hobbes . In 1835 , Hale 's " Reflections on Hobbes ' Dialogue " was discovered ; Frederick Pollock posits that since Hobbes ' Dialogue was first published in 1681 , six years after Hale 's death , Hale must have seen an early copy or draft . D.E.C. Yale , writing in the Cambridge Law Journal , suggests that Chief Justice Vaughan had access to the Dialogue , and may have passed a copy on to Hale before his death . In his Reflections , Hale agreed with Coke that the judge 's task was to bring the reason of the common law ( the coherence of the legal system ) in line with the reason of the law in question ( to justify that law ) . He disagreed with Hobbes that a layman could understand the law , saying that " he that hath been educated in the study of the law hath a great advantage over those that have been otherwise exercised " . The distinction between Coke and Hale is that Hale agreed with Selden that law was created through agreement , and disagreed that reason had an inherent binding power . Hale agreed with Hobbes that the interpretation of the law could not be left to individual reason , and that the law is not an exact science ; the best that can be produced is a set of laws which give a reasonable outcome in the majority of cases .
= = = List of works = = =
Hale 's full works include :
Contemplations , Moral and Divine ( 1676 ) .
The Primitive Origination of Mankind , Considered and Examined According to the Light of Nature ( 1677 ) .
The Life and Death of Pomponius Atticus written by his contemporary and acquaintance Cornelius Nepos . Translated out of his fragments , together with observations political and moral thereon ( 1677 ) .
Pleas of the Crown . A Methodical Summary ( 1678 ) .
A Discourse of the Knowledge of God and of Ourselves ( 1688 ) .
On Pomponious Atticus ( 1689 ) .
Origin of Mankind by Natural Propagation .
The Original Institution , Power and Jurisdiction of Parliament ( 1707 ) .
The History of the Common Law of England ( 1713 ) .
Government in General , its Origin , Alteration and Trials .
The History of the Pleas of the Crown ( 1736 ) .
The Analysis of the Law . Being a Scheme , or Abstract , of the several Titles and Partitions of the Law of England , Digested into Method ( 1739 ) .
Considerations Touching the Amendment or Alterations of Laws ( 1787 ) .
The Jurisdiction of the Lord 's House , or , Parliament Considered According to Ancient Records ( 1796 ) .
Reflections on Hobbes ' Dialogue of the Law ( 1835 ) .
Of the Law of Nature ( 2015 ) .
He also wrote the preface to Rolle 's Abridgment .
= Middlesex =
Middlesex ( / ˈmɪdəlsɛks / , abbreviation : Middx ) was a county in southeast England that is now mostly part of Greater London , with small sections in neighbouring counties . It was established in the Anglo @-@ Saxon system from the territory of the Middle Saxons . The historic county included land stretching north of the River Thames from 3 miles ( 5 km ) east to 17 miles ( 27 km ) west of the City of London with the rivers Colne and Lea and a ridge of hills as the other boundaries . The largely low @-@ lying county , dominated by clay in its north and alluvium on gravel in its south , was the second smallest by area in 1831 .
The City of London was a county in its own right from the 12th century and was able to exert political control over Middlesex . Westminster Abbey dominated most of the early financial , judicial and ecclesiastical aspects of the county . As London grew into Middlesex , the Corporation of London resisted attempts to expand the city boundaries into the county , which posed problems for the administration of local government and justice . In the 18th and 19th centuries the population density was especially high in the southeast of the county , including the East End and West End of London . From 1855 the southeast was administered , with sections of Kent and Surrey , as part of the area of the Metropolitan Board of Works . When county councils were introduced in England in 1889 about 20 % of the area of Middlesex , along with a third of its population , was transferred to the new County of London and the remainder became an administrative county governed by the Middlesex County Council that met regularly at the Middlesex Guildhall in Westminster , in the County of London . The City of London , and Middlesex , became separate counties for other purposes and Middlesex regained the right to appoint its own sheriff , lost in 1199 .
In the interwar years suburban London expanded further , with improvement and expansion of public transport , and the setting up of new industries . After the Second World War , the population of the County of London and inner Middlesex was in steady decline , with high population growth continuing in the outer parts . After a Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London , almost all of the original area was incorporated into an enlarged Greater London in 1965 , with the rest transferred to neighbouring counties . Since 1965 various areas called Middlesex have been used for cricket and other sports . Middlesex was the former postal county of 25 post towns .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The name means territory of the middle Saxons and refers to the tribal origin of its inhabitants . The word is formed from the Anglo @-@ Saxon , i.e. Old English , ' middel ' and ' Seaxe ' ( cf . Essex , Sussex and Wessex ) . In an 8th @-@ century charter the region is recorded as Middleseaxon and in 704 it is recorded as Middleseaxan .
= = = Early settlement = = =
There were settlements in the area of Middlesex that can be traced back thousands of years before the creation of a county . Middlesex was formerly part of the Kingdom of Essex It was recorded in the Domesday Book as being divided into the six hundreds of Edmonton , Elthorne , Gore , Hounslow ( Isleworth in all later records ) , Ossulstone and Spelthorne . The City of London has been self @-@ governing since the thirteenth century and became a county in its own right , a county corporate . Middlesex also included Westminster , which also had a high degree of autonomy . Of the six hundreds , Ossulstone contained the districts closest to the City of London . During the 17th century it was divided into four divisions , which , along with the Liberty of Westminster , largely took over the administrative functions of the hundred . The divisions were named Finsbury , Holborn , Kensington and Tower . The county had parliamentary representation from the 13th century . The title Earl of Middlesex was created twice , in 1622 and 1677 , but became extinct in 1843 .
= = = Economic development = = =
The economy of the county was dependent on the City of London from early times and was primarily agricultural . A variety of goods were provided for the City , including crops such as grain and hay , livestock and building materials . Recreation at day trip destinations such as Hackney , Islington , Highgate and Twickenham , as well as coaching , inn @-@ keeping and sale of goods and services at daily shops and stalls to the considerable passing trade provided much local employment and also formed part of the early economy . However , during the 18th century the inner parishes of Middlesex became suburbs of the City and were increasingly urbanised . The Middlesex volume of John Norden 's Speculum Britanniae ( a chorography ) of 1593 summarises :
This is plentifully stored , as it seemeth beautiful , with many fair and comely buildings , especially of the merchants of London , who have planted their houses of recreation not in the meanest places , which also they have cunningly contrived , curiously beautified with divers [ e ] devices , neatly decked with rare inventions , environed with orchards of sundry , delicate fruits , gardens with delectable walks , arbours , alleys and a great variety of pleasing dainties : all of which seem to be beautiful ornaments unto this country .
Similarly Thomas Cox wrote in 1794 :
We may call it almost all London , being chiefly inhabited by the citizens , who fill the towns in it with their country houses , to which they often resort that they may breathe a little sweet air , free from the fogs and smoke of the City .
In 1803 Sir John Sinclair , president of the Board of Agriculture , spoke of the need to cultivate the substantial Finchley Common and Hounslow Heath ( perhaps prophetic of the Dig for Victory campaign of World War II ) and fellow Board member Middleton estimated that one tenth of the county , 17 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 900 ha ) , was uncultivated common , capable of improvement . However William Cobbett , in casual travel writing in 1822 , said that " A more ugly country between Egham ( Surrey ) and Kensington would with great difficulty be found in England . Flat as a pancake , and until you come to Hammersmith , the soil is a nasty , stony dirt upon a bed of gravel . Hounslow Heath which is only a little worse than the general run , is a sample of all that is bad in soil and villainous in look . Yet this is now enclosed , and what they call ' cultivated ' . Here is a fresh robbery of villages , hamlets , and farm and labourers ' buildings and abodes . " Thomas Babington wrote in 1843 , " An acre in Middlesex is worth a principality in Utopia " which contrasts neatly with its agricultural description .
The building of radial railway lines from 1839 caused a fundamental shift away from agricultural supply for London towards large scale house building . Tottenham , Edmonton and Enfield in the north developed first as working @-@ class residential suburbs with easy access to central London . The line to Windsor through Middlesex was completed in 1848 , and the railway to Potters Bar in 1850 ; and the Metropolitan and District Railways started a series of extensions into the county in 1878 . Closer to London , the districts of Acton , Willesden , Ealing and Hornsey came within reach of the tram and bus networks , providing cheap transport to central London .
After World War I , the availability of labour and proximity to London made areas such as Hayes and Park Royal ideal locations for the developing new industries . New jobs attracted more people to the county and the population continued to rise , reaching a peak in 1951 .
= = Governance = =
= = = The Metropolis = = =
By the 19th century , the East End of London had expanded to the eastern boundary with Essex , and the Tower division had reached a population of over a million . When the railways were built , the north western suburbs of London steadily spread over large parts of the county . The areas closest to London were served by the Metropolitan Police from 1829 , and from 1840 the entire county was included in the Metropolitan Police District . Local government in the county was unaffected by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , and civic works continued to be the responsibility of the individual parish vestries or ad hoc improvement commissioners . In 1855 , the parishes of the densely populated area in the south east , but excluding the City of London , came within the responsibility of the Metropolitan Board of Works . Despite this innovation , the system was described by commentators at the time as one " in chaos " . In 1889 , under the Local Government Act 1888 , the metropolitan area of approximately 30 @,@ 000 acres ( 120 km2 ) became part of the County of London . The Act also provided that the part of Middlesex in the administrative county of London should be " severed from [ Middlesex ] , and form a separate county for all non @-@ administrative purposes " .
The part of the County of London that had been transferred from Middlesex was divided in 1900 into 18 metropolitan boroughs , which were merged in 1965 to form seven of the present @-@ day inner London boroughs :
Camden was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Hampstead , Holborn and St Pancras
Hackney was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Hackney , Shoreditch and Stoke Newington
Hammersmith ( known as Hammersmith and Fulham from 1979 ) was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Hammersmith and Fulham
Islington was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Finsbury and Islington
Kensington and Chelsea was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Chelsea and Kensington
Tower Hamlets was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Bethnal Green , Poplar and Stepney
The City of Westminster was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Paddington and St Marylebone and the City of Westminster .
= = = Extra @-@ metropolitan area = = =
Middlesex outside the metropolitan area remained largely rural until the middle of the 19th century and so the special boards of local government for various metropolitan areas were late in developing . Other than the Cities of London and Westminster , there were no ancient boroughs . The importance of the hundred courts declined , and such local administration as there was divided between " county business " conducted by the justices of the peace meeting in quarter sessions , and the local matters dealt with by parish vestries . As the suburbs of London spread into the area , unplanned development and outbreaks of cholera forced the creation of local boards and poor law unions to help govern most areas ; in a few cases parishes appointed improvement commissioners . In rural areas , parishes began to be grouped for different administrative purposes . From 1875 these local bodies were designated as urban or rural sanitary districts .
Following the Local Government Act 1888 , the remaining county came under the control of Middlesex County Council except for the parish of Monken Hadley , which became part of Hertfordshire . The area of responsibility of the Lord Lieutenant of Middlesex was reduced accordingly . Middlesex did not contain any county boroughs , so the county and administrative county ( the area of county council control ) were identical .
The Local Government Act 1894 divided the administrative county into four rural districts and thirty @-@ one urban districts , based on existing sanitary districts . One urban district , South Hornsey , was an exclave of Middlesex within the County of London until 1900 , when it was transferred to the latter county . The rural districts were Hendon , South Mimms , Staines and Uxbridge . Because of increasing urbanisation these had all been abolished by 1934 . Urban districts had been created , merged , and many had gained the status of municipal borough by 1965 . The districts as at the 1961 census were :
After 1889 the growth of London continued , and the county became almost entirely filled by suburbs of London , with a big rise in population density . This process was accelerated by the Metro @-@ land developments , which covered a large part of the county . The expanding urbanisation had , however , been foretold in 1771 by Tobias Smollett in The Expedition of Humphry Clinker , in which it is said :
Pimlico and Knightsbridge are almost joined to Chelsea and Kensington , and , if this infatuation continues for half a century , then , I suppose , the whole county of Middlesex will be covered in brick .
Public transport in the county , including the extensive network of trams , buses and the London Underground came under control of the London Passenger Transport Board in 1933 and a New Works Programme was developed to further enhance services during the 1930s . Partly because of its proximity to the capital , the county had a major role during the Second World War . The county was subject to aerial bombardment and contained various military establishments , such as RAF Uxbridge and RAF Heston , which were involved in the Battle of Britain .
= = = County town = = =
Middlesex arguably never , and certainly not since 1789 , had a single , established county town . London could be regarded as its county town for most purposes and provided different locations for the various , mostly judicial , county purposes . The County Assizes for Middlesex were held at the Old Bailey in the City of London . Until 1889 , the High Sheriff of Middlesex
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1995 the village of Poyle was transferred from Spelthorne to the Berkshire borough of Slough . Additionally , since 1965 the Greater London boundary to the west and north has been subject to several small changes .
= = Geography = =
The county lay within the London Basin and the most significant feature was the River Thames , which formed the southern boundary . The River Lea and the River Colne formed natural boundaries to the east and west . The entire south west boundary of Middlesex followed a gently descending meander of the Thames without hills . In many places " Middlesex bank " is more accurate than " north bank " — for instance at Teddington the river flows north @-@ westward , so the left ( Middlesex ) bank is the south @-@ west bank . In the north , the boundary ran along a WSW / ENE aligned ridge of hills broken by Barnet or ' Dollis ' valleys . ( South of the boundary , these feed into the Welsh Harp Lake or Brent Reservoir which becomes the River Brent ) . This formed a long protrusion of Hertfordshire into the county . The county was thickly wooded , with much of it covered by the ancient Forest of Middlesex . The highest point was the High Road by Bushey Heath at 502 feet ( 153 m ) , which is now one of the highest points in London .
= = Legacy = =
" Middlesex " is used in the names of organisations based in the area such as Middlesex County Cricket Club , the Middlesex Cricket Board and Middlesex University . ( The last two of these were formed some time after Middlesex was abolished as an administrative county . ) There is a Middlesex County Football Association , and two teams that are now within Surrey , Staines Town and Ashford Town ( Middlesex ) as well as Potters Bar Town in Hertfordshire , compete in the Middlesex County Cup . Sir John Betjeman , a native of North London and Poet Laureate , published several poems about Middlesex and the suburban experience . Many were featured in the televised readings Metroland .
As part of a 2002 marketing campaign , the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose the wood anemone as the county flower . In 2003 , an early day motion with two signatures noted that 16 May is the anniversary of the Battle of Albuera and in recent years has been celebrated as " Middlesex Day " , commemorating the valiant efforts of the Middlesex Regiment ( the " Die @-@ hards " ) in that battle . The idea is to recognise and celebrate the historic county . On its creation in 1965 , Greater London was divided into five commission areas for the administration of justice . One was named " Middlesex " and consisted of the boroughs of Barnet , Brent , Ealing , Enfield , Haringey , Harrow , Hillingdon and Hounslow . This was abolished on 1 July 2003 . For genealogical research it was assigned Chapman code MDX , except for the City of London which was assigned code LND .
= = = Former postal county = = =
Middlesex ( abbreviated Middx ) was a former postal county . This was an element of postal addressing in routine use until 1996 , intended to avoid confusion between post towns , and no longer required for the routing of the mail . The postal county did not match the boundaries of Middlesex because of the presence of the London postal district , which stretched into the county to include Tottenham , Willesden , Hornsey and Chiswick . Addresses in this area included " LONDON " but did not include a county . In 1965 Royal Mail retained the postal county because it would have been too costly to amend addresses throughout Greater London . Exceptionally , the Potters Bar post town was transferred to Hertfordshire . Geographically the postal county consisted of two unconnected areas , 6 miles ( 10 km ) apart . These were the smaller area around Enfield and the larger area to the west . It comprised 25 post towns :
† = postal county was not required
The postal county had many border inconsistencies where its constituent post towns encroached on neighbouring counties , such as the villages of Denham in Buckinghamshire , Wraysbury in Berkshire and Eastbury in Hertfordshire which were respectively in the post towns of Uxbridge , Staines and Northwood and therefore in the postal county of Middlesex . Egham Hythe , Surrey also had postal addresses of Staines , Middlesex . Conversely , Hampton Wick was conveniently placed in Kingston , Surrey with its sorting offices just across the river . Nearby Hampton Court Palace has a postal address of East Molesey , therefore associating it with Surrey .
The Enfield post town in the EN postcode area was in the former postal county . All post towns in the HA postcode area and UB postcode area were in the former postal county . Most of the TW postcode area was in the former postal county .
= Oryzomys peninsulae =
Oryzomys peninsulae , also known as the Lower California rice rat , is a species of rodent from western Mexico . Restricted to the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula , it is a member of the genus Oryzomys of family Cricetidae . Only about twenty individuals , collected around 1900 , are known , and subsequent destruction of its riverine habitat may have driven the species to extinction .
Medium in size for its genus , it was first described as a separate species , but later lumped into other , widespread species until it was reinstated as separate in 2009 . It is distinctive in fur color — grayish brown on the forequarters and reddish brown on the hindquarters — and in some dimensions of its skull , with a high braincase , robust zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) , and long incisive foramina ( perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
Oryzomys peninsulae was first collected in 1896 and Oldfield Thomas described it in 1897 as a full species of Oryzomys . It was retained as a distinct species related to O. couesi and O. palustris until 1971 , when Philip Hershkovitz swept it , and other outlying populations of the same species group , as subspecies under an expanded concept of O. palustris . Raymond Hall concurred in the second edition ( 1981 ) of Mammals of North America , arguing that O. peninsulae differed less from mainland Oryzomys populations ( currently classified as O. couesi mexicanus ) than some other forms he included in O. palustris differed from each other . After studies of the contact zone between North American O. palustris and Central American O. couesi in southern Texas and northeastern Tamaulipas ( by Benson and Gehlbach in 1979 and Schmidt and Engstrom in 1994 ) made clear that the two are distinct from each other , O. peninsulae remained as a subspecies of O. couesi . In 2009 , Michael Carleton and Joaquín Arroyo @-@ Cabrales reviewed the classification of western Mexican Oryzomys and used morphological and morphometrical data to characterize four distinct Oryzomys species in the region . O. peninsulae and another isolated population , O. nelsoni from the Islas Marías , were both retained as separate species , as was O. albiventer from montane mainland Mexico . They kept the population in the coastal lowlands as a subspecies , O. couesi mexicanus , of Oryzomys couesi .
The genus Oryzomys currently includes about eight species distributed from the eastern United States ( O. palustris ) into northwestern South America ( O. gorgasi ) . O. peninsulae is part of the O. couesi section , which is centered on the widespread Central American O. couesi and also includes various other species with more limited and peripheral distributions . Many aspects of the systematics of this section remain unclear and it is likely that the current classification underestimates the group 's true diversity . Oryzomys was previously a much larger genus , but most species were progressively removed in various studies , culminating in contributions by Marcelo Weksler and coworkers in 2006 that excluded more than forty species from the genus . Oryzomys and many of the species removed from it are classified in the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , a diverse assemblage of American rodents of over a hundred species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
= = Description = =
Oryzomys peninsulae is a medium @-@ sized member of the genus , smaller than O. albiventer but larger than O. couesi mexicanus . Its fur is grayish @-@ brown on the forequarters , but reddish @-@ brown on the hindquarters ; this coloration pattern is unique among western Mexican Oryzomys . The underparts are a dirty white , the feet white above , and the tail dark or brownish above and dirty white below .
In the skull , the braincase is high , the zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) are broad and squared , and the incisive foramina , which perforate the palate between the incisors and the molars , are long and broad . The upper incisors are orthodont , with their cutting edge nearly vertical . Morphometrically , the skull of O. peninsulae is sharply distinct from other western Mexican Oryzomys .
In fourteen specimens measured by Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales , total length was 227 to 305 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 to 12 @.@ 0 in ) , averaging 265 @.@ 6 mm ( 10 @.@ 46 in ) ; head and body length was 113 to 152 mm ( 4 @.@ 4 to 6 @.@ 0 in ) , averaging 128 @.@ 9 mm ( 5 @.@ 07 in ) ; tail length was 114 to 156 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 1 in ) , averaging 136 @.@ 8 mm ( 5 @.@ 39 in ) ; hindfoot length was 29 to 34 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) , averaging 32 @.@ 0 mm ( 1 @.@ 26 in ) ; and occipitonasal length ( a measure of total skull length ) was 27 @.@ 8 to 34 @.@ 3 mm ( 1 @.@ 09 to 1 @.@ 35 in ) , averaging 31 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 24 in ) .
= = Distribution , ecology , and status = =
Twenty @-@ one specimens of O. peninsulae are known : six were caught at Santa Anita in 1896 by D. Coolidge , and Edward William Nelson and Edward Alphonso Goldman obtained fifteen additional individuals in 1906 at San José del Cabo . The two localities , which are about 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) apart , were both located along the Río San José , a river in southernmost Baja California Sur , near the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula . Like other Oryzomys species , O. peninsulae is semiaquatic , spending much of its time in the water , but suitable habitat for such a species is estimated to be no more than 13 km2 ( 5 @.@ 0 sq mi ) on the arid Baja California peninsula .
Río San José no longer exists , having fallen prey to irrigation projects , and touristic development of its estuary has resulted in pollution . Biologists working in the area in 1979 and from 1991 to 1993 failed to find O. peninsulae , casting doubt on its continued existence . The lack of records for over a century , small distribution , and destruction of the only known habitat led Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales to consider the conservation status of O. peninsulae as " critically endangered , if not extinct " . They noted that the status of the species had previously been obscured because it had been lumped for decades with O. couesi , a widely distributed and secure species .
= = Origin = =
It is uncertain how Oryzomys peninsulae arrived at its recent locale in Baja California Sur . In 1922 , Nelson suggested that it may have been introduced from another part of Mexico in a shipment of farm products , but this hypothesis is disproved by the clear differentiation from other western Mexican Oryzomys that the species exhibits .
The species 's range may be relictual in nature : while Oryzomys is currently found along the eastern coast of the Gulf of California only as far north as coastal southern Sonora , the past distribution of the genus may have extended further northward , perhaps even into the southwestern United States , and from there south into Baja California . Subsequent disappearnce of Oryzomys from the northern regions would have led to its observed disjunct distribution , with O. peninsulae isolated on the peninsula . This possibility is supported by the relatively close resemblance between O. peninsulae and O. couesi mexicanus , from coastal western Mexico .
Alternatively , the ancestor of Oryzomys peninsulae may have arrived by rafting during the late Miocene , about six million years ago , when the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula was an island located near what is now Nayarit and Jalisco in western Mexico . Some plants and birds from the area may have a similar biogeographic heritage .
= Battle of Mycale =
The Battle of Mycale ( Ancient Greek : Μάχη τῆς Μυκάλης ; Machē tēs Mykalēs ) was one of the two major battles that ended the second Persian invasion of Greece during the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . It took place on or about August 27 , 479 BC on the slopes of Mount Mycale , on the coast of Ionia , opposite the island of Samos . The battle was fought between an alliance of the Greek city @-@ states , including Sparta , Athens and Corinth , and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I.
The previous year , the Persian invasion force , led by Xerxes himself , had scored victories at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium , and conquered Thessaly , Boeotia and Attica ; however , at the ensuing Battle of Salamis , the allied Greek navies had won an unlikely victory , and therefore prevented the conquest of the Peloponnese . Xerxes then retreated , leaving his general Mardonius with a substantial army to finish off the Greeks the following year .
In the summer of 479 BC , the Greeks assembled a huge army ( by contemporary standards ) , and marched to confront Mardonius at the Battle of Plataea . At the same time , the allied fleet sailed to Samos , where the demoralised remnants of the Persian navy were based . The Persians , seeking to avoid a battle , beached their fleet below the slopes of Mycale , and , with the support of a Persian army group , built a palisaded camp . The Greek commander Leotychides decided to attack the Persians anyway , landing the fleet 's complement of marines to do so .
Although the Persian forces put up stout resistance , the heavily armoured Greek hoplites again proved themselves superior in combat , and eventually routed the Persian troops , who fled to their camp . The Ionian Greek contingents in the Persian army defected , and the camp was assailed and a large number of Persians slaughtered . The Persian ships were then captured and burned . The complete destruction of the Persian navy , along with the destruction of Mardonius 's army at Plataea ( allegedly on the same day as the Battle of Mycale ) , decisively ended the invasion of Greece . After Plataea and Mycale , the allied Greeks would take the offensive against the Persians , marking a new phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Although Mycale was in every sense a decisive victory , it does not seem to have been attributed the same significance ( even at the time ) as , for example the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon or even the Greek defeat at Thermopylae .
= = Background = =
The Greek city @-@ states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499 @-@ 494 BC . The Persian Empire was still relatively young , and prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples . Moreover , Darius was a usurper , and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule . The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire , and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved ( especially those not already part of the empire ) . Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece . A preliminary expedition under Mardonius , in 492 BC , to secure the land approaches to Greece ended with the re @-@ conquest of Thrace and forced Macedon to become a client kingdom of Persia . An amphibious task force was then sent out under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC , successfully sacking Naxos and Eretria , before moving to attack Athens . However , at the ensuing Battle of Marathon , the Athenians won a remarkable victory , which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia .
Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece . However , he died before the invasion could begin . The throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I , who quickly resumed the preparations for the invasion of Greece , including building two pontoon bridges across the Hellespont . In 481 BC , Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water as a gesture of their submission , but making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta ( both of whom were at open war with Persia ) . Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states . A congress of city states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC , and a confederate alliance of Greek city @-@ states was formed ( hereafter referred to as ' the Allies ' ) . This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world , especially since many of the city @-@ states in attendance were still technically at war with each other .
The Allies initially adopted a strategy of blocking the land and sea approaches to southern Greece . Thus , in August 480 BC , after hearing of Xerxes 's approach , a small Allied army led by the Spartan king Leonidas I blocked the Pass of Thermopylae , whilst an Athenian @-@ dominated navy sailed to the Straits of Artemisium . Famously , the vastly outnumbered Greek army held Thermopylae against the Persians army for six days in total , before being outflanked by a mountain path . Although much of the Greek army retreated , the rearguard , formed of the Spartan and Thespian contingents , was surrounded and annihilated . The simultaneous Battle of Artemisium , consisting of a series of naval encounters , was up to that point a stalemate ; however , when news of Thermopylae reached them , they also retreated , since holding the straits of Artemisium was now a moot point .
Following Thermopylae , the Persian army had proceeded to burn and sack the Boeotian cities which had not surrendered , Plataea and Thespiae , before taking possession of the now @-@ evacuated city of Athens . The allied army , meanwhile , prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth . Xerxes wished for a final crushing defeat of the Allies to finish the conquest of Greece in that campaigning season ; conversely the allies sought a decisive victory over the Persian navy that would guarantee the security of the Peloponnese . The ensuing naval Battle of Salamis ended in a decisive victory for the Allies , marking a turning point in the conflict .
Following the defeat of his navy at the Salamis , Xerxes retreated to Asia with , according to Herodotus at least , the majority of the army . Herodotus suggests that this was because he feared the Greeks would sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges , thereby trapping his army in Europe . He thus left Mardonius , with handpicked troops , to complete the conquest of Greece the following year . Mardonius evacuated Attica , and wintered in Thessaly ; the Athenians then reoccupied their destroyed city . Over the winter , there seems to have been some tension among the Allies . In particular , the Athenians , who were not protected by the Isthmus , but whose fleet were the key to the security of the Peloponnese , felt hard done by , and demanded an allied army march north the following year . When the Allies failed to commit to this , the Athenian fleet refused to join the Allied navy in spring . The navy , now under the command of the Spartan king Leotychides , thus skulked off Delos , whilst the remnants of the Persian fleet skulked off Samos , both sides unwilling to risk battle . Similarly , Mardonius remained in Thessaly , knowing an attack on the Isthmus was pointless , whilst the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponnese .
Mardonius moved to break the stalemate by trying to win over the Athenians and their fleet through the mediation of Alexander I of Macedon , offering peace , self @-@ government and territorial expansion . The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was also on hand to hear the offer , and rejected it :
The degree to which we are put in the shadow by the Medes ' strength is hardly something you need to bring to our attention . We are already well aware of it . But even so , such is our love of liberty , that we will never surrender .
Upon this refusal , the Persians marched south again . Athens was again evacuated and left to the Persians . Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis . Athens , along with Megara and Plataea , sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance , and threatening to accept the Persian terms if not . According to Herodotus , the Spartans , who were at that time celebrating the festival of Hyacinthus , delayed making a decision until they were persuaded by a guest , Chileos of Tegea , who pointed out the danger to all of Greece if the Athenians surrendered . When the Athenian emissaries delivered an ultimatum to the Spartans the next day , they were amazed to hear that a task force was in fact already en route ; the Spartan army was marching to meet the Persians .
In response , the Athenian navy under Xanthippus joined with the Allied fleet off Delos . They were then approached by a delegation from Samos , who suggested that the Ionian cities would revolt if the Allied fleet successfully engaged the Persian fleet . They furthermore pointed out the poor morale and reduced seaworthiness of the Persian fleet . Leotychides decided to attempt this , and sailed for Samos .
= = Prelude = =
When the Persians heard that the Allied fleet was approaching , they set sail from Samos towards the Ionian mainland . According to Herodotus , this was because they had decided in council that they could not beat the Allies in a naval battle . They sent the Phoenician ships away ( Herodotus does not explain why ) , and then sailed to the shore near Mount Mycale . Xerxes had left an army there , under the command of Tigranes , to guard Ionia . The Persians beached their ships , built a palisade around them , and prepared to guard the makeshift fort .
Finding the Persian fleet gone from Samos , the Allies were thrown into uncertainty . Eventually they resolved that they would sail to the mainland , and equipped themselves for a naval battle . However , when the Allies approached Mycale , the Persians did not attempt to engage them , and remained guarding their camp . Leotychides therefore sailed as close to the camp as possible , and had a herald make an appeal to the Ionians :
" Men of Ionia , you who hear us , understand what I say , for by no means will the Persians understand anything I charge you with when we join battle ; first of all it is right for each man to remember his freedom and next the battle @-@ cry Hebe : and let him who hears me tell him who has not heard it . "
Herodotus suggests that the purpose of this message was twofold ; firstly to encourage the Ionians , unbeknownst to the Persians , to fight for the Allies ( or at least not to fight against them ) ; or , if the message became known to the Persians , to make the Persians mistrust the Ionians .
Following this appeal , the Allies also beached their ships , and began to prepare to assault the camp . The Persians , guessing that their Samian contingent would support the allies , took away their armour . Furthermore , they sent the Milesians to guard the passes over Mycale , suspecting that the Milesians might also defect . Thus rid of two potential internal threats , the Persians left their camp , and prepared for battle . It is probable that the relatively small number of marines that the Allies had disembarked for the battle made them overconfident , encouraging the Persians to leave the safety of their camp .
Herodotus reports that as the Allies approached the Persian camp , rumour spread amongst them of an Allied victory at Plataea ; Diodorus also claims that Leotychides informed the Allies of victory at Plataea before the battle began . Their morale boosted by this omen , they set forth to win their own victory . Various explanations have been attempted to explain this occurrence , and also the alleged fact that Plataea and Mycale took place on the same day . Green suggests that following the victory at Plataea , the Allied commander Pausanias took control of the Persian beacon system that Xerxes had used to communicate with Asia , and used it to send tidings of Plataea to the Allied fleet . This would explain the rumour of victory and near simultaneous attack , but is only one possible theory .
= = Opposing Forces = =
= = = The Persians = = =
The number of Persian ships and men involved with the battle are , as so often in the Greco @-@ Persian Wars , somewhat problematic . It is clear that the Persian fleet did not dare conduct operations against the Greeks , and thus must have been approximately equal to , or smaller than the Greek fleet . Herodotus gives the size of the Persian fleet at 300 ships ; the Greeks had 378 at Salamis , but must have suffered significant losses , and so they probably also had around 300 in total ( though not necessarily all these ships formed part of the allied fleet for 479 BC ) . The Phoenician ships were dismissed from the Persian fleet before the battle , which reduced its strength further .
Diodorus tells us that to guard the camp and the ships the Persians gathered 100 @,@ 000 men in total , while Herodotus suggests that there were 60 @,@ 000 men in the army under the command of Tigranes . Squaring these two accounts , might suggest that there were c . 40 @,@ 000 men with the fleet . Given that the Persian fleet appears to have been undermanned in the aftermath of Salamis , 200 @-@ 300 ships would indeed give this number of naval personnel ( using Herodotus 's standard complement of 200 men per ship ) . However , this total of 100 @,@ 000 is probably too high ; to accommodate 100 @,@ 000 men and 200 + ships , the Persian camp would have to have been enormous . Estimates made of Mardonius 's huge camp at Plataea , which was planned and built with plenty of time , suggest it might have accommodated 70 @,@ 000 @-@ 120 @,@ 000 men ; it is improbable that such a large camp could have been built at Mycale in the time @-@ frame that Herodotus suggests .
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viewers , making it , at the time , the highest @-@ rated episode of the season . An encore presentation of the episode on December 28 received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 percent share and was viewed by over 6 @.@ 5 million viewers and was ranked number one in the adults 18 – 34 demographic .
The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics . M. Giant of Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A " grade . Matt Fowler of IGN named the episode the second @-@ best Christmas special of the series , calling it " a classic full of holiday cheer " with " one of the best comedic experiences ever " . The Cincinnati Post named the episode , and specifically the scene where Michael makes the office play " Yankee Swap , " one of the 2005 " Holiday Highlights " . In addition , the episode was nominated for two Primetime Emmy awards , one for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series , and one for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series .
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " , and applauded its vignette @-@ style presentation , noting that this format " work [ s ] in the show ’ s favor . " He also applauded the characterization of Michael , writing that it allowed him to " indulge in some David Brent @-@ like behavior without it coming off as a lackluster impression or a bad shade on the show . " Ultimately , he positively commented upon the fact that the episode start The Office 's tradition of delivering usually strong Christmas @-@ themed episodes .
Several lines from the episode were met with critical praise . Fowler cited Michael 's line apologizing for Jesus ' birthday being " so lame " as the best in the episode . TV Fanatic reviewed several of the quotes for the episode . The site ranked Kevin 's admission that he got himself in secret santa , Dwight 's declaration that " Yankee Swap " is like " Machiavelli meets Christmas " , Michael 's explanation about the true meaning of Christmas , and Michael 's question about whether or not 15 bottles of vodka is enough " to get 20 people plastered " , a five out of five .
= Scott Bacigalupo =
Scott S. Bacigalupo is a former lacrosse goaltender . He was a high school All @-@ American , four @-@ time collegiate United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American , three @-@ time National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) goaltender of the year , two @-@ time NCAA tournament outstanding player and a national player of the year . Scott Bacigalupo starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 1991 through 1994 where he helped them win their first two NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championships and was inducted into the Lacrosse Museum and National Hall of Fame on October 30 , 2010 . Scott was selected to the NCAA Lacrosse Silver Anniversary team in 1995 . He was a four @-@ time All @-@ Ivy League ( three times first team ) selection . In his four @-@ year college career , Princeton won its first two NCAA tournament Championships , two Ivy League Championships and earned four NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament invitations .
= = Background = =
Scott Bacigalupo was a high school All @-@ American at St. Paul 's of Brooklandville , Maryland .
= = College career = =
Bacigalupo started all 60 of Princeton 's games during his career from 1991 to 1994 . During those four years , Princeton posted a 52 – 8 record , including a 7 – 2 record in four NCAA tournament appearances . On five different occasions he recorded 15 or more saves in a NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament game , and the Tigers won the NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship in both 1992 and 1994 . The 1992 and 1993 teams were undefeated 6 – 0 outright Ivy League champions .
Bacigalupo will be inducted into the Lacrosse Museum and National Hall of Fame on October 30 , 2010 . He is a three time winner of the Ensign C. Markland Kelly , Jr . Award ( 1992 , 1993 , 1994 ) as the NCAA 's best goaltender and a former Lt. Raymond Enners Award @-@ winner ( 1994 ) as the NCAA Division I lacrosse player of the year . He was a first team USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 1992 , 1993 , and 1994 and a second team selection in 1991 . In addition , he was a 1994 USILA Scholar All @-@ American . He was first team all @-@ Ivy League in 1991 , 1992 and 1993 and a second team selection in 1994 . His 732 career saves are 122 more than any other Princeton goaltender . Lacrosse Magazine named him to its All @-@ Century team and he participated in the 1994 North / South All @-@ Star Game .
During the 1992 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship game against Syracuse , Bacigalupo allowed Syracuse to tie the score when he lost a ball near his own goal , but he made a key save in the first overtime . The Tigers eventually won their first NCAA championship in the second overtime , and Bacigalupo was selected as the most outstanding player of the tournament . Bacigalupo also performed well in the 1993 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championships and was again the most outstanding player during the 1994 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament when the Tigers won the championship for a second time .
= = Professional career = =
After college , he took a Wall Street job with Merrill Lynch . Bacigalupo has not played professionally in either the National Lacrosse League or Major League Lacrosse .
= Battle of Schliengen =
At the Battle of Schliengen ( 24 October 1796 ) , both the French Army of the Rhine and Moselle under the command of Jean @-@ Victor Moreau and the Austrian army under the command of Archduke Charles of Austria claimed victories . The village of Schliengen lies in the present @-@ day Kreis Lörrach close to the border of present @-@ day Baden @-@ Württemberg ( Germany ) , the Haut @-@ Rhin ( France ) , and the Canton of Basel @-@ Stadt ( Switzerland ) .
During the French Revolutionary Wars , Schliengen was a strategically important location for the armies of both Republican France and Habsburg Austria . Control of the area gave either combatant access to southwestern German states and important Rhine river crossings . On 20 October Moreau retreated from Freiburg im Breisgau and established his army along a ridge of hills . The severe condition of the roads prevented Archduke Charles from flanking the French right wing . The French left wing lay too close to the Rhine to outflank , and the French center , positioned in a 7 @-@ mile ( 11 km ) semi @-@ circle on heights that commanded the terrain below , was unassailable . Instead , he attacked the French flanks directly , and in force , which increased casualties for both sides .
Although the French and the Austrians claimed victory at the time , military historians generally agree that the Austrians achieved a strategic advantage . However , the French withdrew from the battlefield in good order and several days later crossed the Rhine River at Hüningen . A confusion of politics and diplomacy in Vienna wasted any strategic advantage that Charles might have obtained and locked the Habsburg force into two sieges on the Rhine , when the troops were badly needed in northern Italy . The battle is commemorated on a monument in Vienna and on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris .
= = Background = =
Initially , the rulers of Europe viewed the French Revolution as a dispute between the French king and his subjects , and not something in which they should interfere . As revolutionary rhetoric grew more strident , they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis XVI and his family ; this Declaration of Pilnitz ( 27 August 1791 ) threatened ambiguous , but quite serious , consequences if anything should happen to the royal family . The position of the revolutionaries became increasingly difficult . Compounding their problems in international relations , French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter @-@ revolution . Finally , on 20 April 1792 , the French National Convention declared war on Austria . In this War of the First Coalition ( 1792 – 98 ) , France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her , plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire . Despite some victories in 1792 , by early 1793 , France was in terrible crisis : French forces had been pushed out of Belgium ; also there was revolt in the Vendée over conscription ; wide @-@ spread resentment of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy ; and the French king had just been executed . The armies of the French Republic were in a state of disruption ; the problems became even more acute following the introduction of mass conscription , the levée en masse , which saturated an already distressed army with thousands of illiterate , untrained men . For the French , the Rhine Campaign of 1795 proved especially disastrous , although they had achieved some success in other theaters of war ( see for example , War of the Pyrenees ( 1793 – 95 ) ) .
= = = Campaign in 1796 = = =
The armies of the First Coalition included the imperial contingents and the infantry and cavalry of the various states , amounting to about 125 @,@ 000 ( including three autonomous corps ) , a sizable force by eighteenth century standards but a moderate force by the standards of the Revolutionary wars . In total , though , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief Archduke Charles ' troops stretched from Switzerland to the North Sea and Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser 's , from the Swiss @-@ Italian border to the Adriatic . Habsburg troops comprised the bulk of the army , but the thin white line of Habsburg infantry could not cover the territory from Basel to Frankfurt with sufficient depth to resist the pressure of their opponents . Compared to French coverage , Charles had half the number of troops covering a 211 @-@ mile ( 340 km ) front that stretched from Renchen near Basel to Bingen . Furthermore , he had concentrated the bulk of his force , commanded by Count Baillet Latour , between Karlsruhe and Darmstadt , where the confluence of the Rhine and the Main made an attack most likely , as it offered a gateway into eastern German states and ultimately to Vienna , with good bridges crossing a relatively well @-@ defined river bank . To his north , Wilhelm von Wartensleben 's autonomous corps covered the line between Mainz and Giessen . The Austrian army consisted of professionals , many moved from the border regions in the Balkans , and conscripts drafted from the imperial circles .
Two French generals , Jean Baptiste Jourdan and Jean Victor Moreau , commanded ( respectively ) the Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse and the Army of the Rhine and Moselle at the outset of the 1796 campaign . The French citizens ' army , created by mass conscription of young men and systematically divested of old men who might have tempered the rash impulses of teenagers and young adults , and had already made itself odious , by reputation and rumor at least , throughout France . Furthermore , it was an army entirely dependent upon the countryside for its material support . After April 1796 , pay was made in metallic value , but pay was still in arrears . Throughout the spring and early summer , the unpaid French army was in almost constant mutiny : in May 1796 , in the border town of Zweibrücken , the 74th Demi @-@ brigade revolted . In June , the 17th Demi @-@ brigade was insubordinate ( frequently ) and in the 84th Demi @-@ brigade , two companies rebelled . The French commanders understood that an assault into the German states was essential , not only in terms of war aims , but also in practical terms : the French Directory believed that war should pay for itself , and did not budget for the payment or feeding of its troops .
In Spring , 1796 , when resumption of war appeared eminent , the 88 members of the Swabian Circle , which included most of the states ( ecclesiastical , secular , and dynastic ) in Upper Swabia ,
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March 2001 , he made his Super Rugby debut with the Crusaders , playing a few minutes in a losing effort against the Hurricanes . That year he only played twice for the Crusaders , both times as a substitute , for a total of just eight minutes playing time . He did however play a full season with NPC champions Canterbury and captained the New Zealand Under 21s .
= = Playing career = =
= = = International debut = = =
Although the then 20 @-@ year @-@ old McCaw had only played seventeen matches for Canterbury , John Mitchell , the new All Black coach , selected him for the 2001 end of year tour to Ireland , Scotland and Argentina . This led Josh Kronfeld , a former All Black openside flanker , to criticise the selection : " You might as well just give All Black jerseys to everybody . The fact they picked guys off one NPC season is bloody incredible " .
McCaw 's debut international test was against Ireland at Lansdowne Road on 17 November 2001 . His first touch of the game resulted in a knock @-@ on when he was hit in a tackle and New Zealand were trailing the Irish 16 – 7 at half @-@ time . In the second half the All Blacks recovered to win 40 – 29 and McCaw was named man of the match , receiving a standing ovation at the post @-@ match function . A turning point came in the second half when McCaw was able to steal the ball from Ireland , which led to a try to left wing Jonah Lomu . After the match McCaw recalled the experience : " it was a hell of a stadium to play at , a real rugby stadium , a big crowd – something I 'll always remember , very special . "
McCaw played all three tests on the tour , with the All Blacks beating Scotland 37 – 6 and winning 24 – 20 against Argentina . At the end of season rugby awards , McCaw was selected as both the New Zealand Rugby Football Union Under @-@ 21 and Air New Zealand NPC Division One Player of the Year .
= = = 2002 – 03 = = =
In the lead @-@ up to the 2003 World Cup McCaw was a regular player for Canterbury , the Crusaders and the All Blacks . In 2002 and 2003 the Crusaders competed in the Super Rugby final , beating the Brumbies in 2002 and losing to the Blues in 2003 . The Canterbury provincial rugby team lost the semi final to the eventual winners Auckland in 2002 . McCaw and the other All Blacks were " rested " during the 2003 national provincial championship .
In 2002 McCaw played for the All Blacks against the touring Ireland team ( 15 – 6 and 40 – 8 victories ) and in the Tri Nations against Australia and South Africa . Of the six 2002 test matches McCaw played in , five were won by New Zealand with the only loss to Australia . The 14 – 16 loss occurred in New Zealand 's third Tri Nations match and ensured the Bledisloe Cup stayed with Australia . During the All Blacks match against South Africa in Durban a pitch invader attacked Irish referee David McHugh as a scrum was being set , dislocating his shoulder in the process . McCaw and A.J. Venter wrestled the assailant off the referee and , according to McHugh , if they had not got involved his shoulder would have been broken . McCaw was rested , along with 20 other members of the Tri Nations squad , from the 2002 end @-@ of @-@ year tour to Europe .
In 2002 McCaw was voted as Newcomer of the Year by the International Rugby Players Association . This award is voted on by all international players , with players not allowed to vote for members of their own team .
After another successful campaign with the Crusaders in 2003 ( reaching the Super 12 finals ) , McCaw was again selected as first choice openside flanker for the All Blacks . In June he was involved in a narrow 13 – 15 defeat at home to England , was a non @-@ playing reserve in a 55 – 3 victory against Wales and played in a 31 – 23 win over France . The 2003 All Blacks retained the Tri Nations title , regained the Bledisloe Cup for the first time since 1997 and were ranked second behind England leading into the World Cup .
McCaw was selected as openside flanker for the 2003 All Blacks World Cup squad and played in every game at the tournament . New Zealand won all their pool games and beat South Africa in the quarter finals to qualify for a semi @-@ final match @-@ up against Australia . In an upset , the Australians defeated the All Blacks , knocking them out of the tournament . At the end of the season awards McCaw received the Kel Tremain Trophy for the New Zealand Rugby Union player of the year .
= = = 2004 – 05 = = =
The Crusaders finished as runner @-@ ups in the 2004 Super 12 season , losing the final to the Brumbies . Following the World Cup , John Mitchell was dropped as All Black coach and replaced by Graham Henry . McCaw was selected as first choice openside flanker and made vice captain . In the first test against England he was escorted off the field after suffering concussion following a clash of heads with fellow All Black Xavier Rush . He was a late withdrawal from the second England test and then played 70 minutes against Argentina before again leaving the field due to dizziness . Still suffering headaches a month later , he withdrew from the rest of the home campaign and the 2004 Tri Nations to focus on recovery . McCaw returned to captain Canterbury to the finals at the tail end of the NPC season . In November 2004 he returned for the All Blacks ' end @-@ of @-@ season tour to Italy , Wales and France . He was made captain at the age of 23 for the first time against Wales as regular captain Tana Umaga was rested .
In April 2005 , while captaining the Crusaders , McCaw again suffered a concussion . He was stretchered off the field two minutes into the game after attempting a tackle on Bulls prop Richard Bands . After the incident , McCaw visited a young boy in hospital who had broken his neck playing rugby and started to question whether he should be playing the game . Another paraplegic in the ward told him he had broken his neck swimming on holiday in Fiji , convincing McCaw that it could happen anywhere , and you may as well " do what you enjoy " . A month later , in May 2005 , McCaw returned to training with the Crusaders and led them in their semi @-@ final and final victories .
McCaw returned to international rugby in 2005 , playing in the 91 – 0 victory over Fiji before the British and Irish Lions arrived . He then played the first two test against the Lions , including a record 48 – 18 victory in Wellington . The All Blacks defeated the touring Lions 3 – 0 in the series . McCaw was part of the successful Tri Nations campaign ( losing just one game ) and Grand Slam ( when victory is achieved against the four home nations ) end of year tour . He missed the game against England after suffering his third serious head knock against Ireland . Despite his injury concerns , McCaw was shortlisted for the 2005 IRB International Player of the Year , which was won by All Black team @-@ mate Dan Carter .
= = = 2006 – 07 = = =
McCaw led the Crusaders to the Super Rugby title again in 2006 . On May 2006 , at the age of 25 and after 36 test matches , McCaw was named captain of the All Blacks . His first two games as regular captain were against Ireland in New Zealand , while a separate squad led by Jerry Collins was named to travel to Argentina for a one off game . McCaw started his captaincy with victory over Ireland and then mentored stand @-@ in captain Jerry Collins in Argentina . New Zealand emerged as 2006 Tri Nations champions ( the only loss away to South Africa by one point ) and retained the Bledisloe Cup . A successful European tour saw comfortable victories against England , France twice and Wales . McCaw was captain in every match and after being short listed in 2002 , 2003 and 2005 was named the 2006 IRB International Player of the Year .
Because 2007 was a World Cup year , All Black management decided that a select group of 22 players , including McCaw , would undergo " reconditioning " by not playing in the first seven rounds of the Super 14 . McCaw returned to the Crusaders in the eighth round and helped them reach the semi @-@ finals . New Zealand then beat a below @-@ strength France team in two tests and won a one @-@ off test against Canada . McCaw started on the bench for the Canadian match , with Reuben Thorne returning as captain . The Tri Nations was shortened because of the World Cup , with each team playing the other two teams twice ( one home and one away game ) . Led by McCaw , New Zealand again dropped just one game ( this time a five @-@ point loss against Australia in Melbourne ) retaining the Tri Nations crown and the Bledisloe cup .
= = = = 2007 World Cup = = = =
The 2007 World Cup was held in France , Scotland and Wales . The All Blacks were in a pool that included Italy , Portugal , Scotland and Romania . The All Blacks comfortably made it through the pool play with scores of 76 – 14 , 108 – 13 , 40 – 0 and 85 – 8 respectively . McCaw made just three appearances ( two starts and one as a reserve ) due to Henry 's rotation policy . In the quarter @-@ finals the All Blacks lost to France 18 – 20 , resulting in New Zealand 's earliest exit from a World Cup . With semi @-@ final exits after being among the favourites at the 1991 , 1999 and 2003 World Cups , they were once again accused of " choking on the world 's biggest stage " .
An emotional McCaw could not hide his disappointment at the after @-@ match press conference : " If I knew the answers we would have sorted it out . We will be thinking about it for a long time " . McCaw denied New Zealand 's easy run into the quarter @-@ finals played a part in the loss " A lot of the guys have been through this before , they 've played big test matches . " Graham Henry 's policy of using squad rotation and resting key players during the Super 14 was criticised . McCaw also came under attack . He was accused of not inspiring his team , lacking the ability to change policy when plan A was not working and not providing enough leadership on the field .
= = = 2008 = = =
Despite much speculation that Henry would lose the All Black coaching job to coach Robbie Deans , he was retained on a contract for the next two years , later extended to include the 2011 World Cup . He immediately stated that he would retain McCaw as his captain . Robbie Deans instead signed with the Australian Rugby Union , becoming head coach of Australia . In Deans ' last season ( 2008 ) as Crusaders coach they won the Super Rugby title for the seventh time . Ireland and England toured to New Zealand in June 2008 and the All Blacks came away with a hard @-@ fought win against Ireland , and two comfortable victories against England . McCaw tore a ligament in his ankle against England and missed the start of the Tri Nations .
Rodney So 'oialo was made stand @-@ in captain and started the Tri Nations with a win and two losses . McCaw returned for the fourth game and the All Blacks won the remaining three matches to retain the Tri Nations title and Bledisloe Cup . McCaw was seen as an inspiration after his return from injury , with Henry rating his performance in the 19 – 0 win in South Africa ( the first time the South Africans had been kept scoreless on home soil in 105 years ) as his best so far for the All Blacks .
In 2008 a fourth Bledisloe match was played in Hong Kong with the intention of expanding the game of rugby and in a close 19 – 14 game McCaw scored the match winning try . The Grand Slam tour to the United Kingdom and Ireland resulted in victories over Scotland ( 32 – 6 ) , Ireland ( 22 – 3 ) , Wales ( 29 – 9 ) and England ( 32 – 6 ) . During 2008 McCaw won every test he captained and a total of 26 out of 28 games he played in at all levels . The All Blacks won 13 of a record 15 tests , retained the Bledisloe Cup and Tri Nations Trophy , completed the Grand Slam and reclaimed the world No. 1 ranking from South Africa .
McCaw finished 2008 by making his debut for the Barbarians against Australia at Twickenham in a 11 – 18 loss .
= = = 2009 – 10 = = =
The Crusaders , under new coach Todd Blackadder , had a slow start to the 2009 season , losing four of their first five games . They recovered to finish fourth on the table , losing the semi @-@ final at Loftus Versfeld to the Bulls . McCaw injured his knee and missed the start of the international season , returning for the Tri Nations tournament . South Africa beat the All Blacks in every match to win the title and regain the number 1 ranking , with New Zealand beating Australia three times to finish second . It was the first time New Zealand had not won the competition in five years and the fifth time since the Tri Nations started in 1996 . A fourth Bledisloe Test against Australia was played in Japan before New Zealand toured Europe . Although New Zealand won every match on tour , an earlier loss to France and three defeats by the South Africans were the most suffered by the All Blacks in a season since McCaw joined the team in 2001 . Despite the team 's relatively poor season , McCaw was named the IRB International Player of the Year for a second time .
The 2010 season started in much the same way with the Crusaders finishing fourth during the round robin stage and losing to the Bulls in the semi @-@ final . During the season McCaw played his 100th Super Rugby game in a losing effort against the Cape Town @-@ based Stormers . New Zealand recorded victories over the touring Ireland and Wales teams , Ireland losing their match by a record 66 – 28 after number eight Jamie Heaslip received a red card for kneeing McCaw in the head . The All Blacks went through the Tri Nations undefeated with the final game of the tournament against Australia marking McCaw 's 52nd time captaining the All Blacks , surpassing Sean Fitzpatrick as New Zealand 's most @-@ capped test captain .
The fourth Bledisloe Cup match was again scheduled for Hong Kong and Australia ended a ten match losing streak to the All Blacks . It was to be the only loss the All Blacks would suffer that season as they went on to win another Grand Slam tour , defeating England , Scotland , Ireland and Wales . In the match against Ireland McCaw , along with team mate Mils Muliaina played in their 93rd test match passing Sean Fitzpatrick to become the most capped All Blacks . At the end of year McCaw was named the IRB International Player of the Year for the second successive season and the New Zealand sportsperson of the year at the Halberg awards .
= = = 2011 Rugby World Cup = = =
During preseason training in January 2011 McCaw injured his foot , subsequent x @-@ rays revealed that he had received a stress fracture in the fifth metatarsal of his right foot . It was determined his best chance of recovery was to undergo an operation where a pin was inserted . As a result , McCaw missed the opening two months of the SuperRugby season . During the All Black 's third Rugby World Cup pool match against France , McCaw became the first All Black to reach 100 test caps . However , it was also during this match McCaw re @-@ aggravated his foot injury . In order to rest his injury , he was forced to skip the more physical aspects of training and miss the All Blacks ' final pool match against Canada . Prior to the Quarter @-@ final against Argentina McCaw decided against having another x @-@ ray . Following the re @-@ occurrence of his injury it was uncertain whether McCaw could continue to play for the All Blacks , this forced the coaching staff to develop contingency plans and Matt Todd was called into the All Black training squad . McCaw was able to
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sites , for example the Tinkinswood burial chamber , in the Vale of Glamorgan . The variation in musculoskeletal stress markers may indicate a mobile lifestyle for at least some of the males analysed .
Evidence obtained from stable isotope analysis shows plant foods , including cereals , formed only a small proportion of their dietary protein . The majority derived from animals – i.e. , meat , and milk or blood – and contained none from marine sources .
Remains of human teeth were analysed for evidence of arrested development and decay . Arrested development implies periods of nutritional shortage , which could indicate failed harvests . Decay implies either periods of food shortage , or a diet consisting of high proportions of carbohydrate or softer cooked meat , or both . Dental analyses showed no sign of periods of decay or arrested development , even where there was " considerable wear " , indicating a lifestyle that was not dependent on farming cereals . The 1887 bone report notes the " good condition of the teeth " . Whittle and Wysocki noted the " slight " presence of tartar , and that only one tooth had been lost before death , a mandibular incisor .
Whittle and Wysocki conclude , from the skeletal and dental analyses , that the lifestyles of the people who were to be interred in the cromlech either continued to be one of hunting and gathering or , more likely , a pastoral life of herding , rather than one of agrarian @-@ based farming .
= = Cathole Cave = =
The Cathole Cave , Cat Hole Cave or Cathole Rock Cave , is a steep limestone outcrop , about 200 yards ( 180 m ) north of the cromlech along the Parc le Breos Cwm valley and near the top of the gorge , about 50 feet ( 15 m ) from the valley floor . The cave is a deep triangular fissure penetrating the hillside and narrowing towards the top . It has two entrances , with a natural platform outside the larger of the two .
The cave was used as a shelter by bands of Mesolithic hunters and as a Neolithic ossuary . During the first excavation of the cave in 1864 , finds were made only from the Mesolithic to medieval periods . In his " The Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society vol.25 ( 1959 ) , pp. 260 – 69 " , archaeologist Charles McBurney notes that " In the Post Glacial period the cave was much used by Mesolithic hunters " ; a conclusion confirmed by John Campbell 's excavation of 1977 .
A 1984 excavation by Aldhouse @-@ Green revealed the earliest finds from the cave , two tanged points that may date to c . 28 @,@ 000 BP , an interglacial period during the Late Pleistocene roughly contemporaneous with the Red Lady of Paviland . The " lady " was discovered in a cave between Port Eynon and Rhossili , about eight miles ( 13 km ) west of Cathole Cave , and has been radiocarbon dated to c . 29 @,@ 000 BP , the oldest known human burial in Great Britain .
Rock art from the Upper Paleolithic , thought to represent a reindeer , was discovered on the back wall of Cathole Cave in September 2010 . The engraving , measuring approximately 15 x 11 cm , has been radiocarbon dated to 14 @,@ 505 ± 560 BP . According to George Nash , the archeologist who made the discovery , it is " the oldest rock art in the British Isles , if not north @-@ western Europe " .
Late glacial tool finds from the Upper Palaeolithic date to c . 12 @,@ 000 BP : flint blades known as Cheddar points ; smaller bladelets known as Cresswell points ; scrapers ; burins or lithic flakes ; flint and bone awls ; and a bone needle . Flint rarely occurs in Wales other than in drifts , or as small pebbles on beaches . Flint tools would therefore have to have been brought to Gower from other areas , such as those now known as southern or eastern England , or Antrim , either as finished tools or as incomplete , or unworked , nodules . Remains of red fox , Arctic fox , brown bear , tundra vole , and possibly reindeer , were found at the same level as the Upper Palaeolithic tools , providing evidence of the climate c . 12 @,@ 000 BP . Other animal remains excavated during the 19th century , which may predate the Late glacial finds , include mammoth , woolly rhinoceros , red deer and giant deer .
Several finds date to the Bronze Age , including a bronze socketed axe , two human skeletons , and sherds of pottery from burial urns and other vessels .
= = Llethryd Tooth Cave = =
An excavation of the Llethryd Tooth Cave , or Tooth Hole cave , a Bronze Age ossuary site at a cave about 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) north , north west of the cromlech , was carried out by D. P. Webley and J. Harvey in 1962 . It revealed the disarticulated remains of six people , dated to the Early Bronze Age or Beaker culture . Other contemporary finds , now held at the Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales , Cardiff , include collared urn pottery , flaked knives , a scraper , flint flakes , a bone spatula , a needle and bead , and animal bones – the remains of domesticated animals , including cat and dog . Whittle and Wysocki note that this period of occupation may be " significant " , with respect to Parc Cwm long cairn , as it is " broadly contemporary with the secondary use of the tomb " .
= = Location = =
The Neolithic cromlech at Parc le Breos is about seven 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 12 km ) west south – west of Swansea , Wales , near the centre of Gower , midway between the villages of Llanrhidian and Bishopston . Its nearest village is Parkmill , a small rural settlement about one mile ( 1 @.@ 5 km ) to the south – east .
Parc Cwm long cairn lies on the floor of a dry , narrow , limestone gorge , at an elevation of about 50 feet ( 15 m ) above sea level , less than 1 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 2 km ) from the south coast of Gower . It is in about 500 acres ( 200 ha ) of woodland called Coed y Parc , the remnants of a former medieval deer park ( Parc le Breos ) from which the cromlech derives its alternative name : Parc le Breos burial chamber . Established as an enclosed area of about 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) by John de Braose , Marcher Lord of Gower , in about 1221 – 32 CE , the park is now mainly farmland . A 19th @-@ century hunting lodge about 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) north – east of Parc Cwm long cairn has been converted into a hotel and pony trekking ( horse riding ) centre called Parc le Breos .
Coed y Parc is owned and managed by Forestry Commission Wales . The site is open to the public free of charge and has parking for 12 – 15 cars about 750 feet ( 230 m ) away . Facing the car park on the opposite side of the lane , a kissing gate allows wheelchair access to a level asphalt track running past the cromlech down the length of the gorge , passing within about 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) of the cairn . Parc Cwm long cairn is maintained by Cadw ( English : to keep ) , the Welsh Government 's historic environment division .
= Ray Ray =
Ray Ray is the second studio album by American recording artist Raphael Saadiq , released October 5 , 2004 , on his record label Pookie Entertainment . After being dropped from Universal Records , Saadiq formed the label and worked on the album , for which he sought looser , 1970s @-@ inspired direction than his debut album Instant Vintage ( 2002 ) . He produced Ray Ray with Michael Angelo , Jake and the Phatman , and Kelvin Wooten .
Titled after Saadiq 's childhood nickname , Ray Ray has a looser , more conventional style than his debut album and incorporates funk . Its groove @-@ oriented songs exhibit Saadiq 's characteristic fusion of programmed beats , strings , neo soul melodies , and live guitar . They are arranged in a song cycle and touch on lighthearted romantic themes and socially conscious messages .
The album debuted at number 86 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , but fell off the next week . Upon its release , Ray Ray received generally positive reviews from music critics . Although some were ambivalent towards its loose blaxploitation concept and Saadiq 's songwriting , critics praised the album 's production quality and vintage musical approach . It is currently out of print .
= = Background = =
In 2002 , Saadiq released his debut solo album Instant Vintage , which received critical acclaim and earned him five Grammy Award nominations . However , despite attaining a following among listeners in Europe , it was largely ignored by contemporary R & B listeners in the United States and did not sell well . After its release , he was dropped by his record label Universal Records .
Saadiq subsequently formed his own label , Pookie Entertainment , on which he released the double live album All Hits at the House of Blues in 2003 . The live album showcased Saadiq 's solo material and songs he recorded as a part of Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! during the late 1980s and 1990s . Saadiq also continued working as a producer for other recording artists , including Erykah Badu , Kelis , Jill Scott , Nappy Roots , Earth , Wind & Fire , Sunshine Anderson , and Jaguar Wright .
= = Recording = =
Having fulfilled his creative ambition with Instant Vintage , he sought a looser direction for a follow @-@ up studio album . He said of the direction for Ray Ray in an interview for Rolling Stone , " You only get to make a first statement one time , and I had definite ideas of how I wanted it to sound . Ray Ray represents a more fun side of what I do . I wanted to have a good time with it . " In an interview for The Baltimore Sun , Saadiq discussed the inspiration behind the album 's blaxploitation concept , stating :
Saadiq recorded the album with producers Michael Angelo , Focus ... , and Jake and the Phatman , among others . He also worked with singer @-@ songwriter Joi , former Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! member D 'wayne Wiggins , singer @-@ songwriter Teedra Moses , singer Dawn Robinson , formerly of Saadiq 's other group Lucy Pearl , singer @-@ songwriter Babyface , and rapper Allie Baba , Saadiq 's nephew . The album 's title is a reference to his mother 's nickname for him , also a childhood name . Its cover artwork was inspired by the blaxploitation films of the 1970s . It shows Saadiq dressed in a vintage cornflower blue suit , knicker pants , and lime green argyle socks , while leaning on a white 1967 Mercury Cougar .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The album contains a more funk @-@ oriented sound than Instant Vintage , while it features romantic and some message @-@ oriented themes . In comparison to that album , Saadiq has called Ray Ray " more aggressive , more radio @-@ friendly ... one of those good , Saturday @-@ playing records " . It incorporates R & B , funk , and soul styles , as well as elements of gospel and hip hop music .
As with his debut album , Ray Ray features Saadiq 's characteristic fusion of programmed beats , strings , neo soul melodies , and live guitars . The songs are mostly mid @-@ tempo and groove @-@ based , and also feature rubbery bass lines and horns . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman views that the album 's music is " a little funkier and a lot more energetic than 2002 's Instant Vintage , yet just as full of Saadiq 's stylish flourishes . " He writes of the album 's subject matter , " for every song that 's charmingly simple and full of lighthearted romantic sentiments , there 's something message @-@ oriented " . Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe characterizes the album 's mood as " playful " and writes that it is composed as " a bouncy song cycle that 's a throwback to ' 70s funk . "
The album 's first two tracks , " Blaxploitation " and " Ray Ray Theme " , serve as audio vignettes introducing Saadiq 's alter ego as the main character of a faux @-@ Blaxploitation soundtrack . The latter track has singer Joi calling upon the character , addressing him as " soul brother number one " , to " shoot me with your bop gun " . Both songs help establish the character as a ladies ' man with a penchant for fast cars . However , the concept is not sustained in the following songs on the album . " I Know Shuggie Otis " is a tribute to psychedelic recording artist Shuggie Otis and features a screeching guitar solo . " This One " features orchestral pop and gleeful tones . " Chic Like You " contains elements of G @-@ funk , gospel @-@ styled , vocal " mmms " and fluid , funky keyboards . Its lyrics depict sensual images : " She soaks in green tea lotion / Her legs are so outspoken " .
" Not a Game " features a spare hip hop beat and an emotional vocal delivery by Saadiq . " Rifle Love " utilizes the sounds of barrel clicks and gunshots as a rhythm section in its chorus . Both " Live Without You " and " I Want You Back " are pleas to an ex @-@ lover and have romantic crooning by Saadiq over a gritty funk groove . " I Want You Back " also features elements of Miami bass and electro @-@ styled synthesizers . Saadiq adopts a falsetto / high tenor singing voice on " Grown Folks " . It features socially conscious lyrics and a Latin @-@ tinged arrangement . " Save Us " has a theme of disillusionment and features sparse keyboard and a somber refrain .
= = Release and reception = =
Ray Ray was released by Pookie Entertainment on October 5 , 2004 , in the United States . Two singles were released in promotion of the album , " Chic Like You " and " I Want You Back " . The album debuted on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart in the week of October 23 . It was the album 's only week on the chart . Ray Ray also spent eight weeks on the Billboard Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums , on which it peaked at number 18 . It eventually went out of print in the U.S. In France , the album charted for two weeks and reached number 145 .
Ray Ray received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 66 , based on six reviews . Phil Johnson of The Independent called it " madder and badder " than Saadiq 's debut record and found its sound " more radical " , stating " no one can distress a production like Raphael , whose multi @-@ instrumental talents and Stevie Wonder @-@ ish voice make him a Prince for the Noughties . " Andria Lisle of Paste commended Saadiq 's " versatility " and found the album " softer than Cee @-@ lo and sexier than Ricky Fanté " . Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly complimented Saadiq 's " bass virtuosity " and " grown and sexy " vibe , although he viewed some of his songwriting as " amateur " . The Boston Globe 's Ken Capobianco observed an " overriding sense of joy and mischief throughout jams " , and found Saadiq 's " musical exuberance ... infectious " .
Although he found it lacking a " centerpiece track " , Capobianco ultimately praised the album as a " funk " departure from most of the contemporary soul he found " studied and overly reverent " . Slant Magazine editor Sal Cinquemani found it flawed as a concept album , but commended Saadiq for " conjuring soul greats like Stevie Wonder ( ' Live Without You ' ) , Curtis Mayfield ( ' Grown Folks ' ) , and Prince ( ' I Know Shuggie Otis ' ) throughout " , and stated , " just because the storyline ( s ) ... ceases to exist after the first few songs that doesn 't mean the rest of the tracks aren 't good . " Geoffrey Himes of The Washington Post noted Saadiq for having " a rare gift for linking seductive melodies to slinky grooves " and stated , " Ray Ray is just a collection of disconnected songs ... failing to establish a narrative . But what terrific songs they are . "
Allmusic 's Andy Kellman complimented its " varied " subject matter and wrote in summation , " Ray Ray occasionally loses focus , slipping into moments that are either undercooked or worthy of the cutting room , but it 's enjoyable enough to keep his followers happy and will certainly act as a remedy for those who don 't like the gold @-@ bricked path being taken by mainstream R & B. " Ethan Brown of New York stated , " Despite its faults — and there are many ... Ray Ray is a startlingly inventive record " , and found Saadiq " at his best when he revives the sad soul of Sam Cooke " on songs like " Not a Game " . Andrew Simon of Vibe found a " handful " of songs to be poorly conceived and viewed that the album 's strength was Saadiq 's " crisp " production and bass playing , writing that " On a dime , the thick tones of the multi @-@ instrumentalist 's weaopn of choice go from low and rumbly to high and tight . " He ultimately commended Saadiq 's intentions with the album 's concept , stating " Ray Ray hits more than it misses in its celebration of a time when George was making the mothership connection and Marvin just wanted to get it on . "
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from liner notes .
• ( co . ) Co @-@ producer
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Ray Ray adapted from liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= The National ( Scotland ) =
The National is a Scottish daily newspaper owned by Newsquest that began publication on 24 November 2014 , and the first daily newspaper in Scotland to support Scottish independence . Launched as a response to calls from Newsquest 's readership for a pro @-@ independence paper in the wake of the 2014 Scottish independence referendum , it is a sister paper of The Herald and the Sunday Herald , and is edited by Callum Baird . Initially published on weekdays , a Saturday edition was added in May 2015 . The National is printed in tabloid format , and is also available via online subscription .
Details of its launch were announced on 21 November , with further information given at a Scottish National Party ( SNP ) rally the following day . It was launched on a five @-@ day trial basis against the backdrop of a general decline in newspaper sales , with an initial print @-@ run of 60 @,@ 000 copies for its first edition , but this was increased the following day as a result of public demand , and Newsquest decided to print it on a permanent basis after healthy sales continued throughout the first week . By January 2015 , daily sales had fallen to below 20 @,@ 000 . The first front page carried a story about charities urging devolution of powers over welfare legislation to Scotland .
Reception to the newspaper 's launch was mixed in both media and political circles . Libby Brooks of The Guardian praised the depth of its news coverage , but suggested announcing its launch at an SNP event could prove " auspicious " , while the Labour peer George Foulkes branded it " McPravda " . However , the Scottish journalist and broadcaster Lesley Riddoch was more positive , feeling its launch could be a " sound business move " by its publishers . Upon its launch , The National stated that it is a separate entity from the SNP .
= = Background = =
The National describes itself as " the newspaper that supports an independent Scotland " , and has a masthead depicting a map of Scotland . Details of the newspaper were revealed on 21 November 2014 after The Guardian obtained a copy of a letter being circulated to retailers by Newsquest announcing its forthcoming publication . A sister paper of The Herald and the Sunday Herald , The National would be the first daily newspaper in Scotland to support Scottish independence , and was being piloted in response to a request from Herald readers for a pro @-@ independence newspaper . During the 2014 independence referendum , the Sunday Herald had been the only newspaper to support the " Yes " campaign , and saw an increase in its circulation — with sales rising by 60 % in the week preceding the referendum and 111 % in the week afterwards . Richard Walker , editor of the Sunday Herald , was announced as the new paper 's editor . On 22 November , Walker told a gathering of Scottish National Party ( SNP ) supporters assembled at Glasgow 's SSE Hydro that The National 's publishers would trial the newspaper for five days , but that it would become a permanent addition to the market if there was demand for it . Copies would cost 50p , while an online version would also be available via subscription .
The paper was launched with an initial print @-@ run of 60 @,@ 000 , and was edited by a skeleton staff during the trial run , with plans to employ more journalists if it became a permanent publication . Initial contributors included Sunday Herald journalists Jamie Maxwell and Peter Geoghegan , as well as freelance reporter Sarah Cooper . During the initial week of publication , Walker spoke of his belief that The National would continue beyond the trial period , but said the decision was in the hands of its publishers . Following healthy sales in the first few days , Newsquest executives decided on 27 November to continue printing the newspaper , and to allocate it additional resources . On the same day , Neil Mackay , The National 's news editor , confirmed that the paper would be published on a permanent basis . Publication then continued on weekdays until the introduction of a Saturday edition in May 2015 .
On 27 November 2014 , Alex Salmond , the former First Minister of Scotland , publicly endorsed The National when he took a copy of it on stage to accept The Spectator 's award for Politician of the Year . On 27 January 2015 , Newsquest area manager Tim Blott announced that the newspaper 's website would be relaunched in February , while Callum Baird would be appointed as assistant editor . The first Saturday edition of The National was published on 9 May to provide coverage of the results of the 2015 UK general election . Walker subsequently described the response as " very strong " and said that the newspaper would continue to be printed on a Saturday for " as long as there ’ s a public demand for it . " In September 2015 Walker announced his resignation from Newsquest , and consequently the Sunday Herald and The National , but he agreed to continue with The National as a consulting editor . He was succeeded as editor by Callum Baird . As Scotland prepared to welcome its first batch of refugees from the Syrian Civil War an edition of the newspaper published on 17 November 2015 carried the headline " Welcome to Scotland " . The Independent reported that an image of the front page was subsequently shared multiple times among users of social media .
= = Launch = =
Launched as a 32 @-@ page newspaper , and printed in tabloid format , The National was first published on Monday 24 November 2014 , and according to its editor received an " amazing response " from readers , with its print @-@ run for the following day 's edition increased to 100 @,@ 000 . The Press Gazette reported that 80 @,@ 000 copies were produced on the third day , while 12 @,@ 000 online digital subscriptions had been registered at a price of £ 1 @.@ 50 per week . Other sources , including The Guardian , and subsequently The National itself , put the online subscription figure at 11 @,@ 000 . On 27 November , The Guardian reported that of the 100 @,@ 000 copies printed on 25 November , unofficial sales figures indicated that only 50 @,@ 000 had been sold , and that daily sales were stabilising at around the 50 @,@ 000 mark . Sales figures for the first Friday edition , published on 28 November , were reported as 40 @,@ 000 by The Guardian , with an average daily sale for the first week of 44 @,@ 000 copies . On 3 December , The Guardian reported that unofficial industry sales figures indicated 36 @,@ 000 copies were sold for the Monday edition of the second week . On 27 January 2015 , The Guardian reported that daily sales had fallen to below 20 @,@ 000 — a figure consisting of around 15 @,@ 000 print sales , with a further 2 @,@ 500 to 3 @,@ 000 digital subscriptions .
On 27 November 2014 , Newsquest announced plans for the Friday edition , published the following day , to be expanded to 40 pages to accommodate news coverage of the Smith Commission 's report into increased devolution for Scotland , which was published on 27 November , and due to a large demand for space from advertisers . The 28 November edition also included an editorial thanking readers for backing the new publication . Speaking to The Guardian shortly after its launch , Walker said that the initial print run had been set as 30 @,@ 000 , but a last @-@ minute decision was taken to double it , something he described as " in hindsight , a good decision " . The National 's launch and success came at a time of general decline in the print media industry , where news providers were cutting staff and resources due to a downturn in newspaper sales . Douglas Beattie of the New Statesman and Alex Massie of The Spectator reported that copies of the first edition , which sold out , were being auctioned on eBay for at least £ 10 . The Financial Times reported that pro @-@ independence campaigners used social media to help potential readers locate available copies of the paper when the first edition had sold out in many areas .
However , the launch was not without its problems when three major supermarkets did not stock copies . On launch day , Sainsbury 's said that its tills had not been updated in time to enable them to sell the paper , but that it would begin doing so from the following day , while Tesco and Morrisons planned to monitor sales before deciding whether or not to stock it . Morrisons also said that it did not have the space to sell the newspaper without doing so at the expense of local titles . On 27 November , The Guardian reported that the distribution issues had been resolved , while STV News suggested the distribution problems were responsible for the fewer number of printed copies in the latter part of the launch week . Stewart Kirkpatrick , the former digital chief of Yes Scotland noted that The National had no digital presence at the time of its launch , something that prompted him to observe " We 're in the age of ' digital first ' not ' digital when we get round to it ' . "
The first edition of The National carried the headline " Give Scotland the powers to cut child poverty " , an article in which charities urged the Smith Commission to devolve welfare powers to the Scottish Parliament . The newspaper also included a mixture of national and international stories , with Libby Brooks of The Guardian noting the international coverage was " [ stronger ] than one is used to from a Scottish title [ with ] stories from Tunisia and Gaza as well as a profile of [ Iranian President ] Hassan Rouhani " . There was also sport and business coverage , but the BBC 's Jamie McIvor wrote of the first edition that " stories related to independence , Scottish politics and issues which featured in the referendum campaign characterise the news pages " . The newspaper 's opening edition also set out its mission statement :
The status quo is no longer an option and there is an unquenchable desire for greater devolution . Quite simply , the Scottish people want to be more directly and deeply involved in the decisions that affect them and the generations to come . It is with this uppermost in mind that today we launch The National , a daily newspaper that will fly a vibrant flag for independence and the right for Scots to govern themselves .
= = Reception = =
Despite having details of its launch announced at an SNP political event , the newspaper has stated that it is politically independent of that party . Its inaugural editorial says that being a mouthpiece for the party " would not be a healthy course to follow . We will be critical where appropriate and complimentary when merited . " But in The Guardian , Brooks suggested that launching The National at an SNP political rally " might not have been the most auspicious of starts " for the newspaper , while Labour peer George Foulkes quickly dubbed it " McPravda " , a reference to the political newspaper associated with the Communist Party of Russia . Damian Thompson , an associate editor with The Spectator , described the launch event as " creepy " . McIvor wrote that the calibre of its stablemates together with a respected editor had ensured The National was being taken seriously in political and media circles , but that the onus was on it to prove its credibility as a publication that supports independence rather than being viewed as " a propaganda organ , a cynical business exercise or the old media equivalent of some pro @-@ independence websites " . Alan Roden , political editor of the Scottish Daily Mail , claimed it had " rehashed SNP press releases " and was too expensive for its size .
Writing for The Guardian , the journalist and broadcaster Lesley Riddoch took a different view , suggesting that the launch of a pro @-@ independence newspaper in a country where 45 % of the population had recently voted for independence " may be a large but calculated risk and a very sound business move " , and that " Perhaps the novelty and sheer boldness of the National newspaper will match the national mood " . Kirkpatrick , although critical of its online shortfalls , was positive about the paper 's content , describing it as " a lively mix of briefs and longer pieces " . Douglas Beattie of the New Statesman said The National " has a clear raison d ’ etre and will be welcomed by a large number of the 1 @.@ 6 million Scots who voted Yes " . Stephen Daisley of STV News wrote that it was " both frustratingly light [ and ] stodgily worthy " , but drew favourable comparisons with the Scottish Standard , a weekly pro @-@ independence paper launched in 2005 that ceased publication after just seven issues , suggesting The National would succeed because it had more financial backing , and as there was a latent demand for a news sheet supporting independence . Writing in The Guardian , the journalist and author Peter Preston said there were " many good things to say about the National " including its editor , who was leading a newspaper that " helps to reflect public opinion better " .
= Jan Mayensfield =
Jan Mayensfield ( ICAO : ENJA ) is an aerodrome serving Olonkinbyen in Jan Mayen , Norway . Operated by the Norwegian Armed Forces , it serves the island 's only population at the combined military and meteorological station . It has a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ meter ( 4 @,@ 921 ft ) dirt runway numbered 06 – 24 .
The airfield was built in connection with the LORAN @-@ C transmitter at Olonkinbyen and was completed in 1960 . Jan Mayensfield is served
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save someone wishing that the other person is not saved and thus suffers the consequences of violence although he may have not actually done anything .
= = = Dravya hiṃsā and bhāva hiṃsā = = =
= = = Types of violence = = =
While the Jain ascetics observe absolute nonviolence , so far as a Jain householder is concerned , the violence is categorised as follows :
Sankalpinī hiṃsā or intentional violence – Intentional violence knowingly done is the worst form of violence and is a transgression of the layperson 's vow of nonviolence . Examples of sankalpinī hiṃsā are killing for hunting , amusement or decoration , or butchering for food or sacrifice or killing or hurting out of enmity , malice or mischief. sankalpinī hiṃsā has to be totally renounced by a householder .
Virodhinī hiṃsā or Self @-@ defence – One is allowed to practice self @-@ defense against a robber , murderer , or any other criminal . This self @-@ defense is necessary when evil attacks .
Āṛambhinī ( Graharambhi ) hiṃsā or domestic or household violence – This violence is unavoidably committed in the course of preparing food , household cleanliness , washing , construction of houses , wells , etc .
Udyoginī hiṃsā or Occupational Violence – This violence is connected to occupational undertakings like agriculture , building and operating industries , etc .
While sankalpinī hiṃsā has to be avoided at all costs , the other three types of hiṃsā , although unavoidable in some cases , should not exceed the strict requirements of fulfilling the duties of a householder . Furthermore , they should not be influenced by passions such as anger , greed , pride and deceit or they take the character of sanpalkinī hiṃsā .
= = = Ways of committing violence = = =
It would be wrong , however , to conclude that Ahimsa only prohibits physical violence . An early Jain text says : " With the three means of punishment – thoughts , words , deeds – ye shall not injure living beings . " In fact , violence can be committed by combination of the following four factors :
1 . The instrumentality of our actions . We can commit violence through
a. body i.e. physical action ,
b. speech i.e. verbal action , or
c. mind i.e. mental actions
2 . The process of committing violence . This includes whether
a. we only decide or plan to act ,
b. we make preparations for the act e.g. like collecting necessary materials or weapons , or
c. we actually begin the action
3 . The modality of our action , whether
a. we ourselves commit violence ,
b. we instigate others to carry out the violence , or
c. we give our silent approval for the violence
4 . The motivation for action . This includes which of the following negative emotions motivate the violence .
a . Anger
b . Greed
c . Pride
d . Manipulation or deceit
In Jainism , " non @-@ manifestation of passions like attachment is non @-@ injury ( Ahimsa ) , and manifestation of such passions is injury ( himsa ) . " This is termed as the essence of the Jaina Scriptures .
= = The rationale of nonviolence = =
According to Jainism , the purpose of nonviolence is not because it is a commandment of a God or any other supreme being . Its purpose is also not simply because its observance is conducive to general welfare of the state or the community . While it is true that in Jainism , the moral and religious injunctions were laid down as law by Arhats who have achieved perfection through their supreme moral efforts , their adherence is just not to please a God , but the life of the Arhats has demonstrated that such commandments were conductive to Arhat 's own welfare , helping him to reach spiritual victory . Just as Arhats achieved spiritual victory by observing non @-@ violence , so can anyone who follows this path .
Another aspect that provides a rationale to the avoidance of hiṃsā is that , any acts of himsā results in himsā to self . Any act of violence though outwardly is seen to harm others , harms the soul of the person indulging in the act . Thus by an act of violence , a soul may or may not injure the material vitalities known as dravya praṇa of someone else , but always causes injury to its own bhāva praṇa or the psychic vitalities by binding the soul with karmas . It would be entirely wrong to see Ahimsa in Jainism in any sentimental light . The Jain doctrine of non @-@ injury is based on rational consciousness , not emotional compassion ; on responsibility to self , not on a social fellow feeling . The motive of Ahimsa is totally self @-@ centered and for the benefit of the individual . And yet , though the emphasis is on personal liberation , the Jain ethics makes that goal attainable only through consideration for others .
Furthermore , according to the Jain karmic theory , each and every soul , including self , has reincarnated as an animal , plant or microorganism innumerable number of times besides re @-@ incarnated as humans . The concept of Ahimsa is more meaningful when understood in conjunction with the concept of karmas . As the doctrine of transmigration of souls includes rebirth in animal as well as human form , it creates a humanitarian sentiment of kinship amongst all life forms . The motto of Jainism – Parasparopagraho jīvānām , translated as : all life is inter @-@ related and it is the duty of souls to assist each other- also provides a rational approach of Jains towards Ahimsa .
In conclusion , the insistence of ahimsa is not so much about non @-@ injury to others as it is about non @-@ injury and spiritual welfare of the self . The ultimate rationale of ahimsa is fundamentally is about karmic results of the hiṃsā on self rather than the concern about the well being of other beings for its own sake .
= = Ahimsa and vegetarianism = =
Jain vegetarian diet is practised by the followers of Jain culture and philosophy . It is considered one of the most rigorous forms of a spiritually motivated diet on the Indian subcontinent and beyond . The Jain cuisine is completely vegetarian , and it also excludes potatoes , onions and garlic , like the shojin @-@ ryori cuisine of Japan .
According to Amṛtacandra Sūri :
" Those who wish to renounce hiṃsā must , first of all , make effort to give up the consumption of wine , flesh , honey , and the five udumbara fruits ( the five udumbara trees are Gular , Anjeera , Banyan , Peepal , and Pakar , all belonging to the fig class ) .
The strictest forms of Jain diet are practised by the monastic ascetics . It also excludes potatoes and other root vegetables . The scrupulous and thorough way of applying nonviolence to everyday activities , and especially to food , shapes their entire lives and is the most significant hallmark of Jain identity . For Jains , lacto @-@ vegetarianism ( generally known simply as vegetarianism in India ) is mandatory . Food which contains even small particles of the bodies of dead animals or eggs is absolutely unacceptable . Some Jain scholars and activists support veganism , as the production of dairy products is perceived to involve violence against cows . Strict Jains don 't eat root vegetables such as potatoes , onions , roots and tubers . This is so because tiny life forms are injured when the plant is pulled up and because the bulb is seen as a living being , as it is able to sprout . Also , consumption of most root vegetables involves uprooting and killing the entire plant , in contrast to consumption of most other terrestrial vegetables , upon which the plant lives on after plucking the vegetables ( or it was seasonally supposed to wither away anyway ) . Mushrooms , Funguses and Yeasts are forbidden because they are parasites , grow in non @-@ hygienic environments , and may harbour other life forms . Alfalfa is the only known plant that contains vitamin D2 , which they may use directly or make vitamin D2 supplements from . Honey is forbidden , as its collection would amount to violence against the bees . Jains are also not supposed to consume food left overnight because of contamination by microbes . Most Jain recipes substitute for potato with plantain .
= = Misconceptions = =
The Jain scriptures discuss various misconceptions that are harboured in case of Ahimsa . They often oppose the Vedic beliefs in sacrifices and other practices that justified violence in various ways . Ācārya Amritacandra 's Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya discuss these wrong beliefs at length to alert the Jain laity to them . These misconceptions are as follows .
= = = Animal sacrifices = = =
The belief that animals were created for yajna ( sacrifice ) and hence it was not considered a slaughter , as it elevated not only the person making the sacrifice , but also the animals was also denounced by the Jains . Ācārya Amṛtacandra of Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya condemned this practice by stating that it is a misconception to hold that Gods are pleased at sacrifices of living beings and there is no wrong in committing hiṃsā for the sake of religion .
Ācārya Amṛtacandra says that animals should not be killed for guests or persons deserving respect as often advocated in certain scriptures . It is also a wrong belief that wild animals that kill many other animals should be killed . This is often justified in the name of hunting of ferocious animals like tigers for sport . Another wrong belief forwarded to justify killing of ferocious animals is that , these kill many lives and accumulate grave sins and hence killing them is an act of mercy . According to Jainism , killing can never be an act of mercy . It is also a misconception to believe that it is advisable to kill those who are suffering so that they may get relief from agony . These sorts of arguments are forwarded to justify killing of those animals that may have become old or injured and hence have become commercially useless .
= = = Other wrong beliefs = = =
Other wrong beliefs are killing those who are in state of happiness or those who are in meditation under wrong belief that the mental state at the time of death will be perpetuated in future lives . It is also a wrong belief that killing of self and others is justified as the soul that is imprisoned in the body will be permanently released and achieve salvation .
= = Fruits of nonviolence = =
According to Jain texts , the fruits of himsā ( violence ) depends upon the severity of passions at the time of commencement of such an act . One may be responsible for the sinful act of himsā without actually causing injury ; the other , while having caused injury , may not be responsible for the act . Also , when two persons commit the act of himsā jointly , its consequences on fruition ( of karma ) , may be grave for one person and mild for the other .
According to Jains , the consequences of karma are inevitable . The consequences may take some time to take effect but the karma is never fruitless . The latent karma becomes active and bears fruit when the supportive conditions arise . A great part of attracted karma bears its consequences with minor fleeting effects , as generally most of our activities are influenced by mild negative emotions . However , those actions that are influenced by intense negative emotions cause an equally strong karmic attachment which usually does not bear fruit immediately . It takes on an inactive state and waits for the supportive conditions — like proper time , place , and environment — to arise for it to manifest and produce effects . If the supportive conditions do not arise , the respective karmas will manifest at the end of maximum period for which it can remain bound to the soul . These supportive conditions for activation of latent karmas are determined by the nature of karmas , intensity of emotional engagement at the time of binding karmas and our actual relation to time , place , surroundings . There are certain laws of precedence among the karmas , according to which the fruition of some of the karmas may be deferred but not absolutely barred .
= = Appreciation = =
Ahimsa , an important tenet of all the religions originating in India , is now considered as an article of faith by the adherents of the Indian religions .
The Jain ideal of Ahimsa profoundly influenced Mahatma Gandhi ; through his friendship with the Jain scholar Shrimad Rajchandra . It formed a basis of his satyagraha ( truth struggle ) against colonial rule and caused him to rethink many aspects of contemporary Hindu practices . Mahatma Gandhi was of the view :
No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahimsa so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism . As and when the benevolent principle of Ahimsa or non @-@ violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond . Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Lord Mahavira is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahimsa .
Bal Gangadhar Tilak has credited Jainism with cessation of slaughter of animals in the brahamanical religion . Some scholars have traced the origin of Ahimsa to Jains and their precursor , the sramanas . According to Thomas McEvilley , a noted Indologist , certain seals of Indus Valley civilisation depict a meditative figure surrounded by a multitude of wild animals , providing evidence of proto yoga tradition in India akin to Jainism . This particular image might suggest that all the animals depicted are sacred to this particular practitioner . Consequently ,
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of discussion an accord was signed on 21 November 1971 .
The constitution agreed upon was based largely on the one Rhodesia had just adopted , but would eventually bring about a black majority in parliament . Black representation in the House would be immediately increased , and a majority of both black and white MPs would have to approve retrogressive legislation ; blacks would thus wield an effective veto " as long as they voted solidly together " , Robert Blake comments . " The principle of majority rule was enshrined with safeguards ensuring that there could be no legislation which could impede this , " Smith wrote in his memoirs . " On the other hand , there would be no mad rush into one man , one vote with all the resultant corruption , nepotism , chaos and economic disaster which we had witnessed in all the countries around us . "
The UK announced a test of opinion in Rhodesia to be undertaken by a four @-@ man commission headed by the veteran judge Lord Pearce . All four population groups — black , white , coloured ( mixed ) and Asian — would have to approve the terms for Britain to proceed . ZANU and ZAPU supporters quickly formed the African National Council ( later the United African National Council , or UANC ) to organise and co @-@ ordinate black opposition to the deal . Bishop Abel Muzorewa , the first black man to have been ordained as such in Rhodesia , was installed as the movement 's leader . The Pearce Commission finished its work on 12 March 1972 and published its report two months later — it described white , coloured and Asian Rhodesians as in favour of the terms by 98 % , 97 % and 96 % respectively , and black citizens as against them by an unspecified large majority . This came as a great shock to the white community " and a deep disappointment to those in Britain who hoped to get rid of this tiresome albatross " , Blake records . Smith condemned the Pearce Commissioners as " naive and inept " . The UK withdrew from negotiations , but neither government abandoned the accord entirely . " I would ask them [ the black people of Rhodesia ] to look again very carefully at what they rejected , " Douglas @-@ Home told the House of Commons ; " the proposals are still available because Mr Smith has not withdrawn or modified them . "
= = = Bush War = = =
The Rhodesian Bush War ( or Second Chimurenga ) , which had been underway at a low level since before UDI , began in earnest in December 1972 when ZANLA attacked farms in north @-@ eastern Rhodesia . The Rhodesian Security Forces mounted a strong counter @-@ campaign over the next two years . Muzorewa re @-@ engaged with Smith in August 1973 , accepting the 1971 – 72 Douglas @-@ Home terms , and the two signed a statement to that effect on 17 August . The UANC executive repudiated this in May 1974 , but talks between Smith and Muzorewa continued sporadically . The RF again won a clean sweep of the 50 white seats in the July 1974 general election .
Rhodesia 's early counter @-@ insurgency successes were undone by political shifts in the guerrillas ' favour overseas . The April 1974 Carnation Revolution in Lisbon led to Mozambique 's transformation over the next year from a Portuguese territory friendly to Smith 's government into a communist state openly allied with ZANU . Wilson and Labour returned to power in Britain in March 1974 . Portugal 's withdrawal made Rhodesia hugely dependent on South Africa , but Smith still insisted that he held a strong position . " If it takes one year , five years , ten years , we 're prepared to ride it out , " he told the RF congress on 20 September 1974 . " Our stand is clear and unambiguous . Settlement is desirable , but only on our terms . "
The geopolitical situation tilted further against Smith in December 1974 when the South African Prime Minister B J Vorster pressured him into accepting a détente initiative involving the Frontline States of Zambia , Tanzania and Botswana ( Mozambique and Angola would join the following year ) . Vorster had concluded that Rhodesia 's position was untenable and that South African interests would be better served by collaborating with black African governments over a Rhodesian settlement ; he hoped that success in this might win South Africa some international legitimacy and allow it to retain apartheid . Détente forced a ceasefire , giving the guerrillas time to regroup , and required the Rhodesians to release the ZANU and ZAPU leaders so they could attend a conference in Rhodesia , united under the UANC banner and led by Muzorewa . When Rhodesia stopped releasing black nationalist prisoners on the grounds that ZANLA and ZIPRA were not observing the ceasefire , Vorster harried Smith further by withdrawing the South African Police , which had been helping the Rhodesians patrol the countryside . Smith remained stubborn , saying in the run @-@ up to the conference that " We have no policy in Rhodesia to hand over to a black majority government " and that his government instead favoured " a qualified franchise for all Rhodesians ... [ to ] ensure that government will be retained in responsible hands for all times " .
Nkomo remained unchallenged at the head of ZAPU , but the ZANU leadership had become contested between its founding president , the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole , and Robert Mugabe , a former teacher from Mashonaland who had recently won an internal election in prison . When they were released in December 1974 under the détente terms , Mugabe went to Mozambique to consolidate his leadership of the guerrillas , while Sithole joined Muzorewa 's delegation . It had been agreed that the talks would take place within Rhodesia , but the black nationalists refused to meet on ground they perceived as not neutral . The Rhodesians insisted on abiding by the accord and negotiating inside the country . To please both camps the conference was held on a train halfway across the Victoria Falls Bridge on the border between Rhodesia and Zambia ; the delegations sat on opposite sides of the frontier . The conference , which took place on 26 August 1975 with Kaunda and Vorster as mediators , failed to produce a settlement ; each side accused the other of being unreasonable . Smith afterwards held direct talks with Nkomo and ZAPU in Salisbury , but these also led nowhere ; Nkomo proposed an immediate transition to an interim government headed by himself , which Smith rejected . Guerrilla incursions picked up strongly in the first months of 1976 .
On 20 March 1976 , Smith gave a televised speech including what became his most quoted utterance . " I don 't believe in majority rule ever in Rhodesia — not in 1 @,@ 000 years , " he said . " I repeat that I believe in blacks and whites working together . If one day it is white and the next day it is black , I believe we have failed and it will be a disaster for Rhodesia . " The first sentence of this statement became commonly quoted as evidence that Smith was a crude racist who would never compromise with the black nationalists , even though the speech was one in which Smith had said that power @-@ sharing with black Rhodesians was inevitable and that " we have got to accept that in the future Rhodesia is a country for black and white , not white as opposed to black and vice versa " . The " not in 1 @,@ 000 years " comment was , according to Peter Godwin , an attempt to reassure the RF 's right wing , which opposed any transition whatsoever , that white Rhodesians would not be sold out . In her 1978 biography of Smith , Berlyn comments that regardless of whether the statement was " taken out of context , or whether his actual intent was misinterpreted " , this was one of his greatest blunders as Prime Minister as it gave obvious ammunition to his detractors .
Henry Kissinger , the US Secretary of State , announced a formal interest in the Rhodesian situation in February 1976 , and over the next half @-@ year held discussions with Britain , South Africa and the Frontline States in what became the " Anglo @-@ American initiative " . Meeting Smith in Pretoria on 18 September 1976 , Kissinger proposed majority rule after a transition period of two years . According to Smith , Kissinger told him he considered his participation in the " demise of Rhodesia " to be " one of the great tragedies of my life " . He strongly encouraged Smith to accept his deal , though he knew it was unpalatable to him , as any future offer could only be worse from Smith 's standpoint — especially if , as expected , US President Gerald Ford lost the upcoming election to Jimmy Carter . Smith expressed great reluctance , but agreed on 24 September after Vorster intimated that South Africa might cut off financial and military aid if he refused . It was the first time Smith had publicly accepted the principles of unconditional majority rule and one man , one vote . However , the Frontline States then abruptly revised their stance and turned the Kissinger terms down , saying that any transition period was unacceptable . Britain quickly arranged an all @-@ party conference in Geneva , Switzerland to try to salvage a solution . ZANU and ZAPU announced that they would attend this and any summit thereafter as a joint " Patriotic Front " ( PF ) , including members of both parties under a combined leadership . The Geneva Conference , held between October and December 1976 under British mediation , also failed .
= = = Internal Settlement and Lancaster House ; becoming Zimbabwe = = =
Smith 's moves towards a settlement with black nationalist groups prompted outrage in sections of Rhodesian Front 's right wing , but he remained unassailable within the party as a whole , which had in late 1975 granted him a mandate to negotiate for the best possible settlement however he saw fit . The split in the party ultimately led to the defection in July 1977 of 12 RF MPs after Smith introduced legislation to remove racial criteria from the Land Tenure Act . The loss of these seats to the breakaway Rhodesian Action Party , which opposed any conciliation with black nationalists , meant that Smith now only barely had the two @-@ thirds majority in parliament he would need to change the constitution , as he would have to in the event of a settlement . He therefore called an early election , and on 31 August 1977 roundly defeated the defectors — " the dirty dozen " , the RF called them — as well as all other opposition ; for the third time in seven years , the RF had won all 50 white seats . The party revolt turned out to be a blessing in disguise for Smith , Berlyn comments , as it allowed him to " shed the dead wood of the right wing " , giving him more freedom in negotiations with the nationalists . The need for a settlement was becoming urgent — the war was escalating sharply , white emigration was climbing and the economy was starting to struggle as the UN sanctions finally began to have a serious effect .
In March 1978 , Smith and non @-@ militant nationalist groups headed by Muzorewa , Sithole and Chief Jeremiah Chirau agreed what became the " Internal Settlement " , under which the country would be reconstituted as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in June 1979 after multiracial elections . ZANU and ZAPU were invited to participate , but refused ; Nkomo sardonically dubbed Smith 's black colleagues " the blacksmiths " . The deal was badly received abroad , partly because it kept the police , the military , the judiciary and the civil service in white hands . There would be a senate of 20 blacks and 10 whites , and whites would be reserved 28 out of 100 seats in the new House of Assembly . Smith and Nkomo re @-@ entered negotiations in August 1978 , but these ended after ZIPRA shot down an Air Rhodesia passenger flight on 3 September and massacred survivors at the crash site . Smith cut off talks , introduced martial law across most of the country and ordered reprisal attacks on guerrilla positions . Smith , Muzorewa and Sithole toured the US in October 1978 to promote their settlement , and met Kissinger , Ford and others including the future President Ronald Reagan . On 11 December , ZANLA attacked Salisbury 's oil storage depot , causing a fire that lasted six days and destroyed a quarter of Rhodesia 's fuel . Two months later ZIPRA downed another civilian flight , this time killing all on board .
After whites endorsed the Internal Settlement by 85 % in a referendum on 30 January 1979 , Smith dissolved the Rhodesian parliament for the last time on 28 February . The RF won all the white seats in the April 1979 elections while Muzorewa and the UANC won a majority in the common roll seats with 67 % of the popular vote ; the PF rejected this , however , as did the UN , which passed a resolution branding it a " sham " . Sithole , astounded that his party had won only 12 seats to the UANC 's 51 , suddenly turned against the settlement and alleged that the polls had been stage @-@ managed in Muzorewa 's favour . Mugabe dismissed the bishop as a " neocolonial puppet " and pledged to continue ZANLA 's campaign " to the last man " ; Nkomo similarly committed ZIPRA . On 1 June 1979 , the day of the country 's official reconstitution as Zimbabwe Rhodesia , Muzorewa replaced Smith as Prime Minister , at the head of a UANC – RF coalition Cabinet made up of 12 blacks and five whites . Smith was included as Minister without portfolio ; Nkomo promptly dubbed him the " Minister with all the portfolios " .
An observer group from the UK Conservative Party did regard the April 1979 elections as fair , and Margaret Thatcher , the Conservative leader , was personally disposed to recognise Muzorewa 's government and lift sanctions . The potential significance of the Conservative victory in the May 1979 British general election was not lost on Smith , who wrote to Thatcher : " All Rhodesians thank God for your magnificent victory . " The US Senate passed a resolution urging President Carter to remove sanctions and declare Zimbabwe Rhodesia legitimate , but Carter and his Cabinet remained strongly opposed . Carter and Thatcher ultimately decided against accepting Zimbabwe Rhodesia , noting the continued international support for the guerrillas . After the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Lusaka in August 1979 , the UK Foreign Secretary Lord Carrington invited the Zimbabwe Rhodesian government and the Patriotic Front to attend an all @-@ party constitutional conference at Lancaster House in London , starting on 10 September .
Smith was part of Muzorewa 's delegation at Lancaster House . Several aspects of the Internal Settlement constitution , such as a declaration of human rights and a guarantee that land redistributed by the government would be paid for , were retained ; it was also agreed to have 20 reserved white seats out of 100 for at least seven years . Fresh elections would be held during a brief period under a British Governor invested with full executive and legislative powers . The new constitution was agreed on 18 October , and on 12 December 1979 the House of Assembly voted to dissolve itself , ending UDI . Lord Soames arrived in Salisbury later the same day to become Southern Rhodesia 's last Governor ; among other things he announced that Smith would be granted amnesty for declaring independence . The final Lancaster House Agreement was signed on 21 December . Smith was the only member of any delegation to openly oppose the accords ; he refused to attend the signing ceremony and boycotted the post @-@ agreement party , instead having dinner with former RAF comrades and Group Captain Sir Douglas Bader .
The UK government and the international community ultimately declared the February 1980 general election free and fair , though many observers attested to widespread political violence and intimidation of voters , particularly by ZANU ( which added Patriotic Front to its name to become " ZANU – PF " ) . British monitors in the ZANU – PF @-@ dominated eastern provinces were strongly critical , reporting " brutal ' disciplinary murders ' as examples of the fate awaiting those who failed to conform " , name @-@ taking and " claims to the possession of machines which would reveal how individuals had voted " . The Commonwealth Observer Group acknowledged that irregularities were occurring but ruled that accounts were exaggerated . After the RF won all 20 white seats , Soames announced late on 4 March 1980 that Mugabe and ZANU – PF had won 57 of the 80 common roll seats , giving them a majority in the new House of Assembly . Mugabe invited Smith to his house that evening and according to Smith treated him " most courteously " ; Mugabe expressed joy at inheriting a " wonderful country " with modern infrastructure and a viable economy , outlined plans for gradual reform that Smith found reasonable , and said that he hoped to stay in regular contact . This meeting had a profound effect on the former Prime Minister . Having denounced Mugabe as an " apostle of Satan " before the election , Smith now publicly endorsed him as " sober and responsible " . " If this were a true picture , then there could be hope instead of despair , " he recalled in his autobiography . " When I got home I said to Janet that I hoped it was not an hallucination . "
= = Opposition = =
= = = First years under Mugabe = = =
The new Zimbabwean parliament opened on 15 May 1980 , a month after formal independence from Britain , with Smith as the reconstituted country 's first Leader of the Opposition . Continuing a long @-@ standing tradition from the Rhodesian era , the government and opposition entered the House in pairs — Mugabe and Smith walked in side by side with their respective MPs following , " aptly symbolis [ ing ] the mood of reconciliation " , Martin Meredith comments . With around 1 @,@ 000 whites leaving Zimbabwe each month , Smith took to the radio to urge them to stay and give Mugabe 's new order a chance , but over half of the country 's whites left within three years . As Meredith records , the 100 @,@ 000 or so who remained " retreated into their own world of clubs , sporting activities , and comfortable living " . Mugabe made great efforts when he first took power to endear himself to the white farming community , which accounted for at least 75 % of Zimbabwe 's agricultural output . Amid booming Zimbabwean commodity prices in the years immediately following 1980 , many white commercial farmers came to support Mugabe . The new Prime Minister continued cordially meeting Smith until the RF leader took him to task in 1981 for openly calling for a one @-@ party state ; Smith said this was putting off foreign investors . Mugabe was not impressed and , according to Smith , refused to ever meet him again .
As Mugabe 's main opponent in Parliament at the head of the Republican Front ( as the RF renamed itself in 1981 ) , Smith presented himself as the guardian of what he called Zimbabwe 's " white tribe " . He spoke gloomily about Zimbabwe 's future prospects , repeatedly accused the Mugabe administration of corruption , malevolence and general incompetence , and criticised Mugabe 's support for a one @-@ party system . The RF took an increasingly confrontational line in the House after Mugabe and other government ministers began regularly pouring scorn on the white community in national broadcasts and other media . Amid rising tensions with South Africa , various white Zimbabweans were arrested , accused of being South African agents , and tortured . When Smith complained about whites being imprisoned without trial under emergency powers , a number of ZANU – PF MPs pointed out that they themselves had been detained under that same legislation , and for far longer , by Smith 's government . Mugabe openly admitted torturing suspected spies , had some who were found not guilty by the High Court immediately rearrested on the street outside , and accused Western critics of caring only because the people in question were white .
Smith visited Britain and the United States in November 1982 , and spoke scathingly about Zimbabwe to reporters , claiming that Mugabe was turning the country into a totalitarian Marxist – Leninist dictatorship . Government retribution was immediate . On Smith 's return home , police raided an art exhibition hosting him as guest of honour in Harare ( as Salisbury had been renamed in April 1982 ) and took all the attendees in for questioning , ostensibly because of suspicions it might be an illegal political meeting . A week later , police seized his passport , according to a government statement because his criticism of Zimbabwe while abroad constituted " political bad manners and hooliganism " . Police meticulously searched his Harare house and Gwenoro over the next week , confiscating firearms , personal papers and a diary . Smith told reporters all this was " part of the game to intimidate me and so demoralise the whites " . Some RF MPs left the party to sit with ZANU – PF or as independents , feeling that constantly confronting Mugabe was ill @-@ advised and unnecessary . Smith , however , remained convinced that nobody would stand up for white Zimbabweans if they did not stick together and defend their interests in parliament .
Smith Hempstone later wrote that the former Prime Minister had resolved to " go down ... with all rhetorical guns blazing " . This was in spite of increasingly unstable health ; in June 1982 he collapsed in the House of Assembly , clutching at his side and shaking . Half a year later he had to arrange treatment in South Africa for a condition stemming from hardening of the arteries . The government 's confiscation of his passport and two refusals of its return prevented him from going , so in April 1983 Smith successfully applied for a British passport . " I 'll still try to get my Zimbabwean passport back , " he said . " I was born here and that is the passport I should travel on . " Smith regained his Zimbabwean papers after about a year . In 1984 he declared his intention to renounce his British nationality to abide by a new Zimbabwean law outlawing multiple citizenship . Britain did not recognise this legislation ; according to Smith , British officials refused to take his UK passport when he tried to return it .
= = = Gukurahundi ; last years in politics = = =
After the already tense relations between ZANU – PF and ZAPU disintegrated amid Mugabe 's wish to adopt a one @-@ party system in Zimbabwe , Mugabe expelled Nkomo from the government in February 1982 , accusing him and ZAPU of plotting a coup . About a year later , Mugabe deployed the North Korean @-@ trained 5 Brigade to Matabeleland , ZAPU 's heartland , where it massacred thousands of civilians accused of supporting " dissidents " in what became called Gukurahundi . Meredith asserts that this far exceeded anything that had occurred during the Bush War , an opinion shared by Geoff Hill . Some white farmers were also killed . Estimates for the number of deaths during the five @-@ year Gukurahundi campaign range from 10 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 . Mugabe concurrently took steps to marginalise the other main black nationalist leaders from the Chimurenga . Nkomo fled to the UK in March 1983 , fearing for his life ; Sithole similarly exiled himself in the United States . Muzorewa stayed in Zimbabwe and was detained in late 1983 for alleged " subversive links " with South Africa . On arriving in England , Nkomo accused Mugabe of genocide and asserted that " Things are worse now than they ever were under Ian Smith " . Mugabe denied that anything improper was happening and put reports to the contrary down to " reactionary foreign journalists " .
The Zimbabwean government publicly threatened Smith on a regular basis , but in practice left him and his property largely untouched — Mugabe frequently pointed to Smith 's freedom as evidence of Zimbabwe 's reconciliation policy . Smith renamed the RF the Conservative Alliance of Zimbabwe ( CAZ ) on 21 July 1984 , concurrently removing racial criteria for membership and inviting black Zimbabweans to join . The CAZ was very successful in the 1985 parliamentary election , winning 15 of the 20 white seats ; Smith won decisively in Bulawayo Central . Mugabe interpreted this as " the racists of this country " defying his government and rejecting reconciliation , and immediately pledged to abolish the white seats , which he said compromised " the sovereignty of our people " . After Smith described Mugabe 's government as " illiterate " on BBC television in November 1985 , Mugabe told the House of Assembly Smith was " an incorrigible racist " who " should long ago have been hanged and hanged publicly " . Later that month , Smith 's close friend and long @-@ standing political associate " Boss " Lilford , who had provided much of the finance to form the RF , was found beaten and shot to death on his ranch . Smith described Lilford afterwards as a man " who was prepared to die for [ his ] principles " , but refused to openly discuss any possible political motive , saying simply that " it would be premature to come to conclusions " .
Smith was by now in the twilight of his career , but his outspoken , confrontational stance continued to irritate the ZANU – PF government . He was declared a " fifth columnist " by the Information Minister Nathan Shamuyarira in February 1987 after he advised a group of South African businessmen that they could survive economic sanctions if white South Africans stood together . Three months later , after he was suspended from the Zimbabwean parliament for a year over his comments in South Africa and criticism of ZANU – PF , he resigned as leader of the CAZ . His four decades as an MP formally ended in September 1987 when , as allowed under the Lancaster House terms , ZANU – PF scrapped the white seats amid sweeping constitutional reforms . The office of Prime Minister was abolished in October ; Mugabe became the country 's first executive President two months later . Mugabe and Nkomo signed a unity accord at the same time merging ZAPU into ZANU – PF with the stated goal of a Marxist – Leninist one @-@ party state .
This marked the end of Smith 's front @-@ line political career — Gerald Smith ( no relation ) replaced him as leader of the CAZ — but he remained active in opposition at a reduced level . In July 1992 he chaired a meeting where the CAZ , Muzorewa 's UANC , Sithole 's ZANU – Ndonga party and Edgar Tekere 's Zimbabwe Unity Movement formed a coalition to challenge Mugabe and ZANU – PF in the next parliamentary election . The result was the short @-@ lived United Front , which Smith agreed to chair , saying he had no more political ambitions and could therefore be regarded as a neutral figurehead . The United Front quickly failed , largely due to the lack of common ground between the constituent parties , and never contested an election . Another brief collaboration between Smith , Muzorewa and Sithole in March 2000 also led to nothing .
= = Retirement = =
The elderly Ian Smith lived in an unassuming house in Harare where , according to David Blair , " the front gate always stood open and virtually anyone who walked up the drive would be invited in for tea " . He still owned Gwenoro , but employed a manager to run it after Janet 's death in 1994 . He insisted that he would never leave Zimbabwe . " Don 't get fazed by the riots , hold your head high , do not be afraid , " a friend reported him saying . " Show you are not budging and the government will leave you alone . " He dedicated much of his 1997 autobiography , The Great Betrayal , to criticising the Mugabe administration and a long succession of British figures he considered to have let him and Rhodesia down ; he also defended and attempted to justify his actions as Prime Minister , and praised Nelson Mandela , calling him Africa 's " first black statesman " . Smith 's enduring popularity among white Zimbabweans was evidenced by the long queues they formed to have him sign copies of the book on its release in Harare in December 1997 . " They were captured , hiding their faces and turning to the wall , as television cameras recorded their ' betrayal ' for the evening news , " Josephine Fisher records . Not all of the country 's whites admired Smith , however ; some felt that his obstinate refusal to acknowledge what they saw as past errors caused the whole white community to be resented and viewed with suspicion .
= = = Land reform programme ; Smith gains new popularity = = =
According to Meredith , governmental mismanagement and widespread corruption within the ZANU – PF order led to Mugabe and others enriching themselves considerably at the expense of the country as a whole . In Meredith 's view , the average Zimbabwean was worse off in 2000 than he had been in 1980 : " average wages were lower , unemployment had trebled , public services were crumbling , and life expectancy was falling " . Opposition to ZANU – PF grew , particularly in the towns and cities . In 2000 , hoping to win support from rural blacks , Mugabe introduced a fast @-@ track land reform programme under which groups of ZANU – PF activists , officially referred to as " war veterans " , were sent to take over white @-@ owned farms so the land could be split up , without compensation , and redistributed to black peasant farmers . White farmers and their black employees were violently forced out , food production plummeted , and the economy collapsed to half the size it had been in 1980 .
When a group of about 50 ZANU – PF activists briefly invaded Gwenoro in May 2000 , Smith played down the incident , saying the intruders were just bored and out of work . " There 's no politics on the farm , " he said . Five months later , in England to address the Oxford Union , Smith described Mugabe as " mentally deranged " . The President announced in response that Smith would be arrested and tried for genocide if he ever came back to Zimbabwe , a threat that Smith mocked . " I would love that . Let him try it , "
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at an end — it stinks , and whoso once inhales the stink can never forget it and can count himself lucky if he lives to remember it " . A writer for The Standard concurred with the opinion . One of its reporters described the river as a " pestiferous and typhus breeding abomination " , while a second wrote that " the amount of poisonous gases which is thrown off is proportionate to the increase of the sewage which is passed into the stream " . The leading article in The Illustrated London News commented that :
We can colonise the remotest ends of the earth ; we can conquer India ; we can pay the interest of the most enormous debt ever contracted ; we can spread our name , and our fame , and our fructifying wealth to every part of the world ; but we cannot clean the River Thames .
By June the stench from the river had become so bad that business in Parliament was affected , and the curtains on the river side of the building were soaked in lime chloride to overcome the smell . The measure was not successful , and discussions were held about possibly moving the business of government to Oxford or St Albans . The Examiner reported that Disraeli , on attending one of the committee rooms , left shortly afterwards with the other members of the committee , " with a mass of papers in one hand , and with his pocket handkerchief applied to his nose " because the smell was so bad . The disruption to its legislative work led to questions being raised in the House of Commons . According to Hansard , the Member of Parliament ( MP ) John Brady informed Manners that members were unable to use either the Committee Rooms or the Library because of the stench , and asked the minister " if the noble Lord has taken any measures for mitigating the effluvium and discontinuing the nuisance " . Manners replied that the Thames was not under his jurisdiction . Four days later a second MP said to Manners that " By a perverse ingenuity , one of the noblest of rivers has been changed into a cesspool , and I wish to ask whether Her Majesty 's Government intend to take any steps to remedy the evil ? " Manners pointed out " that Her Majesty 's Government have nothing whatever to do with the state of the Thames " . The satirical magazine Punch commented that " The one absorbing topic in both Houses of Parliament ... was the Conspiracy to Poison question . Of the guilt of that old offender , Father Thames , there was the most ample evidence " .
At the height of the stink , between 200 and 250 tons of lime were being used near the mouths of the sewers that discharged into the Thames , and men were employed spreading lime onto the Thames foreshore at low tide ; the cost was £ 1 @,@ 500 per week . On 15 June Disraeli tabled the Metropolis Local Management Amendment Bill , a proposed amendment to the 1855 Act ; in the opening debate he called the Thames " a Stygian pool , reeking with ineffable and intolerable horrors " . The Bill put the responsibility to clear up the Thames on the MBW , and stated that " as far as may be possible " the sewerage outlets should not be within the boundaries of London ; it also allowed the Board to borrow £ 3 million , which was to be repaid from a 3 pence levy on all London households for the next forty years . The terms favoured Bazalgette 's original 1856 plan , and overcame Hall 's objection to it . The leading article in The Times observed that " Parliament was all but compelled to legislate upon the great London nuisance by the force of sheer stench " . The bill was debated in late July and was passed into law on 2 August .
= = Construction = =
Bazalgette 's plans for the 1 @,@ 100 miles ( 1 @,@ 800 km ) of additional street sewers ( collecting both effluent and rainwater ) , which would feed into 82 miles ( 132 km ) of main interconnecting sewers , were put out to tender between 1859 and 1865 . Four hundred draftsmen worked on the detailed plans and sectional views for the first phase of the building process . There were several engineering challenges to be overcome , particularly the fact that parts of London — including the area around Lambeth and Pimlico — lie below the high @-@ water mark . Bazalgette 's plan for the low @-@ level areas was to lift the sewage from low @-@ lying sewers at key points into the mid- and high @-@ level sewers , which would then drain with the aid of gravity , out towards the eastern outfalls at a gradient of 2 feet per mile ( 38 cm / km ) .
Bazalgette was a proponent of the use of Portland cement , a material stronger than standard cement , but with a weakness when over @-@ heated . To overcome the problem he instituted a quality control system to test batches of cement , that is described by the historian Stephen Halliday as both " elaborate " and " draconian " . The results were fed back to the manufacturers , who altered their production processes to further improve the product . One of the cement manufacturers commented that the MBW were the first public body to use such testing processes . The progress of Bazalgette 's works was reported favourably in the press . Paul Dobraszczyk , the architectural historian , describes the coverage as presenting many of the workers " in a positive , even heroic , light " , and in 1861 The Observer described the progress on the sewers as " the most expensive and wonderful work of modern times " . Construction costs were so high that in July 1863 an additional £ 1 @.@ 2 million was loaned to the MBW to cover the cost of the work .
= = = Southern drainage system = = =
The southern system , across the less @-@ populated suburbs of London , was the smaller and easier part of the system to build . Three main sewers ran from Putney , Wandsworth and Norwood until they linked together in Deptford . At that point a pumping station lifted the effluent 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) into the main outflow sewer , which ran to the Crossness Pumping Station on the Erith Marshes , where it was discharged into the Thames at high tide . The newly @-@ built station at Crossness was designed by Bazalgette and Charles Henry Driver , a consultant engineer and a proponent of the use of cast iron as a building material . The building was in a Romanesque style and the interior contains architectural cast @-@ ironwork which English Heritage describe as important . The power for pumping the large amounts of sewage was provided by four massive beam engines , named Victoria , Prince Consort , Albert Edward and Alexandra , which were manufactured by James Watt and Co .
The station was opened in April 1865 by the Prince of Wales — the future King Edward VII — who officially started the engines . The ceremony , which was attended by other members of royalty , MPs , the Lord Mayor of London and the Archbishops of Canterbury and York , was followed by a dinner for 500 within the building . The ceremony marked the completion of construction of the Southern Outfall Sewers , and the beginning of their operation .
With the successful completion of the southern outflow , one of the board members of the MBW , an MP named Miller , proposed a bonus for Bazalgette . The board agreed , and were prepared to pay the engineer £ 6 @,@ 000 — three times his annual salary — with an additional £ 4 @,@ 000 to be shared among his three assistants . Although the idea was subsequently dropped following criticism , Halliday observes that the large amounts discussed " at a time when parsimony was the dominant characteristic of public expenditure is a firm indication of the depth of public interest and approval that appears to have characterised the work . "
= = = Northern drainage system = = =
The northern side of the Thames was the more populous , housing two @-@ thirds of London 's population , and the works had to proceed through congested streets and overcome such urban hurdles as canals , bridges and railway lines . Work began on the system on 31 January 1859 , but the builders encountered numerous problems in construction , including a labourers ' strike in 1859 – 60 , hard frosts in winter , and heavier than normal rainfall . The rain was so heavy in June 1862 that an accident occurred at the works re @-@ building the Fleet sewer . The deep excavations were running parallel to the excavation of a cutting at Clerkenwell for the Metropolitan Railway ( now the Metropolitan line ) , and the 8 1 ⁄ 2 ft ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) wall dividing the two trenches collapsed , spilling the waters of the Fleet onto Victoria Street , damaging the gas and water mains .
The high @-@ level sewer — the most northern of the works — ran from Hampstead Heath to Stoke Newington and across Victoria Park , where it joined with the eastern end of the mid @-@ level sewer . The mid @-@ level sewer began in the west at Bayswater and ran along Oxford Street , through Clerkenwell and Bethnal Green , before the connection . This combined main sewer ran to the Abbey Mills Pumping Station in Stratford , where it was joined by the eastern end of the low @-@ level sewer . The pumps at Abbey Mills lifted the effluent from the low @-@ level sewer 36 feet ( 11 m ) into the main sewer . This main sewer ran 5 miles ( 8 km ) — along what is now known as the Greenway — to the outfall at Beckton .
Like the Crossness Pumping Station , Abbey Mills was a joint design by Bazalgette and Driver . Above the centre of the engine @-@ house was an ornate dome that , Dobraszczyk considers , gives the building a " superficial resemblance ... to a Byzantine church " . The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner , in his Buildings of England , thought the building showed " exciting architecture applied to the most foul purposes " ; he went on to describe it as " an unorthodox mix , vaguely Italian Gothic in style but with tiers of Byzantine windows and a central octagonal lantern that adds a gracious Russian flavour " .
To provide the drainage for the low @-@ level sewers , in February 1864 Bazalgette began building three embankments along the shores of the Thames . On the northern side he built the Victoria Embankment , which runs from Westminster to Blackfriars Bridge , and the Chelsea Embankment , running from Millbank to the Cadogan Pier at Chelsea . The southern side contains the Albert Embankment , from the Lambeth end of Westminster Bridge to Vauxhall . He ran the sewers along the banks of the Thames , building up walls on the foreshore , running the sewer pipes inside and infilling around them . The works claimed over 52 acres ( 21 ha ) of land from the Thames ; the Victoria Embankment had the added benefit of relieving the congestion on the pre @-@ existing roads between Westminster and the City of London . The cost of building the embankments was estimated at £ 1 @.@ 71 million , of which £ 450 @,@ 000 was used for purchasing the necessary river @-@ front properties , which had tended to be in light @-@ industrial use . The Embankment project was seen as being nationally important and , with the Queen unable to attend because of illness , the Victoria Embankment was opened by the Prince of Wales in July 1870 . The Albert Embankment had been completed in November 1869 , while the Chelsea Embankment was opened in July 1874 .
Bazalgette considered the Embankment project " one of the most difficult and intricate things the ... [ MBW ] have had to do " , and shortly after the Chelsea Embankment was opened , he was knighted . In 1875 the work on the western drainage was completed , and the system became operational . The building work had required 318 million bricks and 880 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 670 @,@ 000 m3 ) of concrete and mortar ; the final cost was approximately £ 6 @.@ 5 million .
= = Legacy = =
In 1866 there was a further cholera outbreak in London that claimed 5 @,@ 596 lives , although it was confined to an area of the East End between Aldgate and Bow . At the time that was a part of London which had not been connected to Bazalgette 's system , and 93 per cent of the fatalities occurred within the region . The fault lay with the East London Water Company , who discharged their sewage half a mile ( 805 m ) downstream from their reservoir : the sewage was being carried upstream into the reservoir on the incoming tide , contaminating the area 's drinking water . The outbreak , and the diagnosis of its causes , led to the acceptance that cholera was water @-@ borne , not transmitted by miasma . The Lancet , relating details of the investigation into the incident by Dr William Farr , stated that his report " will render irresistible the conclusions at which he has arrived in regard to the influence of the water @-@ supply in causation of the epidemic . " It was the last outbreak of the disease in the capital .
In 1878 a Thames pleasure @-@ steamer , the SS Princess Alice , collided with the collier Bywell Castle and sank , causing over 650 deaths . The accident took place close to the outfalls and questions were raised in the British press over whether the sewage was responsible for some of the deaths . In the 1880s further fears over possible health concerns because of the outfalls led to the MBW purifying sewage at Crossness and Beckton , rather than dumping the untreated waste into the river , and a series of six sludge boats were ordered to ship effluent into the North Sea for dumping . The first boat commissioned was named the SS Bazalgette , which remained in service until December 1998 , when the dumping stopped , and an incinerator was used to dispose of the waste . The sewers were expanded in the late 19th century and again in the early 20th century . The drainage network is , as of 2015 , managed by Thames Water , and is used by up to eight million people a day . The company states that " the system is struggling to cope with the demands of 21st @-@ century London " .
Crossness Pumping Station remained in use until the mid @-@ 1950s when it was replaced . The engines were too large to remove and were left in situ , although they fell into a state of disrepair . The station itself became a grade I listed building with the Ministry of Public Building and Works in June 1970 ( since replaced by English Heritage ) . The building and its engines are , as of 2015 , under restoration by the Crossness Engines Trust . The president of the trust is the British television producer Peter Bazalgette , the great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Joseph . As of 2015 part of the Abbey Mill facility continues to operate as a sewage pumping station . The building 's large double chimneys were removed during the Second World War following fears that they could be used by the Luftwaffe as landmarks for navigation , and the building became a grade II * listed building with the Ministry of Works in November 1974 .
The provision of an integrated and fully functioning sewer system for the capital , together with the associated drop in cholera cases , led the historian John Doxat to state that Bazalgette " probably did more good , and saved more lives , than any single Victorian official " . Bazalgette continued to work at the MBW until 1889 , during which time he replaced three of London 's bridges : Putney in 1886 , Hammersmith in 1887 and Battersea in 1890 . He was appointed president of the Institution of Civil Engineers ( ICE ) in 1884 , and in 1901 a monument commemorating his life was opened on the Victoria Embankment . When he died in March 1891 , his obituarist in The Illustrated London News wrote that Bazalgette 's " two great titles to fame are that he beautified London and drained it " , while Sir John Coode , the president of ICE at the time , said that Bazalgette 's work " will ever remain as monuments to his skill and professional ability " . The obituarist for The Times opined that " when the New Zealander comes to London a thousand years hence ... the magnificent solidity and the faultless symmetry of the great granite blocks which form the wall of the Thames @-@ embankment will still remain . " He continued , " the great sewer that runs beneath Londoners ... has added some 20 years to their chance of life " . The historian Peter Ackroyd , in his history of subterranean London , considers that " with [ John ] Nash and [ Christopher ] Wren , Bazalgette enters the pantheon of London heroes " because of his work , particularly the building of the Victoria and Albert Embankments .
= Hurricane Elida ( 2008 ) =
Hurricane Elida was the sixth tropical cyclone , fifth named storm , and second hurricane of the 2008 Pacific hurricane season . Elida formed out of a weak tropical wave which formed off the western coast of Central America on July 8 . The wave remained poorly organized over the next two days before developing a surface low . The low was declared Tropical Depression Six @-@ E on July 11 while located to the south of Guatemala . The depression intensified into Tropical Storm Elida the next morning . It intensified steadily over the next two days before being upgraded to a hurricane . The storm fluctuated in intensity over the next several days before reaching its peak intensity on July 16 with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Elida slowly weakened as it passed over cooling waters and was downgraded to a tropical storm on July 18 and further downgraded to a tropical depression on July 19 . The cyclone degenerated into a remnant low shortly after , and completely dissipated on July 21 over open waters .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Elida developed out of a weak tropical wave which formed off the western coast of Central America on July 8 . It is possible that the wave formed in the Atlantic Ocean , but there is little evidence to support this theory . The system remained poorly organized for two days before gaining enough convection to be classified using the Dvorak technique on July 10 , while located 290 mi ( 465 km ) south of Guatemala . Later that day , a surface low developed but convection remained minimal . During the night and through the morning of July 11 , convection increased sufficiently and a tropical cyclone formation alert was issued . By the end of the day , the storm had become Tropical Depression Six @-@ E , six hours earlier than the operational data . At the time of the upgrade , the depression was located 360 mi ( 580 km ) south @-@ southeast of Puerto Angel , Mexico . The depression was moving towards the west @-@ northwest at 16 mph ( 26 km / h ) due to a low to mid @-@ level ridge located to the north of the storm .
The depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Elida early on July 12 while located 200 mi ( 370 km ) south of Puerto Angel , Mexico . Elida 's forward motion slowed somewhat as it neared the southwestern edge of the mid @-@ level ridge . Deep convection developed around the center of circulation and a strong banding feature formed along the western side of the storm . Slow strengthening took place throughout the morning as the center remained underneath the deep convection . Outflow to the north of the storm was slightly restricted , indicating that there was some easterly wind shear . During the afternoon , a well defined banding feature appeared , but the outflow to the north remained highly constricted . Elida began to move slightly faster , still being influenced by the mid @-@ level ridge . The foreword motion was forecast to slow down in the two- to three @-@ day range as it moved away from the ridge . Overnight , wind shear began to weaken and outflow to the north of Elida was established . By the morning of July 13 , banding features and outflow were present all around the storm , but wind shear managed to keep the center of Elida slightly displaced from the deepest convection . The movement of a weakening mid to upper @-@ level trough would allow Elida to make a westerly turn . Later in the morning , the wind shear lessened and in the early afternoon , a burst of convection near the center of Elida had formed , but subsequently weakened .
Although Elida initially failed to develop an eyewall. in the early afternoon hours , satellite indicated the formation of an eye . Based on this , Elida was upgraded into a hurricane . In the late morning hours , Elida intensified slightly. and a ragged eye appeared in the afternoon as the structure of the storm improved . At this point , forecasters thought the Elida had peaked in intensity or was near its peak . Elida 's direction shifted from a west @-@ northwest to west as the ridge located to the north of the storm began influencing the trajectory . The eye disappeared shortly afterwords. as easterly wind shear began to increase . Elida slowly weakened and by the afternoon , Elida was barely holding onto hurricane status . Despite this , Elida became better organized overnight as convection wrapped around the eye .
On the morning of July 16 , the eye appeared on infrared satellite and cirrus outflow improved all around the system ; however , Elida was nearing cooler waters . The mid @-@ level ridge to the north of Elida was now forecast to move with the storm , ensuring westward motion and slightly increasing the foreword speed to 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) . Elida accelerated slightly and maintained a westerly motion . The eye quickly disappeared from infrared satellite later in the morning , but deep convection persisted on the eastern side of the center of circulation . In the afternoon , an eye appeared embedded in the deep convection and Elida intensified into a category two hurricane with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / ) while located 630 mi ( 1015 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . By the nighttime hours , thunderstorm activity in the northern semicircle of Elida waned and cold waters began to take their toll on Elida as the eye became cloud filled and less distinct . In the late morning , Elida weakened to a category one hurricane as determined in the tropical cyclone report . Despite continuing deep convection near the center of Elida and even an embedded eye , the center was lagging behind , making the storm slightly tilted . Elida produced a large amount of deep convection overnight , but the winds continued to lessen . The storm continued to move over colder waters , but wind shear was forecast to lessen , leading to slow , steady weakening .
By the morning of July 18 , thunderstorm activity associated with Elida diminished further and the storm was downgraded to a tropical storm . Despite being over very cool waters , Elida managed to maintain a small area of deep convection as it slowly weakened . By the afternoon , most of the convection had dissipated and all that remained . The small area of convection shifted to the east side of the center overnight , allowing Elida to remain a tropical storm with winds barely at 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . By the morning of July 19 , Elida was traversing waters of 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) and all the deep convection had dissipated . Due to the lack of convection , Elida was downgraded to a tropical depression . Cold waters prevented any convection from redeveloping in the late morning , and it was unlikely that any convection would form . Elida was later declared a remnant low that afternoon as the system had been devoid of convection for hours . The remnant low continued moving towards the west @-@ southwest before dissipating into an open trough on July 21 while located 690 mi ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) east @-@ southeast of the Hawaiian Islands .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Due to the proximity of Elida to Mexico , the Government of Mexico warned residents about the possibility of heavy rains from the outer edges of the storm . Thunderstorms related to Elida developed over Oaxaca , Guerrero , Michoacán , Colima and Jalisco . In Nayarit , Elida produced storms that dropped torrential rainfall and hail that injured at least one person . The rainfall resulted in the formation of a lake roughly 45 cm ( 18 in ) deep . Several trees feel , blocking streets for several hours . Street flooding reached a depth of 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) , inundating shops and some homes . Indirect effects , such as large swells , were felt along the Mexican coastline as the storm produced waves up to 4 m ( 13 ft ) . However , as trade winds increased during the middle of July , the remnants of Elida brought rainfall to east @-@ facing slopes of the Island of Hawaii and Maui . Frequent rain showers produced 2 to 6 inches ( 51 to 152 mm ) of precipitation in those regions , but no significant flooding occurred .
= Operation Slapstick =
Operation Slapstick was the code name for a British landing from the sea at the Italian port of Taranto during the Second World War . The operation , one of three landings during the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943 , was undertaken by airborne troops of the British 1st Airborne Division , commanded by Major @-@ General George Hopkinson .
Planned at short notice , the mission followed an offer by the Italian government to open the ports of Taranto and Brindisi on the heel of Italy to the Allies . The airborne division was selected to undertake the mission , but at the time they were located in North Africa . A shortage of transport aircraft meant the division could not land in their traditional way by parachute and glider , and all the landing craft in the area were already allocated to the other landings : Operation Avalanche at Salerno on the western coast , and Operation Baytown at Calabria . Instead , the division had to be transported across the Mediterranean by ships of the Royal Navy . The landing was unopposed and the airborne division successfully captured the ports of Taranto , and later Brindisi on the Adriatic coast in working order .
The only German forces in the area were elements of the 1st Parachute Division ( 1 . Fallschirmjäger Division ) , which engaged the advancing British in ambushes and at roadblocks during a fighting withdrawal north . Eventually , by the end of September , the British 1st Airborne Division advanced 125 miles ( 201 km
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) to Foggia . Reinforcements from two infantry divisions had by then been landed behind them , which allowed the airborne troops to be withdrawn to Taranto . Soon after , the division , minus the 2nd Parachute Brigade , sailed for England in preparation for Operation Overlord , the invasion of Normandy .
= = Background = =
In May 1943 , the Axis powers of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy were defeated in the North African Campaign . Two months later , the Allied powers of Great Britain and the United States , successfully launched their invasion of Sicily , codenamed Operation Husky . The island being completely occupied by the end of August , the Allies next turned their attention to the invasion of Italy .
On 3 September 1943 , the British Eighth Army , under the command of General Bernard Montgomery , crossed the Straits of Messina from Sicily and landed in Calabria during Operation Baytown to seize the ports of Reggio and San Giovanni . The main invasion was planned for 9 September , with the U.S. Fifth Army , commanded by Lieutenant General Mark Clark , landing at Salerno on the western coast in Operation Avalanche , with Naples as their immediate objective . The Allies hoped that the invasion would persuade the Italian forces to surrender . If they did , the five Italian divisions in France and the twenty @-@ nine in the Balkans would have to be replaced by German formations . Also , if the Germans then decided to continue the fight in Italy , they would have to redeploy some of their divisions engaged on the Eastern Front or on occupation duties in France .
During secret surrender negotiations with the Allies in early September , the Italian government offered to open the ports of Taranto and Brindisi on the eastern coast . German forces in that area were very weak and would be expected to withdraw rather than fight if the Allies landed there . General Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean , quickly planned a third landing , codenamed Slapstick , to take advantage of the offer .
Slapstick was in part an operation of deception , to divert German forces away from the main Allied landings at Salerno on the same day , while also attempting to capture Taranto and Brindisi intact . The main value of Taranto was its large port . Its seizure would , with the expected capture of Naples in the west by the Americans , give the Allies supply points on both Italian coasts .
The military operation played a major political role , since the King Vittorio Emanuele III of Italy , the queen Elena , the crown prince and future king Umberto , the Prime Minister , Generale Badoglio , and other high ranking Italian officers hastily escaped from Rome to Ortona , where they embarked aboard the corvette Baionetta early in the morning of 9 September . Later on the same day they arrived at the port of Brindisi . The town of Brindisi was at the time controlled only by the Italian Army , but it was soon to be protected by the British forces , supporting the diplomatic , political and military contacts between the Italian government and the Allied forces , leading to the declaration of war by Italy against Germany .
= = = Taranto = = =
First founded by the Spartans almost 3 @,@ 000 years before , Taranto had been fought over numerous times . Combatants had ranged from the Arab and Byzantine empires to the Normans in the Middle Ages . It later became part of the Kingdom of Sicily and the Kingdom of Naples . After the unification of Italy , Taranto became the home of the Italian Navy .
Taranto is also the capital city of the Province of Taranto in the region of Apulia and has a large dock area . It includes the two islets of St. Peter and St. Paul , which protect the bay , called the Mar Grande ( Big Sea ) , where the commercial port is located . The military port was located in another bay , the Mar Piccolo .
As it was the base of the Italian Navy , in November 1940 Taranto was attacked by the British Royal Navy in what became known as the Battle of Taranto . During the attack by carrier @-@ borne aircraft , in one night , the Italian fleet lost around half its strength ; the next day , their undamaged ships were transferred from Taranto to Naples to try to protect them from similar attacks .
= = Prelude = =
= = = German forces = = =
The German High Command fully expected Italy to surrender and , in preparation , had secretly established a new Army group headquarters commanded by Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel at Munich . Rommel would have six divisions transferred from the Eastern Front , two divisions from France that had just been reformed , and two parachute divisions based in Germany in his new command . However , a Russian offensive in the east prevented the release of all the units promised . Adolf Hitler came to the conclusion that , without the backing of the Italian Army , it would be impossible for the Germans to defend the whole of Italy .
In Italy , German Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring , unaware of what was happening in Germany , had been building up the strength of his forces . He was aided in this by the escape from Sicily of three divisions , which managed to cross the Straits of Messina without serious loss of men or equipment . In August , five infantry and two panzer divisions moved into northern Italy . After the loss of Sicily , Hitler amended the German plans , deciding to hold the Salerno @-@ Naples area with five infantry divisions , while the 1st Parachute Division was ordered to the Apulia region .
Commanded by Generalmajor Richard Heidrich , the 1st Parachute Division consisted of the 1st , 3rd and 4th Parachute Regiments , with an artillery regiment , tank @-@ destroyer , anti @-@ aircraft , and engineer battalions , and other support units . The division was the successor of the original German airborne force , the 7th Air Division , and was highly experienced . It had spearheaded the German invasion in the west in 1940 , and fought in the battles of Greece and Crete , and in the Soviet Union . Withdrawn from the Soviet Union in 1943 , the division had already fought against British paratroops during operations in Sicily . However , on 9 September only three combat battalions and the headquarters were in Apulia .
= = = British forces = = =
Plans were formulated on 6 September to transport the British 1st Airborne Division to Taranto from their base in North Africa . They would take advantage of the Italian surrender to capture the port and establish anti @-@ aircraft defences . What was left of the Italian fleet still using the harbour was expected to have left beforehand . The Allies believed that the division would face only minimal opposition and would be able to overcome any resistance with the limited naval support available , as Taranto was outside the range of Allied fighter aircraft based in Sicily .
Although it had been formed in October 1941 , the British 1st Airborne Division , commanded by Major @-@ General George Hopkinson , had never before fought as a complete division . The only units with any combat experience were the 1st Parachute Brigade , which had fought with distinction as an independent brigade in North Africa and in Operation Fustian during the Allied invasion of Sicily , and the 1st Airlanding Brigade , understrength with only two battalions , which had also fought in Sicily during Operation Ladbroke . Both brigades had suffered heavy casualties in Sicily and were in no condition to undertake any further assault landings . Of the division 's other brigades , the 2nd and 4th Para Brigades , were untried in battle . Also , the 2nd Parachute Brigade was the only full strength unit , as the 4th Parachute Brigade had only two battalions , with its third battalion still forming in Palestine .
There was only sufficient troop transport aircraft to support one division @-@ sized operation , and that was allocated to the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division , under Major General Matthew Ridgway , as part of the Salerno landings . As a result , the 1st Airborne Division had to be carried to Italy by sea . With no landing craft available on such short notice , the division was carried across the Mediterranean by four cruisers , HMS Aurora , HMS Penelope , HMS Dido and HMS Sirius of the Royal Navy 's 12th Cruiser Squadron , accompanied by the minelayer HMS Abdiel and the American cruiser USS Boise , all commanded by Commodore W.G. Agnew . If the landing was successful , the British 78th Infantry Division in Sicily and the 8th Indian Infantry Division in the Middle East , would be sent to reinforce the airborne division , under the command of V Corps .
= = Landing = =
Before leaving Tunisia , the 1st Airborne Division was divided into two halves . The first half , consisting of the divisional headquarters , the 1st and 4th Parachute Brigade groups and the 9th Field Company , Royal Engineers , boarded the Royal Navy ships at Bizerta . The ships departed at 17 : 00 on 8 September , their decks loaded with the division 's vehicles and stores . Admiral of the Fleet Sir Andrew Cunningham was concerned that the Italian battle fleet based at Taranto might sortie and attack the cruisers which would be unable to defend themselves adequately , overloaded as they were with troops and equipment . He therefore ordered the battleships HMS Howe and HMS King George V and their six escorting destroyers , commanded by Vice Admiral Arthur Power , to leave their base in Malta and join the flotilla . At 18 : 30 8 September , while the convoy was at sea , General Eisenhower broadcast the details of the Italian surrender .
To support the British landings early on 9 September , Scanzano was attacked by American B @-@ 26 Marauders from the 17th and 310th Bombardment Groups . Then , just as the Allied flotilla approached Taranto , the Italian battleships Andrea Doria and Caio Duilio and three cruisers were observed leaving the harbour . The flotilla went to action stations , but the Italian ships just sailed past them en route to Malta to surrender in accordance with the agreement between the Allies and the Italian government . At 15 : 00 , the flotilla reached the minefield guarding the entrance to Taranto . The destroyer HMS Javelin negotiated the minefield and entered the harbour . Two hours later , Javelin returned with an Italian harbour pilot on board . HMS Penelope and USS Boise were guided safely into the harbour and alongside the jetty , where they disembarked the troops they were carrying , while the other ships in the flotilla remained outside the port and used small ship 's boats to take their soldiers ashore . The port 's facilities were all in working order and were soon unloading the ships .
The first units ashore were the headquarters of the 4th Parachute Brigade and the 10th Parachute Battalion , which were directed to move inland to guard against a German attack . When the airborne division troops entered the city , they were welcomed by the Italian defenders and informed that the German forces had already departed . When the two brigades were offloaded , they passed through the city and set up defensive positions to the north . At the same time , Major @-@ General George F. Hopkinson , established his divisional headquarters in the Albergo Europa Hotel and accepted the Italian surrender from the military governor .
After safely landing the first half of the division , the 12th Cruiser Squadron returned to Bizerta to collect the remaining troops , consisting of the 2nd Parachute Brigade , the 1st Airlanding Brigade and the Glider Pilot Regiment . The only casualties in the landing occurred on 10 September when HMS Abdiel , while manoeuvring alongside the dock , struck a mine and sank . Casualties totaled 58 killed and 154 wounded from the 6th ( Royal Welch ) Parachute Battalion , and 48 dead among Abdiel 's crew . Abdiel was also carrying twelve 6 pounder anti @-@ tank guns of the 2nd Anti @-@ tank Battery , and the division 's reserve ammunition supply .
Overnight , the 4th Parachute Brigade led the advance inland . By daybreak on 10 September , they had reached Massafra , where they were welcomed by the population . The next town they reached was Mottola , which was still occupied by the Germans . The Germans put up some resistance to the 156th Parachute Battalion 's assault , but withdrew soon after . The division 's first combat casualties resulted from this action . The wounded were evacuated to Taranto , where the 133rd ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance had established an 80 @-@ bed main dressing station at the Rendinella hospital .
The German paratroop rearguard tried to delay the British advance with several ambushes and roadblocks . At a roadblock beside the town of Castellaneta , Major @-@ General Hopkinton , the GOC , was hit by a burst of German machine gun fire while observing the 10th Parachute Battalion 's attack . He died of his wounds the following day . Hopkinson was replaced as the divisional commander by Brigadier Ernest Down , previously the commander of the 2nd Parachute Brigade .
Within 48 hours of landing at Taranto , the airborne division reached and occupied the port of Brindisi and Bari on the Adriatic coast without opposition from the Italian defenders . On 11 September on the division 's left , contact was made with the 1st Canadian Infantry Division , the leading unit of the British Eighth Army which had arrived in the area from Calabria . By the evening of 12 September , the 1st Airborne Division had advanced 20 miles ( 32 km ) inland on foot .
The airborne division 's next objective was now the airfield at Gioia del Colle . The Royal Air Force needed the airfield to bring in fighter aircraft from Sicily and support the landings at Salerno , which had not gone as expected . The Germans continued their withdrawal , and Gioia was reached over the night of the 16 / 17 September , by the 10th and 156th Parachute battalions . The Royal Air Force took over the airfield and 48 hours later , six squadrons were flying from the base in support of Allied operations . Between 20 and 24 September , the 1st Airborne Division was ordered to halt and construct defences on the approaches to Taranto , due to concerns that the Germans might launch a counterattack against the overextended unit .
The V Corps headquarters landed at Taranto on 18 September and prepared for the arrival of its two divisions . The first was the British 78th Infantry Division , which started arriving at Bari on 22 September , followed by the 8th Indian Infantry Division at Taranto the next day . On 24 September , the 1st Parachute and 1st Airlanding brigades took over the advance for the airborne division . By 27 September , they and the 78th Division reached Foggia , 125 miles ( 201 km ) from Taranto . From there , the airborne division was withdrawn to Taranto . By November , most of the 1st Airborne Division had left for England .
= = Aftermath = =
Operation Slapstick did not provide the diversion General Eisenhower had hoped for . The decision by Heidrich not to oppose the landings was made without reference to Kesselring 's headquarters . Heidrich had expected to be confronted by an overwhelming Allied force and had withdrawn his units north , although he endeavoured to delay the Allied advance where possible by ambushes and roadblocks . The German division went on to frustrate the Allied attempt to advance on Rome during the Battle of Monte Cassino in 1944 .
The British 1st Airborne Division only fought in one other battle during the war . Almost a year to the day , on 17 September 1944 , they took part in Operation Market Garden , the airborne assault crossing of the River Rhine in the Netherlands . Trapped behind German lines with their backs to the river and surrounded by parts of two panzer divisions , the division was virtually destroyed in the Battle of Arnhem ; only 2 @,@ 100 men of the 10 @,@ 000 that had started the mission were evacuated south of the Rhine . The 1st Airborne Division was also flown into Norway towards the end of the war in May 1945 to accept the surrender of German forces and occupy formerly German held positions in Operation Doomsday .
= Tropical Storm Agatha ( 1992 ) =
Tropical Storm Agatha was the deadliest tropical cyclone to form during the 1992 Pacific hurricane season . Developing as a tropical depression off the Pacific coast of Mexico on June 1 , the storm gradually organized over the
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Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / NJG 1
Mentioned four times in the Wehrmachtbericht
= = = Wehrmachtbericht references = = =
= Tropical Storm Chantal ( 2001 ) =
Tropical Storm Chantal was a North Atlantic tropical cyclone that moved across the Caribbean Sea in August 2001 . Chantal developed from a tropical wave on August 14 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . It tracked rapidly westward for much of its duration , and after degenerating into a tropical wave it passed through the Windward Islands . Chantal reached a peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) twice in the Caribbean Sea , and each time it was anticipated to attain hurricane status ; however , wind shear and later land interaction prevented strengthening to hurricane status . On August 21 Chantal moved ashore near the border of Mexico and Belize , and the next day it dissipated .
In the Windward Islands , lightning caused two indirect deaths in Trinidad . Chantal dropped light to moderate rainfall across its path , most significantly in Quintana Roo in Mexico where it caused widespread mudslides . Damage in Belize totaled $ 4 million ( 2001 USD ; $ 5 @.@ 35 million 2016 USD ) , due to the combined impact of high waves , moderate winds , and rainfall . Overall damage was minor .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 11 . Associated deep convection quickly decreased after tracking westward through the tropical Atlantic Ocean , although by August 13 a broad low pressure area and closed circulation developed along the wave . Environmental conditions favored tropical development , and the system gradually became better organized , although convection was initially limited near the center . On August 14 , convection increased northwest of the center and became sufficiently well @-@ organized for the system to be considered a tropical depression ; at the time , it was located about 1500 miles ( 2400 km ) east of the southern Windward Islands .
Situated to the south of a strong subtropical ridge , the depression tracked rapidly westward . With easterly wind shear , the structure was initially disorganized , although the system was forecast to attain tropical storm status within 48 hours of developing , due to anticipated favorable conditions . One computer model predicted the depression would reach winds of around 115 miles per hour ( 185 km / h ) by four days after development . Banding features increased while the satellite presentation continued to improve , and at 1200 UTC on August 16 the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Chantal about 370 miles ( 595 km ) east of Barbados . At the same time however , a QuikSCAT pass suggested the system did not contain a low @-@ level circulation , and in post @-@ season analysis , the National Hurricane Center estimated the system degenerated into a tropical wave rather than attain tropical storm status . This was confirmed by a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system .
Despite lacking a closed circulation , the overall structure remained well @-@ organized , and with a favorable upper @-@ level environment the possibility of regeneration into a tropical cyclone was noted . Early on August 17 , the remnants of Chantal passed over the Windward Islands with winds of tropical storm force . After entering the Caribbean Sea , the system slowed while its convective pattern expanded and became more symmetric . Hurricane Hunters confirmed that a small circulation developed about 290 miles ( 265 km ) south of Saint Croix , and accordingly the system developed into a tropical storm . Forecasters described the upper @-@ level environment as " ideal for [ a ] tropical cyclone to intensify " , with winds of 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) forecast within a few days . The cyclone was predicted to maintain a west @-@ northwestward track toward the northwestern Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico . On August 18 , the winds increased to 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) , although an increase in forward motion caused the low @-@ level circulation to become separated from the deep convection . The storm again decelerated on August 19 , allowing re @-@ organization and for Chantal to attain peak sustained winds of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) about 185 miles ( 295 km ) south of Kingston , Jamaica .
After reaching peak winds , Tropical Storm Chantal became disorganized while the center became ill @-@ defined and situated to the west @-@ southwest of the main area of convection ; this was due to unfavorable upper @-@ level winds , although computer models continued to forecast a more favorable upper @-@ level environment . By early on August 20 , Hurricane Hunters reported several low @-@ level circulations embedded within a large low pressure area . Later that day , wind shear decreased when the storm moved into the Gulf of Honduras . Chantal became much better organized , again reaching peak winds of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) before making landfall early on August 21 near the border of Mexico and Belize . Initially , the storm was forecast to cross the Yucatán Peninsula and Bay of Campeche and make a second landfall in the state of Veracruz . Chantal slowly weakened over land while moving slowly across northern Belize . Convection decreased markedly late on August 21 , and early the next day Chantal weakened to tropical depression status . The upper- and middle @-@ level circulations turned to the northeast while the low @-@ level circulation turned to the west @-@ southwest further inland . Weakening continued , and late on August 22 Chantal dissipated over the Mexican state of Tabasco .
= = Preparations = =
The National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch for Barbados , St. Vincent , and Saint Lucia on August 15 . The following day the watches were changed to warnings , since forecasters predicted that the system would reach tropical storm status . Additional watches and warnings were also issued for the rest of Windward Islands .
Late on August 17 , the government of Jamaica issued a hurricane watch for the island , due to anticipated strengthening . The next day , it was upgraded to a hurricane warning briefly before being amended to a tropical storm warning , due to the storm 's weakening in the central Caribbean . In the country , officials advised fishermen to return to harbor , while some flights into Norman Manley International Airport were canceled . A tropical storm warning was also issued for the Cayman Islands , where an emergency shelter was opened . There , tourists were recommended to temporarily leave the islands .
About 50 hours before landfall , a tropical storm watch was issued for Belize and the eastern Yucatán Peninsula , and about 12 hours later it was upgraded to a hurricane watch . When the lack of significant intensification became apparent , a tropical storm warning was added for much of the Yucatán Peninsula and later for a portion of the Mexican coast along the Bay of Campeche . As the storm approached , nearly 2 @,@ 500 people in vulnerable areas of eastern Mexico evacuated to safer areas . About 8 @,@ 000 people evacuated in Belize , primarily on offshore islands . The government of Belize opened its emergency operation center and evacuated several hospitals . About 250 airline flights were canceled , and some cruise ship paths were diverted to safer locations .
= = Impact = =
As a strong tropical wave , Chantal passed through the Windward Islands . The island of Martinique reported sustained winds of 39 miles per hour ( 63 km / h ) with gusts to 56 miles per hour ( 91 km / h ) . On August 16 , lightning from the system killed two brothers in southern Trinidad . Also on the island , heavy rainfall caused flooding and road washouts .
While tracking across the eastern Caribbean Sea , the outer rainbands of Chantal produced light to moderate rainfall across Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands . In Puerto Rico , the highest rainfall total was 2 @.@ 4 inches ( 61 mm ) in Rio Piedras . Passing to the south of Jamaica , the storm produced light rainfall and gusty winds . The outer rainbands also affected the Cayman Islands .
In Belize , the tropical storm produced a wind gust of 71 miles per hour ( 115 km / h ) in Caye Caulker , although stronger winds were possible in a convective band to the north . Moderate rainfall was reported across the country , peaking at 9 @.@ 81 inches ( 249 mm ) at Towerhill station . Along the coast , high waves damaged seawalls and piers . Further inland , the combination of winds and flooding caused agriculture and infrastructure damage ; overall damage in the country totaled $ 4 million ( 2001 USD ; $ 5 @.@ 35 million 2016 USD ) .
Tropical Storm Chantal also produced gusty winds in the Yucatán Peninsula , peaking at 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) in Chetumal , Quintana Roo . Dropping moderate to heavy rainfall along its path , a station near Chetumal reported a peak total of 20 @.@ 03 inches ( 509 mm ) . The remnants of Chantal also produced rainfall along the Bay of Campeche coast . The storm resulted in downed trees and power lines , as well as damaged buildings . Heavy rainfall led to mudslides across Quintana Roo , leaving some areas isolated . Initially , there were reports of two missing fishermen off the southeastern coast , although it was not later confirmed . Overall damage was minor .
= New Jersey Route 20 =
Route 20 , known locally as McLean Boulevard , is a state highway that runs 4 @.@ 15 miles ( 6 @.@ 68 km ) in New Jersey , United States . It runs along the east side of Paterson , Passaic County , following the west bank of the Passaic River between U.S. Route 46 and River Street ( County Route 504 ) , at which point County Route 504 begins . It is a four- to six @-@ lane divided highway most of its length that runs through residential and commercial areas of Paterson , intersecting with Interstate 80 and Route 4 at interchanges . The northernmost part of the route is a county @-@ maintained one @-@ way pair that follows 1st and 2nd Avenues .
= = Route description = =
Route 20 begins at an interchange with U.S. Route 46 and County Route 630 ( Crooks Avenue ) just north of the Garden State Parkway on the border of Clifton and Paterson . The road follows the bend of the Passaic River directly north of Dundee Lake , heading to the north into Paterson as McLean Boulevard , a four @-@ lane divided highway with a 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) speed limit . The route runs in between the Passaic River to the east and two large cemeteries to the west before coming to an interchange with Interstate 80 and Market Street . Past Interstate 80 , Route 20 becomes a six @-@ lane divided highway that heads through a mix of residential and commercial areas .
The next interchange along the route is for Route 4 ( Broadway ) , with access to both eastbound Route 4 and westbound Broadway from both directions . The road continues further north as a four @-@ lane divided highway with a speed limit of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) , heading through more urbanized areas of Paterson . It crosses County Route 651 ( East 33rd Street / Morlot Avenue ) , which crosses the Passaic River to become County Route 78 ( Morlot Avenue ) in Bergen County .
Route 20 continues to follow the Passaic River as a 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) road through commercial areas , featuring an intersection with County Route 652 ( 5th Avenue ) . Past this intersection , the route proceeds through urban areas , turning west and splitting into a one @-@ way pair . Here , the route becomes county maintained , with the northbound direction following 1st Avenue and the southbound direction following 2nd Avenue before coming to an end at County Route 504 ( River Street ) .
= = History = =
The present @-@ day routing of Route 20 north of Market Street was legislated in 1927 as part of Route 3 , which was to run from the New York border at Greenwood Lake to Secaucus . In addition , the present day routing south of Route 4 was also legislated as part of that route , which was to run from the George Washington Bridge to Cape May . In 1929 , the western terminus of Route 3 was moved to Paterson as Route S4B ( now Route 208 ) was planned to replace the alignment of Route 3 from Paterson to the New York border . McLean Boulevard through Paterson was built by the 1930s . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 20 was legislated to follow the former alignment of Route 3 between Paterson and East Rutherford as Route 3 was moved to the Route S3 freeway that was built between East Rutherford and Clifton .
Another freeway routing of Route 20 was planned in 1959 . This road , which was to be a six @-@ lane freeway called the Paterson Peripheral , was to run from Clifton north to the existing Route 20 in downtown Paterson . This road was completed between the Garden State Parkway and Valley Road by 1969 and north to Interstate 80 in 1975 . Upon completion , this road received the Route 20 designation . In 1972 , the state took over maintenance of the Paterson Plank Road from Route 3 to Route 17 in East Rutherford and made it a part of the route . As these three sections of Route 20 were not connected , they received three different route designations by the 1990s . The freeway section of Route 20 from the Garden State Parkway to Interstate 80 was designated Route 19 , the section between Route 3 and Route 17 was designated Route 120 , and the Route 20 designation was retained along McLean Boulevard through Paterson . The unfinished section of Route 20 that was to connect McLean Boulevard to Paterson Plank Road was built as a northern extension of the Route 21 freeway in 2000 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Passaic County .
= Shukri al @-@ Quwatli =
Shukri al @-@ Quwatli ( 1891 – 30 June 1967 ; Arabic : شكري القوتلي ) was the first president of post @-@ independence Syria . He began his career as a dissident working towards the independence and unity of the Ottoman Empire 's Arab territories and was consequently imprisoned and tortured for his activism . When the Kingdom of Syria was established , Quwatli became a government official , though he was disillusioned with monarchism and co @-@ founded the republican Independence Party . Quwatli was immediately sentenced to death by the French who took control over Syria in 1920 . Afterward , he based himself in Cairo where he served as the chief ambassador of the Syrian @-@ Palestinian Congress , cultivating particularly strong ties with Saudi Arabia . He used these connections to help finance the Great Syrian Revolt ( 1925 – 1927 ) . In 1930 , the French authorities pardoned Quwatli and thereafter , he returned to Syria , where he gradually became a principal leader of the National Bloc . He was elected president of Syria in 1943 and oversaw the country 's independence three years later .
Quwatli was reelected in 1948 , but was toppled in a military coup in 1949 . He subsequently went into exile in Egypt , returning to Syria in 1955 to participate in the presidential election , which he won . A conservative presiding over an increasingly leftist @-@ dominated government , Quwatli officially adopted neutralism amid the Cold War . After his request for aid from the United States was denied , he drew closer to the Eastern bloc . He also entered Syria into a defense arrangement with Egypt and Saudi Arabia to confront the influence of the Baghdad Pact . In 1957 , Quwatli , who the US and the Pact countries attempted but failed to oust , sought to stem the leftist tide in Syria , but to no avail . By then , his political authority had receded as the military increasingly bypassed Quwatli 's jurisdiction by separately coordinating with Quwatli 's erstwhile backer , Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser .
In 1958 , after months of unity talks , Quwatli merged Syria with Egypt to form the United Arab Republic and stepped down for Nasser to serve as president . In gratitude , Nasser awarded Quwatli the honorary title of " First Arab Citizen " . Quwatli grew disenchanted with the union , believing it had reduced Syria to a police state subordinate to Egypt . He supported Syria 's secession in 1961 , but plans for him to finish his presidential term afterward did not materialize . Quwatli left Syria following the 1963 Ba 'athist coup , an he died of a heart attack in Lebanon weeks after Syria 's defeat in the 1967 Six Day War . He was buried in Damascus on 1 July .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
The Quwatli 's were a family of merchants , who became wealthy from trading with Arabia , and moved to Damascus from Baghdad in the 18th @-@ century . The family established itself in the district of al @-@ Shaghour in Damascus , and by 1860 , some of the family 's wealth was invested in buying large tracts of land in the Ghouta farms surrounding Damascus . The family 's notable status was owed to their wealth , rather than an aristocratic or religious lineage , and their traditional spheres of activity were commerce and the Ottoman civil service .
Shukri 's grandfather , Abd al @-@ Ghani was involved in finance , as well as his great @-@ uncle , Ahmad , who was the president of the Agricultural Bank of Damascus . His other great @-@ uncle , Murad , was a member of the Administrative Council for the city . His father 's wealth rested on the highly @-@ fertile lands he owned , and later bequeathed to Shukri and his siblings , in the Ghouta . His older brother , Hasan , was elected President of the Damascus Chamber of Commerce and Agriculture .
In 1928 , Shukri al @-@ Quwatli married Bahira al @-@ Dalati , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of nationalist Said al @-@ Dalati , whom Quwatli met while in jail in 1916 . Shukri and Bahira had five children ; Hassan ( the oldest , born in 1935 ) , Mahmud , Huda , Hana and Hala . Bahira al @-@ Dalati died in 1989 .
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Shukri Quwatli was born in Damascus in 1891 . He received his elementary education at a Jesuit school in the city , then studied at the preparatory high school of Maktab Anbar in the Jewish quarter of Damascus . He obtained his baccalauréat in 1908 . He then moved to Istanbul where he studied political science and public administration . Quwatli graduated from the Mekteb @-@ i Mülkiye in 1913 . He returned to Damascus in 1913 after receiving his diploma , and started working for the Ottoman civil service .
= = = = Early influences = = = =
Quwatli was initially brought up in a pro @-@ Ottoman environment , owing to his family 's connections in Istanbul . The restrictions of the Abdul Hamid II era , however , started to be felt around the Ottoman Empire , and discontent was brewing even among the empire 's elite . Following the Young Turk Revolution against Abdul Hamid II in 1908 , parliamentary elections were called in all provinces , and liberal Arab intellectuals like Shukri al @-@ Asali , Shafiq Muayyad al @-@ Azm , and Rushdi al @-@ Shama 'a secured seats as deputies ( members of the legislature ) representing Damascus . The liberal current that established itself through these figures , and the political dailies they established including al @-@ Qabas ( " The Firebrand " ) and al @-@ Ikha ' al @-@ Arabi ( " Arab Brotherhood " ) , greatly influenced Quwatli and other Arab youths .
During the Ottoman countercoup of 1909 , Quwatli strongly supported the Committee of Union and Progress ( CUP ) against Abdul Hamid II . Nevertheless , after the failed countercoup , the CUP accused Arab provinces of supporting Abdul Hamid II and initiated a policy of Turkification , whereby all local officials were substituted by Turkish ones . Soon after , the parliament was dissolved , and the liberal Arab politicians were forced out in the following elections .
= = Early nationalist activities = =
Quwatli 's early involvement in the Arab nationalist movement came through the Arab Congress of 1913 . Shortly after starting his career at the Ottoman civil service in Damascus , he received an invitation to attend the conference in Paris . However , the conference was strongly condemned by the Ottoman authorities , and Arab notables were forbidden from attending . Nevertheless , the congress had succeeded in rousing nationalist feelings in Arab provinces . Quwatli 's first confrontation with the Ottoman authorities came in February 1914 during a visit by Jamal Pasha , the governor of Syria at the time , to the offices of the Governorate of Damascus , where Quwatli worked . During the visit , Quwatli refused to follow the normal protocol — bending over and kissing Jamal Pasha 's right hand — and was promptly thrown in prison at the Citadel of Damascus . He was bailed out of prison a few days later through his family 's connections , but he lost his job at the civil service .
= = = Al @-@ Fatat = = =
The growing hardships in the country during the early years of World War I pushed Quwatli to join the secret society of al @-@ Fatat , which was facilitated by his childhood friend and co @-@ founder , Nasib al @-@ Bakri . Al @-@ Fatat was an underground organization established in Paris in 1911 by Arab nationalists with the aim of gaining independence and unity of the various Arab territories in the Ottoman Empire . In 1913 , the society established its main branch in Damascus , and was successful in attracting the Syrian elite into its ranks .
In 1915 , Sharif Hussein , trying to garner support for his planned uprising against the Ottomans , sent his son Faisal to Damascus to lobby the Syrian notables on his behalf . Faisal , a member of al @-@ Fatat himself , met secretly with other members of the society , including Quwatli , in the house of Nasib al @-@ Bakri . When the Ottoman authorities learned of the meeting , they ordered the arrest of al @-@ Bakri and his two brothers , Fawzi and Sami , accusing them of treason . Quwatli was charged by the al @-@ Fatat leadership with the task of facilitating their escape , in which he succeeded . In retaliation , Ottoman authorities placed him under arrest , in which he was subjected to torture and humiliation . Nevertheless , Quwatli refused to confess to anything , and his captors failed to implicate him in the operation so they released him a month later . The tremendous pressure of that experience , however , took its toll on the young Quwatli , and upon his release he retired to his country house in Saidnaya and stopped all contacts with members of al @-@ Fatat and the opposition .
In late 1916 he was approached by Fasih al @-@ Ayyubi in hope that Quwatli could help him secure an escape route for his ailing father , Shukri al @-@ Ayyubi , who was arrested by the Ottomans , like he did for Nasib al @-@ Bakri . However , despite Quwatli 's refusal to help , Ottoman authorities tracked down the contact and arrested both men . Quwatli was subjected to further torture to coerce him to reveal the names of his al @-@ Fatat colleagues . In an attempt to prevent himself from surrendering the names , Quwatli tried to commit suicide . After cutting his wrists , Quwatli 's life was saved at the last minute by fellow inmate , al @-@ Fatat member and practicing doctor , Ahmad Qadri . He spent four more months in jail , before being released on bail by his relative , Shafiq al @-@ Quwatli , who served as a deputy at the Ottoman Parliament , on 28 January 1917 . His experience in jail and the story about his attempted suicide turned Quwatli into a nationalist hero in Syria .
= = Kingdom of Syria = =
On 1 October 1918 , an Arab army under the leadership of Emir Faisal and British general T. E. Lawrence entered Damascus , and by the end of October the rest of Ottoman Syria fell to the Allied Forces . Emir Faisal became in charge of administering the liberated territory . He appointed Rida al @-@ Rikabi as prime minister , and Quwatli 's friend , Nasib al @-@ Bakri became a personal adviser to the Emir . Quwatli , at the age of twenty @-@ six , was appointed assistant to the governor of Damascus , Alaa al @-@ Din al @-@ Durubi .
However , many of Quwatli 's generation were unimpressed with Faisal 's leadership skills , and were drawn to a republican , rather than monarchist , view of governance . Furthermore , they were suspicious of Faisal , and his brother Abdullah 's ties with the British . On 15 April 1919 they founded a loose coalition under the name of al @-@ Istiqlal Party ( " Independence Party " ) . The party had a pan @-@ Arab , secular , anti @-@ British and anti @-@ Hashemite outlook and attracted mostly youth activists from the elite classes . Well @-@ known members , other than Quwatli , included Adil Arslan , Nabih al @-@ Azmeh , Riad al @-@ Sulh , Saadallah al @-@ Jabiri , Ahmad Qadri , Izzat Darwaza and Awni Abd al @-@ Hadi . Although ostensibly working for the government , Quwatli devoted his efforts to nationalist activities outside the government 's auspices . In addition to al @-@ Istiqlal , he was also a member of the Palestinian @-@ led Arab Club 's Damascus branch .
In a meeting with the 1919 King – Crane Commission , sent by the United States ( US ) to gauge national sentiment in greater Syria , Quwatli rejected the notion of an American military presence in Syria , telling Crane that " Reduction of sovereignty is non @-@ negotiable " and instead suggesting that the US help Syrians to " build their state and live in peace on their land . " Nevertheless , French forces had already started landing on the Syrian coast in 1919 to enforce the Sykes – Picot Agreement whereby France and the UK would divide up the former Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire between themselves . In March 1920 , the League of Nations granted France a mandate over Syria and Lebanon , and in response Emir Faisal declared himself king of Syria on 8 March 1920 . When King Faisal refused to accept the mandate , the French marched on Damascus . Yusuf al- ' Azma , minister of defense at the time , led a small force and met the French at the Battle of Maysalun on 23 July 1920 . The battle ended in a decisive victory for the French , and the next day French forces occupied Damascus . King Faisal was deported to Europe , and the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon was officially declared .
= = Leader in Syrian independence movement = =
= = = Emissary of the Syrian @-@ Palestinian Congress = = =
The French started their rule by sentencing 21 nationalist leaders , including Quwatli , to death on 1 August 1920 . Quwatli managed to flee only hours before a warrant for his arrest was issued . From Damascus he fled by car to Haifa in British @-@ mandated Palestine , and soon after to Cairo in Egypt . From there , Quwatli spent the bulk of his time traveling throughout the Arab world and Europe serving as the virtual ambassador of the Syrian @-@ Palestinian Congress . He became the chief link between Arab nationalist activists in Europe and in the Arab world .
In Europe , he particularly frequented Berlin where he worked with the prominent Arab nationalist intellectual Shakib Arslan to proliferate anti @-@ French sentiment , leading the French Mandatory authorities to label Quwatli one of the " most dangerous " Syrian exiles . He developed close ties with Ibn Saud , who by 1925 ruled much of Arabia , having overrun the Hashemites in the Hejaz . Quwatli had a prior relationship with the House of Saud , stemming from his own family 's commercial links with the Saudis and Quwatli 's friendship with Sheikh Yusuf Yasin , a Syrian adviser to Ibn Saud , who Quwatli had dispatched to Arabia during Faisal 's rule . Quwatli , strongly distrustful of the Hashemites , was impressed by Ibn Saud 's relatively quick conquest over much of Arabia and saw in the Saudis a strong potential ally against British and French imperialism in the Middle East . By 1925 , Quwatli had solidified his position as the intermediary between Ibn Saud and the Syrian @-@ Palestinian Congress . His acquisition of Saudi funding put him at odds with the Congress 's chief financier Michel Lutfallah , however .
= = = Financing the Great Syrian Revolt = = =
In the summer of 1925 tensions between the Druze chiefs of the Hauran led by Sultan Pasha al @-@ Atrash and the French authorities culminated with the Great Syrian Revolt , which spread throughout Syria within months . While Quwatli 's Istiqlal Party lobbied the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem , Amin al @-@ Husseini to set up a financial support network for the rebellion , Quwatli had already secured the funneling of funds and arms from the Hejaz and also diverted some of the military aid to the Jerusalem @-@ based committee . As the revolt 's initial momentum began to recede in mid @-@ 1926 , bickering between opposition leaders , inside and outside of Syria , increased significantly . Quwatli was accused by his rivals in Cairo of pocketing some money he raised and paying off rebels to prevent rebel raids against his family 's extensive apricot orchards in the Ghouta . Tensions between Istiqlalists like Quwatli and Arslan and other Syrian nationalist leaders like al @-@ Bakri and Shahbandar , were particularly sharp , with the latter accusing Quwatli of being out of touch from the realities of the revolt , and Quwatli accusing Shahbandar of treason for attempting to stop the insurrection .
= = = Role in the National Bloc = = =
In late 1927 , Quwatli headed the Istiqlal @-@ dominated Executive Committee of the Syrian @-@ Palestinian Congress , although Lutfallah headed a separate rival committee that also called itself the Congress 's Executive Committee . Both were based in Cairo . In 1930 , Quwatli was allowed to return to Syria under a general amnesty . Thereafter , he joined the National Bloc , the preeminent opposition movement in Syria — though tolerated by the French . Although he opposed the moderate stances of the Bloc 's Damascene leaders , he determined he could only remain a major political player by joining the group . He sought to steer it towards a more determined nationalist course and worked to expand his support base , relying on his relationships with residents in some of Damascus ' traditionally nationalist neighborhoods ( al @-@ Midan and al @-@ Shaghour ) and among the city 's merchant and emerging industrialist classes . He also worked to draw support from the staunch pan @-@ Arabists of the League of National Action ( LNA ) beginning in 1933 . He managed to co @-@ opt much of the LNA 's members by 1935 – 36 by financing its land development company ( which aimed to prevent land sales to Zionist organizations in Palestine ) and assigning some of its leaders to the director boards of companies affiliated with the Bloc .
In 1936 , as a general strike was underway in the country to demand a renegotiation of the French role in Syria , Quwatli was appointed the Bloc 's vice president of internal affairs , but was not part of the treaty negotiation committee which led talks with the French in Paris in March . A new treaty was established by the end of the month , although the French did not ratify it . Between then and fall , Quwatli spearheaded efforts to unify nationalists ranks in Syria , convincing LNA leader Sabri al @-@ Asali to join the Bloc 's highest governing body . By enlisting the support of many prominent pan @-@ Arabists like himself , Quwatli strengthened his position within the Bloc , particularly in regards to his chief nationalist rival Jamil Mardam Bey .
On 20 March 1941 , during World War II , when the Vichy French were in control of Syria , Quwatli called for immediate Syrian independence amid a period of food shortages , high unemployment and widespread nationalist rioting in the country . Vichy troops in the country were defeated by the Allied forces in July and Quwatli left Syria during the campaign . He returned in 1942 . France officially recognized Syria 's independence on 27 September . However , French troops were not withdrawn and national elections were postponed by the French Mandatory authorities .
= = First presidential term = =
= = = Election of 1943 = = =
Prior to the 1943 national elections in French Mandatory Syria , the French authorities attempted to negotiate with Quwatli as head of the National Bloc to issue a treaty that guaranteed an independent Syria 's alignment and close military cooperation with France , in return for French help in securing Quwatli 's election to the presidency . Quwatli refused , believing the Syrian people would view such negotiations negatively . He was also confident that the National Bloc would win the elections regardless of French support . Quwatli did win the vote , becoming Syria 's president on 17 August 1943 .
= = = Syrian independence = = =
As president , Quwatli continued to press for Syrian independence from France . In a bid to garner American and British support for his government , he declared war against the Axis Powers , aligning Syria with the Allies . Growing countrywide unrest in response to French Mandatory rule led to military assaults against Damascus and other Syrian cities in May 1945 . More French troops were scheduled to land in Syria to aid the authorities , but at Quwatli 's request for intervention , British troops invaded Syria from Transjordan , entering Damascus on 1 June . The French military campaign came to an immediate halt as a consequence . The UK and the US had viewed the French military action in Syria as a potential catalyst for further unrest throughout the Middle East and a detriment to British and American lines of communication in the region .
As French troops began a partial withdrawal from the country , Quwatli instructed Fares al @-@ Khoury , his envoy to the US and head of the Syrian mission to the United Nations , to bring the issue of Syria 's independence to the United Nations Security Council ( UNSC ) , cabling Khoury to " Go to [ US President Harry ] Truman and tell him the French have ploughed the land in Syria , over our heads ! " Khoury proceeded to petition the UNSC to force France 's withdrawal from Syria . The US and UK backed Syria 's request and informed Quwatli that British troops were in control of Syria , requesting Quwatli 's cooperation in enforcing an evening curfew in the country . Quwatli complied and expressed his gratitude to the British government . At a summit between France , the UK , the US , Russia and China , France agreed to withdraw from both Syria and Lebanon in return for British promises to withdraw its military from the Levant region as well . Quwatli was angered that Syria was left out of the conference and requested a summit with Truman and Winston Churchill , which was rebuffed .
The transfer of
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supplicate Homer about going there . Homer gets annoyed , but reluctantly decides to take them there . The family goes to Mt . Splashmore , where Bart , Lisa and Homer ride an intense water slide named H2WHOA ! . Due to his weight , Homer gets lodged in a section of the slide and the park 's rescue crew are forced to shut down the ride and remove him with the help of a large crane . Homer is made a fool of on the news for his massive size and admits that he needs to lose weight .
Once home , Homer announces to his family that he will go on a diet and exercise more . While Homer is looking for his weights in the attic , Bart stumbles upon several old paintings of Ringo Starr that Marge made as a student in high school , when she had a crush on Starr . Marge tells Lisa that she was scolded by her art teacher for doing those paintings ; she also recalls sending a painting to Starr for an " honest opinion " , but she never got a response . Lisa suggests that Marge take a painting class at Springfield Community College , which she does . She makes a painting of Homer on the couch in his underwear , which her professor , Lombardo , praises . The painting wins the college art show , thus gaining her fame and the headlines of the newspapers .
Mr. Burns wants Marge to paint his portrait for the Burns Wing of the Springfield Art Museum . She reluctantly agrees , as long as Burns insists that the painting portray him as a beautiful man . While Burns heckles Marge as she does the painting , Homer finds out that he weighs 239 pounds , which is twenty @-@ one pounds less than what it had been . After Burns insults Homer 's weight , Lisa and Maggie , Marge throws him out and is ready to quit until Homer encourages her to finish the painting : She also gets a reply from Starr , who is decades behind on answering his fanmail , praising her artwork . After working until well into the night , she finishes the painting and then it is unveiled at the opening of the Burns Wing . The painting depicts a naked , frail , and weak Burns . The people are shocked , until Marge explains that it depicts what Burns actually is : a vulnerable human being which will , one day , be no more . Burns is outraged at first , but then , like everyone else , accepts his new glory , praises Marge 's painting and thanks Marge " for not making fun of [ his ] genitalia " , to which Marge replies , " I thought I did . "
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Brian K. Roberts and directed by Jim Reardon . Prior to writing the episode , Roberts had been an audio and visual editor on the show . Musician Ringo Starr made a guest appearance in the episode as himself . He was the first Beatle to appear on the show ; both George Harrison and Paul McCartney would later guest star on the show in the season five episode " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " and the season seven episode " Lisa the Vegetarian " respectively . When the story of Marge having a crush on Starr was pitched out , Roberts took the opportunity to write Starr into the script because he had always wanted to meet a Beatle . He then sent the script to Starr , who was then in Southern France . Starr agreed to do the guest appearance after only reading two lines , and he told Roberts that he would be able to do it when he visited Los Angeles a few weeks later . The staff of the show was thrilled when Roberts revealed that Starr had agreed to do it , and they immediately decided to expand Starr 's role in the script . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening said of the guest appearance : " We were so excited that we got Ringo Starr coming in to do the show and we recorded him over at the Complex in West Los Angeles . We were given a list of rules about what we couldn 't do to Ringo , such as ' Don 't touch him ' , ' Don 't approach him ' , and ' Don 't ask for his autograph ' . But of course when he shows up in this big limo , Brian brings out a big poster and asks him to sign it ! " Roberts explained that he had not received the memo with the rules so he showed up with a copy of the script cover and asked Starr to sign it . Groening asked Starr if he wanted to be animated the way he was in Yellow Submarine or the way he was in the cartoon series The Beatles . Starr chose Yellow Submarine because he did not like his appearance in the cartoon . In addition to Starr , the episode features a guest appearance by Jon Lovitz as Lombardo and the doughnut delivery man that delivers doughnuts to the nuclear power plant . Lombardo 's physical appearance was based on an art teacher Reardon had in art school .
= = Cultural references = =
The line for the H2WHOA ! ride reproduces the staircases in the lithograph Ascending and Descending by M. C. Escher . The way Krusty removes the clown make @-@ up from his face resembles the way the Joker removes his make @-@ up in the 1989 film Batman . When Homer announces he is going on a diet , he says : " As God is my witness , I 'll always be hungry again ! " , a reference to the famous line " As God is my witness ... I 'll never be hungry again ! " from the film Gone with the Wind . Homer exercises in a way similar to how Rocky exercises in the 1976 film Rocky . The music that plays as Homer approaches the scale is the main theme from the film The Good , the Bad and the Ugly . A copy of Andy Warhol 's painting Campbell 's Soup Cans is visible at the art gallery .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Brush with Greatness " finished thirty @-@ seventh in the ratings for the week of April 8 – 14 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 0 , equivalent to approximately eleven million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children .
The episode received positive reviews from television critics . Many lauded the use of Starr ; for instance , IGN ranked his performance in the episode , along with Paul McCartney 's performance in " Lisa the Vegetarian " and George Harrison 's performance in " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " , as the tenth best guest appearance in The Simpsons ' history . They added that " Although none of these appearances were really large , the fact that the most popular band of all time appeared on The Simpsons is a large statement on the popularity and importance of the show . " Doug Pratt , a DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor , wrote that " Brush with Greatness " has a " well thought @-@ out " plot and he enjoyed the use of Starr and Marge 's previously undiscovered talents . Paul A. Cantor , the author of the book Gilligan Unbound : Pop Culture in the Age of Globalization , said the " once again Brian K. Roberts proves his genius with ' Brush with Greatness ' in a superb work where Marge cultivates her wonderful artistic side . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote : " From the opening at Mt . Splashmore through Homer ’ s diet and the unveiling of Mr. Burns ’ controversial portrait , the episode packed a lot of great material . It also expanded Marge ’ s character in a pleasing way , as it avoided any semblance of sappiness ; we needed a break from sentiment after ' Old Money ' . Overall , ' Brush with Greatness ' provided a terrific episode . " The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " A superb episode , with Marge rightfully centre stage . Despite his general unpleasantness , Mr Burns ' gratitude to Marge is both welcome and unexpected . And the dig at Water Parks is spot on . "
In October 2008 , Ringo Starr posted a video on his website in which he said he was too busy to answer fan mail and that all mail sent to him after October 20 would be thrown out . Although Starr did not mention " Brush with Greatness " in the video , several media sources compared his announcement to his portrayal in the episode .
= 1904 Tour de France =
The 1904 Tour de France was the second Tour de France , held from 2 to 24 July . With a route similar to its previous edition , 1903 Tour de France winner Maurice Garin seemed to have repeated his win by a small margin over Lucien Pothier , while Hippolyte Aucouturier won four of the six stages . But the race became a victim of its own success , plagued by scandals ; cyclists were accused of having taken trains during the race . Twelve cyclists , including the first four of the final classification and all stage winners , were disqualified by the Union Vélocipédique Française ( UVF ) . Henri Cornet , originally the fifth @-@ place finisher , was awarded the victory four months after the race . The problems caused the Tour de France to be provisionally cancelled , and subsequently the 1905 Tour de France was run with different rules from the 1903 and 1904 edition .
= = Background = =
The initial Tour de France of 1903 had been a large success , and it was quickly decided to organize it again in 1904 . The route was identical , with the same six stages . The rules were the same as in 1903 , with one exception : cyclists could not enter in just one stage , but had to join for the entire race . The favourites for the victory were Garin , Pothier and Aucouturier , who had performed well in the 1903 Tour de France . Among the competitors was Henri Paret who , at 50 years old , still holds the record of oldest Tour de France cyclist .
In the 1903 Tour de France , the organisation guaranteed that the first 50 cyclists in the final general classification would earn at least 5 francs per day . In 1904 , if not more than 50 cyclists would finish , also cyclists who dropped out during the race would still get 5 francs for the days they had been in the race . This rule was added to attract cyclists who otherwise would not enter , because the Tour needed enough competitors to remain credible .
= = Participants = =
= = Race incidents = =
In the first stage , the riders fell after only a few kilometres . Lipman broke a finger , and became the first rider to abandon this Tour . Around 100 km in the race , Lucien Pothier lost ten minutes to the main group , led by Maurice Garin , because of a broken bicycle . In Cosne , at 174 km , Pothier had reached the leading group . Aucouturier had lost more than one hour at that point . Just before the next control post in Nevers , Aucouturier fell on his face , and continued the race covered in blood . In the last part of the race , Maurice Garin and Lucien Pothier rode away from the others . They were attacked by four masked men in a car , but still finished as the first two , with Garin beating Pothier by 50 m . The many flat tires and crashes of Aucouturier , seemingly the results of sabotage , gave him a time loss of several hours .
After the stage , three cyclists were punished : Aucouturier and Samson received fines of 500 and 250 francs , Aucouturier for having a cyclist not in the race following him , Samson for riding in the slipstream of a car . Chevallier , who had finished third , was disqualified for resting in a car for 45 minutes . During the stage , Ferdinand Payan had been disqualified . Some sources indicate he was helped by a motor , other that he was helped by riders not in the race . In that first stage , Garin had asked the race official Lefèvre for food , which was illegal . Lefèvre , who knew that Garin was the star of the race , broke the rules and gave him the food , because he did not want to be responsible for Garin leaving the race because of hunger . The news that Garin had received illegal help quickly spread , and caused the fanatical crowd to take action .
For the second stage , the organisers had made the option to postpone the start by two hours , in case the mistral wind was making cycling difficult . This was not necessary , so the riders started at midnight as planned . During this stage , Antoine Fauré lead close to his hometown , and 200 fans tried to stop the rest of the cyclists from following him . Garin hurt his hand during the incident , and Giovanni Gerbi was knocked unconscious , and had to give up with broken fingers . The situation was only solved after race officials fired shots in the air . Further on , nails and broken glass had been spread along the road , which caused many flat tires . Because of this help , Fauré was the first on top of the Col de la République , but was taken over by the favourites later . Aucouturier won the sprint . When the riders reached Marseille , they complained that there had been too many incidents in this stage , and the stage results should be cancelled . In the last part , they had been stopped by a large group of cyclists . Maurice Garin had been attacked , and his arm had been injured : he finished the stage steering with only one hand . There was so much confusion at the last controle post , that the exact arrival times of the cyclists were not recorded .
In the third stage , the Tour reached Nîmes , near the home town of Payan , whose fans were angry because of his disqualification . They threw rocks at the riders , and barricaded the road . The cyclists had troubles passing through Nîmes , and several were injured . The most important event for the general classification was when César Garin 's bicycle was broken by attackers ; he had to find a new bicycle , which took him 15 minutes . Further on , nails and broken glass were spread along the road . Many riders punctured , but there were no serious falls . The cyclists passed this part walking . After Nîmes , a leading group of five cyclists was formed : Maurice Garin , Pothier , Aucouturier , Cornet and Beaugendre . Aucouturier and Cornet escaped , and Aucouturier won , beating Cornet in the sprint .
The fourth stage was run without the incidents that plagued the first three stages . Pothier , Maurice and César Garin and Beaugendre reached Bordeaux together , and the stage was decided by the final kilometre in the velodrome , where Pothier recorded the fastest time .
In the fifth stage , nails on the road again causing punctures . As mechanical assistance was not allowed , Cornet had to ride the last 40 km on two flat tires . Aucouturier won this stage , his third one , but was way behind in the general classification , which Garin lead , with only 28 seconds margin to Pothier .
In the sixth stage , Aucouturier , Garin and Dortignac escaped in the last kilometres . Aucouturier signed first at the control post in Ville @-@ d 'Avray . From that point , the race was neutralised until the velodrome Parc @-@ des @-@ Princes , where the riders would ride the final kilometre . At the moment that the riders arrived in Paris , it started to rain . The organisers decided together with the cyclists to exclude the final kilometre from the race , and make the control post in Ville @-@ d 'Avray the end of the race . This made Aucouturier the winner of the stage . Maurice Garin finished second , which made him the overall winner .
= = Initial results before disqualifications = =
Initially , Maurice Garin was the winner , having led the race from start to end . Hippolyte Aucouturier won four stages . In total , 27 cyclists finished . For each cyclist , the times they had needed in each stage was added up for the general classification . The cyclist with the least accumulated time after the last stage was the winner .
= = Disqualification = =
During the race , nine riders were excluded because of , among other actions , illegal use of cars or trains . The Tour organizers were happy with the result , but the Union Vélocipédique Française ( UVF ) started an investigation after complaints from other cyclists . Their investigative committee heard testimony from dozens of competitors and witnesses , and , in December 1904 , disqualified all the stage winners and the first four finishers ( Maurice Garin , Pothier , César Garin , and Aucouturier ) . Ten of those disqualified were banned for one
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year , Garin for two years and the remaining two for life . In total , 29 riders were punished . The reasons for the disqualification were never made public .
Fifth @-@ placed Henri Cornet , aged 19 , then became the youngest ever winner of the Tour . Cornet had also been warned after he had received a lift by a car . Only 15 cyclists from the original 27 that finished were not disqualified .
Following the disqualifications , the Tour de France came nearest in history to being permanently cancelled . The race organiser Henri Desgrange , said he would never run the race again because it had been overtaken by the " blind emotions " of those who attacked or helped riders as they passed . Desgrange was also upset that the UVF had imposed judgement on his race when he had already disciplined riders as he saw fit .
An angry exchange ensued between Desgrange and the UVF but the letters and the detailed complaints that led to the UVF 's actions were lost when the Tour de France archives were transported south in 1940 to avoid the German invasion and were never seen again .
Until the end of his life , Garin always said that he was the rightful winner of the 1904 Tour de France , but according to Les Woodland , Garin confessed to a friend that he had cheated .
= = Final results = =
After the disqualifications , the first four cyclists of the initial classification were disqualified . In the new classification , only 15 cyclists had finished :
= = Aftermath = =
Because of the scandals associated with this Tour , Desgrange wanted to stop the race . He however changed his mind , and the rules were changed to prevent cyclists from cheating : the 1905 Tour de France would be decided with a points system . Tour de France 1904 winner Cornet would enter the Tour de France for seven more times , but would never again play an important role .
= International Mathematical Olympiad =
The International Mathematical Olympiad ( IMO ) is an annual six @-@ problem mathematical olympiad for pre @-@ college students , and is the oldest of the International Science Olympiads . The first IMO was held in Romania in 1959 . It has since been held annually , except in 1980 . About 100 countries send teams of up to six students , plus one team leader , one deputy leader , and observers .
The content ranges from extremely difficult algebra and pre @-@ calculus problems to problems on branches of mathematics not conventionally covered at school and often not at university level either , such as projective and complex geometry , functional equations and well @-@ grounded number theory , of which extensive knowledge of theorems is required . Calculus , though allowed in solutions , is never required , as there is a principle that anyone with a basic understanding of mathematics should understand the problems , even if the solutions require a great deal more knowledge . Supporters of this principle claim that this allows more universality and creates an incentive to find elegant , deceptively simple @-@ looking problems which nevertheless require a certain level of ingenuity .
The selection process differs by country , but it often consists of a series of tests which admit fewer students at each progressing test . Awards are given to the lowest percentage of the individual contestants . Teams are not officially recognized — all scores are given only to individual contestants , but team scoring is unofficially compared more than individual scores . Contestants must be under the age of 20 and must not be registered at any tertiary institution . Subject to these conditions , an individual may participate any number of times in the IMO .
= = History = =
The first IMO was held in Romania in 1959 . Since then it has been held every year except in 1980 . That year , it was cancelled due to internal strife in Mongolia . It was initially founded for eastern European member countries of the Warsaw Pact , under the Soviet bloc of influence , but later other countries participated as well . Because of this eastern origin , the IMOs were first hosted only in eastern European countries , and gradually spread to other nations .
Sources differ about the cities hosting some of the early IMOs . This may be partly because leaders are generally housed well away from the students , and partly because after the competition the students did not always stay based in one city for the rest of the IMO . The exact dates cited may also differ , because of leaders arriving before the students , and at more recent IMOs the IMO Advisory Board arriving before the leaders .
Several students , such as Zhuoqun Alex Song , Teodor von Burg , Lisa Sauermann , and Christian Reiher , have performed exceptionally well in the IMO , winning multiple gold medals . Others , such as Grigory Margulis , Jean @-@ Christophe Yoccoz , Laurent Lafforgue , Stanislav Smirnov , Terence Tao , Sucharit Sarkar , Grigori Perelman , Ngô Bảo Châu and Maryam Mirzakhani have gone on to become notable mathematicians . Several former participants have won awards such as the Fields Medal .
In January 2011 , Google gave € 1 million to the International Mathematical Olympiad organization . The donation helped the organization cover the costs of the next five global events ( 2011 – 2015 ) .
= = Scoring and format = =
The examination consists of six problems . Each problem is worth seven points , so the maximum total score is 42 points . No calculators are allowed . The examination is held over two consecutive days ; each day the contestants have four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours to solve three problems . The problems chosen are from various areas of secondary school mathematics , broadly classifiable as geometry , number theory , algebra , and combinatorics . They require no knowledge of higher mathematics such as calculus and analysis , and solutions are often short and elementary . However , they are usually disguised so as to make the solutions difficult . Prominently featured are algebraic inequalities , complex numbers , and construction @-@ oriented geometrical problems , though in recent years the latter has not been as popular as before .
Each participating country , other than the host country , may submit suggested problems to a Problem Selection Committee provided by the host country , which reduces the submitted problems to a shortlist . The team leaders arrive at the IMO a few days in advance of the contestants and form the IMO Jury which is responsible for all the formal decisions relating to the contest , starting with selecting the six problems from the shortlist . The Jury aims to order the problems so that the order in increasing difficulty is Q1 , Q4 , Q2 , Q5 , Q3 and Q6 . As the leaders know the problems in advance of the contestants , they are kept strictly separated and observed .
Each country 's marks are agreed between that country 's leader and deputy leader and coordinators provided by the host country ( the leader of the team whose country submitted the problem in the case of the marks of the host country ) , subject to the decisions of the chief coordinator and ultimately a jury if any disputes cannot be resolved .
= = Selection process = =
The selection process for the IMO varies greatly by country . In some countries , especially those in east Asia , the selection process involves several tests of a difficulty comparable to the IMO itself . The Chinese contestants go through a camp . In others , such as the USA , possible participants go through a series of easier standalone competitions that gradually increase in difficulty . In the USA , the tests include the American Mathematics Competitions , the American Invitational Mathematics Examination , and the United States of America Mathematical Olympiad , each of which is a competition in its own right . For high scorers in the final competition for the team selection , there also is a summer camp , like that of China .
In countries of the former Soviet Union and other eastern European countries , a team has in the past been chosen several years beforehand , and they are given special training specifically for the event . However , such methods have been discontinued in some countries . In Ukraine , for instance , selection tests consist of four olympiads comparable to the IMO by difficulty and schedule . While identifying the winners , only the results of the current selection olympiads are considered .
= = Awards = =
The participants are ranked based on their individual scores . Medals are awarded to the highest ranked participants ; slightly fewer than half of them receive a medal . The cutoffs ( minimum scores required to receive a gold , silver or bronze medal respectively ) are then chosen so that the numbers of gold , silver and bronze medals awarded are approximately in the ratios 1 : 2 : 3 . Participants who do not win a medal but who score seven points on at least one problem receive an honorable mention .
Special prizes may be awarded for solutions of outstanding elegance or involving good generalisations of a problem . This last happened in 1995 ( Nikolay Nikolov , Bulgaria ) and 2005 ( Iurie Boreico ) , but was more frequent up to the early 1980s . The special prize in 2005 was awarded to Iurie Boreico , a student from Moldova , who came up with a brilliant solution to question 3 , which was an inequality involving three variables .
The rule that at most half the contestants win a medal is sometimes broken if it would cause the total number of medals to deviate too much from half the number of contestants . This last happened in 2010 ( when the choice was to give either 226 ( 43 @.@ 71 % ) or 266 ( 51 @.@ 45 % ) of the 517 contestants ( excluding the 6 from North Korea — see below ) a medal ) , 2012 ( when the choice was to give either 226 ( 46 @.@ 35 % ) or 277 ( 50 @.@ 55 % ) of the 548 contestants a medal ) , and 2013 , when the choice was to give either 249 ( 47 @.@ 16 % ) or 278 ( 52 @.@ 65 % ) of the 528 contestants a medal .
= = Penalties = =
North Korea was disqualified for cheating at the 32nd IMO in 1991 and again at the 51st IMO in 2010 . It is the only country to have been accused of cheating . There is some debate as to whether North Korea was actually cheating , especially in the 51st IMO .
= = Recent and future IMOs = =
The 51st IMO was held in Astana , Kazakhstan , July 2 – 15 , 2010 .
The 52nd IMO was held in Amsterdam , Netherlands , July 13 – 24 , 2011 .
The 53rd IMO was held in Mar del Plata , Argentina , July 4 – 16 , 2012 .
The 54th IMO was held in Santa Marta , Colombia , July 18 – 28 , 2013 .
The 55th IMO was held in Cape Town , South Africa , July 3 – 13 , 2014 .
The 56th IMO was held in Chiang Mai , Thailand in 2015 .
The 57th IMO was held in Hong Kong in 2016 .
The 58th IMO will be held in Brazil in 2017 .
The 59th IMO will be held in Romania in 2018 .
The 60th IMO will be held in UK in 2019 .
The 61st IMO will be held in St. Petersburg , Russia in 2020 .
= = Notable achievements = =
The following nations have achieved the highest team score in the respective competition :
China , 19 times ( from the first participation in 1985 until 2014 ) : in every year from 1989 to 2014 except 1991 , 1994 , 1996 , 1998 , 2003 , 2007 ;
Soviet Union , 14 times : in 1963 , 1964 , 1965 , 1966 , 1967 , 1972 , 1973 , 1974 , 1976 , 1979 , 1984 , 1986 , 1988 , 1991 ;
Hungary , 6 times : in 1961 , 1962 , 1969 , 1970 , 1971 , 1975 ;
United States , 6 times : in 1977 , 1981 , 1986 , 1994 , 2015 , 2016 ;
Romania , 5 times : in 1959 , 1978 , 1985 , 1987 , 1996 ;
West Germany , 2 times : in 1982 and 1983 ;
Russia , 2 times : in 1999 and 2007 ;
Bulgaria , once : in 2003 ;
Iran , once : in 1998 ;
South Korea , once : in 2012 .
East Germany , once : in 1968
The following nations have achieved an all @-@ members @-@ gold IMO with a full team :
China , 11 times : in 1992 , 1993 , 1997 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2004 , 2006 , 2009 , 2010 and 2011 .
United States , 3 times : in 1994 , 2011 , and 2016 .
Russia , 2 times : in 2002 and 2008 .
South Korea , once : in 2012 .
Bulgaria , once : in 2003 .
The only countries to have their entire team score perfectly in the IMO were the United States in 1994 ( they were coached by Paul Zeitz ) ; and Luxembourg , whose 1 @-@ member team had a perfect score in 1981 . The US 's success earned a mention in TIME Magazine . Hungary won IMO 1975 in an unorthodox way when none of the eight team members received a gold medal ( five silver , three bronze ) . Second place team East Germany also did not have a single gold medal winner ( four silver , four bronze ) .
Several individuals have consistently scored highly and / or earned medals on the IMO : As of July 2015 , Zhuoqun Alex Song ( Canada ) is the most successful participant with five gold medals ( including one perfect score in 2015 ) and one bronze medal . Reid Barton ( United States ) was the first participant to win a gold medal four times ( 1998 @-@ 2001 ) . Barton is also one of only eight four @-@ time Putnam Fellow ( 2001 – 04 ) . Christian Reiher ( Germany ) , Lisa Sauermann ( Germany ) , Teodor von Burg ( Serbia ) , and Nipun Pitimanaaree ( Thailand ) are the only other participants to have won four gold medals ( 2000 – 03 , 2008 – 11 , 2009 – 12 , 2010 – 13 , and 2011 – 14 respectively ) ; Reiher also received a bronze medal ( 1999 ) , Sauermann a silver medal ( 2007 ) , von Burg a silver medal ( 2008 ) and a bronze medal ( 2007 ) , and Pitimanaaree a silver medal ( 2009 ) . Wolfgang Burmeister ( East Germany ) , Martin Härterich ( West Germany ) , Iurie Boreico ( Moldova ) , and Jeck Lim ( Singapore ) are the only other participants besides Reiher , Sauermann , von Burg , and Pitimanaaree to win five medals with at least three of them gold . Ciprian Manolescu ( Romania ) managed to write a perfect paper ( 42 points ) for gold medal more times than anybody else in the history of the competition , doing it all three times he participated in the IMO ( 1995 , 1996 , 1997 ) . Manolescu is also a three @-@ time Putnam Fellow ( 1997 , 1998 , 2000 ) . Evgenia Malinnikova ( Soviet Union ) is the highest @-@ scoring female contestant in IMO history . She has 3 gold medals in IMO 1989 ( 41 points ) , IMO 1990 ( 42 ) and IMO 1991 ( 42 ) , missing only 1 point in 1989 to precede Manolescu 's achievement .
Terence Tao ( Australia ) participated in IMO 1986 , 1987 and 1988 , winning bronze , silver and gold medals respectively . He won a gold medal when he just turned thirteen in IMO 1988 , becoming the youngest person at that time to receive a gold medal ( a feat matched in 2011 by Zhuoqun Alex Song of Canada ) . Tao also holds the distinction of being the youngest medalist with his 1986 bronze medal , alongside 2009 bronze medalist Raúl Chávez Sarmiento ( Peru ) , at the age of 10 and 11 respectively . Representing the United States , Noam Elkies won a gold medal with a perfect paper at the age of 14 in 1981 . Note that both Elkies and Tao could have participated in the IMO multiple times following their success , but entered university and therefore became ineligible .
The top 10 countries with the best all @-@ time results are as follows :
= = Media coverage = =
A documentary , " Hard Problems : The Road To The World 's Toughest Math Contest " was made about the United States 2006 IMO team .
A BBC documentary titled Beautiful Young Minds aired July 2007 about the IMO .
A BBC fictional film titled X + Y released in September 2014 tells the story of an autistic boy who took part in the Olympiad .
= = = Official = = =
Official IMO web site
Old central IMO web site
= = = Resources = = =
MathLinks Olympiad resources - IMO problems and solutions , IMO Shortlists , IMO Longlists and one of the largest collection of Olympiad problems in the world .
= Perl =
Perl is a family of high @-@ level , general @-@ purpose , interpreted , dynamic programming languages . The languages in this family include Perl 5 and Perl 6 .
Though Perl is not officially an acronym , there are various backronyms in use , the most well @-@ known being " Practical Extraction and Reporting Language " . Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general @-@ purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier . Since then , it has undergone many changes and revisions . Perl 6 , which began as a redesign of Perl 5 in 2000 , eventually evolved into a separate language . Both languages continue to be developed independently by different development teams and liberally borrow ideas from one another .
The Perl languages borrow features from other programming languages including C , shell script ( sh ) , AWK , and sed . They provide powerful text processing facilities without the arbitrary data @-@ length limits of many contemporary Unix commandline tools , facilitating easy manipulation of text files . Perl 5 gained widespread popularity in the late 1990s as a CGI scripting language , in part due to its unsurpassed regular expression and string parsing abilities .
In addition to CGI , Perl 5 is used for graphics programming , system administration , network programming , finance , bioinformatics , and other applications . It has been nicknamed " the Swiss Army chainsaw of scripting languages " because of its flexibility and power , and possibly also because of its " ugliness " . In 1998 , it was also referred to as the " duct tape that holds the Internet together " , in reference to both its ubiquitous use as a glue language and its perceived inelegance .
= = History
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groups was formed , all collectively known as the nationale Verbände . Among them were the Pan @-@ German League , German Navy League , German Colonial Society , German Anti @-@ Semitic Organization , and the Defence League . Many landowners feared that their interests would not be properly represented by those organizations and decided to form their own society . It was officially launched November 3 , 1894 in Poznań , then referred to under its German name of Posen . The opening meeting elected an assembly and a general committee composed of 227 members , among them 104 from the Province of Posen and Province of West Prussia , and additional 113 from other parts of German Empire . The social base of the newly founded society was wide and included a large spectrum of people . Some 60 % of the representatives of areas of Germany primarily inhabited by Poles were the Junkers , the landed aristocracy , mostly with ancient feudal roots . The rest were all groups of middle class Germans , that is civil servants ( 30 % ) , teachers ( 25 % ) , merchants , craftsmen , Protestant priests , and clerks .
The official aims of the society was " strengthening and rallying of Germandom in the Eastern Marches through the revival and consolidation of German national feeling and the economic strengthening of the German people " in the area . This was seen as justified due to alleged passivity of Germans in the eastern territories . Officially it was to work for the Germans rather than against the Poles . However , in reality the aims of the society were anti @-@ Polish and aimed at ousting the Polish landowners and peasants from their land at all cost . It was argued that the Poles were an insidious threat to German national and cultural integrity and domination in the east . The propagandistic rationale behind formation of the H @-@ K @-@ T was presented as a national Polish @-@ German struggle to assimilate one group into the other . It was argued that either the Poles would be successfully Germanized , or the Germans living in the east would face the Polonization themselves . This conflict was often portrayed as a constant biological struggle between the " eastern barbarity " and " European culture " . To counter the alleged threat , the Society promoted the destruction of Polish national identity in the Polish lands held by Germany , and prevention of polonization of the Eastern Marches , that is the growing national sentiment amongst local Poles paired with migration of Poles from rural areas to the cities of the region .
In accordance with the views of Chancellor von Bismarck himself , the Society saw the language question as a key factor in determining one 's loyalty towards the state . Because of this view , it insisted on extending the ban on usage of the Polish language in schools , to other instances of everyday life , including public meetings , books , and newspapers . During a 1902 meeting in Danzig ( modern Gdańsk ) , the Society demanded from the government that the Polish language be banned even from voluntary classes in schools and universities , that the language be banned from public usage and that the Polish language newspapers be either liquidated or forced to be printed in bilingual versions .
With limited local success and support , the Ostmarkenverein functioned primarily as a nationwide propaganda and pressure group . Its press organ , the Die Ostmark ( Eastern March ) was one of the primary sources of information on the Polish Question for the German public and shaped the national @-@ conservative views towards the ethnic conflict in the eastern territories of Germany . The Society also opened a number of libraries in the Polish @-@ dominated areas , where it supported the literary production of books and novels promoting an aggressive stance against the Poles . The popular Ostmarkenromane ( Ostmark novels ) depicted Poles as non @-@ white and struggled to portray a two race dichotomy between " black " Poles and " white " Germans
However , it did not limit itself to mere cultural struggle for domination but also promoted a physical removal of the Poles from their lands in order to make space for the German colonization . The pressure of the H @-@ K @-@ T indeed made the government of von Caprivi adopt a firmer stance against the Poles . The ban on Polish schools was reintroduced and all teaching was to be done in German language . The ban was also used by the German police to harass the Polish trade union movement as they interpreted all public meetings as educational undertakings .
An important issue was the colonisation of Polish territory : the organisation actively supported the nationalist policy of Germanisation through removal of Polish population and promoting settlement of ethnic Germans in the eastern regions of the German Empire . It was among the main supporters of creation of the Settlement Commission , an official authority with a fund to buy up the land from the Poles and redistribute it among German settlers . Since 1905 the organisation also proposed and lobbied for a law that would allow forced eviction of Polish owners of land , and succeed in 1908 when the law was eventually passed . However , it remained on paper in the following years , to which the H @-@ K @-@ T responded with large scale propaganda campaign in the press . The campaign proved to be successful and on October 12 , 1912 the Prussian government issued a decision allowing eviction of Polish property owners in Greater Poland .
= = Social base = =
Interestingly , although the H @-@ K @-@ T is to this day primarily associated with the Junkers , it was one of the groups to oppose the Society 's goals the most . Initially treated with reserve by most of the conservative Prussian aristocracy , with time it became actively opposed by many of them . The Society opposed any immigration of Poles from the Russian Poland to the area , while the Junkers gained large profits from seasonal workers migrating there every year , mostly from other parts of Poland . Also the German colonists brought to formerly Polish lands by the Settlement Commission or the German government largely benefited from the cooperation with their Polish neighbours and mostly either ignored the Hakatisten or even actively opposed their ideas . This made the Ostmarkenverein an organization formed mostly by the German bourgeoisie and settlers , that is middle class members of the local administration , and not the Prussian Junkers . Other notable group of supporters included the local artisans and businessmen , whose interests were endangered by the organic work , that is the Polish response to the economical competition promoted by the Settlement Commission and other similar organizations . In a sample probe of H @-@ K @-@ T 's members , the social classes represented were as follows :
26 @.@ 6 % of civil servants and members of German administration
17 @.@ 6 % of artisans
15 @.@ 7 % of businessmen
14 @.@ 0 % of teachers
10 @.@ 7 % of landowners
4 @.@ 2 % of clergymen
2 @.@ 7 % of army officers
0 @.@ 7 % of rentiers
6 @.@ 5 % of other professions
1 @.@ 3 % of people with no designation
= = Effects and after @-@ life = =
= = = In Poland = = =
By 1913 the Society had roughly 48 @,@ 000 members . Despite its fierce rhetoric , support from the local administration and certain popularity of its goals , the Society proved to be largely unsuccessful as were the projects it promoted . Much like other similar organizations , the H @-@ K @-@ T not only managed to incite some public awareness to the Polish Question within German public and radicalise the German policies in the area , but also sparked a Polish reaction . As an effect of the external pressure , the Poles living in the German Empire started to organize themselves in order to prevent the plans of Germanisation . In addition , the main opposition centre on the Polish side became the middle class rather than aristocracy , which strengthened the Polish resistance and intensified the national sentiment within the Polish society . Also , the pressure from the German nationalists resulted in strengthening the Polish national @-@ democrats , particularly the Polish National @-@ Democratic Party of Roman Dmowski and Wojciech Korfanty .
For instance , the Settlement Commission throughout the 27 years of its existence managed to plant about 25 @,@ 000 German families on 1 @,@ 240 km ² ( 479 mi ² ) of land in Greater Poland and Pomerania . However , at the same time the reaction of Polish societies resulted in about 35 @,@ 000 new Polish farmers being settled in the area of roughly 1 @,@ 500 km ² ( 579 mi ² ) of land . Similarly , the attempts at banning the teaching of religion in Polish language met with a nationwide resistance and several school strikes that sparked a campaign in foreign media .
= = = In Germany = = =
All in all , even though the H @-@ K @-@ T Society was not the most influential and its exact influence on the German governments is disputable , it was among the best @-@ heard and for the Polish people became one of the symbols of oppression , chauvinism , and national discrimination , thus poisoning the Polish @-@ German relations both in the borderland and in entire Germany . On the eve of World War I the nationalisms on both sides ran high and the liberal politicians who were seeking some compromise with the German Empire were seen as traitors , while German politicians trying to tone down the aggressive rhetoric on both sides were under attack from the Hakatisten . This situation proved vital to the failure of German plans of creation of Mitteleuropa during the Great War , as the Polish political scene was taken over mostly by politicians hostile to Germany .
= = = Post @-@ war organisation = = =
The works of the Ostmarkenverein practically ceased during the war . At its end , some of its members joined the Deutsche Vereinigung ( German Association ) , a society that aimed at preventing newly restored Poland from acquiring the lands that were formerly in Prussia . Many more of its members feared possible Polish reprisals after the take @-@ over of Greater Poland , Pomerania and Silesia , and were among the first to pack their belongings and head westwards after the armistice , while others stayed in the lands that were taken over by Poland , protected by the Minority Treaty . Even though the Ostmarkenverein had lost its main rationale as Germany had no influence over the lands of the Republic of Poland , it continued to exist in a rump form . Headed from Berlin , it tried to force the government of the Weimar Republic to use the threat of reprisals against the remaining Polish minority in Germany in order to win further concessions for the German minority in Poland . However , the post @-@ war government of Gustav Stresemann mostly rejected the pleas as there were many more Germans in Poland than Poles in Germany , and such a tit @-@ for @-@ tat tactics would harm the German side more . The Society continued to exist in Berlin , limiting its activities mostly to a press campaign and rhetoric , but its meaning was seriously limited . Finally , after the advent of Adolf Hitler 's rule in Germany , it was disbanded by the Nazis . Some of its former members , now living in Poland , remained members of other German societies and organizations , and formed the core of the German Fifth column during the German Invasion of Poland of 1939 .
= Darren Aronofsky =
Darren Aronofsky ( born February 12 , 1969 ) is an American film director , screenwriter , film producer and environmentalist . He has received acclaim for his often surreal , disturbing films and has been noted for frequent collaborations with cinematographer Matthew Libatique , film editor Andrew Weisblum and composer Clint Mansell . His films have generated controversy and are known for their often violent , bleak subject matter . " The themes in the six Aronofsky ’ s films from 1998 to 2014 include the search for perfection , the search for happiness , longing for love , intoxication with publicity , the pain of alienation , and the burden of responsibility . "
Aronofsky attended Harvard University , where he studied film and social anthropology , and the American Film Institute where he studied directing . He won several film awards after completing his senior thesis film , Supermarket Sweep , which went on to become a National Student Academy Award finalist . Aronofsky 's feature debut , the surrealist psychological thriller Pi , was shot in November 1997 . The low @-@ budget , $ 60 @,@ 000 production , starring Sean Gullette , was sold to Artisan Entertainment for $ 1 million , and grossed over $ 3 million ; Aronofsky won the Directing Award at the 1998 Sundance Film Festival and an Independent Spirit Award for best first screenplay .
Aronofsky 's followup , the psychological drama Requiem for a Dream , was based on the novel of the same name by Hubert Selby , Jr . The film garnered strong reviews and received an Academy Award nomination for Ellen Burstyn 's performance . After turning down an opportunity to direct an entry in the Batman film series and writing the World War II horror film Below , Aronofsky began production on his third film , the romantic fantasy sci @-@ fi drama The Fountain . The film received mixed reviews and performed poorly at the box @-@ office , but has since garnered a cult following .
His fourth film , the sports drama The Wrestler , was released to critical acclaim and both of the film 's stars , Mickey Rourke and Marisa Tomei , received Academy Award nominations . In 2010 Aronofsky was an executive producer on The Fighter and his fifth feature film , the psychological horror film Black Swan , received further critical acclaim and many accolades , being nominated for five Academy Awards including Best Picture and Best Director and winning Best Actress for Natalie Portman 's performance in the film . Aronofsky received nominations for Best Director at the Golden Globes , and a Directors Guild of America Award nomination . His sixth film , the biblically inspired epic Noah , was released in theaters on March 28 , 2014 .
= = Early life and education = =
Aronofsky was born in Brooklyn , New York , in 1969 , the son of public school teachers Charlotte and Abraham Aronofsky . He grew up in the borough 's Manhattan Beach neighborhood , where " I was raised culturally Jewish , but there was very little spiritual attendance in temple . It was a cultural thing — celebrating the holidays , knowing where you came from , knowing your history , having respect for what your people have been through . " He graduated from Edward R. Murrow High School . He has one sister , Patti , who attended a professional ballet school through high school . His parents would often take him to Broadway theater performances , which sparked his keen interest in show business .
During his youth , he trained as a field biologist with The School for Field Studies in Kenya in 1985 and Alaska in 1986 . He attended school in Kenya to pursue an interest in learning about ungulates . He later said , " [ T ] he School for Field Studies changed the way I perceived the world " . Aronofsky 's interest in the outdoors led him to backpack his way through Europe and the Middle East . In 1987 he entered Harvard University , where he majored in social anthropology and studied filmmaking ; he graduated in 1991 .
He became seriously interested in film while attending Harvard after befriending Dan Schrecker , an aspiring animator . He met Sean Gullette at Harvard , who would go on to star in Aronofsky 's first film , Pi . His other cinematic influences included Akira Kurosawa , Roman Polanski , Terry Gilliam , Shinya Tsukamoto , Hubert Selby , Jr . Spike Lee , and Jim Jarmusch .
Aronofsky 's senior thesis film , Supermarket Sweep , was a finalist in the 1991 Student Academy Awards . In 1992 , Aronofsky received his MFA degree in directing from the AFI Conservatory , where his classmates included Todd Field , Doug Ellin , Scott Silver and Mark Waters . He won the institute 's Franklin J. Schaffner Alumni Medal .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Aronofsky 's debut feature , Pi ( also known as π ) , was shot in November 1997 . The film was financed entirely from $ 100 donations from friends and family . In return , he promised to pay each back $ 150 if the film made money , and they would at least get screen credit if the film lost money . While visiting Israel as a youth he spent a couple days in an Orthodox yeshiva , an experience that later informed the movie . Producing the film with an initial budget of $ 60 @,@ 000 , Aronofsky premiered Pi at the 1998 Sundance Film Festival , where he won the Best Director award . The film itself was nominated for a special Jury Award . Artisan Entertainment bought distribution rights for $ 1 million . The film was released to the public later that year to critical acclaim and it grossed a total of $ 3 @,@ 221 @,@ 152 at the box @-@ office .
Aronofsky followed his debut with Requiem for a Dream , a film based on Hubert Selby , Jr . ' s novel of the same name . He was paid $ 50 @,@ 000 , and worked for three years with nearly the same production team as his previous film . Following the financial breakout of Pi , he was capable of hiring established stars , including Ellen Burstyn and Jared Leto , and received a budget of $ 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 to produce the film . Production of the film occurred over the period of one year , with the film being released in October 2000 . The film went on to gross $ 7 @,@ 390 @,@ 108 worldwide . Aronofsky received acclaim for his stylish direction , and was nominated for another Independent Spirit Award , this time for Best Director . The film itself was nominated for five awards in total , winning two , for Best Actress and Cinematography . Clint Mansell 's soundtrack for the film was also well @-@ regarded , and since their first collaboration in 1996 , Mansell has composed the music to every Aronofsky film . Ellen Burstyn was nominated for numerous awards , including for an Academy Award for Best Actress , and ultimately won the Independent Spirit Award . Aronofsky was awarded the PRISM Award from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation with the National Institute on Drug Abuse for the film ’ s depiction of drug abuse .
In May 2000 , Aronofsky was briefly attached to make an adaptation of David Wiesner 's 1999 children 's book Sector 7 for Nickelodeon Movies , the project remains unmade . In mid @-@ 2000 , Warner Bros. hired Aronofsky to write and direct Batman : Year One , which was to be the fifth film in the Batman franchise . Aronofsky , who collaborated with Frank Miller on an unproduced script for Ronin , brought Miller to co @-@ write Year One with him , intending to reboot the series . " It 's somewhat based on the comic book , " Aronofsky later said . " Toss out everything you can imagine about Batman ! Everything ! We 're starting completely anew . " Regular Aronofsky collaborator Matthew Libatique was set as cinematographer , and Aronofsky had also approached Christian Bale for the role of Batman . Bale later would be cast in the role for Batman Begins . After that project failed to develop , Aronofsky declined the opportunity to direct an entry in the Batman franchise .
In March 2001 , he helped write the screenplay to the horror film Below , which he also produced . In April 2001 , Aronofsky entered negotiations with Warner Bros. and Village Roadshow to direct a then @-@ untitled science fiction film , with Brad Pitt in the lead role . In June 2001 , actress Cate Blanchett entered talks to join the film , which Aronofsky , wanting the title to remain secret , had given the working title of The Last Man . Production was postponed to wait for a pregnant Blanchett to give birth to her child in December 2001 . Production was ultimately set for late October 2002 in Queensland and Sydney . By now officially titled The Fountain , the film had a budget of $ 70 million , co @-@ financed by Warner Bros. and New Regency , which had filled the gap after Village Roadshow withdrew . Pitt left the project seven weeks before the first day of shooting , halting production . In February 2004 , Warner Bros. resurrected it on a $ 35 million budget with Hugh Jackman in the lead role . In August , actress Rachel Weisz filled the vacancy left by Blanchett . The Fountain was released on November 22 , 2006 , a day before the American Thanksgiving holiday ; ultimately it grossed $ 15 @,@ 978 @,@ 422 in theaters worldwide . Audiences and critics were divided in their responses to it .
= = = Breakthrough = = =
In 2007 , Aronofsky hired writer Scott Silver to develop The Fighter with him . He had approached actor Christian Bale for the film , but Aronofsky dropped out because of its similarities to The Wrestler and to work on MGM 's RoboCop remake . In July 2010 , Aronofsky had left the project due to
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In August the brigade formed the divisional reserve located around Jericho . In September they moved forward to form the left ( northern ) flank of the Jordan Valley defences . At the same time , the brigade took command of the 1st and 2nd Battalions British West Indies Regiment and the 38th and 39th Battalions Royal Fusiliers , which were part of a larger deception force commanded by the divisional commander , Chaytor . They were tasked with convincing the Turks that the next British attack would be from the Jordan Valley , while the forces were actually being realigned to attack in the west . The regiment was heavily involved in the deception , carrying out offensive patrolling , constructing dummy camps , and moving back and forwards behind the lines to give the impression of a much larger force than was actually present .
The British attack in the west began on 19 September ; the next day the New Zealand brigade started increasing pressure on the Turkish positions opposite them . The first breakthrough was made on 21 September , by the Auckland Mounted Rifles . At 18 : 30 the brigade was ordered to advance on Kherbet Fusail , with the objective of securing a position at Damieh . By midnight the brigade had reached Kerbet Fusail , and the Wellingtons were ordered to seize El Makhruk and at the same time occupy the roads leading north and west . The 9th Squadron lead the regiment , and moved along the Wadi Farah towards El Makhruk . As they closed on the village they could hear vehicles moving along the road . Pressing forward they captured four hundred prisoners , including the commander and staff of the Turkish 53rd Division , seventy transport vehicles and a large quantity of supplies . Moving on , at 04 : 30 they reached and occupied the village . The 2nd and 9th Squadrons remained at El Makhurk , while the 6th Squadron continued north @-@ west for another two thousand yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) to occupy the neighbouring village of Tel El Mazar where they captured even more Turkish supplies and equipment . On 23 September it was apparent that the Turkish Fourth Army was trying to withdraw north . The brigade was ordered to try and intercept them . The 6th Squadron , with a West Indies battalion , were left to guard the Damieh bridge , while the remainder of the brigade moved towards Es Salt , which they occupied at 16 : 20 the same day .
The next day , 24 September , the brigade continued its advance by heading towards Suweileh , with the Wellingtons protecting the open flank . The next day the ANZAC mounted division was ordered to capture Amman . The Wellingtons provided the vanguard , and at 07 : 45 , two miles north @-@ west of Amman , the 9th Squadron , in the lead , was engaged by machine @-@ gun and rifle fire and could see Turkish cavalry in the distance . At 08 : 10 the 2nd Squadron moved forward to support the 9th , but came under fire from two redoubts . They took cover and were able to bring enfilade fire onto the redoubts and also onto a force of Turkish reinforcements preparing a counter @-@ attack . At 10 : 00 the 9th Squadron were relieved by the 2nd Australian Light Horse Brigade . Manoeuvring enabled the division to press forward , forcing the Turkish defenders to retire . At 11 : 30 the regiment , with the Canterbury Mounted Rifles , were ordered to assault Amman . Leaving the 2nd Squadron to deal with concealed machine @-@ gun posts , the rest continued the attack . By 14 : 40 they had closed on Amman and the 9th Squadron had captured a hill in front of Stone Tower . At 15 : 00 the Canterbury Mounted Rifles galloped into the town and all resistance there ceased . The regiment pressed forward along the Wadi Amman and captured three artillery pieces . By 16 : 30 all Turkish positions had been taken , along with hundreds of prisoners . That was the last battle of the campaign fought by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade . The regiment camped beside the town until 29 September , when they left for Ziza to assist the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , who had captured five thousand prisoners . On 1 October they set out to return to the Jordan Valley .
= = Post war = =
The regiment 's part in the war was now effectively over . On 4 October they camped to the north @-@ west of Jericho for the next four days . They then moved back to their old camp at the Mar Elias monastery , and eventually reached Richon le Zion on 14 October .
By January 1919 , the regiment were still waiting to return home , and had begun education courses , continuation training and playing sports . This occupied them until March when a revolt broke out in Egypt , and the regiment drew its equipment back out of storage and headed for the Nile Delta . Posted to Quesna , all of the regiment 's squadrons , except the 9th which went to Cairo , began policing the riots and trying to stop looting . Once the rioting had been quelled , the regiment once again waited to return home . Their return finally began on 30 June 1919 , when the majority of the brigade left the Suez Canal for New Zealand and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment ceased to be a unit .
= = = Casualties = = =
During its service 369 of the regiment 's men died from all causes , either killed in action , died of wounds or of disease . Another 453 men were wounded , some more than once . More than half of the dead , 207 men , were killed during the seven months they fought in the static trench warfare of the Gallipoli Campaign ; another 129 men were killed during their two years of more mobile warfare in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . Gallipoli also accounted for more than half of the wounded , a total of 258 men compared to 195 men who were wounded in Sinai and Palestine .
Many of the Gallipoli dead have no known grave . The Commonwealth War Graves Commission Chunuk Bair Cemetery , constructed on the site where the Turks buried Allied war dead after the evacuation , has 632 graves of which only ten men have been identified . Similarly , the nearby Hill 60 Cemetery has another 788 graves , of which only seventy @-@ six were identified .
= = = Honours = = =
Several men of the regiment were recognised for their service by the British Empire awards system . The regiment 's first commanding officer , Meldrum , was invested as a Companion of the Order of the Bath , a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George and awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) . His successor , Whyte , was also invested with a DSO , as well as a Bar as a second award . Another four officers were also invested with a DSO , while seven officers were awarded a Military Cross , one was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire , and another a Member of the Order of the British Empire . The regiment 's other ranks were awarded five Distinguished Conduct Medals and twenty Military Medals , and there were fifty @-@ nine Mentions in Despatches amongst all ranks , some men being mentioned more than once .
= Pusztai affair =
The Pusztai affair is a controversy that began in 1998 . Protein scientist Árpád Pusztai went public with unpublished research he was conducting at the Rowett Institute with genetically modified potatoes . He claimed that the GM potatoes had stunted growth and repressed the subjects ' immune systems , while thickening their gut mucosa . He was severely criticized for making the announcement before the experiment was complete , much less peer @-@ reviewed , and for the experiment 's design , methodology and analysis . The study was eventually published , triggering further controversy . Pusztai was suspended and misconduct procedures were used to seize his data and ban him from speaking publicly . The Institute did not renew his annual contract .
= = Background = =
Before 1995 , no peer @-@ reviewed studies had been published investigating the safety of genetically modified food using human or animal feeding trials . In 1995 the Scottish Agriculture Environment and Fisheries Department commissioned a £ 1 @.@ 6 million three @-@ year research study to assess the safety of genetically engineered Desiree Red potatoes . The potatoes had been developed by biochemist John Gatehouse at Cambridge Agricultural Genetics ( later renamed Axis Genetics ) and had recently completed two years of field trials at Rothamsted Experimental Station . The GNA gene from the Galanthus ( snowdrop ) plant was inserted into the potato , allowing the GNA lectin protein to be synthesised . This lectin has been shown to be toxic to some insects .
Twenty @-@ eight studies were proposed , of which eight were selected for peer review by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council . From these eight the Rowett Research Institute 's proposal was chosen and a combined team of academics from the Scottish Crop Research Institute , the Durham University Department of Biology and the Rowett Institute was assembled , and coordinated by Pusztai .
Although the tested potatoes were not a commercial variety and not intended for human consumption a contract was signed with Cambridge Agricultural Genetics , which included a profit @-@ sharing agreement , if potatoes developed using this technology were approved and released commercially . In earlier ten @-@ day feeding trials on GNA @-@ fed rats , Pusztai concluded that they did not significantly affect growth , despite some hypertrophy of the small intestine and a slight decrease of gut enzyme activity .
= = Experiment = =
The experimental potatoes had been transformed with the Galanthus nivalis agglutinin ( GNA ) gene from the Galanthus ( snowdrop ) plant , allowing the GNA lectin protein to be synthesised . This lectin is toxic to some insects . Rats were fed raw and cooked genetically modified potatoes , using unmodified Desiree Red potatoes as controls . One control group ate an unmodified Desiree Red potato spiked with the GNA snowdrop lectin . Twelve feeding experiments were conducted , ten short @-@ term ( 10 days ) and two long @-@ term ( 110 days ) . Before the experiment Pusztai and his team said they expected no differences between the rats fed modified potatoes and rats fed the non @-@ modified ones .
The potatoes were chosen because they were deemed substantially equivalent to non @-@ GM Desiree Red potatoes . The study used two transgenic lines of potato , both with the GNA gene inserted . They were grown in the same conditions as the non @-@ GM parent plant . According to Pusztai , the potatoes were not substantially equivalent , as one of the transgenic lines contained 20 percent less protein than the other , and the starch and sugar contents varied by up to 20 percent among the three lines . Pusztai claimed that these differences were reason enough to discontinue further experimentation .
Their experiment showed a statistically significant difference in the thickness of the stomach mucosa . The mucosa of rats fed raw or cooked potato modified with the GNA gene was thicker than that of rats fed the unmodified potato . The crypt length in the jejunum was greater on rats fed the raw modified potato , although there was no statistical difference observed in the rats fed the cooked potato . As these effects were not observed in rats fed the control potatoes spiked with GNA , Pusztai concluded that the differences were a result of the transformation procedure , rather than the presence of GNA . Pusztai 's collaborator Stanley Ewen said that the cauliflower mosaic virus used as a promoter could likely be the cause of the observed changes .
= = Announcement = =
On June 22 , 1998 Pusztai revealed his research findings during an interview on Granada Television 's current affairs programme World in Action titled " Eat up your genes " . He was given permission to do the interview by Rowett Institute Director Philip James . Rowett 's press officer was present at the start of filming . During the interview Pusztai said he had " concerns that some of the testing techniques are not up to what we thought it was necessary to do , and therefore we should have more testing . " When asked why he felt concerned , he said " it was because we had done some experiments which made us feel concerned " and discussed his results in general terms .
Pusztai later said that at the time of the interview he was not sure if he should reveal results from experiments that had not been completed and did not think the programme would be hostile toward genetically modified food . He estimated that the experiments were 99 percent complete when the interview was conducted . He said that the rats in his experiments suffered stunted growth and had suppressed immune systems and that more safety research was required . He also said , " If you gave me the choice now , I wouldn 't eat it " and it was " very , very unfair to use our fellow citizens as guinea pigs " .
= = Reaction = =
World in Action issued a press release the day before the broadcast , stimulating numerous phone calls to Pusztai and the Institute from government , industrial , non @-@ governmental and media organisations . James says he was dismayed that unpublished data had been released and withdrew Pusztai from any further media commitments that morning . He eventually suspended Pusztai , used misconduct procedures to seize his data , banned him from speaking publicly and did not renew his annual contract .
Confusion reigned over just what experiments had been conducted . Pusztai had mentioned two lines of genetically modified potatoes , meaning the two GNA lines , and this was reported by the media . The Rowett institute mistakenly assumed the media was talking about a second line transformed with concanavalin A ( ConA ) , a Jack Bean lectin that is toxic to mammals . Transgenic ConA Potatoes had been developed , but had never been tested . Two press releases issued by the Rowett Institute on the 10th and 11th praised Pusztai 's research and supported increased safety tests on genetically modified food . The press releases also said that the potatoes were modified with ConA , adding to the confusion . Pusztai claimed that he had not seen the press releases before they went out and had no opportunity to correct the mistake . James says that he drafted it and Pusztai rewrote one section , but did not see the final copy . The mistaken belief that the ConA gene was inserted into the potato led scientist Sir Robert May and Agricultural Minister Jack Cunningham to release statements to the media saying that the findings were not surprising , as a known poison had been added to the potato . Some scientists still dismiss Pusztai 's work over this error .
= = = Audit = = =
The Rowett Institute audited Pusztai 's work on 22 October 1998 . It concluded that his data did not support his conclusions . In February 1999 , 22 scientists from 13 countries , organised by Friends of the Earth , published a memo responding to the audit . It stated that their independent examination supported Pusztai 's conclusions and that he should have been concerned by his findings .
= = = Royal Society peer review = = =
On 19 February the Royal Society publicly announced that a committee would review his work . World in Action reporters Laurie Flynn and Michael Sean Gillard claimed that this was an unusual step , as the Royal Society did not normally conduct peer reviews . The data were sent to six anonymous reviewers and the resulting review was published in June 1999 . It stated that Pusztai 's experiments were poorly designed , contained uncertainties in the composition of diets , tested too few rats , used incorrect statistical methods and lacked consistency within experiments . Pusztai responded by saying the reviewers had reviewed only internal Rowett reports , which did not include the design or methodology of the experiments .
= = = Lancet response = = =
The editors of The Lancet published an editorial in May 1999 in which they denounced all parties involved , criticizing Pusztai for " unwisely " announcing his results on television and stating that scientists should publish " results in the scientific press , not through the popular media " ; the editorial also denounced the Royal Society 's review as " breathtaking impertinence " .
= = Publication = =
The data were published as a letter in the The Lancet in October 1999 , co @-@ authored by Ewen . It reported significant differences in the thickness of the gut epithelium of rats fed genetically modified potatoes ( compared to those fed the control diet ) , but no differences in growth or immune system function were suggested .
The letter was reviewed by six reviewers – three times the Lancet 's usual number . Four reviewers found it acceptable after revisions . A fifth thought it was flawed , but wanted it published " to avoid suspicions of a conspiracy against Pusztai and to give colleagues a chance to see the data for themselves " . The sixth , John Pickett of the Institute of Arable Crops Research , also said it was flawed . After consulting with the Royal Society , Pickett publicly criticised The Lancet for agreeing to publish the study . The study , which used data held by Ewen , who was not subject to the veto of Pusztai 's work , reported significant differences in thickness of the gut epithelium between control and test subjects , but did not mention growth or immunity problems .
The published work was criticised on the grounds that the unmodified potatoes were not a fair control diet and that any rats fed only potatoes would suffer from protein deficiency . Pusztai responded to these criticisms by saying that all the experimental diets had the same protein and energy content , and that the food intake of all rats was the same . In an interview , Pickett later said that Lancet editor Richard Horton must have had a political motive for publishing the paper because the referees had rejected it . According to Pusztai this claim was repeated by academic critics who assumed that Pickett 's use of the plural suggested that the study had failed peer review .
Horton claimed that he had received a " very aggressive " phone call calling him " immoral " and threatening that if he published the paper it would " have implications for his personal position " as editor . Peter Lachmann , the former vice @-@ president and biological secretary of the Royal Society and president of the Academy of Medical Sciences , acknowledged making the call but denies that he threatened Horton and says the call was to " discuss his error of judgment " in publishing the letter and to discuss the " moral difficulties about publishing bad science " .
= = Aftermath = =
Ewen retired following publication , claiming that his career options had been " blocked at a very high level " .
A survey by the European Food Safety Authority GMO Panel Working Group on Animal Feeding Trials concluded : " Results obtained from testing GM food and feed in rodents indicate that large ( at least 100 @-@ fold ) ' safety ' margins exist between animal exposure levels without observed adverse effects and estimated human daily intake . The studies did not show any biologically relevant differences in the parameters tested between control and test animals . "
In 2005 Pusztai was given a whistleblower award from the Federation of German Scientists .
= Whatever It Takes ( Leona Lewis song ) =
" Whatever It Takes " is a song by British singer @-@ songwriter Leona Lewis from her debut studio album , Spirit ( 2007 ) . Lewis co @-@ wrote it with Tony Reyes and Novel ; the latter also co @-@ produced it with Dallas Austin . It was the first song to be written for Spirit and one of only two songs on the album to involve Lewis in the writing process . It is a gospel @-@ pop @-@ influenced track . The song garnered a mixed response from music critics ; it was praised for its upbeat instrumentation but criticised for lacking any " kick " . Upon the release of Spirit , the song debuted at number 61 on the UK Singles Chart due to strong digital download sales . Lewis has performed the song at the 2010 Rock in Rio and on her debut concert tour , The Labyrinth . It was later included on the subsequent DVD release called The Labyrinth Tour : Live from the O2 .
= = Recording and production = =
Co @-@ written by Lewis with Novel and Tony Reyes , " Whatever It Takes " was recorded at DARP Studios and Doppler Studios , both located in Atlanta , Georgia and at Battery Studios in New York City , by Carlton Lynn . Lynn was assisted in the recording process by Lloyd Cooper ( at Doppler Studios ) and Tim Sturges ( at Battery Studios ) . It was also mixed by Lynn at DARP Studios ; Josh Houghkirk served as the assistant mixer . The song was produced by Novel and Dallas Austin . A variety of instrumentalists were enlisted for the production of " Whatever It Takes " : Eddie Horst was the string arranger , while Kenn Wagner , Olga Shiptko , Amy Chang and William Pu performed violins , Karen Freer and Daniel Laufer provided cello and co @-@ writer Reyes played the guitar . Stephen Lowman and Stephen Ferrera performed drums , while Novel played the keyboard . " Whatever It Takes " makes use of a choir , which consists of Tawatha Agee , Vanesse Thomas , Cindy Mizelle , Michelle Cobbs , Robin Clark , " Bibi " Straughn , Tammy Lucas , Billy Porter , Bennie Diggs and Fonzi Thornton ; Thornton was enlisted as the vocal contractor . Lewis provides background vocals on the track , and the production process was overseen by Kimberly L. Smith . As she introduced the track before performing it on her debut concert tour The Labyrinth ( 2010 ) , Lewis revealed that " Whatever It Takes " was the first song to be written for Spirit .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
" Whatever It Takes " is an upbeat , midtempo gospel @-@ pop song which lasts for a duration of 3 : 27 . The song was composed in the key of Eb major using common time at 96 beats per minute . Lewis ' vocal range spans over two octaves from low note of Bb3 to the high note of Bb5 . The song garnered a mixed response from music critics . Nate Chinen for The New York Times was complimentary of " Whatever It Takes " , writing that it is an " upbeat anthem . " A reviewer for The Sun also described the song as a " soaring anthem . " Sarah @-@ Louise James for the Daily Star wrote that although the element of gospel music was has a nice outro , it " lacks real kick " . Nick Levine was for Digital Spy wrote " ' Whatever It Takes ' is anchored by a rhythm track that wouldn 't shame a boy @-@ racer cruising through Harlem in his pimped @-@ up ride . " However , he noted that " Whatever It Takes " and " Best You Never Had " were Spirit 's only uptempo moments , and that Lewis tries to emulate her contemporaries too closely . Kitty Empire for The Guardian was critical of the song , writing that " Not even Dallas Austin - who has worked with Sugababes - can make ' Whatever It Takes ' any fun . "
= = Live performances = =
Lewis performed " Whatever It Takes " at the Rock in Rio festival held in Lisbon on 22 May 2010 . It was also included as the fourth song on the set list of The Labyrinth . It was later included on the DVD release of the tour , called The Labyrinth Tour : Live from the O2 . Lewis performed the song in the first section of the set list , along with " Brave " as the opener , " Don 't Let Me Down " , " Better in Time " and " Take a Bow " . The set was decorated in the style of a castle ; acrobats performed as they were hanging from the ceiling on large pieces of fabric while Lewis wore a gold sequined dress and thigh @-@ high boots .
= = Track listing = =
Spirit standard / deluxe edition
" Whatever It Takes " – 3 : 27
Spirit United States standard / deluxe version
" Whatever It Takes " – 3 : 27
The Labyrinth Tour : Live from the O2
" Whatever It Takes " ( Live from the 02 ) – 3 : 26
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at DARP Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Doppler Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Battery Studios , NYC .
Mixed at DARP Studios , Atlanta , GA .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Spirit .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Spirit , " Whatever It Takes " debuted at number 61 on the strength of digital download sales in the chart issue released on 24 November 2007 .
= Japanese battleship Kirishima =
Kirishima ( 霧島 ) was a warship of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War I and World War II . Designed by British naval engineer George Thurston , she was the third launched of the four Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers . Laid down in 1912 at the Mitsubishi Shipyards in Nagasaki , Kirishima was formally commissioned in 1915 on the same day as her sister ship , Haruna . Kirishima patrolled on occasion off the Chinese coast during World War I , and helped with rescue efforts following the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake .
Starting in 1927 , Kirishima 's first reconstruction rebuilt her as a battleship , strengthening her armor and improving her speed . From 1934 , a second reconstruction completely rebuilt her superstructure , upgraded her engine plant , and equipped her with launch catapults for floatplanes . Now fast enough to accompany Japan 's growing carrier fleet , she was reclassified as a fast battleship . During the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , Kirishima acted primarily as a support vessel and troop transport , moving army troops to mainland China . On the eve of World War II , she sailed as part of Vice @-@ Admiral Chuichi Nagumo 's Kido Butai as an escort for the six carriers that attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 .
As part of the Third Battleship Division , Kirishima participated in many of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's early actions in 1942 , providing support for the invasion of the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) and in the Indian Ocean raid of April 1942 . During the Battle of Midway , she provided escort to Nagumo 's four carriers , before redeploying to the Solomon Islands during the Battle of Guadalcanal . She escorted Japanese carrier fleets during the battles of the Eastern Solomons and Santa Cruz Islands , before sailing as part of a bombardment force under Admiral Nobutake Kondō during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal . On the evening of 13 November 1942 , Kirishima engaged American cruisers and destroyers alongside her sister ship Hiei . On the night of 14 / 15 November , in one of only two battleship duels of the Pacific War , Kirishima heavily damaged USS South Dakota before being crippled in turn by the battleship USS Washington . Kirishima capsized and sank in the early morning on 15 November 1942 in Ironbottom Sound .
= = Design and construction = =
Kirishima was the third of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , a group of capital ships designed by the British naval engineer George Thurston . The class was ordered in 1910 in the Japanese Emergency Naval Expansion Bill after the commissioning of HMS Invincible in 1908 . The four battlecruisers of the Kongō class were designed to match the naval capabilities of the other major powers at the time ; they have been called the battlecruiser version of the British ( formerly Turkish ) battleship HMS Erin . With their heavy armament and armor protection ( which took up 23 @.@ 3 % of their approximately 30 @,@ 000 ton displacement ) , Kirishima and her sister ships were vastly superior to any other Japanese capital ship afloat at the time .
The keel of Kirishima was laid down at the Nagasaki shipyards of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries on 17 March 1912 , with most of the parts used in her construction manufactured in Japan . Due to a shortage of available slipways , Kirishima and her sister ship Haruna were the first two capital ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy to be built in private Japanese shipyards . After her launch on 1 December 1913 , Kirishima 's fitting @-@ out began later that month . On 15 December 1914 , Captain Kamaya Rokuro was assigned as her chief equipping officer , and she was completed on 19 April 1915 .
= = = Armament = = =
Kirishima 's main battery consisted of eight 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) heavy @-@ caliber main guns in four twin turrets ( two forward , two aft ) . The turrets were noted by the US Office of Naval Intelligence to be " similar to the British 15 @-@ inch turrets " , with improvements made in flash @-@ tightness . Each of her main guns could fire high @-@ explosive or armor @-@ piercing shells a maximum distance of 38 @,@ 770 yards ( 19 @.@ 14 nmi ; 35 @.@ 45 km ) at a firing rate of two shells per minute . The ship 's magazines could accommodate ninety rounds of ammunition for each of the main guns , which had an approximate barrel life of 250 – 280 shots . In 1941 , dyes were introduced for the armor @-@ piercing shells of the four Kongō @-@ class battleships , with Kirishima 's shells using blue dye .
Her secondary battery was originally sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) 50 @-@ caliber medium guns in single casemates ( all located amidships ) , eight 3 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , and eight submerged 21 @-@ inch ( 53 cm ) torpedo tubes . The sixteen 6 @-@ inch / 50 caliber guns were capable of firing 5 – 6 rounds per minute , with a barrel life of 500 rounds . The 6 @-@ inch / 50 caliber gun was capable of firing both antiaircraft and antiship shells , though the positioning of the guns on Kirishima made antiaircraft firing impractical . During her second reconstruction , the 3 @-@ inch guns were removed and replaced with eight 5 @-@ inch ( 13 cm ) guns . These guns could fire between 8 and 14 rounds per minute , with a barrel life of 800 – 1500 rounds . Designed to fire antiaircraft , antiship , and illumination shells , the 5 @-@ inch / 40 caliber had the widest variety of shot type of Kirishima 's guns . During her second reconstruction , Kirishima was also fitted with a small number of 1 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) Type 96 antiaircraft autocannons .
= = Service = =
= = = 1914 – 1927 : Battlecruiser = = =
Kirishima was formally commissioned on 19 April 1915 , and along with Haruna was assigned to the 1st Battleship Division of the First Fleet . After seven months of trials , she was reassigned to the 3rd Battleship Division of the Second Fleet , with Captain Shima Takeshi in overall command of the ship . In April 1916 , Kirishima and Haruna departed Sasebo Naval Base to patrol the East China Sea for ten days . She remained in Sasebo until April 1917 , when she again deployed to the Chinese coast with her sister ships Haruna and Kongō . Her last patrol operation of World War I was off the Chinese and Korean coast in April 1918 . In July 1918 , Kirishima acted as the transport of Prince Arthur of Connaught for his extended cruise to Canada , before returning to Japan .
Following the end of World War I , the Japanese Empire gained control of former German possessions in the central Pacific per the terms of the Treaty of Versailles . Due to Japan 's warm relations with the British Empire and the United States at the time , Kirishima and other Japanese warships became significantly less active than during the war . On 1 December 1920 , she was reassigned to the Third Division of the Second Fleet . Other than a patrol alongside Kongō and Nagato off the Chinese coast in August 1921 , Kirishima remained in Sasebo . On 10 September 1922 , she collided with the destroyer Fuji during fleet maneuvers , with both ships sustaining minor damage . Following the Great Kantō earthquake of September 1923 , the capital ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy assisted in rescue work until the end of the month . She was placed in reserve in December 1923 .
With the conclusion of World War I and the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty , the size of the Imperial Japanese Navy was significantly lessened , with a ratio of 5 : 5 : 3 required between the capital ships of the United Kingdom , the United States , and Japan . The treaty also banned Japan from building any new capital ships until 1931 , with no capital ship permitted to exceed 35 @,@ 000 tons . Provided that new additions did not exceed 3 @,@ 000 tons , existing capital ships were allowed to be upgraded with improved torpedo bulges and deck armor . By the time the Washington Treaty had been fully implemented in Japan , only three classes of World War I @-@ era capital ships — the Fusō and Ise @-@ class battleships , and the Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers — remained active .
= = = 1927 – 1934 : Battleship = = =
Stripped of the ability to construct new capital ships , the Imperial Japanese Navy instead opted to significantly upgrade and reconfigure their existing battleships and battlecruisers . Kirishima was placed in Third Reserve in December 1926 , before beginning her first reconstruction in early 1927 . Horizontal armor over the ammunition magazines was strengthened , and she was also fitted with anti @-@ torpedo bulges , as permitted by the Washington Treaty . To upgrade Kirishima 's speed , the 36 coal @-@ fired Yarrow boilers were removed and replaced with ten new mixed @-@ firing Kampon boilers . To allow for more equipment to be installed on board , her forward superstructure was reconstructed in the Pagoda mast style , facilitating the removal of one of her three funnels . The reconstruction of the Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers added an additional 4 @,@ 000 tons of armor to the ships , directly violating the terms of the Washington Treaty . On 16 April 1930 , the reconstruction was declared complete .
Six days after Kirishima 's reconstruction was completed , Japan pledged to scrap several battleships and signed the London Naval Treaty , which placed further bans on capital ship construction until 1937 . From August to October 1930 , she was outfitted with the equipment necessary to equip reconnaissance seaplanes . Kirishima patrolled the coast of China near Shanghai in April 1932 , before she was again placed in the Third Reserve .
In September 1931 , Japan invaded Manchuria . On 25 February 1933 , based on a report by the Lytton Commission , the League of Nations agreed that Japan had violated Chinese sovereignty in its invasion of Manchuria . Refusing to accept the organization 's judgment , Japan withdrew from the League of Nations the same day . Immediately following , Japan also withdrew from the Washington and London Naval Treaties , thus removing all restrictions on the number and size of her capital ships .
= = = 1934 – 1941 : Fast battleship = = =
On 18 November 1934 , Kirishima was drydocked in Sase
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act features many references to the 1967 science fiction series The Prisoner .
The episode features Patrick McGoohan as Number Six , the main character from The Prisoner . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 9 @.@ 1 million viewers , finishing in 28th place in the ratings the week it aired . Following its broadcast , the episode received mixed reviews from critics ; commentators were divided over the episode 's third act .
= = Plot = =
After finding out that all of the nuclear plant 's staff members had been informed of the plant 's maintenance via e @-@ mail , Homer decides to buy a computer . After he gives up on learning how to use it , Lisa sets up the computer . Homer eventually catches on and starts his own webpage , which contains copyrighted material from other pages . To avoid getting sued , Homer calls himself " Mister X " . Late at night , unable to sleep until someone visits his page , Homer hears a rumor from Bart started by either Nelson Muntz or Jimbo Jones that Mayor Quimby spent the street repair fund on a secret swimming pool . He posts this rumor on his page , which is seen by several of Springfield 's citizens .
Mayor Quimby is the subject of a city @-@ wide scandal when a barrage of reporters find a luxurious pool along with many scantily dressed women in Quimby 's office . Homer keeps his anonymity while posting more rumors and finds out Mr. Burns plans to sell plutonium to terrorists and is later arrested by the CIA . Eventually , Mr. X wins the Pulitzer Prize for his journalistic achievements , despite nobody knowing who he is . When he hears that the prize money will be given to starving children , Homer reveals that he is Mr. X.
However , this ends up alienating Homer from the rest of the town , as nobody feels comfortable confessing their secrets now that they know Homer 's Mr. X , and his fame soon plummets . To boost his popularity , Homer begins posting outrageous stories on his webpage . His fame back , Homer celebrates by going to a fake Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , and ends up getting kidnapped .
Homer wakes up on the " Island " , a place where the inhabitants are people who have been exiled from society for harboring dangerous secrets . Homer learns from the organization 's leader , Number Two , that a story he wrote about flu vaccinations containing mind @-@ control serum was true . The mind control drug is calibrated to drive people into a frenzy of shopping , which is why flu shots are administered shortly before Christmas . While Homer is trapped on the Island , he is replaced by a doppelgänger who looks identical to him but speaks with a thick German accent .
Number Six , who is trapped on the Island for inventing the bottomless peanut bag , tells Homer about a makeshift boat he spent thirty @-@ three years making , which Homer steals and escapes the Island with , popping the Rover that emerged from the water to trap him . When he gets home , Homer tries to send out a message to the police through his computer , but is stopped by Number Two taking over the computer and is caught by his doppelgänger .
Homer fights his double and defeats him by kicking him in the crotch . His family is happy the real Homer is back , but then a fake Santa 's Little Helper spouts a gas that drugs the entire family . The episode ends with everyone in the family enjoying their strange , new life on the " Island " ( with Marge even saying that after getting used to the druggings , the Island itself is actually a " pretty nice place " ) .
= = Production = =
" The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Mark Kirkland . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 3 , 2000 . Originally , the episode was about Homer becoming Matt Drudge , the creator and an editor of the news aggregation website the Drudge Report , which Swarzwelder is a fan of . At that point , the episode was called " Homer the Drudge " . The chalkboard gag was written by staff writer Don Payne , and the couch gag was conceived by producer Laurie Biernackie .
Because it was accidentally commissioned without his approval , the animators had to apologize to Scully . When he looked at the couch gag however , he was pleased with it and ordered the animators to " go with it " . At one point in the episode , Homer wins a Pulitzer Prize for his achievements in journalism . According to Kirkland , none of the animators knew what the prize looked like and had to do some research in order to make it accurate .
The third act of " The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " is a pastiche of the 1967 science fiction television series The Prisoner . In order to " get the feel " of The Prisoner , the writers watched its opening sequence , which summarizes the story of the series . Kirkland , who had seen a couple of episodes as a child , watched several episodes of the series with The Simpsons ' animators in order to make " The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " resemble it . They were also influenced by 1960 's modernism and furniture designs from the 1971 science fiction film A Clockwork Orange .
The episode features American @-@ born actor Patrick McGoohan as Number Six , the central character in The Prisoner , which McGoohan played . " The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " was the only time McGoohan reprised his role as Number Six . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Payne said that McGoohan was " very funny " , and that all the writers wanted to meet him when he came to record his dialogue for the episode .
McGoohan was reportedly very pleased with his role in the episode ; when his wife Joan McGoohan , who is a real estate broker , helped staff writer Max Pross buy a house , she told him that Patrick McGoohan was as proud of the episode as anything in his career .
= = Cultural references = =
" The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " makes fun of use of the Internet , which was rapidly growing in popularity at the time . " [ ... ] The Internet was just starting to turn into a serious waste of time around this point in history " , staff writer Matt Selman said in the episode 's DVD commentary . The news website that Homer creates is based on the Drudge Report , a news aggregator created by journalist Matt Drudge . The episode was also written at a time when several The Simpsons producers invested in an animated web series ' company called icebox.com , which was co @-@ created by two former The Simpsons writers .
Although the title of the episode is a reference to the 1969 Disney film The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes , the episode itself has " essentially nothing " to do with the film , according to M. Keith Booker in his book Drawn to Television : Prime @-@ Time Animation from The Flintstones to Family Guy . In the episode , the slogan of Homer 's webpage is " All the muck that 's fit to rake " . This is a reference to the American newspaper The New York Times , whose slogan is " All the News That 's Fit to Print " . The word " muck " refers to muckrakers , a term closely associated with reform @-@ oriented journalists who wrote largely for popular magazines after 1900 .
The episode 's third act , which serves as a parody of The Prisoner , features several references to the series . When the secret organization finds out about Homer 's discovery , he is taken to a secret location called the " Island " . The " Island " is modeled after the " Village " , where Number Six is taken in The Prisoner .
While he is in the " Island " , Homer is repeatedly gassed by unexpected objects , a reference to the way Number Six would often be gassed in The Prisoner . " George [ Meyer ] and I used to laugh a lot about how often [ Number Six ] would be gassed by unexpected devices in the show " , Scully said in the episode 's DVD commentary . " And we wanted to cram as many in as we could . " While escaping the " Island " , Homer is chased by a " big balloon " . The balloon is a reference to Rover , a floating white ball in The Prisoner that was created to keep inhabitants in the " Village " , which was also featured in the season 9 episode The Joy of Sect . The music heard in the scene is based on The Prisoner 's theme music .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on December 3 , 2000 , " The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " received a 9 @.@ 0 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 9 @.@ 1 million viewers . The episode finished in 28th place in the ratings for the week of November 27 @-@ December 3 , 2000 , tying with an episode of the news magazine Dateline NBC and the CBS sitcom The King of Queens . After the episode was released , The Simpsons ' writers created a website called mrxswebpage.com , which was made to resemble Homer 's website in the episode .
This was at a time when many television shows created websites to promote episodes ; earlier that year , Fox created a website called whatbadgerseat.com in conjunction with the season premiere , in which badgers played an important role . On August 18 , 2009 , the episode was released as part of a DVD set called The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season . Mike Scully , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Don Payne , John Frink , Matt Selman , Tom Gammill , Max Pross , Mark Kirkland and Joel H. Cohen participated in the audio commentary for the episode .
Following its broadcast , " The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " received mixed reviews from critics . Giving it a positive review , DVD Talk 's Jason Bailey described the episode as a " smart piece of social satire " . He especially enjoyed Homer 's part in the episode , and found that his incompetence at handling computers is " comedic gold " . Casey Burchby , another reviewer for DVD Talk , also enjoyed the social satire in the episode , and although he found the parody of The Prisoner " bizarre " , he maintained that it was " bold " .
Writing for DVD Verdict , Mac MacEntire argued that the episode is " hilarious " , provided one has seen The Prisoner . DNA Smith described the episode as " memorable " . The episode is also often considered to be a fan favorite , according to Matt Haigh of Den of Geek . On the other hand , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson was less impressed with the episode .
In his review of The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season , Jacobson wrote that he enjoyed the episode 's take on " Internet idiocy " . He wrote , " Some parts of it feel dated , but the web features even more ill @-@ informed opinions today than it did nine years ago , so much of it remains timeless and on target . " However , he was critical of the episode 's third act . " The side of the show feels like it was intended to amuse a few fans and it doesn ’ t show a lot of real cleverness or wit " , he wrote . He summarized the episode as being decent , but inconsistent .
= 12 Years a Slave ( film ) =
12 Years a Slave is a 2013 period drama film and an adaptation of the 1853 slave narrative memoir Twelve Years a Slave by Solomon Northup , a New York State @-@ born free African @-@ American man who was kidnapped in Washington , D.C. , in 1841 and sold into slavery . Northup worked on plantations in the state of Louisiana for 12 years before his release . The first scholarly edition of Northup 's memoir , co @-@ edited in 1968 by Sue Eakin and Joseph Logsdon , carefully retraced and validated the account and concluded it to be accurate . Other characters in the film were also real people , including Edwin and Mary Epps , and Patsey .
The film was directed by Steve McQueen . The screenplay was written by John Ridley . Chiwetel Ejiofor stars as Solomon Northup . Michael Fassbender , Benedict Cumberbatch , Paul Dano , Paul Giamatti , Lupita Nyong 'o , Sarah Paulson , Brad Pitt , and Alfre Woodard are all featured in supporting roles . Principal photography took place in New Orleans , Louisiana , from June 27 to August 13 , 2012 . The locations used were four historic antebellum plantations : Felicity , Bocage , Destrehan , and Magnolia . Of the four , Magnolia is nearest to the actual plantation where Northup was held .
12 Years a Slave received widespread critical acclaim , and was named the best film of 2013 by several media outlets . It proved to be a box office success , earning over $ 187 million on a production budget of $ 22 million . The film won three Academy Awards : Best Picture , Best Supporting Actress for Nyong 'o , and Best Adapted Screenplay for Ridley . The Best Picture win made McQueen the first black producer ever to have received the award and the first black director to have directed a Best Picture winner . The film was awarded the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama , and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts recognized it with the Best Film and the Best Actor award for Ejiofor .
= = Plot = =
In 1841 , Solomon Northup is a free African @-@ American man working as a violinist , living with his wife and two children in Saratoga Springs , New York . Two white men , Brown and Hamilton , offer him short @-@ term employment as a musician if he will travel with them to Washington , D.C. However , once they arrive , the duo drug Northup and conspire to deliver him to a slave pen . Northup is later shipped to New Orleans along with others who have been detained against their will . A slave trader named Freeman gives Northup the identity of " Platt " , a runaway slave from Georgia , and sells him and another slave Eliza to plantation owner William Ford . Due to tension between Northup and another plantation worker , Ford sells him to another slave owner named Edwin Epps . In the process , Northup attempts to explain that he is actually a free man , but to no avail .
Some time later , an outbreak of cotton worm befalls Epps ' plantation . Unable to work his fields , Epps leases his slaves to a neighboring plantation for the season . While there , Northup gains the favor of the plantation 's owner , Judge Turner , who allows him to play the fiddle at a neighbor 's wedding anniversary celebration , and to keep his earnings . When Northup returns to Epps , he attempts to use the money to pay a white field hand and former overseer , Armsby , to mail a letter to his friends in New York state . Armsby agrees to deliver the letter , and accepts Northup 's saved money in return , but later betrays him to Epps . Northup is narrowly able to convince Epps that Armsby is lying and avoids punishment .
Northup begins working on the construction of a gazebo with a Canadian laborer named Samuel Bass . Bass is unsettled by the brutal way that Epps treats his slaves and expresses his opposition to slavery , earning Epps 's enmity . Patsy sneaks off to Mistress Shaw 's house to get some soap to clean herself . Epps calls her a liar and ties her to post to prepare her for a whipping . Epps hands the whip to Northup and forces him to whip Patsy . Northup reluctantly begins to whip her but Epps rips the whip out of Northup 's hands and unleashes a brutal whipping on Patsy . Her back is shredded and her flesh is torn apart . Later Northup confides his kidnapping to Bass . Once again , Northup asks for help in getting a letter to Saratoga Springs . Bass , risking his life , agrees to send it . One day , Northup is called over by the local sheriff , who arrives in a carriage with another man . The sheriff asks Northup a series of questions to confirm his answers match the facts of his life in New York . Northup recognizes the sheriff 's companion as Mr. Parker , a shopkeeper he knew in Saratoga . Parker has come to free him , and the two embrace , though an enraged Epps furiously protests the circumstances and tries to prevent him from leaving .
After being enslaved for 12 years , Northup is restored to freedom and returned to his family . As he walks into his home , he sees his wife with their son and daughter and her husband , who present him with his grandson and namesake , Solomon Northup Staunton . The film 's epilogue displays a series of graphics recounting Northup 's unsuccessful suits against Brown , Hamilton and Burch , the 1853 publication of Northup 's slave narrative memoir , Twelve Years a Slave , his role in the abolitionist movement , and the mystery surrounding details of his death and burial .
= = Cast = =
Quvenzhané Wallis and Dwight Henry have small roles as Margaret Northup and Uncle Abram , respectively .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After meeting screenwriter John Ridley at a Creative Artists Agency screening of Hunger in 2008 , director Steve McQueen got in touch with Ridley about his interest in making a film about " the slave era in America " with " a character that was not obvious in terms of their trade in slavery . " Developing the idea back and forth , the two did not strike a chord until McQueen 's partner , Bianca Stigter , found Solomon Northup 's 1853 memoir Twelve Years a Slave . McQueen later told an interviewer :
I read this book , and I was totally stunned . At the same time I was pretty upset with myself that I didn 't know this book . I live in Amsterdam where Anne Frank is a national hero , and for me this book read like Anne Frank 's diary but written 97 years before – a firsthand account of slavery . I basically made it my passion to make this book into a film .
After a lengthy development process , during which Brad Pitt 's production company Plan B Entertainment backed the project , which eventually helped get some financing from various film studios , the film was officially announced in August 2011 with McQueen to direct and Chiwetel Ejiofor to star as Solomon Northup , a free African @-@ American who was kidnapped and sold into slavery in the Deep South . McQueen compared Ejiofor 's conduct " of class and dignity " to that of Sidney Poitier and Harry Belafonte . In October 2011 , Michael Fassbender ( who starred in McQueen 's previous films Hunger and Shame ) joined the cast . In early 2012 , the rest of the roles were cast , and filming was scheduled to begin at the end of June 2012 .
To capture the language and dialects of the era and regions in which the film takes place , dialect coach Michael Buster assisted the cast in altering their speech . The language has a literary quality related to the style of writing of the day and the strong influence of the King James Bible . Buster explained :
We don 't know what slaves sounded like in the 1840s , so I just used rural samples from Mississippi and Louisiana [ for actors Ejiofor and Fassbender ] . Then for Benedict [ Cumberbatch ] , I found some real upper @-@ class New Orleanians from the ' 30s . And then I also worked with Lupita Nyong 'o , who is Kenyan but she did her training at Yale . So she really shifted her speech so she could do American speech .
After both won Oscars at the 86th Academy Awards , it was reported that McQueen and Ridley had been in an ongoing feud over screenplay credit . McQueen reportedly had asked Ridley for shared credit , which he declined . McQueen appealed to Fox Searchlight , which sided with Ridley . Neither thanked the other during their respective acceptance speeches at the event . Since the event , Ridley has noted his regret for not mentioning McQueen and denied the feud . He spoke favorably of working with McQueen , and explained that his sole screenplay credit was due to the rules of the Writers Guild of America . McQueen has not commented on the alleged feud .
= = = Filming = = =
With a production budget of $ 22 million , principal photography began in New Orleans , Louisiana , on June 27 , 2012 . After seven weeks , filming concluded on August 13 , 2012 . As a way to keep down production costs , a bulk of the filming took place around the greater New Orleans area – mostly south of the Red River country in the north of the state , where the historic Northup was enslaved . Among locations used were four historic antebellum plantations : Felicity , Bocage , Destrehan , and Magnolia . Magnolia , a plantation in Schriever , Louisiana , is just a few miles from one of the historic sites where Northup was held . " To know that we were right there in the place where these things occurred was so powerful and emotional , " said actor Chiwetel Ejiofor . " That feeling of dancing with ghosts – it 's palpable . " Filming also took place at the Columns Hotel and Madame John 's Legacy in the French Quarter of New Orleans .
Cinematographer Sean Bobbitt , the film 's primary camera operator , shot 12 Years a Slave on 35 mm film with a 2 @.@ 35 : 1 widescreen aspect ratio using both an Arricam LT and ST . " Particularly for a period piece , film gives the audience a definite sense of period and quality , " said Bobbitt . " And because of the story 's epic nature , widescreen clearly made the most sense . Widescreen means a big film , an epic tale – in this case an epic tale of human endurance . "
The filmmakers avoided the desaturated visual style that is typical of a more gritty documentary aesthetic . Deliberately drawing visual comparisons in the filming to the works of Spanish painter Francisco Goya , McQueen explained :
When you think about Goya , who painted the most horrendous pictures of violence and torture and so forth , and they 're amazing , exquisite paintings , one of the reasons they 're such wonderful paintings is because what he 's saying is , ' Look – look at this . ' So if you paint it badly or put it in the sort of wrong perspective , you draw more attention to what 's wrong with the image rather than looking at the image .
= = = Design = = =
To accurately depict the time period of the film , the filmmakers conducted extensive research that included studying artwork from the era . With eight weeks to create the wardrobe , costume designer Patricia Norris collaborated with Western Costume to compile costumes that would illustrate the passage of time while also being historically accurate . Using an earth tone color palette , Norris created nearly 1 @,@ 000 costumes for the film . " She [ Norris ] took earth samples from all three of the plantations to match the clothes , " McQueen said , " and she had the conversation with Sean [ Bobbitt ] to deal with the character temperature on each plantation , there was a lot of that minute detail . " The filmmakers also used some pieces of clothing discovered on set that were worn by slaves .
= = = Music = = =
The musical score to 12 Years a Slave was composed by Hans Zimmer , with original on @-@ screen violin music written and arranged by Nicholas Britell and performed by Tim Fain . The film also features a few pieces of western classical and American folk music such as Franz Schubert 's " Trio in B @-@ flat , D471 " and John and Alan Lomax 's arrangement of " Run , Nigger , Run " . A soundtrack album , Music from and Inspired by 12 Years a Slave , was released digitally on November 5 and received a physical format release on November 11 , 2013 by Columbia Records . In addition to Zimmer 's score , the album features music inspired by the film by artists such as John Legend , Laura Mvula , Alicia Keys , Chris Cornell , and Alabama Shakes . Legend 's cover of " Roll , Jordan , Roll " debuted online three weeks prior to the soundtrack 's release .
= = Historical accuracy = =
African @-@ American history and culture scholar Henry Louis Gates Jr. was a consultant on the film , and researcher David Fiske , co @-@ author of Solomon Northup : The Complete Story of the Author of Twelve Years a Slave , provided some material used to market the film . Nevertheless , news and magazine articles around the time of the film 's release described a scholar alleging some license that Northup could have taken with his book , and liberties that McQueen definitely took with Northup 's original , for dramatic , modernizing , or other reasons .
Scott Feinberg wrote in the The Hollywood Reporter about a September 22 New York Times article that " dredged up and highlighted a 1985 essay by another scholar , James Olney , that questioned the ' literal truth ' of specific incidents in Northup 's account and suggested that David Wilson , the white amanuensis to whom Northup had dictated his story , had taken the liberty of sprucing it up to make it even more effective at rallying public opinion against slavery . " According to Olney , when abolitionists invited an ex @-@ slave to share his experience in slavery at an antislavery convention , and when they subsequently funded the appearance of that story in print , " they had certain clear expectations , well understood by themselves and well understood by the ex @-@ slave , too . "
Noah Berlatsky wrote in the The Atlantic about a scene in McQueen 's adaptation . Shortly after Northup 's kidnapping , he is sent on a slave ship . One of the sailors attempts to rape a female slave , but is stopped by a male slave . " The sailor unhesitatingly stabs and kills [ the male slave ] , " he wrote , stating that " this seems unlikely on its face — slaves are valuable , and the sailor is not the owner . And , sure enough , the scene is not in the book . "
Forrest Wickman of Slate wrote of Northup 's book giving a more favorable account of the author 's onetime master , William Ford , than the McQueen film . In Northup 's own words , " There never was a more kind , noble , candid , Christian man than William Ford , " adding that Ford 's circumstances " blinded [ Ford ] to the inherent wrong at the bottom of the system of Slavery . " The movie , however , according to Wickham , " frequently undermines Ford . " McQueen undercuts Christianity itself as well , in an effort to update the ethical lessons from Northup 's story for the 21st century , by holding the institutions of Christianity up to the light for their ability to justify slavery at the time . Northup was a Christian of his time , writing of his former master being " blinded " by " circumstances " that in retrospect meant a racist acceptance of slavery despite being a Christian , a position untenable to some Christians now and to Christian abolitionists of the 19th century but not contradictory to Northup himself . Valerie Elverton Dixon in The Washington Post characterized the Christianity depicted in the movie as " broken " .
Emily West , an associate professor of history at the University of Reading who specializes in the history of slavery in the U.S. , said she had " never seen a film represent slavery so accurately " . Reviewing the film for History Extra , the website of BBC History Magazine , she said : " The film starkly and powerfully unveiled the sights and sounds of enslavement – from slaves picking cotton as they sang in the fields , to the crack of the lash down people ’ s backs . We also heard a lot about the ideology behind enslavement . Masters such as William Ford and Edwin Epps , although very different characters , both used an interpretation of Christianity to justify their ownership of slaves . They believed the Bible sanctioned slavery , and that it was their ‘ Christian duty ’ to preach the scriptures to their slaves . "
= = Release = =
= = = Initial screenings = = =
12 Years a Slave premiered at the Telluride Film Festival on August 30 , 2013 ; it was later screened at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival on September 6 , the New York Film Festival on October 8 , the New Orleans Film Festival on October 10 , and the Philadelphia Film Festival on October 19 . On November 15 , 2011 , Summit Entertainment announced
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of Didier Sourou Awadi ( alias DJ Awadi ) and Amadou Barry ( alias Doug E. Tee or Duggy @-@ Tee ) , both of whom had previously been in other hip hop groups . They perform in the English , French , and Wolof languages and use traditional Senegalese instruments as part of their songs . Political and social activism have played important roles in the group since it was founded .
= = History = =
The two members of Positive Black Soul were both born in the city of Dakar , Senegal . As teenagers , Awadi and Barry were involved in the Dakar hip hop scene — Awadi leading his own group , Didier Awadi 's Syndicate , a breakdancer as well as a rapper ; and Barry performing with the King MCs . Originally Awadi and Barry were rivals , competing with each other in performances and coming from separate neighborhoods of Dakar . During a birthday party held by Awadi to which Barry was invited , however , the two performed together and realized their similarities , founding Positive Black Soul very soon after . Activism and politics are central parts of the group 's philosophy — its shortened name ( PBS ) was a play on the Parti Démocratique Sénégalais initialism " PDS " .
In 1992 , the group performed at a music festival held by the Dakar French Cultural Center , where the French rapper MC Solaar heard their performance and invited the group to open for him when he debuted in Dakar in October of that year . The rapper was impressed with Positive Black Soul , inviting them to continue performing with him in France . Two years later the group put out its first release , a cassette entitled Boul Falé . The album was followed by more touring in France , as well as in England and Switzerland . In the same year , the Senegalese musician Baaba Maal offered PBS the opportunity to be on his album Firin ' in Fouta . Maal was signed to Mango Records and because of this recording with him , Positive Black Soul were signed as well . They released their album debut Salaam on Mango Records . After achieving success in Senegal and some abroad , the group continued touring , including 130 performances in 1997 . They also began organizing concerts in Dakar and promoting new groups including Daara J and Pee Froiss .
Positive Black Soul 's first international release , New York Paris @-@ Dakar , had been previously released as a cassette in Senegal . However it was only in 1997 , six years after its initial appearance , that it was sold outside of the country . The American rapper KRS @-@ One , one of the group 's collaborators on the album , shared a similar philosophy and interest in Pan @-@ Africanism with Awadi and Barry .
In 2002 , the group appeared on the Red Hot Organization 's tribute album to Fela Kuti , Red Hot and Riot . They contributed to a track titled " No Agreement " alongside Res , Tony Allen , Ray Lema , Baaba Maal , and Archie Shepp .
Since about 2002 , the group 's members have been pursuing solo projects . On August 14 , 2009 , PBS performed in Dakar for their 20th anniversary effectively ending speculations about whether they have disbanded . Guests at the concert included powerful Senegal music stars such as Youssou Ndour and Ismael Lo .
= = Activism = =
Positive Black Soul has promoted political activity and activism in other areas . The group urged Senegalese people to participate in the country 's government and vote in elections . PBS also decries images of Africa in the media , which they view as one @-@ sided . They state : " We want to show the positivity in the black soul . That 's our fight . Africa is not only a land of suffering , misery , war and disease . We 're proud to live there and we are not suffering . " They view their chosen medium of rap as an accessible way to talk about issues such as corruption and politics . AIDS has also been featured in their music : one song , " Écoute Fils " ( " Listen Son " ) , is written about the disease and cautions listeners about its dangers .
= = Discography = =
Boul Falé ( 1994 )
Salaam ( 1995 )
Daw Thiow ( 1996 )
Wakh Feign ( 1996 )
New York @-@ Paris @-@ Dakar ( 1997 )
Revolution ( 2000 )
Run Cool ( 2001 )
= Flag of Portugal =
The Flag of Portugal ( Portuguese : Bandeira de Portugal ) is the national flag of the Portuguese Republic . It is a rectangular bicolour with a field unevenly divided into green on the hoist , and red on the fly . The lesser version of the national coat of arms ( i.e. armillary sphere and Portuguese shield ) is centred over the colour boundary at equal distance from the upper and lower edges . On June 30 , 1911 , less than a year after the downfall of the constitutional monarchy , this design was officially adopted for the new national flag , after selection by a special commission whose members included Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro , João Chagas and Abel Botelho .
The conjugation of the new field colours , especially the use of green , was not traditional in the Portuguese national flag 's composition and represented a radical republican @-@ inspired change that broke the bond with the former monarchical flag . Since a failed republican insurrection on January 31 , 1891 , red and green had been established as the colours of the Portuguese Republican Party and its associated movements , whose political prominence kept growing until it reached a culmination period following the Republican revolution of October 5 , 1910 . In the ensuing decades , these colours were popularly propagandized as representing the hope of the nation ( green ) and the blood ( red ) of those who died defending it , as a means to endow them with a more patriotic and dignified , therefore less political , sentiment . Although the flag flown from the Oporto city hall in the morning of January 31 , 1891 , symbol of the republican uprising was red and green . Totally red with a green circle in the center , to which were added the inscriptions referring to the republican center to whom it belonged - the Centro Democrático Federal 15 de Novembro.'
The current flag design represents a dramatic change in the evolution of the Portuguese standard , which had always been closely associated with the royal arms , blue and white . Since the country 's foundation , the national flag developed from the blue cross @-@ on @-@ white armorial square banner of King Afonso I to the liberal monarchy 's arms over a blue @-@ and @-@ white rectangle . In between , major changes associated with determinant political events contributed to its evolution into the current design .
= = Design = =
The decree that legally replaced the flag used under the constitutional monarchy with the new design was approved by the Constituent Assembly and published in government journal no . 141 ( Portuguese : diário do Governo ) , on June 19 , 1911 . On June 30 , this decree had its regulations officially published in government diary no . 150 .
= = = Construction = = =
The flag 's length is equal to 1 1 ⁄ 2 times its width , which translates into an aspect ratio of 2 : 3 . The background is vertically divided into two colours : dark green on the hoist side , and scarlet red on the fly . The colour division is made in a way that green spans 2 ⁄ 5 of the length and the remaining 3 ⁄ 5 are filled by red ( ratio 2 @-@ 3 ) . The lesser version of the national coat of arms ( without the laurel wreaths ) — a white @-@ rimmed national shield on top of a black @-@ highlighted yellow armillary sphere — is positioned over the border between both colours .
The armillary sphere has a diameter equal to 1 ⁄ 2 width and is equidistant from the upper and lower edges of the flag . The sphere , drawn in perspective , possesses six edge @-@ embossed arcs , four of which are great circles and two are small circles . The great circles represent the ecliptic ( wider oblique arc ) , the equator , and two meridians . These last three are positioned so that the intersections between each two arcs make a right angle ; one meridian lies on the flag 's plane while the other is perpendicular to it . The small circles consist of two parallels ( the tropics ) , each tangent to one of the ecliptic @-@ meridian intersections .
Vertically centred over the sphere is the national shield , a white @-@ rimmed curved bottom red shield charged with a white inescutcheon . Its height and width are equal to 7 ⁄ 10 and 6 ⁄ 10 of the sphere 's diameter , respectively . The shield is positioned in a way that its limits intersect the sphere :
at the inflection points of the distal edges of the Tropic of Cancer 's anterior half ( top ) and Tropic of Capricorn 's posterior half ( bottom ) ;
at the intersection of the lower edges of the ecliptic 's posterior half and of the equator 's anterior half ( dexter or viewer 's left side ) ; and
at the intersection of the upper edge of the ecliptic 's anterior half with the lower edge of the equator 's posterior half ( sinister or viewer 's right side ) .
A curious aspect of the official design is the absence of a segment of the Tropic of Capricorn , between the national shield and the ecliptic arc .
The white inescutcheon is itself charged with five smaller blue shields ( escudetes ) arranged like a Greek cross ( 1 + 3 + 1 ) . Each smaller shield holds five white bezants displayed in the form of a saltire ( 2 + 1 + 2 ) . The red bordure is charged with seven yellow castles : three on the chief portion ( one in each corner and one in
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case distinctive enough to connect Stride 's murder with at least two of the earlier ones , as well as that of Catherine Eddowes on the same night .
At 1 : 45 am Catherine Eddowes ' mutilated body was found by PC Edward Watkins at the south @-@ west corner of Mitre Square , in the City of London , about 12 minutes walk from Berner Street . She had been killed less than 10 minutes earlier by a slash to the throat from left to right with a sharp , pointed knife at least 6 inches ( 15 cm ) long . Her face and abdomen were mutilated , and her intestines were drawn out over the right shoulder with a detached length between her torso and left arm . Her left kidney and most of her uterus were removed . The Eddowes inquest was opened on 4 October by Samuel F. Langham , coroner for the City of London . The examining pathologist , Dr Frederick Gordon Brown , believed the perpetrator " had considerable knowledge of the position of the organs " and from the position of the wounds on the body he could tell that the murderer had knelt to the right of the body , and worked alone . However , the first doctor at the scene , local surgeon Dr George William Sequeira , disputed that the killer possessed anatomical skill or sought particular organs . His view was shared by City medical officer William Sedgwick Saunders , who was also present at the autopsy . Because of this murder 's location , the City of London Police under Detective Inspector James McWilliam were brought into the enquiry .
At 3 am a blood @-@ stained fragment of Eddowes ' apron was found lying in the passage of the doorway leading to 108 to 119 Goulston Street , Whitechapel , about a third of a mile ( 500 m ) from the murder scene . There was chalk writing on the wall of the doorway , which read either " The Juwes are the men that will not be blamed for nothing " or " The Juwes are not the men who will be blamed for nothing . " At 5 am , Commissioner Warren attended the scene and ordered the words erased for fear that they would spark anti @-@ Semitic riots . Goulston Street was on a direct route from Mitre Square to Flower and Dean Street , where both Stride and Eddowes lived .
The Middlesex coroner , Wynne Baxter , believed that Stride had been attacked with a swift , sudden action . She was still holding a packet of cachous ( breath freshening sweets ) in her left hand when she was discovered , indicating that she had not had time to defend herself . A grocer , Matthew Packer , implied to private detectives employed by the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee that he had sold some grapes to Stride and the murderer ; however , he had told police that he had shut his shop without seeing anything suspicious . At the inquest , the pathologists stated emphatically that Stride had not held , swallowed or consumed grapes . They described her stomach contents as " cheese , potatoes and farinaceous powder [ flour or milled grain ] " . Nevertheless , Packer 's story appeared in the press . Packer 's description of the man did not match the statements by other witnesses who may have seen Stride with a man shortly before her murder , but all but two of the descriptions differed . Joseph Lawende passed through Mitre Square with two other men shortly before Eddowes was murdered there , and may have seen her with a man of about 30 years old , who was shabbily dressed , wore a peaked cap , and had a fair moustache . Chief Inspector Swanson noted that Lawende 's description was a near match to another provided by one of the witnesses who may have seen Stride with her murderer . However , Lawende stated that he would not be able to identify the man again , and the two other men with Lawende were unable to give descriptions .
Criticism of the Metropolitan Police and the Home Secretary , Henry Matthews , continued to mount as little progress was made with the investigation . The City Police and the Lord Mayor of London offered a reward of £ 500 ( roughly £ 50 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) for information leading to the capture of the villain . The use of bloodhounds to track the killer in the event of another attack was considered , but the idea was abandoned because the trail of scents was confused in the busy city , the dogs were inexperienced in an urban environment , and the owner was concerned that the dogs would be poisoned by criminals if their role in crime detection became known .
On 27 September , the Central News Agency received a letter , dubbed the " Dear Boss " letter , in which the writer , who signed himself " Jack the Ripper " , claimed to have committed the murders . On 1 October , a postcard , dubbed the " Saucy Jacky " postcard and also signed " Jack the Ripper " , was received by the agency . It claimed responsibility for the most recent murders on 30 September , and described the murders of the two women as the " double event " , a designation which has endured .
On Tuesday 2 October , an unidentified female torso was found in the basement of New Scotland Yard , which was under construction . It was linked to the Whitechapel murders by the press , but it was not included in the Whitechapel murders file , and any connection between the two is now considered unlikely . The case became known as the Whitehall Mystery . On the same day , the psychic Robert James Lees visited Scotland Yard and offered to track down the murderer using paranormal powers ; the police turned him away and " called [ him ] a fool and a lunatic " .
The head of the CID , Anderson , eventually got back from leave on 6 October and took charge of the investigation for Scotland Yard . On 16 October , George Lusk of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee received another letter claiming to be from the killer . The handwriting and style were unlike that of the " Dear Boss " letter and " Saucy Jacky " postcard . The letter arrived with a small box containing half of a human kidney preserved in alcohol . The letter 's writer claimed that he had extracted it from the body of Eddowes and that he had " fried and ate " the missing half . Opinion on whether the kidney and the letter were genuine was and is divided . By the end of October , the police had interviewed more than 2 @,@ 000 people , investigated " upwards of 300 " , and detained 80 .
= = = Mary Kelly = = =
On Friday 9 November , prostitute Mary Jane Kelly was murdered in the single room where she lived at 13 Miller 's Court , behind 26 Dorset Street , Spitalfields . One of the earlier victims , Chapman , had lived in Dorset Street , and another , Eddowes , was reported to have slept rough there . Kelly 's severely mutilated body was discovered shortly after 10 : 45 am lying on the bed . The first doctor at the scene , Dr George Bagster Phillips , believed that Kelly was killed by a slash to the throat . After her death , her abdominal cavity was sliced open and all her viscera removed and spread around the room . Her breasts had been cut off , her face mutilated beyond recognition , and her thighs partially cut through to the bone , with some of the muscles removed . Unlike the other victims , she was undressed and wore only a light chemise . Her clothes were folded neatly on a chair , with the exception of some found burnt in the grate . Abberline thought the clothes had been burned by the murderer to provide light , as the room was otherwise only dimly lit by a single candle . Kelly 's murder was the most savage , probably because the murderer had more time to commit his atrocities in a private room rather than in the street . Her state of undress and folded clothes have led to suggestions that she undressed herself before lying down on the bed , which would indicate that she was killed by someone she knew , by someone she believed to be a client , or when she was asleep or intoxicated .
The coroner for North East Middlesex , Dr Roderick Macdonald , MP , presided over the inquest into Kelly 's death at Shoreditch Town Hall on 12 November . Amid scenes of great emotion , an " enormous crowd " of mourners attended Mary Kelly 's funeral on 19 November . The streets became gridlocked and the cortège struggled to travel from Shoreditch mortuary to the Roman Catholic Cemetery at Leytonstone , where she was laid to rest .
On 8 November , Charles Warren resigned as Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police after the Home Secretary informed him that he could not make public statements without Home Office approval . James Monro , who had resigned a few months earlier over differences with Warren , was appointed as his replacement in December . On 10 November , the police surgeon Thomas Bond wrote to Robert Anderson , head of the London CID , detailing the similarities between the five murders of Nichols , Chapman , Stride , Eddowes and Kelly , " no doubt committed by the same hand " . On the same day , the Cabinet resolved to offer a pardon to any accomplice who came forward with information that led to the conviction of the actual murderer . The Metropolitan Police Commissioner reported that the Whitechapel murderer remained unidentified despite 143 extra plain @-@ clothes policemen deployed in Whitechapel in November and December .
= = = Rose Mylett = = =
On Thursday 20 December 1888 , a patrolling constable found prostitute Rose Mylett ( also known as Catherine Millett and Lizzie Davis ) , 29 , strangled in Clarke 's Yard , off Poplar High Street . Mylett had lodged at 18 George Street , as had Emma Smith . Four doctors who examined Mylett 's body thought she had been murdered , but Robert Anderson thought she had accidentally hanged herself on the collar of her dress while in a drunken stupor . At Anderson 's request Dr Bond examined Mylett 's body , and he agreed with Anderson . Commissioner Monro also suspected it was a suicide or natural death as there were no signs of a struggle . The coroner , Wynne Baxter , told the inquest jury that " there is no evidence to show that death was the result of violence " . Nevertheless , the jury returned a verdict of " wilful murder against some person or persons unknown " and the case was added to the Whitechapel file .
= = = Alice McKenzie = = =
Alice McKenzie was possibly a prostitute , and was murdered at about 12 : 40 am on Wednesday 17 July 1889 in Castle Alley , Whitechapel . Like most of the previous murders , her left carotid artery was severed from left to right and there were wounds on her abdomen . However , her wounds were not as deep as in previous murders , and a shorter blade was used . Commissioner Monro and one of the pathologists examining the body , Bond , believed this to be a Ripper murder , though another of the pathologists , Phillips , and Robert Anderson disagreed , as did Inspector Abberline . Later writers are also divided , and either suggest that McKenzie was a Ripper victim , or that the unknown murderer tried to make it look like a Ripper killing to deflect suspicion from himself . At the inquest , Coroner Baxter acknowledged both possibilities , and concluded : " There is great similarity between this and the other class of cases , which have happened in this neighbourhood , and if the same person has not committed this crime , it is clearly an imitation of the other cases . "
= = = Pinchin Street torso = = =
A woman 's torso was found at 5 : 15 a.m. on Tuesday 10 September 1889 under a railway arch in Pinchin Street , Whitechapel . No other body parts were found , despite a search of the area , and neither the victim nor the culprit were ever identified . Chief Inspector Swanson and Commissioner Monro noted that the presence of blood within the torso indicated that death was not from haemorrhage or cutting of the throat . The pathologists , however , noted that the general bloodlessness of the tissues and vessels indicated that haemorrhage was the cause of death . Newspaper speculation that the body belonged to Lydia Hart , who had disappeared , was refuted after she was found recovering in hospital after " a bit of a spree " . Another claim that the victim was a missing girl called Emily Barker was also refuted , as the torso was from an older and taller woman . The age of the victim was estimated at 30 – 40 years .
Swanson did not consider this a Ripper case , and instead suggested a link to similar dismembered body cases in Rainham and Chelsea , as well as the " Whitehall Mystery " . Monro agreed with Swanson 's assessment . These three murders and the Pinchin Street case are suggested to be the work of a serial killer , nicknamed the " Torso killer " , who could either be the same person as " Jack the Ripper " or a separate killer of uncertain connection . Links between these and three further murders — the " Battersea Mystery " of 1873 and 1874 , in which two women were found dismembered , and the 1884 " Tottenham Court Road Mystery " — have also been postulated . Experts on the murders — colloquially known as " Ripperologists " — such as Stewart Evans , Keith Skinner , Martin Fido , and Donald Rumbelow , discount any connection between the torso and Ripper killings on the basis of their different modi operandi .
Monro was replaced as Commissioner by Sir Edward Bradford on 21 June 1890 , after a disagreement with Home Secretary Matthews over police pensions .
= = = Frances Coles = = =
The last of the murders in the Whitechapel file was committed on Friday 13 February 1891 when prostitute Frances Coles was murdered under a railway arch . Her body was found by PC Ernest Thompson only moments after the attack at 2 : 15 am at Swallow Gardens , a passageway under a railway arch between Chamber Street and Royal Mint Street , Whitechapel . Minor wounds on the back of her head suggest that she was thrown violently to the ground before her throat was cut at least twice , from left to right and then back again . Otherwise there were no mutilations to the body . Superintendent Arnold and Inspector Reid arrived soon afterwards from the nearby Leman Street police station , and Chief Inspectors Donald Swanson and Henry Moore , who had been involved in the previous murder investigations , arrived by 5 am . A man named James Sadler , who had been seen with Coles earlier , was arrested by the police and charged with her murder . A high @-@ profile investigation by Swanson and Moore into Sadler 's past history and his whereabouts at the time of the previous Whitechapel murders indicates that the police may have suspected him to be the Ripper . However , Sadler was released on 3 March for lack of evidence .
= = Legacy = =
Abberline retired in 1892 , and Matthews lost office in that year 's general election . Arnold retired the following year , and Swanson and Anderson retired after 1900 . There are no documents in the Whitechapel murder file dated after 1896 . The murderer or murderers were never identified and the cases remain unsolved . Sensational reportage and the mystery surrounding the identity of the killer or killers fed the development of the character " Jack the Ripper " , who was blamed for all or most of the murders . Hundreds of books and articles discuss the Whitechapel murders , and they feature in novels , short stories , comic books , television shows , and films of multiple genres .
The poor of the East End had long been ignored by affluent society , but the nature of the murders and of the victims drew attention to their living conditions . The murders galvanised opinion against the overcrowded , unsanitary slums of the East End , and led to demands for reform . On 24 September 1888 , George Bernard Shaw commented sarcastically on the media 's sudden concern in social justice in a letter to The Star newspaper :
Whilst we conventional Social Democrats were wasting our time on education , agitation and organisation , some independent genius has taken the matter in hand , and by simply murdering and disembowelling ... women , converted the proprietary press to an inept sort of communism .
Acts of Parliament , such as the Housing of the Working Classes Act 1890 and the Public Health Amendment Act 1890 , set minimum standards for accommodation in an effort to transform degenerated urban areas . The worst of the slums were demolished in the two decades following the Whitechapel murders .
= Huon Peninsula campaign =
The Huon Peninsula campaign was a series of battles fought in north @-@ eastern Papua New Guinea in 1943 – 44 during the Second World War . The campaign formed the initial part of an offensive that the Allies launched in the Pacific in late 1943 and resulted in the Japanese being pushed north from Lae to Sio on the northern coast of New Guinea over the course of a four @-@ month period . For the Australians , a significant advantage was gained through the technological edge that Allied industry had achieved over the Japanese by this phase of the war , while the Japanese were hampered by a lack of supplies and reinforcements due to Allied interdiction efforts at sea and in the air .
The campaign was preceded by an amphibious landing by troops from the Australian 9th Division east of Lae on 4 September 1943 . This was followed by an advance west along the coast towards the town where they were to link up with 7th Division advancing from Nadzab . Meanwhile , Australian and US forces mounted diversionary attacks around Salamaua . Heavy rain and flooding slowed the 9th Division 's advance , which had to cross several rivers along the way . The Japanese rear guard also put up a stiff defence and , as a result , Lae did not fall until 16 September , when troops from the 7th Division entered it ahead of the 9th , and the main body of the Japanese force escaped north . Less than a week later , the Huon Peninsula campaign was opened as the Australians undertook another amphibious landing further east , aimed at capturing Finschhafen .
Following the landing at Scarlet Beach , the Allies set about moving south to secure Finschhafen , which saw fighting around Jivevaneng also . In mid @-@ October , the Japanese launched a counterattack against the Australian beachhead around Scarlet Beach , which lasted for about a week and resulted in a small contraction of the Australian lines and a splitting of their force before it was defeated . After this , the Australians regained the initiative and began to pursue the Japanese who withdrew inland towards the high ground around Sattelberg . Amidst heavy fighting and a second failed Japanese counterattack , Sattelberg was secured in late November and the Australians began an area advance to the north to secure a line between Wareo and Gusika . This was completed by early December , and was followed by an advance by Australian forces along the coast through Lakona to Fortification Point , overcoming strong Japanese forces fighting delaying actions .
The final stage of the campaign saw the Japanese resistance finally break . A swift advance by the Australians along the northern coast of the peninsula followed and in January 1944 they captured Sio . At the same time , the Americans landed at Saidor . After this , mopping up operations were undertaken by Allied forces around Sio until March . A lull period then followed in northern New Guinea until July when US forces clashed with the Japanese around the Driniumor River . This was followed by further fighting in November 1944 when the Australians opened a fresh campaign in Aitape – Wewak .
= = Background = =
= = = Geography = = =
The Huon Peninsula is situated along the north @-@ east coast of Papua New Guinea , and stretches from Lae in the south on the Huon Gulf to Sio in the north along the Vitiaz Strait . Along the coast , between these two points , numerous rivers and streams cut the terrain . Of these , the most prominent are the Song , Bumi and Mape Rivers . These waterways flow from the mountainous interior which is formed through the conglomeration of the Rawlinson Range in the south , with the Cromwell Mountains in the east . These meet in the centre of the peninsula to form the Saruwaged Range massif , which joins the Finisterre Range further west . Apart from a thin , flat coastal strip , at the time of the campaign , the area was thickly covered with dense jungle , through which very few tracks had been cut . The terrain was rugged and for the most part the tracks , until improved by engineers , were largely unpassable to motor transport and as a result throughout the campaign a large amount of the Allied resupply effort was undertaken on foot .
During planning , the Allies identified three areas as key and decisive terrain in the area : the beach north of Katika , which was later codenamed " Scarlet " by the Allies , the 3 @,@ 150 @-@ foot ( 960 m ) high peak called Sattelberg 5 miles ( 8 km ) to the south @-@ west , which dominated the area due to its height , and Finschhafen , possessing a small airfield and sitting on the coast in a bay which offered protected harbour facilities 5 @.@ 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 0 km ) south of Scarlet Beach . The Japanese , too , regarded Sattelberg and Finschhafen as key areas . In addition to these , they identified a ridge that ran between the village of Gusika on the coast , about 3 @.@ 4 miles ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) north of Katika , and Wareo 4 @.@ 66 miles ( 7 @.@ 5 km ) inland to the west . The importance of this ridge lay in the track that ran along it , over which the Japanese supplied their forces around Sattelberg . It also offered a natural barrier to any advance north from Finschhafen , making it a potential defensive line .
= = = Military situation = = =
By 1943 , Japanese expansionary moves in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) had ceased . Their advance in Papua New Guinea had been halted the previous year by the blocking action that Australian forces had fought along the Kokoda Track . Subsequent defeats at Milne Bay , Buna – Gona , Wau and on Guadalcanal had forced the Japanese on to the back foot . As a result of these victories , the Allies were able to seize the initiative in the region in mid @-@ 1943 and began making plans to continue to push the Japanese back in New Guinea .
Allied planners began formulating their plans for the future direction of the fighting in the wider Pacific with a focus upon retaking the Philippines and the eventual capture of the Japanese Home Islands . The lynchpin to Japanese strength in the region was their main base at Rabaul . The reduction of this base came to be seen as a key tenet of success in the SWPA for the Allies and was formalised into Operation Cartwheel .
In order to achieve this , the Allies needed access to a number of airbases in the region . Allied high commanders , including General Douglas MacArthur , directed that two airbases be secured : one at Lae and another at Finschhafen . The capture of Lae would provide the Allies with a port to supply Nadzab and would facilitate operations in the Markham Valley . Gaining control of Finschhafen , and the wider Huon Peninsula , was an important precursor to conducting operations in New Britain by providing a natural harbour , and enabling control of the strategically important Vitiaz and Dampier Straits .
= = = Opposing forces = = =
At the time , there were no US ground forces under MacArthur 's command in action against the Japanese , and the task of securing Finschhafen was allocated to Australian troops from the 9th Division . A veteran formation of the all @-@ volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , the 9th Division was vastly experienced , having fought in the North African campaign , where it had held Tobruk against a German onslaught earlier in the war and had been heavily engaged at the First and Second Battle of El Alamein . In early 1943 , the division had been brought back to Australia , and it had subsequently been reorganised to take part in jungle warfare . With an establishment of 13 @,@ 118 men , the division consisted of three brigades of infantry – the 20th , 24th and 26th – each consisting of three battalions , along with organic battalion @-@ level engineer , pioneer , artillery , and armoured formations attached at divisional level . In support of the 9th Division , Militia infantry units from the 4th Brigade would also take part in the fighting after the initial fighting . American forces would also be involved , mainly providing logistical , naval and engineering support .
Air support was provided by No. 9 Operational Group RAAF , which included several Royal Australian Air Force squadrons such as No. 4 Squadron RAAF , flying CAC Boomerangs and Wirraways , and No. 24 Squadron RAAF equipped with Vultee Vengeance dive bombers ; these units undertook numerous close air support and resupply missions throughout the campaign . American Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts and Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightnings from the 348th and 475th Fighter Groups were also used to provide fighter cover for Allied shipping , while heavy and medium bombers from the Fifth Air Force carried out strategic bombing missions to reduce Japanese airbases around Wewak and New Britain , and raided Japanese lines of communication in concert with PT boats . Due to the impracticalities of using wheeled transport in the jungle , Allied logistics was undertaken primarily by means of water transport such as landing craft and barges which moved supplies along the coast , with overland supply to combat units being completed by New Guinean labourers and , at times , by Australian combat troops themselves , which were re @-@ roled temporarily to undertake portage tasks as required , and augmented where possible with jeeps .
The main Japanese force in the campaign was provided by the XVIII Army under the command of Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi and was headquartered at Madang . This force consisted of three divisions – the 20th , the 41st and the 51st – and a number of smaller forces which included naval infantry and garrison units . Around the Finschhafen area in mid @-@ September 1943 , the main forces were drawn from the 20th Division 's 80th Infantry and 26th Field Artillery Regiments , the 41st Division 's 238th Infantry Regiment , the naval 85th Garrison Unit and a company from the 51st Division 's 102nd Infantry Regiment . These forces were under the command of Major General Eizo Yamada , commander of the 1st Shipping Group , although tactical command was devolved at local level due to the geographical spread of the Japanese units . These units were situated across a broad area between the Mongi River , east of Lae to Arndt Point , Sattelberg , Joangeng , Logaweng , Finschhafen , Sisi and on Tami Island . The largest concentrations were around Sattelberg and Finschhafen , where the main forces came under the command of Lieutenant General Shigeru Katagiri , commander of the 20th Division . The strength and efficiency of the Japanese units had been reduced by disease , and their employment in road construction tasks between Madang and Bogadjim .
Like the Allies , the Japanese also relied on water transport to ferry supplies and reinforcements around the New Guinea , using a force of three submarines to avoid interdiction by Allied aircraft which had previously inflicted heavy casualties during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea . These submarines were augmented by barges , although they were limited in supply and were subject to attack by Allied aircraft and PT boats . Once the supplies had been landed , resupply parties were used to carry the stores overland on foot along a number of key tracks to their main troop concentrations around Sattelberg and Finschhafen . Air support was provided by the 4th Air Army , consisting primarily of the 7th Air Division and 14th Air Brigade , along with some elements from the 6th Air Division . Based in Wewak , the Japanese aircraft were mainly used to escort Japanese shipping and attack Allied shipping around the main beachhead during the campaign , with a secondary task of undertaking ground attack missions in support of Japanese troops . The 11th Naval Air Fleet , based at Rabaul , also undertook anti @-@ shipping missions . Despite having these units available , heavy Allied bombing of Japanese airfields around Wewak in August 1943 greatly reduced the number of aircraft available to the Japanese and limited their ability to apply airpower throughout the campaign .
The Japanese force lacked for transport , engineer and logistical support and was hampered by a lack of cohesion due to its disparate command structure and poor infrastructure . In contrast , the Australian force had fought together in previous campaigns and was backed up by a formidable logistical support base that could deliver them a technological and industrial superiority that the Japanese were unable to match .
= = Prelude = =
Following MacArthur 's directive to secure the airfields at Lae and Finschhafen , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Allied Forces , South West Pacific Area , General Thomas Blamey , an Australian , ordered the capture of the Huon Peninsula . The 9th Division under Major General George Wootten was tasked with the job . The initial focus was upon securing Lae . The Allies formulated a plan to achieve this that would see the 9th Division conduct an amphibious landing east of Lae , while the 7th Division would move by air to Nadzab in the Markham Valley , which had been secured by parachute troops from the US 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment and the 2 / 4th Field Regiment . From Nadzab , the 7th Division would advance on Lae from the south to support the 9th Division 's drive towards Lae . At the same time , the Australian 3rd Division and the US 162nd Infantry Regiment would fight a diversionary action around Salamaua .
After training in Queensland and at Milne Bay in New Guinea , the 9th Division embarked upon US ships assigned to Rear Admiral Daniel Barbey 's naval task force – VII Amphibious Force – as part of what was the " largest amphibious operation ... undertaken by Allied forces in the South @-@ West Pacific " to that point in the war . The 20th Brigade , under the command of Brigadier Victor Windeyer , was chosen to spearhead the assault with a landing at a beach 16 miles ( 26 km ) to the east of Lae . In preparation , early on 4 September 1943 , five destroyers laid down a heavy bombardment that lasted six minutes . Upon its conclusion , the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion led the 20th Brigade ashore , with the brigade 's other two battalions , the 2 / 15th and 2 / 17th , coming ashore shortly afterwards in the second and third waves . Unopposed on the ground , the Australian infantry quickly began to move inland as further reinforcements arrived . About 35 minutes after the initial landing , as the Australian divisional headquarters and the 2 / 23rd Infantry Battalion were coming ashore , a small force of Japanese aircraft attacked the landing craft carrying the infantry ashore . As a result , two of these craft were heavily damaged and numerous casualties inflicted , including the 2 / 23rd 's commanding officer , who was killed when a Japanese bomb landed on the bridge of LCI @-@ 339 .
Further Japanese air attacks came in the afternoon . A force of about 70 Japanese aircraft , coming from bases on New Britain , were beaten off over Finschhafen . Another group , however , achieved success around Morobe , attacking empty transports that were making their egress from Finschhafen , while off Cape Ward Hunt another group attacked an Allied convoy carrying follow @-@ on forces , including the rest of Brigadier David Whitehead 's 26th Brigade . Aboard LST @-@ 471 , 43 were killed and another 30 wounded , while eight were killed and 37 wounded on LST @-@ 473 . This did not prevent the flow of supplies and the arrival of further reinforcements in the shape of the 24th Brigade , under Brigadier Bernard Evans , the following day . The Australians then began the arduous advance west towards Lae , passing through " thick jungle , swamps , kunai grass and numerous rain @-@ swollen rivers and streams " which , along with heavy rain , slowed their progress . On the night of 5 / 6 September , the Japanese launched an attack on the lead Australian battalion , but they were unable to prevent its advance . At this point , the 26th Brigade moved inland to strike towards Lae from the north @-@ east while the 24th carried the advance along the coast .
At this point , the 9th Division 's advance began to be hampered by a lack of supplies which , along with the rugged terrain , resulted in slow progress . It was not until 9 September that they reached the Busu River . The 2 / 28th
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Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club said the episode 's main story was " a bit of a trifle " and the subplots were lacking , but that " The Possum " included several laughs and demonstrated Ron and Leslie 's opposing attitudes about local government .
= = DVD release = =
" The Possum " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
= Psilocybe yungensis =
Psilocybe yungensis is a species of psychedelic mushroom in the Strophariaceae family . In North America , it is found in northeast , central and southeastern Mexico . In South America , it has been recorded from Bolivia , Colombia , and Ecuador . It is also known from the Caribbean island Martinique , and China . The mushroom grows in clusters or groups on rotting wood . The fruit bodies have conical to bell @-@ shaped reddish- to orangish @-@ brown caps that are up to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , set atop slender stems 3 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) long . The mushrooms stain blue when bruised , indicative of the presence of the compound psilocybin . Psilocybe yungensis is used by Mazatec Indians in the Mexican State of Oaxaca for entheogenic purposes .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The species was described as new to science by American mycologists Rolf Singer and Alexander H. Smith , based on specimens collected in Nor Yungas Province , Bolivia , on the road to La Paz to Coroico . They published a short description in Latin in a 1958 Mycologia publication , followed by a more detailed description in English later that year . According to Psilocybe specialist Gastón Guzmán , the species Psilocybe acutissima ( described by Roger Heim in 1958 ) , and Psilocybe isauri ( described by Singer in 1959 ) are synonyms , as both the macroscopic and microscopic features are the same in the type material of all three . Singer considered P. isauri a species distinct from P. yungensis because of differences in the hairiness of the stem surface . Smith named the variety P. yungensis var. diconica for specimens he found with conical , rather than obconical ( the form of an inverted cone ) papilla . Similarly , the main distinguishing feature that Heim ascribed to P. acutissima was a papillate cap ( somewhat resembling the shape of a female human breast ) . Later studies showed that these morphological variations did not warrant individual recognition , because of the variable nature of these characteristics , and the existence of intermediate forms .
Guzmán places P. yungensis in the section Cordisporae , a grouping of Psilocybe species characterized primarily by having rhomboid spores less than 8 micrometers long . The specific epithet yungensis refers to the name of the type locality . The natives of Huautla de Jiménez and Mixe natives call P. yungensis a hongo adivinador ( " divinatory mushroom " ) , hong que adormece ( " soporific mushroom " ) , or hongo genio ( " genius mushroom " ) .
= = Description = =
The P. yungensis fruit bodies have caps that are conical to bell @-@ shaped in maturity , and reach a diameter of up to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) . The cap surface is smooth and sticky , and , in moist specimens , has faint radial striations ( grooves ) that extend almost to the margin . The color of fresh caps ranges from dark reddish @-@ brown to rusty brown to orangish @-@ brown . Additionally , the cap is hygrophanous , meaning it will change color depending on its state of hydration ; a dry cap fades to become dull yellowish @-@ brown or the color of " dingy straw " . The cap frequently has a prominent umbo .
The gill attachment ranges from adnate ( broadly attached to the stem ) to adnexed ( narrowly attached ) . The spacing of the narrow gills is close to crowded , and the gill color is initially dull gray before maturing spores cause the color to change to purplish @-@ brown . The stem is 3 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 06 to 0 @.@ 10 in ) thick , and more or less equal in width throughout its length or slightly larger near the base . The hollow , brittle , stem is pale brown on the upper part , and reddish @-@ brown near the bottom . The stem is densely covered with whitish fibrils that are pressed flat against the surface ; the fibrils slough off in maturity to leave a smooth surface . The mushroom has a cortinate partial veil ( resembling the webby cortina produced by species of Cortinarius ) but it does not last for long ; it occasionally leaves behind sparse remnants of tissue hanging on the cap margin and the upper part of the stem . No ring remains on the stem after the veil disappears . All parts of the mushroom will stain blue when injured ; these stains will blacken as the mushroom dries .
The spore print is dark purplish @-@ brown . Spores range in shape from roughly rhomboid to roughly elliptical , and typically have dimensions of 5 – 6 by 4 – 6 μm . They are thick @-@ walled and have a large germ pore . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped to swollen , hyaline , usually four @-@ spored ( although rarely two- or three @-@ spored forms are present ) , and measure 13 – 19 by 4 @.@ 4 – 6 @.@ 6 μm . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are ventricose ( swollen ) near the base and often mucronate ( ending abruptly in a short sharp point ) at the apex , and measure 14 – 25 by 4 @.@ 4 – 10 @.@ 5 μm . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are variable in shape , and measure 14 – 40 by 4 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 7 μm . Pleurocystidia are relatively sparse , while cheilocystidia are abundant . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae . The application of a drop of potassium hydroxide solution turns both the cap and the stem from brown to blackish .
= = = Similar species = = =
The species Psilocybe subyungensis , known only from Venezuela , is roughly similar in form , although somewhat smaller , with a cap width of up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter and stem lengths of up to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) . In addition to differences in distribution , it can be clearly distinguished from P. yungensis by the larger cystidia : the pleurocystidia measure 8 @.@ 8 – 11 by 3 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 5 μm , and the cheilocystidia 16 @.@ 5 – 25 by 7 @.@ 7 – 12 μm . Stamets notes that " Few species resemble P. yungensis " , while Michael Beug considers the orangish @-@ brown cap color unusual for a Psilocybe , and compares it to Conocybe .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Psilocybe yungensis is a saprobic species , and contributes to the degradation of organic matter deposited in soils and nutrient cycling in forests where it grows . It typically grows in clusters or groups on rotting wood ( rarely on humus ) ; it is less frequently found growing solitarily . It is often reported from coffee plantations , subtropical , or cloud forests , especially those occurring at elevations between 1 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 and 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . The species occurs in northeast , central and southeastern Mexico , and has been recorded from several locations in the states of Oaxaca , Puebla , Tamaulipas and Veracruz . It is also known from Bolivia , Colombia , and Ecuador , as well as the Caribbean island Martinique . In 2009 , it was reported from China . In Mexico and Colombia , the fungus usually fruits between June and July ; in Bolivia , it was recorded appearing during January .
= = Uses = =
The fruit bodies of Psilocybe yungensis are used for entheogenic , or spiritual , ritualistic purposes by the Mazatec Indians in the Mexican State of Oaxaca . Some authorities have suggested that P. yungensis is the " tree fungus " reported by Jesuit missionaries of the 17th and 18th centuries , a reddish mushroom that was apparently the source of an intoxicating beverage used by the Yurimagua Indians of Amazonian Peru . There is , however , no established record of hallucinogenic mushroom use in that area , and it is possible that the mushroom could instead be a psychedelic species of the wood @-@ dwelling genus Gymnopilus .
= Norsk Air =
Norsk Air was a Norwegian airline based at Sandefjord Airport , Torp . At its height from the mid @-@ 1980s and onwards it operated scheduled flights to Stavanger , Bergen , Trondheim and Copenhagen , and for shorter periods also other Norwegian and international destinations . The airline had 156 employees and 150 @,@ 000 annual passengers in 1989 . The company was established as a sole proprietorship by Øyvind Skaunfelt as Vestfoldfly in 1961 , after purchasing Thor Solberg 's aviation school at Tønsberg Airport , Jarlsberg . In addition to an aviation college , the company operated various charter services using mostly Cessna aircraft . The company split into a flying school and an airline in 1972 , with the latter taking the name Norsk Flytjeneste . Three 50 @-@ passenger Douglas DC @-@ 6 were subsequently bought and were among other places flown with aid charters to Bangladesh . Both the DC @-@ 6 and later charter flights with business jets proved unprofitable and were quickly terminated .
The company turned to regular charter services to Bergen and Stavanger in the 1980s , and from 1984 served the routes with scheduled flights , using seven @-@ passenger Beechcraft 200 King Air . In 1985 the company was converted to a limited company and bought by Kosmos . It subsequently acquired four 30 @-@ passenger Embraer EMB 120 Brasilias — as the second European airline . It introduced several new routes , including international flights to Denmark and the United Kingdom , and took the name Norsk Air . The company bought Norving 's Skien Airport , Geiteryggen division in 1987 and started operations from a second base . Kosmos failed in 1988 and Norsk Air was eventually given for free to Widerøe in 1990 . Skien operations were discontinued the following year and the airline changed name to Widerøe Norsk Air . It remained a subsidiary until being amalgamated in 1996 .
= = History = =
= = = Vestfoldfly = = =
The airline was established as Vestfoldfly by Øyvind Skaunfelt in 1961 . He had been working at Thor Solberg 's aviation school at Tønsberg Airport , Jarlsberg , and offered to purchase the school and airplanes when Solberg retired . Two years earlier , Sandefjord Airport , Torp had opened a civilian sector and Skaunfelt decided to establish his company there . In May 1961 , he received government permission for commercial flying . He started a newspaper route to Oslo Airport , Fornebu , and could also carry three passengers in his single @-@ engined Cessna . The route continued onwards from Sandefjord to Tønsberg , Larvik and at Skien Airport , Geiteryggen . Vestfoldfly also started offering scenic trips and charter . During the summer , the airline also flew seaplanes south along the coast to Kragerø , Risør and Arendal . Other activities involved crop dusting of forest for Felleskjøpet . The airline also provided a target service for the military . Four aircraft were permanently used to tow a target about 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 to 6 @,@ 600 ft ) behind the aircraft , and military personnel would practice shooting at the target .
During the 1960s , Vestfoldfly never received a concession for a regular , scheduled flight from Sandefjord to Oslo . The reason was that the Skien @-@ based Fjellfly held the concession for the routes from Oslo to Sandefjord , Tønsberg and Skien . Fjellfly never used its landing rights at Sandefjord , but nevertheless still hindered Vestfoldfly from starting a competing route . Skaunfelt eventually split his activity in two , demerging the aviation school and renaming it Den Norske Luftfartsskole , which remained in operation until 1999 . The other activity was renamed Norsk Flytjeneste . In 1969 , Norsk Flytjeneste and Jotun , a large Sandefjord @-@ based industrial company , established Penguin Air Service , where Norsk Flytjeneste owned 25 percent of the shares . Penguin Air Service company bought a six @-@ seat Piper PA @-@ 31 Navajo and started charter services for Jotun . In 1975 , Bugge Supplyship also joined the joint venture and a second aircraft was bought . Most of the traffic was for the oil industry to Stavanger .
= = = Norsk Flytjeneste = = =
In 1972 , Norsk Flytjeneste purchased two 50 @-@ passenger Douglas DC @-@ 6Bs from Braathens SAFE and leased one from Sterling Airways . They were used for domestic and international charter . The largest contract was from the Norwegian Church Aid , who contracted Norsk Flytjeneste to fly aid to Bangladesh . However , the airline failed to make money on the DC @-@ 6s , mostly because of the high operating costs , and sold them after a year . The company followed up with purchasing a ten @-@ seat Cessna Citation business jet that they offered in the charter market . However , the market was not large enough , and the jet was sold .
The main market for the charter services was Stavanger Airport , Sola , mainly serving transport of personnel in the oil industry . By the 1980s , Norsk Air had up to four daily round trips between the two cities . In 1983 , the airline received concession to start a regular scheduled service to Stavanger . A ten @-@ seat Beechcraft Super King Air was bought and services started on 12 January 1984 . Services to Bergen Airport , Flesland started on 10 July . Soon there were four daily round trips to both cities , supplemented by charter trips operated by Penguin . Starting on 26 March 1984 , Norsk Flytjeneste experienced competition on the routes from Sandefjord to Bergen and Stavanger , when Busy Bee , on contract with Braathens SAFE , started flights using 50 @-@ passenger Fokker F27s . However , they operated only one round trip , with the same aircraft serving Sandefjord – Stavanger – Haugesund – Bergen .
In 1984 , Norsk Flytjenesete started negotiations with the Sandefjord @-@ based conglomerate Kosmos , who were seeking to invest in a local airline . Kosmos had decided to start a diversification strategy to spread their risk . Norsk Flytjeneste was at the time not making money on its routes , but Kosmos was willing to carry the loss as an investment . The airline was sold to Kosmos on 15 April 1985 . At the time of the take @-@ over , Norsk Flytjeneste had four Cessna 310s and one Piper Navajo . The airline 's seven @-@ passenger Beechcraft 200 and C90 King Airs were already owned by Kosmos . The company was changed from a sole propriatoriship to a limited company . Kjell Riege from Kosmos was appointed managing director while Tor Lundstrøm continued as chief pilot .
= = = Norsk Air = = =
On 30 July 1985 , Norsk Flytjeneste opened their first international route , to Copenhagen Airport in Denmark . The concessions had a limitation on not using aircraft with more than ten seats . However the limitation was lifted later in the year . Under Kosmos ' management , Norsk Flytjeneste started an aggressive expansion . Applications were made for concessions from Sandefjord to Gothenburg in Sweden , and from Oslo via Hamar and Røros to Trondheim . Norsk Flytjeneste also needed larger aircraft , and the airline evaluated several types , including the Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia , the 30 @-@ passenger Saab 340 and the Fokker F27 . The company chose to order four 30 @-@ passenger Brasilias . During the negotiations with Embraer , the company realized that Norsk Flytjeneste was a difficult name for foreigners , since the Brazilians could not pronounce " Flytjeneste " . When the new aircraft were delivered , the airline rebranded as Norsk Air .
The company also joined the joint venture Commuter Service along with other Norwegian regional airlines , Coast Aero Center , Mørefly and Trønderfly . The intention was to create a cooperative company which could compete in a more diversified market . The group 's lawyer stated that the organizational structure among regional airlines was 15 years out of date and that the group would take market shares in a growing market , especially by starting new niche direct services .
Norsk Air was the second airline in Europe to order the Brasilia , after Air Excel . Three were financed with loans from Banco de Brasil and the last was leased . With the introduction of the Brasilias in 1986 , the airline started a route from Sandefjord to Trondheim Airport , Værnes . From 1985 to 1986 , the airline 's costs doubled , but not their income . In 1987 , Terje Røsjode , former bank chief for Christiania Bank in Sandefjord , took over as managing director . The Brasilias had state @-@ of @-@ art technology , and although airlines purchase new aircraft to reduce their maintenance costs , this was not the reality for Norsk Air because they did not have sufficient competence to maintain the aircraft . In particular , they lacked sufficient electronic expertise , due to the increase of electronic components in the aircraft . All the other aircraft were sold .
In 1986 , the company established a duty @-@ free shop at Torp . By 1987 , Norsk Air was losing NOK 20 million per year . The company established a route from Sandefjord to Gothenburg @-@ Landvetter Airport and to London Stansted Airport , but neither were profitable , and were quickly terminated . Norsk Air started a route from Fagernes Airport , Leirin to Oslo and Bergen on 4 November 1987 . The route turned out to be unprofitable , and was terminated on 1 June 1988 , after the company had lost NOK 5 million on the route .
To develop the company , Kosmos and Norsk Air bought the Kirkenes @-@ based airline Norving , that also operated flights from Skien Airport , Geiteryggen — about one hour 's drive from Sandefjord — to Bergen , Trondheim and Stavanger . Norving had seven types of aircraft , but was losing large amounts of money , although the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications covered their losses on some state @-@ subsidized regional routes . The purchase of Norving caused an internal organization conflict between the two organizations . The operations from Skien were merged into Norsk Air , while the rest of Norving was sold . The latter went bankrupt in 1993 . Norsk Air also showed interested in purchasing Widerøe , but none of the large owners were interested in selling .
= = = Widerøe Norsk Air = = =
Kosmos was bought by the Skaugen Group in 1988 , and on 21 October , Kosmos ' Chief Executive Officer ( CEO ) Bjørn Bettum and Chairman Otto Grieg Tidemand were fired . The Skaugen Group decided to integrate Kosmos ' shipping and oil @-@ related activities into their group . All other investments , including Norsk Air , were to be sold or closed . At the time , Norsk Air had 140 employees . Norsk Air 's CEO , Mr. Røsjodet , made contact with Bård Mikkelsen , who was CEO of Widerøe , to try to convince them to purchase Norsk Air . Widerøe was a that time solely occupied with flying on the subsidized regional routes . The company was interested in having some non @-@ subsidized routes to better benchmark its operations . The two largest owners , Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) and Braathens SAFE , did not want to purchase Norsk Air , but the third @-@ largest owner , Fred . Olsen & Co. liked the idea , and bought SAS ' and Braathens SAFE 's 62 @.@ 3 percent stake in Widerøe to make the deal possible . Other possible purchasers who had negotiated with Norsk Air were Sterling Airlines , Partnair and Jan Einar Johansen , former owner of Scandi Line .
By 1989 , the airline had 156 employees and 150 @,@ 000 annual passengers . On 9 February 1989 , Norsk Air 's board decided to start the termination process if a sale was not made . The employees agreed to cut their wages 10 percent and not take sick days during the sales process . One of the main difficulties in the sales process was that Widerøe could not afford to purchase Norsk Air 's hangar at the airport . Widerøe intended to continue operations at both Torp and Geiteryggen for a year to see where to establish its base . In fear that the airline would move to Skien , the municipalities of Sandefjord and Stokke , who owned the majority of the airport , agreed to purchase the hangar , which had been built for NOK 20 million in 1987 , for NOK 11 @.@ 5 million . Half the hangar would be rented to Widerøe for NOK 500 @,@ 000 per year . This was insufficient to cover the NOK 1 @.@ 2 million in annual interest costs .
Widerøe took over Norsk Air free of charge on 1 May 1989 , and changed the company 's name to Widerøe Norsk Air . The company was kept as a subsidiary to avoid cross @-@ subsidization of the subsidized routes . Widerøe started negotiations with Busy Bee , and agreed to lease the Fokker 50 used by Busy Bee to Sandefjord , in exchange for Busy Bee terminating the route in 1990 . Widerøe Norsk Air also decided that it was not profitable to fly from both Skien and Sandefjord , and terminated all Skien services . Starting on 28 October 1991 , the airline also started a route from Sandefjord via Kristiansand Airport , Kjevik to London . This route was terminated one year later . In 1993 , Widerøe sold its Fokker 50 to Norwegian Air Shuttle . On 1 May 1996 , Widerøe Norsk Air was merged with Widerøe and ceased to exist . After the merger , Widerøe phased out the Brasilias and replaced them with de Havilland Canada Dash 8 aircraft .
= = Destinations = =
The following is a list of destinations served by Norsk Air in regular scheduled services . It includes the city , country , airport and the period in which the airline served the airport . Hubs are denoted with a dagger ( ) .
= Bart the Genius =
" Bart the Genius " is the second episode of The Simpsons ' first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 14 , 1990 . It was the first episode written by Jon Vitti . It was also the first ever episode to use the opening sequence , as well as the first regular episode . In the episode Bart cheats on an intelligence test and is declared a genius , so he is sent to a school for gifted children . Though he initially enjoys being treated as a genius , he begins to see the downside of his new life .
It marks the first use of Bart 's catchphrase " Eat my shorts " . As the second episode produced , directly after the disastrous animation of " Some Enchanted Evening " , the future of the series depended on how the animation turned out on this episode . The animation proved to be more acceptable and production continued .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family spend a night of playing Scrabble and Lisa reminds Bart that he is supposed to be stimulating his brain with various vocabulary if he hopes to pass his intelligence test . He cheats his way to victory by coming up with his own word , basing its definition on an insulting description of Homer . This angers his father and he spends time chasing after Bart , much to the embarrassment of his family .
At Springfield Elementary School , Bart is busted for vandalism by Principal Skinner , who has been informed by class genius , Martin Prince . Faced with the prospect of failing an intelligence test , Bart surreptitiously switches exams with Martin . When the school psychologist , Dr. Pryor , studies the results , he identifies Bart as a genius , to the delight of Homer and Marge , who enroll him in a new school . However , Lisa is not fooled by his supposed genius and still believes Bart to be a moron ; Skinner shares her belief , but takes advantage of Bart 's departure from the school .
At the Enriched Learning Center for Gifted Children , Bart feels out of place among the other students with advanced academic skills . Meanwhile , Marge attempts to stimulate Bart with a little culture by taking the family to the opera . However , this proves disastrous as Bart and Homer are quite disruptive , much to Lisa 's joy . Ostracized by his brilliant classmates , Bart visits his former school , where his old friends reject him because of his perceived intelligence . On the bright side , he enjoys newfound attention from Homer and he covers for them when Marge makes another attempt to stimulate Bart 's brain by taking to a ballet recital . After Bart 's chemistry experiment
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species can co @-@ exist on the surface of the Earth . Ambrose and Tony , worried about the Silurian reaction when they discover Alaya 's death , set Nasreen and Tony 's drill to burrow further and self @-@ destruct fifteen minutes after they depart , which would destroy the Silurian oxygen supply and kill them all .
Meanwhile , Restac has killed Malohkeh for his betrayal and awakened other members of the warrior caste , intending to stage a coup against Eldane . When Rory and the others arrive with Alaya 's corpse , Restac becomes furious and orders the humans ' death ; the Doctor disables their weapons to give him , Eldane , and the humans time to escape ; they bar themselves into Malohkeh 's lab . The Doctor and Eldane realise they can use Silurian technology to destroy the drill before it detonates , but it will cause their exit route to collapse if they cannot reach the TARDIS in time . Eldane returns the warriors to hibernation by initiating a " toxic fumigation " ; the humans escape , and Eldane hopes that in a thousand years , peace between humans and Silurians can occur . Tony , still affected by Silurian venom , opts to stay behind to be cured , and Nasreen also remains behind to study the earth from below and help improve human @-@ Silurian relations .
Ambrose 's family takes refuge in the TARDIS , but the Doctor , Amy and Rory find a crack in the cavern wall similar to those they have seen before . The Doctor surmises that the crack was caused by an explosion in time , which might have left " shrapnel " behind . He reaches in and pulls out an object which he wraps in a handkerchief . Before he can explain , Restac , dying from the toxic exposure , crawls around the corner and fires at the Doctor , but Rory pushes him out of the way and takes the shot , dying in Amy 's arms . As the crack begins to absorb Rory 's body , the Doctor realises that Rory will be written out of history and forces Amy to board the TARDIS before the drill explodes . He tries to help her concentrate on remembering Rory , but a jolt from the TARDIS causes her to lose concentration and her memories of Rory are lost . The Doctor finds Amy 's engagement ring , which Rory had stowed before the events , on the floor of the TARDIS .
On the surface , Ambrose thanks the Doctor for not letting the Silurians execute her for killing Alaya , and the Doctor asks her to help prepare humanity for their next encounter with the Silurians . The Doctor and Amy return to the TARDIS , where Amy sights her future self on the hillside without Rory . The Doctor takes out the object he pulled from the crack : a burnt piece of the TARDIS 's sign . He worriedly compares it to the real thing . Aside from the damage , they appear identical .
= = Production = =
Writer Chris Chibnall was contracted by executive producers Steven Moffat and Piers Wenger to write a two @-@ part Doctor Who episode about Silurians and a drill . Chibnall had previously written the Doctor Who episode " 42 " as well as episodes of the spin @-@ off series Torchwood . " Cold Blood " is the second part of the story which began with " The Hungry Earth " ; the latter built up the tension while " Cold Blood " was designed to get into the action . " Cold Blood " is also set in the bigger setting of the Silurian city , while " The Hungry Earth " was set in a small Welsh village . Chibnall wanted the Silurian city to contrast with the village . Chibnall wanted it to be a " story about people making mistakes under massive pressure " and the accidental conflict that came out of protecting a family ; as such , he always intended for Alaya to die . He considered " Cold Blood " especially to be " so clearly about the Silurians and what the Silurians want " .
Moffat 's plan " from the outset " , to tie the episode into the overarching story arc of the series , was that Rory not just die but be erased from history in the crack in the universe . Moffat would later bring Rory back in " The Pandorica Opens " , though the episode reveals his consciousness was placed in a Roman centurion Auton as part of a trap for the Doctor to save the universe from the cracks . Moffat also thought it was appropriate as the trio had had fun , and now it was time for a casualty . Rory 's death is also connected with Chibnall 's theme of making mistakes ; it was the Doctor 's fault as he stopped to look at the crack . Gillan called the scene " incredibly challenging " for her to perform and tried to make it " truthful and believable " .
" The Hungry Earth " and " Cold Blood " made up the fourth production block of the series and were filmed in late October and November 2009 in the Upper Boat Studios and Llanwynno , Wales . " Cold Blood " utilised many different locations and unusual sets to portray the Silurian city , as the production team did not want simply a " cave feel " . They believed that the Silurians were also sophisticated and were able to use materials found underground , such as granite and marble . Many of the sets were given an orange glow from beneath to portray the " ambient glow " from the centre of the earth . The jungle walkway leading to the Silurian city was filmed in the Plantasia botanical garden in Swansea on 13 November 2009 . The set gave a sense of things growing , as these were necessary for the Silurians to survive . Set designers were able to rearrange the plants , though they had to be careful not to show the window leading to the car park or other modern amenities . The hall where the Doctor is brought for execution was filmed at the Temple of Peace in Cardiff , and little dressing was done to the set .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Cold Blood " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One and simulcast on BBC HD on 29 May 2010 . Initial overnight ratings showed that the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 7 million viewers , a million more than the previous week . Final consolidated ratings rose to 7 @.@ 49 million ( 7 @.@ 04 million on BBC One and 0 @.@ 45 million on BBC HD ) , ranking the show fourth for the week ending 30 May 2010 on the channel and the highest rated show on BBC One for the day . The episode received an Appreciation Index of 85 , considered " excellent " .
" Cold Blood " was released in Region 2 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 2 August 2010 with the episodes " Amy 's Choice " and " The Hungry Earth " . It was then re @-@ released as part of the Complete Fifth Series boxset on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Dan Martin , writing for The Guardian , said that the episode was similar to previous Silurian stories in Doctor Who , though he said he loved the " tense , mad and thoughtful story " . He expressed " delight " at Amy and Nasreen negotiating for the humans , though he thought the diplomacy scenes were " broadly drawn " . Overall , he considered the strength of the episode was " giving you something big and moral to chew over , in a way that nothing else this series has yet " . Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph also compared " Cold Blood " ' s concept and ideas to the original 1970 Silurians story but considered this story made " less of an impact " due to a " black and white depiction " and the one @-@ dimensional Restac . He was also critical of Matt Smith 's Doctor , whose portrayal " lacked gravitas and conviction and was altogether too light @-@ hearted " . However , he praised both Smith and Gillan 's " strong " performances in the final scene where Rory is killed .
The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps gave the episode a B + , noting that Rory 's death had been spoiled for him by commenters on the site and thus he did not enjoy the episode as much as he might have . He called it " satisfying , if not extraordinary " conclusion and " another pretty solid entry in the series " . He further praising Gillan and Amy 's character for " [ continuing ] to impress " as well as the depths to the supporting characters by both Chibnall and Way , and the allegories that could be derived from the conflict between the humans and the Silurians and the aftermath of Rory 's demise .
IGN 's Matt Wales rated the episode 8 out of 10 , and thought that " even less actually happened " than the previous episode , though he enjoyed the " atmospheric build @-@ up and more thoughtful tone " . While he considered it predictable , he said that it " still offered plenty in the way of entertainment with its brisk pace , beautifully @-@ realised underground world and a convincing cast of rounded characters " . He praised Smith and Gillan 's performances in the ending , but thought it was " a surprisingly downbeat denouement " . Ian Berriman of SFX magazine gave " Cold Blood " four and a half out of five stars , positively comparing the emotional ending to episodes from the Russell T Davies era . He also had some " nitpicks " about the episode , such as the abrupt character change of Malohkeh .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Hungry Earth " / " Cold Blood " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= Che ( 2008 film ) =
Che is a two @-@ part 2008 biopic about Argentine Marxist revolutionary Ernesto " Che " Guevara , directed by Steven Soderbergh and starring Benicio del Toro . Rather than follow a standard chronological order , the films offer an oblique series of interspersed moments along the overall timeline . Part One is entitled The Argentine and focuses on the Cuban Revolution from the landing of Fidel Castro , Guevara , and other revolutionaries in Cuba to their successful toppling of Fulgencio Batista 's dictatorship two years later . Part Two is entitled Guerrilla and focuses on Guevara 's attempt to bring revolution to Bolivia and his demise . Both parts are shot in a cinéma vérité style , but each has different approaches to linear narrative , camerawork , and the visual look .
Filmmaker Terrence Malick originally worked on a screenplay limited to Guevara 's attempts to start a revolution in Bolivia . When financing fell through , Malick left the project , and Soderbergh subsequently agreed to direct the film . He realized that there was no context for Guevara 's actions in Bolivia and decided that his participation in the Cuban Revolution and his appearance at the United Nations in 1964 should also be depicted . Peter Buchman was hired to write the screenplay : the script was so long that Soderbergh decided to divide the film into two parts , one chronicling Cuba and other depicting Bolivia . Soderbergh shot the films back @-@ to @-@ back starting at the beginning of July 2007 , with Guerrilla first in Spain for 39 days , and The Argentine shot in Puerto Rico and Mexico for 39 days .
Che was screened as a single film at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival . Del Toro won the Best Actor Award , and the film received mostly positive reviews . IFC Films , which holds all North American rights to Che , initially released the combined film for one week on 12 December 2008 in New York City and Los Angeles to qualify for the year 's Academy Awards . Strong box office performance led to the " special roadshow edition " being extended in N.Y.C. and L.A. and later expanded into additional markets . The film was released as two separate films , titled Che Part 1 : The Argentine and Che Part 2 : Guerrilla , and distribution expanded further after that . The Independent Film Channel released the films via video on demand and on Region 1 DVD exclusively from Blockbuster . Che Parts I and II have grossed nearly $ 41 million USD , against a budget of $ 58 million USD .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part 1 : The Argentine = = =
In Havana 1964 , Che Guevara is interviewed by Lisa Howard who asks him if reform throughout Latin America might not blunt the " message of the Cuban Revolution . "
In 1955 , at a gathering in Mexico City , Guevara first meets Fidel Castro . He listens to Castro ’ s plans and signs on as a member of the July 26th Movement .
There is a return to 1964 for Guevara ’ s address before the United Nations General Assembly in New York City , where he makes an impassioned speech against American imperialism , and defends the executions his regime has committed , declaring " this is a battle to the death . "
March 1957 . Guevara deals with debilitating bouts of asthma as his group of revolutionaries meet up with Castro ’ s . Together , they attack an army barracks in the Sierra Maestra on May 28 , 1957 .
On October 15 , 1958 , the guerrillas approach the town of Las Villas . The Battle of Santa Clara is depicted with Guevara demonstrating his tactical skill as the guerrillas engage in street @-@ to @-@ street fighting and derail a train carrying Cuban soldiers and armaments . Near the film ‘ s end , they are victorious . With the Cuban Revolution now over , Guevara heads to Havana , remarking " we won the war , the revolution starts now . "
= = = Part 2 : Guerrilla = = =
The second part begins on November 3 , 1966 with Guevara arriving in Bolivia disguised as a middle @-@ aged representative of the Organization of American States hailing from Uruguay , who subsequently drives into the mountains to meet his men . The film is organized by the number of days that he was in the country . On Day 26 , there is solidarity among Guevara 's men despite his status as foreigner . By Day 67 , Guevara has been set up for betrayal . He tries to recruit some peasants only to be mistaken for a cocaine smuggler . On Day 100 , there is a shortage of food and Guevara exercises discipline to resolve conflicts between his Cuban and Bolivian followers .
By Day 113 , some of the guerrillas have deserted and the Bolivian Army has discovered their base camp . Much to Che 's disappointment Tamara " Tania " Bunke , Guevara 's revolutionary contact , has botched elaborate preparations and given away their identity . On Day 141 , the guerrillas capture Bolivian soldiers that refuse to join the revolution and are free to return to their villages . CIA advisers arrive to supervise anti @-@ insurgent activity and training . On Day 169 , Guevara 's visiting friend , the French intellectual Régis Debray , is captured at Muyupampa by the Bolivian Army , which launches an aerial attack on Day 219 .
Guevara grows sick and by Day 280 can barely breathe as a result of his acute asthma . On Day 302 , the Bolivian Army kills Tania Bunke , Juan Acuña Ñunez , and several others in Che 's forces in an ambush as they attempt to cross the Vado del Yeso after a local informant tells the Bolivian troops about the movements of the rebels . By Day 340 , Guevara is trapped by the Bolivian Army in the Yuro Ravine near the village of La Higuera . Che is wounded and captured . The next day , a helicopter lands and a Cuban American CIA agent Félix Rodríguez emerges . The Bolivian high command are then phoned and give approval for Guevara 's execution . He is shot on 9 October 1967 , and his corpse lashed to a helicopter 's landing skids and flown out .
In a final flashback scene , Guevara is aboard the Granma in 1956 , looking out over the ocean . He sees the Castro brothers alone at the bow of the ship ; Fidel is talking and Raúl is taking notes . Guevara hands a peeled orange to one of his comrades and returns his gaze to the lone brothers before the scene fades to black .
= = Cast = =
Benicio del Toro as Ernesto " Che " Guevara
Demián Bichir as Fidel Castro
Rodrigo Santoro as Raúl Castro
Santiago Cabrera as Camilo Cienfuegos
Franka Potente as Tamara " Tania " Bunke
Gastón Pauls as Ciro Bustos ( el Argentino )
Catalina Sandino Moreno as Aleida March
Julia Ormond as Lisa Howard
Oscar Isaac as U.N. Interpreter and film narrator
Lou Diamond Phillips as Mario Monje
Benjamín Benítez as Harry " Pombo " Villegas
Armando Riesco as Benigno
Elvira Minguez as Celia Sanchez
Édgar Ramírez as Ciro Redondo
Alfredo De Quesada as Israel Pardo
Roberto Luis Santana as Juan Almeida Bosque
Victor Rasuk as Rogelio Acevedo
Kahlil Mendez as Urbano
Matt Damon as Fr . Schwarz
Unax Ugalde as Roberto " El Vaquerito " Rodríguez
Joaquim de Almeida as René Barrientos
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Originally , Che was intended to be a much more traditional film based on Jon Lee Anderson 's 1997 biography Che Guevara : A Revolutionary Life . Actor Benicio del Toro and producer Laura Bickford optioned the film rights to Anderson 's book . However , after two years they had not found a suitable writer and the rights expired . During this time , Del Toro and Bickford researched the events depicted in Guerrilla with the idea of exploring Guevara 's attempts to start a revolution in Bolivia . Del Toro has said that he previously only thought of Guevara as a " bad guy " . For his role , Del Toro spent seven years " obsessively researching " Guevara 's life , which made him feel like he " earned his stripes " to interpret the character . Preparation included looking at Guevara 's photographs and reading his personal writings . Del Toro read Don Quixote , one of Guevara 's favorites , and the first book published and given out free after the Cuban Revolution . Del Toro then personally met with people from different stages of Guevara 's life , including Guevara 's younger brother and childhood friends , traveling to Cuba where Del Toro met Guevara 's widow , family , and " tons of people that loved this man " . The visit included a five @-@ minute encounter at a book fair with Fidel Castro , who expressed that he was happy for the " serious " research being undertaken . Such research included collaborating with the three surviving guerrillas from Guevara 's ill @-@ fated Bolivian campaign , and with several guerrillas who fought alongside him in Cuba . While researching for both films , Soderbergh made a documentary of his interviews with many of the people who had fought alongside Guevara . In his encounters with people ranging from fellow guerrillas to Guevara 's driver , Del Toro described the reaction as " always the same " , stating that he was " blown away " by the " bucketful of love " they still harbored for Guevara . In an interview , Del Toro described Guevara as " a weird combination of an intellectual and an action figure , Gregory Peck and Steve McQueen , wrapped in one " . After the film 's production concluded , Del Toro professed that " when you tell the story of Che , you 're telling a story of the history of a country , so you have to be very careful " .
= = = Screenplay = = =
Del Toro and Bickford hired screenwriter Benjamin A. van der Veen to write the screenplay 's first drafts , and their extensive research took them to Cuba where they met with several of the remaining members of Guevara 's team in Bolivia as well as the revolutionary 's wife and children . It was during this phase of development that the filmmakers discovered Terrence Malick had been in Bolivia as a journalist in 1966 working on a story about Che . Malick came on as director and worked on the screenplay with van der Veen and Del Toro , but after a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half , the financing had not come together entirely and Malick left to make The New World , a film about Jamestown , Virginia . Afraid that their multi @-@ territory deals would fall apart , Bickford and Del Toro asked Steven Soderbergh , who was previously on board as producer , to direct . The filmmaker was drawn to the contrast of " engagement versus disengagement . Do we want to participate or observe ? Once Che made the decision to engage , he engaged fully . Often people attribute that to a higher power , but as an atheist , he didn 't have that . I found that very interesting " . Furthermore , he remarked that Guevara was " great movie material " and " had one of the most fascinating lives " that he could " imagine in the last century " . Bickford and Del Toro realized that there was no context for what made Guevara decide to go to Bolivia . They began looking for someone to rewrite the screenplay ; Peter Buchman was recommended to them because he had a good reputation for writing about historical figures , based on a script he worked about Alexander the Great . He spent a year reading every available book on Guevara in preparation for writing the script . The project was put on hold when Bickford and Del Toro made Traffic with Soderbergh .
Soderbergh wanted to incorporate Guevara 's experiences in Cuba and at the United Nations in 1964 . Buchman helped with the script 's structure , which he gave three storylines : Guevara 's life and the Cuban Revolution ; his demise in Bolivia ; and his trip to New York to speak at the U.N. Buchman found that the problem with containing all of these stories in one film was that he had to condense time and this distorted history . Soderbergh found the draft Buchman submitted to him " unreadable " and after two weeks decided to split the script into two separate films . Buchman went back and with Del Toro expanded the Cuban story for The Argentine . Additional research included reading Guevara 's diaries and declassified documents from the U.S. State Department about his trip to New York and memos from his time in Bolivia .
Soderbergh found the task of researching such a popular historical figure as Guevara a daunting one : " If you go to any bookstore , you 'll find an entire wall of Che @-@ related material . We tried to go through all of it , we were overwhelmed with information . He means something different to everyone . At a certain point we had to decide for ourselves who Che was " . The original source material for these scripts was Guevara 's diary from the Cuban Revolution , Reminiscences of the Cuban Revolutionary War , and from his time in Bolivia , Bolivian Diary . From there , he drew on interviews with people who knew Guevara from both of those time periods and read every book available that pertained to both Cuba and Bolivia . Bickford and Del Toro met with Harry " Pombo " Villegas , Urbano and Benigno — three men who met Guevara during
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made upon due to popular demand and platform compatibility with the Unity engine . While originally announced for release in January 2015 , it was delayed due to a problem with the development environment with the Vita , which left the team stuck until Sony could update the system and provide them with suitable support . The team also used it as an opportunity to improve the overall quality of the port . The Vita version was to include access to all the content of the mobile version along with added control and gameplay improvements . As part of the physical release , players were to be given codes for downloadable content : the content includes rare in @-@ game armor and items . Save data from the mobile version could not be transferred to the Vita . In September 2015 , it was announced that the Vita port had been cancelled . Tabata later explained that the team had been confronted by a " technical bottleneck " , facing critical problems with the multiplayer functionality , together with problems involving server compatibility . The game was also being ported to Microsoft Windows for operation on the Windows 10 home operating system and Windows 10 Mobile @-@ compatible smartphones and tablets . The mobile version was to have been the continued main focus for the team despite the Windows port . After the cancellation of Agito + and the end of Agito 's service , refunds were offered to customers who had bought items in @-@ game or preordered the Vita port .
= = Reception = =
Roughly a week after Agito 's release , it was announced that the game had 500 @,@ 000 registered users in Japan . By November of that year , the figure had expanded to one million players . Later , Touch Arcade reported that active player numbers had dropped drastically after long @-@ term poor impressions .
Famitsu , in a review of the game shortly after release , praised the combat and graphics , but found the touch controls difficult to handle . The reviewer finished by recommending the game to fans of the Final Fantasy series . Kotaku 's Richard Eisenbeis said that the game went " far beyond what [ he ] expected going in " , noting that he did not feel outclassed by other players despite not using the game 's microtransaction system . Shaun Musgrave of Touch Arcade praised the game 's graphics and combat , comparing the battle missions to Puzzle & Dragons . He did question the general balance , but noted that the game was still young and Square Enix had the chance to smooth things out .
= Japanese battleship Hiei =
Hiei ( 比叡 ) was a warship of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War I and World War II . Designed by British naval architect George Thurston , she was the second launched of four Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , among the most heavily armed ships in any navy when built . Laid down in 1911 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal , Hiei was formally commissioned in 1914 . She patrolled off the Chinese coast on several occasions during World War I , and helped with rescue efforts following the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake .
Starting in 1929 , Hiei was converted to a gunnery training ship to avoid being scrapped under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty . She served as Emperor Hirohito 's transport in the mid @-@ 1930s . Starting in 1937 , she underwent a full @-@ scale reconstruction that completely rebuilt her superstructure , upgraded her powerplant , and equipped her with launch catapults for floatplanes . Now fast enough to accompany Japan 's growing fleet of aircraft carriers , she was reclassified as a fast battleship . On the eve of the US entry into World War II , she sailed as part of Vice @-@ Admiral Chuichi Nagumo 's Combined Fleet , escorting the six carriers that attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 .
As part of the Third Battleship Division , Hiei participated in many of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's early actions in 1942 , providing support for the invasion of the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) as well as the Indian Ocean raid of April 1942 . During the Battle of Midway , she sailed in the Invasion Force under Admiral Nobutake Kondō , before being redeployed to the Solomon Islands during the Battle of Guadalcanal . She escorted Japanese carrier forces during the battles of the Eastern Solomons and Santa Cruz Islands , before sailing as part of a bombardment force under Admiral Kondō during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal . On the evening of 13 November 1942 , Hiei engaged American cruisers and destroyers alongside her sister ship Kirishima . After inflicting heavy damage on American cruisers and destroyers , Hiei was crippled by enemy vessels . Subjected to continuous air attack , she sank on the evening of 14 November 1942 .
= = Design and construction = =
Hiei was the second of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , a line of capital ships designed by the British naval architect George Thurston . The class was ordered in 1910 in the Japanese Emergency Naval Expansion Bill after the commissioning of HMS Invincible in 1908 . The four battlecruisers of the Kongō class were designed to match the naval capabilities of the other major powers at the time ; they have been called the battlecruiser versions of the British ( formerly Turkish ) battleship HMS Erin . With their heavy armament and armor protection ( the latter of which made up 23 @.@ 3 % of their approximately 30 @,@ 000 ton displacement ) , Hiei and her sister ships were vastly superior to any other Japanese capital ship afloat at the time .
The keel of Hiei was laid down at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 4 November 1911 , with most of the parts used in her construction manufactured in Britain . She was launched on 21 November 1912 , and fitting @-@ out began in December 1913 . On 15 December 1913 , Captain Takagi Shichitaro was assigned as her chief equipping officer . She was completed on 4 August 1914 .
= = = Armament = = =
Hiei 's main battery consisted of eight 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) heavy @-@ caliber main guns in four twin turrets , two forward and two aft . The turrets were noted by the US Office of Naval Intelligence to be " similar to the British 15 @-@ inch turrets " , with improvements made in flash @-@ tightness in the gun chambers . Each of her main guns could fire high @-@ explosive or armor @-@ piercing shells 38 @,@ 770 yards ( 19 @.@ 14 nmi ; 35 @.@ 45 km ) at a rate of two shells per minute . In keeping with the Japanese doctrine of deploying more powerful vessels than their opponents , Hiei and her sister ships were the first vessels in the world equipped with 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) guns . The main guns carried ammunition for ninety shots and had an approximate gun @-@ life of 250 – 280 shots . In 1941 , dyes were introduced for the armor @-@ piercing shells of the four Kongo @-@ class battleships to assist their gunners in distinguishing the hits from a distance , with Hiei 's armor @-@ piercing shells using black dye .
Her secondary battery was originally sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) 50 @-@ caliber medium guns in single casemates ( all located amidships ) , eight 3 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) guns and eight submerged 21 @-@ inch ( 53 cm ) torpedo tubes . The sixteen 6 @-@ inch / 50 caliber guns were capable of firing between 5 and 6 rounds per minute , with a barrel life of 500 rounds . The 6 @-@ inch / 50 caliber gun was capable of firing both antiaircraft and antiship shells , though the positioning of the guns on Hiei made antiaircraft firing impractical . The eight 5 @-@ inch / 40 caliber guns added later could fire between 8 and 14 rounds per minute , with a barrel life of 800 – 1500 rounds . These guns had the widest variety of shot type of Hiei 's guns , being designed to fire antiaircraft , antiship , and illumination shells . Hiei was also armed with a large number of 1 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) Type 96 antiaircraft autocannons .
= = Service = =
= = = 1914 – 1929 : Battlecruiser = = =
On 4 August 1914 , Hiei was formally commissioned and assigned to the Sasebo Naval District , before being attached to the Third Battleship Division of the First Fleet two weeks later . On 23 August 1914 , Japan declared war on the German Empire , occupying the former German colonies in Palau and in the Caroline , Marshall and Mariana Islands . In October 1914 , Hiei departed Sasebo alongside Kongō to support Imperial Japanese Army units in the Siege of Tsingtao , but she was recalled on 17 October . On 3 October 1915 , Hiei and Kongō participated in the sinking of Imperator Nikolai I , a Russian pre @-@ dreadnought captured in 1905 during the Russo @-@ Japanese War that had subsequently served in the Japanese Navy under the name Iki as a coastal defense ship . In April 1916 , she patrolled the Chinese coast with her newly launched sisters Kirishima and Haruna . From 1917 to the end of World War I , Hiei remained primarily at Sasebo , patrolling the Chinese and Korean coasts with her sister ships on several occasions .
Following the end of World War I , the Japanese Empire gained control of former German possessions in the central Pacific per the terms of the Treaty of Versailles . Due to Japan 's warm relations with the British Empire and the United States at the time , Hiei and other Japanese warships became significantly less active after the war . Other than a patrol alongside Haruna and Kirishima off the Chinese coast in March 1919 , Hiei remained in the Japanese home ports . On 13 October 1920 , she was placed in reserve . Following the Great Kantō earthquake of September 1923 , the capital ships of the Japanese Navy assisted in rescue work until the end of the month . Hiei arrived at Kure Naval Base on 1 December 1923 for a refit which increased the elevation of her main guns from 20 to 33 degrees and rebuilt her foremast .
With the conclusion of World War I , the world powers attempted to stem any militarization that might re @-@ escalate into war . Under the terms of Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 , the Imperial Japanese Navy was significantly reduced , with a ratio of 5 : 5 : 3 required between the capital ships of the United Kingdom , the United States , and Japan . The treaty also banned Japan from building any new capital ships until 1931 , with no capital ship permitted to exceed 35 @,@ 000 tons . Provided that further additions did not exceed 3 @,@ 000 tons , existing capital ships were allowed to be upgraded with improved torpedo bulges and deck armor . By the time the Washington Treaty had been fully implemented in Japan , only three classes of World War I @-@ era capital ships — the Fusō class ( e.g. Yamashiro ) and Ise @-@ class battleships , and the Kongō @-@ class battlec
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assault force for the 3rd Division 's part of the operation , while the 11th Brigade was to act as the divisional reserve .
As the division 's assault units began their approach march towards the line of departure late on the evening of 6 June , the German artillery opened up with a gas bombardment that severely hindered the march , breaking up the assaulting units as men became lost . Suffering over 2 @,@ 000 casualties before the battle even began , many of the division 's assault units reached their assembly points with less than 200 men , nevertheless they arrived on time and at the appointed hour , after a number of mines were exploded in front of their positions , the assault began . The exploding mines had destroyed a large part of the German line and as a result initial resistance was quickly overcome by the division 's lead battalions — the 33rd , 34th , 38th and 39th — and by 5 am , the division had gained the crest of the Messines ridge and began digging in to defend against a possible counter @-@ attack . In the engagements that followed the division largely played only a supporting role .
Following this , the division 's next major engagement came on 4 October 1917 when it took part in the Battle of Broodseinde Ridge . This time the 9th Brigade was held back in reserve , while the 10th and 11th Brigades led the division forward . Attacking on the left of the Australian 2nd Division and the right of the New Zealand Division , early on the morning of the scheduled start of the attack the German artillery opened up on the division 's eight assaulting infantry battalions as they stood to in the open ready to step off . Conserving their artillery for the main attack , the supporting Allied artillery only provided limited counter @-@ battery fire and the division suffered heavily as they were forced to endure an hour @-@ long barrage before zero hour came at 6 am . As the 37th and 43rd Battalions led the advance towards the German lines , supported by small teams of mortarmen and machine gunners , the Germans launched their own attack , however , the Australian assault had taken them by surprise and after some initial resistance , the German assault troops began to fall back or surrender . As the follow @-@ on battalions exploited the ground gained in the initial assault the advance continued and by 9 : 15 am the 3rd Division had carried the ridge and begun to dig in , having advanced 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) . A counterattack late in the day on the 11th Brigade 's position was turned back , sealing a stunning success for the 3rd Division . Nevertheless , the division 's casualties were high , with over 1 @,@ 800 men killed or wounded . For his actions during the attack , Walter Peeler , a Lewis @-@ gunner from the 3rd Pioneer Battalion who was attached to 37th Battalion for anti @-@ aircraft duties received the Victoria Cross after he personally led the assault on a number of German positions .
They held the line for a further three days before being withdrawn for rest and reorganisation . On 10 October 1917 the division returned to the front and began to make preparations to assault Passchendaele Ridge , an advance of over 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) . Heavy rain , however , had turned the battlefield into a thick , muddy morass and as a result transportation and resupply efforts were hampered as were attempts to reposition the supporting artillery and as a consequence when the attack went in at 5 : 25 am on 12 October the 9th and 10th Brigades had only limited fire support . With only a fraction of the guns required and limited ammunition , the artillery that was supposed to provide a creeping barrage behind which the infantry were to advance could only provide a thin bombardment . Nevertheless , the mud was so thick that the infantry were unable to keep up with the barrage and , unable to maintain the required rate of advance , they eventually they fell behind the barrage and lost any cover that it might otherwise have provided .
Upon reaching the Bellevue Spur , the assaulting infantry , caught in the open upon the barbed wire in front of the German positions , suffered heavily at the hands of the German artillery that was able to fire without answer from the British batteries that had run out of ammunition . Nevertheless , the 10th Brigade managed to reach its first objective , as did the 9th which even pushed on to its second , however , as they began to receive enfilade fire from their left flank where the New Zealand Division 's attack had ground to a halt , the Germans began massing for a counterattack and the Australian positions quickly became untenable . On the division 's right flank another gap had begun to develop as they lost contact with the Australian 4th Division and as a result the order to retire was passed . As they returned to the start line , the assault units were relieved by the 11th Brigade , which had formed the divisional reserve . By the end of the day , the division had lost almost 3 @,@ 200 men killed or wounded . They played no further offensive role in the battle and were eventually removed from the line on 22 October as the Canadians took over from them .
The fighting around Passchendaele proved to be the division 's last offensive actions for 1917 and they spent the winter months in the rear training , or undertaking defensive duties in reasonably quiet sectors of the line as they were reformed and brought back up to strength . Around this time also , the five Australian divisions on the Western Front were reorganised into a unified command structure under the Australian Corps .
= = = = German Spring Offensive , 1918 = = = =
In March 1918 the Germans launched their Spring Offensive near Saint @-@ Quentin and as the Allied line collapsed , the German forces advanced swiftly into the Somme valley . Believing that another attack would be directed against the forces in the Flanders sector , in an effort to reinforce the British forces there , the Allied commanders recalled the 3rd Division was recalled from its quiet sector around Armentières and sent it to Ypres . The attack came , however , at the Somme and so on 24 March the division was transferred south to help stem the advance and defend the approaches towards the important railhead at Amiens . Temporarily placed under the command of the British VII Corps , the division took up position to the east of Amiens in between the Ancre and Somme Rivers .
Lacking any reserves and possessing only limited artillery support , the division 's engineers prepared the bridges over the rivers for detonation . From 27 March onwards minor actions were fought along the line as the German advance began to reach the Australians . On 30 March a serious attempt at penetrating the line around Sailly @-@ Laurette was held and broken up by the 11th Brigade , with German losses being assessed at around one and a half brigades , or roughly between 3 and 4 @,@ 000 men . On 6 April further attempts were made and in the confusion the charges that had been placed on the Bouzencourt Bridge were fired and it was dropped into the Somme Canal . Nevertheless , the attempt was beaten off by the 10th Brigade . Following this the Australians were able to begin taking the initiative and throughout May they began to slowly recapture some of the ground that had been lost earlier as they undertook a series of peaceful penetration operations .
In June 1918 , the 3rd Division 's commander , Monash , was promoted to take over command of the Australian Corps and as a result Major General John Gellibrand took over as divisional commander .
= = = = Battle of Amiens , 1918 = = = =
On 8 August 1918 , the Allies launched their Hundred Days Offensive around Amiens and the 3rd Division was tasked with leading the Australian Corps part in the attack . By this stage , the divisional artillery consisted of three field brigades , and under the cover of a heavy artillery bombardment provided by nine field brigades that were organised in three supporting sub @-@ groups , and supported by tanks and gas , the attack began at 4 : 20 am . The weight of the Allied fire support was intense as over 2 @,@ 000 artillery pieces opened up on the German defences . The assaulting infantry battalions were each assigned a frontage of about 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) which they assaulted with two companies forward and two in support . Thick smoke meant that the attackers found it difficult to maintain their spacing and some of the supporting armour was also delayed . Nevertheless , the attack proved successful , as the Australians overwhelmed the German defenders and by the end of the day the division had achieved all of its objectives .
Throughout the rest of August , they continued offensive operations , even launching daylight raids upon the German positions . On 22 August they attacked once more , advancing through the village of Bray , capturing a number of German prisoners . After a brief lull in the fighting , they continued the advance again on 25 August capturing Clery at the end of the week before taking Allaines on 2 September . Throughout September the Germans began to withdraw back towards the Hindenburg Line and the 3rd Division took part in the operations undertaken to follow them up and harass the rearguard . Casualties during this phase had been high , however , and as a result the division 's pioneers were used as infantry and even led the advance towards Buire on 6 September .
As operations continued throughout the month , casualties amongst the Australian Corps became critical and the decision was made to disband some of the 3rd Division 's battalions and use them to reinforce the remaining units . This decision saw the reduction of the strength of division 's infantry brigades from four battalions to three , bringing the Australians into line with the British , who had made a similar decision earlier in the war . Nevertheless , the decision was not popular amongst the soldiers and when the 42nd Battalion received the order to disband , the attempt was rejected by its personnel and the order disobeyed . As a result , the proposed reorganisation was postponed until after the division 's final offensive actions were fought in early October 1918 . These came around the St Quentin Canal when the division attacked the Beaurevoir Line in concert with American troops from the US 27th Division , who would lead the assault in . The attack went awry , however , when the lead assault units failed to adequately clear the forward positions and subsequently when the 3rd Division was committed they came under fire almost immediately and instead of passing through the American positions , they had to complete the mopping up process before they could advance . Nevertheless , by nightfall on 1 October , the division had captured the northern end of the tunnel that ran under the canal .
On 2 October the majority of the 3rd Division was removed from the line for rest and reorganisation , although a number of its artillery batteries would continue to support the operations of the II American Corps until they were withdrawn . Following this they continued to participate in the fighting in support of the British 6th Division . The 27th Battery fired the division 's last shot of the war on 4 November at Wassigny . Nevertheless , the division was out of the line when news of the Armistice came on 11 November 1918 . Following the end of hostilities the demobilisation process began and as men were repatriated back to Australia , the division was eventually disbanded on 28 May 1919 .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
Following the end of the war , the AIF was disbanded and the focus of Australia 's military forces was the units of the Citizens Force . Between 1918 and 1921 , as the demobilisation process was completed , this force existed in a state of flux , however , in 1921 planning for the post war Army was finally completed . On 1 May 1921 the 3rd Division was re @-@ raised in Victoria as part of the 3rd Military District . Upon formation it consisted of three four @-@ battalion brigades — the 4th Brigade , 10th Brigade and 15th Brigade — and various supporting units including artillery , engineers , signals , transport and medical .
At this time , the existing infantry battalions of the Citizens Force were redesignated to perpetuate the numerical designations of the AIF , and although an attempt was made to allocate these designations based on regional considerations , ultimately this was not always possible and ultimately when the 3rd Division was re @-@ established , only two of its component battalions — the 37th and 39th Battalions — had previously been assigned to the division .
With a peacetime establishment of about 16 @,@ 000 personnel ( 18 @,@ 400 upon mobilisation ) , the division was brought up to strength through the compulsory training scheme . Initially the system worked well and a number of the division 's subunits reported being above establishment , however , this did not last long . In 1922 , the Washington Naval Treaty was signed and theoretically alleviated Australia 's security concerns about Japanese expansion in the Pacific . As a result , the Army 's budget was halved and as the scope of the compulsory training scheme was scaled back , the authorised strength of each infantry battalion was reduced to just 409 men of all ranks . The division 's artillery was also reduced , with one field battery in each artillery brigade being disbanded at this time . As a result of the subsequent reorganisation , the 3rd Division 's artillery consisted of three artillery brigades , the 2nd , 4th and 8th .
In 1929 the compulsory training scheme was suspended following the election of the Scullin Labor government . In its place a new system was introduced whereby the Citizens Force would be maintained on a part @-@ time , voluntary basis only . It was also renamed the " Militia " at this time . The decision to suspend compulsory training , coupled with the economic downturn of the Great Depression meant that the manpower of many Militia units dropped considerably and as a result a number of units were amalgamated . As a part of this process , the division was reduced from 12 infantry battalions to nine as six battalions were merged to form new amalgamated units — 29th / 22nd , 37th / 52nd and 57th / 60th Battalions . To a large extent , however , these were hollow structures and by 1931 the 3rd Division 's overall establishment was just 4 @,@ 505 men all ranks .
Throughout the 1930s the number of active personnel remained low and out of necessity training opportunities were limited . After 1936 , however , the Army attempted to improve the conditions of service for its members and to reinvigorate the training program , while individual units began to undertake their own recruiting campaigns . Nevertheless , it was not until 1938 , as tensions grew in Europe and the prospect of war became more likely , that an attempt was made to expand the establishment of the Militia . At this time an effort was made to determine the readiness of the Militia to expand if mobilised . During the continuous training camps undertaken throughout 1938 , each component unit was assessed with mixed results . The following year , 1939 , saw further expansion and by the end of April of that year , the division 's posted strength had grown to 9 @,@ 589 personnel . As a part of this expansion , the divisional artillery was expanded by the re @-@ raising of the batteries that had been disbanded in 1922 .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = Home duties = = = =
On 3 September 1939 , Australia found itself once again at war , after attempts at finding a diplomatic solution to the German invasion of Poland had failed . Following the outbreak of World War II , mobilisation began slowly as the government called up a force of about 8 @,@ 000 Militia personnel to undertake security duties in the days following the declaration of war . A short time later , the decision was made to raise an all volunteer force for overseas service , known as the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) . This was necessary due to the provisions of the Defence Act ( 1903 ) which precluded deploying the Militia outside of Australian territory , and as a result the government decided to use the Militia to provide a small cadre upon which the 2nd AIF would be raised , as well as to provide training to conscripts as part of the compulsory training scheme which was re @-@ established in early 1940 . Nevertheless , during this time large numbers of officers and senior non commissioned officers from the 3rd Division volunteered for service with the 2nd AIF and many units lost a large amount of their experienced personnel at this time .
Throughout 1940 – 41 , the Militia were called up in cohorts for periods of continuous training , and the 3rd Division , still consisting of the 4th , 10th and 15th Brigades , undertook a series of training camps around Seymour , Victoria . In March 1941 , the division 's artillery was reorganised to bring it in line with the British organisational system with each artillery brigade being converted to a field regiment . Numerical designations stayed the same , however , and by late 1941 the division had completed its transition . This saw its infantry brigades once again reduced from four battalions to three , while various supporting elements were inserted at brigade @-@ level , however , training at this time was still rudimentary and limited mainly to individual skills , and the division 's establishment was recorded as being only half of its authorised wartime establishment . There was also a shortage of modern equipment .
With Japan 's entry into the war following the attacks on Pearl Harbor and Malaya , it became more likely that the division would be called upon to undertake active service overseas , and the division was mobilised for war . In early January 1942 , Major General Stanley Savige , an experienced officer who had commanded the 17th Brigade in combat against the Germans in the Middle East earlier in the war , took over command of the division . Savige set about the task of preparing the division for combat and he began by removing officers that he did not think were physically fit enough or competent to lead in battle and replacing them with men who had gained experience in AIF units . A comprehensive training program was established and in April 1942 the division was assigned to the Australian I Corps , and in order to enable divisional exercises to begin , the 3rd Division moved to Bonegilla , Victoria . In order to toughen the men up , Savige decided that they would march on foot to the new camp .
The following month they were relocated once more , this time to Queensland where they undertook training exercises and defensive duties along the coast between Brisbane and Tweed Heads on the New South Wales border . At this time , the Army began to rectify the deficiencies in the division 's equipment lists and battalions began receiving new machine guns , motor transport and Bren carriers . As the situation in New Guinea grew worse , the decision was made to reorganise the 3rd Division and throughout August , four battalions were amalgamated — the 37th , 52nd , 58th and 59th . In September , the 10th Brigade was disbanded and its battalions reallocated to the 4th and 15th Brigades . In October the 29th and 46th Battalions were also amalgamated , leaving the division with just six infantry battalions in two brigades .
= = = = New Guinea , 1943 – 1944 = = = =
In early 1943 the division was despatched to New Guinea , with the 15th Brigade being sent to Port Moresby and the 4th Brigade going to Milne Bay . At this point the 4th Brigade was reassigned to the 5th Division . It would later be replaced within the division by the 29th Brigade . The division 's stay in Port Moresby was brief and in April it began moving to Wau where they subsumed the units assigned to Kanga Force , including the 17th Brigade , a 2nd AIF formation , and began operations as part of the Salamaua – Lae campaign .
Initially operations were limited to the area immediately surrounding Bulolo , but as the division became established the headquarters was shifted to Tambu Bay and brigades were pushed out towards Mubo , and the Komiatum and Bobdui Ridges , while defensive patrols were undertaken through the Wampit Valley , around the Bulwa and Zenag airstrips and towards the Markham River . Stretched across a front of over 75 miles ( 121 km ) , in June the division was reinforced by the US 162nd Infantry Regiment . Following this the division took on primary responsibility for Allied operations in New Guinea . Eventually Lae fell in September and soon afterwards , its elements were moved back to Port Moresby , before being sent to support the 7th Division 's campaign in the Markham and Ramu Valleys and the advance on Madang .
In August 1944 the 3rd Division 's brigades were withdrawn back to Australia for leave and reorganisation . After this , preparations began for the division 's next campaign . Around this time , the 3rd Division adopted the jungle divisional establishment , and was reorganised around three infantry brigades : the 7th , 15th and 29th Brigades . It was also assigned to the Australian II Corps .
= = = = Bougainville 1944 – 1945 = = = =
In late 1944 it was decided that the Australians would take over responsibility for operations against the Japanese on Bougainville from the Americans . From November – December 1944 , the 3rd Division , along with two independent brigades , the 11th and 23rd , began to relieve the units of the US XIV Corps that were to be transferred elsewhere in the Pacific . Allied intelligence of Japanese strengths on the island varied at the time , although it was believed that there were around 17 @,@ 500 Japanese on Bougainville . Although this was later proved to be grossly incorrect , nevertheless the Allies believed that the Japanese formations in the area , despite being under strength , were still capable of carrying out effective combat operations . As a result , it was decided that II Corps would go on the offensive in order to clear the Japanese from the island and a three pronged campaign was planned in the northern , central and southern sectors of the island .
The division was supported by a number of artillery units including the 2nd and 4th Field Regiments and the 2nd Mountain Battery , and various anti @-@ aircraft units . Later , also ' U ' Heavy Battery , with four 155 mm howitzers was transferred from Lae , as was the 2 / 11th Field Regiment . In order to provide organic fire support during the advance , the decision was made at this time to place the divisional artillery assets directly underneath the subunits they were supporting . At the outset , the division 's allocation of engineers consisted of only two field companies , the 5th and 11th , however over the course of the campaign others arrived including the 10th , 15th and the 7th , which was the last to arrive in June 1945 . Ultimately the division had almost 1 @,@ 600 engineers across five field companies and various supporting plant , park and other units . This represented one of the largest engineer contingents within an Australian division during the war . Initially the division was deployed without armoured support , however , in December 1944 , ' B ' Squadron , 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment , equipped with Matilda II tanks , arrived and subsequently took part in operations on the island attached to elements of the division .
The 7th Brigade , supported by the 2nd Field Regiment , was the first to commence operations , as the 9th Battalion launched a surprise attack in the central sector of the island upon a Japanese outpost at Little George Hill on 25 November . The following month the battalion seized control of Artillery Hill , while the 29th Brigade began patrolling operations in the southern sector .
Following the capture of Pearl Ridge by the 25th Battalion , the focus of the 3rd Division 's operations on Bougainville was shifted on the northern and southern sectors . The 11th Brigade , independent of the 3rd Division , assumed control of the drive to the north , while the 3rd Division concentrated on the drive south towards Buin , where the main Japanese force was concentrated . Rotating his brigades , the division 's commander , Major General William Bridgeford , advanced south from Torokina towards the Puriata river . After crossing it , the Japanese launched a significant counterattack around Slater 's Knoll , which was eventually beaten off in early April .
In April 1945 the 15th Brigade took over from the 7th Brigade and resumed the advance on the Hongorai and Mivo rivers . In early July , the 29th Brigade relieved the 15th and continued the advance and as they attempted to cross the Mivo , the Japanese launched a ferocious counter @-@ attack upon the 15th Battalion which was turned back by desperate defence . Following this the advance came to a halt as torrential rain turned the axis of advance into " a sea of mud " and many of the bridges upon which the Australian supply system was dependent were washed away . As the situation became worse , briefly even patrolling operations had to be stopped . These patrols were resumed , however , in late July and into August , as isolated pockets of Japanese began to attack the 3rd Division 's supply lines and support units . As preparations were made to resume the advance , the dropping of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Japan 's subsequent unconditional surrender brought the fighting on Bougainville to an end and a cease fire came into effect .
Following the end of hostilities , the demobilisation process began and eventually the 3rd Division was disbanded on 4 December 1945 . During the division 's campaign in Bougainville , one of its soldiers , Reg Rattey , earned the Victoria Cross for his actions during the fighting around Slater 's Knoll .
= = = Cold War = = =
In 1948 , with demobilisation of Australia 's wartime army complete , the decision was made to re @-@ raise the part @-@ time forces of the Militia , albeit with the new name of the Citizens Military Force ( CMF ) , and on a reduced establishment of two infantry divisions , an armoured brigade and various corps @-@ level support units . During this time the 3rd Division was re @-@ raised and based around a nucleus of three infantry brigades — the 4th , 6th and 9th Brigades — it was once again based in central Victoria , although subunits were also based in South Australia and Tasmania . Once again the division 's component units bore little resemblance to those that had fought with it during the two World Wars . Service in the post war CMF was initially on a voluntary basis and recruitment remained poor until 1951 when conscription was introduced once again in an effort to improve the readiness of the Australian military during the Korean War . The 3rd Division was not deployed during this time , however , and although national service was instituted , service in Korea was undertaken on a voluntary basis , and conscription was used only as a means to expand the CMF and provide a base upon which mobilisation could be achieved if it proved necessary .
Nevertheless , the resulting influx of manpower revitalised the CMF to the point that during the 1950s the division experienced a remarkable level of manning and resources that saw many units achieve full strength , with full equipment allocations . On 23 March 1958 a divisional parade was conducted at Puckapunyal , bringing together all of the division 's Victorian @-@ based units in a concentration of force not seen in the division since 1916 . The following year the division conducted a live @-@ fire exercise at Puckapunyal based upon the 4th Brigade and involving over 3 @,@ 500 men , tanks , artillery , aircraft , and various supporting arms . Despite the success demonstrated by the exercise , it would be the last time that the division mounted something similar the national service scheme was modified to limit the size of each yearly intake of trainees and the size of the CMF was reduced by over 30 @,@ 000 men in an effort to free up Regular personnel to raise the 1st Brigade . The 1957 reforms , however , did not achieve the efficiencies required in order to free up Regular personnel to meet the strategic requirements to maintain a regular field force that was ready to respond to the exigencies of the Cold War . As a result , in 1959 the decision was made to suspend national service as it was realised that further changes were required to expand the size of the Regular army . Further changes came with the introduction of the Pentropic divisional establishment into the Australian Army . This saw the reduction of the Army to just two divisions , the 1st and 3rd Divisions , and as a part of this the division was reorganised into five battalion @-@ plus sized battle groups , and resulted in the removal of brigade @-@ level formations and the disbandment and amalgamation of a number of smaller regionally based infantry battalions , into larger units that were part of State @-@ based regiments .
With an authorised peacetime establishment of 13 @,@ 621 personnel , the 3rd Division included formations in five different military command districts including Queensland , New South Wales and Western Australia as well as those in South Australia , Tasmania and Victoria . The main infantry components at this time were : 2nd Battalion , Royal Queensland Regiment ( RQR ) ; 1st Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment ( RVR ) ; 2nd Battalion , RVR ; 1st Battalion , Royal South Australia Regiment ( RSAR ) ; and 1st Battalion , Royal Western Australia Regiment .
The Australian Army 's experiment with the Pentropic establishment did not last long , however , as it created a number of planning issues including lack of interoperability with other Western allies , none of whom used it . As a result , it was abandoned in late 1964 and into early 1965 and the 3rd Division was once again reorganised . The resulting changes saw the establishment of brigade @-@ level formations , briefly known as " task forces "
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, however , due to other planning considerations only one was raised for the 3rd Division at this time : the 4th Task Force , consisting of four infantry battalions : 1 , 2 , 5 and 6 RVR .
At the same time , the Australian government announced that the national service scheme would be implemented once again , however , instead of focusing upon expanding the CMF , the scheme was set up so that national servicemen would serve limited terms of service in Australian Regular Army ( ARA ) units with a view to service overseas in Vietnam and Malaysia . This highlighted the changing focus of Australia 's military planning towards Regular forces , however , it had a negative impact upon the division as essentially it was forced to compete with the ARA for manpower and although some gains were made from men that chose to serve longer national service terms in the CMF in order to defer their service in ARA units , these were negligible and arguably of limited quality . The government 's decision not to deploy CMF units to these conflicts meant that many of the division 's experienced personnel chose to transfer to ARA units in order to gain operational experience , although some attempts were made to rectify this situation by offering CMF officers the opportunity to undertake a short attachment to an ARA unit serving in Vietnam and a number of 3rd Division officers took up this opportunity , a few even saw combat .
When the national service scheme was ended following the election of the Whitlam Government in late 1972 , the 3rd Division lost a large number of personnel . At this time , the division 's artillery assets included two artillery field regiments , a medium regiment , and a divisional locating battery , and although on paper the division was a large , combined arms formation , in reality many of its units were hollow and inadequately equipped , and in the decades following this the division , and indeed the CMF in general , underwent a period of uncertainty as the government attempted to solve the issues that the organisation faced , the most pressing of which was the question of its role and strategic relevance , as well as those concerning conditions of service , centralisation of training and access to equipment .
In 1976 the division 's combat strength had dropped to the extent that it was really only a brigade @-@ group formation , possessing only two infantry battalions : 1 and 2 RVR , as well as two field artillery regiments , a medium regiment and a locating battery . As a result , in February the division 's headquarters were merged with the 4th Task Force 's headquarters as the 3rd Division was redesignated as the " 3rd Division Field Force Group " . At the same time , the position of formation commander was downgraded to the rank of brigadier rather than major general . This remained the case until April 1984 when the divisional headquarters was re @-@ established .
In the late 1980s the division was given the task of vital asset protection under the Defence of Australia doctrine and the division undertook a number of exercises in the north of Australia , including " Kangaroo 89 " in which more than 3 @,@ 000 of its personnel took part . Nevertheless , in June 1991 , following a force structure review , the 3rd Division was finally removed from the Australian Army 's order of battle , and its remaining units were transferred to the command of the 4th Brigade .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following is a list of the 3rd Division 's commanding officers :
= Stanton Drew stone circles =
The Stanton Drew stone circles are just outside the village of Stanton Drew in the English county of Somerset . The largest stone circle is the Great Circle , 113 metres ( 371 ft ) in diameter and the second largest stone circle in Britain ( after Avebury ) ; it is considered to be one of the largest Neolithic monuments to have been built . The date of construction is not known but is thought to be between 3000 and 2000 BCE which places it in the Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age . It was made a scheduled monument in 1982 .
The Great Circle was surrounded by a ditch and is accompanied by smaller stone circles to the north east and south west . There is also a group of three stones , known as The Cove , in the garden of the local pub . Slightly further from the Great Circle is a single stone , known as Hautville 's Quoit . Some of the stones are still vertical , but the majority are now recumbent and some are no longer present .
The stone circles have been studied since John Aubrey 's visit in 1664 with some excavations of the site in the 18th century . In the late 20th and early 21st centuries geophysical surveys have confirmed the size of the stone circles and identified additional pits and postholes . The Cove has been shown to be around one thousand years older than the stone circles . A variety of myths and legends about the stone circles have been recorded , including one about dancers at a celebration who have been turned to stone .
= = Monument = =
The most famous feature is the Great Circle , the second largest stone circle in Britain ( after Avebury ) . The stone circle is 113 metres ( 371 ft ) in diameter and probably consisted of 30 stones , of which 27 survive today . It was recorded by both John Aubrey in 1664 and William Stukeley in 1776 . The Great Circle probably was surrounded by the ditch ( approximately 135 metres ( 443 ft ) outer diameter — now filled in ) of a henge . The North East Circle is 30 metres ( 98 ft ) in diameter and probably consisted of 10 or more stones , of which 8 survive today . The South West Circle is 43 metres ( 141 ft ) in diameter , and has 12 stones surviving today . An avenue extends to the northeast of the Great Circle towards the River Chew and a second avenue meets it from the north eastern stone circle .
A ( now recumbent ) standing stone called Hautville 's Quoit lies across the river to the north on an alignment with the centres of the Great Circle and the southern circle . It is a large stone close to Hautville Quoit Farm , recumbent since at least the mid 17th century but assumed to have originally been upright . Described by Stukeley in 1723 as being 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) long , it is now about half that length , Leslie Grinsell suggesting that fragments have occasionally been broken off for mending the roads . Stukeley also referred to the presence of a second stone .
Further to the west is a cove of two standing stones with a recumbent slab between them , which can be found in the garden of the Druid 's Arms public house . All are of different heights , the stone to the north east being 4 @.@ 4 metres ( 14 ft ) the south western 3 @.@ 1 metres ( 10 ft ) , and the north eastern 1 @.@ 4 metres ( 4 ft 7 in ) . The stones of The Cove are mineralogically different from those in the nearby stone circles . A long barrow burial chamber has been found under the stones of The Cove . It is thought that this predates the erection of the stones by approximately a thousand years .
= = Excavations = =
In 1740 the site was surveyed and mapped by John Wood , the Elder , who noted the different stones used . He suggested the layout was based on the Pythagorean planetary system , and thought it was used as the Druid 's " University " .
When one of the stones fell in the mid 17th century , some human bones were discovered accompanied by an object described as a " round bell , like a large horse @-@ bell " . The burial date and the purpose of the bell @-@ like object are unknown .
= = Geophysical survey = =
Geophysical work by English Heritage in 1997 revealed a surrounding ditch and nine concentric rings of postholes within the stone circle . More than four hundred pits , 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) across and at 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) intervals , stood in rings at the site . The ditch is 135 metres ( 443 ft ) in diameter and about 7 metres ( 23 ft ) wide . A 40 metres ( 130 ft ) wide entrance was visible on the north east side . No surrounding bank has been identified although the site awaits excavation .
The geophysical work transformed the traditional view of Stanton Drew as being a surface monument and the Great Circle is now seen as being one of the largest and most impressive Neolithic monuments to have been built . Analogous with the circles of postholes at sites at Woodhenge , Durrington Walls and The Sanctuary , it is thought that the pits would have held posts which would have either been freestanding or lintelled as they could not have supported a roof at that size . The postholes in nine concentric rings held posts up to 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in diameter .
Nearby and to the north east is a smaller ring of eight stones in the centre of which the geophysical work identified four further pits . A third ring of twelve stones , measuring 43 metres ( 141 ft ) wide , stands to the south west .
A fluxgate gradiometer survey in July 2009 investigated standing stones in the garden of the Druids Arms public house known as The Cove , which showed that the stones date from nearly a thousand years before the stone circles . The conclusion from the study was that these upright stones are likely to have been the portals or façade of a chambered tomb .
In 2010 a further survey was carried out by Bath and Camerton Archaeological Society and the Bath and North East Somerset Archaeological Officer . This involved high data density magnetometer , resistance pseudosection profiles and photographic surveys showed a new henge entrance and further detail of post holes .
= = Myths about Stanton Drew = =
Being a henge and stone circle site , astronomical alignments are a common theory to explain the positioning of the stones at Stanton Drew . Similarly , there are less well evidenced theories relating to ley lines .
Theories suggest the site was dedicated to funerary ritual . There are several local traditional stories about the megalithic complex . The best known tells how a wedding party was turned to stone : the party was held throughout Saturday , but a man clothed in black ( the Devil in disguise ) came and started to play his violin for the merrymakers after midnight , continuing into holy Sunday morning . When dawn broke , everybody had been turned to stone by the Demon : so the stone circles are the dancers , the avenues are the fiddlers and The Cove is the bride and the groom with the drunken churchman at their feet . They are still awaiting the Devil who promised to come back someday and play again for them .
Wade and Wade in their 1929 book " Somerset " suggest :
One of the curiosities of the place is Hautville 's Quoit , which , to save time , should also be looked for on approaching the village . ( Enter iron gate on L. a few hundred yards before reaching tollhouse , and search backwards along the hedge bordering road . ) It is a large stone , which legend says was hurled by Sir J. Hautville ( whose effigy is in Chew Magna Church ) from the top of Maes Knoll . The famous " druidical remains " will be found near the church . About 50 yards from the entrance to the churchyard take a lane to the L. leading to an orchard : the stones will be observed in the field beyond ( admission free , but field closed on Sundays ) . The " remains " consist of three contiguous circles . The first is of considerable area , and is marked out by twelve large stones , only three of which remain upright ; a smaller circle of eight stones lies just beyond ; and a third circle of eight will be found farther away in an orchard on the R. The two larger circles have each a few scattered stones thrown off as a kind of avenue . Standing apart from the circles is a curious group of three stones huddled together in a garden abutting on the churchyard , from which they can be easily seen by looking over the W. boundary wall . These mystic rings probably had the same origin ( whatever that may have been ) as that of the more famous circle at Avebury in Wiltshire , with which they should be compared . The proximity of Maes Knoll is comparable with that of Silbury Hill . A ridiculous theory suggests that the monoliths were erected as a trophy after one of Arthur 's victories . Arthur is connected to the site because a site in the nearby village of Camerley is reputed to be the location of Camelot in an oral tradition . The stones are of a reddish hue similar to that described in the Arthurian legend as connected to Camelot and to a sword that was seen in a stone near to Camelot . The country story is that a local wedding once took place on a Sunday , when the frivolous guests would insist on winding up with a dance . The penalty for a " Sabbath " thus " profaned " was the prompt transformation of the bridal party into stone . Hence the local appellation of " The fiddlers and the maids " .
= Lecture Circuit =
" Lecture Circuit " is a two @-@ part episode of the American comedy television series The Office . They constituted the sixteenth and seventeenth episodes of the fifth season , and the 88th and 89th overall episodes of the series . The first episode originally aired on NBC on February 5 , 2009 , and the second on February 12 .
During both episodes , Michael and Pam visit the various branches of Dunder Mifflin to make business lectures , and in particular visit the Utica branch - where Jim 's ex @-@ girlfriend Karen is regional manager , and the Nashua branch , where Michael 's ex @-@ girlfriend and the love of his life , Holly is an H.R. rep . In both episodes , Jim and Dwight hit a snag as the new heads of the Party Planning Committee when they forget Kelly 's birthday . In the first episode , Andy develops a crush on a customer , and in the second episode , Angela 's unhealthy obsession with her cats is spotlighted when she installs a nanny cam .
Both episodes were directed by Ken Kwapis and written by Mindy Kaling , who also plays Kelly Kapoor in the show . " Lecture Circuit " included guest appearances by screenwriter Dan Goor , comedian Rob Huebel and actress Rashida Jones , who reprises her role of Karen Filippelli , a regular character from the third season . Although the character Holly Flax played a major part in the storyline , actress Amy Ryan did not appear in " Lecture Circuit " . The episodes received generally positive reviews . According to Nielsen Media Research , the first part was watched by 8 @.@ 4 million viewers and the second part was watched by 8 @.@ 89 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part one = = =
Michael ( Steve Carell ) is asked to visit the Dunder Mifflin branches to lecture about his success in Scranton . He and Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) , who is coming along as his assistant and driver , plan to visit every branch except Nashua because Michael is not ready to face his ex @-@ girlfriend Holly , who works there . They first visit the Utica branch , where former Scranton employee Karen ( Rashida Jones ) is now regional manager . Pam , who is engaged to Karen 's ex @-@ boyfriend Jim ( John Krasinski ) , fears the encounter will be awkward . But Karen is now married and pregnant , and the two get along very well - when Pam reveals her and Jim 's engagement , Karen even offers genuine congratulations . Michael 's lecture in Utica proves to be a disaster when he tries to teach the employees a trick for how to memorize names and ends up insulting everybody . Nevertheless , Pam is ecstatic to have found closure with Karen . Later , on the road , Michael tells Pam that he never found closure with Holly and , at Pam 's suggestion , they decide to blow off the other lectures and drive to Nashua to find Holly .
Back in Scranton , Jim and Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) have been named the reluctant heads of the Party Planning Committee due to previous fights between Phyllis ( Phyllis Smith ) and Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) . Jim and Dwight prove terrible at the job , especially when an upset Kelly ( Mindy Kaling ) chastises them for forgetting her birthday . They try to make it up to her by throwing a party but they do a poor job , choosing horrible decorations and forgetting Kelly 's age . Dwight reads her file and learns Kelly spent time in juvenile hall , but is disappointed to learn it does not affect her job performance . Meanwhile , Andy ( Ed Helms ) finds himself attracted to Julia , a female potential client who is talking with Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) . Andy repeatedly acts awkwardly in front of Julia , and accidentally sets off her car alarm while trying to look inside and find out what music she likes . Andy admits his attraction to her to Stanley , who then gives the potential client over to Andy in exchange for two of his clients . After walking her out to the car , Andy tries to kiss her , but is immediately rebuked . Andy apologizes and mentions that he just got out of a relationship . The client claims she also just got out of a relationship and Andy starts feeling a connection , but she still rejects him and he loses the account .
= = = Part two = = =
Michael and Pam arrive at the Nashua branch , only to learn Holly is away on a human relations retreat . They also learn Holly is dating one of the Nashua salesmen named A. J. ( Rob Huebel ) . Deeply upset , Michael is at first unable to go forward with the presentation , but Pam tries to comfort him by telling him that she felt the same way when Jim was dating Karen . She encourages Michael to do the best presentation possible so people will tell Holly about it . He starts the presentation , but it falls apart when Michael starts asking A. J. intimate questions about his relationship with Holly . Michael leaves in the middle of the talk , leaving Pam to awkwardly finish the rest of the presentation . When Michael goes to Holly 's desk he cuts a sleeve off her sweater , and notices a document on her computer called " Dear Michael " , which he copies onto his flash drive . Later , at a diner , Michael tells Pam about the letter , but she insists reading it would be violating Holly 's trust . Pam herself reads the letter and does not tell him the exact contents , but she reassures him Holly still has feelings for Michael and it is not over , giving an ecstatic Michael the closure he sought .
Back in Scranton , the party planning continues to go poorly . Dwight publicly and loudly confronts Kelly about her time in juvenile hall , which turns out to be for stealing the boat of an ex @-@ boyfriend when she was 14 . Kelly also declares she hates the cake Jim picked for her , which is completely blank ; he later decorates it and spells her name incorrectly as " Kelley " . When Kelly insists the party needs a theme , Jim and Dwight are unable to think of anything . They finally settle on offering her one hour of napping or one hour of watching television . She loves the idea and chooses the nap . Meanwhile , Angela appears much happier than usual because she bought a new $ 7 @,@ 000 cat with the money she received from selling Andy 's engagement ring . She has also set up a nanny cam so she can monitor the cats from work . However , she is horrified to see one of her other cats having sex with the new cat , and rushes home to stop it . Later , Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) and Oscar ( Oscar Nunez ) watch Angela arrive home on the nanny cam screen , and become disgusted when Angela starts licking the cat to help clean it . Angela eventually returns to work and coughs up a hairball . Oscar claims the image will haunt him for the rest of his life .
= = Production = =
" Lecture Circuit " was directed by Ken Kwapis and written by Mindy Kaling , who also plays Kelly Kapoor in the show . The first episode included a cameo performance by Rashida Jones , a regular cast member during the third season , where she played Jim Halpert 's love interest Karen Filippelli . " Lecture Circuit " aired just two months before Jones began her regular role as Ann Perkins in the NBC comedy series Parks and Recreation , which was created by Office producers Greg Daniels and Michael Schur . Dan Goor , a future writer for Parks and Recreation , made a cameo as Karen 's husband in the photographs featured in the part one episode . Rob Huebel , a comedian best known for the MTV sketch comedy series Human Giant , guest starred as Holly 's boyfriend , A.J. Amy Ryan , who played Holly Flax in previous episodes , did not appear in either " Lecture Circuit " episode , although the decision by Michael and Pam to visit Holly at the end of the first episode led to speculation about whether she would appear in the second .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael handing out candy bars during his lectures is a reference to the third season episode , " Business School " , where Michael passed out chocolate bars during his speech to a business school classroom . Michael expresses regret for insulting Tony Gardner , the heavyset man who briefly transferred from the Stamford branch of Dunder Mifflin to the Scranton branch , who Michael drives to quit by trying to lift onto a table for an orientation demonstration in the third season episode , " The Merger " . Among the Dunder Mifflin branches Michael visits is Nashua , New Hampshire , where Holly works , and Utica , New York , where Karen works . Michael said he can only prepare for his lectures by listening to " silence or Sam Kinison " , an American stand @-@ up comedian known for his extreme and vulgar sense of humor . Michael said he learned the Pledge of Allegiance , the lyrical oath of loyalty to the United States flag , by setting the lyrics to the rhythm of " Old McDonald Had a Farm " , a children 's song about the various animals on a farm . During one lecture , Michael and Pam both do impressions of the protagonist from Forrest Gump , the 1994 film starring Tom Hanks as a mentally handicapped man . Michael also uses the title from the films Good Morning , Vietnam ( at his Nashua lecture by saying " Good morning , Vietna ... shua ! " ) The Princess Bride , Gone with the Wind and Jerry Maguire in his lectures . Holly 's computer has a screensaver with images of
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Ed Grimley , the nerdy character with a cowlick played by comedian Martin Short in the comedy shows SCTV and Saturday Night Live .
Angela said she sold Andy 's engagement ring on eBay , an online auction website . Creed gives Andy romantic advice and says , " This is how I got Squeaky Fromme " , a reference to the Manson family member who tried to assassinate U.S. President Gerald Ford . A picture of President George W. Bush appears on a fake three @-@ dollar bill Creed gives Jim to pay for the party . Creed suggests Kelly watch The Bonnie Hunt Show , a syndicated talk show hosted by actress Bonnie Hunt . Andy puts Splenda , an artificial sweetener , into Stanley 's coffee because he has adult onset diabetes , a disorder characterized by high blood glucose . Andy sings Julia a song by Feist , the Canadian singer and songwriter , after he spots a Feist CD in her car . Michael takes a document file from Holly 's computer that was created with Microsoft Word , the Microsoft word processing program . Pam said she hates the notion of even Al @-@ Qaeda hating her , a reference to the Islamist terrorist organization that organized the September 11 attacks against New York City . Kelly confesses she went to juvenile detention in Berks County , Pennsylvania , at age 14 for doing something " like Thelma & Louise , but with a boat " , a reference to the 1991 road movie starring Geena Davis and Susan Sarandon on the run from their troubled , caged lives . Jim said during a birthday trip to a museum at age seven , his father bought him a plastic toy triceratops , a three @-@ horned dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous Period , which Dwight insists is not a good dinosaur . Pam remembers the name of one audience member by comparing her to k.d. lang , the Canadian singer known for her extremely short hair .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on February 5 , 2009 , the first part of " Lecture Circuit " was seen by 8 @.@ 4 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . The original broadcast for the second part on February 12 was seen by 8 @.@ 89 million viewers . The second episode received a 4 @.@ 3 rating / 11 share among viewers aged between 18 and 34 , and a 3 @.@ 8 rating / 9 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 , numbers which were close to the season 's average rating . The first episode received a 5 @.@ 0 rating / 14 share among viewers aged between 18 and 34 , and a 4 @.@ 3 rating / 11 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . Both ratings were three @-@ tenths of a drop from the previous episode , " Stress Relief " , which was heavily viewed because it immediately followed the broadcast of Super Bowl XLIII on NBC . The drop in ratings led some media outlets to speculate that the post @-@ Super Bowl ratings boost was only temporary and would not help The Office in the long run .
Both episodes of " Lecture Circuit " received generally positive reviews . Whitney Pastorek of Entertainment Weekly described them as " nearly perfect " , calling them the two best episodes of the season so far : " ( Writer Mindy Kaling ) nailed the characterizations , the interactions , the tossed @-@ off one @-@ liners , the weird @-@ yet @-@ realistic scenarios ... I wonder how much it helps that she 's out on the acting floor every day , getting attuned to her costars ' rhythms ? " Josh McAuliffe of The Times @-@ Tribune of Scranton , Pennsylvania , said the first " Lecture Circuit " episode was his favorite episode of the fifth season so far , which he said provided several laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments and a poignancy with Michael 's decision to find Holly . McAuliffe described the second episode as a " satisfying wrap @-@ up " and said Michael 's outburst during the lecture was " one of the most painful Michael meltdown moments in the show 's history " . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said the first episode perfectly balanced drama and comedy . He particularly complimented the chemistry between both Carell and Fischer and between Krasinski and Wilson , and said he was particularly pleased to receive closure over the Karen character . But Sepinwall said the second episode felt padded with " material I would have been fine seeing as deleted scenes " . Although he said Carell 's reaction to the news that Holly still has feelings for him as a " wonderful performance " , Sepinwall also said the subplot involving Angela 's cat was particularly unfunny and that subplot with Jim and Dwight , " so brilliant last week , ran out of steam quickly here . "
Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club said the episode " was full of laughs but had a bit of a bittersweet aftertaste " and had " one hell of a cliffhanger " ending . Rabin praised the Jim and Dwight teaming in the first episode , but said the plot line of Michael 's lectures were predictable and " promised more than it delivered " . Rabin said the second episode " wrapped up everything nicely ( and ) delivered laughs aplenty " ; he particularly enjoyed the subplot involving Angela 's cats , and the fact that it " left the door open for Holly 's return " . Will Leitch of New York magazine praised the cliffhanger ending of the first episode and said he was pleased the Holly character was still in the show 's equation . Leitch also praised Ed Helms , who " is nailing the right combination of ridiculous and sad @-@ sack pathos " , although he said he " ( wasn 't ) nearly as inspired " by the Jim and Dwight subplot . Leitch also enjoyed the second episode , particularly the " legitimately sweet moment " when Pam tells Michael that Holly still has feelings for him . Leitch was less praiseworthy of the Angela subplot involving her cats , and said the character " appears to have officially gone batshit insane . " Travis Fickett of IGN criticized the first episode and said , " I 'm starting to wonder if the show is showing signs of winding down . " Fickett said the idea of Michael giving awkward lecture tours felt old and familiar , so much so that " I was convinced it was a repeat " . He also said the Jim and Dwight idea was funny , but " nothing the show hasn 't tapped before " . Likewise , Fickett described the second episode as " average Office and feels overly familiar without really blazing any new ground . " He also said it was disappointing Holly did not appear , and that Angela felt like a " caricature " in her subplot .
The first part of the episode was voted the fifth highest @-@ rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 8 @.@ 64 out of 10 . The second part of the episode , however , was voted the third @-@ worst of the season , with a rating of 7 @.@ 14 However , the scene with Angela licking her cat was heavily criticized by reviewers , prompting some observers to describe it as the moment when The Office jumped the shark , a phrase used to describe the moment of downturn for a previously successful television show . When asked about this during an interview , actor Oscar Nuñez responded , " No show is ' Jump the Shark ' -proof , but there have been other moments on The Office that I think were more ' Jump the Shark ' than that . " He did not specify what other moments he meant .
= Fill the Void =
Fill the Void ( Hebrew : למלא את החלל - lemale et ha 'ḥalal ) is a 2012 Israeli drama film written and directed by Rama Burshtein . It focuses on life among the Haredi Jewish community in Tel Aviv , Israel . Hadas Yaron stars as Shira Mendelman , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old girl who is pressured to marry her older sister 's husband following the death of her sister in childbirth .
The film required a lengthy production period , taking over a year for the casting to be completed and another year and three months for editing . Burshtein , who was doubtful as to how much of the process would be completed , took a step @-@ by @-@ step approach , focusing first on the writing , then on accumulating enough funding for the project , followed by the filming and editing . Burshtein became the first Orthodox Jewish woman to direct a film intended for wide distribution . The film premiered at the 69th Venice Film Festival on 1 September 2012 and was later released in the United States on 24 May 2013 .
Fill the Void was well received by critics for its depiction of Orthodox Jews and their lifestyle . It won seven Israeli Academy Awards , and lead actress Hadas Yaron won Best Actress for her portrayal of Shira at the Venice Film Festival .
= = Plot = =
Shira Mendelman , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old Hasidic girl living in Tel Aviv , is looking forward to an arranged marriage with a young man whom she likes . However , on Purim , her family suffers a tragedy when Shira 's older sister Esther dies in childbirth . Shira 's father subsequently delays the engagement so as not to have to deal with an empty house so soon after Esther 's death . Esther 's husband , Yochay , begins to regularly bring their son , Mordechai , to the Mendelman 's house , where Shira cares for him .
One day , Yochay 's mother approaches Shira 's mother , Rivka , about the possibility of Yochay remarrying , believing it to be best for Mordechai . She plans to suggest an offer from a widow in Belgium . Rivka is distraught by the idea of Mordechai being taken out of the country and suggests that Yochay marry Shira instead . He and Shira both initially oppose the prospect , though he eventually warms to it and she agrees to take it into consideration on learning that her previous engagement has been called off due to her father 's delays .
Shortly afterwards , Frieda , a friend of Esther who has never received any marriage proposals , tells Shira that Esther would have preferred that Yochay marry her in the event of her death . As a result , Shira tells Yochay that Frieda is more suitable , which he takes as an affront .
Shira and Yochay remain distant from one another afterwards , and he announces that he plans to move with Mordechai to marry the widow in Belgium . Shira , pressured by her family , agrees to go forward with the engagement to Yochay , believing it to be the best scenario for everyone . However , the rabbi realizes that Shira is acting to please her family and refuses to condone the marriage .
Time passes , and Shira eventually grows to love Yochay of her own accord . She approaches the rabbi and asks again that she and Yochay be married , and he agrees this time . The film closes with their wedding .
= = Cast = =
Hadas Yaron as Shira Mendelman
Chaim Sharir as Aharon Mendelman
Ido Samuel as Yossi Mendelman
Irit Sheleg as Rivka Mendelman
Yiftach Klein as Yochay Goldberg
Hila Feldman as Freida
Razia Israeli as Aunt Hanna
Renana Raz as Esther Goldberg
Yael Tal as Shiffi
Michael David Weigl as Shtreicher
Neta Moran as Bilha
Melech Thal as Rabbi
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and themes = = =
Fill the Void was written and directed by Rama Burshtein , who , in the course of its production , became the first Orthodox Jewish woman to direct a film intended to be viewed outside of the Orthodox community . In doing so , she hoped to create a greater understanding of the Orthodox community , in part by dispelling the common misconceptions that women are often forced into arranged marriages ; despite the differences in structure , the woman is always given the final say in whom she marries . Burshtein also deliberately avoided depicting a divide between the religious and secular Jews , a theme that commonly appears in films about the Orthodox . She explained :
As a people we are thousands of years old and we exist without that conflict of the secular and the religious . The truth is that most of us do not want to leave our communities . All of those films were always about someone either trying to get out or someone from the outside trying to get in and it was very important for me to say that we also just exist and feel and love and struggle and hurt by ourselves , not always because we 're in conflict .
In her director 's notes , Burshtein wrote , " I love Jane Austen . She 's romantic , intelligent , and full of humor . … The parallel is also quite obvious in that ' Fill the Void ' takes place in a world where the rules are rigid and clear . The characters are not looking for some way to burst out of that world . Instead , they are trying to find a way to live within it . " Critics noted the similarities between Austen 's characters and those in Fill the Void , and Stephanie Merry from The Washington Post likened the character of Frieda to Charlotte Lucas from Pride and Prejudice . Frieda , like Charlotte , has never had any marriage prospects and is the subject of others ' pity as a result .
Merry suggested that , regardless of cultural differences , the story is universal due to " its themes of loss and family loyalty , not to mention the realization that life may not align with our idealized expectations " . Boston Globe correspondent Peter Keough agreed that the " themes of love and loss , self @-@ sacrifice and self @-@ preservation " are applicable to audiences both in and outside the Orthodox community . John Podhoretz , an editor of The Weekly Standard , was surprised that the " state of grace " featured prominently in Fill the Void , perceiving it to be an uncommon concept in Jewish movies .
= = = Casting = = =
Casting the film took a full year to complete , largely because , according to Burshtein , she " didn 't know what [ she ] wanted " . She initially considered using " regular people " with no background in acting before realizing that " non @-@ actors couldn 't handle the complexities of their characters " .
Israeli actress Hadas Yaron , then aged 20 , was cast for the role of Shira , the protagonist of the film . She commented that her character " is much more naïve at 18 than I was when I was 18 , and there was something so special about that and it was like going back to the basics " . Yaron was unfamiliar with Orthodox practice prior to participating in Fill the Void . In order to become better acquainted with Shira 's lifestyle , she started memorizing all of the Hebrew blessings , saying , " There 's something so beautiful about it because you 're being so grateful all the time for everything you do and hoping that everything works out okay and I started doing those blessings every day and it sounds silly but it helps you feel that you are closer to the character . "
Yiftach Klein was cast to act alongside her as Yochay Goldberg . Burshtein remarked that Klein " is a big star in Israel , and has played a pimp , a homosexual , and a cop ( among many other roles ) , so I was not sure you could really believe him as this Orthodox guy . But his audition , and then his chemistry with Hadas were just perfect " .
Additional cast members include Hila Feldman as Frieda , Irit Sheleg as Rivka Mendelman , Chaim Sharir as Aharon Mendelman , Razia Israeli as Aunt Hanna , Renana Raz as Esther Goldberg , Ido Samuel as Yossi Mendelman , Yael Tal as Shiffi , Michael David Weigl as Shtreicher , Neta Moran as Bilha , and Melech Thal as Rabbi .
As most of the main cast was not from the Orthodox community , Burshtein instructed them to attend all of the major events that take place within the film , including a wedding and a circumcision . Yaron commented , " [ At the wedding ] it was so intense and [ the bride ] was crying and she was really in it and I felt like she was my sister because I 'm going to be like her in a while . So it was really helpful to experience all these things and to see how it is and to feel a part of it actually . "
= = = Costumes = = =
Chani Gurewitz oversaw costume design for the film , and much of the low budget was spent on the clothing worn by the actors , which was designed to be soft and colorful . Hasidic style of dress was used , including headgear and heavy attire worn by the males and modest dresses and head coverings worn by the females .
= = = Filming = = =
Burshtein found creating a believable relationship between Yiftach Klein and Hadas Yaron to be one of the more challenging aspects of the production . She hoped to keep the relationship between Yochay and Shira enigmatic , with a strong undercurrent of tension , throughout the film . One method of doing so was ensuring that the actors never touched while filming . She explained , " That 's how we see the enigma — the power of wanting and then restraining . The restraining is the power . The passion cannot exist if you have it all the time — the passion is only for something that you don 't have . You have to work to keep the passion . Judaism is all about that . " Burshtein considered including a scene in which Shira and Yochay kissed about halfway through the movie but decided against it , believing that the energy would be lost .
Yaron had never acted in a role with a romance before and at certain points found it difficult to portray the emotions her character felt when interacting with Yochay . Cinematographer Asaf Sudry assisted in conveying to the audience that the marriage between the lead characters would eventually take place by frequently using sunlight for their scenes .
In general , Sudry designed the visual effects in Fill the Void to create a claustrophobic view point . Blurred backgrounds were often utilized to focus on the faces of the characters , and most of the long takes were shot from an interior perspective . Sudry used Arri Alexa cameras and short @-@ range lenses with limited camera movements to maintain the effect . Burshtein explained that this was done to illustrate that " the heart is very colorful and very small " and that " we as human beings only see fragments of the big picture ; God sees the whole thing ! " While a " documentary feel " was retained throughout most the film 's duration , the style was switched for the wedding scene to create a euphoric atmosphere similar to those used in productions by Terrence Malick and David Lynch .
The film relied on subtext , requiring the actors to " read between the lines " for a number of their scenes . Most of the sentiments are understated , and Burshtein avoided having any of the characters break down or openly become angry when pressured . Yaron described a scene between Yochay and Rivka as her favorite , saying , " I think it 's because there is so much pain there ; it touches you the most when people feel something and try to hide it and you see it . "
Following the completion of filming , Burshtein continued to edit the footage for another year and three months until it was declared complete .
= = = Music = = =
Yitzhak Azulay composed the music played in Fill the Void . He chose primarily melodic and traditional pieces , using them frequently throughout the film . Other soundtrack is composed largely of contemporary Orthodox pop music , and the prayers are " regularly chanted rather than spoken " . The song " Im Eshkachech Yerushalayim " ( Hebrew : אם אשכחך ירושלים , ' If I Forget Thee Jerusalem ' ) features prominently in the film , playing at all three of the major events : the funeral , the Bris Milah , and the wedding . Azulay used an acapella version of the song , which is derived from an excerpt of Psalm 137 and expresses the yearnings of the Jewish people in exile following the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in 586 BCE : " If I forget you , O Jerusalem , let my right hand wither ; Let my tongue stick to my palate if I cease to think of you , if I do not keep Jerusalem in memory even at my happiest hour . "
Shira is frequently shown playing the accordion , which Hadas Yaron did not know how to play . She described it as a " very difficult instrument " and stated , " There was so much noise in [ one scene ] . It was like rrrrrrnnnnngh [ as I tried to play ] , I was faking the melody and it was ugly , very weird stuff . I had to really switch this button [ in my head ] like don 't listen to it and feel what you ’ ' re feeling . It took a while because at the beginning , I was very aware of playing this horrible melody , if you could call it a melody , and I knew I had to feel something . It took a few takes because I thought , ' oh , how could [ the crew ] listen to that ? The cinematographer ! ' It took a while to ignore that and just be in the moment . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
First released in Israel in September
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over a Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Vickers Wellington bomber in what became to be known as the Battle of the Heligoland Bight . During the battle , he shot down and killed Squadron Leader Archibald Guthrie , of No. 9 Squadron .
= = = Norwegian Campaign and Battle of Britain = = =
On 8 April 1940 , Gollob was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 3 . Staffel of ZG 76 . The unit took part in Operation Weserübung , Germany 's assault on Denmark and Norway in the opening operation of the Norwegian Campaign . In June 1940 , I. Gruppe was based at Trondheim @-@ Værnes , when the Allied expeditionary force composed of British , French , and Free Polish , were being evacuated from Narvik . In support of the evacuation , the RAF was targeting German shipping in Norwegian waters and Luftwaffe occupied airfields along the coast . On 13 June , fifteen Blackburn Skua dive bombers , six from 800 Naval Air Squadron and nine from 803 Naval Air Squadron , launched from the Royal Navy aircraft carrier Ark Royal attempted to attack the battleship Scharnhorst in the Trondheimsfjord . The flight was intercepted by the Luftwaffe and in the resulting aerial encounter , eight Skuas were shot down , the first by Gollob . That day , he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class ( Eisernes Kreuz erster Klasse ) .
Gollob then received night fighter training . At the time , he made a few recommendations for technical improvement of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 single @-@ engined fighter . Based on these recommendations , he was transferred to the Erprobungstelle Rechlin , the Luftwaffe test facility at Rechlin in June 1940 . At 14 : 47 on 9 July 1940 , Gollob intercepted and shot down Short Sunderland flying boat " Y " ( N6133 ) from No. 201 Squadron . The Sunderland , piloted by Flight Lieutenant J.D. Middleton , was on patrol off Norway and crashed 140 kilometers ( 90 mi ) southwest of Sumburgh Head . That same day at 17 : 20 , Gollob , together with Oberfeldwebel ( Staff Sergeant ) Herbert Schob and Oberleutnant Gerhard Böhmel , shot down a patrolling Lockheed Hudson reconnaissance aircraft " J " ( N7377 ) from No. 233 Squadron off Shetland .
On 7 September 1940 during the Battle of Britain , Gollob was transferred to the Gruppenstab ( headquarters unit ) of II . Gruppe Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) based at Arques in northern France . On 8 October , Oberleutnant Werner Voigt , Staffelkapitän of 4 . Staffel was shot down over England and taken prisoner of war . Four days later , Gollob took command of 4 . Staffel . In February 1941 , the entire II . Gruppe returned to Germany for a period of rest . The pilots went on a ski vacation in Kitzbühel from 9 to 28 March 1941 . 4 . Staffel was housed at the foot of the Ehrenbachhöhe , the highest point of the Hahnenkamm . The Gruppe then reassembled at Darmstadt @-@ Griesheim where they received a complement of the new Bf 109 F @-@ 2 fighter aircraft . On 25 April 1941 , II . Gruppe began relocating back to the English Channel Front at Monchy @-@ Breton . The Gruppe completed relocation on 4 May and flew its first mission on 7 May 1941 . That day , the RAF flew several fighter sweeps over the French coast and Gollob was credited with shooting down a Supermarine Spitfire fighter , his sixth of the war and last on the Western Front . On 1 June 1941 , Gollob was promoted to Hauptmann ( captain ) and II . Gruppe began its relocation to the Eastern Front . The ground elements moved immediately while the air elements followed on 8 June . On that day , they flew to Saint @-@ Dizier and then to Böblingen . On the following day , they continued to Breslau @-@ Gandau , now the Wrocław – Copernicus Airport in Poland , via Straubing .
= = = War against the Soviet Union = = =
In preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , II . Gruppe headed further east on 18 June . Following a stopover at Kraków , the unit was moved to Hostynne . At the start of the campaign , JG 3 under the command of Major ( Major ) Günther Lützow was subordinated to the V. Fliegerkorps ( 5th Air Corps ) , under the command of General der Flieger ( General of the Aviators ) Robert Ritter von Greim , itself part of Luftflotte 4 ( 4th Air Fleet ) , under the command of Generaloberst ( Colonel General ) Alexander Löhr . These air elements supported Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Gerd von Rundstedt 's Heeresgruppe Süd ( Army Group South ) , with the objective of capturing Ukraine and its capital Kiev . At 17 : 00 on 21 June 1941 , V. Fliegerkorps , based at Lipsko , briefed the various unit commanders of the upcoming attack . That evening , Hauptmann Lothar Keller , Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of II . Gruppe , informed his subordinates of the attack .
The invasion of the Soviet Union began on 22 June 1941 . II . Gruppe flew its first missions on the Eastern Front shortly before 04 : 00 , flying low attacks against Soviet airfields in the vicinity of Lvov , now Lviv in Ukraine . At 06 : 30 the Gruppe fought its first aerial battles . 4 . Staffel claimed three victories and the Gruppenstab four . One of these victories was credited to Gollob , who claimed a Polikarpov I @-@ 16 fighter shot down at 07 : 00 . On 25 June , II . Gruppe claimed 17 victories , 6 of which were credited to 4 . Staffel . The Staffel engaged Ilyushin DB @-@ 3 bombers escorted by I @-@ 16 " Ratas " on a free chase mission west of Lutsk . The Soviet bombers targeted the German advance roads from Hrubieszów through Volodymyr @-@ Volynskyi to Lusk . Gollob was credited with two victories over DB @-@ 3s in this encounter . On 26 June 1941 , Gruppenkommandeur Keller was killed in a mid @-@ air collision . The next day , Gollop succeeded Keller in this position and turned over command of 4 . Staffel to Oberleutnant Karl Faust . In the beginning of July 1941 , the front in the vicinity of the northern sector of Heeresgruppe Süd became increasingly fluid . This necessitated the relocation of II . Gruppe to Volodymyr @-@ Volynskyi . By this time the war of attrition had reduced the Gruppe to 50 percent of its authorized strength . One reason for this was the almost complete lack of new aircraft or of engines and other spare parts . Another factor was overwork of the ground crews and signs of exhaustion were apparent . Flying combat air patrols over Berdychiv and Zhytomyr on 1 July , II . Gruppe claimed four victories . On this day at 19 : 42 , Gollob claimed his tenth aerial victory over a Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2 light bomber . The following day , the Gruppe claimed 23 aerial victories for the loss of one in combat . The first victory of the day was claimed by Gollob who shot down a ZKB @-@ 19 — a German alias for the Polikarpov I @-@ 17 fighter , possibly a misidentified Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 1 or Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 3 — at 05 : 52 in the morning . On another mission that day , he claimed two Vultee V @-@ 11 attack aircraft shot down at 11 : 30 and 11 : 43 .
The rapid advance of German ground forces required II . Gruppe to move to Lutsk on 5 July , then to Dubno that evening and to Miropol on 10 July . Flying missions east of Zhytomyr , Gollob claimed his 14th victory over a Polikarpov I @-@ 153 at 06 : 30 on 13 July 1941 . A victory over a DB @-@ 3 at 11 : 42 and a further victory over a Tupolev SB @-@ 2 bomber at 11 : 44 , both claimed on 16 July , took his total to 16 aerial victories . On 20 July 1941 , II . Gruppe relocated from Miropol to Berdychiv . One day later , Gollob was awarded the Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ) for 16 aerial victories . On 23 July 1941 at 16 : 35 , Gollob claimed a Polikarpov R @-@ 5 reconnaissance bomber , his 17th aerial victory . That day , II . Gruppe received orders to turn over its remaining aircraft to I. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 — 53rd Fighter Wing ) . Gollob 's Gruppe was re @-@ equipped with the Bf 109 F @-@ 4 . On 28 July , the pilots were flown to Krosno on a Junkers Ju 52 where they received a full complement of Bf 109 F @-@ 4s . After a single familiarization flight , they departed to Berdychiv and on the following morning they were transferred to Bila Tserkva . During the first days in August 1941 , II . Gruppe flew missions over the combat areas along the Dnieper in support of the main German attack to encircle Soviet forces near Uman , approximately 200 km ( 120 mi ) south of Kiev . Most II . Gruppe missions were subsequently in the greater Kiev area and to the north near Malyn , where Soviet forces were still holding onto the west bank of the Dnieper . Until 6 August 1941 , II . Gruppe claimed five victories without loss . Two victories claimed on 5 August took Gollob 's total to 20 aerial victories . He was victorious over a I @-@ 153 at 17 : 46 and a I @-@ 17 at 18 : 22 .
On 7 August , II . Gruppe moved again , from Bila Tserkva the Gruppe moved to Signajewka , a forward airfield near Shpola . In the days to come , the Gruppe flew combat missions over the Dnieper , between Kaniv and Kremenchuk as well to the south . Flying from Signajewka for the next 10 days , II . Gruppe claimed 64 aerial victories , including 11 on 8 August , 7 on 9 August , 8 on 12 August and 27 on 17 August 1941 , the Gruppe 's most successful day of the entire 1941 summer campaign . In the same timeframe , Gollob increased his number of aerial victories to 26 . II . Gruppe had to relocate again in order to keep up with the German advance . On the afternoon of 17 August parts of the air elements flew to Kirovohrad @-@ North airfield . Their primary mission was to protect the armored spearheads in the Dnipropetrovsk area . On 21 August 1941 , II . Gruppe claimed 17 victories , five of which were by Gollob . This " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " achievement , the first of six during his combat career , took his total to 33 aerial victories . On 25 August , III . Armeekorps ( 3rd Army Corps ) took Dnipropetrovsk and captured the first bridgehead across the Dnieper . Until the end of August 1941 , II . Gruppe primary objective was to help secure the bridgehead on the east bank of the Dnieper . In support of these battles , Gollob scored a I @-@ 17 on 22 August , a Polikarpov I @-@ 180 fighter aircraft on 24 August and a Tupolev TB @-@ 3 heavy bomber on 31 August 1941 , taking his total to 36 aerial victories . On 1 September 1941 , the 17 . Armee ( 17th Army ) began crossing the Dnieper in force and II . Gruppe was moved to Myronivka . Flying from Myronivka was characterized by poor weather conditions with rain and fog , as a result operations were kept to a minimum . At the time , II . Gruppe 's primary objective was the defense of the Dnieper crossing . In these defensive battles , Gollob score his 37th victory on 8 September . His opponent was classified as an I @-@ 26 fighter aircraft , later referred to as Yakovlev Yak @-@ 1 . One day later , he claimed a Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 ground @-@ attack aircraft . On 12 September weather conditions improved and flight operations increased . II . Gruppe flew missions in support of the armored spearheads as well as fighter escort missions for Junkers Ju 87 dive bombers . That day , Gollob claimed two victories , a Il @-@ 2 and a I @-@ 26 , taking his total to 40 aerial victories . On 13 September , the Gruppe claimed 20 victories over Soviet bombers and ground @-@ attack aircraft , including a V @-@ 11 shot down by Gollob at 17 : 19 . On 14 September 1941 , the German airfield at Myronivka came under Soviet air attack . Following the attack , Gollob and his wingman Oberleutnant Walther Dahl managed to pursue the attackers , and both shot down one of them . This victory over an I @-@ 153 claimed at 05 : 47 in the morning took his total to 42 aerial victories . II . Gruppe was again forced to relocate , on 15 September it moved to an airfield at Kremenchuk . On 18 September , Gollob was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) for 42 victories . On 19 September 1941 , II . Gruppe was tasked with strafing Soviet airfields in the Poltava area . That day , Gollob claimed his 43rd aerial victory over an R @-@ 5 at 13 : 55 . He became an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " again on 28 September 1941 which took his score to 48 aerial victories . That day he had claimed three Pe @-@ 2s and two I @-@ 61s , a designation for the MiG @-@ 1 fighter aircraft .
= = = Battle of Moscow and Crimean Campaign = = =
On 30 September 1941 , the Gruppe was temporarily transferred from the southern sector of the Eastern Front . Their new area of operation was Sechtschinskaja , approximately 40 km ( 25 mi ) southeast of Roslavl . The Gruppe was then subordinated to the II . Fliegerkorps ( 2nd Air Corps ) under the command of General der Flieger Bruno Loerzer and was part of the preparations for Operation Taifun , the planned assault on Moscow . All available German forces were concentrated under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Fedor von Bock 's Heeresgruppe Mitte ( Army Group Centre ) for the attack which began on 2 October 1941 . In the first days of this campaign , II . Gruppe supported the advance northeast by Panzergruppe 4 ( 4th Panzer Group ) and the 4 . Armee ( 4th Army ) towards Vyazma and Yukhnov . Predominantly flying escort missions for Ju 87 dive bombers and combat air patrols over the battle zone east of Desna , Gollob claimed one enemy aircraft shot down on 4 October and two more the following day , including his 50th aerial victory over a I @-@ 61 .
Gollob claimed two Pe @-@ 2s shot down on 6 October , the first at 10 : 15 and the second two hours later . The following day , he was victorious over two further Pe @-@ 2s and one Il @-@ 2 , taking his total to 56 aerial victories . On that night , the first snow fell , worsening road conditions . By 9 October German units had encircled major Soviet forces in two separate pockets at Vyazma and Bryansk . In support of German ground forces , II . Gruppe detached a Schwärme — two pairs of two fighter aircraft — to a forward airfield at Syevsk , approximately 100 km ( 62 mi ) south of Bryansk . From 9 to 11 October the air elements operated from the Kirov and Oryol airfields , which had been captured by German forces on 3 October . Operating from these airfields , Gollob claimed his 57th and 58th victories on 10 October , both aircraft were I @-@ 61s shot down at 12 : 40 and 12 : 43 . The missions on 11 October 1941 were II . Gruppe 's last in support of Operation Taifun . Orders had been received to transfer the air element and a small technical ground crew detachment , which was airlifted by several Ju 52s to Chaplynka . From there , the Gruppe participated in the Crimean Campaign , the conquest of the Crimean peninsula . The transfer began on 13 October , but due to bad weather conditions , it was only completed on 16 October . At Chaplynka , the Gruppe was placed under the command of the Geschwaderstab ( headquarters unit ) of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 — 77th Fighter Wing ) .
The first missions over the battle zone in front of Perekop and over the Crimea were flown on 17 October 1941 , either flying Ju 87 escort missions or combat air patrols . On two separate missions that day , Gollob claimed two I @-@ 61s and one I @-@ 16 shot down . On 18 October 1941 , the 11 . Armee ( 11th Army ) began its attack on the Isthmus of Perekop and Ishun . II . Gruppe flew a number of combat air patrols that day and reported 16 aerial victories for the loss of two Bf 109s damaged in combat . Gollob alone accounted for nine of these 16 claimed victories . This was the third time he had become an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " and was the most successful day of his combat career . During the course of three combat missions , he increased his personal score to 70 . That day he filed a claim for nine I @-@ 61s shot down , two at 07 : 18 and 07 : 20 , five more at 10 : 05 , 10 : 07 , 10 : 19 , 10 : 20 and 10 : 29 and two more at 14 : 46 and 14 : 48 . On 19 October , Gollob again achieved " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " for the fourth time , claiming a I @-@ 61 at 08 : 55 , three P @-@ 2s at 12 : 36 , 12 : 37 and 12 : 42 , and another I @-@ 61 at 15 : 35 . The next day , he was credited with one further I @-@ 61 , taking his total to 76 victories . Two days later , on 22 October , Gollob made " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " for the fifth time and surpassed eighty victories . That day he claimed three I @-@ 16s , one Pe @-@ 2 and one I @-@ 61 . One day later , he claimed three aerial victories , all I @-@ 61s , and on 24 October , he was credited with his 85th victory after he shot down a I @-@ 153 . Following this streak of 37 aerial victories in October 1941 , he was mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht , a propaganda radio report , the first of three such mentions , on 25 October 1941 . The following day , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) after reaching 85 victories . He was the 38th member of the German armed forces to be so honored . Gollob , together with Oberleutnant Erbo Graf von Kageneck , received the Oak Leaves from Adolf Hitler personally at the Wolf 's Lair , Hitler 's headquarters in Rastenburg , present @-@ day Kętrzyn in Poland , on 5 November 1941 .
On 31 October 1941 , II . Gruppe flew its last combat missions over the northern Crimea . The Gruppe was then ordered to return to Germany , to be stationed at the Wiesbaden @-@ Erbenheim airfield where it arrived in early November . Prior to departure , all of the remaining aircraft where handed over to III . Gruppe of JG 77 . Since the start of Operation Barbarossa on 22 June 1941 , II . Gruppe had claimed 504 aerial victories for the loss of ten pilots killed or missing in action , and a further nine pilots who had been injured . In addition , 27 aircraft were lost or damaged beyond repair , a further 21 aircraft received heavy damaged and another 27 were lightly damaged . On 20 November 1941 , Gollob was again posted to the test facility Erprobungstelle Rechlin . Gollob was replaced by Hauptmann Karl @-@ Heinz Krahl as commander of II . Gruppe of JG 3 . At Rechlin , he flew numerous test and comparison flights with the latest version of the Bf 109 and Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 fighter aircraft , as well as a variety of types which never went beyond a prototype variant .
= = = Wing Commander = = =
In early 1942 , the General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighters ) , Oberst ( Colonel ) Adolf Galland recommended Gollob for the Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) position of JG 77 . Subsequently Gollob was sent to the Geschwaderstab of Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 — 54th Fighter Wing ) as a commander @-@ in @-@ training under Major Hannes Trautloft . On 1 May 1942 , Gollob was officially appointed Geschwaderkommodore of JG 77 , replacing Major Gotthard Handrick . He took operational command of the Geschwader after he arrived on 16 May 1942 . On the same day of his arrival , Gollob flew his first combat mission as Geschwaderkommodore . That day , he claimed his aerial victories 87 to 89 , shooting down three Lavochkin @-@ Gorbunov @-@ Gudkov LaGG @-@ 3 fighter aircraft . Gollob 's success continued the following day , when he was credited with three R @-@ 5s and one LaGG @-@ 3 destroyed .
JG 77 had been given the task of supporting the German ground forces in the Crimean Campaign over the Kerch Strait on the Crimean Peninsula . An anonymous JG 77 pilot described Gollob 's methods ; " Gollob flew from Kerch together with his wingman . They positioned themselves at a low altitude beneath a Soviet formation . Then they started climbing in spirals , carefully maintaining their position beneath the enemy formation . Before the peacefully flying Soviets had even suspected any mischief , the two planes at the bottom of their formation had been shot down and the two Germans were gone . " On 18 May 1942 , Gollob claimed his 94th to 96th aerial victories over Kerch and the Caucasus coast ; all three were Polikarpov R @-@ 5 reconnaissance bombers . JG 77 , led by Gollob , and its I. Gruppe , led by Hauptmann Heinrich Bär , were engaged in an intense rivalry , each striving to outperform the other , and both eager to achieve the century mark first . Bär claimed his 100th aerial victory on 19 May . That day , Gollob claimed three more R @-@ 5 shot down , taking his total to 99 aerial victories . One day later , on 20 May 1942 , Gollob shot down two aircraft , a DB @-@ 3 and a LaGG @-@ 3 , and thereby exceeded 100 aerial victories . He was the 10th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . This achievement earned him his second mention in the Wehrmachtbericht radio report on Saturday 20 June 1942 .
On 7 June 1942 , German and Romanian forces began Operation Störfang ( Sturgeon Catch ) , the second assault on the port city Sevastopol , which resulted in its capture on 4 July 1942 . On the first day of this operation , Gollob claimed his 102nd victory , a LaGG @-@ 3 shot down over Sevastopol . The attack on Sevastopol was still making slow progress on 9 June , largely due to the artillery deployed within the fortress . Over the battle zone , Gollob claimed a I @-@ 153 shot down that day . Gollob did not claim any further victories until 18 June . The fighting over Sevastopol was still ongoing and Gollob claimed a Il @-@ 2 and a LaGG @-@ 3 over the southern sector of Sevastopol . These two victories took his total to 105 . On 21 June 1942 , Gollob was credited with two victories over LaGG @-@ 3 fighter aircraft . For this achievement , on 23 June , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) , after his score had increased to 107 aerial victories . This was the 13th presentation of this award . On 1 July 1942 , he was promoted to Major .
On 22 July 1942 , the Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 52 ( JG 52 — 52nd Fighter Wing ) , Major Herbert Ihlefeld , was severely injured in a flight accident and had to surrender command during his convalescence . At the time , all three Gruppen of JG 77 were lent out to other units , and Gollob had time to spare , so temporarily took over command of JG 52 as acting Geschwaderkommodore . On this or one of the following days , he departed and flew to the Geschwaderstab of JG 52 . On 28 June 1942 , the Wehrmacht had initiated Fall Blau ( Case Blue ) , the 1942 strategic summer offensive in southern Russia . The objective was to secure the oil fields of Baku as well as an advance in the direction of Stalingrad along the Volga River , to cover the flanks of the advance towards Baku . Tasked with aerial support of this offensive was Luftflotte 4 to which JG 52 was subordinated . By the time Gollob joined the Geschwader in late July 1942 , the offensive had been renamed Operation Braunschweig and JG 52 was located at Rostov @-@ on @-@ Don . Gollob claimed his first victory with the Stab of JG 52 on 26 July 1942 , a I @-@ 16 and his 108th in total . The next day , he shot down two I @-@ 153 biplane fighters . He claimed the first aerial victory of August 1942 , his last month of combat operations , on 4 August over a Yakovlev Yak @-@ 1 fighter aircraft . He was then credited with four victories on 6 August , two Il @-@ 2 , one Yak @-@ 1 and one R @-@ 5 took his score to 115 aerial victories . He claimed one Yak @-@ 1 on each of the next two days . On 14 August , he was credited with two LaGG @-@ 3 and one Douglas A @-@ 20 Havoc , referred to as a Boston . For the last time in his combat career , Gollob achieved " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " for the sixth time on 16 August 1941 . That day he claimed two LaGG @-@ 3 , two I @-@ 16 and one Il @-@ 2 . His success as a fighter pilot continued , as he shot down two LaGG @-@ 3 on 17 August , three I @-@ 16 on 18 August , and two Il @-@ 2 and a I @-@ 153 on 19 August , taking his overall total to 133 aerial victories .
Following three victories on 20 August , two I @-@ 153 and a I @-@ 16 , Gollob shot down two Bostons on 22 August . On 24 August 1941 , he took his total to 142 aerial victories by claiming three LaGG @-@ 3 and one Boston . Over the course of the next four days , he scored one victory on each day , a Boston on 25 August , a Pe @-@ 2 on 26 August , a I @-@ 16 on 27 August , and another Boston on 28 August . After three victories over LaGG @-@ 3s and one Pe @-@ 2 on 29 August 1942 , he reached 150 aerial victories and became the Luftwaffe 's highest scoring pilot at that point . For this he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) on 30 August . Gollob was the third member of the Wehrmacht and the third fighter pilot who had received this award . Fearing he would be lost in combat , Hitler imposed a flying ban on him . The next day , he was again mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht radio report , his third and last of such mentions . Der Adler , a biweekly Nazi propaganda magazine published by the Luftwaffe , also reported his actions in volume 19 of 1942 . On 30 September 1942 , Gollob was officially replaced in command of JG 77 by Hauptmann Joachim Müncheberg . Gollob was then posted to the Stab of Jagdfliegerführer 3 ( Jafü 3 — 3rd Fighter Pilot Leader ) at Brest @-@ Guipavas on the English Channel Front .
= = = High command = = =
On 15 October 1942 , Gollob was made Jagdfliegerführer 3 , responsible for tactical fighter command over northwestern France . Jagdfliegerführer 3 was renamed Jagdfliegerführer 5 ( Jafü 5 — 5th Fighter Pilot Leader ) on 6 September 1943 . In this command position , he was promoted to Oberstleutnant ( lieutenant colonel ) on 20 April 1943 , effective as of 1 April , and to Oberst on 1 May 1944 . When he became Jafü 5 he frequently submitted reports to his superiors at the 5 . Jagd @-@ Division ( 5th Fighter Division ) about the suitability of the Bf 109 on the Western Front . He indicated that in its present state the Bf 109 G @-@ 3 to G @-@ 6 were no longer adequate for service in the West and that the Fw 190 and Bf 109 were inferior to enemy aircraft . Learning about the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet @-@ powered aircraft , Gollob became a strong advocate of it and its employment as fighter aircraft . Hitler had become interested in the idea of using the Me 262 in a fighter @-@ bomber role , which contributed to the delays in preparing the aircraft for operational readiness as an interceptor .
In April 1944 , Gollob was transferred to the personal staff of General der Jagdflieger Galland , to advise on the development of the Me 262 jet and Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket aircraft projects . Gollob quarrelled with Galland in September and was transferred to Kommando der Erprobungstellen ( headquarters of test units ) , which two years previously had been put under the command of Oberst Edgar Petersen . Gollob was also involved in the development and testing of the Neptun " J " airborne radar and air @-@ to @-@ air rockets , such as the R4M . In November 1944 , Gollob was appointed commander of the Jäger @-@ Sonderstab — or special fighter command —
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used to burn enemy houses .
Wooden carvings in the shape of hawks , ancient gods , serpents and turtles are also popular . The Grand Huts , also known as grande case ( chef 's hut ) , are decorated with the filial of fleche faitiere representing the ancestral spirits , symbolic of transition between the world of the dead and the world of the living . The wood carving is shaped like the spear @-@ like carving that adorns the top of the grande case . It comprises three parts ; the flat crowned face representing the ancestor with a long , the rounded pole run through by conch shells mounted on it that represents the ancestor ’ s voice , and a base with the pole fixed to it to symbolise the link between the clan and the chief . The central piece is also flanked by wooden pieces with sharp points ( facing downwards ) that are intended to prevent bad spirits enveloping the ancestor in the central part . As it represented the power of the chiefs over their subjects , it was adopted as flag of the Kanaks by the organization leading the independent movement in New Caledonia . The arrow or the spear normally has a needle at the end to insert threaded shells from bottom to top . After the death of a Kanak chief , the fleche faitière is removed and his family takes it to their home . Though it was allowed to be used again as a sign of respect it is normally kept at burial grounds of noted citizens or at the mounds of abandoned grand houses .
Stone carving
Stone carvings made of jade or serpentinite are in the form of ceremonial axe representing clan 's strength and power . These were used to behead enemies during war and during ancestor celebrations known as Pilou . The bottom of the handle represents the particular clan and is embellished with stones and shells . The axe is polished smooth like a disc . Carvings made of soapstone are also popular .
Bamboo carvings
A meter in length canes , dated between 1850 and 1920 , are used to make an entry into a village or in dance ceremonies . The canes were fired to give black patina over the engraved parts ; the engraving designs consist of geometrical real images from the pilou dance , agricultural motifs and village scenes of fishing or building a Grand Hut or case . These were also stuffed with magic herbs to ward off evil spirits .
Tapa
Tapa is a bark cloth made into small pieces , often from banyan trees used to wrap up Kanak ancient bead money .
Boats
Kanaks living on the islands made canoes out of hollowed – out trunks and large double – hulled outriggers with triangular sails , known as pirogues , traditionally used for fishing .
= = = Dances = = =
Dances are performed during the traditional Kanak gatherings with the objective of cementing relationships within the clan and with ancestors . Dance is performed in the form of a message or a legend , often related to their daily activities or important events such as birth , marriage , circumcision , the death of a chief and so forth . Dancers paint themselves colourfully to please the ancestors watching over them . Wooden masks made of local materials such as bark , feathers and leaves adorn them representing a physical link with the invisible world .
The Festival des Arts du Pacifique , the Festival of Pacific Arts , is organized every four years . Dancers are trained in traditional dances in special workshops . Welcome dances performed by groups are very popular . Of the various dance forms , the pilou @-@ pilou dance is a unique dance form of the Kanaks , which recounts many stories of the clans . The pilou @-@ pilou dance form of the Kanaks , now almost extinct , was so named by the early French missionaries of New Caledonia and involved stomping with bamboo tubes and beating of bark @-@ clappers accompanied by singing in duets with shrieks and whistles of hundreds of dancers . However , in view of very strong nature of this form of dance , with a trance @-@ like status attained by the dancers , these have been banned ; the last such dance reported was in 1951 .
= = = Music = = =
Music , dance and singing are part of many a Kanak ceremonial function such as initiation , courting and mourning . Conch shells are blown by an appointed person to represent a clan chief ’ s arrival or the voice of an ancestor . Rhythm instruments used include Bwanjep , used during ceremonies by a group of men ; Jew 's harp , ( wadohnu in the Nengone language where it originated ) made of dried piece of coconut palm leaf held between the teeth and an attached segment of soft nerve leaf ; coconut @-@ leaf whizzer , a piece of coconut leaf attached to a string and twirled that produces a noise like a humming bee ; oboe , made of hollow grass stems or bamboo ; end @-@ blown flute , made of 50 cm long hollowed pawpaw leaf stem ; bamboo stamping tubes that are struck vertically against the ground and played at major events ; percussion instruments ( hitting sticks , palm sheaths ) ; rattles that are worn on the legs made of coconut leaves , shells and certain fruits . Kanak groups such as Bethela first made the recordings on cassette around 1975 or 1976 .
= = = Arts festivals = = =
In 1971 the women 's association , Smiling Melanesian Village Women 's Groups was formed and advocated the idea of a cultural festival to promote Kanak arts . As a result of this movement the first festival of Melanesian arts , " Melanesia 2000 " , was held in Nouméa in September 1975 , supported by Jean @-@ Marie Tjibaou . Kanak arts festivals became popular with two international events held early in the 1990s that created the awareness of Kanak arts . The first exhibition of modern @-@ day wood sculptors and painters was held at Ko i Neva , which was also published as contemporary Kanak arts . This was followed by a large exhibition of Kanak arts in Paris known as " De Jade et de Nacre - Patrimoine Artistique Kanak ( Jade and Mother of Pearl - Kanak Artistic Heritage " .
The Centre Cultural Tjibaou also stages occasional art exhibitions . A popular quadrennial event is the Festival of Pacific Arts where the indigenous people of all Pacific nations and people gather to display the Pacific 's cultural heritage .
= = Kanak Art = =
= Clare Stevenson =
Clare Grant Stevenson , AM , MBE ( 18 July 1903 – 22 October 1988 ) was the inaugural Director of the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) . As such , she has been described as " the most significant woman in the history of the Air Force " . Formed as a branch of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in 1941 , the WAAAF was the first and largest uniformed women 's service in Australia during World War II , numbering more than 18 @,@ 000 members by late 1944 and making up over thirty per cent of RAAF ground staff .
Born and educated in Victoria , Stevenson was an executive with the Berlei company when she was appointed Director WAAAF . Initially ranked squadron officer , she rose to become group officer by 1942 . Stevenson resumed her civilian career following her discharge from the Air Force in 1946 . Long active in education and social welfare , she helped form aid organisations including the Carers Association of New South Wales ( now Carers NSW ) after retiring from Berlei in 1960 . Stevenson was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire and a Member of the Order of Australia for her services to the community and to female veterans .
= = Education and early career = =
Born on 18 July 1903 in Wangaratta , Victoria , Clare Grant Stevenson was the fifth of six children of Robert Logan Grant Stevenson and his wife Ada Pollie , née Griffiths . When Clare was four her family moved to Essendon , where she attended Winstow Girls ' Grammar School and Essendon High School , completing her intermediate and leaving certificates . In 1922 , she entered the Faculty of Science at the University of Melbourne , but switched to education after failing chemistry in her final year . Stevenson was a hockey blue and was active in several campus groups , including the Students ' Representative Council and the Science Club . She became President of the Committee of Melbourne University Women , and graduated in 1925 with a Diploma of Education .
Stevenson began working with the YWCA in 1926 . A strong advocate for continuing education , during her first two years with the association she organised night classes for workers in Sydney . She served as General Secretary of the Rockhampton , Queensland , branch from 1929 to 1931 . In 1932 she took up a position as a training and research officer at Berlei , and from 1935 to 1939 represented the company in London as a senior executive . Stevenson was based in Sydney , supervising product research and the training of sales staff , at the outbreak of World War II .
= = Director WAAAF = =
= = = Appointment = = =
Late in 1940 , Stevenson was nominated to be the first Director of the planned Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) . Although keen to support the war effort in some capacity , she demurred owing to the administrative and social obstacles she foresaw in the role , but her appointment went ahead regardless on 21 May 1941 . The Air Member for Personnel , Air Vice Marshal Henry Wrigley , had recommended Stevenson on the basis of her management background and because she was not a " socialite " . Despite her initial misgivings , Stevenson decided not to fight the appointment , which took effect on 9 June .
Established on 25 March 1941 in response to lobbying by women wanting to serve in the war , and to free more male ground crew for overseas postings , the WAAAF was the first uniformed women 's branch of an armed service in Australia , predating similar organisations in the Army and Navy . Fewer than two hundred personnel had been recruited when Stevenson became Director in June ; this number would grow to around a thousand by the end of the year . For the first three months of its existence the WAAAF had been under the temporary command of Flight Officer Mary Bell , wife of an RAAF group captain and former Australian Commandant of the Women 's Air Training Corps , an organisation of female pilots and ground staff that had been formed in 1939 and had been providing voluntary support to the Air Force . Bell chose to resign on learning of Stevenson 's appointment , rather than stay on as Deputy Director and report to someone from outside the service fraternity ; she later rejoined on the condition that she would receive no promotion higher than flight officer .
= = = Early challenges = = =
In her role as Director , Stevenson was responsible for training , morale and welfare of all WAAAF staff . Philosophically committed to equal opportunity regardless of gender and social background , from the outset she had to deal with discrimination by government authorities , many of whom had been against the creation of such a service . One @-@ time Minister for Defence , Harold Thorby , declared that " aviation takes women out of their natural environment , the home and the training of the family " , and various senior Air Force officers , including the man subsequently known as the " Father of the RAAF " , Air Marshal Richard Williams , and the Director of Personnel Services , Group Captain Joe Hewitt , also fought the proposal . The Chief of the Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett , a Royal Air Force commander who appreciated how the Women 's Auxiliary Air Force ( WAAF ) had proved itself during the Battle of Britain in 1940 , supported its establishment but lost some interest after his preferred choice as Director , his daughter Sybil @-@ Jean , a serving WAAF officer , was ruled out . The Federal government decreed that WAAAF staff would be paid two @-@ thirds of what a male doing the equivalent trade received , while their right of appeal in disciplinary matters and the deference shown to their rank was more comparable to that of " uniformed civilians " than to servicemen . Women were at first enrolled for renewable twelve @-@ month periods rather than enlisted as permanent staff ; only in 1943 did the WAAAF become part of the Permanent Air Force .
Stevenson considered housing , uniforms , and recruit training as her first priorities after taking up her appointment . She said that on arriving at No. 1 WAAAF Depot in Malvern , Victoria , she was " shattered at the prison @-@ like atmosphere of the place " . She drew on her retail experience to both organise the WAAAF and design its uniform . Stevenson was promoted to wing officer on 1 October 1941 , and group officer on 1 April 1942 , which was to be the highest rank attained by a serving WAAAF member . She took an active interest in recruitment , her liberal social outlook evinced by her determination that single women with children should not be barred from entry to the WAAAF . In order to establish high standards , Stevenson personally interviewed all WAAAF officer trainees and briefed as many of her officers as was possible before they were posted to a new job . She also worked to maintain the morale of personnel , encouraging officers to attend group leadership courses and organise leisure and sporting activities for their staff . Colonel Sybil Irving , the head of the Australian Women 's Army Service ( AWAS ) , who observed first hand the WAAAF 's training methods before large @-@ scale AWAS recruitment commenced , later declared that Stevenson " did the most pertinent pioneering work " in gaining acceptance for women in the armed forces . For her part , Stevenson considered the role of Director " a difficult job and often a lonely one " .
= = = Later service = = =
Early in 1943 a policy change was mooted to remove female officers from the technical musterings they had so far filled in the WAAAF , and substitute male officers in these roles . In opposing this , Stevenson went around the new Air Member for Personnel , Air Commodore Frank Lukis , and wrote directly to the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff , Air Commodore John McCauley . She told McCauley , " I contend that it is a waste of money and training to take women cipher officers , women from Signals ( S4 ) and casualty ... when they have learnt their work and substitute these women
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by men who have to learn the job " , and recommended that he direct the Air Member for Personnel to ensure that female officers continued to be employed in technical positions , and not simply for administration and welfare . McCauley agreed with Stevenson but Lukis appealed to the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones . Jones backed Lukis ' authority , and the latter sent a " stinging rebuke " to Stevenson , who was forced to apologize . In the event , women officers continued to be employed in technical positions as the WAAAF expanded over the next two years , peaking in strength at 18 @,@ 667 members in October 1944 . By the end of the war a total of 27 @,@ 000 women had served in the WAAAF , comprising some thirty @-@ one per cent of Air Force ground staff and filling sixty @-@ one trades , all previously occupied by men .
Stevenson continued to lead the WAAAF following the cessation of hostilities , retiring on medical grounds on 22 March 1946 . Suffering reduced muscle function in her left arm and pain on the left side of her face and neck , she was diagnosed with brachial neuritis , traced to typhus , tetanus and smallpox injections received the previous May in preparation for a proposed visit to Manila that never eventuated . In her last annual address to the WAAAF as its Director , Stevenson encouraged its members to make use of their service experience when they returned to civilian life :
These are the things we shall miss — the comradeship , the knowledge of a common aim , the feeling that one is not alone — they all make life in the WAAAF very different from life in the outside world ... We must find a common aim — not of winning a war and working to free our prisoners of war — but winning something for our district from an unenlightened council or a disinterested public ...
Presented with a jewelled brooch as a farewell gift by her fellow officers , Stevenson asked that its value instead be put towards a scholarship for an ex @-@ WAAAF member to study social work at the University of Sydney . The WAAAF itself , the first and largest of Australia 's wartime women 's services , was disbanded on 30 September 1946 . It was succeeded in 1950 by a new organisation with a separate charter to the RAAF , the Women 's Royal Australian Air Force ( WRAAF ) . WRAAF members achieved a pay scale equal to the male service in 1972 , and five years later were integrated with the RAAF .
= = Post @-@ war work and legacy = =
Following her discharge from the WAAAF , Stevenson resumed her career as a senior executive with Berlei , and remained with the company until her retirement in 1960 . Parallel to her work at Berlei , she was a trustee of the Services Canteens Trust Fund in Melbourne , maintaining her links with the organisation for the next forty years . A founding patron of the Council of Ex @-@ Servicewomen 's Associations , Stevenson was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire in the 1960 Queen 's Birthday Honours for her welfare work on behalf of female veterans . She helped set up the Scholarship Trust Fund for Civilian Widows ' Children in 1963 , and was a research officer with the New South Wales Council on the Ageing ( COTA ) from 1969 to 1978 . In 1975 , Stevenson was involved in establishing the Kings Cross Community Aid and Information Service , serving for a time as President and as a member of the Management Committee until 1987 .
Stevenson founded the Carers Association of New South Wales , and became its first President , in 1980 . While serving with COTA in 1974 , she had prepared a report titled " Dedication " concerning the levels of assistance given to the elderly by their family and friends . This led to her forming in 1976 a subcommittee of COTA made up of carers , from which she later created the Carers Association as an independent organisation . As President of the association , Stevenson lobbied for the establishment of a Carers Pension in New South Wales , which was legislated in 1985 . She is commemorated at the Carers Association ( now Carers NSW ) by the Clare Stevenson Memorial Lectures .
In 1984 Stevenson , together with Honor Darling , published The WAAAF Book , a collection of reminiscences by former members of the service . Stevenson was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia in the 1988 Australia Day Honours for her services to the community and her welfare work with veterans . Her hobbies included reading , classical music and , in her younger days , surfing . Unmarried , Clare Stevenson died in Mona Vale on 22 October 1988 , leaving her body to the University of Sydney .
= Painted turtle =
The painted turtle ( Chrysemys picta ) is the most widespread native turtle of North America . It lives in slow @-@ moving fresh waters , from southern Canada to Louisiana and northern Mexico , and from the Atlantic to the Pacific . The turtle is the only species of the genus Chrysemys , which is part of the pond turtle family Emydidae . Fossils show that the painted turtle existed 15 million years ago . Four regionally based subspecies ( the eastern , midland , southern , and western ) evolved during the last ice age .
The adult painted turtle female is 10 – 25 cm ( 4 – 10 in ) long ; the male is smaller . The turtle 's top shell is dark and smooth , without a ridge . Its skin is olive to black with red , orange , or yellow stripes on its extremities . The subspecies can be distinguished by their shells : the eastern has straight @-@ aligned top shell segments ; the midland has a large gray mark on the bottom shell ; the southern has a red line on the top shell ; the western has a red pattern on the bottom shell .
The turtle eats aquatic vegetation , algae , and small water creatures including insects , crustaceans , and fish . Although they are frequently consumed as eggs or hatchlings by rodents , canines , and snakes , the adult turtles ' hard shells protect them from most predators . Reliant on warmth from its surroundings , the painted turtle is active only during the day when it basks for hours on logs or rocks . During winter , the turtle hibernates , usually in the mud at the bottom of water bodies . The turtles mate in spring and autumn . Females dig nests on land and lay eggs between late spring and mid @-@ summer . Hatched turtles grow until sexual maturity : 2 – 9 years for males , 6 – 16 for females .
In the traditional tales of Algonquian tribes , the colorful turtle played the part of a trickster . In modern times , four U.S. states have named the painted turtle their official reptile . While habitat loss and road killings have reduced the turtle 's population , its ability to live in human @-@ disturbed settings has helped it remain the most abundant turtle in North America . Adults in the wild can live for more than 55 years .
= = Description = =
The painted turtle 's shell is 10 – 25 cm ( 4 – 10 in ) long , oval , smooth with little grooves where the large scale @-@ like plates overlap , and flat @-@ bottomed . The color of the top shell ( carapace ) varies from olive to black . Darker specimens are more common where the bottom of the water body is darker . The bottom shell ( plastron ) is yellow , sometimes red , sometimes with dark markings in the center . Similar to the top shell , the turtle 's skin is olive to black , but with red and yellow stripes on its neck , legs , and tail . As with other pond turtles , such as the bog turtle , the painted turtle 's feet are webbed to aid swimming .
The head of the turtle is distinctive . The face has only yellow stripes , with a large yellow spot and streak behind each eye , and on the chin two wide yellow stripes that meet at the tip of the jaw . The turtle 's upper jaw is shaped into an inverted " V " ( philtrum ) , with a downward @-@ facing , tooth @-@ like projection on each side .
The hatchling has a proportionally larger head , eyes , and tail , and a more circular shell than the adult . The adult female is generally longer than the male , 10 – 25 cm ( 4 – 10 in ) versus 7 – 15 cm ( 3 – 6 in ) . For a given length , the female has a higher ( more rounded , less flat ) top shell . The female weighs around 500 g ( 18 oz ) on average , against the males ' average adult weight of roughly 300 g ( 11 oz ) . The female 's greater body volume supports her egg @-@ production . The male has longer foreclaws and a longer , thicker tail , with the anus ( cloaca ) located further out on the tail .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Although the subspecies of painted turtle intergrade ( blend together ) at range boundaries they are distinct within the hearts of their ranges .
The male eastern painted turtle ( C. p. picta ) is 13 – 17 cm ( 5 – 7 in ) long , while the female is 14 – 17 cm ( 6 – 7 in ) . The upper shell is olive green to black and may possess a pale stripe down the middle and red markings on the periphery . The segments ( scutes ) of the top shell have pale leading edges and occur in straight rows across the back , unlike all other North American turtles , including the other three subspecies of painted turtle , which have alternating segments . The bottom shell is plain yellow or lightly spotted . Sometimes as few as one dark grey spot near the lower center of the shell .
The midland painted turtle ( C. p. marginata ) is 10 – 25 cm ( 4 – 10 in ) long . The centrally located midland is the hardest to distinguish from the other three subspecies . Its bottom shell has a characteristic symmetrical dark shadow in the center which varies in size and prominence .
The southern painted turtle ( C. p. dorsalis ) , the smallest subspecies , is 10 – 14 cm ( 4 – 6 in ) long . Its top stripe is a prominent red , and its bottom shell is tan and spotless or nearly so .
The largest subspecies is the western painted turtle ( C. p. bellii ) , which grows up to 26 @.@ 6 cm ( 10 in ) long . Its top shell has a mesh @-@ like pattern of light lines , and the top stripe present in other subspecies is missing or faint . Its bottom shell has a large colored splotch that spreads to the edges ( further than the midland ) and often has red hues .
= = = Similar species = = =
The painted turtle has a very similar appearance to the red @-@ eared slider ( the most common pet turtle ) and the two are often confused . The painted turtle can be distinguished because it is flatter than the slider . Also , the slider has a prominent red marking on the side of its head ( the " ear " ) and a spotted bottom shell , both features missing in the painted turtle .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Diet = = =
The painted turtle hunts along water bottoms . It quickly juts its head into and out of vegetation to stir potential victims out into the open water , where they are pursued . The turtle holds large prey in its mouth and tears the prey apart with its forefeet . It also consumes plants and skims the surface of the water with its mouth open to catch small particles of food .
Although all subspecies of painted turtle eat both plants and animals , their specific diets vary .
The eastern painted turtle 's diet is the least studied . It prefers to eat in the water , but has been observed eating on land . The fish it consumes are typically dead or injured .
The midland painted turtle eats mostly aquatic insects and both vascular and non @-@ vascular plants .
The southern painted turtle 's diet changes with age . Juveniles ' diet consists of 13 % vegetation , while the adults eat 88 % vegetation . This perhaps shows that the turtle prefers small larvae and other prey , but can only obtain significant amounts while young . The reversal of feeding habits with age has also been seen in the false map turtle , which inhabits some of the same range . The most common plants eaten by adult southern painted turtles are duckweed and algae , and the most common prey items are dragonfly larvae and crayfish .
The western painted turtle 's consumption of plants and animals changes seasonally . In early summer , 60 % of its diet comprises insects . In late summer , 55 % includes plants . Of note , the western painted turtle aids
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non @-@ Congress leader to form a majority government in post @-@ colonial India .
Policing in the city is provided by the Kanchipuram sub @-@ division of the Tamil Nadu Police headed by a Deputy Superintendent of Police . The force 's special units include prohibition enforcement , district crime , social justice and human rights , district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division , which is headed by a Superintendent of Police .
= = Demographics = =
During the rule of King Narasimha Varma in the 7th century , the city covered about 10 square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 sq mi ) and had a population of 10 @,@ 000 . The population increased to 13 @,@ 000 in subsequent years and the city developed cross patterned links with rectangular streets . The settlements in the city were mostly caste based . During the period of Nandivarma Pallavan II , houses were built on raised platforms and burnt bricks . The concepts of the verandah in the front yard , garden in the backyard , ventilation facilities and drainage of rainwater were all introduced for the first time . The centre of the city was occupied by Brahmins , while the Tiruvekka temple and houses of agricultural labourers were situated outside the city . There were provisions in the city 's outskirts for training the cavalry and infantry .
During the Chola era , Kanchipuram was not the capital , but the kings had a palace in the city and lot of development was extended eastwards . During the Vijayanagara period , the population rose to 25 @,@ 000 . There were no notable additions to the city 's infrastructure during British rule . The British census of 1901 recorded that Kanchipuram had a population of 46 @,@ 164 , consisting of 44 @,@ 684 Hindus , 1 @,@ 313 Muslims , 49 Christians and 118 Jains .
According to 2011 census , Kanchipuram had a population of 164 @,@ 384 with a sex @-@ ratio of 1 @,@ 005 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 15 @,@ 955 were under the age of six , constituting 8 @,@ 158 males and 7 @,@ 797 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 3 @.@ 55 % and .09 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the city was 79 @.@ 51 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . The city had a total of 41807 households . There were a total of 61 @,@ 567 workers , comprising 320 cultivators , 317 main agricultural labourers , 8 @,@ 865 in house hold industries , 47 @,@ 608 other workers , 4 @,@ 457 marginal workers , 61 marginal cultivators , 79 marginal agricultural labourers , 700 marginal workers in household industries and 3 @,@ 617 other marginal workers . About 800 @,@ 000 ( 800 @,@ 000 ) pilgrims visit the city every year as of 2001 . As per the religious census of 2011 , Kancheepuram had 93 @.@ 38 % Hindus , 5 @.@ 24 % Muslims , 0 @.@ 83 % Christians , 0 @.@ 01 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 01 % Buddhists , 0 @.@ 4 % Jains , 0 @.@ 11 % following other religions and 0 @.@ 01 % following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference .
Kanchipuram has 416 hectares ( 1 @,@ 030 acres ) of residential properties , mostly around the temples . The commercial area covers 62 hectares ( 150 acres ) , constituting 6 @.@ 58 % of the city . Industrial developments occupy around 65 hectares ( 160 acres ) , where most of the handloom spinning , silk weaving , dyeing and rice production units are located . 89 @.@ 06 hectares ( 220 @.@ 1 acres ) are used for transport and communications infrastructure , including bus stands , roads , streets and railways lines .
= = Economy = =
The major occupations of Kanchipuram are silk sari weaving and agriculture . As of 2008 , an estimated 5 @,@ 000 families were involved in sari production . The main industries are cotton production , light machinery and electrical goods manufacturing , and food processing . There are 25 silk and cotton yarn industries , 60 dyeing units , 50 rice mills and 42 other industries in the Kanchipuram . Another important occupation is tourism and service related segments like hotels , restaurants and local transportation .
Kanchipuram is a traditional centre of silk weaving and handloom industries for producing Kanchipuram Saris . The industry is worth ₹ 100 cr ( US $ 18 @.@ 18 million ) , but the weaving community suffers from poor marketing techniques and duplicate market players . In 2005 , " Kanchipuram Silk Sarees " received the Geographical Indication tag , the first product in India to carry this label . The silk trade in Kanchipuram began when King Raja Raja Chola I ( 985 – 1014 ) invited weavers to migrate to Kanchi . The craft increased with the mass migration from Andhra Pradesh in the 15th century during the Vijayanagara rule . The city was razed during the French siege of 1757 , but weaving re @-@ emerged in the late 18th century .
All major nationalised banks such as Vijaya Bank , State Bank of India , Indian Bank , Canara Bank , Punjab National Bank , Dena Bank and private banks like ICICI Bank have branches in Kanchipuram . All these banks have their Automated teller machines located in various parts of the city .
= = = Human rights = = =
Kanchipuram has more than the national average rate of child labour and bonded labour . The local administration is accused of aiding child labour by opening night schools in Kanchipuram from 1999 . There is an estimated 40 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 child workers in Kanchipuram compared to 85 @,@ 000 in the same industry in Varanasi . Children are commonly traded for sums of between ₹ 10 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 ( 200 – $ 300 ) and there are cases where whole families are held in bondage . Child labour is prohibited in India by the Children ( Pledging of Labour ) Act and Child Labour ( Prohibition and Regulation ) Act , but these laws are not strictly enforced .
= = Transport , communication and utility services = =
Kanchipuram is most easily accessible by road . The Chennai – Bangalore National Highway , NH 4 passes the outskirts of the city . Daily bus services are provided by the Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation to and from Chennai , Bangalore , Villupuram , Tirupathi , Thiruthani , Tiruvannamalai , Vellore , Salem , Coimbatore and Pondicherry . There are two major bus routes to Chennai , one connecting via Guindy and the other via Tambaram . Local bus services are provided by The Villupuram division of Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation . As of 2006 , there were a total of 403 buses for 191 routes operated out of the city .
The city is also connected to the railway network through the Kanchipuram railway station . The Chengalpet – Arakkonam railway line passes through Kanchipuram and travellers can access services to those destinations . Daily trains are provided to Pondicherry and Tirupati , and there is a weekly express train to Madurai and a bi @-@ weekly express train to Nagercoil . Two passenger trains from both sides of Chengalpattu and Arakkonam pass via Kanchipuram .
The nearest domestic as well as international airport is Chennai International Airport , located at a distance of 72 km from the city .
Telephone and broadband internet services are provided by Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telecom and internet services provider . Electricity supply is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . Water supply is provided by the Kanchipuram municipality ; supplies are drawn from subterranean springs of Vegavati river . The head works is located at Orikkai , Thiruparkadal and St. Vegavathy , and distributed through overhead tanks with a total capacity of 9 @.@ 8 litres ( 2 @.@ 2 imperial gallons ) . About 55 tonnes of solid waste are collected from the city daily at five collection points covering the whole of the city . The sewage system in the city was implemented in 1975 ; Kanchipuram was identified as one of the hyper endemic cities in 1970 . Underground drainage covers 82 % of roads in the city , and is divided into east and west zones for internal administration .
= = Education = =
Kanchipuram is traditionally a centre of religious education for the Hindu , Jainism and Buddhism faiths . The Buddhist monasteries acted as nucleus of the Buddhist educational system . With the gradual resurrection of Hinduism during the reign of Mahendra Varman I , the Hindu educational system gained prominence with Sanskrit emerging as the official language .
As of 2011 Kanchipuram has 49 registered schools , 16 of which are run by the city municipality . The district administration opened night schools for educating children employed in the silk weaving industry – as of December 2001 , these schools together were educating 127 people and 260 registered students from September 1999 . Larsen & Toubro inaugurated the first rail construction training centre in India at Kanchipuram on 24 May 2012 , that can train 300 technicians and 180 middle level managers and engineers each year . Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Viswa Mahavidyalaya and Chettinad Academy of Research and Education ( CARE ) are the two Deemed universities present in Kanchipuram .
Kanchipuram is home to one of the four Indian Institute of Information of Technology , a public private partnered institute , offering under graduate and post graduate programs in information technology . The city has two medical colleges – Arignar Anna Memorial Cancer Institute and Hospital , established in 1969 is operated by the Department of Health , Government of Tamil Nadu and the privately owned Meenakshi Medical College . The city has 6 engineering colleges , 3 polytechnic institutes and 6 arts and science colleges .
= = Religion = =
= = = Buddhism = = =
Buddhism is believed to have flourished in Kanchipuram between the 1st and 5th centuries . Some notable Buddhists associated with Kanchipuram are Āryadeva ( 2nd – 3rd centuries ) – a successor of Nāgārjuna of Nalanda University , Dignaga and the Pali commentators Buddhaghosa and Dhammapala . According to a popular tradition , Bodhidharma , a 5th / 6th @-@ century Buddhist monk and founder of Shaolin Kung Fu was the third son of a Pallava king from Kanchipuram . However , other traditions ascribe his origins to other places in Asia.Buddhists institutions from Kanchipuram were instrumental in spreading Theravada Buddhism to the Mon people of Myanmar and Thailand who in return spread the religion to the incoming Burmese and Thai people .
= = = Jainism = = =
It is thought that Jainism was introduced into Kanchipuram by Kunda Kundacharya ( 1st century ) . Jainism spread to the city by Akalanka ( 3rd century ) . Kalbhras , the rulers of Kanchipuram before the Pallavas , followed Jainism which gained popularity from royal patronage . The Pallava kings , Simhavishnu , Mahendra Varman and Simhavarman ( 550 – 560 ) followed Jainism , until the advent of Nayanmars and Azhwars during the 6th and 7th centuries . Mahendravarman I converted from Jainism to Hinduism under the influence of the Naynamar , Appar , was the turning point in the religious geography . The two sects of Hinduism , Saivism and Vaishnavism were revived under the influence of Adi Sankara and Ramanuja respectively . Later Cholas and Vijayanagara kings tolerated Jainism , and the religion was still practised in Kanchi . Trilokyanatha / Chandraprabha temple is a twin Jain temple that has inscriptions from Pallava king , Narasimhavarman II and the Chola kings Rajendra Chola I , Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola , and the Kanarese inscriptions of Krishnadevaraya . The temple is maintained by Tamil Nadu archaeological department .
= = = Hinduism = = =
Hindus regard Kanchipuram to be one of the seven holiest cities in India , the Sapta Puri . According to Hinduism , a kṣetra is a sacred ground , a field of active power , and a place where final attainment , or moksha , can be obtained . The Garuda Purana says that seven cities , including Kanchipuram are providers of moksha . The city is a pilgrimage site for both Saivites and Vaishnavites . It has close to 108 shiva temples .
Ekambareswarar Temple in northern Kanchipuram , dedicated to Shiva , is the largest temple in the city . Its gateway tower , or gopuram , is 59 metres ( 194 ft ) tall , making it one the tallest temple towers in India . The temple is one of five called Pancha Bhoota Stalams , which represent the manifestation of the five prime elements of nature ; land , water , air , sky , and fire . Ekambareswarar temple temple represents earth .
Kailasanathar Temple , dedicated to Shiva and built by the Pallavas , is the oldest Hindu temple in existence and is declared an archaeological monument by the Archaeological Survey of India . It has a series of cells with sculptures inside . In the Kamakshi Amman Temple , goddess Parvati is depicted in the form of a yantra , Chakra or peetam ( basement ) . In this temple , the yantra is placed in front of the deity . Adi Sankara is closely associated with this temple and is believed to have established the Kanchi matha after this temple .
Muktheeswarar Temple , built by Nandivarman Pallava II ( 720 – 796 ) and Iravatanesvara Temple built by Narasimhavarman Pallava II ( 720 – 728 ) are the other Shiva temples from the Pallava period . Kachi Metrali – Karchapeswarar Temple , Onakanthan Tali , Kachi Anekatangapadam , Kuranganilmuttam , and Karaithirunathar Temple in Tirukalimedu are the Shiva temples in the city reverred in Tevaram , the Tamil Saiva canonical work of the 7th – 8th centuries .
Kumarakottam Temple , dedicated to Muruga , is located between the Ekambareswarar temple and Kamakshi Amman temple , leading to the cult of Somaskanda ( Skanda , the child between Shiva and Parvati ) . Kandapuranam , the Tamil religious work on Muruga , translated from Sanskrit Skandapurana , was composed in 1625 by Kachiappa Shivacharya in the temple .
Varadharaja Perumal Temple , dedicated to Vishnu and covering 23 acres ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) , is the largest Vishnu temple in Kanchipuram . It was built by the Cholas in 1053 and was expanded during the reigns of Kulottunga Chola I ( 1079 – 1120 ) and Vikrama Chola ( 1118 – 1135 ) . It is one of the divyadesams , the 108 holy abodes of Vishnu . The temple features carved lizards , one platted with gold and another with silver , over the sanctum.Clive of India is said to have presented an emerald necklace to the temple . It is called the Clive Makarakandi and is still used to decorate the deity on ceremonial occasions .
Tiru Parameswara Vinnagaram is the birthplace of the azhwar saint , Poigai Alvar . The central shrine has a three @-@ tier shrine , one over the other , with Vishnu depicted in each of them . The corridor around the sanctum has a series of sculptures depicting the Pallava rule and conquest . It is the oldest Vishnu temple in the city and was built by the Pallava king Paramesvaravarman II ( 728 – 731 ) .
Ashtabujakaram , Tiruvekkaa , Tiruththanka , Tiruvelukkai , Ulagalantha Perumal Temple , Tiru pavla vannam , Pandava Thoothar Perumal Temple are among the divyadesam , the 108 famous temples of Vishnu in the city . There are a five other divyadesams , three inside the Ulagalantha Perumal temple , one each in Kamakshi Amman Temple and Ekambareswarar Temple .
The Kanchi Matha is a Hindu monastic institution , whose official history states that it was founded by Adi Sankara of Kaladi , tracing its history back to the 5th century BCE . A related claim is that Adi Sankara came to Kanchipuram , and that he established the Kanchi mutt named " Dakshina Moolamnaya Sarvagnya Sri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam " in a position of supremacy , namely Sarvagnya Peetha , over the other mathas ( religious institutions ) of the subcontinent , before his death there . Other historical accounts state that the mutt was established probably in the 18th century in Kumbakonam , as a branch of the Sringeri Matha , and that it declared itself independent .
Another mutt which was famous in ancient times was the Upanishad Bramham Mutt , located near Kailasanathar temple , Kanchipuram . It has the Mahasamadhi of Upanishad Brahmayogin , a saint who wrote commentaries on all the major upanishads in Hinduism . It is said that the great Sage , Sadasiva Brahmendra took to sanyasa at this mutt .
= = = Other religions = = =
The city has two mosques ; one near the Ekambareswarar temple was built during the rule of Nawab of Arcot in the 17th century , and another near the Vaikunta Perumal temple shares a common tank with the Hindu temple . Muslims take part in the festivals of the Varadarajaswamy temple . Christ Church is the oldest Christian church in the city . It was built by a British man named Mclean in 1921 . The church is built in Scottish style brick structure with arches and pillars .
= The Irascibles =
The Irascibles or Irascible 18 were the labels given to a group of American abstract artists who put name to an open letter , written in 1950 , to the president of The Metropolitan Museum of Art , rejecting the museum 's exhibition American Painting Today - 1950 and boycotting the accompanying competition . The subsequent media coverage of the protest and a now iconic group photograph , that appeared in Life magazine , gave them notoriety , popularised the term Abstract Expressionist and established them as the so @-@ called first generation of the putative movement .
= = The emergence of the New York School = =
The emergence of abstract art coincided with the invention of Cubism in Paris in the first decade of the 20th Century . Paris remained the centre of gravity for later art movements like Futurism , Purism , Vorticism , Cubo @-@ Futurism , Dada , Constructivism and Surrealism until the outbreak of World War II and the Nazi persecution of " degenerate art " , which precipitated a mass migration of artists and performers to the United States . New York became home to the transplanted avant @-@ garde .
The early 1940s was of particular importance in American art as American scene painting ( Regionalism ) came to be seen as an inadequate mode of artistic expression in a tumultuous time . In 1942 , Peggy Guggenheim , who had fled Europe with her husband , Surrealist artist Max Ernst , opened her gallery Art of This Century , showing European and promising American avant @-@ garde artists . Jackson Pollock had his first one @-@ man show there in 1943 and , in 1945 , Guggenheim showed Mark Rothko .
When Guggenheim closed her gallery in 1947 to move to Venice , artists like Pollock had to find new representation . The Betty Parsons Gallery , which opened the previous year , began representing Pollock , Barnett Newman , Mark Rothko and Clyfford Still . Parsons was already representing Adolph Gottlieb , Hedda Sterne and Theodoros Stamos . It was while Pollock showed at Parsons ' gallery that he started making his iconic drip @-@ paintings in 1947 . It was also here that Barnett Newman exhibited his first breakthrough works in 1950 . Rothko , who had arrived at his distinctive mural sized paintings in 1947 , first exhibited them at the Parsons Gallery .
At the time , the only galleries who were prepared to show the so @-@ called New York School ( Robert Motherwell 's term ) were Parsons Gallery , the Samuel Kootz Gallery and the Charles Egan Gallery . To these fledgling galleries it was a financial disaster . The highest price paid for a Pollock , before 1947 , was $ 740 and Rothko had peaked with the sale of a $ 120 painting in 1946 . At the Kootz Gallery , from 1946 to 1948 , Hans Hoffman , William Baziotes and Robert Motherwell were offered at between $ 100 and $ 950 , likely fetching much lower actual sales prices . Kootz closed in 1948 as a result of the financial strain . The critical and financial success of the group would only come after a series of popularising articles in Life magazine , most notably a feature on Jackson Pollock in 1949 and the Irascibles article and photograph of 1951 .
= = The preamble to the protest = =
Since January 1943 an agreement existed between the Whitney Museum of American Art and the Metropolitan Museum of Art on a coalition which would culminate in the combining of their collections of American art in a new building , paid for from the endowment of Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney . By this unwritten agreement , the Whitney acquired American art while the Metropolitan concentrated their acquisitions on what they termed classic art .
Juliana Force , the Whitney 's director since 1931 until her death on August 28 , 1948 , harboured grave concerns and advocated the abandonment of the coalition . On October 1 , 1948 , the Whitney trustees cited " serious divergences " especially with regard to the showing of advanced trends in art , something the Whitney made a special point of doing . They unilaterally withdrew the Whitney from the coalition .
On December 6 , 1948 , the Met announced it would form its own Department of American Art , which it did on January 1 , 1949 . Robert Beverly Hale was appointed as Associate Curator of American Painting and Sculpture and head of the department . A Trustees ' Committee on American Art was set up to advise the Associate Curator . The members of this committee were Elihu Root , Jr . , Chairman , Walter C. Baker , and Sam A. Lewisohn . Lewisohn , although a highly respected collector of Impressionists , was noted for calling avant @-@ garde abstract art " unhuman " .
In July 1949 , Roland J. McKinney , formerly Director of the Baltimore Museum of Art and of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art , was appointed as a consultant . On his advice , it was decided the The Met would host a series of open national competitive exhibitions with five regional juries . The first of these , American Painting Today - 1950 , was announced as part of a statement of policy on January 1 , 1950 .
The five regional juries , meeting respectively in Santa Barbara , Dallas , Chicago , Richmond and New York would make selections , which would be submitted to a National Jury , composed of five regional jurors and two jurors appointment by the Metropolitan .
= = The Studio 35 symposium = =
In 1948 , William Baziotes , David Hare , Robert Motherwell and Mark Rothko founded the Subjects of the Artist School , which held artists ' discussions in a loft at 35 East Eighth Street , Manhattan which came to be known as Studio 35 . A closed panel symposium took place from April 21 to 23 , 1950 . It was organised by Robert Goodnough and moderated by Richard Lippold , Robert Motherwell and Alfred H. Barr , Jr. director of the Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) . The purpose was the framing of an art movement .
At the end of the closed session it was suggested by Adolph Gottlieb that the assembled artists protest the conservative bias of the jury for the upcoming competition at the Metropolitan .
= = The open letter = =
Gottlieb spent the better part of three weeks drafting an open letter to the president of the Metropolitan , conferring with Ad Reinhardt and Barnett Newman while soliciting consensus among other artists by mail or phone . The final version was sent to the individual artists to sign ; 28 doing so . Newman called Jackson Pollock from Gottlieb 's apartment in Brooklyn , asking him to come into the city immediately to sign the letter . Pollock sent a telegram instead :
I ENDORSED THE LETTER OPPOSING THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART 1950 JURIED SHOW STOP JACKSON POLLOCK
The letter was underwritten by Jimmy Ernst , Adolph Gottlieb , Robert Motherwell , William Baziotes , Hans Hofmann , Barnett Newman , Clyfford Still , Richard Pousette @-@ Dart , Theodoros Stamos , Ad Reinhardt , Jackson Pollock , Mark Rothko , Bradley Walker Tomlin , Willem de Kooning , Hedda Sterne , James Brooks , Weldon Kees and Fritz Bultman . The supporting sculptors were Herbert Ferber , David Smith , Ibram Lassaw , Mary Callery , Day Schnabel , Seymour Lipton , Peter Grippe , Theodore Roszak , David Hare and Louise Bourgeois .
On Sunday May 21 , 1950 , Barnett Newman took the signed statement to the city editor of the New York Times . Newman had run for mayor of New York as a write @-@ in candidate in 1933 and knew Monday to be a slow news day at the Times . The statement , entitled OPEN LETTER TO ROLAND L. REDMOND , dated May 20 , appeared on the front page of the Times of May 22 .
Newman told the Times that they were critical of the membership of the five regional juries and especially opposed to the New York jury , the National Jury of Selection and the Jury of Awards . The New York jurors were Charles Burchfield , Yasuo Kuniyoshi , Leon Kroll , Ogden Pleissner , Vaclav Vytlacil and Paul Sample . The national jury consisted of Robert Beverly Hale , Ogden Pleissner , Maurice Sterne , Millard Sheets , Howard Cook , Lamar Dodd , Francis Chapin , Zoltan Sepeshy and Esther Williams . The jury of awards included William M. Milliken , Franklin C. Watkins and Eugene Speicher .
= = The resulting polemic = =
The first response to the letter came on the editorial page of The Herald Tribune of May 23 , 1950 . The editorial attacked the artists for " distortion of fact " in claiming the Metropolitan had " contempt " for modern painting . The Herald Tribune 's art critic at the time was Emily Genauer . It was widely assumed that she had written the editorial , which gave name to the group .
Gottlieb , aided by Newman and Reinhardt , drafted a rebuttal , which was signed by 12 painters and three sculptors , and addressed to the editor of the Tribune . It was never published . Weldon Kees discussed the issue of the open letter further in the June 5 edition of The Nation , calling director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art , Francis Henry Taylor a philistine . Two days later Time magazine noted the protest in an article entitled The Revolt of the Pelicans , an oblique reference to Taylor 's 1948 comments in the Atlantic Monthly .
Instead of soaring like an eagle through the heavens as did his ancestors ... the contemporary artist has been reduced to the status of a flat @-@ chested pelican , strutting upon the intellectual wastelands and beaches , content to take whatever nourishment he can from his own too meager breast .
Alfred Barr , seeking to distinguish the MoMA , further electrified the situation by selecting Arshile Gorky , Willem de Kooning and Jackson Pollock for the American pavilion of the 25th Venice Biennale , held from June to October 1950 . In the June 1950 issue of ARTnews , he referred to the painters as " leaders " of a " predominant vanguard " . Barr 's act signalled to the art world that abstract expressionism should be given serious consideration by museums .
On July 3 , 1950 , a group of 75 artists issued a statement via an open letter to the president of the Met , defending the museum . Signers included Milton Avery , Will Barnet , Philip Evergood , Xavier Gonzalez , George Grosz , Henry Koerner , Reginald Marsh , Waldo Peirce , Manfred Schwartz and Harry Sternberg .
= = The Life photograph = =
Life magazine decided to publish a photo story for their January 15 , 1951 edition , which would document the results of the competition and feature a photograph of the protesters . Life initially wanted to photograph the painters on the steps of the Metropolitan , with their paintings . They refused on the grounds that it would look like they were trying to enter the museum , but were being rebuffed . The magazine capitulated ; art editor for Life , Dorothy Seiberling , sent photographer Nina Leen to photograph them at a studio on 44th Street . They assembled there on November 24 . Only three of the original signatories were absent : Weldon Kees , Hans Hofmann , and Fritz Bultman . Pollock made a special trip with James Brooks for the session .
Nina Leen took twelve pictures , of which one appeared in Life . Barnett Newman had insisted that the group be photographed like bankers . The artists were allowed to position themselves . Hedda Sterne , who had arrived late , is seen in the back ( standing on a table ) . She is the only woman in the photograph and would later describe the experience as " probably the worst thing that happened to me " . Painter Lee Krasner
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,@ 000 @-@ strong special police , which was deployed in twelve military @-@ style battalions . In addition , Croatia had 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police officers organised in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons .
= = Prelude = =
In 1991 , the village of Borovo Selo , situated on the right bank of the Danube opposite Serbia , was a part of the Vukovar municipality . While the city of Vukovar itself had an ethnically mixed population ( 47 @.@ 2 percent Croats and 32 @.@ 2 percent Serbs ) , smaller settlements in the area were more homogenous . Fourteen were predominantly populated by Croats , ten ( including Borovo Selo ) were inhabited primarily by Serbs , two by Ruthenians and the remaining two were ethnically mixed .
Amid the worsening ethnic tensions , Borovo Selo was barricaded on 1 April , one day after the Plitvice Lakes clash . Two days later , the JNA garrison in Vukovar increased its combat readiness to the maximum level . In early spring , the Croats and Serbs reached an agreement whereby Croatian police would not enter Borovo Selo without explicit consent from local Serb authorities . A political rally was held in Borovo Selo on 14 April , and by the end of the month the situation had become more volatile . Speakers at the rally — Serbian Radical Party ( Srpska radikalna stranka – SRS ) leader Vojislav Šešelj , Serbian National Assembly member Milan Paroški and Serbian Minister of Diaspora Stanko Cvijan — promoted the creation of Greater Serbia , a state which would unite all Serbs within a single country . They all repeated their speeches , together with an open call for dissenting Croats to be killed , a week later in Jagodnjak , north of Osijek . In addition , White Eagles paramilitaries arrived in Borovo Selo in mid @-@ April at the request of Borovo Selo militia commander Vukašin Šoškoćanin . The paramilitaries were armed by the Serbian police directly , or the SAO Krajina @-@ aligned local militia under the approval of Serbian officials . By the end of April 1991 , the White Eagles in Borovo Selo were joined by Dušan Silni paramilitaries , who were linked to the Serbian National Renewal party .
In mid @-@ April , three Armbrust rockets were fired from Croatian positions outside Borovo Selo into the village with the specific aim of inflaming ethnic tensions . One of the rockets hit a house and another landed in a field , failing to explode . There were no casualties , but the already tense situation was made worse when the unexploded rocket was shown on Serbian Television as evidence of Croatian aggression against Serbs . The rockets were fired by a group of men including Gojko Šušak , a high @-@ ranking HDZ official who later became Croatia 's Defence Minister . The men were led to the site by Osijek police chief Josip Reihl @-@ Kir , who was later murdered by Croat irregulars . Šušak later claimed he had nothing to do with the incident but had been in the area at the time . Croatia 's interior minister Josip Boljkovac said the group included Šušak , Branimir Glavaš and Vice Vukojević .
= = Timeline = =
During the evening of 1 May 1991 , four Croatian policemen entered Borovo Selo in an unauthorised attempt to replace a Yugoslav flag in the village with a Croatian one . The attempt resulted in an armed clash . Two of the policemen were wounded and taken prisoner , and the other two fled after sustaining minor injuries ( one a wounded foot and the other a grazing wound to the head ) . According to the Croatian Ministry of the Interior , the police had been patrolling the Dalj – Borovo Selo road at the time of the incident . Even though the officers were assigned to the Osijek police administration , the Vinkovci police administration — which was assigned authority over the Vukovar municipality — asked the Vukovar police station to contact Šoškoćanin about the incident . Vukovar police contacted him at 4 : 30 a.m. , but Šoškoćanin reportedly said he knew nothing . At 9 : 00 a.m. , Vinkovci police chief Josip Džaja telephoned Šoškoćanin and received the same answer . When Reihl @-@ Kir contacted Šoškoćanin half an hour later , the latter confirmed the incident and said the police had shot at members of the local population , wounding one . Reihl @-@ Kir failed to secure the release of the two captured officers .
Reihl @-@ Kir and Džaja concluded that a party should be sent to Borovo Selo , and Šoškoćanin agreed to grant the police safe passage under a white flag . However , when the force of between 20 and 30 policemen entered Borovo Selo under the white flag , they were ambushed by paramilitaries and members of a local militia . Approximately 150 police arrived from Osijek and Vinkovci on buses and were deployed as reinforcements . The force dispatched from Vinkovci entered Borovo Selo and was ambushed , while the reinforcements sent from Osijek via Dalj were stopped at a roadblock north of Borovo Selo and failed to enter the village . A firefight ensued and lasted until 2 : 30 p.m. , when seven JNA armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) moved into the village from Dalj . Another convoy of APCs deployed by the JNA through Borovo Naselje , just south of Borovo Selo , was stopped by a crowd of Croat women who refused to let them through .
= = Aftermath = =
At least a dozen Croatian policemen were killed and 21 injured in the ambush . The two captured policemen were ferried across the Danube and transported to Novi Sad , but were released and returned to Osijek by the evening of 2 May . Several Serbs in Borovo Selo were also killed in the fighting , but the exact figure was never officially released . Sources disagree on the number of Serb casualties . The figure ranges from three dead , to 17 militiamen and 20 civilians killed . Šešelj said only one civilian died in Borovo Selo , while a 22 @-@ strong defending force he led in the battle killed 100 policemen . Residents of Borovo Selo interviewed by reporters said 13 policemen were killed after they took women and children hostage and that the residents defeated the police unassisted , freeing the hostages and sustaining one fatality .
Some of the police killed at Borovo Selo were found to have been mutilated ; their ears were cut , their eyes gouged out and their throats slit . These acts were meant to inflame ethnic hatred . The clash led Tuđman 's advisers to advocate an immediate declaration of independence from Yugoslavia and retaliation against the JNA , which Croats viewed as being pro @-@ Serb . On 3 May , Tuđman opined that Croatia and Serbia were virtually at war , but said he hoped the international community would stop the violence . The outcome of the fighting reinforced the cautious approach of the Croatian leadership towards long @-@ term decisions . According to Croatian historian Davor Marijan , Tuđman 's decision not to retaliate against the JNA was often interpreted at the time as cowardice bordering treason , leading to public criticism and the resignation of General Martin Špegelj from the post of Defence Minister . Nonetheless , the decision afforded Croatia much @-@ needed time to prepare for war , as Yugoslav Navy Fleet Admiral Branko Mamula later acknowledged . The incident shocked the Croatian public , causing a massive shift in public opinion towards demonization of Serbs , supported by the Croatian media . Serbs were collectively labelled " Chetniks " , " terrorists " and " enemies of Croatia " . Similarly , Serbs referred to Croats as " Ustaše " and " enemies of the Serb people " . Hence , chances for a political settlement to avoid all @-@ out war were greatly reduced . After the clash , war appeared unavoidable .
On 8 – 9 May , the Presidency of Yugoslavia met to discuss the events in Borovo Selo and a JNA request for military intervention . Presidents of all Yugoslav constituent republics were present at the meeting , where the Croatian leadership accepted the decision to deploy the JNA in crisis areas of Croatia . On 9 May , representatives of the federal and Croatian governments visited Vukovar . The federal representatives also visited Borovo Selo , unlike the Croatian government officials who stated that they " refused to talk to terrorists " . In response to the Borovo Selo clash , the JNA redeployed a part of the 12th Proletarian Mechanised Brigade from Osijek and the 1st Mechanised Battalion of the 453rd Mechanised Brigade based in Sremska Mitrovica to the Vukovar area . At the same time , the 2nd Mechanised Battalion of the 36th Mechanised Brigade was moved from Subotica to Vinkovci . Despite the deployment of the JNA in the area , ethnically motivated skirmishes persisted until the start of the Battle of Vukovar in late August .
= = = Memorial controversy and prosecution = = =
During the 1996 – 98 United Nations administration established pursuant to the Erdut Agreement to restore the area to Croatian control , three Croatian non @-@ governmental organizations erected a memorial on public property at the entrance to Borovo Selo , but the site was quickly vandalised . A new monument was erected in the centre of the village in 2002 , but this was also vandalised soon after completion . A new plaque bearing the names of the 12 Croatian policemen killed in the incident was added to the monument in 2012 , but was also subject to vandalism . Although the vandalism was condemned by local Serb politicians , they complained that the memorial was offensive to the Serb minority and imposed guilt on the entire community because it branded Serb forces at Borovo Selo in 1991 as " Serb terrorists " .
In February 2012 , an Osijek court convicted Milan Marinković of war crimes and sentenced him to 3 ½ years in prison for mistreating the two captured Croatian police officers . In 2014 , Marinković 's sentence was reduced to three years on appeal . Four other men were indicted in relation to the officers ' mistreatment , but all four live outside Croatia , and are not subject to prosecution by the Croatian judiciary .
= Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny =
Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny ( French pronunciation : [ feliks ufwɛt bwaɲi ] or [ feliks ufwɛ bwaɲi ] ; 18 October 1908 – 7 December 1993 ) , affectionately called Papa Houphouët or Le Vieux ( The Old One ) , was the first President of Côte d 'Ivoire ( 1960 to 1993 ) , serving for more than three decades until his death . A tribal chief , he worked as a medical aide , union leader , and planter before being elected to the French Parliament . He served in several ministerial positions within the French government before leading Côte d 'Ivoire following independence in 1960 . Throughout his life , he played a significant role in politics and the decolonization of Africa .
Under Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's politically moderate leadership , Côte d 'Ivoire prospered economically . This success , uncommon in poverty @-@ ridden West Africa , became known as the " Ivorian miracle " and was due to a combination of sound planning , the maintenance of strong ties with the West ( particularly France ) , and development of the country 's significant coffee and cocoa industries . However , the exploitation of the agricultural sector caused difficulties in 1980 , after a sharp drop in the prices of coffee and cocoa .
Throughout his presidency , Houphouët @-@ Boigny maintained a close relationship with France , a policy known as Françafrique , and he built a close friendship with Jacques Foccart , the chief adviser on African policy in the de Gaulle and Pompidou governments . He aided the conspirators who ousted Kwame Nkrumah from power in 1966 , took part in the coup against Mathieu Kérékou in 1977 , and was suspected of involvement in the 1987 coup that removed Thomas Sankara from power in Burkina Faso . Houphouët @-@ Boigny maintained a strong anti @-@ communist foreign policy , which resulted in , among other things , severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1969 ( after first establishing relations in 1967 ) and refusing to recognise the People 's Republic of China until 1983 . He provided assistance to UNITA , a United States @-@ supported , anti @-@ communist rebel movement in Angola . In 1986 he re @-@ established relations with the Soviet Union , shortly before the fall of its confederation .
In the West , Houphouët @-@ Boigny was commonly known as the " Sage of Africa " or the " Grand Old Man of Africa " . Houphouët @-@ Boigny moved the country 's capital from Abidjan to his hometown of Yamoussoukro and built the world 's largest church there , the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro , at a cost of US $ 300 million . At the time of his death , he was the longest @-@ serving leader in Africa 's history and the third longest @-@ serving leader in the world , after Fidel Castro of Cuba and Kim Il @-@ sung of North Korea . In 1989 , UNESCO created the Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny Peace Prize for the " safeguarding , maintaining and seeking of peace " . After his death , conditions in Côte d 'Ivoire quickly deteriorated . From 1994 until 2002 , there were a number of coups d 'état , a currency devaluation , an economic recession , and , beginning in 2002 , a civil war .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth , childhood and education = = =
According to his official biography , Houphouët @-@ Boigny was probably born on 18 October 1908 , in Yamoussoukro to a family of hereditary chiefs of the Baoulé people . Unofficial accounts , however , place his birth date up to seven years earlier . Born into the animist Akouès tribe , he was named Dia Houphouët : his first name Dia means " prophet " or " magician . " His father was N 'Doli Houphouët . Dia Houphouët was the great @-@ nephew through his mother of Queen Yamousso and the village chief , Kouassi N 'Go . When N 'Go was murdered in 1910 , Dia was named to succeed him as chief . Due to his young age , his stepfather Gbro Diby ruled as regent until Dia came of age ; Dia 's father had already died .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny descended from tribal chiefs through his mother , Kimou N 'Drive ( also known as N ’ Dri Kan ) . She died much later in 1936 . Doubts remain as to the identity of his father , N 'Doli . Officially a native of the N ’ Zipri of Didiévi tribe , N ’ Doli Houphouët died shortly after the birth of his son Augustin , although no reliable information regarding his death exists . This uncertainty has given rise to rumors , including a widespread one that his father was a Sudanese @-@ born Muslim named Cissé . Houphouët @-@ Boigny had two elder sisters , Faitai ( 1898 ? – 1998 ) and Adjoua ( d . 1987 ) , as well as a younger brother Augustin ( d . 1939 ) .
The French colonial administration recognised tribal leaders ; they arranged to have Houphouët go to school at the military post in Bonzi , not far from his village , in order to prepare for his future as a leader , despite strenuous objections from relatives , especially his great @-@ aunt Yamousso . In 1915 , he was transferred to the école primaire supérieure ( secondary ) at Bingerville in spite of his family 's reluctance to have him go to boarding school . The same year , at Bingerville , Houphouët converted to Christianity ; he considered it a modern religion and an obstacle to the spread of Islam . He chose to be christened Félix .
First in his class , Houphouët was accepted into the École William Ponty in 1919 , and earned a teaching degree . In 1921 , he attended the École de médecine de l 'AOF ( French West Africa School of Medicine ) in French Senegal , where he came first in his class in 1925 and qualified as a medical assistant . As he never completed his studies in medicine , he could qualify only as a médecin africain , a poorly paid doctor .
= = = Medical career = = =
On 26 October 1925 , Houphouët began his career as a doctor 's aide at a hospital in Abidjan , where he founded an association of indigenous medical personnel . This undertaking proved short @-@ lived as the colonial administration viewed it unsympathetically , considering it a trade union . As a consequence , they decided to move Houphouët to a lesser hospital in Guiglo on 27 April 1927 . After he proved his considerable talents , however , he was promoted on 17 September 1929 to a post in Abengourou , which until then had been reserved for Europeans . At Abengourou , Houphouët witnessed the mistreatment of indigenous cocoa farmers by the colonists .
In 1932 , he decided to act , leading a movement of farmers against the influential white landowners and for the economic policies of the colonial government , who favoured the farmers . On 22 December , he published an article titled " On nous a trop volés " ( They have stolen too much from us ) , in the Trait d 'union , an Ivorian socialist newspaper . It was published under a pseudonym .
The following year , Houphouët was called by his tribe to assume the responsibilities of village chief . Preferring to pursue his medical career , he relinquished the office to his younger brother Augustin . Wishing to live closer to his village , he obtained a transfer to Dimbokro on 3 February 1934 and then to Toumodi on 28 June 1936 . While Houphouët had displayed professional qualities , his attitude had chafed those around him . As a result , in September 1938 , his clinical director demanded that he choose between his job as a doctor and his involvement in local politics . The choice was quickly made for him : his brother died in 1939 , and Houphouët became chef de canton ( an office created by the colonial administration to collect taxes ) . Due to this , Houphouët ended his medical career the next year .
= = = First marriage = = =
In 1930 , Houphouët married Kady Racine Sow ( 1913 – 2006 ) in Abengourou ; their union was controversial because he was a practising Catholic and she was the daughter of a wealthy Muslim from Senegal . The families of the two eventually overcame their opposition and accepted the interfaith union , the first ever celebrated in Côte d 'Ivoire . The couple had five children : Felix ( who died in infancy ) , Augustine , Francis , Guillaume and Marie , all raised as Catholics .
= = = Chef de canton and union leader = = =
By becoming chef de canton , Houphouët assumed responsibility for the administration of Akouè , a canton which comprised 36 villages . He also took charge of the family plantation — at the time one of the most important in the country — and worked to diversify its rubber , cocoa and coffee crops . He soon became one of Africa 's richest farmers . On 3 September 1944 , he established , in cooperation with the colonial administration , the African Agricultural Union ( Syndicat agricole africain , SAA ) . Under his presidency , the SAA brought together African farmers who were dissatisfied with their working conditions and worked to protect their interests against those of European planters . Anti @-@ colonialist and anti @-@ racist , the organisation demanded better working conditions , higher wages , and the abolition of unfree labor . The union quickly received the support of nearly 20 @,@ 000 plantation workers , together with that of the left @-@ wing French administrators placed in office by the Provisional Government . Its success irritated colonists to the extent that they took legal action against Houphouët , accusing him of being anti @-@ French for never seeking French citizenship . However , Houphouët befriended the Inspector Minister of the Colonies , who ordered the charges dropped . They were more successful in obtaining the replacement of the sympathetic Governor André Latrille with the hostile Governor Henry de Mauduit .
Houphouët entered electoral politics in August 1945 , when elections for the Abidjan city council were held for the first time . The French electoral rules established a common roll : half of the elected would have to be French citizens ( who were mostly Europeans ) and the other half non @-@ citizens . Houphouët reacted by creating a multi @-@ ethnic all @-@ African roll with both non @-@ citizens and citizens ( mostly Senegalese with French citizenship ) . As a result , most of the African contenders withdrew and a large number of the French protested by abstaining , thus assuring a decisive victory for his African Bloc .
In October 1945 , Houphouët moved onto the national political scene ; the French government decided to represent its colonies in the assemblée constituante ( English : Constituent Assembly ) and gave Côte d 'Ivoire and Upper Volta two representatives in Parliament combined . One of these would represent the French citizens and another would represent the indigenous population , but the suffrage was limited to less than 1 % of the population . In an attempt to block Houphouët , the governor de Mauduit supported a rival candidature , and provided him the full backing of the administration . Despite that and thanks to the SAA 's strong organization , Houphouët , running for the indigenous seat , easily came first with a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ vote majority . He failed , however , to obtain an absolute majority , due to the large number of candidates running . Houphouët emerged victorious again in the second round of elections held on 4 November 1945 , in which he narrowly defeated an Upper Voltan candidate with 12 @,@ 980 votes out of a total of 31 @,@ 081 . At this point , he decided to add " Boigny " to his surname , meaning " irresistible force " in Baoulé and symbolizing his role as a leader .
= = French political career = =
= = = Member of Parliament = = =
In taking his seat at the National Assembly in the Palais Bourbon alongside compatriots Ouezzin Coulibaly and Zinda Kaboré , Houphouët @-@ Boigny had to first decide with which group to side , and he opted for the Mouvement Unifié de la Résistance ( MUR ) , a small party composed of Communist sympathizers but not formal members of the Communist Party . He was appointed a member of the Commission des territoires d 'outre @-@ mer ( Commission of Overseas Territories ) . During this time , he worked to implement the wishes of the SAA , in particular proposing a bill to abolish forced labor — the single most unpopular feature of French rule . The Assembly adopted this bill , known as Loi Houphouët @-@ Boigny , on 11 April 1946 , greatly enhancing the author 's prestige not only in his country . On 3 April 1946 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny proposed to unify labour regulations in the territories of Africa ; this would eventually be completed in 1952 . Finally , on 27 September 1946 , he filed a report on the public health system of overseas territories , calling for its reformation . Houphouët @-@ Boigny in his parliamentary tenure supported the idea of a union of French territories .
As the first constitution proposed by the Constituent Assembly was rejected by the voters , new elections were held in 1946 for a second constituent assembly . For these elections Houphouët @-@ Boigny organized on 9 April 1946 , with the help of the Groupes d 'études communistes ( English : Communist Study Groups ) , the Democratic Party of Côte d 'Ivoire ( PDCI ) , whose structure closely followed that of the SAA . It immediately became the first successful independent African party when the new party Houphouët @-@ Boigny easily swept the elections with 21 @,@ 099 out of 37 @,@ 888 votes , his opponents obtaining only a few hundred votes each . In this he was helped by the recall of Governor Latrille , whose predecessor had been fired by the Overseas Minister Marius Moutet for his opposition to the abolition of the indigénat .
With his return to the assembly he was appointed to the Commission du règlement et du suffrage universel ( Commission for Regulation of Universal Suffrage ) ; as secretary of the commission from 1947 to 1948 , he proposed on 18 February 1947 to reform French West Africa ( AOF ) , French Equatorial Africa ( AEF ) , and the French territories ' federal council to better represent the African peoples . He also called for the creation of local assemblies in Africa so that Africans could learn how to be autonomous .
= = = Foundation of the RDA and Communist alliance = = =
During the holding of the second Constituent Assembly the African representatives witnessed a strong reaction against the colonial liberalism that had been embedded in the rejected constitution drafted by the previous assembly . The new text , approved by the voters on 13 October 1946 , reduced the African representatives from 30 to 24 , and reduced the number of those entitled to vote ; also , a large number of colonial topics were left in which the executive could govern by decree , and supervision over the colonial administration remained weak . Reacting to what they felt was a betrayal of the MRP 's and the Socialists ' promises , the African deputies concluded they needed to build a permanent coalition independent from the French parties . Houphouët @-@ Boigny was the first to propose this to his African colleagues , and obtained their full support for a founding congress to be held in October at Bamako in French Sudan . The French government did all it could to sabotage the congress , and in particular the Socialist Overseas Minister was successful in persuading the African Socialists , who were originally among the promoters , from attending . This ultimately backfired , radicalizing those convened ; when they founded the African Democratic Rally ( RDA ) as an inter @-@ territorial political movement , it was the pro @-@ Communist Gabriel d 'Arboussier who dominated the congress . The new movement 's goal was to free " Africa from the colonial yoke by the affirmation of her personality and by the association , freely agreed to , of a union of nations " . Its first president , confirmed several times subsequently , was Houphouët @-@ Boigny , while secretary @-@ general became d 'Arboussier . As part of the bringing of the territorial parties in the organization , the PDCI became the Ivoirian branch of the RDA .
Too small to form their own parliamentary group , the African deputies were compelled to join one of the larger parties in order to sit together in the Palais Bourbon . Thus , the RDA soon joined the French Communist Party ( PCF ) as the only openly anti @-@ colonialist political faction and soon organised strikes and boycotts of European imports . Houphouët @-@ Boigny justified the alliance because it seemed , at the time , to be the only way for his voice to be heard : " Even before the creation of RDA , the alliance had served our cause : in March 1946 , the abolition of compulsory labour was adopted unanimously , without a vote , thanks to our tactical alliance . "
As the Cold War set in , the alliance with the Communists became increasingly damaging for the RDA . The French colonial administration showed itself increasingly hostile toward the RDA and its president , whom the administration called a " Stalinist " . Tensions reached their height at the beginning of 1950 , when , following an outbreak of anti @-@ colonial violence , almost the entire PDCI leadership was arrested ; Houphouët @-@ Boigny managed to slip away shortly before police arrived at his house . Although Houphouët @-@ Boigny would have been saved by his parliamentary immunity , his missed arrest was popularly attributed to his influence and his prestige . In the ensuing chaos , riots broke out in Côte d 'Ivoire ; the most significant of which was a clash with the police at Dimbokro in which 13 Africans were killed and 50 wounded . According to official figures , by 1951 a total of 52 Africans had been killed , several hundred wounded and around 3 @,@ 000 arrested ( numbers which , according to an opinion reported by journalist Ronald Segal in African Profiles , are certainly underestimated ) . In order to defuse the crisis , Prime Minister René Pleven entrusted the France 's Minister for Overseas Territories , François Mitterrand , with the task of detaching the RDA from the PCF , and in fact an official alliance between the RDA and Mitterrand 's party , the UDSR , was established in 1952 . Knowing he was at an impasse , in October 1950 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny agreed to break the Communist alliance . Asked in an undated interview why he worked with the communists , Houphouët @-@ Boigny replied : " I , a bourgeois landowner , I would preach the class struggle ? That is why we aligned ourselves with the Communist Party , without joining it . "
= = = Rehabilitation and entry into government = = =
In the 1951 elections , the number of seats was reduced from three to two ; while Houphouët @-@ Boigny still won a seat , the other RDA candidate , Ouezzin Coulibaly , did not . All in all , the RDA only garnered 67 @,@ 200 of 109 @,@ 759 votes in that election , and the party in direct opposition to it captured a seat . On 8 August 1951 , Boigny , speaking at René Pleven 's inauguration as president of the board , denied being the leader of a communist group ; he was not believed until the RDA 's 1952 affiliation with UDSR . On the 24th of that same month , Boigny delivered a statement in the Assembly contesting the result of the elections , which he declared tainted by fraud . He also denounced what he saw as the exploitation of overseas deputies as " voting machines " , who , as political pawns , supported the colonial government 's every action . Thereafter , Houphouët @-@ Boigny and the RDA were briefly unsuccessful before their success was renewed in 1956 ; at that year 's elections , the party received 502 @,@ 711 of 579 @,@ 550 votes cast . From then on , his relationship with Communism was forgotten , and he was embraced as a moderate . Named as a member of the Committees on Universal Suffrage ( distinct from the aforementioned committee regulating said suffrage ) , Constitutional Laws , Rules and Petitions . On 1 February 1956 , he was appointed Minister Discharging the Duties of the Presidency of the Council in the government of Guy Mollet , a post he held until 13 June 1957 . This marked the first time an African was elected to such a senior position in the French government . His principal achievement in this role was the creation of an organisation of Saharan regions that would help ensure sustainability for the French Union and counter Moroccan territorial claims in the Sahara .
On 6 November 1957 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny became Minister of Public Health and Population in the Gaillard administration and attempted to reform the public health code . He had previously served as Minister of State under Maurice Bourgès @-@ Maunoury ( 13 June – 6 November 19
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afterwards attack Phoenix with her boot before being attacked by Phoenix . At the One Night Stand pay @-@ per @-@ view , Melina competed in the first ever in women 's " I Quit " match against Beth Phoenix , but was unsuccessful in winning the match . The next night on Raw , Melina teamed with former rival Mickie James in a tag team match against Beth Phoenix and Katie Lea in a losing effort . On June 23 , 2008 , Perez suffered a heel injury after falling from the turnbuckles during a tag team match with Mickie James against Natalya and Victoria .
Melina returned from injury on the November 24 episode of Raw , teaming with former rivals Mickie James and Candice Michelle to defeat Phoenix , Jillian Hall , and Katie Lea Burchill . The following week , she made her singles return by defeating Hall . Following the match , Melina stated her intentions to take the WWE Women 's Championship from Beth Phoenix . On December 29 , Melina won a six @-@ woman battle royal to become the number one contender for the Championship . After the match , Melina and Phoenix engaged in a confrontation over a fan of Phoenix 's named Rosa Mendes , who had attacked Melina . On January 25 , 2009 , Melina won her third WWE Women 's Championship at the Royal Rumble by defeating Phoenix . She retained her championship against Beth Phoenix on February 16 episode of Raw , and again during a dark match at No Way Out .
= = = = Divas Champion and departure ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = = =
On the April 13 , 2009 episode of Raw , Melina was drafted back to SmackDown as part of the 2009 WWE Draft , thus making the WWE Women 's Championship exclusive to the brand . She began a feud with Michelle McCool , who was named as the number one contender to the title . McCool attacked Melina after her victory over Alicia Fox on the June 19 episode of SmackDown . Melina would then lose the Women 's Championship to McCool at The Bash after an interference from Alicia Fox , failed to regain the championship at Night of Champions .
On October 12 , Melina was traded back to the Raw brand , and won the WWE Divas Championship from Divas Champion Jillian Hall , who had won the belt from Mickie James only a few minutes earlier . On the November 23 episode of Raw , Melina teamed up with Mickie James and Kelly Kelly to defeat Jillian Hall and LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla ) . After the match , guest timekeeper The Gobbledy Gooker was revealed as Maryse by attacking Melina . The following week , Melina was pinned by Maryse in a tag team match . On the December 7 episode of Raw , Maryse defeated Gail Kim , and following the match , Maryse proceed to attack Kelly Kelly but was stopped by Melina . On December 29 , at a WWE live event in Manchester , New Hampshire , Melina tore her ACL during a six @-@ woman tag team match , and as a result she relinquished the Divas Championship on January 4 .
Melina made her return on the August 2 , 2010 episode of Raw , attacking WWE Divas Champion Alicia Fox after a six @-@ woman tag team match in which she , Jillian Hall , and Tamina defeated Eve Torres , Gail Kim , and Natalya . At SummerSlam , Melina defeated Fox to capture the Divas Championship for the second time in her career . After the match , she was attacked by Michelle McCool and WWE Women 's Champion Layla . On the 900th episode of Raw , after winning a match , she was challenged by either Layla or McCool to a match at Night of Champions , to unify the WWE Women 's and WWE Divas Championships , which McCool would win , after Layla attacked Melina during the match , to unify the championships .
On the December 20 episode of Raw , Melina became the number one contender to the Divas Championship and turned villainous when she slapped Natalya , who had attempted to congratulate her following her victory . When the two fought for the Divas Championship on January 24 , 2011 on Raw , Melina was defeated . On the August 1 episode of Raw , Perez participated in a # 1 contender 's battle royal , which was won by Beth Phoenix . This would be her final match with WWE , as she was released later that week .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2011 – present ) = = =
In November 2011 , Perez wrestled her first match outside of WWE by defeating Lexxus at the Women Superstars Uncensored November 19 pay @-@ per @-@ view . Perez appeared on the World Wrestling Fan Xperience ( WWFX ) Champions Showcase Tour in Manila , Philippines on February 4 , 2012 , where she wrestled under her real name . On February 5 , 2012 episode of WWFX , Melina defeated Jillian Hall .
Melina appeared at the Family Wrestling Entertainment ( FWE ) event , signing autographs and serving as Eric Young 's valet as he became the new FWE Heavyweight Champion . At the Empire City Showdown , on August 20 , Melina made a further appearance for FWE in a segment with Charlie and Jackie Haas . On April 28 edition of FWE Television , Melina was defeated by Winter with Lita as the special guest referee in a FWE Women 's Championship match .
Melina debuted for North East Wrestling on March 23 , 2012 , competing in a victorious effort against Velvet Sky , but lost to Sky the following day in a rematch .
From June 30 to July 2 , 2012 , Melina participated in World Wrestling Council 's ( WWC ) Anniversario weekend in Puerto Rico . On the first two nights , Melina defeated Velvet Sky in singles matches , but on the final night , she and Davey Richards were defeated in a mixed tag team match by Sky and Xix Savant . At the time , this was Perez 's last wrestling match , and she began referring to herself as a former professional wrestler .
On June 19 , 2015 , Melina returned to the independent circuit for the first time in three years at Maryland Championship Wrestling 's Ladies Night event ; appearing as the villainous enforcer in the MCW Women 's Championship main event match between champion Amber Rodriguez and challenger Mickie James , which was officiated by Lisa Marie Varon . During the match , Melina attacked James but was then attacked by Varon .
On August 5 , 2015 , Melina made an appearance with Lucha Underground at Ultima Lucha . She helped Johnny Mundo in his match against Alberto El Patron by hitting El Patron with his title belt while the referee was knocked down .
On October 16 , 2015 , Melina made her debut for Japanese promotion World Wonder Ring Stardom , during their first American tour in Covina , California . She teamed with Santana Garrett in a tag team match to defeat Hudson Envy and Thunder Rosa .
= = Other media = =
On April 13 , 2008 , she appeared in an episode of Celebrity Fit Club Boot Camp along with Mickie James , Layla , and Kelly Kelly .
= = = Filmography = = =
= = Personal life = =
Perez was born in Los Angeles , California but was raised in High Desert , California . Perez is Mexican American . She has a brother named P.J. & she speaks both English and Spanish fluently .
In early and mid @-@ 2007 , Perez had a real @-@ life feud with fellow WWE Diva Candice Michelle in their WWE.com blogs . The feud began when Candice accused Perez of stealing one of her signature moves in the ring . Perez responded to Candice 's accusation in her blog by posting a picture of herself performing that move during an independent wrestling show in 2003 , proving that she has been using the same move long before she joined WWE and before Candice had began her professional wrestling career . She then wrote a blog in April of that year that WWE.com would not publish due to the feelings she expressed towards Perez . Candice took exception to Perez claiming that she had a " spare tire " during an episode of Raw , and in retaliation , Candice claimed Perez was " just jealous " .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
California Dream / Kyrapractor ( Muta lock )
Extreme Makeover ( Multiple facebuster variants ) – 2005 – 2006 ; used as a signature move from 2006 – present
Springboard kneeling facebuster
Charging spinning facebuster
Diving facebuster off the top rope , or off the apron to the floor
Last Call ( Leg trap sunset flip powerbomb ) – 2008 – present
Primal Scream / Sunset Split ( Inverted leg drop bulldog into a split – legged pin , preceded by a scream ) – 2007 – present
Signature moves
Bodyscissors , sometimes transitioned into a pin
Bow and arrow stretch
Camel clutch
Divastator ( Multiple kicking combinations )
Diving double knee drop , to an opponent trapped across the turnbuckles
Diving seated senton pin
Dragon sleeper , sometimes with bodyscissors
Flapjack
Gedo clutch , sometimes transitioned into a pin
Giant swing
Hair @-@ pull curb stomp
Headscissors in the corner transitioned into axe kick
Kyranium Buster ( Flying neckbreaker )
Japanese stranglehold
Lariat
Matrix evasion , sometimes into a bridging Pelé kick to the head
Mule kick
Multiple pinning variations
Jackknife pin
Japanese rolling clutch pin
Roll @-@ up , sometimes while bridging
Sunset flip
Victory roll
Wheelbarrow victory roll
Rope hung Boston crab
Running double knee strike to an opponent against the ropes or in the corner
Running split @-@ leg big boot
Shoulder jawbreaker
Sliding double leg takedown
Snapmare driver
Spear , sometimes in the ropes
Split @-@ legged arm drag
Split @-@ legged hangman 's neckbreaker
Splitting evasion
Tilt @-@ a @-@ whirl , transitioned into a back kick , a Fujiwara armbar , or a facebuster
Managers
Jillian Hall
Wrestlers managed
Johnny Nitro / Mundo
Joey Mercury
Mark Henry
Mick Foley
Victoria
Eric Young
Nicknames
" The most @-@ dominant Diva in WWE "
" The Gorgeous Grappler "
" The A – List Diva "
" The Barracuda "
" The Paparazzi Princess "
" The Red Carpet Diva "
" The Hell Cat "
" The Lovely Latina "
" Raw 's Scream Queen "
Entrance themes
" Paparazzi " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; April 14 , 2005 – August 5 , 2011 )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Empire Wrestling Federation
First female inductee into the EWF Hall of Fame ( 2016 )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her # 3 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2009
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Divas Championship ( 2 times )
WWE Women 's Championship ( 3 times )
= The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 1 – Abduction =
Volume 1 of The X @-@ Files Mythology collection is a DVD release containing selected episodes from the first to the third seasons of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episodes collected in the release form the beginning of the series ' mythology , and are centred on alien abduction at the hands of " colonists " . Several of the elements introduced in the collected episodes arose through necessity during production , as working around the pregnancy of lead actress Gillian Anderson led to both the creation of unifying plot thread and the introduction of several recurring characters .
The episodes in the collection follow the investigations of paranormal @-@ related cases , or X @-@ Files , by FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Anderson ) . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . Events covered in the episodes include the meeting of Mulder and Scully , the introduction and assassination of a secretive informant , the apparent return of Mulder 's lost sister , and the abduction and return of Scully .
The collection contains the first episodes in the series ' mythology , or fictional story arcs . When the series began , Chris Carter did not think of creating a " mythology " for the episodes focusing on extraterrestrial life , because he felt that " they were just stories we wanted to tell " . Eventually , however , the writers saw that the most " personal " episodes were those based on the government conspiracy , and , as such , developed more stories based around the conceit . Jerry Hardin , William B. Davis , Mitch Pileggi , Tom Braidwood , Dean Haglund and Bruce Harwood all play supporting roles in the collection . Released on June 7 , 2005 , the collection received generally positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot summary = =
FBI Special Agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) has made a name for himself working on X @-@ Files — unexplained cases which may be paranormal in origin . He is appointed a partner in these investigations — Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) — with his superiors hoping that she will be able to debunk and discredit his work . Their first case together is the investigation of possible abductions in Oregon , which falters when their evidence is destroyed in a fire . A later case , involving the disappearance of a United States Air Force test pilot , sees the introduction of secretive informant Deep Throat ( Jerry Hardin ) , who continues to provide the agents sensitive information . This help is supplemented by conspiracy theorist group The Lone Gunmen , who are contacted for help in a further abduction case . Deep Throat is soon killed , however , when he helps the agents uncover details of a government human cloning program , and the X @-@ Files unit is closed shortly thereafter .
Unable to continue his work with Scully , Mulder obtains information about possible extraterrestrial contact in Puerto Rico , finding that the SETI program at the Arecibo Observatory is being forcibly closed . Although the pair are later allowed to resume their work , Scully is later kidnapped by an unhinged multiple alien abductee , Duane Barry . Barry takes Scully to a hilltop where she is then abducted , presumably by aliens . She is found comatose at a later date , having mysteriously arrived at a hospital , and recovers several days later .
Mulder receives a call from his father , finding out that his sister Samantha ( Megan Leitch ) , who had been abducted as a child , has returned . Samantha is being pursued by a shapeshifting bounty hunter , who is assassinating human clones . Samantha is killed , although it is revealed that she was simply one of a number of clones , produced using alien tissue to create an alien @-@ human hybrid .
The Lone Gunmen contact Mulder and Scully about a successful attempt by a friend of theirs to hack the United States Department of Defense computer system . The hacker , Kenneth Soona ( Bernie Coulson ) , is able to give Mulder the downloaded information on a digital cassette . However , Soona is later assassinated , and the downloaded files are found to be written in Navajo . Contacting Albert Hosteen ( Floyd Red Crow Westerman ) — a Navajo man capable of translating the files — Mulder is shown a box @-@ car full of what appear to be alien corpses . He is trapped in the box @-@ car by the series ' antagonist , The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) , and left for dead after it is destroyed . He is later found and nursed back to health by Hosteen . Meanwhile , Scully investigates the possible involvement of the smallpox eradication program in human genetic experimentation , discovering that a Nazi scientist who defected during Operation Paperclip has been conducting human experimentation to create alien @-@ human hybrids . Her sister Melissa ( Melinda McGraw ) , however , is shot by assassins who mistake her for Dana , and dies in hospital that night .
= = Background = =
When the series began , Chris Carter did not think of creating a " mythology " for the episodes focusing on extraterrestrial life , because he felt that " they were just stories we wanted to tell " . Eventually , however , the writers saw that the most " personal " episodes were those based on the government conspiracy . Another reason for the development of an ongoing mythology was that the producers were afraid of not creating a thread between the episodes centering on the conspiracy , feeling that it would be pretentious not to do so .
According to Carter , the mythology " sprung from " the series ' pilot and its follow up , " Deep Throat " , which set up the idea that aliens had been on Earth for many years . Carter sees the final scene of " Deep Throat " as the " launching moment for the entire mythology " . The main theme for the series , stemming from these episodes , is Fox Mulder 's quest to find " the truth " about his sister , Samantha Mulder , who had been abducted as a child . This quest drove the character to investigate the paranormal , setting the framework for the series .
After several stand @-@ alone episodes featuring UFOs and extraterrestrials early in the first season , the show 's mythology developed largely based on the pregnancy of actress Gillian Anderson , who became pregnant midway through production of the first season . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz described it as " the best thing that ever happened to the series " , noting that the mythology " really ended up running through the life of the series , all because Gillian Anderson became pregnant " . Although there were initially thoughts about Anderson 's character Scully giving birth to an alien child , ultimately the writers decided to work around Anderson 's pregnancy . The writers decided on closing the X @-@ Files at the end of the season to separate Mulder and Scully from one another , and have Scully abducted , reappearing comatose several episodes later . In addition to the creation of the storyline concerning Scully 's abduction , Anderson 's reduced role in the first half of the second season permitted the writers to develop some of the other characters in the show including Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) and X ( Steven Williams ) , and resulted in the introduction of the character Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) . Krycek , who was initially created by writer Howard Gordon to temporarily replace Scully as Mulder 's partner for three episodes eventually grew into a character that lasted seven seasons on the show .
Prior to the second season episode " One Breath " , The Smoking Man mostly " lurked around in the shadows " , providing a " forbidding " presence . The Smoking Man uttered only four audible words in the entire first season of the show , all of them being in " Tooms " . Producer and director R.W. Goodwin did not have faith in William B. Davis ' ability to take on the role of the series ' chief antagonist . It was later revealed to the producers that Davis was running an acting school , and teaching such actors as ninth season guest star Lucy Lawless .
In the two @-@ part story of " Colony " and " End Game " , Carter and Spotnitz , along with Duchovny , created what would become a recurring character in the alien bounty hunter . According to Carter , Duchovny came to him and said " it be great if we had like an alien bounty hunter " , an idea of which Carter approved . Spotnitz has noted that the actor cast for the role , Brian Thompson , was chosen because he had a very " distinctive look " about him , most notably his face and mouth .
= = Reception = =
Released on June 7 , 2005 , the collection has received generally positive reviews from critics . Slant Magazine 's Keith Uhlich rated it three stars out of five , praising the quality of the episodes included in the set , but ultimately finding that they were best viewed in the context of the " standalone " episodes which were omitted — singling out " Conduit " and " The Jersey Devil " as episodes which would aid the series ' " dual character study " . Writing for IGN , Dan Iverson rated the collection eight out of ten , finding that the mythology @-@ based episodes formed the basis of the relationship between the characters of Mulder and Scully . Making reference to the first season episode " Squeeze " , not included in the collection , he added that " even though people watched the series to see little green men and liver @-@ eating elastic monsters , it was the relationship between the two which made the series a total success " . However , he found that the set 's extra features material was sparse , describing it has being just enough " to keep us from complaining " . Writing for DVD Talk , Jeffrey Robinson was impressed with the collection , finding that the featured episodes worked well together without losing cohesion , and stating that " whether you are a casual viewer or a fan who already owns the season sets , owning The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 1 : Abduction is a must " . Exclaim ! ' s Monica S. Kuebler felt negatively about the collection , noting that anyone who would be interested in it would be likely to already own the collected episodes through other releases , and asking " should you buy Abduction ? It all depends on how much five commentaries and a doc are worth to you , because chances are , if you love the X @-@ Files ... you 've probably already bought the episodes included here at least once " .
= = Episodes = =
= = Special features = =
= HMS Grenville ( H03 ) =
HMS Grenville was the flotilla leader for the G @-@ class destroyers , built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . She spent most of the pre @-@ war period as part of the Mediterranean Fleet . The ship was transferred to the British Isles to escort shipping in local waters shortly after the beginning of World War II . In January 1940 , Grenville struck a mine outside the Thames Estuary and sank with the loss of 77 of her crew .
= = Description = =
Grenville displaced 1 @,@ 455 long tons ( 1 @,@ 478 t ) at standard load and 2 @,@ 053 long tons ( 2 @,@ 086 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 330 feet ( 100 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 34 feet 6 inches ( 10 @.@ 5 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 9 inches ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 38 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 28 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Yarrow side @-@ fired ,
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one of the long lasting policies of the European Community . The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production , providing certainty in food supplies , ensuring a high quality of life for farmers , stabilising markets , and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers . It was , until recently , operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention . Until the 1990s , the policy accounted for over 60 % of the then European Community 's annual budget , and as of 2013 accounts for around 34 % .
The policy 's price controls and market interventions led to considerable overproduction . These were intervention stores of products bought up by the Community to maintain minimum price levels . To dispose of surplus stores , they were often sold on the world market at prices considerably below Community guaranteed prices , or farmers were offered subsidies ( amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices ) to export their products outside the Community . This system has been criticised for under @-@ cutting farmers outside Europe , especially those in the developing world . Supporters of CAP argue that the economic support which it gives to farmers provides them with a reasonable standard of living .
Since the beginning of the 1990s , the CAP has been subject to a series of reforms . Initially , these reforms included the introduction of set @-@ aside in 1988 , where a proportion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn from production , milk quotas and , more recently , the ' de @-@ coupling ' ( or disassociation ) of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount they produce ( by the Fischler reforms in 2004 ) . Agriculture expenditure will move away from subsidy payments linked to specific produce , toward direct payments based on farm size . This is intended to allow the market to dictate production levels . One of these reforms entailed the abolition of the EU 's sugar regime , which previously divided the sugar market between member states and certain African @-@ Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the EU .
= = = Competition = = =
The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market . The Commission as the competition regulator for the single market is responsible for antitrust issues , approving mergers , breaking up cartels , working for economic liberalisation and preventing state aid .
The Competition Commissioner , currently Margrethe Vestager , is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission , notable for the ability to affect the commercial interests of trans @-@ national corporations . For example , in 2001 the Commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States ( GE and Honeywell ) which had already been approved by their national authority . Another high @-@ profile case against Microsoft , resulted in the Commission fining Microsoft over € 777 million following nine years of legal action .
= = Demographics = =
As of 1 January 2016 , the population of the European Union is about 510 @.@ 1 million people . In 2013 , 5 @,@ 075 @,@ 000 live births were registered and 4 @,@ 999 @,@ 200 deaths . The net migration to the EU was + 653 @,@ 100 . In 2010 , 47 @.@ 3 million people who lived in the EU were born outside their resident country . This corresponds to 9 @.@ 4 % of the total EU population . Of these , 31 @.@ 4 million ( 6 @.@ 3 % ) were born outside the EU and 16 @.@ 0 million ( 3 @.@ 2 % ) were born in another EU member state . The largest absolute numbers of people born outside the EU were in Germany ( 6 @.@ 4 million ) , France ( 5 @.@ 1 million ) , the United Kingdom ( 4 @.@ 7 million ) , Spain ( 4 @.@ 1 million ) , Italy ( 3 @.@ 2 million ) , and the Netherlands ( 1 @.@ 4 million ) .
= = = Urbanisation = = =
The EU contains 16 cities with populations of over one million . Besides many large cities , the EU also includes several densely populated regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cities and now encompass large metropolitan areas . The largest are Rhine @-@ Ruhr having approximately 11 @.@ 5 million inhabitants ( Cologne , Dortmund , Düsseldorf et al . ) , Randstad approx . 7 million ( Amsterdam , Rotterdam , The Hague , Utrecht et al . ) , Frankfurt Rhine @-@ Main approx . 5 @.@ 8 million ( Frankfurt , Wiesbaden et al . ) , the Flemish Diamond approx . 5 @.@ 5 million ( urban area in between Antwerp , Brussels , Leuven and Ghent ) , Upper Silesia approx . 5 @.@ 3 million ( Katowice , Ostrava ) and Øresund approx . 3 @.@ 7 million ( Copenhagen , Malmö ) .
= = = Languages = = =
Among the many languages and dialects used in the EU , it has 24 official and working languages : Bulgarian , Croatian , Czech , Danish , Dutch , English , Estonian , Finnish , French , German , Greek , Hungarian , Italian , Irish , Latvian , Lithuanian , Maltese , Polish , Portuguese , Romanian , Slovak , Slovene , Spanish , and Swedish . Important documents , such as legislation , are translated into every official language .
The European Parliament provides translation into all languages for documents and its plenary sessions . Some institutions use only a handful of languages as internal working languages . Catalan , Galician , Basque , Scottish Gaelic and Welsh are not official languages of the EU but have semi @-@ official status in that official translations of the treaties are made into them and citizens of the EU have the right to correspond with the institutions using them .
Language policy is the responsibility of member states , but EU institutions promote the learning of other languages . English is the most widely spoken language in the EU , being spoken by 51 % of the EU population when counting both native and non @-@ native speakers . German is the most widely spoken mother tongue , being spoken by 16 % of the EU population . 56 % of EU citizens are able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue . Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo @-@ European language family , except Estonian , Finnish , and Hungarian , which belong to the Uralic language family , and Maltese , which is a Semitic language . Most EU official languages are written in the Latin alphabet except Bulgarian , which is written in the Cyrillic alphabet , and Greek , which is written in the Greek alphabet . These are the three official scripts of the European Union .
Besides the 24 official languages , there are about 150 regional and minority languages , spoken by up to 50 million people . Although EU programmes can support regional and minority languages , the protection of linguistic rights is a matter for the individual member states . The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EU states provides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their linguistic heritage .
The European Day of Languages is held annually on 26 September and is aimed at encouraging language learning across Europe .
= = = Religion = = =
The EU is a secular body with no formal connection to any religion . The Article 17 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union recognises the " status under national law of churches and religious associations " as well as that of " philosophical and non @-@ confessional organisations " .
The preamble to the Treaty on European Union mentions the " cultural , religious and humanist inheritance of Europe " . Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity or God , or both , in the preamble of the text , but the idea faced opposition and was dropped .
Christians in the EU are divided among members of Catholicism ( both Roman and Eastern Rite ) , numerous Protestant denominations , and the Eastern Orthodox Church . In 2009 , the EU had an estimated Muslim population of 13 million , and an estimated Jewish population of over a million . The other world religions of Buddhism , Hinduism and Sikhism are also represented in the EU population .
According to new polls about religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer , Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union , accounting for 72 % of the EU population . Catholics are the largest Christian group , accounting for 48 % of the EU population , while Protestants make up 12 % , Eastern Orthodox make up 8 % and other Christians make up 4 % .
Eurostat 's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52 % of EU citizens believed in a God , 27 % in " some sort of spirit or life force " , and 18 % had no form of belief . Many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years . The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were Estonia ( 16 % ) and the Czech Republic ( 19 % ) . The most religious countries were Malta ( 95 % , predominantly Roman Catholic ) as well as Cyprus and Romania ( both predominantly Orthodox ) each with about 90 % of citizens professing a belief in God . Across the EU , belief was higher among women , older people , those with religious upbringing , those who left school at 15 or 16 and those " positioning themselves on the right of the political scale " .
= = = Education and science = = =
Basic education is an area where the EU 's role is limited to supporting national governments . In higher education , the policy was developed in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility . The most visible of these has been the Erasmus Programme , a university exchange programme which began in 1987 . In its first 20 years , it has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1 @.@ 5 million university and college students and has become a symbol of European student life .
There are now similar programmes for school pupils and teachers , for trainees in vocational education and training , and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007 – 2013 . These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU . Through its support of the Bologna Process , the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe .
Scientific development is facilitated through the EU 's Framework Programmes , the first of which started in 1984 . The aims of EU policy in this area are to co @-@ ordinate and stimulate research . The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects . EU research and technological framework programmes deal in a number of areas , for example energy where the aim is to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy to help the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels .
= = = Health care = = =
Although the EU has no major competences in the field of health care , Article 35 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms that " A high level of human health protection shall be ensured in the definition and implementation of all Union policies and activities " . The European Commission 's Directorate @-@ General for Health and Consumers seeks to align national laws on the protection of people 's health , on the consumers ' rights , on the safety of food and other products .
Health care in the EU is provided through a wide range of different systems run at the national level . The systems are primarily publicly funded through taxation ( universal health care ) . Private funding for health care may represent personal contributions towards meeting the non @-@ taxpayer refunded portion of health care or may reflect totally private ( non @-@ subsidised ) health care either paid out of pocket or met by some form of personal or employer funded insurance .
All EU and many other European countries offer their citizens a free European Health Insurance Card which , on a reciprocal basis , provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other participating European countries . A directive on cross @-@ border healthcare aims at promoting co @-@ operation on health care between member states and facilitating access to safe and high @-@ quality cross @-@ border healthcare for European patients .
= = Culture = =
Cultural co @-@ operation between member states has been a concern of the EU since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty . Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 7 @-@ year programme , the European Cultural Month event , the MEDIA Programme , and orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra .
The European Capital of Culture programme selects one or more cities in every year to assist the cultural development of that city . 53 EU cities have been part of this initiative up to 2016 .
= = = Sport = = =
Sport is mainly the responsibility of the member states or other international organisations , rather than of the EU . However , there are some EU policies that have had an impact on sport , such as the free movement of workers , which was at the core of the Bosman ruling that prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with European citizenship . The Treaty of Lisbon requires any application of economic rules to take into account the specific nature of sport and its structures based on voluntary activity . This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA , due to objections over the application of free market principles to sport , which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs . The EU does fund a programme for Israeli , Jordanian , Irish , and British football coaches , as part of the Football 4 Peace project .
Association Football is the most popular sport in almost all EU countries . Club teams from the EU are the highest paid in the world . Other team sports like rugby , ice hockey , basketball , cricket , handball , volleyball and water polo are also popular in some member states .
= = = Symbols = = =
The flag of the Union consists of a circle of 12 golden stars on a blue background . The blue represents the West , while the number and position of the stars represent completeness and unity , respectively . Originally designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe , the flag was adopted by the European Communities , the predecessors of the present Union , in 1986 .
United in Diversity was adopted as the motto of the Union in the year 2000 , having been selected from proposals submitted by school pupils . Since 1985 , the flag day of the Union has been Europe Day , on 9 May ( the date of the 1950 Schuman declaration ) . The anthem of the Union is an instrumental version of the prelude to the Ode to Joy , the 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven 's ninth symphony . The anthem was adopted by European Community leaders in 1985 and has since been played on official occasions .
Besides naming the continent , the Greek mythological figure of Europa has frequently been employed as a personification of Europe . Known from the myth in which Zeus seduces her in the guise of a white bull , Europa has also been referred to in relation to the present Union . Statues of Europa and the bull decorate several of the Union 's institutions and a portrait of her is seen on the 2013 series of Euro banknotes . The bull is , for its part , depicted on all residence permit cards .
Charles the Great , also known as Charlemagne ( Latin : Carolus Magnus ) and later recognized as Pater Europae ( " Father of Europe " ) , has a symbolic relevance to Europe . The Commission has named one of its central buildings in Brussels after Charlemagne and the city of Aachen has since 1949 awarded the Charlemagne Prize to champions of European unification . Since 2008 , the organisers of this prize , in conjunction with the European Parliament , have awarded the Charlemagne Youth Prize in recognition of similar efforts by young people .
= = = Media = = =
Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens , as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights . Within the EU enlargement process , guaranteeing media freedom is named a " key indicator of a country 's readiness to become part of the EU " .
= Mediterranean campaign of 1798 =
The Mediterranean campaign of 1798 was a series of major naval operations surrounding a French expeditionary
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force sent to Egypt under Napoleon Bonaparte during the French Revolutionary Wars . The French Republic sought to capture Egypt as the first stage in an effort to threaten British India , and thus force Great Britain to make peace . Departing Toulon in May 1798 with over 40 @,@ 000 troops and hundreds of ships , Bonaparte 's fleet sailed southeastwards across the Mediterranean Sea . They were followed by a small British squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson , later reinforced to 13 ships of the line , whose pursuit was hampered by a lack of scouting frigates and reliable information . Bonaparte 's first target was the island of Malta , which was under the government of the Knights of St. John and theoretically granted its owner control of the Central Mediterranean . Bonaparte 's forces landed on the island and rapidly overwhelmed the defenders , securing the port city of Valletta before continuing to Egypt . When Nelson learned of the French capture of the island , he guessed the French target to be Egypt and sailed for Alexandria , but passed the French during the night of 22 June without discovering them and arrived off Egypt first .
Unable to find Bonaparte , Nelson turned back across the Mediterranean , eventually reaching Sicily on 19 July . While Nelson was returning westwards , Bonaparte reached Alexandria and stormed the city , capturing the coast and marching his army inland . His fleet , entrusted to Vice @-@ Admiral François @-@ Paul Brueys D 'Aigalliers , was anchored in a line of battle in Aboukir Bay . On 1 August , Nelson , who had returned to the Egyptian coast after reports gathered at Coron revealed the French invasion , arrived off Aboukir Bay . Although it was late afternoon and the British fleet had no accurate charts of the bay , Nelson ordered an immediate attack on the French van . Brueys was unprepared , and his ships were unable to manoeuvre as the British split into two divisions and sailed down either side of the French line , capturing all five ships of the vanguard and engaging his 120 @-@ gun flagship Orient in the centre . At 21 : 00 , Orient caught fire and exploded , killing most of the crew and ending the main combat . Sporadic fighting continued for the next two days , until all of the French ships had been captured , destroyed or fled . At the Battle of the Nile , eleven French ships of the line and two frigates were eliminated , trapping Bonaparte in Egypt and changing the balance of power in the Mediterranean .
With the French Navy in the Mediterranean defeated , other nations were encouraged to join the Second Coalition and go to war with France . Portugal , the Kingdom of Naples , the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire all subsequently deployed forces to the Mediterranean . The Russians and Turks participated in the blockade of Egypt and operations in the Adriatic Sea while the Portuguese joined the Siege of Malta , which was distantly conducted by Nelson from his lodgings in Naples . Nelson , who had been wounded at the Battle of the Nile , became involved in Neapolitan politics and encouraged King Ferdinand to go to war with France , resulting in the loss of his mainland kingdom . In the Western Mediterranean , Vice @-@ Admiral Earl St Vincent , who commanded the Mediterranean fleet from off Cadiz , deployed forces against Minorca , rapidly captured the island and turned it into an important naval base .
= = Background = =
= = = Bonaparte 's plan = = =
At the beginning of 1798 , the War of the First Coalition had come to an end with French control of Northern Italy , much of the Low Countries and the Rhineland confirmed by the Treaty of Campo Formio . Of all the major European powers that had at one time allied against the French Republic , only the Kingdom of Great Britain remained hostile , and the French Directory determined to end the French Revolutionary Wars by eliminating Britain . A series of invasions of the British Isles were planned , and the 28 @-@ year @-@ old General Napoleon Bonaparte , who had defeated the Austrians in Italy the previous year , was assigned to lead the Armée d 'Angleterre ( Army of England ) that had been assembled at Boulogne . However , the English Channel was firmly controlled by the Royal Navy and French invasion supplies , particularly of viable landing craft , were totally inadequate for the purpose .
In the early spring of 1798 , Bonaparte left his command at Boulogne and returned to Paris , reporting that continued British naval supremacy in Northern European waters made an invasion impossible in the near future . With operations to the north impossible , Bonaparte directed his attention southwards to Toulon , the principal French seaport on the Mediterranean . There a French army and fleet had begun assembling for a secret location , speculated by French commentators to be aimed at a wide variety of places , including among others Britain , Sicily , Malta and the Crimea . The expedition 's intended target was actually Egypt , which formed an important link in the chain of communications between Britain and the economically vital colony of British India . Bonaparte considered the capture of Egypt as the most important step in neutralising the massive economic benefits that Britain gained from trade with India and bringing Britain to terms : in August 1797 he wrote " The time is not far away that we will feel that , in order to truly destroy England , we must take Egypt . " Possession of Egypt could grant the French control of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea , forcing severe delays to dispatches sent between Britain and India and obstructing trade worth £ 2 @.@ 7 million ( the equivalent of £ 260 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) to the British economy . In addition , a successful invasion of Egypt could be followed by a direct attack on British territory in India , possibly in conjunction with the anglophobic Tippoo Sultan of Seringapatam . The French Mediterranean Fleet was unopposed at the start of 1798 – following the Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1796 , in which Spain formed an alliance with France and declared war on Britain , the Royal Navy had withdrawn from the Mediterranean bases of Corsica and Elba . By early 1798 , their Mediterranean Fleet was based at the Tagus River in Portugal , their one remaining continental ally . With no permanent British fleet in the Mediterranean and an uprising imminent in Ireland , Bonaparte firmly believed that the Royal Navy would be unable to intervene in his plans , even if they should discover them .
With passage to Egypt seemingly unopposed Bonaparte gave orders for a fleet of thirteen ships of the line , led by the 120 @-@ gun Orient under Vice @-@ Admiral François @-@ Paul Brueys D 'Aigalliers and numerous smaller warships , including the entire Venetian Navy , captured the previous year , to prepare for sea . The fleet was to be accompanied by up to 400 transport ships , which were to carry the 35 @,@ 000 men detailed for the invasion . On 3 May , Bonaparte departed Paris , arriving at Toulon five days later to oversee the final preparations . On 9 May he reviewed the assembled army and gave a speech announcing that the expedition was bound for an unspecified foreign land . The speech was met with an enthusiastic response from his soldiers and a revised version subsequently appeared in Le Moniteur Universel and was widely distributed throughout France as a poster . Despite Bonaparte 's pronouncement the French departure was delayed : a strong headwind prevented the fleet from sailing for another nine days , conditions finally lifting on 18 May that permitted the 22 warships and 120 transports that made up the French fleet to sail the following day .
= = = St. Vincent 's response = = =
Britain was not unaware of French preparations at Toulon and along the Mediterranean coast , but despite sustained efforts by British agents in France the destination of the French fleet was unknown . Egypt was not seriously considered by the British government : when Secretary of State for War Henry Dundas suggested it , he was urged by Foreign Secretary Lord Grenville to think " with a map in your hand , and with a calculation of distances . " Letters reached London and St. Vincent at the Tagus describing extensive preparations right along the French and Italian Mediterranean coastlines , but the distances between the base in the Tagus and Toulon prevented any sustained observation of French movements . Urgent orders were sent from Lord Spencer at the Admiralty to Vice @-@ Admiral Earl St. Vincent , commander of the British Mediterranean Fleet at the Tagus , to despatch a squadron to investigate under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson . Nelson had returned to the fleet three days earlier at Lord Spencer 's order , following recovery in Britain from the loss of an arm at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife in July 1797 .
St. Vincent had already been preparing for an expedition to Toulon with Nelson in mind , and the rear @-@ admiral departed the Tagus in his flagship HMS Vanguard on 2 May . St Vincent was overjoyed to be able to place Nelson in command of the mission , writing that " the arrival of Admiral Nelson has given me new life ... his presence in the Mediterranean is so very essential " . However , his preference for Nelson over the more senior admirals Sir William Parker and Sir John Orde provoked a storm of protest , which eventually culminated in Orde challenging St Vincent to a duel , and being subsequently ordered to return to Britain . On 9 May Nelson collected the ships of the line HMS Alexander and HMS Orion under Captains Alexander Ball and Sir James Saumarez the frigates HMS Emerald and HMS Terpsichore under Captains Thomas Moutray Waller and William Hall Gage and the sloop HMS Bonne Citoyenne under Captain Robert Retalick at Gibraltar , and passed into the Mediterranean . Despite leaving under cover of darkness , Nelson 's departure was observed by Spanish forces at Cadiz , and the fort at Cape Carnero fired several shot , striking Alexander but inflicting negligible damage .
On 17 May Terpsichore captured the privateer La Pierre off Cape Sicié , and from the crew Nelson learned that Bonaparte 's departure was imminent , although the destination was still unknown . On 21 May , as his squadron reached the Îles d 'Hyères near Toulon , they were struck by strong winds that snapped Vanguard 's topmasts and brought the wreckage down onto the deck , killing two men . Vanguard was left struggling in heavy seas , blown 75 nautical miles ( 139 km ) southwards in one night . So severe was the damage that Vanguard was almost wrecked on the Corsican coast on the following day and Nelson even ordered Captain Ball , who had managed to attach a towline to the flagship , to abandon him . Ball refused the order and the British ships of the line rode out the storm together . Although Alexander was able to tow Vanguard to San Pietro Island off Sardinia for repairs , the gale had forced the squadron 's frigates to separate from the larger ships .
Thomas Waller on Emerald was divided from the other frigates , and his lookouts had observed Vanguard in its dismasted state at the height of the storm . The other two frigates had reefed their sails and ridden out the storm together , Captain Gage turning towards the Spanish coast when the storm abated and on 29 May encountered HMS Alcmene under Captain George Johnstone Hope , which had been sent by St. Vincent to augment Nelson 's force . Two days later Hope 's squadron encountered Emerald , which had captured two merchant ships , and together they sailed for the prearranged rendezvous point 60 miles ( 97 km ) off Cape St. Sebastian near Barcelona . Hope ordered Terpsichore and Bonne Citoyenne to cruise off Sardinia and on 3 June encountered the brig HMS Mutine under Captain Thomas Hardy , the scout of a fleet sent by Earl St. Vincent that was approaching the rendezvous . Knowing of the damaged suffered by Vanguard and aware that the French had left Toulon , Hope then took the unilateral decision to search for the French himself , dispersing the frigates across the Western Mediterranean . Hope 's ships failed to find either the British or French fleets and none of the frigates returned to Nelson 's command until after the Battle of the Nile .
= = Malta = =
Departing Toulon on 19 May , Bonaparte 's fleet passed along the coast of Provence to Genoa , where 72 additional transport ships were collected . Sailing south , the fleet reached Corsica on 23 May and collected a fleet of 22 transports from Ajaccio on 28 May . The convoy remained within sight of the eastern coastline until 30 May , crossing the Strait of Bonifacio and following the coastline of Sardinia in anticipation of combining with fleets of transports sailing from Civitavecchia . On 3 June , a message reached Bonaparte reporting the presence of Nelson 's squadron at San Pietro and the French general sent a French squadron to investigate , although by that time Nelson had sailed and the harbour was empty . Abandoning the wait for the Civitavecchia force , which had still not arrived , Bonaparte gave orders for his fleet to turn southeast , passing Mazara on Sicily and the island of Pantelleria on 7 June . There a report from a captured British merchant brig warned Bonaparte that Nelson was only a short distance behind his force with a powerful Royal Navy fleet and , concerned for his transports , Bonaparte gave urgent orders for the French fleet to steer for Malta , arriving off Valletta at 05 : 30 on 9 June , shortly after uniting with the 56 ships of the Civitavecchia convoy , which had missed the rendezvous and continued to Malta alone .
The report on Nelson 's activity submitted to Bonaparte on 7 June was inaccurate : Repairs to Vanguard in San Pietro took six days , the squadron sailing on 27 May for Toulon , arriving off the harbour on 31 May . Nelson had already learned of the departure of the French fleet from a captured Marseilles merchant ship , but without reinforcements or knowledge of the French direction he could not begin a pursuit . On 5 June , the brig HMS Mutine arrived off Toulon and reported that a British fleet was only a few days away , consisting of ten ships of the line and a fourth rate sent by Earl St Vincent from the Tagus on 24 May under Captain Thomas Troubridge in HMS Culloden . St Vincent , acting under urgent orders from London to send a fleet to the Mediterranean had opted to split his forces , rather than risk taking all of his ships into the Mediterranean and leaving the Spanish at Cadiz unattended . Troubridge was considered by St Vincent to be the best officer in the fleet , and Nelson , who also held a high opinion of Troubridge , immediately sailed his squadron to the scheduled rendezvous point . On 6 June , his squadron briefly intercepted a Spanish merchant convoy and capturing two ships before the admiral called off the pursuit to ensure he arrived at the agreed time . On 7 June at 12 : 00 the fleets combined , Nelson now commanding 13 74 @-@ gun ships of the line , one 50 @-@ gun ship and one brig . Noticeable by their absence were frigates , vital for scouting operations in a campaign of this nature ; After his encounter with Hope , Hardy reported to Nelson that the frigates were cruising independently , to which the admiral bitterly responded " I had thought that Hope would have known me better " .
= = = Nelson 's search = = =
Delayed until 10 June by a calm and still unaware of French intentions , Nelson initially sailed along the Corsican coast , before anchoring at Elba on 12 June and sending Mutine into Civitavecchia for information . Hardy was unable to discover the French destination and , after a detour to Elba with his whole fleet , Nelson continued south . Two days later , the admiral spoke with a Tunisian ship at Giannutri , which passed on the inaccurate information that the French had been seen off Trapani , and might be anchored at Syracuse . On 17 June Nelson anchored at the Pontine Islands off Naples and sent Troubridge ashore to appeal to the British ambassador Sir William Hamilton for information and for the assistance of the Neapolitan Navy in scouting for the French . Although the Neapolitan Prime Minister Sir John Acton had already passed on reports that the French were sailing for Egypt , Hamilton did not give the report to Nelson , possibly suspicious of disinformation . Hamilton did however relay the information that Bonaparte 's fleet had passed Sardinia and were probably sailing in the direction of Malta . Despite private animosity towards France , the Neapolitan government refused to openly join the British in the war and denied Nelson the use of their frigates , although they did quietly agree to resupply Nelson 's fleet . With a rough direction established and believing the ultimate French destination to be Sicily , Nelson sailed in pursuit , but light winds hampered his advances and he did not pass the Straits of Messina until 20 June . There he received a report from the ambassador at Messina that the French were at Malta . Then on 22 June near Cape Passaro , Hardy stopped a Genoese ship from Ragusa that reported seeing the French fleet sailing southwards away from Malta , and that they had left Valletta on 16 June . This information was wrong ( or mistranslated ) in one important respect : although preparations had begun on 16 June the French had actually not departed until 19 June , and Nelson 's fleet was just 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ) miles away from Brueys . Nelson decided that the French target must be Egypt or Constantinople and called his senior captains : Saumarez , Ball , Troubridge and Henry Darby on board
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VIA KDL22PX300 HDTV . It is the most successful home console in the world , having sold over 155 million units sold as of December 28 , 2012 . On November 29 , 2005 , the PS2 became the fastest game console to reach 100 million units shipped , accomplishing the feat within 5 years and 9 months from its launch . This achievement occurred faster than its predecessor , the PlayStation , which took " 9 years and 6 months since launch " to reach the same figure . PlayStation 2 shipments in Japan ended on December 28 , 2012 . The Guardian reported on January 4 , 2013 that PS2 production had ended worldwide . But studies show that many people all around the world still own one even if it is no longer in use . PlayStation 2 has been ranked as the best selling console of all time as of 2015 .
= = = = Slimline model = = = =
Released in 2004 , four years after the launch of the original PlayStation 2 , the PlayStation 2 Slimline was the first major redesign of the PlayStation 2 . Compared to its predecessor , the Slimline was smaller , thinner , quieter and also included a built @-@ in Ethernet port ( in some markets it also has an integrated modem ) . In 2007 , Sony began shipping a revision of the Slimline which was lighter than the original Slimline together with a lighter AC adapter . In 2008 , Sony released yet another revision of the Slimline which had an overhauled internal design incorporating the power supply into the console itself like the original PlayStation 2 resulting in a further reduced total weight of the console .
= = = PlayStation 3 = = =
Released on November 17 , 2006 in North America , the PlayStation 3 is a seventh generation game console from Sony . It competes with the Microsoft Xbox 360 and the Nintendo Wii . The PS3 is the first console in the series to introduce the use of motion @-@ sensing technology through its Sixaxis wireless controller . The console also incorporates a Blu @-@ ray Disc player and features high @-@ definition resolution . The PS3 was originally offered with either a 20 GB or 60 GB hard drive , but over the years its capacity increased in increments available up to 500 GB . The PlayStation 3 has sold over 80 million consoles worldwide as of November 2013 .
= = = = Slim model = = = =
Like its predecessors , the PlayStation 3 was re @-@ released in 2009 as a " slim " model . The redesigned model is 33 % smaller , 36 % lighter , and consumes 34 % to 45 % less power than previous models . In addition , it features a redesigned cooling system and a smaller Cell processor which was moved to a 45nm manufacturing process . It sold in excess of a million units within its first 3 weeks on sale . The redesign also features support for CEC ( more commonly referred to by its manufacturer brandings of BraviaSync , VIERA Link , EasyLink and others ) which allows control of the console over HDMI by using the remote control as the controller . The PS3 slim also runs quieter and is cooler than previous models due to its 45 nm Cell . The PS3 Slim no longer has the " main power " switch ( similar to PlayStation 2 slim ) , like the previous PS3 models , which was located at the back of the console . It was officially released on September 1 , 2009 in North America and Europe and on September 3 , 2009 in Japan , Australia and New Zealand .
= = = = Super Slim model = = = =
In 2012 , Sony revealed a new " Super Slim " PlayStation 3 . The new console , with a completely redesigned case which has a sliding door covering the disc drive ( which has been moved to the top of the console ) , is 4 @.@ 3 pounds , almost three pounds lighter than the previous " slim " model . The console comes with either 12GB flash memory or a 250GB , 500GB hard drive . Several bundles which include a Super Slim PS3 and a selection of games are available .
= = = PlayStation 4 = = =
The PlayStation 4 ( PS4 ) is the latest video game console from Sony Computer Entertainment announced at a press conference on February 20 , 2013 . In the meeting , Sony revealed some hardware specifications of the new console . The eighth @-@ generation system , launched in the fourth quarter of 2013 , introduced the x86 architecture to the PlayStation series . According to lead system architect , Mark Cerny , development on the PlayStation 4 began as early as 2008 . PlayStation Europe CEO Jim Ryan emphasized in 2011 that Sony wanted to avoid launching the next @-@ generation console behind the competition .
Among the new applications and services , Sony introduced the PlayStation App , allowing PS4 owners to turn smartphones and tablets into a second screen to enhance gameplay . The company also plans to debut PlayStation Now game streaming service , powered by technology from Gaikai . By incorporating a share button on the new controller and making it possible to view in @-@ game content being streamed live from friends , Sony plans to place more focus on social gameplay as well . The PlayStation 4 was first released in North America on November 15 , 2013 .
= = = Comparison = = =
= = Handheld systems = =
= = = PocketStation = = =
The PocketStation was a miniature game console created by SCE as a peripheral for the original PlayStation . Released exclusively in Japan on December 23 , 1999 , it featured a monochrome LCD , a speaker , a real @-@ time clock and infrared communication capability . It could also be used as a standard PlayStation memory card by connecting it to a PlayStation memory card slot . It was extremely popular in Japan and Sony originally had plans to release it in the United States but the plan was ultimately scrapped due to various manufacturing and supply @-@ and @-@ demand problems .
= = = PlayStation Portable = = =
The PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) was Sony 's first handheld console to compete with Nintendo 's DS console . The original model ( PSP @-@ 1000 ) was released in December 2004 and March 2005 , The console is the first to utilize a new proprietary optical storage medium known as Universal Media Disc ( UMD ) , which can store both games and movies . It contains 32 MB of internal flash memory storage , expandable via Memory Stick PRO Duo cards . It has a similar control layout to the PS3 with its PlayStation logo button and its ( ' Triangle ' ) , ( ' Circle / O ' ) , ( ' Cross / X ' ) and ( ' Square ' ) buttons in their white @-@ colored forms .
= = = = PSP @-@ 2000 and PSP @-@ 3000 models = = = =
The PSP @-@ 2000 ( also known as the Slim & Lite in PAL territories ) was the first major hardware revision of the PlayStation Portable , released in September 2007 . The 2000 series was 33 % lighter and 19 % slimmer than the original PlayStation Portable . The capacity of the battery was also reduced by ⅓ but the run time remained the same as the previous model due to lower power consumption . Older model batteries will still work and they extend the amount of playing time . The PSP Slim & Lite has a new gloss finish . Its serial port was also modified in order to accommodate a new video @-@ out feature ( while rendering older PSP remote controls incompatible ) . On a PSP @-@ 2000 , PSP games will only output to external monitors or TVs in progressive scan mode , so that televisions incapable of supporting progressive scan will not display PSP games ; non @-@ game video will output in either progressive or interlaced mode . USB charging was also made possible . Buttons are also reportedly more responsive on the PSP @-@ 2000 . In 2008 , Sony released a second hardware revision called the PSP @-@ 3000 which included several features that were not present in the PSP @-@ 2000 , such as a built @-@ in microphone and upgraded screen , as well as the ability to output PSP games in interlaced mode .
= = = = PSP Go model = = = =
Released in October 2009 , the PSP Go is the biggest redesign of the PlayStation Portable to date . Unlike previous PSP models , the PSP Go does not feature a UMD drive but instead has 16 GB of internal flash memory to store games , videos and other media . This can be extended by up to 32GB with the use of a Memory Stick Micro ( M2 ) flash card . Also unlike previous PSP models , the PSP Go 's rechargeable battery is not removable or replaceable by the user . The unit is 43 % lighter and 56 % smaller than the original PSP @-@ 1000 , and 16 % lighter and 35 % smaller than the PSP @-@ 3000 . It has a 3 @.@ 8 " 480 × 272 LCD ( compared to the larger 4 @.@ 3 " 480 × 272 pixel LCD on previous PSP models ) . The screen slides up to reveal the main controls . The overall shape and sliding mechanism are similar to that of Sony 's mylo COM @-@ 2 internet device . The PSP Go is being produced and sold concurrently with its predecessor the PSP @-@ 3000 although it will not replace it . All games on the PSP Go must be purchased and downloaded from the PlayStation Store as the handheld is not compatible with the original PSP 's physical media , the Universal Media Disc . The handheld also features connectivity with the PlayStation 3 's controllers the Sixaxis and DualShock 3 via Bluetooth connection .
= = = = PSP @-@ E1000 model = = = =
The PSP @-@ E1000 is a budget @-@ focused PSP model which , unlike previous PSP models , does not feature Wi @-@ Fi or stereo speakers ( replaced by a single mono speaker ) and has a matte " charcoal black " finish similar to the slim PlayStation 3 . The E1000 was announced at Gamescom 2011 and available across the PAL region for an RRP of € 99 @.@ 99 .
= = = PlayStation Vita = = =
Released in Japan on December 17 , 2011 and North America on February 22 , 2012 , the PlayStation Vita was previously codenamed Next Generation Portable ( NGP ) . It was officially unveiled by Sony on January 27 , 2011 at the PlayStation Meeting 2011 . The original model of the handheld , the PCH @-@ 1000 series features a 5 @-@ inch OLED touchscreen , two analog sticks , a rear touchpad , Sixaxis motion sensing and a 4 core ARM Cortex @-@ A9 MPCore processor .
The new PCH @-@ 2000 series system is a lighter redesign of the device that was announced at the SCEJA Press Conference in September 2013 prior to the Tokyo Game Show . This model is 20 % thinner and 15 % lighter compared to the original model , has an additional hour of battery life , an LCD instead of OLED , includes a micro USB Type B port , 1GB of internal storage memory . It was released in Japan on October 10 , 2013 in six colors : white , black , pink , yellow , blue , and olive green , and in North America on May 6 , 2014 .
= = Other hardware = =
= = = PSX ( 2003 ) = = =
Released solely in Japan in 2003 , the Sony PSX was a fully integrated DVR and PlayStation 2 video game console . It was the first Sony product to utilize the XrossMediaBar ( XMB ) and can be linked with a PlayStation Portable to transfer videos and music via USB . It also features software for video , photo and audio editing . PSX supports online game compatibility using an internal broadband adapter . Games that utilize the PS2 HDD ( for example , Final Fantasy XI ) are supported as well . It was the first product released by Sony under the PlayStation brand that did not include a controller with the device itself .
= = = Television sets = = =
Released in 2010 , the Sony BRAVIA KDL22PX300 is a 22 inch 720p television which incorporates a PlayStation 2 console , along with 4 HDMI ports .
A 24 inch 1080p PlayStation branded 3D television , officially called the PlayStation 3D Display , was released in late 2011 . A feature of this 3D television is SimulView . During multiplayer games , each player will only see their respective screen ( in full HD ) appear on the television through their respective 3D glasses , instead of seeing a split screen ( e.g. player 1 will only see player 1 's screen displayed through their 3D glasses ) .
= = = Sony Ericsson Xperia Play = = =
The Xperia Play is an Android @-@ powered smartphone with a slide @-@ up gamepad resembling the PSP Go developed by Sony Ericsson aimed at gamers , and is the first to be PlayStation Certified . Also can download PlayStation Suite App .
= = = Sony Tablets = = =
Sony Tablets are PlayStation Certified Android tablets , released in 2011 , 2012 , and 2013 . They offer connectivity with PlayStation 3 controllers , and integrate with the PlayStation network using a proprietary application . The following models were released between 2011 and 2013 : S , Sony Tablet S , Sony Tablet P , Xperia Tablet S and Xperia Tablet Z.
= = = PlayStation TV = = =
PlayStation TV , known in Asia as PlayStation Vita TV , is a microconsole and a non @-@ portable variant of the PlayStation Vita handheld . It was announced on September 9 , 2013 at a Sony Computer Entertainment Japan presentation . Instead of featuring a display screen , the console connects to a television via HDMI . Users can play using a DualShock 3 controller , although due to the difference in features between the controller and the handheld , certain games are not compatible with PS TV , such as those that are dependent on the system 's touch @-@ screen , rear touchpad , microphone or camera . The device is said to be compatible with over 100 Vita games , as well as various digital PlayStation Portable , PlayStation and PC Engine titles . The system supports Remote Play compatibility with the PlayStation 4 , allowing players to stream games from the PS4 to a separate TV connected to PS TV , and also allows users to stream content from video services such as Hulu and Niconico , as well as access the PlayStation Store . The system was released in Japan on November 14 , 2013 , in North America on October 14 , 2014 , and in Europe and Australasia on November 14 , 2014 .
= = = PlayStation VR = = =
PlayStation VR is an upcoming virtual reality device that is produced by Sony Computer Entertainment . It makes two sets of images , one being visible on a TV and one for the headset . The PlayStation VR includes 3D audio technology so you can hear from all angles . Some of the prominent features for the PlayStation VR is that it includes a 5 @.@ 7 inch 1920 X RGB X 1080 resolution OLED display . It also can handle 120fps which can eliminate blur and produce a smooth image . The device is also known for its low latency build to less than 18ms . The speculated date of release is October 2016 .
= = Games = =
Each console has a variety of games . Most games released on the original PlayStation are backwards compatible and can be played directly on its successors , the PlayStation 2 , PSX and PlayStation 3 . Some of these games can also be played on the PlayStation Portable but they must be purchased and downloaded from a list of PSone Classics from the PlayStation Store . Games released on the PlayStation 2 can currently only be played on the original console as well as the PSX and the early models of the PlayStation 3 which are backwards compatible . The PlayStation 3 has two types of games , those released on Blu @-@ ray Discs and downloadable games from the PlayStation Store . The PlayStation Portable consists of numerous games available on both its physical media , the Universal Media Disc and the Digital Download from the PlayStation Store . However , some games are only available on the UMD while others are only available on the PlayStation Store . The PlayStation Vita consists of games available on both its physical media , the PlayStation Vita card and digital download from the PlayStation Store .
= = = First party games = = =
Sony Computer Entertainment Worldwide Studios is a group of video game developers owned by Sony Computer Entertainment . It is dedicated to developing video games exclusively for the PlayStation series of consoles . The series has produced several best @-@ selling franchises such as the Gran Turismo series of racing video games as well as critically acclaimed titles such as the Uncharted series . Other notable franchises include God of War , Twisted Metal and more recently , LittleBigPlanet ( series ) , InFAMOUS , and MotorStorm .
= = = Re @-@ releases = = =
Greatest Hits ( North America ) , Platinum Range ( PAL territories ) and The Best ( Japan and Asia ) are video games for the Sony PlayStation , PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , and PlayStation Portable consoles that have been officially re @-@ released at a lower price by Sony . Each region has its own qualifications to enter the re @-@ release program . Initially , during the PlayStation era , a game had to sell at least 150 @,@ 000 copies ( later 250 @,@ 000 ) and be on the market for at least a year to enter the Greatest Hits range . During the PlayStation 2 era , the requirements increased with the minimum number of copies sold increasing to 400 @,@ 000 and the game had to be on the market for at least 9 months . For the PlayStation Portable , games had to be on the market for at least 9 months with 250 @,@ 000 copies or more sold . Currently , a PlayStation 3 game must be on the market for 10 months and sell at least 500 @,@ 000 copies to meet the Greatest Hits criteria . PSone Classics were games that were released originally on the PlayStation and have been re @-@ released on the PlayStation Store for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable . Classics HD are compilations of PlayStation 2 games that have been remastered for the PlayStation 3 on a single disc with additional features such as upscaled graphics , PlayStation Move support , 3D support and PlayStation Network trophies . PlayStation Mobile ( formerly PlayStation Suite ) is a cross @-@ platform , cross @-@ device software framework aimed at providing PlayStation content , currently original PlayStation games , across several devices including PlayStation Certified Android devices as well as the PlayStation Vita .
= = Online services = =
= = = PlayStation 2 online service = = =
Online gaming on PlayStation consoles first started in July 2001 with the release of PlayStation 2 's unnamed online service in Japan . Later in August 2002 saw its release in North America , followed by the European release in June 2003 . This service was shutdown on the 31st of March 2016 .
= = = PlayStation Network = = =
Released in 2006 , the PlayStation Network is an online service focusing on online multiplayer gaming and digital media delivery . The service is provided and run by Sony Computer Entertainment for use with the PlayStation 3 , and was later implemented on the PlayStation Portable , PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 4 video game consoles . The service currently has over 110 million users worldwide ( as of July 2013 ) . The Sony Entertainment Network provides other features for users like PlayStation Home , PlayStation Store , and Trophies .
= = = PlayStation Store = = =
The PlayStation Store is an online virtual market available to users of the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable game consoles via the PlayStation Network . The store uses both physical currency and PlayStation Network Cards . The PlayStation Store 's gaming content is updated every Tuesday and offers a range of downloadable content both for purchase and available free of charge . Available content includes full games , add @-@ on content , playable demos , themes and game and movie trailers . The service is accessible through an icon on the XMB on the PS3 and PSP . The PS3 store can also be accessed on the PSP via a Remote Play connection to the PS3 . The PSP store is also available via the PC application , Media Go . As of September 24 , 2009 , there have been over 600 million downloads from the PlayStation Store worldwide .
Video content such as films and television shows are also available from the PlayStation Store on the PlayStation 3 and PSP and will be made available on some new Sony BRAVIA televisions , VAIO laptop computers and Sony Blu @-@ ray Disc players from February 2010 .
= = = Life with PlayStation = = =
Life with PlayStation was a Folding @ home application available for PlayStation 3 which connected to Stanford University ’ s Folding @ home distributed computer network and allowed the user to donate their console 's spare processing cycles to the project . Folding @ home is supported by Stanford University and volunteers make a contribution to society by donating computing power to this project . Research made by the project may eventually contribute to the creation of vital cures . The Folding @ home client was developed by Sony Computer Entertainment in collaboration with Stanford University . Life with PlayStation also consisted of a 3D virtual view of the Earth and contained current weather and news information of various cities and countries from around the world , as well as a World Heritage channel which offered information about historical sites , and the United Village channel which is a project designed to share information about communities and cultures worldwide . As of PlayStation 3 system software update version 4 @.@ 30 on October 24 , 2012 , the Life With PlayStation project has ended .
= = = PlayStation Plus = = =
PlayStation Plus , a subscription @-@ based service on the PlayStation Network , compliments the standard PSN services . It enables an auto @-@ download feature which allows the console to automatically download game patches and system software updates . Subscribers also gain early or exclusive access to some betas , game demos , premium downloadable content ( such as full game trials of retail games like Infamous and LittleBigPlanet ) and other PlayStation Store items , as well as a free subscription to Qore . Other downloadable items include PlayStation Store discounts and free PlayStation Network games , PSone Classics , PlayStation Minis , themes and avatars .
= = = PlayStation Blog = = =
PlayStation Blog is an online PlayStation focused gaming blog which is part of the PlayStation Network . It was launched on June 11 , 2007 and since its launch , has featured in numerous interviews with third @-@ party companies such as Square Enix . It also has posts from high @-@ ranking Sony Computer Entertainment executives such as Jack Tretton , President and Chief Executive Officer of Sony Computer Entertainment . A sub @-@ site of the blog called PlayStation Blog Share was launched on March 17 , 2010 and allowed readers of the blog as well as users of the PlayStation Blog to submit ideas to the PlayStation team about anything PlayStation @-@ related and vote on the ideas of other submissions .
= = = PlayStation App = = =
The PlayStation App is an application that was released on January 11 , 2011 in several European countries for iOS ( version 4 and above ) and for Android ( version 1 @.@ 6 and above ) , and has been installed more than 3 @.@ 6 million times as of March 2 , 2014 . It allows users to view their trophies , see which of their PSN friends are online and read up to date information about PlayStation . It does not feature any gaming functionality .
= = = PlayStation Mobile = = =
The PlayStation Mobile ( formerly PlayStation Suite ) is a software framework that will be used to provide downloadable PlayStation content to devices running Android 2 @.@ 3 and above as well as the PlayStation Vita . The framework will be cross @-@ platform and cross @-@ device , which is what Sony calls " hardware @-@ neutral " . It is currently set to release before the end of calendar year 2011 . In addition , Android devices that have been certified to be able to play back PlayStation Suite content smoothly will be certified with the PlayStation Certified certification .
= = = PlayStation Now = = =
PlayStation Now ( PS Now ) is a Gaikai @-@ based video game streaming service used to provide PlayStation gaming content to PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) , PlayStation 4 ( PS4 ) , PlayStation Vita , PlayStation TV and BRAVIA televisions . The service currently allows users to pay for access to a selection of original PlayStation 3 titles on either a per @-@ game basis or via a subscription . PlayStation Now was announced on January 7 , 2014 at the 2014 Consumer Electronic Show . At CES , Sony presented demos of The Last of Us , God of War : Ascension , Puppeteer and Beyond : Two Souls , playable through PS Now on Bravia TVs and PlayStation Vitas . PlayStation Now was launched in Open Beta in the United States and Canada on PS4 on July 31 , 2014 , on PS3 on September 18 , 2014 , on PS Vita and PS TV on October 14 , 2014 , with support for select 2014 Bravia TVs coming later in the year .
= = = Online social networking services = = =
= = = = PlayStation Home = = = =
PlayStation Home is a community @-@ based social gaming networking service for the PlayStation 3 on the PlayStation Network ( PSN ) . It is available directly from the PlayStation 3 XrossMediaBar . Membership is free , and only requires a PSN account . Home has been in development since early 2005 and started an open public beta test on December 11 , 2008 . Home allows users to create a custom avatar , which can be made to suit the user 's preference . Users can decorate their avatar 's personal apartment ( " HomeSpace " ) with default , bought , or won items . They can travel throughout the Home world ( except cross region ) , which is constantly updated by Sony and partners . Each part of the world is known as a space . Public spaces can just be for display , fun , or for meeting people . Home features many mini @-@ games which can be single player or multiplayer . Users can shop for new items to express themselves more through their avatars or HomeSpace . Home features video screens in many places for advertising , but the main video content is shown at the theatre for entertainment . Home plays host to a variety of special events which range from prize @-@ giving events to entertaining events . Users can also use Home to connect with friends and customize content . Xi , a once notable feature of Home , is the world 's first console based Alternate Reality Game that took place in secret areas in Home and was created by nDreams .
= = = = Room for PlayStation Portable = = = =
" Room " ( officially spelled as R ∞ M with capital letters and the infinity symbol in place of the " oo " ) was being beta tested in Japan from October 2009 to April 2010 . Development of Room has been halted on April 15 , 2010 due to negative feedback from the community . Announced at TGS 2009 , it was supposed to be a similar service to the PlayStation Home and was being developed for the PSP . Launching directly from the PlayStation Network section of the XMB was also to be enabled . Just like in Home , PSP owners would have been able to invite other PSP owners into their rooms to " enjoy real time communication . " A closed beta test had begun in Q4 2009 in Japan .
= = Software = =
= = = XrossMediaBar = = =
The XrossMediaBar , originally used on the PSX , is a graphical user interface currently used for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable , as well as a variety of other Sony devices . The interface features icons that are spread horizontally across the screen . Navigation moves the icons instead of a cursor . These icons are used as categories to organize the options available to the user . When an icon is selected on the horizontal bar , several more appear vertically , above and below it ( selectable by the up and down directions on a directional pad ) . The XMB can also be accessed in @-@ game albeit with restrictions , it allows players to access certain areas of the XMB menu from within the game and is only available for the PlayStation 3 . Although the capacity to play users ' own music in @-@ game was added with this update , the feature is dependent on game developers who must either enable the feature in their games or update existing games .
= = = LiveArea = = =
LiveArea , designed to be used on the PlayStation Vita , is a graphical user interface set to incorporate various social networking features via the PlayStation Network . It has been designed specifically as a touchscreen user interface for users .
= = = Linux operating systems = = =
= = = = Linux for PlayStation 2 = = = =
In 2002 , Sony released the first useful and fully functioning operating system for a video game console , after the Net Yaroze experiment for the original PlayStation . The kit , which included an internal hard disk drive and the necessary software tools , turned the PlayStation 2 into a full @-@ fledged computer system running Linux . Users can utilize a network adapter to connect the PlayStation 2 to the internet , a monitor cable adaptor to connect the PlayStation 2 to computer monitors as well as a USB Keyboard and Mouse which can be used to control Linux on the PlayStation 2 .
= = = = Linux for PlayStation 3 = = = =
The PlayStation 3 ( excluding PlayStation 3 Slim ) also supports running Linux OS on firmwares prior to 3 @.@ 21 without the need for buying additional hardware purchase . Yellow Dog Linux provides an official distribution that can be downloaded , and other distributions such as Fedora , Gentoo and Ubuntu have been successfully installed and operated on the console . The use of Linux on the PlayStation 3 allowed users to access 6 of the 7 Synergistic Processing Elements ; Sony implemented a hypervisor restricting access to the RSX . The feature to install a second operating system on a PlayStation 3 was removed in a firmware update released in 2010 .
= = Controllers = =
= = = Early PlayStation controllers = = =
Released in 1994 , the PlayStation control pad was the first controller made for the original PlayStation . It featured a basic design of a D @-@ pad , 4 main select buttons ( ( ' Green Triangle ' ) , ( ' Red Circle / Red O ' ) ) , ( ' Blue Cross / Blue X ' ) and ( ' Pink Square ' ) , and start and select buttons on the face . ' Shoulder buttons ' are also featured on the top [ L1 , L2 , R1 , R2 ] ( named by the side [ L = Left , R = Right ] and 1 and 2 [ top and bottom ] ) . In 1996 , Sony released the PlayStation Analog Joystick for use with flight simulation games . The original digital controller was then replaced by the Dual Analog in 1997 , which added two analog sticks based on the same potentiometer technology as the Analog Joystick . This controller was then also succeeded by the DualShock controller .
= = = DualShock series and Sixaxis = = =
Released in 1998 , the DualShock controller for the PlayStation succeeded its predecessor , the Dual Analog , and would go on to become the longest running series of controllers for the PlayStation brand . In addition to the inputs of the original , digital , controller ( , , , , L1 , L2 , R1 , R2 , Start , Select and a D @-@ pad ) , the DualShock featured two analog sticks in a similar fashion to the previous Dual Analog controller , which can also be depressed to activate the L3 and R3 buttons .
The DualShock series consists of four controllers : the DualShock which was the fourth controller released for the PlayStation ; the DualShock 2 , the only standard controller released for the PlayStation 2 , and the DualShock 3 , the second and current controller released for the PlayStation 3 , and the DualShock 4 , which went through a massive redesign and is the default input of the PlayStation 4 , and upon release was compatible with the PS3 originally only via USB and eventually with a firmware update , Bluetooth connectivity was enabled . The Sixaxis was the first official controller for the PlayStation 3 , and is based on the same design as the DualShock series ( but lacking the vibration motors of the DualShock series of controllers ) .
Like the Dual Analog , the DualShock and DualShock 2 feature an " Analog " button between the analog sticks that toggles the analog sticks on and off ( for use with games which support only the digital input of the original controller ) . On the PlayStation 3 Sixaxis and DualShock 3 controllers , the analog sticks are always enabled . Beginning with the Sixaxis , a ' PlayStation button ' ( which featured the incorporated PS logo and is similar in function to the Xbox 360 " Guide " button ) was included on controllers . The PlayStation button replaces the " Analog " button of the DualShock and DualShock 2 controllers . Pressing the PS button on the PS3 brings up the XMB , while holding it down brings up system options ( such as quit the game , change controller settings , turn off the system , and turn off the controller ) .
= = = PlayStation Move = = =
PlayStation Move is a motion @-@ sensing game controller platform for the PlayStation 3 video game console by Sony Computer Entertainment ( SCE ) . Based on the handheld motion controller wand , PlayStation Move uses the PlayStation Eye webcam to track the wand 's position and the inertial sensors in the wand to detect its motion . First revealed on June 2 , 2009 , PlayStation Move was launched in Q3 / Q4 2010 . Hardware available at launch included the main PlayStation Move motion controller and an optional PlayStation Move sub @-@ controller . Although PlayStation Move is implemented on the existing PlayStation 3 console , Sony states that
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it is treating Move 's debut as its own major " platform launch " , planning an aggressive marketing campaign to support it . In addition to selling the controllers individually , Sony also plans to provide several different bundle options for PlayStation Move hardware ; including a starter kit with a PS Eye , a Move motion controller , and a demo / sampler disc , priced under US $ 100 ; a full console pack with a PS3 console , DualShock 3 gamepad , PS Eye , and Move motion controller ; and bundles of a Move motion controller with select games .
= = Media = =
= = = Magazines = = =
The PlayStation brand has a wide series of magazines , from across different continents , covering PlayStation related articles and stories . Many of these magazines work closely with Sony and thus often come with demo discs for PlayStation games . Currently there are three magazines still in circulation namely PlayStation : The Official Magazine , PlayStation Official Magazine , Official PlayStation Magazine ( Australia ) . However , over the years , many PlayStation magazines have spawned while a few have also become defunct , these include the Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine , Official UK PlayStation Magazine , Official UK PlayStation 2 Magazine .
= = = CD ROM Magazine = = =
PlayStation Underground was a non @-@ traditional magazine that Sony Computer Entertainment America produced and published between Spring 1997 to Spring 2001 . Subscribers received two PlayStation CDs , along with a booklet and colorful packaging every quarter . The CDs contained interviews , cheats , programmers moves , game demos and one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind Memory Card saves . Several issues showed how a game was created from basic design to final product . Since the CDs could only be run on a PlayStation , it proved a useful marketing tool which spawned a line of PlayStation Underground JamPacks Demo CDs and which contained highlights from recent issues of PlayStation Underground , along with seemingly as many game demos that could be packed on a single CD . Unlike PlayStation Underground these were available in most stores for $ 4 @.@ 95 , were published twice a year in Summer and Winter and usually spotlighted newly released or coming soon games . By 2001 , Sony had decided to phase out Underground to focus on the JamPacks with the release of the PlayStation 2 . PlayStation Underground CDs are mainly in the hands of collectors these days .
= = Marketing = =
The PlayStation has been known for several advertising campaigns .
= = = Slogans = = =
Advertising slogans used for each PlayStation console iteration :
PlayStation
" eNoS Lives " ( The first letter ' E ' was printed in red to denote the word , ready . Enos stood for Ready , Ninth of September )
" U R Not e " ( The letter ' E ' was printed in red to denote the word , ready , as in You Are Not Ready )
" Do Not Underestimate The Power of PlayStation . " ( From the S.A.P.S. - Society Against PlayStation — series of adverts )
" Playstation " ( Seen on several PlayStation systems and games commercials )
PSone
" Wherever , Whenever , Forever . "
PlayStation 2
" The Beginning . "
" Live In Yur Wrld , Ply In urs . " ( The PlayStation face button icons were used to denote certain letters : Live In Your World , Play In Ours )
" ( Welcome to the ) Third Place . "
" Fun , Anyone ? "
" The ultimate just got better – PlayStation 9 – teleport yours today . "
PlayStation Portable
" PSP Hellz Yeah " ( PSP @-@ 1000 Series )
" Dude , Get Your Own ... " ( PSP @-@ 2000 Series )
" Everywhere Just Got Better " ( PSP @-@ 3000 Series and PSPgo )
" It 's GO Time " ( PSPgo )
" Your Whole World In Your Hands " ( UK & Europe Territories )
" Step Your Game Up " ( US Territory , PSP @-@ 3000 Series and PSPgo )
PlayStation 3
" The Wait Is Over "
" Welcome Chang3 " ( the number three is used to denote an ' e ' and was printed in red )
" This is Living . "
" Play B3yond " ( the number three is used to denote an ' e ' and was printed in red )
" It Only Does Everything " ( US Commercials ) ( PS3 Slim )
" The Game Is Just The Start . Start PS3 . " ( EU countries )
" Long Live Play " ( PS3 Slim )
" Never Stop Playing " ( PS3 Slim )
" Greatness Awaits " ( PS3 SuperSlim )
PlayStation Move
" This Changes Everything " .
" Move Into The Action "
PlayStation Network
" Download , Play , Connect . "
PlayStation Vita
" Never Stop Playing . "
" The World is in Play . " ( EU only )
PlayStation 4
" See the Future "
" Push the boundaries of Play "
" Greatness Awaits "
" This is 4 the Players "
" Where the Greatest Play "
= = = Notable advertising campaigns = = =
= = = = It Only Does Everything = = = =
The most notable of recent PlayStation commercials is the series of " It Only Does Everything " commercials featuring a fictional character called Kevin Butler who is a Vice President at PlayStation . These commercials usually advertise the PlayStation 3 and its games through a series of comedic answers to " Dear PlayStation " queries . These commercials garnered popularity among gamers , though its debut commercial received criticism from the Nigerian government due to a reference to the common 419 scams originating in Nigeria . Sony issued an apology and a new version of the advert with the offending line changed was produced .
A spin @-@ off of the campaign has been created for the PlayStation Portable which features similar campaign commercials called the " Step Your Game Up " campaign featuring a fictional teenage character named Marcus Rivers acting in a similar fashion to Kevin Butler but answering the " Dear PlayStation " queries about the PSP .
= = = = Netherlands Ceramic White PSP Commercials = = = =
In July 2006 , an advertising campaign in the Netherlands was released in which a white model dressed entirely in white and a black model dressed entirely in black was used to compare Sony 's new Ceramic White PSP and the original Piano Black PSP . This series of ads depicted both models fighting with each other and drew criticism from the media for being racist , though Sony maintains that the ad did not feature any racist message .
= = = = All I want for Xmas is a PSP = = = =
In November 2006 , a marketing company employed by Sony 's American division created a website entitled " All I want for Xmas is a PSP " , designed to promote the PSP virally . The site contained a blog which was purportedly written by " Charlie " , a teenage boy attempting to get his friend Jeremy 's parents to buy him a PSP , and providing a " music video " of either Charlie or Jeremy " rapping " about the PSP . Visitors to the website quickly recognized that the website was registered to a marketing company , exposing the campaign on sites such as YouTube and digg . Sony was forced to admit that the site was in fact a marketing campaign and in an interview with next @-@ gen.biz , Sony admitted that the idea was " poorly executed " .
= = Reception = =
In 2005 , Australian newspaper The Age wrote an article about the PlayStation brand . Among the numerous interviews conducted with various people in the industry was an interview with Dr Jeffrey Brand , associate professor in communication and media at Bond University who said , " PlayStation re @-@ ignited our imagination with video games " . Game designers Yoshiki Okamoto called the brand " revolutionary — PlayStation has changed gaming , distribution , sales , image and more " , while Evan Wells of Naughty Dog said " PlayStation is responsible for making playing games cool . "
In 2009 , ViTrue , Inc. listed the PlayStation brand as number 13 on their " The Vitrue 100 : Top Social Brands of 2009 " . The ranking was based on various aspects mainly dealing with popular social media sites in aspects such as Social Networking , Video Sharing , Photo Sharing and Blogs .
In 2010 , Gizmodo stated that the PlayStation brand was one of the last Sony products to completely stand apart from its competitors , stating that " If you ask the average person on the street what their favorite Sony product is , more often than not you 'll hear PlayStation " . As of April 2012 , the PlayStation brand is the " most followed " brand on social networking site , Facebook , with over 22 million fans and followers in total which is more than any other brand in the entertainment industry . A study by Greenlight 's Entertainment Retail has also shown that the PlayStation brand is the most interactive making 634 posts and tweets on social networking sites Facebook and Twitter .
In July 2014 , Sony boasted in a company release video that the PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita sold a combined total of 100 million units . It was announced at Tokyo Game Show on September 1 , 2014 , that PlayStation home game consoles claim 78 % market share of all home consoles in Japan .
As of 2015 , PlayStation is the strongest selling console brand worldwide .
= EarthBound =
EarthBound , known as Mother 2 in Japan , is a 1994 Japanese role @-@ playing video game co @-@ developed by Ape Inc. and HAL Laboratory and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System video game console . As Ness and his party of four , the player travels the world to collect melodies en route to defeating the evil alien force Giygas . It is the second game of the Mother series , and the only one to be released in the English language until its predecessor was released under the name EarthBound Beginnings in 2015 as part of Wii U 's Virtual Console . EarthBound was released in Japan on August 27 , 1994 , and in North America on June 5 , 1995 .
The game had a lengthy development period which spanned five years . Its making involved a number of Japanese luminaries , including writer Shigesato Itoi , musician / songwriter Keiichi Suzuki , sound designer Hirokazu Tanaka , and future Nintendo president Satoru Iwata . Themed around an idiosyncratic portrayal of Americana and Western culture , it subverted popular role @-@ playing game traditions by featuring a real world setting while parodying numerous staples of the genre . Itoi , who directed the game , wanted it to reach non @-@ gamers with its intentionally goofy tone . It was heavily marketed upon release via a promotional campaign which sardonically proclaimed " this game stinks " .
Initial reviewers had little praise for EarthBound in the United States , where it sold half as many copies as in Japan . Critics attribute this to a combination of the game 's simple graphics , the satirical marketing campaign , and a lack of market interest in the genre . In the ensuing years , a dedicated fan community spawned which advocated for the series . Starting in 1999 , Ness became a featured character in each of the Super Smash Bros. series of video games which furthered public knowledge of EarthBound . Upon retrospection , the game received wide critical acclaim , and was deemed by many to be a timeless classic . A Japan @-@ only sequel , Mother 3 , was released for the Game Boy Advance in 2006 . In 2013 , EarthBound was reissued and given a worldwide release for the Wii U Virtual Console following many years of fan lobbying , marking its debut in many territories including Europe .
= = Gameplay = =
EarthBound features many traditional role @-@ playing game elements : the player controls a party of characters who travel through the game 's two @-@ dimensional world composed of villages , cities , caves , and dungeons . Along the way , the player fights battles against enemies and the party receives experience points for victories . If enough experience points are acquired , a character 's level will increase . This pseudo @-@ randomly increases the character 's attributes , such as offense , defense , and the maximum hit points ( HP ) and psychic points ( PP ) of each character . Rather than using an overworld map screen like most console RPGs of its era , the world is entirely seamless , with no differentiation between towns and the outside world . Another non @-@ traditional element is the perspective used for the world . The game uses oblique projection , while most 2D RPGs use a " top down " view on a grid or an isometric perspective .
Unlike its predecessor , EarthBound does not use random encounters . When physical contact occurs between a character and an enemy , the screen dissolves into battle mode . In combat , characters and enemies possess a certain amount of HP . Blows to an enemy reduce the amount of HP . Once an enemy 's HP reach zero , that enemy is defeated . If a specific type of enemy is defeated , there is a chance that the character will receive an item after the battle . In battle , the player is allowed to choose specific actions for their characters . These actions can include attacking , healing , spying ( reveals enemy weakness / strengths ) , mirroring ( emulate a specific enemy ) , and running away . Characters can also use special PSI attacks that require PP . Once each character is assigned a command , the characters and enemies perform their actions in a set order , determined by character speed . Whenever a character receives damage , the HP box gradually " rolls " down , similar to an odometer . This allows players an opportunity to heal the character or win the battle before the counter hits zero , after which the character is knocked unconscious . If all characters are rendered unconscious , the game transitions to an endgame screen , asking if the player wants to continue . An affirmative response brings Ness , conscious , back to the last telephone he saved from , with half the money on his person at the time of his defeat , and with other party members showing as still unconscious . Because battles are not random , tactical advantages can be gained . If the player physically contacts an enemy from behind ( indicated by a translucent green swirl which fills the screen ) , the player is given a first @-@ strike priority . However , this also applies to enemies , who can also engage the party from behind ( in this case , the swirl is red ) . Neutral priority is indicated by a gray swirl . Additionally , as Ness and his friends become stronger , battles with weaker enemies are eventually won automatically , forgoing the battle sequence , and weaker monsters will begin to flee from Ness and his friends rather than chase them .
Currency is indirectly received from Ness ' father , who can also save the game 's progress . Each time the party wins a battle , Ness ' father deposits money in an account that can be withdrawn at ATMs . In towns , players can visit various stores where weapons , armor , and items can be bought . Weapons and armor can be equipped to increase character strength and defense , respectively . In addition , items can be used for a number of purposes , such as healing . Towns also contain several other useful facilities such as hospitals where players can be healed for a fee .
= = Plot = =
The game took place a few years later after the events of Mother . The player starts as a young boy named Ness as he investigates a nearby meteorite crash with his neighbor , Pokey . He finds that an alien force , Giygas , has enveloped and consumed the world in hatred and consequently turned animals , humans , and objects into malicious creatures . A bee from the future instructs Ness to collect melodies in a Sound Stone to preemptively stop the force . While visiting these eight Sanctuaries , Ness meets three other kids named Paula , Jeff , and Poo — " a psychic girl , an eccentric inventor , and a ponytailed martial artist " , respectively — who join his party . Along the way , Ness visits the cultists of Happy Happy Village , where he saves Paula , and the zombie @-@ infested Threed , where the two of them fall prey to a trap . After Paula telepathically instructs Jeff in a Winters boarding school to rescue them , they continue to the city of Fourside and the seaside resort Summers . Meanwhile , Poo , the prince of Dalaam , partakes in a violent meditation called " Mu Training " before joining the party as well . The party continues to travel to the Scaraba desert , the Deep Darkness swamp and a forgotten underworld where dinosaurs live and as the Sound Stone is eventually filled , Ness visits Magicant alone , a surreal location in his mind where he fights his personal dark side . Upon returning to Eagleland , he and his party travel back in time to fight a young Giygas , a battle known for its " feeling of isolation , ... incomprehensible attacks , ... buzzing static " and reliance on prayer .
= = Development = =
The first Mother was released for the NES in 1989 . Its sequel , Mother 2 , or EarthBound , was developed over five years by Ape ( later Creatures ) and HAL , and published through Nintendo . The game was written and designed by Japanese author , musician , and advertiser Shigesato Itoi , and produced by Satoru Iwata , who became Nintendo 's president and CEO . Mother 2 was made with a development team different from that of the original game , and most of its members were unmarried and willing to work all night on the project . Mother 2 's development took much longer than planned and came under repeated threat of cancellation . Itoi has said that the project 's dire straits were resolved when Iwata joined the team . Ape 's programming team had more members than HAL on the project . The HAL team ( led by lead programmer Iwata ) worked on the game programming , while the Ape team ( led by lead programmer Kouji Malta ) worked on specific data , such as the text and maps . They spent biweekly retreats together at the HAL office in view of Mount Fuji .
The game continues Mother 's story in that Giygas reappears as the antagonist ( and thus did not die at the end of Mother ) and the player has the option of choosing whether to continue the protagonist 's story by choosing whether to name their player @-@ character the same as the original . He considered interstellar and interplanetary space travel instead of the confines of a single planet in the new game . After four months , Itoi scrapped the idea as cliché . Itoi sought to make a game that would appeal to populations that were playing games less , such as girls .
The Mother series titles are built on what Itoi considered " reckless wildness " , where he would offer ideas that encouraged his staff to contribute new ways of portraying scenes in the video game medium . He saw the titles foremost as games and not " big scenario scripts " . Itoi has said that he wanted the player feel emotions such as " distraught " when playing the game . The game 's writing was intentionally " quirky and goofy " in character , and written in the Japanese kana script so as to give dialogue a conversational feel . Itoi thought of the default player @-@ character names when he did not like his team 's suggestions . Many of the characters were based on real life personalities . For instance , the desert miners were modeled on specific executives from a Japanese construction company . The final battle dialogue with Giygas was based on Itoi 's recollections of a traumatic scene from the Shintoho film The Military Policeman and the Dismembered Beauty that he had accidentally seen in his childhood . Itoi referred to the battle background animations as a " video drug " . The same specialist made nearly 200 of these animations , working solely on backgrounds for two years .
The idea for the rolling HP meter began with pachinko balls that would drop balls off the screen upon being hit . This did not work as well for characters with high health . Instead , around 1990 , they chose an odometer @-@ style hit points counter . The bicycle was one of the harder elements to implement — it used controls similar to a tank before it was tweaked . Iwata felt that the Ape programmers were particularly willing to tackle such challenges . The programmers also found difficulty implementing the in @-@ game delivery service , where the delivery person had to navigate around obstacles to reach the player . They thought it would be funny to have the delivery person run through obstacles in a hurry on his way off @-@ screen . The unusual maps laid out with diagonal streets in oblique projection required extra attention from the artists . Itoi specifically chose against having an overworld map , and didn 't want to artificially distinguish between towns and other areas . Instead , he worked to make each town unique . His own favorite town was Threed , though it was Summers before then .
Mother 2 was designed to fit within an eight megabit limit , but was expanded in size and scope twice : first to 12 megabits and second to 24 megabits . The game was originally scheduled for release in January 1993 on a 12 megabit cartridge . It was finished around May 1994 and the Japanese release was set for August 27 , 1994 . With the extra few months , the team played the game and added small , personal touches . Itoi told Weekly Famitsu that Shigeru Miyamoto liked the game and that it was the first role @-@ playing game that Miyamoto had completed . Mother 2 would release in North America about a year later .
= = = North American release = = =
As was traditional for Nintendo , Mother 2 was developed in Japan and localized in the United States , a process in which the game is translated into English for Western audiences . As the only game in the Mother series to be released in North America at the time , its title " Mother 2 " was changed to " EarthBound " to avoid confusion about what it was a sequel to .
Nintendo of America 's Dan Owsen began the English localization project and converted about ten percent of the script before moving to another project . Marcus Lindblom filled Owsen 's position around January 1995 . Lindblom credits Owsen with coining some of the game 's " most iconic phrases " , such as " say fuzzy pickles " . Lindblom himself was given liberties to make the script " as weird as [ he ] wanted " , as Nintendo wanted the script to be more American than a direct translation would be . He worked alone and with great latitude due to no divisional hierarchies . Lindblom was aided by Japanese writer Masayuki Miura , who translated the Japanese script and contextualized its tone , which Lindblom positively described as " a glass half full " .
Lindblom was challenged by the task of culturally translating " an outsider 's view of the U.S. " for an American audience . He also sought to stay true to the original text , though he never met or spoke with Itoi . In addition to reworking the original puns and humor , Lindblom added private jokes and American cultural allusions to Bugs Bunny , comedian Benny Hill , and This Is Spinal Tap . Apart from the dialogue , he wrote the rest of the game 's text , including combat prompts and item names . As one of several Easter eggs , he named a non @-@ player character for his daughter , Nico , who was born during development . While Lindblom took the day off for her birth , he proceeded to work 14 @-@ hour days without weekends for the next month . The game also includes protection against piracy that , when triggered , increases enemy counts to make the game less enjoyable . Additionally , right before players reach the end of the pirated copy 's story , their game resets and deletes its saved file in an act that IGN declared " arguably the most devious and notorious example of ' creative ' copy protection " .
Under directives from Nintendo , Lindblom worked with the Japanese artists and programmers to remove references to intellectual property , religion , and alcohol from the American release , such as a truck 's Coca @-@ Cola logo , the red crosses on hospitals , and crosses on tombstones . Alcohol became coffee , Ness was no longer nude in the Magicant area as seen in the image , and the Happy Happyist blue cultists were made to look less like Ku Klux Klansmen . The team was not concerned with music licensing issues and considered itself somewhat protected under the guise of parody . Lindblom recalled that the music did not need many changes . The graphical fixes were not finished until March 1995 , and the game was not fully playable until May . EarthBound was released on June 5 , 1995 in North America .
Though Nintendo spent about $ 2 million on marketing , the American release was ultimately viewed as unsuccessful within Nintendo . The game 's atypical marketing campaign was derived from the game 's unusual humor . As part of Nintendo 's larger " Play It Loud " campaign , EarthBound 's " this game stinks " campaign included foul @-@ smelling scratch and sniff advertisements . 1UP.com called the scratch and sniff advertising campaign " infamously ill @-@ conceived " , and Digital Trends described the campaign as " bizarre " and " based around fart jokes " . GamePro reported that they received more reader complaints about the game 's scratch and sniff ad than about any other 1995 advertisement . The campaign was also expensive . It emphasized magazine advertisements and had the extra cost of the strategy guide included with each game . Aaron Linde of Shacknews wrote that the price of the packaged game curtailed sales . Between the poor sales and the phasing out of the Super NES , the game did not receive a European release .
Lindblom and his team were devastated by the release 's poor critical response and sales . He recalled that the game was hurt by reception of its graphics as " simplistic " at a time when critics placed high importance on graphics quality . Lindblom felt that the game 's changes to the RPG formula ( e.g. , the rolling HP meter and fleeing enemies ) were ignored in the following years , though he thought the game had aged well at the time of its Virtual Console re @-@ release in 2013 .
= = = Music = = =
Mother composers Keiichi Suzuki and Hirokazu Tanaka returned to make the EarthBound soundtrack , along with newcomers Hiroshi Kanazu and Toshiyuki Ueno . In comparison with Mother , Itoi said that EarthBound had more " jazzy " pieces . Suzuki told Weekly Famitsu that the Super NES afforded the team more creative freedom with its eight @-@ channel ADPCM based SPC700 , as opposed to the old Nintendo Entertainment System 's restriction of five channels of basic waveforms . This entailed higher sound quality and music that sounds closer to his regular compositions . Itoi believes that EarthBound may be the first video game to use vibrato , or " string @-@ bending " , in its music . The soundtrack was released by Sony Records on November 2 , 1994 .
In Suzuki 's songwriting process , he would first compose on a synthesizer before working with programmers to get it in the game . His personal pieces play when the player is walking about the map , out of battle . Suzuki 's favorite piece is the music that plays while the player is on a bicycle , which he composed in advance of this job but found appropriate to include . He wrote over 100 pieces , but much of it was not included in the game . The team wrote enough music as to fill eight megabits of the 24 megabit cartridge — about two compact discs .
According to Tanaka , the Beach Boys were repeatedly referenced between him and Suzuki , and that he would often listen to co @-@ founder Brian Wilson 's 1988 eponymous album while on the way to Suzuki 's home . Suzuki has stated that the percussive arranging in the game 's soundtrack was based on the Beach Boys ' albums Smile ( unreleased ) and Smiley Smile ( 1967 ) , which both contained American themes shared with Van Dyke Parks ' Song Cycle ( 1968 ) . To Suzuki , Smile evoked the bright and dark aspects of America , while Song Cycle displayed a hazy sound mixed with American humor and hints of Ray Bradbury , a style which he considered essential to the soundtrack of Mother . Tanaka recalls Randy Newman being the first quintessentially American composer he could think of , and that his albums Little Criminals ( 1977 ) and Land of Dreams ( 1988 ) were influential . While Suzuki corroborated with his own affinity for Harry Nilsson 's Nilsson Sings Newman ( 1970 ) , he also cited John Lennon as a strong influence due to the common theme of love in his music , which was also a prominent theme in the game , and that his album John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band ( 1970 ) helped him to avoid excessive instrumentation over the SNES 's technical constraints .
The soundtrack contains direct musical quotations of some classical and folk music ; the composers also derived a few samples culled from other sources including commercial pop and rock music . The texture of the work was partially influenced by some salsa , reggae , and dub music . Speaking about Frank Zappa 's Make a Jazz Noise Here ( 1991 ) , Tanaka felt that Zappa would have been the best at creating a live performance of Mother music , but could not detail Zappa 's specific influence on EarthBound . Additionally , he felt that the mix tape Wired Magazine Presents : Music Futurists ( 1999 ) presented a particular selection of artists which embody the ethos of EarthBound , running the gamut from space age composer Esquivel to avant @-@ garde trumpeter Ben Neill , along with innovators Sun Ra , Steve Reich , Todd Rundgren , Brian Eno ,
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- , noting that he was unsure whether it was " one of the series ' very best episodes or one of its very worst " . VanDerWerff praised McComb 's performance , but felt that Donovan was " a kid playing dress @-@ up as the bad guy " ; he also noted the episode 's similarity to the works of Flannery O 'Connor , and described it as " nicely baroque , filled with lots of nice little moments and characters along the way " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 1 out of 5 , describing it as " irritating , poorly cast and terribly written " . Gibron felt that the episode 's setting " reduces Millennium to a ridiculous movie of the week " , adding that the voice @-@ over narration makes it " a chore to sit through " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five , describing it as " a quirky failure " . Shearman and Pearson felt that " The Wild and the Innocent " was a " curious mix of the cloyingly sentimental and the unremittingly bleak " , finding similarities to the works of Cormac McCarthy ; however , they felt that it did not work well as an episode of Millennium , finding the minimal involvement of the series ' main characters and the distinct difference in setting to detract from the episode as a whole .
= A Lesson in Romantics =
A Lesson in Romantics is the debut studio album from American rock band Mayday Parade . The band resulted from the merger of Kid Named Chicago and Defining Moment . In June 2006 the band released an EP , Tales Told by Dead Friends , which they sold to people by following the 2006 edition of Warped Tour and offering copies ; it eventually sold 10 @,@ 000 copies . The band signed to Fearless Records in August . A Lesson in Romantics was recorded in early 2007 with producers Zack Odom and Kenneth Mount . Vocalist / guitarist Jason Lancaster left the band in March 2007 citing a lack of writing credit on the band 's releases . Prior to the release of A Lesson in Romantics , " Black Cat " , " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " , and " Jamie All Over " were made available for streaming . After the album 's release , the band participated in the 2007 edition of Warped Tour .
A Lesson in Romantics was released through Fearless in July . A music video for " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " was released in November , and the song was released as a single a month later . " Jamie All Over " was released as a single in May 2008 and a music video for the song was released two months later . The band then toured as part of the 2008 edition of Warped Tour . The music video for " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " earned two MTV Video Music Awards nominations in 2008 . In January 2009 a music video was released for " Miserable at Best " . A Lesson in Romantics is the band 's most commercially successful release , selling over 200 @,@ 000 copies . It was released on vinyl in November 2011 . The album was featured on Rock Sound 's 2014 list - The 51 Most Essential Pop Punk Albums of All Time .
= = Background = =
Mayday Parade was formed in the winter of 2005 following the merger of two local Tallahassee bands , Kid Named Chicago and Defining Moment . Kid Named Chicago featured vocalist / guitarist Jason Lancaster , guitarist Alex Garcia and drummer Jake Bundrick , while Defining Moment featured vocalist Derek Sanders , guitarist Brooks Betts , and bassist Jeremy Lenzo . In June 2006 , their EP Tales Told by Dead Friends was released . The band followed the 2006 edition of Warped Tour , selling copies of the EP to people in line . By the end of summer , the group had sold 10 @,@ 000 copies of the EP . These sales caught the attention of Fearless Records , which signed Mayday Parade on August 29 . Fearless label president Bob Becker said the group : " were really believable , they were obviously good musicians , and they were really tight sounding . And we already knew they were hard @-@ working . " Between late September and early November , the band went on the Text on the Dance Floor tour with Mêlée , Wheatus , Brandtson , Lakes , and Fall of Transition . Tales Told by Dead Friends was re @-@ released through Fearless on November 7 .
= = Composition and recording = =
All of the songs on A Lesson in Romantics were written while touring after Warped Tour . The songs are about : " being in a relationship while you 're on the road , and the different hardships that come with that . " Unlike the band 's EP , the album was " more put together " and " more organized " , according to Garcia . Sanders thought it stood up " pretty well " to the EP , noting that it was " just as catchy " , but " more powerful . " " Jamie All Over " was originally recorded by Kid Named Chicago , Lancaster 's previous band . Sanders claimed the song was " kind of a tough one to choose " because the band had a lot of new material to choose from , but felt " pretty happy " with its inclusion . According to Garcia , the final track was called " You Be the Anchor That Keeps My Feet on the Ground , I 'll Be the Wings That Keep Your Heart in the Clouds " because the band was " trying to be poetic " .
Mayday Parade went into the studio in January 2007 . Recording took place at Tree Sound , located in Atlanta , Georgia . The band worked with producers Zack Odom and Kenneth Mount , who also engineered the sessions . " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " from Tales Told by Dead Friends was re @-@ recorded because the song had previously received a big response from fans . Natalie VanLandingham provided additional vocals on " Jersey " , while Daniel Lancaster provided additional vocals on " Jamie All Over " . Mixing was done by Mark Needham , while Steve Hall mastered the album at Future Disc , located in McMinnville , Oregon .
= = Release = =
Lancaster left the band in March 2007 citing a lack of writing credit on the band 's releases . Lenzo and Bundrick filled in for Lancaster 's vocals , while Garcia and Betts performed Lancaster 's guitar parts . Garcia said this change made the guitars " sound more clear " and not " clutter [ ed ] " ; on the other hand , the group found it hard working out who should sing Lancaster 's parts . Lancaster 's departure hurt Sanders personally as " he was a good friend " . Later that month , the band supported Plain White T 's on their U.S. tour . On April 4 , " Black Cat " was made available for streaming via Hot Topic 's Myspace profile . On April 13 , the release of A Lesson in Romantics was announced . Between early May and late June , the band went on tour with support from Bedlight for Blue Eyes , Driver Side Impact , and Sick City . The track listing was revealed on May 18 . On June 6 , the band made " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " available for streaming via their Myspace profile . " Jamie All Over " was made available for streaming on June 19 via AbsolutePunk .
Mayday Parade toured as part of the 2007 edition of Warped Tour . Following this , A Lesson in Romantics was released on July 10 through Fearless Records . In August , the band went on tour with Olympia and Sound the Alarm . The music video for " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " , directed by Marco de la Torre , was filmed in September . In late September 2007 , the band supported Paramore in Japan and Australia . The band went on a co @-@ headlining tour with Madina Lake in October and November . The " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " music video was released on November 14 , and the single was released on December 3 . The band went on the Manwhores and Open Sores Tour alongside All Time Low , Every Avenue , and Just Surrender in January 2008 . In April and May , the band went on the Explosions In Your Pants Tour with support from My American Heart and the Graduate . A music video was filmed for " Jamie All Over " in May , and the single was released on May 20 .
Mayday Parade went on the 2008 edition of Warped Tour , playing all summer @-@ long for the first time . Sanders explained that the group " finally felt like one of the real bands " on Warped Tour ; they " had a bus for the first time this year " . Following this , Independent Label Group , who help promote and market Fearless releases , persuaded Target Corporation to sell A Lesson in Romantics in its stores . The video for " Jamie All Over " was released through MTV on July 21 . The song was released to radio on September 2 . In October and November , the band supported All Time Low on the Compromising of Integrity , Morality , & Principles in Exchange for Money tour . A music video for " Miserable at Best " , directed by Mark Staubach , was released on January 9 , 2009 on the band 's Myspace . On November 21 , 2011 , the album was released on vinyl with a different colored cover . A white vinyl edition was released a year later , on August 28 , 2012 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
A Lesson in Romantics is considered a fan favorite . Daniel Thompson of Music Emissions wrote that : " every song is spectacular on this album and is a potential hit . " Despite its eventual success and acclaim , A Lesson In Romantics received little attention from professional music critics . Reviewers noted the improved sound from the band 's debut EP , Tales Told by Dead Friends . Joe DeAndrea from AbsolutePunk.net wrote that : " after their unimpressive release of the EP Tales Told By Dead Friends in November , the band 's back with their debut album that will surely become one of your most played of the Summer . " Sputnikmusic reviewer Adam Knott gave the album a score of 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , calling it " a hell of a lot better " than most pop punk records .
A Lesson in Romantics debuted at number 8 on the Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart , staying on the chart for six weeks . The album finally dropped off on the chart dated March 1 , 2008 before eventually returning on the chart on July 12 . It stayed on the chart for 70 consecutive weeks . The album also charted on the Independent Albums chart , peaking at number 31 . In January 2009 , it was announced that the album had sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies . The album would later become the band 's biggest selling album , selling over 200 @,@ 000 copies . " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " was ranked at number 194 on the New York Post 's 2007 list of best songs to download . In 2008 , the music video for " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " was nominated at the MTV Video Music Awards for Best Rock Video and Video of the Year . The album was number 42 on Rock Sound 's The 51 Most Essential Pop Punk Albums of All Time list .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Mayday Parade .
" Jamie All Over " ( Kid Named Chicago cover ) – 3 : 36
" Black Cat " – 3 : 23
" When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " – 3 : 13
" Jersey " – 3 : 29
" If You Wanted a Song Written About You , All You Had to Do Was Ask " – 4 : 04
" Miserable at Best " – 5 : 20
" Walk on Water or Drown " – 3 : 29
" Ocean and Atlantic " – 3 : 30
" I 'd Hate to Be You When People Find Out What This Song Is About " – 4 : 01
" Take This to Heart " – 4 : 07
" Champagne 's for Celebrating ( I 'll Have a Martini ) " – 3 : 58
" You Be the Anchor That Keeps My Feet on the Ground , I 'll Be the Wings That Keep Your Heart in the Clouds " – 4 : 40
2008 reissue bonus tracks
= = Personnel = =
Personnel per 2008 reissue booklet .
= = Chart performance = =
= Virginia State Route 37 =
State Route 37 ( SR 37 ) is a primary state highway in the U.S. state of Virginia . It forms a western bypass of Winchester , connecting to Interstate 81 at both ends . Although the road is a freeway , neither I @-@ 81 connection is freeway standard ; the south end ( exit 310 ) is a diamond interchange with two traffic signals , while , at the north end , drivers must use a short piece of U.S. Route 11 to connect with I @-@ 81 at exit 317 . In addition to local access , the highway connects to U.S. Route 50 and U.S. Route 522 , two major highways that lead west and northwest into West Virginia and north to Interstate 70 at Hancock , Maryland . An eastern bypass , known locally as " Route 37 East " , has been proposed in statewide and local plans to complete the loop .
= = Route description = =
Route 37 begins at an intersection with Hillandale Road ( SR 847 ) , a local frontage road along the east side of I @-@ 81 , and Tasker Road ( SR 642 ) , which leads southeast to US 522 near Armel . It immediately crosses I @-@ 81 at exit 310 , a diamond interchange with two traffic signals on SR 37 , and then becomes a freeway , soon junctioning US 11 ( Valley Pike ) with a partial cloverleaf . The next interchange is a diamond at Cedar Creek Grade ( SR 622 ) , and SR 37 reaches its approximate midpoint at US 50 ( Northwestern Pike ) , another diamond . A trumpet interchange completed in 2001 connects to the Winchester Medical Center , and the final diamond is with US 522 ( Frederick Pike ) at the northwestern corner . SR 37 ends at a partial Y interchange with US 11 ( Martinsburg Pike ) , at which SR 37 traffic can only access US 11 north and only traffic from US 11 south can access SR 37 , although a northbound exit to Cives Lane was added in about 2000 to allow SR 37 traffic to access US 11 south . About 1 / 2 mile ( 1 km ) of US 11 is a divided highway , connecting SR 37 with I @-@ 81 at exit 317 .
= = Future = =
In early Fall 2014 VDOT will start work at Route 37 's southern terminus ' exit at I @-@ 81 . They will extend Route 37 north to a new diamond interchange with Front Royal Pike ( US 522 ) . Then Route 37 will continue northward to Millwood Pike ( US 50 / US 17 ) and have another diamond interchange . The next exit will be at Senseny Road ( State Route 657 ) with another diamond interchange . The next and final exit will be a half cloverleaf interchange with VA 7 , but it is not final that it will be a half cloverleaf because of Valley Mill Road ( State Route 659 ) . The problem with this is that the intersection with Valley Mill Road is where the southbound exit for Route 37 is to come into Route 7 .
= = History = =
Route 37 was defined as the proposed Winchester By @-@ Pass by 1963 , and was included in the statewide Arterial Network when it was created in 1964 . When I @-@ 81 opened past Winchester in November 1965 , it included an interchange south of Winchester , taking traffic between I @-@ 81 and US 11 along a short connecting road . The north half of the bypass , from US 50 west of Winchester north and east to US 11 north of the city , opened in the late 1960s , and the semicircle was completed in the late 1970s , with the linking of Route 37 to the existing I @-@ 81 / US 11 connection . A new bridge carrying southbound SR 37 over I @-@ 81 was built , but otherwise the diamond interchange was not modified . The only change to the major bypass since it was constructed has been a new trumpet interchange serving the Winchester Medical Center ; construction began in September 2000 and was completed in November 2001 . A single ramp from SR 37 north to Cives Lane , allowing traffic at the north end of the bypass to access US 11 south , was built in about 2000 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Frederick County .
= Ninja Gaiden ( NES video game ) =
Ninja Gaiden ( NINJA外伝 ) , known in Japan as Ninja Ryūkenden ( 忍者龍剣伝 , literally " Legend of the Ninja Dragon Sword " ) and as Shadow Warriors in Europe , is a side @-@ scrolling action @-@ platforming video game . It was developed and published by Tecmo for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) ; its development and release coincided with the beat ' em up arcade version of the same name . It was released in December 1988 ( 1988 @-@ 12 ) in Japan , in March 1989 in North America , and in August 1991 ( 1991 @-@ 08 ) in Europe . It has been ported to several other platforms , including the PC Engine , the Super NES , the Virtual Console , and mobile phones .
The story follows a ninja named Ryu Hayabusa as he journeys to America to avenge his murdered father . There , he learns that a person named " the Jaquio " plans to take control of the world by unleashing an ancient demon through the power contained in two statues . Featuring platforming gameplay similar to Castlevania and the NES version of Batman , players control Ryu through six " Acts " that comprise 20 levels ; they encounter enemies that must be dispatched with Ryu 's katana and other secondary weapons .
Ninja Gaiden has been renowned for its elaborate story and usage of anime @-@ like cinematic cutscenes . It received extensive coverage and won several awards from video gaming magazines , while criticism focused on its high and unforgiving difficulty , particularly in the later levels . Over fifteen years after its release , the game continued to receive acclaim from print and online publications . It was novelized as part of the Worlds of Power NES game adaptations written by Seth Godin and Peter Lerangis , and it spawned a soundtrack CD .
= = Plot = =
Ninja Gaiden features a ninja named Ryu Hayabusa who seeks revenge for the death of his father and gradually finds himself involved in a sinister plot that threatens the entire world . The story opens with Ryu 's father Ken being killed in a duel by an unknown assailant . After the duel , Ryu finds a letter written by Ken which tells Ryu to find an archeologist named Walter Smith in America . Before Ryu can find Walter , Ryu is shot and kidnapped by a mysterious young woman ; she hands him a demonic @-@ looking statue before releasing him . Ryu then finds Walter , and Walter tells him of the demon statues he and Ken had found in the Amazon ruins . Walter tells Ryu of an evil demon named Jashin , that " SHINOBI " defeated and whose power was confined into two " Light " and " Shadow " demon statues . Ryu shows Walter the " Shadow " demon statue given to him from the woman , but during their conversation , a masked figure suddenly breaks into the cabin and steals the Shadow statue . Ryu gives chase , defeats the masked figure , and retrieves the statue ; but when he returns he finds that Walter is dying and the Light statue is missing . Right after Walter dies , three armed men confront Ryu and tell him to come with them .
Ryu is taken to an interrogation room , where he meets Foster , head of the Special Auxiliary Unit of the Central Intelligence Agency . Foster tells Ryu about a more @-@ than @-@ 2000 @-@ year @-@ old temple Walter discovered in some ruins in the Amazon . He continues by saying that Walter , one day , mysteriously sealed the ruins , in which nobody has since ventured near . Foster explains to Ryu that they have been monitoring the activity of someone named Guardia de Mieux , also known as " the Jaquio " , who recently moved into the temple . Using the statues , the Jaquio plans to awaken Jashin and use it to destroy the world . Foster asks Ryu to go to the temple and eliminate him . After making it into the temple , Ryu discovers that the Jaquio is holding captive the girl who handed him the " Shadow " statue earlier . He orders Ryu to give up the demon statue after threatening the girl 's life . Ryu is then dropped from sight through a trapdoor and into a catacomb .
After fighting his way back to the top of the temple , Ryu encounters Bloody Malth , whom Ryu defeats . While dying , Malth reveals that he was the one who dueled with Ryu 's father , that his father is still alive and that Ryu will meet him as he presses onward . When he reaches the temple 's inner chambers , he discovers that his father was not killed but was instead possessed by an evil figure . He destroys the evil figure , which releases Ken from its hold . Jaquio , enraged from Ken 's release from the possession , shows himself ; he immediately tries to kill Ryu with a fiery projectile , but Ken throws himself in front of Ryu and takes the hit . Jaquio is killed during the ensuing fight by Ryu , but then a lunar eclipse occurs , causing the demon statues to transform into Jashin . After Ryu defeats the demon , Ken tells him he does not have much longer to live due to Jaquio 's attack . He tells Ryu to leave him behind in the temple while it collapses and to take the young woman with him . Afterwards , Foster , communicating via satellite , orders the girl to kill Ryu and steal the demon statues ; she chooses to be with Ryu instead of carrying out the order . The two kiss , and the girl tells Ryu her name , Irene Lew ; the two watch as the sun rises .
= = Gameplay = =
Ninja Gaiden is a side @-@ scrolling platform game in which the player takes control of the player character , Ryu Hayabusa , and guides him through six " Acts " that comprise 20 levels . Ryu 's physical strength is represented by a life meter , which decreases when he is hit by an enemy or projectile . A " life " is lost when the life meter depletes entirely , when Ryu falls off of the screen , or when the timer runs out . A game over screen appears when all lives are lost ; however , the player may restart the level on which this occurred by continuing . At the end of every act , the player fights a boss ; bosses have life meters that the player depletes with attacks . A boss is defeated when its life meter is depleted entirely . Each boss is one of the " Malice Four " – evil underlings of the Jaquio , the game 's main antagonist . The Malice Four consist of Barbarian , Bomberhead , Basaquer , and their leader Bloody Malth .
Players attack enemies by thrusting at them with Ryu 's Dragon Sword – a katana @-@ like sword passed down from the Hayabusa clan for generations . They can also use " secondary " weapons that consume Ryu 's " spiritual strength " . Secondary weapons include throwing stars , " windmill throwing stars " which cut through enemies and return like boomerangs , a series of twirling fireballs named " the art of the fire wheel " , and a mid @-@ air slashing technique called the " jump & slash " . When Ryu 's spiritual strength meter becomes too low , the player cannot use secondary weapons . Players can replenish Ryu 's spiritual strength by collecting red and blue " spiritual strength " items found in lamps and lanterns . Other items found along the way include hourglasses that freeze all enemies and projectiles for five seconds , bonus point containers , potions that restore six units of physical strength , " invincible fire wheels " that make Ryu temporarily invincible to attacks , and 1 @-@ ups .
Ryu has the ability to
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; it was issued in 1819 – 1820 in seven installments in New York , and in two volumes in London ( " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " would appear in the sixth issue of the New York edition , and the second volume of the London edition ) .
Like many successful authors of this era , Irving struggled against literary bootleggers . In England , some of his sketches were reprinted in periodicals without his permission , a legal practice as there was no international copyright law at the time . To prevent further piracy in Britain , Irving paid to have the first four American installments published as a single volume by John Miller in London . Irving appealed to Walter Scott for help procuring a more reputable publisher for the remainder of the book . Scott referred Irving to his own publisher , London powerhouse John Murray , who agreed to take on The Sketch Book . From then on , Irving would publish concurrently in the United States and Britain to protect his copyright , with Murray being his English publisher of choice .
Irving 's reputation soared , and for the next two years , he led an active social life in Paris and Britain , where he was often feted as an anomaly of literature : an upstart American who dared to write English well .
= = = = Bracebridge Hall and Tales of a Traveller = = = =
With both Irving and publisher John Murray eager to follow up on the success of The Sketch Book , Irving spent much of 1821 travelling in Europe in search of new material , reading widely in Dutch and German folk tales . Hampered by writer 's block — and depressed by the death of his brother William — Irving worked slowly , finally delivering a completed manuscript to Murray in March 1822 . The book , Bracebridge Hall , or The Humorists , A Medley ( the location was based loosely on Aston Hall , occupied by members of the Bracebridge family , near his sister 's home in Birmingham ) was published in June 1822 .
The format of Bracebridge was similar to that of The Sketch Book , with Irving , as Crayon , narrating a series of more than fifty loosely connected short stories and essays . While some reviewers thought Bracebridge to be a lesser imitation of The Sketch Book , the book was well received by readers and critics . " We have received so much pleasure from this book " , wrote critic Francis Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review , " that we think ourselves bound in gratitude ... to make a public acknowledgement of it . " Irving was relieved at its reception , which did much to cement his reputation with European readers .
Still struggling with writer 's block , Irving traveled to Germany , settling in Dresden in the winter of 1822 . Here he dazzled the royal family and attached himself to Mrs. Amelia Foster , an American living in Dresden with her five children . Irving was particularly attracted to Mrs. Foster 's 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Emily , and vied in frustration for her hand . Emily finally refused his offer of marriage in the spring of 1823 .
He returned to Paris and began collaborating with playwright John Howard Payne on translations of French plays for the English stage , with little success . He also learned through Payne that the novelist Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley was romantically interested in him , though Irving never pursued the relationship .
In August 1824 , Irving published the collection of essays Tales of a Traveller — including the short story " The Devil and Tom Walker " — under his Geoffrey Crayon persona . " I think there are in it some of the best things I have ever written " , Irving told his sister . But while the book sold respectably , Traveller was dismissed by critics , who panned both Traveller and its author . " The public have been led to expect better things " , wrote the United States Literary Gazette , while the New @-@ York Mirror pronounced Irving " overrated " . Hurt and depressed by the book 's reception , Irving retreated to Paris where he spent the next year worrying about finances and scribbling down ideas for projects that never materialized .
= = = = Spanish books = = = =
While in Paris , Irving received a letter from Alexander Hill Everett on January 30 , 1826 . Everett , recently the American Minister to Spain , urged Irving to join him in Madrid , noting that a number of manuscripts dealing with the Spanish conquest of the Americas had recently been made public . Irving left for Madrid and enthusiastically began scouring the Spanish archives for colorful material .
With full access to the American consul 's massive library of Spanish history , Irving began working on several books at once . The first offspring of this hard work , A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus , was published in January 1828 . The book was popular in the United States and in Europe and would have 175 editions published before the end of the century . It was also the first project of Irving 's to be published with his own name , instead of a pseudonym , on the title page . Irving was invited to stay at the palace of the Duke of Gor , who gave him unfettered access to his library containing many medieval manuscripts . Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada was published a year later , followed by Voyages and Discoveries of the Companions of Columbus in 1831 .
Irving 's writings on Columbus are a mixture of history and fiction , a genre now called romantic history . Irving based them on extensive research in the Spanish archives , but also added imaginative elements aimed at sharpening the story . The first of these works is the source of the durable myth that medieval Europeans believed the Earth was flat . ( See Myth of the flat earth . ) According to the popular book , Columbus proved the Earth was round .
In 1829 , Irving moved into Granada 's ancient palace Alhambra , " determined to linger here " , he said , " until I get some writings under way connected with the place " . Before he could get any significant writing underway , however , he was notified of his appointment as Secretary to the American Legation in London . Worried he would disappoint friends and family if he refused the position , Irving left Spain for England in July 1829 .
= = = = Secretary to the American legation in London = = = =
Arriving in London , Irving joined the staff of American Minister Louis McLane . McLane immediately assigned the daily secretary work to another man and tapped Irving to fill the role of aide @-@ de @-@ camp . The two worked over the next year to negotiate a trade agreement between the United States and the British West Indies , finally reaching a deal in August 1830 . That same year , Irving was awarded a medal by the Royal Society of Literature , followed by an honorary doctorate of civil law from Oxford in 1831 .
Following McLane 's recall to the United States in 1831 to serve as Secretary of Treasury , Irving stayed on as the legation 's chargé d 'affaires until the arrival of Martin Van Buren , President Andrew Jackson 's nominee for British Minister . With Van Buren in place , Irving resigned his post to concentrate on writing , eventually completing Tales of the Alhambra , which would be published concurrently in the United States and England in 1832 .
Irving was still in London when Van Buren received word that the United States Senate had refused to confirm him as the new Minister . Consoling Van Buren , Irving predicted that the Senate 's partisan move would backfire . " I should not be surprised " , Irving said , " if this vote of the Senate goes far toward elevating him to the presidential chair " .
= = = Return to America = = =
Washington Irving arrived in New York , after seventeen years abroad , on May 21 , 1832 . That September , he accompanied the U.S. Commissioner on Indian Affairs , Henry Leavitt Ellsworth , along with companions Charles La Trobe and Count Albert @-@ Alexandre de Pourtales , on a surveying mission deep in Indian Territory , now known as Oklahoma . At the completion of his western tour , Irving traveled through Washington , D.C. and Baltimore , where he became acquainted with the politician and novelist John Pendleton Kennedy .
Frustrated by bad investments , Irving turned to writing to generate additional income , beginning with A Tour on the Prairies , a work which related his recent travels on the frontier . The book was another popular success and also the first book written and published by Irving in the United States since A History of New York in 1809 . In 1834 , he was approached by fur magnate John Jacob Astor , who convinced Irving to write a history of his fur trading colony in the American Northwest , now known as Astoria , Oregon . Irving made quick work of Astor 's project , shipping the fawning biographical account titled Astoria in February 1836 . In 1835 Irving , Astor and a few others founded the Saint Nicholas Society in the City of New York .
During an extended stay at Astor 's , Irving met the explorer Benjamin Bonneville , who intrigued Irving with his maps and stories of the territories beyond the Rocky Mountains . When the two met in Washington , D.C. several months later , Bonneville opted to sell his maps and rough notes to Irving for $ 1 @,@ 000 . Irving used these materials as the basis for his 1837 book The Adventures of Captain Bonneville .
These three works made up Irving 's " western " series of books and were written partly as a response to criticism that his time in England and Spain had made him more European than American . In the minds of some critics , especially James Fenimore Cooper and Philip Freneau , Irving had turned his back on his American heritage in favor of English aristocracy . Irving 's western books , particularly A Tour on the Prairies , were well received in the United States , though British critics accused Irving of " book @-@ making " .
In 1835 , Irving purchased a " neglected cottage " and its surrounding riverfront property in Tarrytown , New York . The house , which he named Sunnyside in 1841 , required constant repair and renovation over the next twenty years . With costs of Sunnyside escalating , Irving reluctantly agreed in 1839 to become a regular contributor to The Knickerbocker magazine , writing new essays and short stories under the Knickerbocker and Crayon pseudonyms .
He was regularly approached by aspiring young authors for advice or endorsement , including Edgar Allan Poe , who sought Irving 's comments on " William Wilson " and " The Fall of the House of Usher " . Irving also championed America 's maturing literature , advocating stronger copyright laws to protect writers from the kind of piracy that had initially plagued The Sketch Book . Writing in the January 1840 issue of Knickerbocker , he openly endorsed copyright legislation pending in the U.S. Congress . " We have a young literature " , he wrote , " springing up and daily unfolding itself with wonderful energy and luxuriance , which ... deserves all its fostering care " . The legislation did not pass . In 1841 , he was elected in the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician .
Irving at this time also began a friendly correspondence with the English writer Charles Dickens and hosted the author and his wife at Sunnyside during Dickens 's American tour in 1842 .
= = = Minister to Spain = = =
In 1842 , after an endorsement from Secretary of State Daniel Webster , President John Tyler appointed Irving as Minister to Spain . Irving was surprised and honored , writing , " It will be a severe trial to absent myself for a time from my dear little Sunnyside , but I shall return to it better enabled to carry it on comfortably " .
While Irving hoped his position as Minister would allow him plenty of time to write , Spain was in a state of perpetual political upheaval during most of his tenure , with a number of warring factions vying for control of the twelve @-@ year @-@ old Queen Isabella II . Irving maintained good relations with the various generals and politicians , as control of Spain rotated through Espartero , Bravo , then Narvaez . However , the politics and warfare were exhausting , and Irving — homesick and suffering from a crippling skin condition — grew quickly disheartened :
I am wearied and at times heartsick of the wretched politics of this country . . . . The last ten or twelve years of my life , passed among sordid speculators in the United States , and political adventurers in Spain , has shewn me so much of
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However , the RNZAF refused and Lamason returned to New Zealand , arriving there the day after the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima . After the war , Lamason was discharged from the air force on 16 December 1945 . In 1946 , Lamason was asked to be the lead pilot to test the flight paths for a new British airport . As part of the agreement , he was offered a farm in Berkshire . However , family said he needed to be home instead and Heathrow Airport went ahead without him . In 1948 , Lamason moved to Dannevirke , a small rural community north east of Palmerston North where he acquired 406 acres and became a farmer until his retirement .
During the 1980s and 1990s , Lamason was a regular speaker at KLB ( initials for Konzentrationslager Buchenwald ) Club reunions , a club formed by the allied airmen while detained in Buchenwald . Lamason was also a member of the Caterpillar Club , an informal association of people who have successfully used a parachute to bail out of a disabled aircraft .
Lamason hid the fact for 39 years that the order for the airmen 's execution was given and scheduled for 26 October 1944 , first mentioning it at a Canadian POW convention in Hamilton in 1983 . In May 1987 , the New Zealand government in Wellington approved a fund to compensate servicemen held in German concentration camps and Lamason was awarded $ 13 @,@ 000 . However , Lamason was never honoured by his homeland for his leading role in saving the lives of the allied airmen at Buchenwald .
In 1994 , the National Film Board of Canada released a documentary movie titled , “ The Lucky Ones : Allied Airmen and Buchenwald ” , in which former Allied airmen recounted their personal and collective stories of life before , during and after Buchenwald . Lamason was interviewed and mentioned throughout the documentary . Lamason was also portrayed in the History Channel ’ s 2004 documentary " Shot from the Sky " , about the real life saga of B @-@ 17 pilot Roy Allen , one of the captured airmen taken to Buchenwald . In April 2005 , Lamason , then 86 , recollected the events of Buchenwald on TV New Zealand . In June 2010 , Lamason , then 91 , was interviewed again about his experience at Buchenwald by Mike Dorsey . This and other interviews with Lamason are featured in Dorsey 's 2011 documentary film titled , Lost Airmen of Buchenwald , which tells the complete story of the 168 Allied airmen who were sent to Buchenwald , including Lamason . Mike Dorsey said Lamason remained scarred by his experiences to the extent that Dorsey said “ I have a feeling that Lamason , to put it in a word , has no time for the Germans . ”
Lamason died at his home on 19 May 2012 , on the farm outside Dannevirke where he had lived for over 60 years . He was 93 and at the time of his death , survived by two sons and two daughters , his wife ( Joan née Hopkins ) having died in 2009 . In November 2015 , it was announced that a book recounting and honouring Lamason 's life would be written by Waipukurau author Hilary Pedersen by September 2018 ( what would have been Lamason 's 100th birthday ) .
= Cyclone Jasmine =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Jasmine ( RSMC Nadi designation : 12F , JTWC designation : 10P ) was a long @-@ lived annular tropical cyclone that affected several countries , particularly Vanuatu and Tonga , over a 19 @-@ day span in February 2012 . The system was the second cyclone and the only severe tropical cyclone of the relatively quiet 2011 – 12 South Pacific cyclone season . Cyclone Jasmine developed from an area of disturbed weather on 1 February in the Gulf of Carpentaria . Initially , the storm moved towards the east and across the Cape York Peninsula . As it moved across the South Pacific , earlier existing wind shear conditions lessened , and Jasmine began to strengthen at a faster rate . Steadily intensifying , Jasmine reached peak intensity on 8 February as a Category 4 equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale , while beginning to show annular characteristics .
The next day Jasmine entered an area of vertical wind shear , which consequently weakened the cyclone and caused its eye to expand . A high pressure area south of Jasmine later steered the weakening cyclone to the northeast on 12 February . Although it entered an area of warmer sea surface temperatures , Jasmine subsequently entered extratropical transition and later degenerated into an extratropical cyclone on 16 February , and later dissipated completely on 19 February .
Cyclone Jasmine affected five countries during its existence . The predecessor to Jasmine brought heavy rainfall to areas of extreme northern Queensland . Jasmine also brought rainfall to areas of the Solomon Islands . As a result , pest infestations occurred across the region . In Vanuatu , heavy rains and wind from Jasmine destroy numerous crops . Banana trees in particular are affected by the cyclone . Jasmine inundated areas of Tonga that had already been affected by Cyclone Cyril just a week prior . Nuku 'alofa recorded half of its average monthly rainfall in a 24 ‑ hour span due to rains associated with the cyclone . After the season , the name Jasmine was retired from the Australian list of tropical cyclone names .
= = Meteorological history = =
During 31 January the Australian Bureau of Meteorology started to monitor a tropical low , that had developed within the monsoon trough over the western Cape York Peninsula . Over the next day the system moved into the southeastern part of the Gulf of Carpentaria , before it moved back over the Cape York Peninsula during 2 February . The system subsequently emerged into the Coral Sea to the north of Cairns later that day , where a strong northwest monsoon flow with gales developed to the north of the low . The system subsequently moved eastwards and intensified into a category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale .
On 1 February , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology 's Brisbane tropical cyclone warning centre ( TCWC Brisbane ) and the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began to monitor a tropical low that had developed within a monsoon trough about 135 km ( 85 mi ) to the north of Mornington Island . Over the next two days the low moved eastwards and passed over the Cape York Peninsula before it emerged into the Coral Sea to the north of Cairns . After emerging into the Coral Sea the low continued to develop , and on 4 February , the JTWC and TCWC Brisbane reported that the system had become a tropical cyclone with the latter naming it as Jasmine while it was located about 420 km ( 260 mi ) to the east of Cairns .
Tracking eastward , Jasmine entered a flow of dry air , which prevented the storm from strengthening quickly at the time . On 5 February , the low – level atmospheric circulation center of Jasmine became exposed due to the presence of strong vertical wind shear . However , the cyclone was able to maintain its intensity due to the existence of an area of moisture over Australia . Throughout the rest of the day , the wind shear subdued , and the system began to organize as convective banding wrapped around the center . As a result , Cyclone Jasmine intensified into the equivalent of a Category 2 on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale , with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , sustained for 10 minutes . The next day , Cyclone Jasmine began to track to the east – southeast in response to a strengthening subtropical ridge . The cyclone continued to steadily intensify as convection continued to wrap tightly around the center of Jasmine . At the same time , the storm moved out of the BOM 's area of responsibility and into the area of responsibility of the Fiji Meteorological Service 's ( FMS ) tropical cyclone warning center at Nadi , Fiji ( RSMC Nadi ) .
Late on 7 February , while still tracking to the east – southeast , Jasmine rapidly intensified , with wind speeds increasing to 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , sustained for one minute . The cyclone developed a ragged eye stretching 40 km ( 25 mi ) across . Later that day , Jasmine reached its peak intensity as it passed 280 km ( 175 mi ) to the north – northeast of New Caledonia , with wind speeds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 4 cyclone on both the Australian and Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scales ( SSHS ) . Throughout 8 February , Jasmine began to show characteristics of an annular hurricane , maintaining a large , asymmetric eye and rather shallow convective features . In addition , multiple eyewall mesovorticies developed within the eye .
However , Jasmine did not maintain its peak intensity for an extended period of time . By 9 February , the cloud tops surrounding Jasmine began to warm , and thus weakened . In addition , the cyclone began to enter cooler SSTs . Although Jasmine 's convective bands continued to thin out , the cyclone maintained a gradually expanding eyewall and remained a compact system . By 10 February , the eyewall of Cyclone Jasmine measured 95 km ( 60 mi ) in diameter . The next day , the subtropical ridge that had been forcing Jasmine toward the southeast had weakened , and as a result the cyclone began to track east – northeast , toward a weakness in the ridge . The storm continued to disorganize , with its eye later becoming cloud – filled . By the end of 11 February , Jasmine had already weakened to a cyclone with wind speeds of just 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , sustained for one minute , due to the presence of strong vertical wind shear . The low – level circulation center of Jasmine became partly exposed for a period of time on 12 February , before convection redeveloped over the center . As a weakening cyclone , Jasmine only maintained an area of weak convection displaced to its east as it approached Tonga .
On 13 February , convection re @-@ developed and later strengthened over Jasmine 's center of circulation due to the presence of the South Pacific convergence zone and warm SSTs . Cyclone Jasmine was able to attain a secondary peak intensity of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , sustained for one minute , as the system 's banding features became better defined . Due to Jasmine 's position between two anticyclones , the cyclone erratically moved in a loop in the vicinity of Tonga from 14 to 15 February , before moving to the southeast . The system later exited the favorable conditions and moved into an area of strong wind shear once again . Convection became sheared apart and Jasmine 's center of circulation once again became ill – defined and exposed . Late on 15 February , the JTWC issued their last advisory on the system , and on the next day , RSMC Nadi reported that Cyclone Jasmine had degenerated into an extratropical cyclone .
= = Preparations and impact = =
During its existence , parts of Queensland , the Solomon Islands , Vanuatu , New Caledonia , Fiji and Tonga were affected by Cyclone Jasmine . The name Jasmine was retired from the Australian list of tropical cyclone names after the season by the World Meteorological Organization , and was replaced by the name Jenna .
= = = Queensland = = =
Early in its existence , Jasmine produced numerous rain showers over northern areas of Queensland . Gusty winds in Weipa , Queensland from Jasmine damaged trees on 2 February . A strong rainband associated with the cyclone produced heavy rainfalls over southern parts of Queensland . After Jasmine entered the Coral Sea , a surface trough extending from the cyclone produced rainfall over coastal areas of eastern Australia . In Cairns , Queensland , several roads were closed due to severe weather associated with the cyclone , and trees were uprooted by strong winds . Power lines in the northern suburbs of Cairns were also damaged due to strong winds . Other areas of Queensland recorded rain totals in excess of 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) .
= = = Vanuatu = = =
Prior to Cyclone Jasmine , the Vanuatu National Disaster Management Office was preparing for the cyclone after the storm was forecast to impact the country . The aid agency Oxfam prepared for food and water shortages , using the previous year 's severe weather to gauge potential impacts from Cyclone Jasmine . The Save the Children Fund prepared materials prior to the cyclone that could supply area schools with materials , known as a " school @-@ in @-@ a @-@ box . " People in affected areas were evacuated to care centers prior to the storm .
Within Vanuatu , gale force winds caused damage to crops , houses and water systems . Across the southern islands of Vanuatu , Jasmine impacted the area with winds of 165 km / h ( 103 mph ) . Warnings for maritime activities including small craft warnings were issued for areas offshore the islands . The cyclone produced rough seas at Port Vila , Vanuatu . Damage associated with Jasmine was mostly of agricultural nature , primarily to crops and fruit trees . Casava and banana crops were hampered by the storm , but did not pose any threat to food security . Damage to infrastructure was reported in Tanna , though the island suffered from primarily losses to food crops . Areas that had traditions of not consuming severed crops were especially impacted by the damage to food crops . Water sources in southwest Tanna were destroyed , and other sources were contaminated from mud from runoffs . In addition , three classrooms at Enukas Primary School were destroyed by Jasmine . Aniwa Island also suffered from food damage , especially to banana and manioc crops , as well as orange trees . At Aniwa Airport , high frequency radio services were cut off . Futuna Island was also cut off due to loss of communication . At Dillon 's Bay , one of Erromango 's primary water sources , water became contaminated . In addition , several air strips were closed due to water logging and debris . An aerial and ground damage survey began in the southern areas of the island chain after cyclone effects had subsided .
= = = Solomon Islands = = =
Jasmine caused intense rain showers across the island chain . The Solomon Islands Meteorological Service ( SIMS ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Watch Advisory throughout the day for affected areas . Isabel Province reported damage to kumara vines after three days of rain from the cyclone . Pest infestations also resulted from the rains . Most of the damage in the province resulted from overflowing rivers and inundated gardens . Makira @-@ Ulawa Province also suffered from damaged food gardens . Cocoa bean , coconut , nut , and banana crops and plantations were damaged . In addition , bridges were washed out by flooding . The ship MV Haourosi was grounded in Maro ’ u Bay due to high waves offshore .
= = = Tonga = = =
Jasmine brought heavy rains and flooding to Tonga , which had already been impacted by heavy rains from Cyclone Cyril just a week prior . Power outages occurred across Tonga due to the storm , but power was quickly restored . International and domestic flights in Tonga were disrupted for two days due to Jasmine . Tongatapu suffered from severe flooding . Affected families were sent to evacuation shelters . Some houses reportedly collapsed and fell into creeks due to the flooding . In Nuku 'alofa , a total of 400 people were evacuated . In a 24 – hour period extending from 14 February to 15 February , 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of rain was recorded in Nuku 'alofa , equal to more than half of the city 's average recorded rainfall in the month of February . On Atata Island , a resort was closed for two weeks due to damage sustained from the storm . An offshore South Korean fishing boat sunk during the storm . However , its three crew members were rescued by Tongan police . An additional two fishing boats broke away from Nuku 'alofa Harbor and washed up on a nearby reef . The Tongan Ministry of Health monitored the potential for diseases after the storm , particularly in low – lying areas of the island chain , where septic leakage was a potential health threat .
= Boy Scouting ( Boy Scouts of America ) =
Boy Scouting is a membership level of the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) for boys and young men . It provides youth training in character , citizenship , and mental and personal fitness . Boy Scouts are expected to develop personal religious values , learn the principles of American heritage and government , and acquire skills to become successful adults .
To achieve these , Boy Scouting applies eight methods of Scouting : Ideals ( viz . , the Scout Oath , the Scout Law , the Scout Motto , and the Scout Slogan ) , the patrol method , participation in outdoor programs , advancement , adult association , personal growth , leadership development , and the uniform .
Boy Scouting is generally available to boys between the ages of 10 and eighteen . They are organized in Scout troops , administered by volunteers with support of paid professional staff . Youth and adult members are Scouts , the boys are referred to as Boy Scouts , and the adults as Scouters .
In 1994 , the Chronicle of Philanthropy , an industry publication , released the results of the largest study of charitable and non @-@ profit organization popularity and credibility . The study showed that the Boy Scouts was ranked as the 7th " most popular charity / non @-@ profit in America " of over 100 charities researched with 42 % of Americans over the age of 12 choosing Love and Like A lot for the Boy Scouts .
= = Program and activities = =
The troop program and activities are determined by the senior patrol leader and the patrol leaders council under the oversight of the Scoutmaster . Troops generally hold meetings weekly , although they can be irregular during the summer . Troop meeting activities may vary from training in Scout skills to planning camping trips or playing games .
Troops may plan outings and activities outside the troop meeting . These may involve camping , backpacking , hiking , canoeing , rafting , climbing , caving , rappelling , and other activities . These outings are an important place for Scouts to work on skills and rank advancement , have fun , and engage in productive outdoor activities .
Most councils own and operate one or more permanent camps . These camps may host a variety of activities throughout the year . The summer camp program provides a week @-@ long session for troops that includes merit badge advancement and adventure activities . Facilities may include ranges for shooting sports — archery , rifle , and shotgun — and for climbing and rappelling .
It is common for several troops within a district or council to gather at least once a year at a special weekend campout called a camporee . A camporee is a district- or council @-@ wide event where several units camp and engage in activities , Scoutcraft competitions and learn specialized skills .
The national Scout jamboree usually occurs every four years , and draws more than 30 @,@ 000 Scouts from across the country and the world . The last jamboree took place in 2013 at the BSA 's new property , The Summit in West Virginia . The Summit is to be a permanent place for the Jamboree and an opportunity to construct a new high @-@ adventure base .
= = = Ideals = = =
The Scout Law , Scout Oath , Scout Motto , Scout Slogan , and Outdoor Code are the cornerstones of Boy Scouting . Each Scout learns to make these ideals a part of their way of life and personal growth . Boy Scouts must memorize and understand these ideals . They also represent these ideals symbolically in official emblems .
The Scout Sign is used when giving the Scout Law or the Scout Oath and as a signal for silence . The Scout Salute is used when saluting the flag of the United States . The left @-@ handed handshake is used as a token of friendship and as an identity with Scouts worldwide .
= = = Emblems = = =
Boy Scouting uses a series of medals and patches as emblems . The badge for the Scout rank consists of a simple fleur @-@ de @-@ lis , which symbolizes a compass needle . The needle points the Scout in the right direction , which is onward and upward . The Tenderfoot badge takes the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis of the Scout badge and adds two stars and an eagle with an American shield . The stars symbolize truth and knowledge ; the eagle and shield symbolize freedom and readiness to defend it . The Second Class badge features a scroll inscribed with the Scout Motto , with the ends turned up and a knotted rope hanging from the bottom . The knot reminds each Scout to remember the Scout slogan , and the upturned ends of the scroll symbolize cheerfulness in service . The First Class badge combines the elements of the Tenderfoot and Second Class badges . For years , the First Class badge was used as the emblem of the BSA . Star has a First Class symbol on a five @-@ pointed yellow star , and initially indicated the five merit badges required to earn the rank . Life has a First Class emblem on a red heart , and initially symbolized the first @-@ aid and health @-@ related merit badges that the rank required . Now it signifies that the ideals of Scouting have become a part of the Scout 's life and character .
= = = Uniform and insignia = = =
The uniform and insignia of the Boy Scouts of America gives a Scout visibility and creates a level of identity within both the unit and the community . The uniform is used to promote equality while showing individual achievement . While uniforms are similar in basic design , they do vary in color and detail to identify the different divisions of Cub Scouts , Boy Scouts , Varsity Scouts , Venturers , and Sea Scouts .
Scouts and adult leaders wear the Boy Scout uniform . It generally consists of a khaki button @-@ up shirt , olive green pants or shorts , belt , and neckerchief . The Scouter dress uniform is appropriate for professional Scouters and Scouting leaders on formal occasions .
= = Organization = =
= = = Troop and patrols = = =
The troop is the fundamental unit of Boy Scouting . The troop size can vary from a minimum of five Scouts to several dozen . Each troop is sponsored by a community organization such as a business , service organization , private school , labor group or religious institution . The chartered organization is responsible for providing a meeting place and promoting a good program . A chartered organization representative manages the relationship between the troop , the chartered organization , and the BSA .
Each troop is divided into patrols of eight or so Scouts led by a patrol leader elected from within the patrol . Patrol meetings are generally held during the weekly troop meeting . The patrol 's independence from the troop varies among troops and between activities . Patrols ' autonomy becomes more visible at campouts , where each patrol may set up its own camping and cooking area . Divisions between patrols may disappear during an event which only a small part of the troop attends . Patrols may hold meetings and even excursions separately from the rest of the troop .
Troops mix older and younger Scouts in the same patrols , so that the older boys can teach the younger ones more effectively . When a Webelos den crosses over from Cub Scouting to Boy Scouting , the " new Scout patrol " method may be used . The new Boy Scouts are kept together as a group , elect their own patrol leader , and are assigned a troop guide — an older Scout who acts as a mentor .
Some troops establish Venture patrols as an optional program for boys thirteen through seventeen years old . Venture patrols experience more autonomy from the troop than ordinary patrols , and provide older Scouts with expanded social contact and physical challenges . The Venture patrol is guided by the assistant Scoutmaster @-@ Venture who is responsible for Venture patrol activities . Venture patrol members wear the standard Boy Scout uniform with the Venture strip over the right pocket . Patrol members are Boy Scouts and should never be referred to as Venture Scouts .
= = = Other sections = = =
The Lone Scout program serves boys who cannot take part in a nearby troop on a regular basis because of distance , weather , time , disability , or other difficulties . While the Scout does not participate in troop or patrol activities , he does learn the fun , values , and achievements of Scouting .
Varsity Scouting is part of the Boy Scouting division of the BSA . It is an alternative available to boys ages fourteen through seventeen that takes basic Boy Scouting and adds high adventure , sporting , and other elements that are more appealing to older youth to accomplish the aims of character development , citizenship training , and personal fitness . Varsity Scouts are organized into teams , which are separate chartered units from a Boy Scout troop . Varsity Scouts participate in the standard Boy Scouting advancement program along with programs unique to Varsity Scouting .
The Order of the Arrow ( OA ) is a program of the Boy Scout division of the BSA . It is the BSA 's national honor society for experienced campers , based on Native American traditions , and dedicated to the ideal of cheerful service . Scouts and Scouters must belong to a troop or team to become OA members . The OA is run by youths under the age of 21 with adult Scouters serving as advisers .
= = Advancement and recognition = =
= = = Youth advancement = = =
Boy Scouts has seven ranks , grouped into two phases . The first phase of Scout , Tenderfoot , Second Class , and First Class is designed to teach the boy Scoutcraft skills , teamwork , and self @-@ reliance . Scout is the first rank , awarded when a boy first joins the Scouts , and requires just a rudimentary knowledge of Scouting 's ideals . Further ranks have progressive requirements in the areas of Scoutcraft , physical fitness , citizenship , personal growth , and Scout Spirit . Scouts with a permanent mental or physical disability may use alternate requirements , based on their abilities and approved by the council .
The second phase of Star , Life , and Eagle is designed to develop leadership skills and encourage the Scout to explore potential vocations and avocations through the merit badge program . These ranks require that the boy serve in a position of responsibility and perform community service .
The Eagle Scout requires , in addition to merit badges and a position of responsibility , a community service project planned and led entirely by the Eagle Scout candidate . After attaining the rank of Eagle , a Scout may earn Eagle Palms for additional tenure and merit badges .
Although Eagle is the highest rank , for which Scouts should strive , the number of Scouts achieving First Class within one year of joining is still one of the key measures of unit effectiveness . Studies have shown that if a Scout achieves First Class within a year of joining , he typically stays in Scouting for at least three years . Scouts who do so are more likely to retain Scout values as an adult and achieve the BSA primary mission of " producing useful citizens " .
Ranks and other recognitions are presented in a troop awards ceremony called the court of honor . The Eagle Scout rank is usually presented in a separate and special court of honor .
= = = Adult recognition = = =
Boy Scout leaders who complete training , tenure , and performance requirements are recognized by a system of awards . The Scouters Training Award is available to leaders , while the Scouter 's Key and Scoutmaster Award of Merit are only available to the Scoutmaster . The pinnacle of Scout leader training is Wood Badge , for which successful participants receive a special neckerchief , woggle and wooden beads on a thong .
= = = Awards = = =
Several religious emblems programs are administered by various religious institutions and recognized by the BSA . These are generally recognized by a medal and an embroidered square knot . Other advancement and recognitions — such as the 50 @-@ miler award , Crime Prevention Awards , Emergency Preparedness Award and World Conservation Award — are available to Scouts who show proficiency in special areas . BSA 's National Court of Honor is responsible for lifesaving and meritorious awards . All Courts of Honor for Eagle Scout rank are convened as National Courts of Honor also .
= = Leadership in the troop = =
Every troop has two separate leadership structures : one consisting of Scouts and another consisting of adults . The adult leadership manages the logistics of troop activities , administers rank advancement and awards , maintains troop records and finance , and recruits new Scouts and adult leaders . The youth leadership keeps order and coordinates labor at activities . Scouts and adults cooperate to plan agendas for troop meetings , as well as the troop 's schedule of outings .
= = = Adult leadership = = =
The troop committee is made up of responsible adults who are approved by the local council and the chartered organization . The committee chairman leads the committee and appoints its members to specific tasks such as treasurer , secretary , advancement , activities , equipment and membership . The committee and the chartered organization representative are responsible for the selection of the Scoutmaster and assistant Scoutmasters . The Scoutmaster must be at least twenty @-@ one and is directly responsible for training and guiding the boy leaders , working with other adults to bring Scouting to boys , and for using the methods of Scouting to achieve the aims of Scouting . A troop may have a chaplain who helps to provide a spiritual element in the unit program , provides spiritual counseling as needed , and encourage Scouts to participate in the religious emblems program .
= = = Youth leadership = = =
The youth leader of the troop is the senior patrol leader ( SPL ) , elected by the Scouts in the troop . He is responsible for the overall performance of the troop , runs troop meetings and ensures that the program for troop meetings and other activities is carried out . He is advised by the Scoutmaster . There may also be one or more assistant senior patrol leaders . Each patrol elects a patrol leader who then appoints an assistant patrol leader and other positions within the patrol . Together , the senior patrol leader , assistant senior patrol leader and patrol leaders make up the patrol leaders council ( PLC ) , the group of Scouts that is responsible for developing the troop 's program with the advice of the Scoutmaster .
There are other youth positions of responsibility in a troop ; the use of these positions is dependent on the size of the troop and the program . The junior assistant Scoutmaster ( JASM ) is a 16- or 17 @-@ year @-@ old Scout who performs the same duties as an assistant Scoutmaster ; the scribe takes minutes at patrol leaders council meetings and troop meetings and is often responsible for taking attendance and collecting money or dues ; the quartermaster maintains the troop 's equipment ; the librarian maintains the troop library ; the chaplain aide works with the troop chaplain and promotes the religious program in the troop ; the troop historian maintains photos and records of troop functions , meetings and outings ; a den chief works with a den of Cub Scouts , assisting the den leaders and helps retain Cub Scouts when they cross over into Boy Scouts ; the troop guide is a senior Scout who provides guidance to new Scout patrols ; the Leave
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special moves that are triggered using rapid sequences of carefully timed button presses and joystick movements . Games traditionally show fighters from a side @-@ view , even as the genre has progressed from two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) to three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphics . Street Fighter II , though not the first fighting game , popularized and standardized the conventions of the genre , and similar games released prior to Street Fighter II have since been more explicitly classified as fighting games . Fighting games typically involve hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , but may also feature melee weapons .
This genre is distinct from beat ' em ups , another action genre involving combat , where the player character must fight many weaker enemies at the same time . During the 1980s publications used the terms " fighting game " and " beat ' em up " interchangeably , along with other terms such as " martial arts simulation " ( or more specific terms such as " judo simulator " ) . With hindsight , critics have argued that the two types of game gradually became dichotomous as they evolved , though the two terms may still be conflated . Fighting games are sometimes grouped with games that feature boxing , UFC , or wrestling . Serious boxing games belong more to the sports game genre than the action game genre , as they aim for a more realistic model of boxing techniques , whereas moves in fighting games tend to be highly exaggerated models of Asian martial arts techniques . As such , boxing games , mixed martial arts games , and wrestling games are often described as distinct genres , without comparison to fighting games and belong more into the Sports game genre .
= = Game design = =
Fighting games involve combat between pairs of fighters using highly exaggerated martial arts moves . They typically revolve around primarily brawling or combat sport , though some variations feature weaponry . Games usually display on @-@ screen fighters from a side view , and even 3D fighting games play largely within a 2D plane of motion . Games usually confine characters to moving left and right and jumping , although some games such as Fatal Fury : King of Fighters allow players to move between parallel planes of movement . Recent games tend to be rendered in three dimensions and allow side @-@ stepping , but otherwise play like those rendered in two dimensions .
Aside from moving around a restricted space , fighting games limit the player 's actions to different offensive and defensive maneuvers . Players must learn which attacks and defenses are effective against each other , often by trial and error . Blocking is a basic technique that allows a player to defend against attacks . Some games feature more advanced blocking techniques : for example , Capcom 's Street Fighter III features a move termed " parrying " which causes the attacker to become momentarily incapacitated ( a similar state is termed " just defended " in SNK 's Garou : Mark of the Wolves ) . In addition to blows such as punches and kicks , players can utilize throwing or " grappling " to circumvent " blocks " . Predicting opponents ' moves and counter @-@ attacking , known as " countering " , is a common element of gameplay . Fighting games also emphasize the difference between the height of blows , ranging from low to jumping attacks . Thus , strategy becomes important as players attempt to predict each other 's moves , similar to rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors .
= = = Special attacks = = =
An integral feature of fighting games includes the use of " special attacks " , also called " secret moves " , that employ complex combinations of button presses to perform a particular move beyond basic punching and kicking . Combos , in which several attacks are chained together using basic punches and kicks , are another common feature in fighting games and have been fundamental to the genre since the release of Street Fighter II . Some fighting games display a " combo meter " that displays the player 's progress through a combo . The effectiveness of such moves often relate to the difficulty of execution and the degree of risk . These moves are often beyond the ability of a casual gamer and require a player to have both a strong memory and excellent timing . Taunting is another feature of some fighting games and was originally introduced by Japanese company SNK in their game Art of Fighting . It is used to add humor to games , but can also have an effect on gameplay such as improving the strength of other attacks . Sometimes , a character can even be noted especially for taunting ( for example , Dan Hibiki from Street Fighter Alpha ) .
= = = Matches and rounds = = =
Fighting game matches generally consist of several rounds ( typically " best of three " ) ; the player who wins the most rounds wins the match . Fighting games widely feature life bars , which are depleted as characters sustain blows . Each successful attack will deplete a character 's health , and the game continues until a fighter 's energy reaches zero . Hence , the main goal is to completely deplete the life bar of one 's opponent , thus achieving a " knockout " . Beginning with Midway 's Mortal Kombat released in 1992 , the Mortal Kombat series introduced " Fatalities " in which the victor kills a knocked @-@ out opponent in a gruesome manner . Games such as Virtua Fighter also allow a character to be defeated by forcing them outside of the fighting arena , awarding a " ring @-@ out " to the victor . Round decisions can also be determined by time over ( if a timer is present ) , which judges players based on remaining vitality to declare a winner . Fighting games often include a single player campaign or tournament , where the player must defeat a sequence of several computer controlled opponents . Winning the tournament often reveals a special story – ending cutscene , and some games also grant access to hidden characters or special features upon victory .
= = = Character selection = = =
In most fighting games , players may select from a variety of characters who have unique fighting styles and special moves . This became a strong convention for the genre with the release of Street Fighter II , and these character choices have led to deeper game strategy and replay value . Although fighting games offer female characters , their image tends to be hypersexualized , and they have even been featured as pin @-@ up girls in game magazines . Male characters in fighting games tend to have extra @-@ broad chests and shoulders , huge muscles , and prominent jaws . Custom creation , or " create – a – fighter " , is a feature of some fighting games which allows a player to customize the appearance and move set of their own character . Super Fire Pro Wrestling X Premium was the first game to include such a feature , and later fighting games such as Fighter Maker , Soulcalibur III , Mortal Kombat : Armageddon , and Dragon Ball Z : Budokai Tenkaichi 2 adopted the concept .
= = = Multiplayer modes = = =
Fighting games may also offer a multiplayer mode in which players fight each other , sometimes by letting a second player challenge the first at any moment during a single player match . A few titles allow up to four players to compete simultaneously . Several games have also featured modes that involve teams of characters ; players form " tag teams " to fight matches in which combat is one @-@ on @-@ one , but a character may leave the arena to be replaced by a team mate . Some fighting games have also offered the challenge of fighting against multiple opponents in succession , testing the player 's endurance . Newer titles take advantage of online gaming services , although lag created by slow data transmission can disrupt the split @-@ second timing involved in fighting games . The impact of lag in some fighting games has been reduced by using technology such as GGPO , which keeps the players ' games in sync by quickly rolling back to the most recent accurate game state , correcting errors , and then jumping back to the current frame . Games using this technology include Skullgirls and Street Fighter III : 3rd Strike Online Edition .
= = History = =
= = = Late 1970s to 1980s = = =
Fighting games find their origin in boxing games but evolved towards battles between characters with fantastic abilities and complex special maneuvers . Sega 's black and white boxing game Heavyweight Champ , which was released in 1976 , is considered the first video game to feature fist fighting . 1979 's Warrior is another title sometimes credited as one of the first fighting games . In contrast to Heavyweight Champ and most later titles , Warrior was based on sword fighting duels and used a bird 's eye view . In 1983 , Sega released another boxing game Champion Boxing , which was Yu Suzuki 's debut title at Sega . However , Data East and its related developer Technōs Japan 's Karate Champ from 1984 is credited with establishing and popularizing the one @-@ on @-@ one fighting game genre . In it , a variety of moves could be performed using the dual @-@ joystick controls , it used a best @-@ of @-@ three matches format like later fighting games , and it featured training bonus stages . It went on to influence Konami 's Yie Ar Kung Fu , released in January 1985 , which expanded on Karate Champ by pitting the player against a variety of opponents , each with a unique appearance and fighting style . The player could also perform up to sixteen different moves , including projectile attacks . The martial arts game The Way of the Exploding Fist , released in June 1985 , achieved critical success and subsequently afforded the burgeoning genre further popularity on home systems . Numerous other game developers tried to imitate the financial successes of Karate Champ , Yie Ar Kung @-@ Fu and The Way of the Exploding Fist with similar games ; Data East took unsuccessful legal action against Epyx over the computer game International Karate . Also in 1985 , Elite 's Frank Bruno 's Boxing introduced high and low guard , ducking , lateral dodging , and a meter which was built up with successful attacks , and when full enabled a special , more powerful punch , to be thrown .
Both Karate Champ and Yie Ar Kung Fu later provided a template for Capcom 's Street Fighter in 1987 . Street Fighter found its own niche in the gaming world , partially because many arcade game developers in the 1980s focused more on producing beat @-@ em @-@ ups and shoot ' em ups . Part of the game 's appeal was the use of special moves that could only be discovered by experimenting with the game controls , which created a sense of mystique and invited players to practice the game , although similar controller motions used for grappling maneuvers in the earlier Brian Jacks Uchi Mata were deemed too difficult . Following Street Fighter 's lead , the use of command @-@ based hidden moves began to pervade other games in the rising fighting game genre . Street Fighter also introduced other staples of the genre , including the blocking technique as well as the ability for a challenger to jump in and initiate a match against a player at any time . The game also introduced pressure @-@ sensitive controls that determine the strength of an attack , though due to causing damaged arcade cabinets , Capcom replaced it soon after with a six @-@ button control scheme offering light , medium and hard punches and kicks , which became another staple of the genre . In 1988 , Home Data released Reikai Dōshi : Chinese Exorcist , also known as Last Apostle Puppet Show , the first fighting game to use digitized sprites and motion capture animation . Meanwhile , home game consoles largely ignored the genre . Budokan : The Martial Spirit was one of few releases for the Sega Genesis but was not as popular as games in other genres . Technical challenges limited the popularity of early fighting games . Programmers had difficulty producing a game that could recognize the fast motions of a joystick , and so players had difficulty executing special moves with any accuracy .
= = = Early 1990s = = =
The release of Street Fighter II in 1991 is often considered a revolutionary moment in the fighting game genre . Yoshiki Okamoto 's team developed the most accurate joystick and button scanning routine in the genre thus far . This allowed players to reliably execute multi @-@ button special moves , which had previously required an element of luck . The game was also highly successful because its graphics took advantage of Capcom 's CPS arcade chipset , with highly detailed characters and stages . Whereas previous games allowed players to combat a variety of computer @-@ controlled fighters , Street Fighter II allowed players to play against each other . The popularity of Street Fighter II surprised the gaming industry , as arcade owners bought more machines to keep up with demand . Street Fighter II was also responsible for popularizing the combo mechanic , which came about when skilled players learned that they could combine several attacks that left no time for the opponent to recover if they timed them correctly .
SNK released Fatal Fury a few months before Street Fighter II . It was designed by Takashi Nishiyama , the creator of the original Street Fighter , which it was envisioned as a spiritual successor to . Fatal Fury placed more emphasis on storytelling and the timing of special moves , and added a two @-@ plane system where characters could step into the foreground or background . Meanwhile , Sega experimented with Dark Edge , an early attempt at a 3D fighting game where characters could move in all directions . Sega however , never released the game outside Japan because it felt that " unrestrained " 3D fighting games were unenjoyable . Sega also attempted to introduced 3 @-@ D holographic technology to the genre with Holosseum in 1992 , though it was unsuccessful . Several fighting games achieved greater commercial success , including SNK 's Art of Fighting and Samurai Shodown as well as Sega 's Eternal Champions . Nevertheless , Street Fighter II remained the most popular , spawning a special Champion Edition that improved game balance and allowed players to use additional characters . The popularity of Street Fighter II led it to be released for home game consoles and allowed it to define the template for fighting games . Fighting games soon became the dominant genre in the arcade game industry of the early 1990s .
Many American developers tried to capitalize on the template established by Street Fighter II , but it was Chicago 's Midway Games who achieved unprecedented notoriety when they released Mortal Kombat in 1992 . The game featured digital characters drawn from real actors , numerous secrets , and a " Fatality " system of finishing maneuvers with which the player 's character kills their opponent . The game earned a reputation for its gratuitous violence , and was eventually adapted for home game consoles . The home version of Mortal Kombat was released on September 13 , 1993 , a day that was promoted as " Mortal Monday " . The advertising resulted in line @-@ ups to purchase the game and a subsequent backlash from politicians concerned about the game 's violence . The Mortal Kombat franchise would ultimately achieve iconic status similar to that of Street Fighter with several sequels as well as movies , television series , and extensive merchandising . Numerous other game developers tried to imitate Street Fighter II and Mortal Kombat 's financial success with similar games ; Capcom USA took unsuccessful legal action against Data East over the 1993 arcade game Fighter 's History . Data East 's largest objection in court was that their 1984 arcade game Karate Champ was the true originator of the competitive fighting game genre , which predated the original Street Fighter by three years .
Sega AM2 's first attempt in the genre was the 1993 arcade game Burning Rival , but began to attract attention with the release of Virtua Fighter for the same platform the same year . It was the first fighting game with 3D polygon graphics and a viewpoint that zoomed and rotated with the action . Despite the graphics , players were confined to back and forth motion as seen in other fighting games . With only three buttons , it was easier to learn than Street Fighter and Mortal Kombat , having six and five buttons respectively . By the time the game was released for the Sega Saturn in Japan , the game and system were selling at almost a one @-@ to @-@ one ratio . Meanwhile , the 1993 title Mortal Kombat II captivated Western audiences , and a 2008 review considered the best Mortal Kombat game in retrospect .
The 1994 PlayStation launch title Battle Arena Toshinden is credited for taking the genre into " true 3 @-@ D " due to its introduction of the sidestep maneuver , which IGN described as " one little move " that " changed the fighter forever . " The same year , SNK released The King of Fighters ' 94 in arcades , where players choose from teams of three characters to eliminate each other one by one . Eventually , Capcom released further updates to Street Fighter II , including Super Street Fighter II and Super Street Fighter II Turbo . These games featured more characters and new moves , some of which were a response to people who had hacked the original Street Fighter II game to add new features themselves . However , criticism of these updates grew as players demanded a true sequel . By 1995 , the dominant franchises were the Mortal Kombat series in America and Virtua Fighter series in Japan , with Street Fighter Alpha : Warriors ' Dreams unable to match the popularity of Street Fighter II . Throughout this period , the fighting game was the dominant genre in competitive video gaming , with enthusiasts popularly attending arcades in order to find human opponents .
= = = Late 1990s = = =
In the latter part of the 1990s , the fighting game genre began to decline in popularity , with specific franchises falling into difficulty . Electronic Gaming Monthly awarded the excess of fighting games the " Most Appalling Trend " award of 1995 . Although the release of Street Fighter EX introduced 3D graphics to the series and continued the success of Street Fighter II and Street Fighter Alpha , the Street Fighter : The Movie arcade game was regarded as a failure . Street Fighter : The Movie used digitized images from the Street Fighter film . While a home video game also titled Street Fighter : The Movie was released for the PlayStation and Sega Saturn , it is not a port but a separately produced game based on the same premise . Capcom later released Street Fighter III in 1997 which featured improved visuals and character depth , but was also unable to match the impact of Street Fighter II . Despite excitement in Japan over Virtua Fighter 3 in arcades , the limited hardware capabilities of the Sega Saturn led Sega to delay a console release . Sega eventually released the game for its Dreamcast console , but the company became unprofitable and was forced to discontinue the console . Meanwhile , SNK released several fighting games on their Neo @-@ Geo platform , including Samurai Shodown II in 1994 , Real Bout Fatal Fury in 1995 , The Last Blade in 1997 , and annual updates to their The King of Fighters franchise . Garou : Mark of the Wolves from 1999 was considered one of SNK 's last great games , and the company announced that it would close its doors in 2001 .
In retrospect , multiple developers attribute the decline of the fighting genre to its increasing complexity and specialization . This complexity shut out casual players , and the market for fighting games became smaller and more specialized . Furthermore , arcades gradually became less profitable throughout the 1990s due to the increased technical power and popularity of home consoles . Even as popularity dwindled , the fighting game genre continued to evolve ; several strong 3D fighting games also emerged in the late 1990s . Namco 's Tekken ( released in arcades in 1994 and on the PlayStation in 1995 ) proved critical to the PlayStation 's early success , with its sequels also becoming some of the console 's most important titles . The Soul series of weapon @-@ based fighting games also achieved considerable critical success , beginning with 1995 's Soul Edge ( known as Soul Blade outside Japan ) to Soulcalibur V in 2012 . Tecmo released Dead or Alive in Japanese arcades in 1996 , porting it for the PlayStation in 1998 . It spawned a long running franchise , known for its fast paced control system and innovative counterattacks . The series again included titles important to the success of their respective consoles , including Dead or Alive 4 for the Xbox 360 . In 1998 , Bushido Blade , published by Square , introduced a realistic fighting engine that featured three @-@ dimensional environments while abandoning time limits and health bars in favour of an innovative Body Damage System , where a sword strike to a certain body part can amputate a limb or decapitate the head .
Video game enthusiasts took an interest in gaming crossovers which feature characters from multiple franchises in a particular game . An early example of this type of fighting game was the 1998 arcade release Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes , featuring comic book superheroes as well as characters from other Capcom games . In 1999 , Nintendo released the first game in the Super Smash Bros. series , which allowed match @-@ ups such as Pikachu versus Mario .
= = = Early 2000s = = =
The early part of the decade saw the rise of major international fighting game tournaments such as Tougeki – Super Battle Opera and Evolution Championship Series , and famous players such as Daigo Umehara . Several more fighting game crossovers were released in the new millennium . The two most prolific developers of 2D fighting games , Capcom and SNK , combined intellectual property to produce SNK vs. Capcom games . SNK released the first game of this type , SNK vs. Capcom : The Match of the Millennium , for its Neo Geo Pocket Color handheld at the end of 1999 . GameSpot regarded the game as " perhaps the most highly anticipated fighter ever " and called it the best fighting game ever to be released for a handheld console . Capcom released Capcom vs. SNK : Millennium Fight 2000 for arcades and the Dreamcast in 2000 , followed by sequels in subsequent years . Though none matched the critical success of the handheld version , Capcom vs. SNK 2 EO was noted as the first game of the genre to successfully utilize internet competition . Other crossovers from 2008 included Tatsunoko vs. Capcom and Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe . The most successful crossover , however , was Super Smash Bros. Brawl , also released in 2008 for the Wii . Featuring characters from Nintendo 's various franchises , the game was a runaway commercial success in addition to being lavished with critical praise .
In the new millennium , fighting games became less popular and plentiful than in the mid @-@ 1990s , with multiplayer competition shifting towards other genres . However , SNK reappeared in 2003 as SNK Playmore and continued to release games . Arc System Works received critical acclaim for releasing Guilty Gear X in 2001 , as well as its sequel Guilty Gear XX , as both were 2D fighting games featuring striking anime inspired graphics . The fighting game is currently a popular genre for amateur and doujin developers in Japan . The 2002 title Melty Blood was developed by then amateur developer French @-@ Bread and achieved cult success on the PC . It became highly popular in arcades following its 2005 release , and a version was released for the PlayStation 2 the following year . While the genre became generally far less popular than it once was , arcades and their attendant fighting games remained reasonably popular in Japan in this time period , and still remain so even today . Virtua Fighter 5 lacked an online mode but still achieved success both on home consoles and in arcades ; players practiced at home and went to arcades to compete face @-@ to @-@ face with opponents . In addition to Virtua Fighter and Tekken , the Soul and Dead or Alive franchises continued to release installments . Classic Street Fighter and Mortal Kombat games were re @-@ released on PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade , allowing internet play , and in some cases , HD graphics .
= = = Late 2000s to present = = =
Street Fighter IV , which incorporated online multiplayer modes , was released in early 2009 to critical acclaim , having garnered praise since its release at Japanese arcades in 2008 . The console versions of the game as well as Super Street Fighter IV sold more than 6 million copies in total . Street Fighter 's successful revival has sparked a renaissance for the genre , introducing new players to the genre and with the increased audience allowing other fighting game franchises to achieve successful revivals of their own . Tekken 6 was positively received , selling more than 3 million copies worldwide as of August 6 , 2010 . Other successful titles that followed include BlazBlue : Calamity Trigger , Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds , Mortal Kombat ( 2011 ) , Street Fighter X Tekken , The King of Fighters XIII , and Guilty Gear Xrd .
Despite the critically acclaimed Virtua Fighter 5 releasing to very little fanfare in 2007 , its update Virtua Fighter 5 : Final Showdown has received much more attention in 2012 due to the renewed interest in fighting games . Dead or Alive 5 , is notable for making extensive use of destructible environments . Other titles following in the wake of the fighting game renaissance include Persona 4 Arena , Tekken Tag Tournament 2 , Soulcalibur V , and crossover titles such as PlayStation All @-@ Stars Battle Royale and Tekken X Street Fighter .
= German battleship Tirpitz =
Tirpitz was the second of two Bismarck @-@ class battleships built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine ( navy ) during World War II . Named after Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the architect of the Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) , the ship was laid down at the Kriegsmarinewerft Wilhelmshaven in November 1936 and her hull was launched two and a half years later . Work was completed in February 1941 , when she was commissioned into the German fleet . Like her sister ship Bismarck , Tirpitz was armed with a main battery of eight 38 @-@ centimetre ( 15 in ) guns in four twin turrets . After a series of wartime modifications she was 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) heavier than Bismarck , making her the heaviest battleship ever built by a European navy .
After completing sea trials in early 1941 , Tirpitz briefly served as the centrepiece of the Baltic Fleet , which was intended to prevent a possible break @-@ out attempt by the Soviet Baltic Fleet . In early 1942 , the ship sailed to Norway to act as a deterrent against an Allied invasion . While stationed in Norway , Tirpitz was also intended to be used to intercept Allied convoys to the Soviet Union , and two such missions were attempted in 1942 . Tirpitz acted as a fleet in being , forcing the British Royal Navy to retain significant naval forces in the area to contain the battleship .
In September 1943 , Tirpitz , along with the battleship Scharnhorst , bombarded Allied positions on Spitzbergen , the only time the ship used her main battery in an offensive role . Shortly thereafter , the ship was damaged in an attack by British mini @-@ submarines and subsequently subjected to a series of large @-@ scale air raids . On 12 November 1944 , British Lancaster bombers equipped with 12 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) " Tallboy " bombs scored two direct hits and a near miss which caused the ship to capsize rapidly . A deck fire spread to the ammunition magazine for one of the main battery turrets , which caused a large explosion . Figures for the number of men killed in the attack range from 950 to 1 @,@ 204 . Between 1948 and 1957 the wreck was broken up by a joint Norwegian and German salvage operation .
= = Construction and characteristics = =
Tirpitz was ordered as Ersatz Schleswig @-@ Holstein as a replacement for the old pre @-@ dreadnought Schleswig @-@ Holstein , under the contract name " G " . The Kriegsmarinewerft shipyard in
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Wilhelmshaven was awarded the contract , where the keel was laid on 20 October 1936 . The hull was launched on 1 April 1939 ; during the elaborate ceremonies , the ship was christened by the daughter of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the ship 's namesake . Adolf von Trotha , a former admiral in the Imperial German Navy , spoke at the ship 's launching , which was also attended by Adolf Hitler . Fitting @-@ out work followed her launch , and was completed by February 1941 . British bombers repeatedly attacked the harbour in which the ship was being built ; no bombs struck Tirpitz , but the attacks did slow construction work . Tirpitz was commissioned into the fleet on 25 February for sea trials , which were conducted in the Baltic .
Tirpitz displaced 42 @,@ 900 t ( 42 @,@ 200 long tons ) as built and 52 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 51 @,@ 800 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 251 m ( 823 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 36 m ( 118 ft 1 in ) and a maximum draft of 10 @.@ 60 m ( 34 ft 9 in ) . She was powered by three Brown , Boveri & Cie geared steam turbines and twelve oil @-@ fired Wagner superheated boilers , which developed a total of 163 @,@ 023 PS ( 160 @,@ 793 shp ; 119 @,@ 903 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 30 @.@ 8 knots ( 57 @.@ 0 km / h ; 35 @.@ 4 mph ) on speed trials . Her standard crew numbered 103 officers and 1 @,@ 962 enlisted men ; during the war this was increased to 108 officers and 2 @,@ 500 men . As built , Tirpitz was equipped with Model 23 search radars mounted on the forward , foretop , and rear rangefinders . These were later replaced with Model 27 and then Model 26 radars , which had a larger antenna array . A Model 30 radar , known as the Hohentwiel , was mounted in 1944 in her topmast , and a Model 213 Würzburg fire @-@ control radar was added on her stern 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) Flak rangefinders .
She was armed with eight 38 cm SK C / 34 L / 52 guns arranged in four twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets forward — Anton and Bruno — and two aft — Caesar and Dora . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm L / 55 guns , sixteen 10 @.@ 5 cm L / 65 and sixteen 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 83 , and initially twelve 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) antiaircraft guns . The number of 2 cm guns was eventually increased to 58 . After 1942 , eight 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) above @-@ water torpedo tubes were installed in two quadruple mounts , one mount on each side of the ship . The ship 's main belt was 320 mm ( 13 in ) thick and was covered by a pair of upper and main armoured decks that were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) and 100 to 120 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick , respectively . The 38 cm turrets were protected by 360 mm ( 14 in ) thick faces and 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
After sea trials , Tirpitz was stationed in Kiel and performed intensive training in the Baltic . While the ship was in Kiel , Germany invaded the Soviet Union . A temporary Baltic Fleet was created to prevent the possible break @-@ out of the Soviet fleet based in Leningrad . Tirpitz was briefly made the flagship of the squadron , which consisted of the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer , the light cruisers Köln , Nürnberg , Leipzig , and Emden , several destroyers , and two flotillas of minesweepers . The Baltic Fleet , under the command of Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax , patrolled off the Aaland Islands from 23 to 26 September 1941 , after which the unit disbanded and Tirpitz resumed training . During the training period , Tirpitz tested her primary and secondary guns on the old pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Hessen , which had been converted into a radio @-@ controlled target ship . The British Royal Air Force ( RAF ) continued to launch unsuccessful bombing raids on Tirpitz while she was stationed in Kiel .
= = = Deployment to Norway = = =
Grand Admiral Erich Raeder , the commander of the Kriegsmarine , proposed on 13 November that Tirpitz be deployed to Norway . The ship would be able to attack convoys bound for the Soviet Union , as well as act as a fleet in being to tie down British naval assets and deter an Allied invasion of Norway . Hitler , who had forbidden an Atlantic sortie after the loss of Bismarck , agreed to the proposal . The ship was taken into dock for modifications for the deployment . The ship 's antiaircraft battery was strengthened , and the 10 @.@ 5 cm guns on the superstructure next to the catapult were moved outboard to increase their field of fire . The two quadruple 53 @.@ 3 cm torpedo tube mounts were also installed during this refit . The ship 's commander , Kapitän zur See ( KzS — Captain at Sea ) Karl Topp , pronounced the ship ready for combat operations on 10 January 1942 . The following day , Tirpitz left for Wilhelmshaven , a move designed to conceal her actual destination .
The ship left Wilhelmshaven at 23 : 00 on 14 January and made for Trondheim . British military intelligence , which was capable of decrypting the Enigma messages sent by the German navy , detected the departure of the vessel , but poor weather in Britain prevented action by the RAF . Admiral John Tovey , the commander in chief of the British Home Fleet , was not made aware of Tirpitz 's activities until 17 January , well after the ship had arrived in Norway . On 16 January , British aerial reconnaissance located the ship in Trondheim . Tirpitz then moved to the Fættenfjord , just north of Trondheim . The movement was codenamed Operation Polarnacht ( Polar Night ) ; the battleship was escorted by the destroyers Z4 Richard Beitzen , Z5 Paul Jakobi , Z8 Bruno Heinemann and Z29 for the voyage . She was moored next to a cliff , which protected the ship from air attacks from the southwest . The ship 's crew cut down trees and placed them aboard Tirpitz to camouflage her . Additional antiaircraft batteries were installed around the fjord , as were anti @-@ torpedo nets and heavy booms in the entrance to the anchorage . Life for the crew of Tirpitz was very monotonous during the deployment to Norway . Frequent fuel shortages curtailed training and kept the battleship and her escorts moored behind their protective netting . The crew was primarily occupied with maintaining the ship and continuously manning antiaircraft defences . Sports activities were organised to keep the crew occupied and physically fit .
= = = Operations against Allied convoys = = =
Several factors served to restrain Tirpitz 's freedom of operation in Norway . The most pressing were shortages of fuel and the withdrawal of the German destroyer forces to support Operation Cerberus , the movement of the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen up through the English Channel . These caused a planned attack against the outbound convoy PQ 8 at the end of January to be abandoned . A planned British air attack at the end of January by four @-@ engined heavy bombers was disrupted by poor weather over the target , which prevented the aircraft from finding the ship . In early February , Tirpitz took part in the deceptions that distracted the British in the run @-@ up to Operation Cerberus . These included steaming out of the fjord and the appearance of preparations for a sortie into the North Sea . Later that month , the ship was reinforced by the heavy cruisers Admiral Scheer and Prinz Eugen and several destroyers . Prinz Eugen had been torpedoed by a British submarine at the entrance to the Fættenfjord , and was therefore temporarily out of action .
In March 1942 Tirpitz and Admiral Scheer , along with the destroyers Z14 Friedrich Ihn , Z5 Paul Jakobi , Z7 Hermann Schoemann and Z25 and a pair of torpedo boats , were intended to attack the homebound convoy QP 8 and the outbound Convoy PQ 12 as part of Operation Sportpalast ( Sports Palace ) . Admiral Scheer , with a design speed of 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) , was too slow to operate with Tirpitz , and was left in port , as was the destroyer Paul Jakobi . The two torpedo boats were also released from the operation . On 5 March , Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft spotted PQ 12 near Jan Mayen Island ; the reconnaissance failed to note the battleship HMS Duke of York or the battlecruiser HMS Renown , both of which escorted the convoy , along with four destroyers . Unknown to the Germans , Admiral Tovey provided distant support to the convoys with the battleship HMS King George V , the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious , the heavy cruiser HMS Berwick , and six destroyers . Enigma intercepts again forewarned the British of Tirpitz 's attack , which allowed them to reroute the convoys . Admiral Tovey attempted to pursue Tirpitz on 9 March , but Admiral Otto Ciliax , the commander of the German squadron , had decided to return to port the previous evening . An air attack was launched early on the 9th ; twelve Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers attacked the ship in three groups , and Tirpitz successfully evaded the torpedoes . Only three men were wounded in the attack . Tirpitz 's anti @-@ aircraft gunners shot down two of the British aircraft . After the conclusion of the attack , Tirpitz made for Vestfjord , and from there to Trondheim , arriving on the evening of 13 March . On 30 March , thirty @-@ three Halifax bombers attacked the ship ; they scored no hits , and five aircraft were shot down . The RAF launched a pair of unsuccessful strikes in late April . On the night of 27 – 28 April , thirty @-@ one Halifaxes and twelve Lancasters ; five of the bombers were shot down . Another raid , composed of twenty @-@ three Halifaxes and eleven Lancasters , took place the following night . Two of the bombers were shot down by the German anti @-@ aircraft defences .
The actions of Tirpitz and her escorting destroyers in March used up 8 @,@ 230 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 100 long tons ) of fuel oil , which greatly reduced the available fuel supply . It took the Germans three months to replenish the fuel spent in the attempt to intercept the two Allied convoys . Convoy PQ 17 , which left Iceland on 27 June bound for the Soviet Union , was the next convoy targeted by Tirpitz and the rest of the German fleet stationed in Norway , during Operation Rösselsprung ( Knight 's Move ) . Escorting the convoy were the battleships Duke of York and USS Washington and the carrier Victorious . Tirpitz , Admiral Hipper , and six destroyers sortied from Trondheim , while a second task force consisting of Lützow , Admiral Scheer , and six destroyers operated out of Narvik and Bogenfjord . Lützow and three of the destroyers struck uncharted rocks while en route to the rendezvous and had to return to port . Shortly after Tirpitz left Norway , the Soviet submarine K @-
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. Only eight of the vessels reached Norway for the attack , which began early on 22 September . Three of the vessels , X5 , X6 , and X7 , successfully breached Tirpitz 's defences , two of which — X6 and X7 — managed to lay their mines . X5 was detected some 200 m ( 660 ft ) from the nets and sunk by a combination of gunfire and depth charges .
The mines caused extensive damage to the ship ; the first exploded abreast of turret Caesar , and the second detonated 45 to 55 m ( 148 to 180 ft ) off the port bow . A fuel oil tank was ruptured , shell plating was torn , a large indentation was formed in the bottom of the ship , and bulkheads in the double bottom buckled . Some 1 @,@ 430 t ( 1 @,@ 410 long tons ) of water flooded the ship in fuel tanks and void spaces in the double bottom of the port side , which caused a list of one to two degrees , which was balanced by counter @-@ flooding on the starboard side . The flooding damaged all of the turbo @-@ generators in generator room No. 2 , and all apart from one generator in generator room No. 1 were disabled by broken steam lines or severed power cables . Turret Dora was thrown from its bearings and could not be rotated ; this was particularly significant , as there were no heavy @-@ lift cranes in Norway powerful enough to lift the turret and place it back on its bearings . The ship 's two Arado Ar 196 floatplanes were thrown by the explosive concussion and completely destroyed . Repairs were conducted by the repair ship Neumark ; historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin remarked that the successful repair effort was " one of the most notable feats of naval engineering during the Second World War . " Repairs lasted until 2 April 1944 ; full speed trials were scheduled for the following day in Altafjord .
= = = = Operation Tungsten = = = =
The British were aware that Neumark and the repair crews left in March , which intimated Tirpitz was nearly operational . A major air strike — Operation Tungsten — involving the fleet carriers Victorious and Furious and the escort carriers Emperor , Fencer , Pursuer , and Searcher , was set for 4 April 1944 , but rescheduled a day earlier when Enigma decrypts revealed that Tirpitz was to depart at 05 : 29 on 3 April for sea trials . The attack consisted of 40 Barracuda dive @-@ bombers carrying 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) armor @-@ piercing bombs and 40 escorting fighters in two waves , scoring fifteen direct hits and two near misses . The aircraft achieved surprise , and only one was lost in the first wave ; it took twelve to fourteen minutes for all of Tirpitz 's antiaircraft batteries to be fully manned . The first wave struck at 05 : 29 , as tugs were preparing to assist the ship out of her mooring . The second wave arrived over the target an hour later , shortly after 06 : 30 . Despite the alertness of the German antiaircraft gunners , only one other bomber was shot down .
The air strike caused significant damage to the ship and inflicted serious casualties . William Garzke and Robert Dulin report the attack killed 122 men and wounded 316 others , while Hildebrand , Röhr , & Steinmetz report 132 fatalities and 270 wounded men , including the ship 's commander , KzS Hans Meyer . Two of the 15 cm turrets were destroyed by bombs , and both Ar 196 floatplanes were destroyed . Several of the bomb hits caused serious fires aboard the ship . Concussive shock disabled the starboard turbine engine , and saltwater used to fight the fires reached the boilers and contaminated the feed water . Some 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) of water flooded the ship , primarily through the two holes in the side shell created by shell splinters from near misses . Water used to fight the fires also contributed to the flooding . Dönitz ordered the ship be repaired , regardless of the cost , despite the fact that he understood Tirpitz could no longer be used in a surface action because of insufficient fighter support . Repair work began in early May ; destroyers ferried important equipment and workers from Kiel to Altafjord over the span of three days . By 2 June , the ship was again able to steam under her own power , and by the end of the month gunnery trials were possible . During the repair process , the 15 cm guns were modified to allow their use against aircraft , and specially @-@ fuzed 38 cm shells for barrage antiaircraft fire were supplied .
= = = = Operations Planet , Brawn , Tiger Claw , Mascot and Goodwood = = = =
A series of carrier strikes was planned over the next three months , but bad weather forced their cancellation . A repeat of Operation Tungsten , codenamed Operation Planet , was scheduled for 24 April . Operation Brawn , which was to have been carried out by 27 bombers and 36 fighters from Victorious and Furious , was to have taken place on 15 May , and Operation Tiger Claw was intended for 28 May . Victorious and Furious were joined by Indefatigable for Operation Mascot , which was to have been carried out on 17 July by 62 bombers and 30 fighters . The weather finally broke in late August , which saw the Goodwood series of attacks . Operations Goodwood I and II were launched on 22 August ; a carrier force consisting of the fleet carriers Furious , Indefatigable and Formidable and the escort carriers Nabob and Trumpeter launched a total of 38 bombers and 43 escort fighters between the two raids . The attacks failed to inflict any damage on Tirpitz , and three of the attacking aircraft were shot down . Goodwood III followed on 24 August , composed of aircraft from the fleet carriers only . Forty @-@ eight bombers and 29 fighters attacked the ship and scored two hits which caused minor damage . One , a 1600 @-@ pound bomb , penetrated the upper and lower armour decks and came to rest in the No. 4 switchboard room . Its fuze had been damaged and the bomb did not detonate . The second , a 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb , exploded but caused only superficial damage . Six planes were shot down in the attack . Goodwood IV followed on the 29th , with 34 bombers and 25 fighters from Formidable and Indefatigable . Heavy fog prevented any hits from being scored . One Firefly and a Corsair were shot down by Tirpitz 's gunners . The battleship expended 54 rounds from her main guns , 161 from the 15 cm guns and up to 20 percent of her light antiaircraft ammunition .
= = = = Operations Paravane and Obviate = = = =
The ineffectiveness of the great majority of the strikes launched by the Fleet Air Arm in mid @-@ 1944 led to the task of Tirpitz 's destruction being transferred to the RAF 's No. 5 Group . The RAF used Lancaster bombers to carry 6 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 5 @.@ 4 t ) Tallboy bombs to penetrate the ship 's heavy armour . The first attack , Operation Paravane , took place on 15 September 1944 ; operating from a forward base at Yagodnik in Russia , 23 Lancasters ( 17 each carrying one Tallboy and six each carrying twelve JW mines ) , scored a single hit on the ship 's bow . The Tallboy penetrated the ship , exited the keel , and exploded in the bottom of the fjord . 800 to 1 @,@ 000 t ( 790 to 980 long tons ) of water flooded the bow and caused a serious increase in trim forward . The ship was rendered unseaworthy and was limited to 8 to 10 knots ( 15 to 19 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 to 11 @.@ 5 mph ) . Concussive shock caused severe damage to fire @-@ control equipment . The damage persuaded the naval command to repair the ship for use only as a floating gun battery . Repair work was estimated to take nine months , but patching of the holes could be effected within a few weeks , allowing Tirpitz to be moved further south to Tromsø . On 15 October , the ship made the 200 nmi ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) trip to Tromsø under her own power , the last voyage of her career .
The RAF made a second attempt on 29 October , after the ship was moored off Håkøya Island outside Tromsø . Thirty @-@ two Lancasters attacked the ship with Tallboys during Operation Obviate . As on Operation Paravane , No. 9 Squadron and No. 617 Squadron carried out the attack together , which resulted in only one near miss , partially the result of bad weather over the target . The underwater explosion damaged the port rudder and shaft and caused some flooding . Tirpitz 's 38 cm fragmentation shells proved ineffective in countering the high @-@ level bombers ; one aircraft was damaged by ground @-@ based anti @-@ aircraft guns . Following the attack , the ship 's anchorage was significantly improved . A large sand bank was constructed under and around the ship to prevent her from capsizing , and anti @-@ torpedo nets were installed . Tirpitz retained a one @-@ degree list to port from earlier damage , and this was not corrected by counter @-@ flooding to retain as much reserve buoyancy as possible . The ship was also prepared for her role as a floating artillery platform : fuel was limited to only what was necessary to power the turbo @-@ generators , and the crew was reduced to 1 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men .
= = = = Operation Catechism = = = =
Operation Catechism , the final British attack on Tirpitz , took place on 12 November 1944 . The ship again used her 38 cm guns against the bombers , which approached the battleship at 09 : 35 ; Tirpitz 's main guns forced the bombers to disperse temporarily , but could not break up the attack . A force of 32 Lancasters from Nos. 9 and 617 Squadrons dropped 29 Tallboys on the ship , with two direct hits and one near miss . Several other bombs landed within the anti @-@ torpedo net barrier and caused significant cratering of the seabed ; this removed much of the sandbank that had been constructed to prevent the ship from capsizing . One bomb penetrated the ship 's deck between turrets Anton and Bruno but failed to explode . A second hit amidships between the aircraft catapult and the funnel and caused severe damage . A very large hole was blown into the ship 's side and bottom ; the entire section of belt armour abreast of the bomb hit was completely destroyed . A third bomb may have struck the ship on the port side of turret Caesar . The amidships hit caused significant flooding and quickly increased the port list to between 15 and 20 degrees . In ten minutes , the list increased to 30 to 40 degrees ; the captain issued the order to abandon ship . Progressive flooding increased the list to 60 degrees by 09 : 50 , though this appeared to stabilise temporarily . Eight minutes later , a large explosion rocked turret Caesar . The turret roof and part of the rotating structure were thrown 25 m ( 82 ft ) into the air and over into a group of men swimming to shore , crushing them . Tirpitz rapidly rolled over and buried her superstructure in the sea floor .
In the aftermath of the attack , 82 men trapped in the upturned hull were rescued by cutting through the bottom hull plates . Figures for the death toll vary from approximately 950 to 1 @,@ 204 . Approximately 200 survivors of the sinking were transferred to the heavy cruiser Lützow in January 1945 .
The performance of the Luftwaffe in the defence of Tirpitz was heavily criticised after her loss . Major Heinrich Ehrler , the commander of III . / Jagdgeschwader 5 ( 3rd Group of the 5th Fighter Wing ) , was blamed for the Luftwaffe 's failure to intercept the British bombers . He was court @-@ martialled in Oslo and threatened with the death penalty . Evidence was presented that his unit had failed to help the Kriegsmarine when requested . He was sentenced to three years in prison , but was released after a month , demoted , and reassigned to an Me 262 fighter squadron in Germany . Ehrler was exonerated by further investigations which concluded poor communication between the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe had caused the fiasco ; the aircrews had not been informed that Tirpitz had been moved off Håkøya two weeks before the attack .
The wreck of Tirpitz remained in place until after the war , when a joint German @-@ Norwegian company began salvage operations . Work lasted from 1948 until 1957 ; fragments of the ship are still sold by a Norwegian company . Ludovic Kennedy wrote in his history of the vessel that she " lived an invalid 's life and died a cripple 's death " .
= New Jersey Route 37 =
Route 37 is a state highway located in Ocean County , New Jersey , United States . The route runs 13 @.@ 43 mi ( 21 @.@ 61 km ) from Lakehurst at an intersection with Route 70 to an interchange with Route 35 in Seaside Heights . A four – to six – lane divided highway its entire length , Route 37 serves as the major east – west route through the Toms River area as well as a main route to the Barnegat Peninsula , crossing the Barnegat Bay on the Thomas A. Mathis and J. Stanley Tunney Bridges . The route through Toms River Township is lined with many businesses and named Little League World Champions Boulevard in honor of Toms River East Little League 's victory in the 1998 Little League World Series . Route 37 intersects many major roads in the Toms River area , including County Route 527 , the Garden State Parkway / U.S. Route 9 , Route 166 , County Route 549 , and County Route 571 . The route experiences congestion from both development in the area and from traffic bound for the barrier islands in the summer .
Route 37 was first legislated in 1927 in two sections : one running from Trenton to White Horse along the current U.S. Route 206 alignment that replaced part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 2 and the other running from Lakehurst to Point Pleasant that replaced part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 18 between Lakehurst and Toms River . In 1953 , Route 37 was legislated along its current alignment , with the designation dropped on the Trenton – White Horse segment to avoid the concurrency with U.S. Route 206 and the Seaside Heights – Point Pleasant section becoming a realignment of Route 35 . Route 37 was then proposed in the 1960s as a freeway running from White Horse to Seaside Heights . This freeway proposal was eventually altered to create Interstate 195 , running from Trenton to Wall Township .
= = Route description = =
Route 37 begins at the Lakehurst Circle intersection with Route 70 in Lakehurst , heading east on a four – lane divided highway . Soon after beginning , the route crosses into Manchester Township . It intersects Commonwealth Boulevard , which provides access to the Leisure Village West @-@ Pine Lake Park community , before crossing into Toms River Township . Route 37 continues east with many intersections that feature jughandles and at the intersection with Industrial Way , the road widens to six lanes . Route 37 passes to the north of Holiday City - Silver Ridge Park , an age @-@ restricted community which contributes to the large population of senior residents in the area . The route meets County Route 642 ( Mule Road ) and County Route 527 ( Oak Ridge Parkway / Lakehurst Road ) . After the intersection with County Route 527 , the route crosses over the North Branch of the Toms River .
Route 37 features a cloverleaf interchange with the Garden State Parkway / U.S. Route 9 . Past the Garden State Parkway , the route crosses the former alignment of U.S. Route 9 , Route 166 . Past this intersection , Route 37 becomes a road lined with several businesses . The route intersects County Route 549 ( Hooper Avenue ) and County Route 38 ( Clifton Avenue ) . County Route 627 ( Vaughn Avenue / West End Avenue ) intersects next and Route 37 runs along the border of Toms River and Island Heights , with Toms River to the north and Island Heights to the south . Route 37 meets the southern terminus of County Route 627 ( Central Avenue ) and fully enters Toms River Township again at the Gilford Avenue intersection . Further east , the route intersects County Route 549 Spur / County Route 571 ( Fischer Boulevard ) .
Route 37 crosses the Barnegat Bay on the Thomas A. Mathis and J. Stanley Tunney Bridges with the eastbound bridge featuring a drawbridge that allows ships to pass through while the westbound bridge is a higher @-@ level span . The route continues onto Pelican Island in the Barnegat Bay , crossing into a small piece of Berkeley Township . Route 37 crosses over a part of the Barnegat Bay and enters Seaside Heights on the Barnegat Peninsula , where the route comes to its eastern terminus at an interchange with Route 35 .
Due to the area 's vacationers , many of which come from New York and Northern New Jersey , Route 37 is routinely congested with seasonal traffic in the summer , especially on and around the Mathis and Tunney Bridges and at the Garden State Parkway interchange as heavy tourist traffic converges on the shore . Additionally , the road sees congestion due to the area 's rapid growth in commercial development .
= = History = =
Prior to 1927 , the route between present @-@ day Route 70 in Lakehurst and present @-@ day County Route 527 in Toms River was a part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 18 , which was legislated in 1923 to run from Camden to Toms River . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 37 was legislated to run from Route 27 and Route 30 ( now U.S. Route 1 Business , U.S. Route 206 , and Route 31 ) in Trenton to Route 35 ( now Route 88 ) in Point Pleasant , passing through White Horse , Allentown , Lakehurst , Toms River , and Seaside Heights . The portion between Trenton and White Horse replaced part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 2 , while the portion between Lakehurst and Toms River replaced part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 18 .
Following the 1927 renumbering , Route 37 existed in two separate sections , one running from downtown Trenton to the White Horse Circle , concurrent with U.S. Route 206 , and one running from Route 40 ( now Route 70 ) in Lakehurst to Point Pleasant . The remainder of the route between White Horse and Lakehurst remained incomplete . There are , as of mid @-@ 2008 , a few old concrete bridges dating from the 1930s and 1940s between the White Horse Circle and Allentown , which list sections of what is now County Route 524 as having been Route 37 at that time , as well as one or two along County Route 539 south of Allentown . In addition , some maps labeled these routes as being part of Route 37 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 37 was legislated to run along its current alignment from Route 70 in Lakehurst to Route 35 in Seaside Heights . The number was dropped between Trenton and White Horse in favor of U.S. Route 206 , while the section between Seaside Heights and Point Pleasant became a realignment of Route 35 .
Route 37 was proposed in the late 1960s as a freeway that was to run from Route 29 in the Trenton area to Seaside Heights . It was suggested that this freeway be completed by 1975 in order to handle a rapid growth of population in Central New Jersey . In 1967 , this proposal was altered to build a road that compromised with the proposed Route 38 freeway between Camden and Wall Township . It soon received federal funding and was built as Interstate 195 , running from Trenton to Wall Township .
The portion of Route 37 within Toms River Township was officially named Little League World Champions Boulevard in 1998 following Toms River East Little League 's victory in the 1998 Little League World Series .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Ocean County .
= Operation Winter Storm =
Operation Winter Storm ( German : Unternehmen Wintergewitter ) was a German offensive in World War II in which the German 4th Panzer Army unsuccessfully attempted to break the Soviet encirclement of the German 6th Army during the Battle of Stalingrad .
In late November 1942 , the Red Army completed Operation Uranus , encircling some 300 @,@ 000 Axis personnel in and around the city of Stalingrad . German forces within the Stalingrad pocket and directly outside were reorganized under Army Group Don , under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Erich von Manstein . Meanwhile , the Red Army continued to allocate as many resources as possible to the eventual launch of the planned Operation Saturn , which aimed to isolate Army Group A from the rest of the German Army . To remedy the situation , the Luftwaffe attempted to supply German forces in Stalingrad through an air bridge . When the Luftwaffe proved incapable of carrying out its mission and it became obvious that a successful breakout could occur only if launched as early as possible , Manstein decided on a relief effort .
Originally , Manstein was promised four panzer divisions . Due to German reluctance to weaken certain sectors by redeploying German units , the task of opening a corridor to the German 6th Army fell to the 4th Panzer Army . The German force was pitted against several Soviet armies tasked with the destruction of the encircled German forces and their offensive around the lower Chir River .
The German offensive caught the Red Army by surprise and made large gains on the first day . The spearhead forces enjoyed air support and were able to defeat counterattacks by Soviet troops . By 13 December , Soviet resistance slowed the German advance considerably . Although German forces took the area surrounding Verkhne @-@ Kumskiy , the Red Army launched Operation Little Saturn on 16 December . Operation Little Saturn defeated the Italian 8th Army on Army Group Don 's left flank , threatening the survival of Manstein 's entire group of forces . As resistance and casualties increased , Manstein appealed to Hitler and to the commander of the German 6th Army , General Friedrich Paulus , to allow the 6th Army to break out of Stalingrad ; both refused . The 4th Panzer Army continued its attempt to open a corridor to the 6th Army on 18 – 19 December , but was unable to do so without the aid of forces inside the Stalingrad pocket . Manstein was forced to call off the assault on 23 December and by Christmas Eve the 4th Panzer Army began to withdraw to its starting position . Due to the failure of the 6th Army to breakout and the attempt to break the Soviet encirclement , the Red Army was able to continue the destruction of German forces in Stalingrad .
= = Background = =
On 23 November 1942 , the Red Army closed its encirclement of Axis forces in Stalingrad . Nearly 300 @,@ 000 German and Romanian soldiers , as well as Russian volunteers for the Wehrmacht , were trapped in and around the city of Stalingrad by roughly 1 @.@ 1 million Soviet personnel . Amidst the impending disaster , German chancellor Adolf Hitler appointed Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Erich von Manstein as commander of the newly created Army Group Don . Composed of the German 4th Panzer and 6th Armies , as well as the Third and Fourth Romanian Armies , Manstein 's new army group was situated between German Army Groups A and B. Instead of attempting an immediate breakout , German high command decided that the trapped forces would remain in Stalingrad in a bid to hold out . The encircled German forces were to be resupplied by air , requiring roughly 680 t ( 750 short tons ) of supplies per day . However , the assembled fleet of 500 transport aircraft were insufficient for the task . Many of the aircraft were hardly serviceable in the rough Soviet winter ; in early December , more German cargo planes were destroyed in accidents than by Soviet fighter aircraft . The German 6th Army , for example , was getting less than 20 % of its daily needs . Furthermore , the Germans were still threatened by Soviet forces which still held portions of the Volga River 's west bank in Stalingrad .
Given the unexpected size of German forces closed off in Stalingrad , on 23 November Stavka ( Soviet Armed Forces High Command ) decided to strengthen the outer encirclement preparing to destroy Axis forces in and around the city . On 24 November , several Soviet formations began to entrench themselves to defend against possible German incursions originating from the West . The Soviets also reinforced the encircling forces in order to prevent a successful breakout operation by the German 6th Army and other Axis units . However , this tied down over ½ of the Red Army 's strength in the area . Planning for Operation Saturn began on 25 November , aiming for the destruction of the Italian 8th Army and the severing of communications between German forces west of the Don River and those operating in the Caucasus . Meanwhile , planning also began for Operation Koltso ( Ring ) , which aimed at reducing German forces in the Stalingrad pocket .
As Operation Uranus concluded , German forces inside the encirclement were too weak to attempt a breakout on their own . Half of their remaining armor , for example , had been lost during the defensive fighting , and there was a severe lack of fuel and ammunition for the surviving vehicles , given that the Luftwaffe was not able to provide adequate aerial resupply . Feldmarschall von Manstein proposed a counterstrike to break the Soviet encirclement of Stalingrad , codenamed Operation Winter Storm ( German : Wintergewitter ) . Manstein believed that — due to the inability of the Luftwaffe to supply the Stalingrad pocket — it was becoming more important to relieve them " at the earliest possible date " . On 28 November , Manstein sent Hitler a detailed report on Army Group Don 's situation , including the strength of the German 6th Army and an assessment on the available ammunition for German artillery inside the city . The dire strategic situation made Manstein doubtful on whether or not the relief operation could afford to wait to receive all units earmarked for the offensive .
Stavka postponed Operation Saturn until 16 December , as Soviet forces struggled to clear German defenders from the lower Chir River . The Red Army 's offensive in the area commenced on 30 November , involving around 50 @,@ 000 soldiers , which forced Manstein to use the 48th Panzer Corps in an attempt to hold the area . In response , the 5th Tank Army was reinforced by the newly created 5th Shock Army , drawn from existing formations of the South @-@ Western and Stalingrad Fronts ; the 5th Tank Army totaled nearly 71 @,@ 000 men , 252 tanks and 814 artillery guns . The Soviet offensive succeeded in tying down the 48th Panzer Corps , originally chosen to lead one of the main attacks on the Soviet encirclement . The Soviets were forewarned of the impending German assault when they discovered the German 6th Panzer Division unloading at the town of Morozovsk , and as a result , held back several armies from the attack on the lower Chir River to prepare for a possible breakout attempt by German forces inside Stalingrad .
= = Comparison of forces = =
= = = Participating German forces = = =
The relief operation was originally scheduled to include the LVII Panzer Corps of the 4th Panzer Army , under the command of General Friedrich Kirchner , including the 6th and 23rd Panzer Divisions , and Army Detachment Hollid
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himself , but in time it won acclaim as " the highest achievement in all Polish literature . "
The occasional poems that Mickiewicz wrote in his final decades have been described as " exquisite , gnomic , extremely short and concise " . His Lausanne Lyrics , ( 1839 – 40 ) are , writes Miłosz , " untranslatable masterpieces of metaphysical meditation . In Polish literature they are examples of that pure poetry that verges on silence . "
In the 1830s ( as early as 1830 ; as late as 1837 ) he worked on a futurist or science @-@ fiction work , A History of the Future . It predicted inventions similar to radio and television , and interplanetary communication using balloons . Written in French , it was never completed and was partly destroyed by the author . Other French @-@ language works by Mickiewicz include the dramas Les Confederes de Bar ( The Bar Confederates ) and Jacques Jasiński , ous les deux Polognes ( Jacques Jasiński , or the Two Polands ) . These would not achieve much recognition , and would not be published till 1866 . While Mickiewicz did not write any poems in Lithuanian , and his command of that language has been described as likely limited , on one occasion in the early 1850s he transcribed a short folk song in that language , Ejk Tatuszeli i bytiu darża .
= = Legacy = =
A prime figure of the Polish Romantic period , Mickiewicz is counted as one of Poland 's's Three Bards ( the others being Zygmunt Krasiński and Juliusz Słowacki ) and the greatest poet in all Polish literature . Mickiewicz has long been regarded as Poland 's national poet and is a revered figure in Lithuania . He is also considered one of the greatest Slavic and European poets . He has been described as a " Slavic bard " . He was a leading Romantic dramatist and has been compared in Poland and in Europe with Byron and Goethe .
Mickiewicz 's importance extends beyond literature to the broader spheres of culture and politics ; Wyka writes that he was a " singer and epic poet of the Polish people , and a pilgrim for the freedom of nations . " Scholars have used the expression " cult of Mickiewicz " to describe the reverence in which he is held as a " national prophet . " On hearing of Mickiewicz 's death , his fellow bard Krasiński wrote : " For men of my generation , he was milk and honey , gall and life 's blood : we all descend from him . He carried us off on the surging billow of his inspiration and cast us into the world . " Edward Henry Lewinski Corwin described Mickiewicz 's works as Promethean , as " reaching more Polish hearts " than the other Polish Bards , and affirmed Danish critic Georg Brandes ' assessment of Mickiewicz 's works as " healthier " than those of Byron , Shakespeare , Homer , and Goethe . Koropeckyi writes that Mickiewicz has " informed the foundations of [ many ] parties and ideologies " in Poland from the 19th century to this day , " down to the rappers in Poland 's post @-@ socialist blocks , who can somehow still declare that ' if Mickiewicz was alive today , he 'd be a good rapper . ' " While Mickiewicz 's popularity has endured two centuries in Poland , he is less well known abroad though , particularly in the 19th century , he won substantial international fame among " people that dared resist the brutal might of reactionary empires . "
Mickiewicz has been written about or had works dedicated to him by many authors in Poland ( Asnyk , Gałczyński , Iwaszkiewicz , Jastrun , Kasprowicz , Lechoń , Konopnicka , Teofil Lenartowicz , Norwid , Przyboś , Różewicz , Słonimski , Słowacki , Staff , Tetmajer , Tuwim , Ujejski , Wierzyński , Zaleski and others ) and by authors outside Poland ( Bryusov , Goethe , Pushkin , Uhland , Vrchlický and others ) . He has been a character in works of fiction , including a large body of dramatized biographies , e.g. , in 1900 , Stanisław Wyspiański 's Legion . He has also been a subject of many paintings , by Eugène Delacroix , Józef Oleszkiewicz , Aleksander Orłowski , Wojciech Stattler and Walenty Wańkowicz . Monuments and other tributes ( streets and schools named for him ) abound in Poland and Lithuania , and in other former territories of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth : Ukraine and Belarus . He has also been the subject of many statues and busts by Antoine Bourdelle , David d 'Angers , Antoni Kurzawa , Władysław Oleszczyński , Zbigniew Pronaszko , Teodor Rygier , Wacław Szymanowski and Jakub Tatarkiewicz . In 1898 , the 100th anniversary of his birth , a towering statue by Cyprian Godebski was erected in Warsaw . Its base carries the inscription , " To the Poet from the People " . In 1955 , the 100th anniversary of his death , the University of Poznań adopted him as its official patron .
A number of museums in Europe are dedicated to Mickiewicz . Warsaw has an Adam Mickiewicz Museum of Literature . His house in Navahrudak , Belarus , is now a museum ( Adam Mickiewicz Museum , Navahrudak ) ; as is the house where he lived and died in Istanbul ( Adam Mickiewicz Museum , Istanbul ) . There is a Musée Adam Mickiewicz in Paris , France .
Much has been written about Mickiewicz , though the vast majority of this scholarly and popular literature is available only in Polish . Works devoted to him , according to Koropeckyi , author of a 2008 English biography , " could fill a good shelf or two " . Koropeckyi notes that , apart from some specialist literature , only five book @-@ length biographies of Mickiewicz have been published in English . He also writes that , though many of Mickiewicz 's works have been reprined numerous times , no language has a " definitive critical edition of his works . "
= = Ethnicity = =
Adam Mickiewicz , whose works were written in the Polish language , is generally known as a Polish poet . He is described by some authors as " Polish @-@ Lithuanian " or Belarusian @-@ Polish . The Cambridge History of Russia describes him as Polish but sees his ethnic origins as " Lithuanian @-@ Belarusian ( and perhaps Jewish ) . " According to the Belarusian historian Rybczonek , Mickiewicz 's mother had Tatar roots .
Some sources assert that Mickiewicz 's mother was descended from a converted , Frankist Jewish family . Others view this as improbable . Polish historian Kazimierz Wyka , in his biographic entry in Polski Słownik Biograficzny ( 1975 ) writes that this hypothesis , based on the fact that his mother 's maiden name , Majewska , was popular among Frankist Jews , has not been proven . Wyka states that poet 's mother was the daughter of a noble ( szlachta ) family of Starykoń coat of arms , living on an estate at Czombrów in Nowogródek Voivodeship ( Navahrudak Voivodeship ) .
The Lithuanian scholar of literature Juozapas Girdzijauskas writes that Mickiewicz 's family was descended from an old Lithuanian noble family ( Rimvydas ) with origins predating Lithuania 's Christianization . The Lithuanian nobility in Mickiewicz 's time was heavily Polonized and spoke Polish . Mickiewicz had been brought up in the culture of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , a multicultural state that had encompassed most of what today are the separate countries of Poland , Lithuania , Belarus and Ukraine . To Mickiewicz , a splitting of that multicultural state into separate entities , due to trends such as Lithuanian separatism , was undesirable , if not outright unthinkable . According to Romanucci @-@ Ross , while Mickiewicz called himself a " Lithuanian " , in his time the idea of a separate " Lithuanian identity " , apart from a " Polish " one , did not exist . This multicultural aspect is evident in his works ; his most famous poetic work , Pan Tadeusz , begins with the Polish @-@ language invocation , " O Lithuania , my country , thou art like good health ... " ( " Litwo ! Ojczyzno moja ! ty jesteś jak zdrowie ... " . It is generally accepted , however , that Mickiewicz , when referring to Lithuania , meant a historical region rather than a linguistic and cultural entity , and he often applied the term " Lithuanian " to the Slavic inhabitants of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania .
= = Selected works = =
Oda do młodości ( Ode to Youth ) , 1820
Ballads and Romances , 1822
Grażyna , 1823
The Crimean Sonnets , 1826
Konrad Wallenrod , 1828
The Books of the Polish People and of the Polish Pilgrimage , 1832
Pan Tadeusz , 1834
Lausanne Lyrics , 1839 – 40
Dziady ( Forefathers ' Eve ) , four parts , published from 1822 to after the author 's death
L 'histoire d 'avenir ( A History of the Future ) , unpublished
= Hasta la Raíz ( song ) =
" Hasta la Raíz " ( English : " To the Root " ) is a song by Mexican recording artist Natalia Lafourcade . It was released on January 14 , 2015 by Sony Music Mexico . After attaining success from her previous album , Mujer Divina , a tribute to Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Agustín Lara , Lafourcade decided to record an album with original recordings . Lafourcade spent three years in the writing process , searching for inspiration in different cities , resulting in songs with personal feelings regarding love . The song was produced by Lafourcade and enlisted Argentinian musician Cachorro López to assist with the production , and wrote the track with Mexican artist Leonel García .
After its release as the lead single from the album of the same title , " Hasta la Raíz " received positive reviews from music critics . The song was also commercially successful , peaking at number 17 on the US Billboard Latin Pop Songs and number five in Mexico . A music video for the track was directed by Alonso Ruizpalacios and recorded at the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City , gathering 300 fans who responded to an invitation posted by Lafourcade in social networks . The video ranked on the list for the " 10 Best Latin Music Videos of 2015 " by Latin Post . " Hasta la Raíz " earned the accolades for Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Alternative Song at the 16th Latin Grammy Awards .
= = Background = =
In 2010 , Natalia Lafourcade joined Mexican orchestra conductor Alondra de la Parra on the album Travieso Carmesí , a musical project created to celebrate the Bicentennial of Mexico . Lafourcade analyzed Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Agustín Lara 's catalogue and decided to record a tribute album with his songs , since the singer wanted to give herself the opportunity to perform songs written by another person . In 2014 , Lafourcade wanted to find a balance between heart , mind and body , and traveled to Veracruz , Colombia and Cuba , searching for inspiration to write new music . " This [ new ] album was made parallel to the experience of singing the Lara 's music ... is the result of my need to be proud of my songs . " Lafourcade said to Vívelo Hoy . The album Hasta la Raíz is Lafourcade 's sixth studio album and is her first album of original material in six years , since Hu Hu Hu ( 2009 ) and was produced by Argentinean musician Cachorro López , Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Leonel García and herself after another record producer became very expensive . The album version of the track was released as a digital download on January 14 , 2015 and a new version entitled " Canova 's Root Version " was available on May 19 , 2015 . Lafourcade included the song on the live EP Spotify Sessions . " Hasta la Raíz " is featured in the Italian edition of the album series Now Summer Hits 2015 .
= = Writing and recording = =
Lafourcade overcame writer 's block , but felt that the songs she wrote were too similar compared to her previous albums , so she sought inspiration from Lara 's repertoire and her native country , Mexico . " One of the things I wanted to happen with this record was to find the connection with Mexico and its people again . I am Mexican proud of the positive parts that Mexico have , which are many . " Musically , the singer wanted simplicity . Lafourcade forced herself to write " without judgement " , recording voice memos on her phone during the process . The singer was also inspired by the work of Latin American songwriters such as Simón Díaz , Violeta Parra , Mercedes Sosa , Chavela Vargas , and Caetano Veloso . While recording demos , Lafourcade realized that the songs were more direct and emotional than her previous work . The writing process took three years to complete , resulting in approximately 30 songs , from which the singer selected " the strongest ones " , since the album was about her personal life and wanted to record the best of the bunch to represent it , " more than making an album , I wanted to have songs ... songs that could stand on their own . "
" Hasta la Raíz " was written by Lafourcade and Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Leonel García , since Lafourcade wanted to experiment with other composers on her music and they became friends while working on her album Mujer Divina and his album Todas Mías ( 2012 ) . García had an idea about the song , and they finished together the music . Laforcade referred to this collaboration as " magical " , with this song being an anthem to the human strength , without forgetting our roots , " It came out of a conversation about maintaining a sense of connection to where you come from . " García played a huapango riff , and Lafourcade started singing along while producer Cachorro López recorded everything , and the final result is from that session .
= = Critical reception = =
After its release , " Hasta la Raíz " received positive reviews from music critics . Luis Romero of the website Coffee and Saturday and the music editor of Televisa Espectáculos were in agreement that the song keeps a musical style similar to her previous album , Mujer Divina , with Agustin Lara 's influence being evident . Andrew Casillas of Club Fonograma stated that the song sounds " rich " , but resembles Chilean singer @-@ songwriter Camila Moreno , and that even if it " doesn ’ t sound like a bold step outward for Natalia , there ’ s certainly no need to lower your expectations " . Lissette Corsa , of MTV Iggy , declared that the " staccato strumming " of the track " evokes the huapango rhythm of Veracruz , Mexico , Lafourcade ’ s hometown " . Lafourcade performed the track at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2015 , where it won Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Alternative Song .
= = Commercial reception = =
" Hasta la Raíz " was released as a promotional single from the same @-@ titled album on January 14 , 2015 , and was later released as the second single , following " Nunca Es Suficiente " . The song peaked at number five in Mexico 's Monitor Latino Pop Songs chart , number nine in the Billbard 's Español Airplay , and 27 in the General Airplay charts , respectively . In the United States , the track peaked at number 17 in the U.S. Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , being the highest peak for a Lafourcade single , after " Mírame , Mírate " and " En el 2000 " reached 19 and 35 , respectively , in 2003 . Following Lafourcade 's performance at the Latin Grammys , the song climbed to number nine on the Billboard Latin Pop Digital Songs , with a sales increase of 86 % , selling 1 @,@ 000 downloads .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Alonso Ruizpalacios , at the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City , gathering 300 fans who responded to an invitation posted by Lafourcade in social networks . The singer asked her fans to send a thought inspired by the song or a personal story derived from their identification with " Hasta la Raíz " . " I thought that we would get few answers , but received almost 800 responses immediately , and later it turned into a riot and we did not know if they would get out of control , but nothing happened , my fans are super cool , " Lafourcade told Variety Latino . In the video , shot in black and white , Lafourcade is surrounded by several people who lead her to a stage to perform the last part of the song , in the meantime , Lafourcade throws flowers in the air , kisses a guy and plays a guitar . According to Milly Contreras of Latin Post the video " shows off the singer 's individuality and simplicity " and included it at number 7 in the list for the " 10 Best Latin Music Videos of 2015 " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Hasta la Raíz album liner notes .
Natalia Lafourcade – producer , vocals , keyboard , electric guitar , percussions
Cachorro López – producer
Leonel García – acoustic guitar , voice director
Alan Ortíz – programming
Gustavo Guerrero – electric guitar , percussion
Uriel Herrera – drums , percussion
José Lugo – percussion
Mariana Ruiz – bass guitar
= Bath School disaster =
The Bath School disaster , sometimes known as the Bath School massacre , was a series of violent attacks perpetrated by Andrew Kehoe on May 18 , 1927 , in Bath Township , Michigan , that killed 38 elementary schoolchildren and 6 adults and injured at least 58 other people . Kehoe killed his wife and firebombed his farm , then detonated an explosion in the Bath Consolidated School , before committing suicide by detonating a final device in his truck . It is the deadliest mass murder to take place at a school in United States history .
Andrew Kehoe , the 55 @-@ year @-@ old school board treasurer , was angered by increased taxes and his defeat in the Spring 1926 election for township clerk . He was thought to have planned his " murderous revenge " after that public defeat . He had a reputation for difficulty on the school board and in personal dealings . In addition , in June 1926 , he was notified that his mortgage was going to be foreclosed . For much of the next year , a neighbor noticed Kehoe had stopped working on his farm and thought he might be planning suicide . During that period , Kehoe purchased explosives and discreetly planted them on his property and under the school .
Kehoe 's wife was ill with tuberculosis , he had stopped making mortgage payments , and he was under pressure for foreclosure . Some time between May 16 and the morning of May 18 , 1927 , Kehoe murdered his wife . Then on the morning of May 18 at about 8 : 45 a.m. , he set off various incendiary devices on his homestead that caused the house and other farm buildings to be destroyed by the explosives ' blasts and their subsequent fires .
Almost simultaneously , an explosion devastated the north wing of the school building , killing 36 schoolchildren and two teachers . Kehoe had used a timed detonator to ignite hundreds of pounds of dynamite and incendiary pyrotol , which he had secretly planted inside the school over the course of many months . As rescuers began working at the school , Kehoe drove up , stopped , and used a rifle to detonate dynamite inside his shrapnel @-@ filled truck , killing himself , the school superintendent , and several others nearby , as well as injuring more bystanders . During rescue efforts at the school , searchers discovered an additional 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) of unexploded dynamite and pyrotol connected to a timing device set to detonate at the same time as the first explosions ; the material was hidden throughout the basement of the south wing . Kehoe had apparently intended to blow up and destroy the entire school .
= = Background = =
= = = Bath Township = = =
Bath Township is a small community located ten miles ( 16 km ) northeast of Lansing , Michigan , and contains the unincorporated village of Bath . In the early 1920s , the area was primarily agricultural . In the early part of the 20th century , many small one @-@ room schools , where different grades shared the same classroom and teacher , were closed . Educators of the era believed that children would receive a better and more complete education if students could attend a single school at one location . The grades could be age @-@ divided into classes , and the facilities could be of a higher quality .
After years of debate , in 1922 Bath Township voters approved creation of the consolidated school district , and the increase in property taxes to pay for the new school . When the school opened , it had 236 students enrolled in grades 1 @-@ 12 . All area landowners had to pay higher property taxes . At the time of the bombing , the village had about 300 residents .
= = = Andrew Kehoe = = =
Andrew Philip Kehoe was born in Tecumseh , Michigan , on February 1 , 1872 . Kehoe 's mother died when he was young , and his father married a much younger widow . Reportedly , Kehoe often quarreled with his stepmother . When he was fourteen , the family 's oil stove exploded and set his stepmother on fire . Kehoe threw a bucket of water on her , but because the fire was oil @-@ based , his action spread the flames more rapidly over her body . She died from her injuries . Some of his neighbors believed that Kehoe had caused the stove explosion .
He studied electrical engineering at Michigan State College in East Lansing . After that , he moved to St. Louis , Missouri , where he worked as an electrician . After several years in Missouri , Kehoe returned to Michigan . At the age of 40 , he married Ellen " Nellie " Price in 1912 . Seven years later they moved to a farm they bought outside the village of Bath . Even though Kehoe was said to be dependable , doing favors and volunteer work for his neighbors , they also described him as being impatient with all who disagreed with him . They recounted that Kehoe had shot and killed a neighbor 's dog that had come on his property and annoyed him by barking . He was known to have beaten one of his horses to death when it did not perform as well as he wanted .
With a reputation for frugality , Kehoe was elected in 1924 as a trustee for three years and treasurer for one year on the school board . He argued endlessly for lower taxes The later superintendent of the board , M. W. Keys , said that Kehoe " fought the expenditure of money for the most necessary equipment . " He was considered extremely difficult to work with , often voting against the rest of the board and wanting his own way . Kehoe repeatedly accused Superintendent Emory Huyck of financial mismanagement .
He argued with township financial authorities , trying to get the valuation of his property reduced , and claimed that he had paid too much for the farm . He also tried to get the mortgage taken off but was not successful . In June 1926 , he was notified that the company was going to foreclose on his property . Kehoe was appointed in 1925 to temporarily fill the position of town clerk but , several months later , he was defeated in the regular spring 1926 election for the position . This public rejection by the community angered him . In his eyewitness account , The Bath School Disaster , Monty J. Ellsworth said he thought this rejection was the reason Kehoe had planned his " murderous revenge " of the bombings , to destroy the school and kill the community 's children and many of its members .
A. McMullen , another neighbor , noted that Kehoe had stopped working on his farm altogether for most of the preceding year , and thought he might be planning suicide . For this reason , when Kehoe gave him one of his horses about April 1927 , McMullen returned it .
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It was discovered later that , as part of Kehoe 's preparations to destroy his farm , he had cut all his wire fences , girdled young shade trees to kill them , and cut off his grapevine plants before putting them back on their stumps to hide the damage . He gathered lumber and other materials and put them in the tool shed , which he later exploded with an incendiary bomb .
By the time of the bombing , Nellie Kehoe had become chronically ill with tuberculosis , for which there was no effective treatment or cure . Her frequent hospital stays may have contributed to the family 's debt . Kehoe had ceased making mortgage and homeowner 's insurance payments months earlier .
= = = Purchase and planting of explosives = = =
There is no clear indication when Kehoe conceived and planned the steps leading to the ultimate events , but his neighbor , M. J. Ellsworth , thought that Kehoe conceived his plan after being defeated in early 1926 for the election as town clerk . The general consensus of the townspeople was that Kehoe had worked on his plan at least since August of the previous year .
M.W. Keyes , a member of the Bath School Board was quoted by the New York Times as saying
I have no doubt that he made his plans last Fall [ 1926 ] to blow up the school ... He was an experienced electrician and the board employed him in November to make some repairs on the school lighting system . He had ample opportunity then to plant the explosives and lay the wires for touching it off .
Kehoe had free access to the building during the summer vacation of 1926 .
From mid @-@ 1926 , Kehoe began buying more than a ton of pyrotol , an incendiary explosive used by farmers during the era for excavation and burning of debris . In November 1926 , he drove to Lansing and bought two boxes of dynamite at a sporting goods store . As dynamite was also commonly used on farms , Kehoe 's purchase of small amounts of explosives at different stores and on different dates did not raise any suspicions . Neighbors reported hearing explosions set off on the farm , with one even calling him " the dynamite farmer " .
In December 1926 , according to the testimony of Lieutenant Lyle Morse , a Michigan State Police investigator with the Department of Public Safety , Kehoe purchased a .30 @-@ caliber Winchester bolt @-@ action rifle .
= = Day of the disaster = =
= = = Prior to the disaster = = =
Prior to May 18 , Kehoe had loaded the back seat of his truck with all sorts of metal debris capable of producing shrapnel during an explosion . He also bought a new set of tires for his truck so it wouldn 't break down when transporting the explosives . He didn 't want it to look suspicious that his truck was full of dangerous products . He made many trips to Lansing for more explosives , as well as the school , town , and his house . Many of his neighbors noticed how busy he was driving around , but never thought to make any comment about it . Multiple times , a neighbor to the school saw a man carrying objects into the building at night , but never thought to mention it to anyone .
Nellie Kehoe had been discharged on May 16 from Lansing 's St. Lawrence Hospital . Between her release and the bombings two days later , Kehoe killed his wife . He put her body in a wheelbarrow located in the rear of the farm 's chicken coop , where it was found after the farm explosions and fire in a heavily charred state . Piled around the cart were silverware and a metal cash box . Ashes of several bank notes could be seen through a slit in the cash box . Kehoe had placed and wired homemade pyrotol firebombs in the house and all the buildings of the farm . The burned remains of his two horses were found tied in their enclosures with their legs wired together , to prevent their rescue during the fire .
= = = Farm bombs = = =
At approximately 8 : 45 a.m. , Kehoe detonated the firebombs in his house and farm buildings , causing some debris to fly into a neighbor 's poultry brooding house . Neighbors noticed the fire , and volunteers rushed to the scene .
O. H. Bush , a fireman , and several other men crawled through a broken window of the farmhouse in search of survivors . When they determined no one was in the farmhouse , they salvaged what furniture they could before the fire spread into the living room . Discovering dynamite in the corner , Bush picked up an armful of explosives and handed it to one of the men . As Kehoe left his burning farm and house in his Ford truck , he stopped to tell those fighting the fire , " Boys , you 're my friends . You better get out of here . You better head down to the school " , and drove off .
= = = Explosion in north wing of school = = =
Classes began at 8 : 30 a.m. that morning . At about 8 : 45 a.m. , in the basement of the north wing of the school , an alarm clock set by Kehoe detonated the dynamite and pyrotol he had hidden there .
Rescuers heading to the scene of the Kehoe farm fire heard the explosion at the school building , turned back and headed toward the school . Parents within the rural community also began rushing to the school . The school building had turned into a war zone with thirty @-@ eight people , mostly children , being killed in the initial explosion .
First @-@ grade teacher Bernice Sterling told an Associated Press reporter that the explosion was like an earthquake :
" It seemed as though the floor went up several feet , " she said . " After the first shock I thought for a moment I was blind . When it came the air seemed to be full of children and flying desks and books . Children were tossed high in the air ; some were catapulted out of the building .
The north wing of the school had collapsed . Parts of the walls had crumbled , and the edge of the roof had fallen to the ground . Monty Ellsworth , a neighbor of the Kehoes , recounted ,
" There was a pile of children of about five or six under the roof and some of them had arms sticking out , some had legs , and some just their heads sticking out . They were unrecognizable because they were covered with dust , plaster , and blood . There were not enough of us to move the roof . "
Ellsworth volunteered to drive back to his farm and get a rope heavy enough to pull the school roof off the children 's bodies . Returning to his farm , Ellsworth saw Kehoe in the opposite direction heading toward the school . " He grinned and waved his hand ; when he grinned , I could see both rows of his teeth " , said Ellsworth .
The scene at the school building was chaotic . Robert Gates , a witness , said
" ... mother after mother came running into the school yard , and demanded information about her child and , on seeing the lifeless form lying on the lawn , sobbed and swooned ... In no time more than 100 men were at work tearing away the debris of the school , and nearly as many women were frantically pawing over the timber and broken bricks for traces of their children . "
= = = Truck explosion = = =
About a half hour after the explosion , Kehoe drove up to the school and saw Superintendent Huyck . Kehoe summoned the superintendent over to his truck . Charles Hawson testified at the Inquest that he saw the two men struggle over some type of long gun and that the car then went up in an explosion , killing Superintendent Huyck , Kehoe , Nelson McFarren ( a retired farmer ) and Cleo Clayton , an eight @-@ year @-@ old second grader . Clayton , a survivor of the first blast , had wandered out of the school building debris and was killed by the fragmentation from the exploding vehicle . The explosion also mortally wounded postmaster Glenn O. Smith ( who lost a leg and died later that day of his wounds ) and injured several others .
After Kehoe 's truck exploded , Ellsworth recounted ,
I saw one mother , Mrs. Eugene Hart , sitting on the bank a short distance from the school with a little dead girl on each side of her and holding a little boy , Percy , who died a short time after they got him to the hospital . This was about the time Kehoe blew his car up in the street , severely wounding Perry , the oldest child of Mr. and Mrs. Hart .
O. H. Bush , foreman of the road crew , recalled the scene after the final explosion :
I began to feel as though the world was coming to an end . I guess I was a bit hazy . Anyway , the next thing I remember I was out on the street . One of our men was binding up the wounds of Glenn Smith , the postmaster . His leg had been blown off . I went back to the building and helped with the rescue work until we were ordered to stop while a search was made for dynamite .
= = = Recovery and rescue = = =
Telephone operators stayed at their stations for hours to summon doctors , undertakers , area hospitals and anyone else who might help . The Lansing Fire Department sent several firefighters and its chief .
The local physician , Dr. J. A. Crum and his wife , a nurse , had both served in World War I , and had returned to Bath to open a pharmacy . After the explosion the Crums turned their drugstore into a triage center with the dead bodies being taken to the town hall , which was being used as a morgue .
Hundreds of people worked in the wreckage all day and into the night in an effort to find and rescue any children pinned underneath . Area contractors had sent all their men to assist , and many other people came to the scene in response to the pleas for help . Eventually , 34 firefighters and the Chief of the Lansing Fire Department arrived on the scene , as did several Michigan State Police officers , who managed traffic to and from the scene . The injured and dying were transported to Sparrow Hospital and St. Lawrence Hospital in Lansing . The construction of the latter facility had been financed in large part by Lawrence Price , Nellie Kehoe 's uncle and formerly an executive in charge of Oldsmobile 's Lansing Car Assembly .
Michigan Governor Fred W. Green arrived during the afternoon of the disaster and assisted in the relief work , carting bricks away from the scene . The Lawrence Baking Company of Lansing sent a truck filled with pies and sandwiches , which were served to rescuers in the township 's community hall .
The bombing had destroyed the north wing of the school . During the search , rescuers found an additional 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) of dynamite , which had failed to detonate , in the south wing . The search was halted to allow the Michigan State Police to disarm the devices . The State Police found an alarm clock timed to go off at 8 : 45 a.m. Investigators speculated that the initial explosion may have caused a short circuit in the second set of bombs , preventing them from detonating . They searched the building and then returned to the recovery work .
Police and fire officials gathered at the Kehoe farm to investigate the fires . State troopers had searched for Nellie Kehoe throughout Michigan , thinking she was at a tuberculosis sanitorium , but her charred body was found the following day , May 19 , among the ruins of the farm . All the Kehoe farm buildings were destroyed , and the two horses trapped inside the barn died . Investigators found a wooden sign wired to the farm 's fence with Kehoe 's last message , " Criminals are made , not born " , stenciled on it .
= = Aftermath = =
The American Red Cross , setting up operations at the Crum drugstore , took the lead in providing aid and comfort to the victims . The Lansing Red Cross headquarters stayed open until 11 : 30 that night to answer telephone calls , update the list of dead and injured and provide information and planning services for the following day .
The local community responded generously , as reported at the time by the Associated Press : " ... a sympathetic public assured the rehabilitation of the stricken community . Aid was tendered freely in the hope that the grief of those who lost loved ones might be even slightly mitigated . " The Red Cross managed donations sent to pay for both the medical expenses of the survivors and the burial costs of the dead . In a few weeks , $ 5 @,@ 284 @.@ 15 ( about $ 71 @,@ 984 today ) was raised through donations , including $ 2 @,@ 500 from the Clinton County board of supervisors and $ 2 @,@ 000 from the Michigan legislature . In addition to monetary donations , the Red Cross Headquarters received extensive donations of flowers from strangers .
The disaster received nationwide coverage in the days following , sharing headlines with Charles Lindbergh 's trans @-@ Atlantic crossing , though Lindbergh 's crossing received much more attention , and eliciting a national outpouring of grief . Newspaper headlines from Washington , D.C. to Los Angeles characterized Kehoe as a maniac , madman , and fiend .
People from all around the world provided sympathy to the families and the community of Bath , Michigan , including letters from some Italian schoolchildren . One 5th grader wrote : " Even though we are small , we understand all the sorrow and misfortune that has struck our dear brothers ... " And another : " We are praying to God to give to the unfortunate mothers and fathers , the strength to bear the great sorrow that has descent on them , we are near to you in spirit ... "
Andrew Kehoe 's body was eventually claimed by one of his sisters . Without ceremony , she had him buried in an unmarked grave in an initially unnamed cemetery . Later it was revealed that Kehoe was buried in the paupers ' section of Mount Rest Cemetery , St. Johns , Clinton County , Michigan . The Price family buried Nellie Price Kehoe in Lansing 's Mount Hope Cemetery under her maiden name .
Vehicles from outlying areas and surrounding states descended upon Bath by the thousands . Over 100 @,@ 000 vehicles passed through on Saturday alone , an enormous amount of traffic for the area . Some Bath citizens regarded this armada as an unwarranted intrusion into their time of grief , but most accepted it as a show of sympathy and support from surrounding communities . Many of the victims were buried starting Friday , May 20 .
= = = Coroner 's inquest = = =
The coroner arrived at the scene on the day of the disaster and swore in six community leaders to serve as a jury investigating the death of Superintendent Huyck . A coroner 's inquest into the matter was held the following week , starting on May 23 . The Clinton County Prosecutor conducted the examination , and more than 50 people testified before the jury . During his testimony , David Hart testified that Kehoe had told him that Kehoe had " killed a horse " . and the New York Times reported people as saying that Kehoe had " an ungovernable temper " and " seemed to have a mania for killing things . " Neighbors had seen him wiring his house in early April 1927 .
Kehoe 's neighbor Sidney J. Howell testified that after the fire began , Kehoe warned him and three boys to leave the farm , saying " Boys , you are my friends , you better get out of here , you better go down to the school . " Three telephone linemen working near Bath testified that Kehoe passed them on the road toward the school , and they saw him arrive there . He swerved his truck and stopped in front of the building . In the next instant , according to the linemen , the truck blew up , and one of them was struck by shrapnel . Other witnesses testified that Kehoe paused after stopping and called Superintendent Huyck over before blowing up his truck .
Although there was never any doubt that Kehoe was the perpetrator , the jury was asked to determine if the school board or its employees were guilty of criminal negligence . After more than a week of testimony , the jury exonerated the school board and its employees . In its verdict , the jury concluded that Kehoe " conducted himself sanely and so concealed his operations that there was no cause to suspect any of his actions ; and we further find that the school board , and Frank Smith , janitor of the school building , were not negligent in and about their duties , and were not guilty of any negligence in not discovering Kehoe 's plan . "
The inquest determined that Kehoe murdered Superintendent Emory Huyck on the morning of May 18 . It was also the jury 's verdict that the school was blown up as part of a plan and that Kehoe alone , without the aid of conspirators , murdered 43 people in total , including his wife Nellie . Suicide was determined to be the cause of Andrew Kehoe 's death , which brought the total number of dead to 44 at the time of the inquest .
On August 22 , three months after the bombing , fourth @-@ grader Beatrice Gibbs died following hip surgery . Hers was the 45th and final death directly attributable to the Bath School disaster , which made it the most deadly attack to ever occur in an American school . Richard Fritz , brother of Marjorie Fritz , was injured in the explosion and died almost one year later of myocarditis . Though Fritz is not included on many lists of the victims , his death from myocarditis is thought to have been brought on by an infection because of his injuries .
= = = Rebuilding = = =
Governor Fred Green quickly called for donations to aid the townspeople and created the Bath Relief Fund with the money supplied by donors , the state , and local governments . People from around the country donated to the fund .
School resumed on September 5 , 1927 , and , for the 1927 – 1928 school year , was held in the community hall , township hall , and two retail buildings . Most of the students returned . The board appointed O. M. Brant of Luther , Michigan , to succeed Huyck as superintendent . The Lansing architect Warren Holmes donated construction plans , and the school board approved the contracts for the new building on September 14 . On September 15 , Michigan 's Republican U.S. Senator James J. Couzens presented his personal check for $ 75 @,@ 000 ( roughly $ 1 @,@ 022 @,@ 000 in today 's money ) to the Bath construction fund to build the new school .
The board demolished the damaged portion of the school and constructed a new wing with the donated funds . The " James Couzens Agricultural School , " named for the senator , was dedicated on August 18 , 1928 . The Kehoe farm was completely plowed to ensure that no explosives were hidden in the ground and was sold at auction to pay the mortgage .
= = = Legacy = = =
In 1928 , artist Carlton W. Angell presented the board with a memorial statue titled Girl With a Cat . The statue is presently in the Bath School Museum located within the school district 's middle school .
In 1975 , the Couzens building was demolished and the site was redeveloped as the James Couzens Memorial Park , dedicated to the victims . At the center of the park is the original Bath Consolidated School 's cupola , which survived the disaster and remained on the school until the building was torn down .
In 1991 , a Michigan Historical Marker was installed at the park , a bronze plaque bearing the names of those killed and a brief description of events .
On November 3 , 2008 , the town announced that tombstones had been donated for Amelia and Robert Bromund , the last two bombing victims whose graves were still unmarked . A grant from a foundation paid for the grave markers .
= Well @-@ Manicured Man =
The Well @-@ Manicured Man is a fictional character in the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . He serves as an antagonist to FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , being a member of the sinister Syndicate the agents seek to foil . Introduced in the third season , the Well @-@ Manicured Man served to highlight discord within the ranks of the Syndicate , and ultimately betrayed them by leaking information to Mulder before committing suicide in the series ' first feature film .
The character of the Well @-@ Manicured Man was portrayed by John Neville in all his appearances ( eight episodes , and the feature film ) . According to the series ' writers , the character represents a non @-@ violent " voice of reason " amongst the series ' antagonists . Neville 's portrayal of the Well @-@ Manicured Man has been positively received by critics , who have noted his " moral ambivalence " and " unnervingly genteel " manner .
= = Character arc = =
Introduced at the beginning of the third season , the Well @-@ Manicured Man is an English member of the Syndicate , a shadow organization within the United States government that exists to hide from the public the fact that aliens are planning to colonize the Earth . He is an important member of the Syndicate , along with The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) and The Elder , and was a friend of William Mulder earlier in his life .
The Well @-@ Manicured Man prefers subtlety to brute force , and will attempt to manipulate those in his way before using physical violence . Although the Syndicate 's goals are opposed to those of Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , the Well @-@ Manicured Man will , at times , aid them with clues or information , believing that letting out a certain amount of information would help to keep the two close , and consequently allow for them to be controlled . The Well @-@ Manicured Man openly despises The Smoking Man , seeing him as impulsive and unprofessional . The two maintain a bitter relationship within the Syndicate throughout the series . The Well @-@ Manicured Man is instrumental in the Syndicate 's secondary agenda , to develop a vaccination against the black oil used by the aliens as a means of mind control . To this end , he works with Russian double agent Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) to develop a vaccine , eventually testing it — successfully — on a Syndicate mole , Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) .
In the 1998 feature film The X @-@ Files , when Scully is infected with the black oil and taken to Antarctica , it is the Well @-@ Manicured Man who , having grown disillusioned with the Syndicate , gives Mulder the coordinates needed to find her and a sample of the vaccine needed to cure Scully . The colonists had kept secret a secondary characteristic of the black oil — that those infected with it for prolonged periods would gestate a new colonist lifeform , killing the host . Upon discovering this , the Syndicate vowed to work more closely with the colonists in the hope of being spared this fate , while only the Well @-@ Manicured Man wished to continue working on a vaccination for resistance . This rejection led to his betrayal of the Syndicate , and to him committing suicide by car bomb before his duplicity was discovered .
= = Conceptual history = =
John Neville has stated that he was originally hired for just two episodes of the series , but that his character " was regularly brought back , because the audience simply doesn 't know if he stands for good or evil " . Series creator Chris Carter has described the character in terms of his relationship with The Smoking Man , noting that the two characters can be seen as " differing in approach , differing in philosophy and differing in personality " . Writer Frank Spotnitz has described the Well @-@ Manicured Man as " sort of the white knight to the Cigarette @-@ Smoking Man 's black knight in this chess game that we were playing " .
The character has also been described by Carter and Spotnitz as the " voice of reason " within the Syndicate , who " believes that violence is the wrong way to protect the secret " which they guard . The Well @-@ Manicured Man 's suicide scene in the series ' film adaptation went through several conceptual iterations , with outcomes being considered including an imploding car or suicide by concussion grenade , although ultimately a car bomb scene was decided upon .
= = Reception = =
The character of the Well @-@ Manicured Man has been positively received by critics . MTV 's Tami Katzoff has called him a " legendary TV character " , noting his " moral ambivalence about the work of his shadow organization " and his ability to show " empathy for Mulder and Scully " . Writing for The A.V. Club , Sean O 'Neal praised the character 's " unnervingly genteel " manner , noting that he represented the polar opposite of The Smoking Man . Fellow A.V. Club writer Todd VanDerWerff has also been positive towards the Well @-@ Manicured Man , feeling that the series would have benefited from making more use of the character . The San Francisco Chronicle 's Bob Graham has praised Neville 's portrayal of the character in the feature film , calling his expository monologue " a Wagnerian demonstration of the art of declamation " . Writing for the Los Angeles Daily News , Michael Liedtke and George Avalos described the character as " white @-@ haired , urbane , genteel [ — ] and dangerous " , noting that he was " equally at ease in Virginia 's horse country , the tony rooms of Manhattan 's Upper West Side and the antiseptic halls of facilities that house bizarre medical experiments " . Den of Geek 's countdown of " The Top 10 X @-@ Files Baddies " described the Well @-@ Manicured Man as a " super @-@ smooth , super @-@ creep Brit " , noting that he served as " a ' boss ' of sorts " for the Smoking Man . Speaking of how the role eclipsed his other acting work , Neville has been quoted as saying " It 's OK , though . [ The X @-@ Files ] gave me a kind of profile that I didn 't have before , and one shouldn 't grumble about that " .
= John Barbirolli =
Sir John Barbirolli , CH ( 2 December 1899 – 29 July 1970 ) , né Giovanni Battista Barbirolli , was a British conductor and cellist . He is remembered above all as conductor of the Hallé Orchestra in Manchester , which he helped save from dissolution in 1943 and conducted for the rest of his life . Earlier in his career he was Arturo Toscanini 's successor as music director of the New York Philharmonic , serving from 1936 to 1943 . He was also chief conductor of the Houston Symphony from 1961 to 1967 , and was a guest conductor of many other orchestras , including the BBC Symphony Orchestra , London Symphony Orchestra , the Philharmonia , the Berlin Philharmonic and the Vienna Philharmonic , with all of which he made recordings .
Born in London of Italian and French parentage , Barbirolli grew up in a family of professional musicians . After starting out as a cellist , he was given the chance to conduct , from 1926 with the British National Opera Company , and then with Covent Garden 's touring company . On taking up the conductorship of the Hallé he had less opportunity to work in the opera house , but in the 1950s he conducted productions of works by Verdi , Wagner , Gluck , and Puccini at Covent Garden with such success that he was invited to become the company 's permanent musical director , an invitation he declined . Late in his career he made several recordings of operas , of which his 1967 set of Puccini 's Madama Butterfly for EMI is probably the best known .
Both in the concert hall and on record , Barbirolli was particularly associated with the music of English composers such as Elgar , Delius and Vaughan Williams . His interpretations of other late romantic composers , such as Mahler and Sibelius , as well as of earlier classical composers , including Schubert , are also still admired .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Giovanni Battista Barbirolli was born in Southampton Row , Holborn , London , the second child and eldest son of an Italian father and a French mother . He was a British national from birth , and as Southampton Row is within the sound of Bow Bells , Barbirolli always regarded himself as a Cockney . His father , Lorenzo Barbirolli ( 1864 – 1928 ) , was a Venetian violinist who had settled in London with his wife , Louise Marie , née Ribeyrol ( 1870 – 1962 ) . Lorenzo and his father had played in the orchestra at La Scala , Milan , where they had taken part in the première of Otello in 1887 . In London they played in West End theatre orchestras , principally that of the Empire , Leicester Square .
The young Barbirolli began to play the violin when he was four , but soon changed to the cello . He later said that this was at the instigation of his grandfather who , exasperated at the child 's habit of wandering around while practising the violin , bought him a small cello to stop him from " getting in everybody 's way " . His education at St. Clement Danes Grammar School overlapped , from 1910 , with a scholarship at Trinity College of Music . As a Trinity student , he made his concert debut in a cello concerto in the Queen 's Hall in 1911 . The following year he won a scholarship to the Royal Academy of Music , which he attended from 1912 to 1916 , studying harmony , counterpoint and theory under Dr. J. B. McEwen and the cello with Herbert Walenn . In 1914 he was joint winner of the academy 's Charles Rube Prize for ensemble playing , and in 1916 The Musical Times singled him out as " that excellent young ' cello player , Mr Giovanni Barbirolli . " The principal of the Academy , Sir Alexander Mackenzie , had forbidden students to play the chamber music of Ravel , which he regarded as " a pernicious influence " . Barbirolli was keenly interested in modern music , and he and three colleagues secretly rehearsed Ravel 's String Quartet in the privacy of a men 's lavatory in the Academy .
From 1916 to 1918 Barbirolli was a freelance cellist in London . He recalled , " My first orchestral engagement was with the Queen 's Hall Orchestra – I was probably the youngest orchestral musician ever , joining them in 1916 . We had an enormous repertory – six concerts a week , three hours or more rehearsal a day . In those days we were happy if we began and finished together " . While playing in the Queen 's Hall Orchestra , Barbirolli also played in the opera pit for the Beecham and Carl Rosa opera companies , in recitals with the pianist Ethel Bartlett , with orchestras in theatres , cinemas , hotels and dance @-@ halls , and , as he said , " everywhere except the street " . During the last year of World War I , Barbirolli enlisted in the army and became a lance @-@ corporal in the Suffolk Regiment . Here he had his first opportunity to conduct , when an orchestra of volunteers was formed . He later described the experience :
I was stationed on the Isle of Grain – a ghastly place but the first line of defence against invasion – and in our battalion of the Suffolks we had a number of professional musicians . So we formed an orchestra and played in the equivalent of the NAAFI during our spare time . I was the principal cello and we were conducted by the bandmaster , one Lieutenant Bonham . The other boys knew that I was longing to conduct and one day when Bonham fell ill with ' flu , they thought " old Barby " – as I was known – should have a go . It was really rather romantic – I was scrubbing the floor in the Officers ' Mess when they came and invited me to take over . We did the Light Cavalry overture and Coleridge @-@ Taylor 's Petite Suite de Concert but I can 't say I recall the rest of the programme .
While in the army , Barbirolli adopted the anglicised form of his first name for the sake
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's entrance , the ground and stage floor revealed animated Vogue magazine covers featuring the singer . The effect was achieved by projection mapping , which turns an object ( often irregularly @-@ shaped ) into a surface for video projection . Although projection mapping had been used to introduce the Nokia Lumia and project images of NBA players on the Hudson River in 2011 , it had never been used on such a large scale . Moment Factory partner and executive producer Eric Fournier said that since the studio had been associated with technology @-@ dependent shows , preparing for and accommodating the requirements of the Super Bowl were easy . When Moment Factory began the halftime @-@ show preparations , Madonna 's team had already selected the songs , and the studio developed visual effects complementing the songs ' choreography . According to Moment Factory creative director Sakchin Bessette , using video projections was the most efficient method for the visual effects , as this required moving less equipment to the field than other methods . Fournier said , " It all came from the decision at the beginning to make a show out of it , not just a performance . Madonna 's a perfectionist , and she wanted to do something extraordinary , so that was the objective of everybody . "
The show 's major concepts included the shifting magazine covers , the Egyptian @-@ inspired procession , " intergalactic " boomboxes during " Music " and an effect which made the " stage appear to suck up the grass and chalk from the football field " . Some visuals were synchronized with the dancers and Madonna 's movements . When the visuals were decided , the Moment Factory and Cirque du Soleil staff watched the performances closely to adapt the backdrops to the choreography . Fournier relied on a " disciplined " team enlisted by the NFL and experienced with the video setup , which totaled 32 HD Barco projectors . The projectors were attached to eight pods of four projectors each to cover the entire stadium . Barco 's Projector Toolset was used to operate the screens and display the show 's videos . According to Fournier , " On TV there were a lot of closeups of Madonna and the dancers , but from the audience in the stadium , the show covered 50 yards . That was the idea : that the show , in essence , must eclipse the size of the stadium . " A consistent 10 to 12 people worked on the project to create , in essence , two shows : one for those at the stadium and one for the TV audience . Moment Factory coordinated with the show 's producers so it would be projected properly on television . Bessette said that the video resolution of the videos was very high ( almost 18 times that of normal high definition ) and moving the video files to proper locations was a problem : " We had to find a solution that would be spectacular and that would fit within those parameters " .
Rodgers used LMG , Inc for video , light and audio equipment . LMG , in turn , collaborated with the live @-@ event production company DWP Live on the show 's projection . According to DWP founder Danny Whetstone , using Barco helped with seamless projection and brightness adjustment : " It was essential that we hang the projectors straight down , 151 feet in the air , lens to field , in order to fill the enormous visual area with the converged image " . Barco 's HD20 has a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ lumen lighting capacity , rendering clear , bright images with high contrast .
= = = Lighting and sound = = =
Lucas Oil Stadium was equipped with Sharpys lighting arrangements from Clay Paky for the halftime show . Lighting designer Al Gurdon of Incandescent Designs enlisted console group PRG to help him install 204 Sharpys across the main stage . According to Gurdon , Madonna conceived the main idea ; the choreography @-@ driven show , centered on the main stage , was less logistically challenging than those in previous years . However , Gurdon had to ensure that the audience could enjoy the show from a distance and that Madonna was highlighted properly for the cameras . He and board operator Mike Owen brainstormed in England and tried a number of schemes for a week with CAST software . A " cleaner " approach was taken to prevent interference between the video projections and lighting . Gurdon placed the Sharpys together in rectangular areas , with 16 to 20 lights in each . This resulted in a strong , compact , moving light which could be split into smaller beams as needed .
Since the arrangement had to be set up in seven minutes , Gurdon developed a rig . He flew equipment to the roof of Lucas Oil , attaching it at a height of 175 feet ( 53 @.@ 3 m ) so that it would not interfere with camera movement during the game . At halftime , it was lowered to light the stadium . Golden light was used for the opening sequence , followed by black and white strobes for " Vogue " . A multicolored palette illuminated " Music " , and red predominated during " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " . " Like a Prayer " had another stream of gold Sharpys , evoking rays of sunlight .
Sennheiser sound equipment was used for the audio . According to Matt Napier , Madonna 's monitor engineer , they used Sennheiser 's Wireless Systems Manager software to tweak frequencies . Madonna used an HSP 4 headset at the beginning of the show , later switching to a Sennheiser SKM 5200 @-@ II handheld transmitter . Sennheiser transmitters were also used by Minaj , M.I.A. and LMFAO , and Green 's microphone used an MD 5235 capsule . Napier said in a Mix article that they needed gold @-@ plated transmitters for Madonna and Green , which were provided by Sennheiser the day of the show . Professional Wireless Systems ( PWS ) , a Masque Sound company , were in charge of wireless sound monitoring ; in a series of trial runs , PWS chose a frequency that eliminated interference from other systems .
According to LMG video technologist Ken Gay , lighting , sound and television teams met at the Orange County Convention Center to test the setup . They used simple fabrics on the ground to test the lighting projections for the stage . Sakchin Bessette had samples to be used for projections , which helped LMG in its tests . The team 's Mark Sanford monitored the cameras for any reflections from the fabric caused by the projections , calculating their effect during the show and adjusting camera placement accordingly . LMG tested the projection pods used from the ceilings at its Orlando headquarters . The pods were positioned 150 feet ( 46 m ) above the ground , using the fabric from the previous test . Concerned that the stadium grass would affect the projections , the company used Heavy Knit Bright White fabric from All Access .
= = Critical response = =
The halftime show received critical acclaim . Said Marc Schneider of Billboard : " It 's Madonna Louise Ciccone 's world , we 're just living in it " . Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times wrote that although the choice of Madonna as halftime @-@ show performer was a subject of discussion , the singer was " defiantly unconcerned with the more conservative red state wing of the football fanbase who 'd never be caught dead singing along to one of her songs ... and her halftime show was pure spectacle by the Cleopatra of the game ... Madonna is Madonna for a reason . And we saw it firsthand Sunday . " Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot called the show an " S & M party to Ancient Egypt " . Along with reminding the audience of her older hits , Madonna had " important career @-@ advancing work to do ... [ The singer ] , after all , never does anything unless she 's got something to sell , and with a new studio album due out in March and a tour to follow , she had plenty on her to @-@ do list " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that although the singer was not as " indefatigable " as she had been , she was a " party girl turned regent : a queen on her throne , a homecoming queen strutting in the bleachers , a church singer fronting a choir " . Pareles called Madonna " grown @-@ up " , and wrote that she put on a show appropriate for the NFL . Peter Robinson of The Guardian called the performance low @-@ key for the singer , despite the large audience . Robinson wrote that the show 's budget would " [ make ] your average James Cameron effort look like Homes Under the Hammer " , and called Madonna 's entrance and exit his favorite parts of the show .
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly said that Madonna delivered a " joyous , unironic , openhearted " show rather than a cautious performance . According to Tucker , the singer was in " full command " ; although the visuals lacked flow , the song transitions meshed " perfectly " . Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph called the show a " tribute to Madonna " and a " shameless " promotion of the singer 's return to the music scene after directing W.E. : " The message [ of the show ] is that she is back in business . I suspect she ’ d settle for a global number one over global harmony " . Troy Patterson of Slate wrote that Madonna retained her " greatest marketing agent " title with the show and praised its costumes , sets and the singer 's repeated self @-@ referencing . Linda Holmes of NPR said , " What 's curious , given how much ' ewww , she 's too old ' stuff went around on Twitter , is that everything she did Sunday night is exactly what it should mean to age gracefully " . Miriam Coleman of Rolling Stone called the show a " serious spectacle " , and Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News called it a " high @-@ concept music video " : " Madonna brilliantly manipulates the combined impact of visuals and sonics . The 13 @-@ minute performance was an eye @-@ popping marvel " . A Huffington Post reviewer wrote , " Love her or hate her , there 's no doubt that only Madonna can bring a certain level of pop flair to a performance " . Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic praised the show 's choreography and cinematography : " With so , so much to look at , Madonna remained the center of attention . That is , until the end , when white light and smoke engulfed her and she dropped down through the stage , out of sight " . According to Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle , Madonna controlled her nerves and he liked her selection of songs .
Cara Kelly of The Washington Post gave the show a mixed review ; although it was " revolutionary " after Janet Jackson 's wardrobe malfunction , it was a " pathetic attempt at a comeback " . According to Lou Harry of the Indianapolis Business Journal , Madonna lacked focus and energy and the audience response was lukewarm . Harry called the show an " awkward celebration " , but praised its overall production . USA Today 's Elyssa Gardner wrote , " Madonna herself , stylish but hardly provocative in tailored tops and skirts that showed off her yoga @-@ toned gams , delivered [ the songs ] and other flourishes with a winking sense of humor " . David Zurawik of The Baltimore Sun called the show " Madonna 's zombie halftime " , criticizing its song choices and overall concept : " [ Madonna 's ] acting as if she 's almost singing . I say almost , because there is not a whit of artistic aspiration in the star performer or the production as far I can tell . But hey , that 's our sad @-@ sack , super @-@ sized , gross American culture these days , isn 't it . And it is perfectly suited for empty Super Bowl half @-@ time spectacle " .
= = Commercial impact = =
Like previous performers , Madonna was not paid for the show . According to Zack O 'Malley Greenburg of Forbes , " Typically , the entertainers for the Super Bowl do not get a cash payment ... This is the kind of exposure that entertainers would give their right arm for ; they could do 20 Leno and Letterman appearances and still not reach that [ kind of ] audience " . Greenburg wrote that with 30 @-@ second commercial spots commanding over $ 3 million apiece , the 12 minutes of free television exposure had a total value of $ 84 million for Madonna 's enterprises and the singer did not have to pay for accommodations , travel , backup dancers , stage setup , advertising and publicity : " Given all these benefits , playing the Super Bowl halftime show for free is more than worth the trouble . In fact , it 's incredibly lucrative – and such a good deal for artists that some suspect a major change might be on the horizon " .
Madonna 's performance was the most @-@ watched Super Bowl halftime show in history , with 114 million viewers – more than the game itself , which had 111 @.@ 3 million viewers . According to the Nielsen ratings , the show had a 47 @.@ 4 household rating ; among adults 18 – 49 it had a 41 @.@ 5 rating , compared with the game average of 40 @.@ 5 . Reuters noted that the half @-@ hour from 9 : 30 to 9 : 58 ET peaked at a 50 @.@ 7 household rating and a 72 share , with 117 @.@ 7 million viewers . The record was broken by Bruno Mars in 2014 ( 115 million ) and Katy Perry in 2015 ( 118 million ) . Madonna set a record as the most @-@ tweeted subject on Twitter ( 10 @,@ 245 posts in one second , with an average of 8 @,@ 000 tweets per second for five minutes ) and was the most @-@ searched term on Google during the show . Wired CEO Mark Ghuneim tweeted that less than one @-@ third of the tweets were negative , 59 percent were positive and 11 percent were neutral . According to Billboard , the day after the show its ratings and economic impact were discussed .
The show 's chief impact was on Madonna 's music . Keith Caulfield of Billboard wrote that about 50 @,@ 000 pre @-@ orders for Madonna 's 12th studio album , MDNA , were placed within three days of its availability on the iTunes Store . That week , according to Nielsen SoundScan , " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " had 115 @,@ 000 digital downloads and the singer 's catalog of older albums had a 410 percent increase in sales ( from 5 @,@ 000 to 26 @,@ 000 copies ) . A week after the Super Bowl , " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " had an additional 165 @,@ 000 digital downloads ( a 44 @-@ percent increase ) and her other songs sold a combined 166 @,@ 000 copies ( up from 94 @,@ 000 the previous week ) . " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " reached number ten on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart ; the singer 's 38th top @-@ ten hit , it increased her record as the artist with the most top @-@ ten singles on the chart . Madonna 's back catalog of albums also had increased sales due to discounting and publicity generated by the single and her performance . Billboard estimated that her top @-@ 10 digital sales collectively increased over 1 @,@ 700 percent . Madonna 's bestselling album was the 2009 greatest @-@ hits collection , Celebration , which sold 16 @,@ 000 copies ( up 1 @,@ 341 percent ) and reentered the Billboard 200 album chart . The following week Celebration fell 105 spots on the chart to number 157 , with sales falling to 4 @,@ 000 copies . " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " fell to number 39 on the Hot 100 , with sales falling by 58 percent to 69 @,@ 000 copies . The show had an impact on slacklining ; The New York Times reported , " [ Andy Lewis ] and his sport had never appeared before an audience like the one commanded by Madonna at halftime of the Super Bowl " . According to professional slackliner Frankie Najera , " That was by far the biggest thing that has happened for the sport " .
= = M.I.A. controversy = =
M.I.A. extended her middle finger to the camera near the end of her verse in " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " instead of singing the word " shit " , and the media compared the incident to Janet Jackson 's 2004 wardrobe malfunction . According to People , " Call it a finger malfunction ? Madonna was supposed to be the center of attention during the Super Bowl halftime show Sunday , but the Queen of Pop was upstaged by her collaborator M.I.A. , who flipped off the camera at one point during the performance , prompting swift apologies from the NFL and NBC . " Madonna expressed her disappointment in an interview with host Ryan Seacrest on his talk show , On Air with Ryan Seacrest . She said that it was a " teenager ... irrelevant thing " for M.I.A. to do , and was " out of place " in the show : " I was really surprised . I didn 't know anything about it . I wasn 't happy about it . I understand it 's punk rock and everything , but to me there was such a feeling of love and good energy and positivity ; it seemed negative . "
According to NFL spokesman Brian McCarthy , " Our system was late to obscure the inappropriate gesture and we apologize to our viewers . The NFL hired the talent and produced the halftime show . There was a failure in NBC 's delay system . The obscene gesture in the performance was completely inappropriate , very disappointing , and we apologize to our fans " . McCarthy said that the gesture was not made during rehearsals , and M.I.A. improvised it on stage . The Federal Communications Commission received 222 complaints about the rapper 's gesture , and Rolling Stone reported that the commission might " punish " the NFL and NBC despite their apologies . Any fine imposed on the NFL would be charged to M.I.A. , since the rapper had signed a contract indemnifying the league against FCC fines . A year later , it was reported that the NFL had filed a $ 1 @.@ 5 million arbitration claim against M.I.A. for " breach of her contract and flagrant disregard for the values that form the cornerstone of the NFL brand and the Super Bowl " . Her lawyer , Howard King , filed a counterclaim calling the NFL 's action " hilarious in light of the weekly felonies committed by its stars " . M.I.A. enlisted the help of fans in documenting objectionable actions by the NFL to refute the league 's claim of damage to its reputation .
In September 2013 , M.I.A. released a video statement about the lawsuit . The rapper said , " They 're basically [ saying ] it 's OK for me to promote being sexually exploited as a female , than to display empowerment , female empowerment , through being punk rock . That 's what it boils down to , and I 'm being sued for it " . In March 2014 , Rolling Stone reported that the NFL had added $ 15 million to its arbitration claim for a total of $ 16 @.@ 6 million . M.I.A. said on Twitter that the NFL wanted a portion of her income , which lacked " any basis in law , fact , or logic " , and blamed NBC for its " dereliction " in not blurring out the gesture during the live telecast . M.I.A. tweeted Madonna with a request to borrow $ 16 million , later deleting the tweet . In August 2014 , ESPN reported that the NFL had reached a confidential agreement with M.I.A. Neither attorney Howard King nor the NFL provided any further details .
= = Set list = =
" Vogue "
" Music " ( featuring LMFAO , contains elements of " Party Rock Anthem " and " Sexy and I Know It " )
" Give Me All Your Luvin ' " ( featuring Nicki Minaj and M.I.A. )
" Open Your Heart / Express Yourself " ( featuring CeeLo Green , the Avon High School Drumline , the Center Grove High School Drumline , the Fishers High School Drumline and the Franklin Central High School Drumline )
" Like a Prayer " ( featuring CeeLo Green and a choir of 200 local Indianapolis singers )
Source for the set list performed at the show .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from the halftime show 's name reel .
= Washington State Route 173 =
State Route 173 ( SR 173 ) is an 11 @.@ 86 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 19 @.@ 09 km ) state highway serving Douglas and Okanogan counties in the U.S. state of Washington . The highway travels northwest along the Columbia River from SR 17 in Bridgeport to U.S. Route 97 ( US 97 ) in Brewster . It serves as an alternate route to SR 17 , which travels north of the Columbia River , and serves the Chief Joseph State Park and the Bridgeport Bar State Wildlife Recreation Area . SR 173 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering and codified in 1970 , but it has been a part of the state highway system since 1931 as a branch of State Road 10 , later Primary State Highway 10 ( PSH 10 ) . The highway crosses the Columbia River on the Brewster Bridge , which originally opened in 1928 and was destroyed in 1967 before being re @-@ built a decade later .
= = Route description = =
SR 173 begins at an intersection with SR 17 southwest of the Bridgeport Bridge in Bridgeport , a city in rural Douglas County . The two @-@ lane street travels northwest through Bridgeport as Foster Creek Avenue and turns northeast onto 17th Avenue and later northwest as Columbia Avenue to Bridgeport Park , where SR 173 turns southwest onto 10th Street and Maple Street to leave the city . The highway turns northwest , following the Columbia River towards Chief Joseph State Park . SR 173 continues west , forming the southern boundary of the Bridgeport Bar State Wildlife Recreation Area before crossing the Columbia River into Okanogan County on the Brewster Bridge . The highway enters Brewster and becomes Bridge Street , traveling north over Swamp Creek to end at an intersection with US 97 .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that between 970 and 3 @,@ 400 vehicles per day used the highway , mostly in Brewster .
= = History = =
SR 173 follows the route of wagon roads built in the late 19th century between Brewster Ferry and Bridgeport Ferry on the east side of the Columbia River . The Brewster Bridge was completed in June 1928 and the roadway was first codified in 1931 as part of a State Road 10 branch that connected Brewster to Coulee City . State Road 10 became PSH 10 and retained the branch during the creation of the primary and secondary state highway system in 1937 as the state purchased the Brewster Bridge . The branch was moved to the west side of the Columbia River , located north of Bridgeport , in 1951 and a new branch between Bridgeport and Brewster was created to continue maintenance of the paved highway . During the 1964 highway renumbering , SR 173 was established on the route of the PSH 10 branch between Bridgeport and Brewster , later re @-@ aligned into a straighter highway and codified in 1970 . The Brewster Bridge later was destroyed in a fire in August 1967 , being replaced by a 15 @-@ minute ferry until the new span was opened in the 1970s . No major revisions to the route of the highway have occurred since 1970 , however the state tried unsuccessfully to transfer ownership of SR 173 and the Brewster Bridge in 1986 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Minotaur @-@ class cruiser ( 1906 ) =
The Minotaur class was a three @-@ ship class of armoured cruisers built in the
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death Menkauhor enjoyed a funerary cult centered on his pyramid complex . The cult lasted at least until the second half of the Sixth Dynasty , nearly 150 years later . Provisions for this cult were produced in dedicated agricultural domains that were established during Menkauhor 's lifetime . Products of these domains were delivered to Menkauhor 's sun and mortuary temples and distributed to the priests of the cult , who could use them for their sustenance or their own funerary cults . Personified representations of Menkauhor 's agricultural domains are depicted bringing offerings on the walls of the mastabas of these priests . Most of the depictions are located in Saqqara North , near the pyramid complex of Djoser . This area comprises the tombs of Neferiretptah , Raemankh , Duare , Iti , Sekhemnefer , Snofrunefer , Akhethotep , Ptahhotep and Qednes , all priests of the funerary cult of Menkauhor . Further tombs of priests of this cult are found to the north , in Abusir South , with the mastaba of Isesiseneb and Rahotep and in Giza .
The complete names of at least seven domains of Menkauhor are known : " Ikauhor is perfect in favor " and " the favor of Ikauhor " , both mentioned in the tombs of Ptahhotep and Akhethotep ; " Ikauhor is perfect of life " , from the tomb of Ptahhotep II ; " Horus Qemaa causes Ikauhor to live " ; " Ikauhor is strong " ; " Seshat loves Ikauhor " and " Matyt loves Ikauhor " from the tombs of viziers Senedjemib Inti , Senedjemib Mehi and Hemu in Giza . In addition the Ḥwt domain of the king , which comprises the land holdings of the mortuary temple of Menkauhor , was named " Menkauhor is perfect of appearances " .
= = = New Kingdom = = =
The cult of Menkauhor enjoyed a revival during the New Kingdom period ( 1550 – 1077 BC ) . At this point Menkauhor had been deified as a local god of the Saqqara necropolis acting as a divine intercessor , and qualified of " Strong Lord of the Two Lands , Menkauhor the Justified " . This cult is evidenced by reliefs showing Menkauhor in the tombs of the " Chief of the artisans and jewelers " Ameneminet and of the physician Thuthu in Saqqara @-@ North , both of whom lived at the time of the late Eighteenth Dynasty ( 1550 – 1292 BC ) , during the reigns of Tutankhamun , Ay and Horemheb .
An inscribed block dating to the later Ramesside period ( 1292 – 1077 BC ) and now in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin , was uncovered by Lepsius in a house in Abusir and shows Menkauhor enthroned beside four other deified kings of the Old Kingdom : the name of the first , partially lost , but probably Sneferu is then followed by Djedefre , Menkaure , Menkauhor and finally Neferkare . The owner of the tomb stands before the kings , in worship . Another relief dating to the same period shows a similar scene . It was inscribed on the lintel of the tomb chapel of Mahy buried in Saqqara North . Four deified kings of the Old Kingdom are shown , all of whom built their pyramids at Saqqara : Djoser , Teti , Userkaf and Menkauhor .
The persistence of the cult of Menkauhor during the late Eighteenth to Nineteenth Dynasty possibly results from the location of his pyramid , which stood on the way to the necropolis of the Apis bulls , which later became the Serapeum .
= Salmon Creek Dam =
The Salmon Creek Dam is a concrete arch dam on the Salmon Creek , 3 miles ( 5 km ) northwest of Juneau , Alaska . Built in 1914 , it is the world 's first constant @-@ angle arch variable radius dam . Since it was built , over 100 such dams have been constructed all over the world .
The dam was built by the Alaska @-@ Gastineau Mining Company to meet the electrical energy needs for mining operations . The dam continues to be fully functional for hydroelectric generation , as one of the drinking water sources to Juneau city and for aquaculture and fishing . When built , adoption of the constant arch design for the dam reduced costs by 20 % because less concrete was needed to construct the dam . Of the two hydroelectric power stations built at the initial stage ( one at the upper level and the other at the lower level ) – the latter one is still in use after a new powerhouse was built adjoining the old one – it produces the inexpensive electricity in Alaska while meeting 10 % of the energy needs of Juneau city . When built , the dam and its two power plants were considered engineering wonders . Both are operated and maintained by the Alaska Electric Light & Power ( AEL & P ) .
= = Topography = =
The dam was built in a forested , scenic and narrow valley of the Salmon creek , which runs from Salmon Creek Reservoir and flows southwest for 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the Gastineau Channel . The dam ( marked as Juneau B @-@ 2 in USGS maps ) is located at the terminus of the tram @-@ way that was built specifically by the Alaska Gastineau Mining Co . The tram @-@ way was built for hauling material for constructing the dam and its associated power stations . The power supply was for the mines located at a site 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) to the south at Sheep Creek . However , a 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long road had been built by AEL & P to the upper powerhouse at the base of the Salmon Creek Dam , which has since been de @-@ commissioned .
The creek runs for a length of 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) within the watershed , which has a creek divide of 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) and a ridge line of 2 @.@ 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 5 km ) . The stream bed has large gravel and bedrock substrata and its gradient decreases downstream of the dam . The average width of the stream is 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) and depth of water is about 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) . The basin is surrounded by hills with steep slopes and with elevation above 980 feet ( 300 m ) above sea level . The distance from the dam to Juneau city is 2 @.@ 9 miles ( 4 @.@ 7 km ) , to the Juneau harbor is 3 @.@ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) , and to the Juneau Harbor Seaplane Base is 3 @.@ 4 miles ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) .
= = Evolution of the arch dam design = =
During the Roman period , the theory of building a curved dam ( arch dam ) was known as a means to withstand the water pressure and hold the masonry joints . However , in the background of masonry arch dams which dominated dam building scenario in the 19th century and with introduction of concrete technology for building dams , the structural design of arch dams underwent a dramatic change in its economic evolution to minimize use of construction material and inter alia , the cost of construction . Basically , an arch dam is a structure that curves upstream and the water pressure is transferred either directly to the valley sides or indirectly through concrete abutments . Theoretically , the ideal constant angle arch in a " V " -shaped valley for such an arch dam has a central angle of 133 ° of curvature . This theory led to the development of the " constant @-@ angle " ( or variable radius ) arch dam , which was also thinner in design . The theory was first initiated in North America for several dams , and in Alaska in particular , in 1913 with the building of the Salmon Creek Dam , which was completed in 1914 . In this regard , Bartlett Lee Thane , the mining engineer , who made a lasting impact in the mining industry – in the Alaska @-@ Gastineau Mining Company – was instrumental in introducing this design of thin arch dam with help from his former football team mates . Lars Jorgensen evolved the specific first design of the constant arch dam . However , AEL & P gives design credit to their then Chief Engineer Harry L. Wallenberg for the Salmon Creek Dam . The idea for building such a dam had been thought about 30 years earlier to economize on the use of construction material for building the dam . However , it was only in 1913 that the concept was transformed on ground by the pioneer mining engineer Thane .
= = Theory and design = =
In arch dam design , two basic shapes are adopted . These are the constant – radius arch and the constant @-@ angle arch , the latter design is more complex . In the constant @-@ radius arch design , which is also known as the single @-@ radius arch , the shape of the dam is cylindrical with vertical upstream face while the downstream face is battered . The constant @-@ angle arch design has also a variable – radius arch . In this design , the central opening angle is constant whereas the arch radius increases from the base to the crest ; this increase towards the crest is proportional to the increase of the canyon width of the gorge . Further , according to the theory of constant @-@ arch design , the arch action at the base of the dam exerts the maximum pressure on the base . A " V " shaped gorge in particular is considered an ideal feature for building this type of dam . This design ensures substantial savings in use of construction material as opposed to the constant – radius arch design . Lars R. Jorgenson who had conceived this concept had proved that the most economic design of the dam was obtained with an optimum opening angle of 133 @.@ 6 ° , with the least quantity of concrete . This design was applied with some modifications for the Salmon Creek Dam , which was designed with constant opening angle of 113 ° with radius varying from 147 @.@ 5 feet ( 45 @.@ 0 m ) at the base to 331 feet ( 101 m ) at the crest .
The " V " shape of the gorge at the dam site was adjudged ideal for building this type of dam at Salmon Creek site .
An ice pressure of 10 tons per square foot ( 500 kPa ) was considered based on the rim conditions of the reservoir and the design was also checked for an ice pressure of 20 tons per square foot ( 1 @,@ 000 kPa ) ; in the latter case the safety factor in concrete under resultant compression values was considered to be 5 and safe . The dam was designed with a base width of 47 @.@ 5 feet ( 14 @.@ 5 m ) ( width of 37 @.@ 5 feet ( 11 @.@ 4 m ) is also mentioned in one source ) and it tapers to a width of 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) ( 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) is also mentioned in one source ) at the top over a dam height of 168 feet ( 51 m ) . The geological condition at the base of the dam also dictated the type of dam as a flat rocky bed of 75 feet ( 23 m ) width was available to lay the foundation for the arch dam without resorting to large @-@ scale excavations . The dip of the rock was also steep both on upstream and downstream side of the flat base . Bank to bank , the crest length is 640 feet ( 200 m ) . The dam envisaged storage of about 18 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 22 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) at the full reservoir level while it is 445 acre feet ( 549 @,@ 000 m3 ) when the water is 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) deep . A steel outlet pipe of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) diameter was proposed to be embedded in the mid base of the dam as a spillway . The dam was planned with a top elevation of 343 feet ( 105 m ) above sea level . The reservoir water spreads to an area of 192 acres ( 78 ha ) , while the catchment drained is 7 @.@ 5 square miles ( 19 km2 ) .
Concurrently , two power houses were planned to generate power for the mining industry from the reservoir 's water – an upper power station with a 3 MW capacity about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream of the dam and a lower power station with a 3 MW capacity near the shore of the Gastineau Channel . The variable @-@ radius type shape of the dam adopted for Salmon Creek became a standard for many high and large dams , particularly in western USA . An article from the National Science Foundation 's SimScience project notes the following :
The upstream bulging served to offset the undercutting by the stronger curved lower arches near the abutments while the pronounced downstream toe reduced the tensile stresses at the upstream heel . The full realization of the new design
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's Virtual Console . These games are available along with other systems ' titles under the Wii 's Virtual Console . There are select Sega Genesis titles available on the Xbox 360 through Xbox Live Arcade , such as Sonic the Hedgehog and Sonic 2 , as well as games available via the PlayStation Network and Steam .
= = = Later releases = = =
On May 22 , 2006 , North American company Super Fighter Team released Beggar Prince , a game translated from a 1996 Chinese original . It was released worldwide and was the first commercial Genesis game release in North America since 1998 . Super Fighter Team would later go on to release two more games for the system , Legend of Wukong and Star Odyssey . In December 2010 , WaterMelon , an American company , released Pier Solar and the Great Architects , the first commercial role @-@ playing video game specifically developed for the console since 1996 , and the biggest 16 @-@ bit game ever produced at 64Mb . Pier Solar is the only cartridge @-@ based game which can optionally use the Sega CD to play an enhanced soundtrack and sound effects disc . In 2013 , independent programmer Future Driver , inspired by the Disney film Wreck @-@ It Ralph , developed Fix @-@ It Felix Jr. for the Genesis .
On December 5 , 2007 , Tec Toy released a portable version of the Mega Drive with twenty built @-@ in games . Another version called " Mega Drive Guitar Idol " comes with two six @-@ button joypads and a guitar controller with five fret buttons . The Guitar Idol game contains a mix of Brazilian and international songs . The console has 87 built @-@ in games , including some from Electronic Arts based on the mobile phone versions .
In 2009 , Chinese company AtGames produced a Sega Genesis / Mega Drive @-@ compatible console , the Firecore . It features a top @-@ loading cartridge slot and includes two controllers similar to the six @-@ button controller for the original Genesis . The console has 15 games built @-@ in and is region @-@ free , allowing cartridge games to run regardless of their region . AtGames produced a handheld version of the console . Both machines have been released in Europe by distributing company Blaze Europe .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Sega Genesis has often been considered among the best video game consoles ever produced . In 2009 , IGN named it the fifth best video game console , citing its edge in sports games and better home version of Mortal Kombat , and lauding " what some consider to be the greatest controller ever created : the six button . " In 2007 , GameTrailers named the Sega Genesis as the sixth best console of all time in their list of top ten consoles that " left their mark on the history of gaming , " noting its great games and solid controller , and writing of the " glory days " of Sonic the Hedgehog . In January 2008 , technology columnist Don Reisinger proclaimed that the Sega Genesis " created the industry 's best console war to date , " citing Sonic the Hedgehog , superior sports games , and backwards compatibility with the Sega Master System . GamingExcellence also gave the Sega Genesis sixth place in 2008 , declaring " one can truly see the Genesis for the gaming milestone it was . " At the same time , GameDaily rated it ninth of ten for its memorable games . In 2014 , USgamer 's Jeremy Parish wrote that " If the Atari generation introduced video games as a short @-@ lived ' 70s fad ... and the NES generation established it into an enduring obsession for the young , Sega 's Genesis began pushing the medium toward something resembling its contemporary form " , expounding that the system served as " the key incubator for modern sports franchises " , made " consoles truly international " by providing Western third @-@ parties previously put at a disadvantage by Nintendo 's restrictive licensing policies with a more profitable alternative , created " an online subscription service " that foreshadowed " PlayStation Plus more than 15 years early " with the Sega Channel , and " played a key role in ensuring the vitality and future of the games industry by breaking Nintendo 's near @-@ monopolistic hold on the U.S. and awakening the U.K. to the merits of television gaming . " For his part , Kalinske highlighted Sega 's role in developing games for an older demographic and pioneering " the concept of the ' street date ' " with the simultaneous North American and European release of Sonic the Hedgehog 2 . John Sczepaniak of Retro Gamer noted " It was a system where the allure was born not only of the hardware and games , but the magazines , playground arguments , climate , and politics of the time . "
= Shivers ( song ) =
" Shivers " is a song by the Australian post @-@ punk band the Boys Next Door , who would later become the Birthday Party . It is the tenth and final track from the band 's debut studio album Door , Door , released in 1979 on Mushroom Records . It was released as the album 's only single in May 1979 , backed with the B @-@ side " Dive Position " .
Written by guitarist Rowland S Howard at age 16 , " Shivers " is a post @-@ punk and new wave ballad featuring ironic lyrics regarding teenage relationships and suicide . Originally intended as humorous by Howard , he felt later it had been misinterpreted due to frontman Nick Cave 's vocal delivery on the Boys Next Door version . Despite later distancing himself from the song , " Shivers " remained Howard 's most requested song during his lifetime and was met with critical acclaim . It has since been cited as one of the most popular cult hits in Australian music .
Several versions of " Shivers " have been released — including demo and solo recordings by Howard — and it has been covered by a variety of artists , including Marie Hoy , Laura Jane Grace , the Screaming Jets , Courtney Barnett and Divine Fits .
= = Origin and recording = =
In 1976 , at age 16 and as a member of the Melbourne punk rock band Young Charlatans , Howard wrote " Shivers " . Discussing the song 's origins , Howard said that " Shivers " was " intended as an ironic comment on the way that I felt that people I knew were making hysterical things out of what were essentially high school crushes " . He further explained that the emotional responses of people he knew who were in relationships seemed " incredibly insincere and blown out of proportion " and inspired the cynical lyrics of the song .
Howard composed " Shivers " on an Ibanez Gibson Firebird copy , an electric guitar on which he performed on the first known recording of the song . Recorded as part of a series of demos for the Young Charlatans in 1978 , it featured Howard on vocals and guitar , Ollie Olsen on guitar , Janine Hall on bass and Jeff Wegener on drums .
During sessions for Door , Door at Richmond Recorders in Melbourne in January 1979 , the Boys Next Door recorded " Shivers " . Engineer Tony Cohen suggested that Howard perform the vocals for the track , arguing that his voice was best fitted for his own songs . However , the band 's regular vocalist , Nick Cave , insisted on singing on the recording . Howard said later that as a result of Cave 's vocals , " Shivers " was " interpreted completely differently and now the song , to most peoples ' minds , is something completely different from what I intended it to be " . In hindsight , Cave noted that Howard 's vocals should have been recorded , as Cave was " never able to do that song justice " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Shivers " is a post @-@ punk ballad featuring new wave elements , with a length of four minutes and thirty @-@ seven seconds . It is set in common time ( 44 ) and has a slow tempo of 60 beats per minute . The song is composed in the key of A major and on the Boys Next Door version , Nick Cave 's vocal range spans one octave from D4 to E5 .
Howard wrote intentionally cynical lyrics to " Shivers " regarding relationships and suicide . According to Kelsey Munro of the Sydney Morning Herald , the song " exhibits Howard 's enduring gallows humour in its wry treatment of the overwrought protagonist " . The first lyrics " I 've been contemplating suicide / but it really doesn 't suit my style " have been also branded by the Sydney Morning Herald 's Jake Wilson as " famous opening lines " and typical of Howard 's " wry , guarded romanticism " .
According to members of the Boys Next Door , Howard 's songwriting was " more precious and stolid " than Cave 's or guitarist – keyboardist Mick Harvey 's attempts , with " Shivers " and his other songs generally being centred " around a bassline " . The final version of " Shivers " featured on Door , Door reflected this , and included only a two @-@ chord progression and four musical instruments : guitar , bass , piano and violin .
= = Release and reception = =
" Shivers " was originally released by the Young Charlatans as part of a Fast Forward cassette compilation , which was issued in April 1981 after the band 's dissolution . It was rereleased on CD on the various artists compilation album Inner City Sound : Australian Punk & Post @-@ Punk ( 2006 ) . The Boys Next Door version was released as Door , Door 's only single in May 1979 on Mushroom Records . It was issued as a 7 @-@ inch single , backed with " Dive Position " . The single soon went out of print , and a second pressing was issued later the same year . The band changed their name to the Birthday Party after relocating to London , England in 1980 and all of their recordings of " Shivers " are credited to the Boys Next Door .
" Shivers " received critical acclaim and became a major underground success in Australia , bringing more national attention to the band . Nick Cave cited it in hindsight as the main reason for the Boys Next Door 's eminence . In a retrospective review for AllMusic , critic Will Lerner wrote that " it 's impressive how , even at this early stage , Nick Cave was a confident and unique singer , perfectly aware of the strengths and limitations of his voice … he knows how to come across in a scary and theatrical manner that perfectly complements the music . Nowhere is this more apparent than on … ' Shivers ' , an unashamedly melodramatic example of post @-@ adolescent anguish " . " Shivers " , along with other songs Howard composed , were " crucial to guiding the band in the darker , wilder direction " that defined the Birthday Party 's music , according to Dan Lawrence of Stereogum . The song has since been considered an Australian classic and labelled by ABC Television as " possibly Australia 's most enduring cult hit " .
A music video for " Shivers " was directed by Paul Goldman in 1979 . It is featured on Pleasure Heads Must Burn ( 1984 ) , a video album released by the Birthday Party .
= = Live performances = =
" Shivers " was first performed at Young Charlatans concerts in the late 1970s , of which there were only 13 during the band 's career . In 1978 , prior to the recording of Door , Door , the Boys Next Door performed " Shivers " with Howard on vocals and Cave on guitar . After the song 's release , and changing their name to the Birthday Party , the band performed " Shivers " with their standard line @-@ up of Cave on vocals , Howard and Mick Harvey on guitar , Tracy Pew on bass and Phill Calvert on drums . Cave commented that he " used to dread ' Shivers ' coming up in the set " due to the fact " it required a certain amount of efficiency [ and ] certain amount of talent to sing " because it was one of the band 's only melodic songs .
During Howard 's solo concerts from 1983 to 1999 , " Shivers " was the song most requested by audience members . However , by the time of his final tour in 2009 — the year he died — he had stopped receiving requests for it . In an October 2009 interview , Howard commented on his relationship with the song , and its position in his setlists , stating : " I have just tried , perhaps finally successfully , to divorce myself from the song . It 's impossible for me to recreate what I was trying to do when I wrote that song so whilst I can see that people have an attachment to it , I don 't . I feel like , when I did use to do it in shows , I was doing a cover of some song that had been around forever . That 's how it felt . And I guess that is a strange way to feel about a song you wrote , so yeah , I am happy to not have to do it these days " .
= = Cover versions = =
Since its original release , " Shivers " has been covered by several artists . A live version recorded in Melbourne in 1982 by the Big Bang Combo was issued on volume 13 of the cassette magazine Fast Forward in October of that year . Musician and actress Marie Hoy performed the song in the 1986 independent film Dogs in Space ; it appeared on the film 's supporting soundtrack released in February 1987 on Chase Records . In 1992 pub rock band the Screaming Jets featured a cover version of " Shivers " on their second studio album , Tear of Thought . It was subsequently released as a single in February 1993 and spent 15 weeks on the Australian Singles Chart , peaking at number 19 in its fourth week . In 1996 Nick Cave performed guest vocals with Israeli singer @-@ songwriter Inbal Perlmuter on a version of " Shivers " released by her band Ha @-@ Mechashefot ( The Witches ) on their covers album , Undercover . Against Me ! frontwoman Laura Jane Grace performed " Shivers " on her 2013 acoustic mini @-@ tour .
= = Track listing = =
Australia 7 @-@ inch single ( Mushroom Records , K7492 )
" Shivers " ( Howard ) – 4 : 37
" Dive Position " ( Cave ) – 2 : 42
= = Personnel = =
All personnel credits adapted from Door , Door 's album notes .
The Boys Next Door
Phill Calvert – drums
Nick Cave – vocals
Mick Harvey – guitar , keyboards
Rowland S Howard – guitar
Tracy Pew – bass
Additional musicians
Henry Vyhnal – violin
Technical personnel
The Boys Next Door – production
Tony Cohen – engineering
Andrew Duffield – electronics
= Lytes Cary =
Lytes Cary is a manor house with associated chapel and gardens near Charlton Mackrell and Somerton in Somerset , England . The property , owned by the National Trust , has parts dating to the 14th century , with other sections dating to the 15th , 16th , 18th , and 20th centuries . " Yet all parts blend to perfection with one another and with the gentle sunny landscape that surrounds them , " comments Nikolaus Pevsner . The House is listed as Grade I by English Heritage .
The chapel predates the existing house , having been built around 1343 , and functioned as a chantry chapel , where masses could be said for the souls of the family , both living and dead . The great hall was added in the 15th century and the Oriel Room in the 16th . Various renovations were undertaken during the 16th and 17th centuries after which the house fell into disrepair with the north range being demolished by the early 19th century . In 1907 Sir Walter Jenner of the Jenner baronets bought the house and restored it in a period style , furnishing it with fine 17th century and 18th century oak furniture , antique tapestries and fabrics modelled after medieval textiles , along with historic and period paintings . On his death in 1948 he left the house to the National Trust .
The gardens are listed as Grade II on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England . The original 17th @-@ century gardens have disappeared . However , the Jenners laid them out in an Arts and Crafts style with a series of ' rooms ' , which are separated from each other by high , neatly clipped box and yew hedges . These are complemented by ponds and walks in and between each of the ' rooms ' .
= = History = =
The parkland surrounding the house includes the site of a deserted medieval settlement which is a scheduled monument .
The unusual name derives from the Lyte family who lived at Lytes Cary for over four centuries , and the River Cary which flows nearby . The first documentary evidence is from 1285 when it was known as Kari . William le Lyte was a feudal tenant of the estate in 1286 , and the Lyte family occupied and added to the house until the mid 18th century . The earliest surviving part of the manor and associated buildings is the chapel , which dates to the mid @-@ 14th century .
The Great Hall was built in the mid @-@ 15th century , and in the early 16th century the entrance porch and oriel room was added to the eastern side of the hall , and the great parlour and little parlour to the south of the hall , with bedrooms above . Sometime after the Lyte family sold the Manor in 1755 , tenants moved in and the house gradually fell into disrepair . In 1810 it was reported by a neighbour that the north range ' had lately been destroyed and a farm house built on the site ' , ( this north range is dated by architectural historians to the late 18th century ) and by the time John Buckler came to draw the house in 1835 the west range had also disappeared .
In 1907 Sir Walter Jenner of the Jenner baronets and son of the late Sir William Jenner , physician to Queen Victoria , bought Lytes Cary . At that time the Great Hall was being used as a cider store and the Great Parlour was full of farm equipment . Jenner 's brother Leopold had just bought and started to restore Avebury Manor in Wiltshire , and Jenner was inspired by his brother 's work there . He set about restoring Lytes Cary and decorating the interiors in period style , including fine 17th century and 18th century oak furniture , antique tapestries and fabrics modelled after medieval textiles . He had the west range rebuilt in a plain William and Mary style by the architect C.E. Ponting , but left the historic core of the house mostly untouched . It incorporates carvings believed to be from the demolished St Benet Gracechurch .
Jenner left the manor to the National Trust after he died in 1948 . The house was designated as a Grade I listed building in 1959 . The National Trust opened the west range as a holiday rental property in 2006 . Only the older parts of the house are open to the public .
= = Architecture = =
= = = House = = =
The two @-@ storey house and the chapel are built of the local Blue Lias stone . Parts of the house have mellow honey @-@ coloured Hamstone dressings , especially around windows and at quoins ; the later 18th century additions have brick dressings . The roofs are stone tiled with some later terracotta tiles .
= = = Chapel = = =
The chapel predates the existing house , and functioned as a chantry chapel , where masses could be said for the souls of the family , both living and dead . It was built by Peter Lyte in about 1343 , and was completed by 1358 , and would have served both the original manor which now no longer survives and later the existing house . It has a small window , or squint , that permitted servants and others to observe communion from the house .
The chapel was thoroughly renovated in 1631 by Thomas Lyte , who installed the arch @-@ braced @-@ collar truss roof , the communion rail , a rear screen and a frieze below the roof painted with the arms of the Lytes and their relations . A monument to the south of the altar records Thomas ' work on the chapel . In 1912 Sir Walter Jenner added the stained glass , including medieval glass said to have come from Charlton Mackrell church which William Le Lyte had commissioned before his death in 1316 .
= = = Great Hall = = =
This structure was built in the mid @-@ 15th century . At the southern end is a shallow raised dais on which the Lytes and favoured guests would have sat at a long table , facing the rest of the hall where the servants would have dined . The roof has arch @-@ braced @-@ collar trusses , with double purlins , and cusped curved windbraces . Typical of West Country design , these carved windbraces are both decorative and practical . Beneath is a cornice of pierced quatrefoils , and at the base of each main rafter is a carved wooden angel with a shield with the Lyte arms . The fireplace is 15th century , while the windows and the stained glass in them date from the early 16th century . The hall is entered from the east front porch via the screens passage , which would have divided the Hall from the kitchen and servants quarters ' which would have lain to the left of the hall . The screen and gallery are not original , having been inserted by Sir Walter Jenner in 1907 . He based the decoration on that of the arch from the Great Hall through to the Oriel Room . At the time of Jenner 's arrival in 1907 the Great Hall was being used as a cider store .
The Great Hall is furnished with mostly 17th century oak furniture , including tables , coffers and wainscot chairs , and a great dining table , on which stand two blue and white late 17th century Delftware pyramidal tulip vases . One treasure of the home is the Lytes Herbal , a 16th @-@ century botanical volume by noted horticulturist Henry Lyte , who was born and resided at the manor . Lyte 's Niewe Herball was published in 1578 and was a translation and elaboration of the Cruydeboeck of Flemish herbalist Rembert Dodoens . The herbal was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth . A copy is displayed in the Great Hall .
= = = Oriel Room = = =
This was added to the south of the Great Hall in the early 16th century to provide a small intimate room where the family could eat in private away from the servants . Above it is the small Oriel Bedroom , probably originally a dressing room for the Great Chamber as its only entrance is via that room . At the same time that the oriel room and bedroom were added , rooms were added or remodeled to the south of the Great Hall : the Great Parlour with Great Chamber above , and the Little Parlour with Little Parlour above . John Lyte , the builder , placed his coat of arms on the outside of the building .
= = = Great Parlour = = =
This was the main family sitting room on the ground floor , with the south @-@ facing grand window giving views to the gardens , and was remodelled by John Lyte in 1533 . In the early 17th century Thomas Lyte added the wood paneling ( including Ionic pilasters ) and the internal porch : these decorative features also had the
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practical benefit of keeping out the drafts . In the 20th century the room was being used as a store for farm equipment . Sir Walter Jenner had the paint stripped from the panelling to reveal the original warm @-@ coloured oak .
Above is the Great Chamber , an impressive room with a barrel ceiling with geometrical plaster decoration featuring John Lyte 's arms and those of his wife , Edith Horsey . This ceiling is a rare survival . The wall above the bed displays the royal coat of arms and Tudor roses , signifying Lyte 's loyalty to King Henry VIII ( whose government Lyte represented in Somerset ) . The panelling is 17th century , as are the great four poster bed and the tapestries on the walls . Some of the original oak panelling of the room may have been used in the construction of the canopy of the bed .
= = = Little Parlour = = =
This smaller room may have been used by Henry and Thomas Lyte for their studies . It too has later paneling and an alcove in which are displayed a collection of early glassware . Above this room is the Little Chamber , used by Sir Walter Jenner as his bedroom . The bed came from Burton Pynsent House in Somerset , a house given to William Pitt the Elder by an admirer of his achievements as prime minister .
= = = Paintings = = =
Sir Walter Jenner furnished the rooms with furniture and included historic and newly commissioned paintings . The paintings include : portraits of Lady Catherine Neville by Robert Peake James Scott , 1st Duke of Monmouth and Mary II of England by Sir Peter Lely and William III of England by Godfrey Kneller , along with landscapes by Jan Wyck and Jack Green . Oil paintings of horses by George Denholm Armour and George Richard Pain are also included in the extensive collection .
= = Gardens = =
All trace of Henry Lyte 's garden has disappeared . Records show that his son Thomas kept a very well @-@ stocked orchard , which included in 1618 " Apples , 3 skore severall sorts. pears and Wardens ( a type of pear ) , 44 sorts . Plummes , 15 divers kynds . Grapes , 3 severall sortes . Cherries , 1 . Walnuts , 3 . Peaches , 1 . " By the Victorian period the garden had run to seed , and so the Jenners had to start from scratch on their arrival in 1907 . They had the gardens designed and constructed to include a series of hedged and walled " rooms " with topiary , specimen trees , a pool , statuary , croquet lawn , walkways , an Elizabethan orchard , and a herbal border that includes plants described in the Lytes Herbal . The gate piers at the east and west entrances are listed buildings .
The gardens were constructed in a series of ' rooms ' , which are separated from each other by high , neatly clipped box and yew hedges . The gardens were influenced by the Arts and Crafts style popular at the time . The Jenners had a garden staff of four .
In 1965 Graham Stuart Thomas , the National Trust 's first Gardens Adviser designed the Main Border . From 1955 @-@ 1997 the Trust 's tenants at the Manor , Biddy and Jeremy Chittenden , transformed the garden , and Biddy rethought and replanted the main border in 1996 , using new plants but following Stuart Thomas 's colour scheme .
The gardens are listed as Grade II on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England . A barn and other outbuildings north west of the house are listed buildings .
The Apostle garden is aligned on the front door in the East front of the house and a building which has been described as a water tower , built by the Jenners in imitation of the dovecote at Avebury Manor , which was wrongly identified as a Dovecote by English Heritage . The garden is a severe , formal approach , flanked by topiarised yews , and is " deliberately low @-@ key and simple so as not to distract from the beauty of the building " . The main border is 35 metres ( 114 @.@ 8 ft ) long and at its best in midsummer . The flowers grade from blues and yellows , through creams and apricots to pinks , mauves and reds . There is a restful White Garden beyond for contrast .
The orchard contains fruit trees such as quinces , medlars , crab apples and pears are underplanted with spring @-@ flowering meadow plants such as snakeshead fritillaries , camassias , narcissus , cowslips and lady 's smock . The orchard is crossed by wide mown paths meeting at a central sundial . Originally four weeping elms were situated at the four corners of the garden , but they succumbed to Dutch elm disease in the early seventies and were replaced in 1973 by four weeping ash trees which make inviting ' houses ' . The orchard can be viewed from the raised walk on its east side , another idea copied from Avebury Manor . A main path known as the Long walk is based on the Long Walk at Hidcote Manor Garden in Gloucestershire , although it is on a smaller scale . It is a plain grassed walkway connecting the Raised Walk with the Pond Garden .
The pond garden , seat garden and croquet lawn are interlinked , with aligned openings to form a vista from the bay windows of the Great Parlour and Great Chamber on the south front of the house over to the Sparkford plain . A short tunnel of hornbeams link the Pond Garden to the Vase Garden , where variegated weigela is underplanted with euphorbia and vinca .
= I Can Transform Ya =
" I Can Transform Ya " is a song by American singer Chris Brown from his third album Graffiti . The song features vocals from Lil Wayne and Swizz Beatz . The artists co @-@ wrote the song with Lonny Bereal , Trayce Green , and Jason " Poo Bear " Boyd , with Beatz producing the track . The song was released as the lead single from Graffiti on September 29 , 2009 , and was Brown 's first official release since his altercation with former girlfriend , Barbadian singer Rihanna . Originally known simply as " Transformer " , it is an electro @-@ composed song infused with hip @-@ hop , rock , crunk , and R & B influences , while making use of robotic tones . It is lyrically about introducing someone to a life of luxury .
" I Can Transform Ya " received mostly positive reviews , noting the song 's club feel and catchiness . The song peaked the highest in New Zealand , at number seven , and was also certified Platinum in the country . It peaked in the top twenty of the United States , at twenty @-@ one in Australia and Ireland . The song also charted in the top thirty in the United Kingdom , becoming a top ten hit on the UK R & B Chart . The dance @-@ heavy accompanying music video , coined a " shiny , sexy , throwback " features choreography with hooded ninjas , and makes puns on the Transformers series .
= = Background = =
The song was originally titled " Transformer " according to producer and featured guest Swizz Beatz in a September 2009 interview with MTV News . The song was set to be the first real record that Brown had released since his altercation with then @-@ girlfriend Rihanna at the beginning of the year . Another song " Changed Man " , an " apologetic ode to Rihanna " written by Brown , and several other tracks were leaked but Jive Records said the material was old . Swizz Beatz said that Brown had recorded " 60 or 70 " songs for the album , and that " He 's got something to prove . " Beatz also commented on Lil Wayne 's contribution to the song , saying , " " The Wayne part is just nothing to talk about , He really showed his ass on this one . It 's probably the best feature verse since the ' It 's Me [ Bitches ] ' remix . He really went in on the ' Transformer ' joint . " It was originally supposed released on September 30 , 2009 , but Brown stated on his Twitter that the song would be released a day early on September 29 , 2009 .
= = Composition = =
The song , influenced by hip @-@ hop and rock , has been described as an " upbeat tune " , is composed of pounding drums , and features referee whistles and hand claps . It also has synthpop elements , featuring a " synthesized guitar riff . " Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times says the song has a robo @-@ crunk groove . According to James Montgomery of MTV News , the song is an " adult club track " . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that the song is one of the album tracks featuring an " aggressive stance " and " club banger " that would " sound fantastic on the dancefloor " . The song is lyrically about introducing someone new to a luxurious life . The song makes references to the Transformers film and series .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally positive reviews . Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune gave the song a positive review , calling it a " club banger " . Thomas Gonlianpoulous of Spin commended Swizz Beatz ' " bombastic production " , Wayne 's " energetic yet nonsensical rap " , and Brown 's " joyful , brisk vocals . " Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! Music UK said the song , serving as lead single , says " Brown 's promise for the future is to be an altogether more interesting kind of R & B artist . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly referred to the song as a " swaggering " lead single . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times referred to the song as a type that he has made his specialty , and called it an " electric , brassy collaboration . " Although Nick Levine of Digital Spy called the song " a brutal , tuneless hunk of industrial R & B - as musically ugly as something like ' With You ' was pretty " , he said " for that matter , this track rocks " , commenting " Whatever you may think of him , you can 't deny that Chris Brown lacks balls . " Jude Rogers of BBC Music the song was catchy , but was one of the album 's tracks that were a " pale imitation of Justin Timberlake album tracks . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , the song entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number fifty @-@ two . After weeks of ascending and descending the charts the single reached a peak of twenty on its eighth week on the chart , giving Brown his eighth top twenty hit in the United States . Also in the U.S. , the song peaked at number eleven on the Hot R & B / Hip Hop Songs . In Canada , the song entered the charts at seventy @-@ five . The song fluctuated around the charts for seven weeks before finally peaking at fifty @-@ four on its eight week .
It reached five on the Flanders and Wallonia Belgian Tip Charts . The song peaked at number seven in New Zealand , where it spent seven weeks on the chart . " I Can Transform Ya " peaked in the top thirty in the United Kingdom , and Ireland , whilst reaching number nine on the UK R & B Chart . In Australia it peaked at twenty @-@ one , where it spent eighteen weeks on the chart . It reached fifty @-@ seven on the Mega Single Top 100 in the Netherlands , having a seven @-@ week stint . " I Can Transform Ya " ' s charting in European marks propelled it to debut and peak at seventy @-@ six on the European Hot 100 . The song was certified Platinum in New Zealand by the RIANZ and Gold in Australia by the ARIA .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The song 's music video was directed by Joseph Kahn . Kahn , who also directed the video for Brown and Ester Dean 's " Drop It Low " , said that Brown played him tracks from his album on the set , and had a clear idea of what he wanted for the " I Can Transform Ya " video . Kahn said ,
" ... obviously , him going in there and dancing and turning into cars and trucks is right up my alley . His interests , in terms of kung fu and special effects and science fiction and all the boy @-@ culture stuff , it falls directly in line with what I like . " His talent is phenomenal . I 'm still struggling to try and capture that talent on film , and it 's a challenge . Here 's a guy who can literally do anything . If you watch this thing , he 's doing nunchuck tricks , and I 'm a huge kung fu aficionado , and they 're mind @-@ blowing . I 've never seen stuff like that before in kung fu flicks . I would say it 's like a pure aesthetic dance video from the very fiber of it . Everything dances onscreen . Everything has movement . Everything has a certain mechanical rhythm . He actually created a dance style for this that is mechanical . It 's sort of a hyper @-@ intense version of the robot . Even the transformations go directly in line with the movements . "
Kahn also said that instead of taking the song 's lyrics and being " pretentious " about it , he wanted to show the audience exactly what Brown was singing about , commenting , " What if we just got ambitious and demonstrated the lyrics ? The trick is to do it in a creative way . Let 's try to display the lyrics and the feeling of the dance at the same time . " On October 2009 , Brown released screencaps for the video , coincidentally the same day Rihanna released her video for " Russian Roulette " . The photos showed several scenes , including Brown in the middle of a squadron of black storm troopers , Brown in a gray suit , and him giving a karate kick in mid @-@ air . Another was also of Brown , Wayne and Swizz Beatz standing confidently against a white backdrop .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The video premiered on MTV Networks on October 27 , 2009 . The music video opens with Brown transforming from a black sports car , and spray painting the name of the single onto the screen , indirectly referencing his forthcoming album Graffiti . The video , set entirely on an all @-@ white backdrop , focuses on Brown 's dance moves , as Brown performs alongside hooded ninjas . Several other " transformations " are made in the video including from motorcycles and helicopters . Swizz Beatz appears in the clip , as well as Lil Wayne , playing an electric guitar . Transformers star Tyrese Gibson makes a cameo appearance .
Jocelyn Vena of MTV News described the video as " glossy " and " fast @-@ paced " . James Montgomery of MTV News called the video a " shiny , sexy throwback " . Montgomery also said , " It 's a blockbuster , loaded with eye @-@ popping special effects — the titular transformations are particularly great looking , as are the scene @-@ to @-@ scene transitions — and frighteningly precise pop @-@ and @-@ lock moves from Brown himself . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly said the clip was " snazzy @-@ looking " , but commented , " it feels … kind of gross . " BET 's Sound Off Blog said , " the visual embodies exactly what the title represents- transforming into abnormal objects while doing splits and showing off some several thick wasted PYT ’ s . " The video 's choreography and dancers resembling " cyber ninjas " also drew comparisons to Janet Jackson 's " Feedback " by several critics .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = End @-@ of @-@ year charts = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Vocals - Chris Brown , Lil Wayne , Swizz Beatz
Songwriting - Chris Brown , Jason " Poo Bear " Boyd , J.Thomas , Kasseem Dean , Joeseph " Lonny " Bereal , Dwayne Carter
Production - Swizz Beatz
Mixing - Manny Marroquin , assisted by Christian Plata and Erik Madrid
Recording - Brian Springer
Guitar - Rayfield " Ray @-@ Ray " Holloman
Mastering - Chris Bellman
Source
= = Release history = =
= Time Machine ( roller coaster ) =
The Time Machine is a steel roller coaster which is currently in @-@ storage at Ocean Park in Vietnam . Previously located at Freestyle Music Park in Myrtle Beach , South Carolina , the ride was manufactured by the Swiss company Bolliger & Mabillard , opened to the public on April 15 , 2008 under the name Led Zeppelin – The Ride as part of Hard Rock Park . Due to financial problems , Hard Rock Park was sold and renamed after one year . The new owners closed the park in 2009 , and it is still closed to this day .
= = History = =
Plans for a Hard Rock @-@ themed amusement park were released in 2003 ; at the time , however , funding and licensing agreements had yet to be finalized . By 2006 , a licensing agreement with the Hard Rock franchise was reached . Hard Rock Park was announced in early 2007 . The park 's flagship attraction , " Led Zeppelin – The Ride " , would be a Bolliger & Mabillard sit @-@ down roller coaster themed for the English rock band of the same name . By July 2007 construction for the ride was underway , with the lift hill completed .
" Led Zeppelin – The Ride " soft @-@ opened to the public on April 15 , 2008 , with the first seats auctioned for charity . The ride 's official opening was on May 9 , 2008 . During operation , the coaster would play Led Zeppelin 's " Whole Lotta Love " through an on @-@ board audio system . In September 2008 , Hard Rock Park filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy due to the inability to pay its debts . Its owners later filed for bankruptcy under Chapter 7 , allowing them to sell the park .
In February 2009 , FPI MB Entertainment purchased the park . As part of the acquisition it was renamed Freestyle Music Park , with all licensed themes removed . " Led Zeppelin – The Ride " was renamed " The Time Machine " , with the on @-@ board audio a selection of songs from the 1960s to the 2000s . The new park officially opened on May 23 , 2009 ; however , the fate of Freestyle Music Park was similar to that of its predecessor and the park closed in September 2009 . As of 2013 the park and its rides remain standing , but not operating .
According to Screamscape , on August 21 , 2014 , cranes had been set up next to the Time Machine to begin the process of dismantling , and elements of the finale had already been removed .
In 2016 , the ride will operate at Ocean Park in Vietnam .
= = Characteristics = =
The Time Machine featured six inversions over the 3 @,@ 738 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 139 m ) ride , including two vertical loops , a cobra roll , a zero @-@ g roll and a corkscrew . Riders reached a top speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . Throughout the ride , passengers could listen to five different soundtracks over speakers built into the trains . The trains had eight single @-@ row cars , seating riders four across for a total of thirty @-@ two seats per train .
= = Ride = =
After the train left the station , it climbed the 155 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 47 m ) chain lift hill . It then dropped 150 feet ( 46 m ) before entering the first 120 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 37 m ) vertical loop . This was followed by a 95 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 29 m ) cobra roll and a 75 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 23 m ) zero @-@ g roll . A second , smaller vertical loop would lead the train into a large helix before the mid @-@ course brake run . The ride then dropped into another small helix before navigating through a corkscrew . A third helix followed before the train slowed in the final brake run and returned to the station .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of the Time Machine were mixed . The Coaster Critic , reviewing Led Zeppelin – The Ride , described its overall ride experience as a " great attraction " , praising its pre @-@ show and synchronized soundtrack and rating the ride 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Jeremy Thompson of Roller Coaster Philosophy gave a similar review , enjoying the ride and ranking it number 15 on his top @-@ coasters list ; however , he criticized the lack of elements during the ride 's second half . Arthur Levine of About.com expanded on Thompson 's criticism , calling the ride one of North America 's top @-@ 10 overrated roller coasters . Levine described it as an " impressive @-@ looking coaster " which " has almost no airtime , shudders a bit as it delivers a few head @-@ banging moments , and is largely nondescript " . In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , the Time Machine peaked at number 102 in its debut year ( 2008 ) . In 2009 , it dropped to 138th out of 368 ranked steel roller coasters .
= = Sale and Acquisition = =
The ride was posted for sale on www.italintl.com included in a bundle of components of the former Freestyle Music Park . In 2014 Time Machine was purchased by an undisclosed park in Vietnam as part of this bundle from the former home of Time Machine , Freestyle Music Park .
= The Deal ( Seinfeld ) =
" The Deal " is the ninth episode of the second season of NBC 's Seinfeld , and the show 's 14th episode overall . The episode centers on protagonists Jerry ( Jerry Seinfeld ) and Elaine Benes ( Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ) who decide to have a purely physical relationship , with a set of ground rules . However , as their " relationship " progresses , they experience difficulties maintaining their original friendship .
Series co @-@ creator Larry David wrote the episode in a response to NBC 's continued efforts to get the two characters back together . The main inspiration behind the episode was a similar agreement David once made with a woman . The episode , which introduced the character of Tina , Elaine 's roommate , first aired on May 2 , 1991 and was watched by approximately 22 @.@ 6 million viewers . Critics reacted positively to the episode , and David received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
As they are watching TV in Jerry 's apartment , Jerry and Elaine flip through the channels , stumbling upon the soft @-@ core pornography channel . Upon the realization that neither of them has had sexual relations in a while , they start toying with the idea of sleeping together . They refer to their friendship as " this " and sexual intercourse as " that " . However , as they do not wish to ruin their friendship , they establish a set of ground rules . Happy with their agreement , they make their way to the bedroom . The next day Jerry has lunch with his friend George Costanza ( Jason Alexander ) , and makes him aware of his situation with Elaine . George remains skeptical , even after Jerry explains the rules system to him . He is proven right when Jerry and Elaine get into an argument over the second rule : " Spending the night is optional " . Jerry eventually does not spend the night , leaving their agreement on shaky terms .
With Elaine 's birthday coming up Jerry has to decide on what to get her . Since they are not in a relationship but they are still having sex he feels that the symbolism of the gift needs to be carefully thought out . He looks for a gift with George but is unable to think of anything , though he vaguely remembers her saying " something about a bench " . Elaine is unhappy with the eventual gift : $ 182 cash . When Jerry 's neighbor Kramer ( Michael Richards ) gives Elaine the bench she was looking for , for which she is much more grateful , she and Jerry talk over their agreement . They decide to start dating . When Kramer sees them again and asks what they are up to , Jerry notes that they now do " this , that and the other , " " the other " being their romantic relationship as a couple .
= = Production = =
Series co @-@ creator Larry David wrote the episode , which was directed by Tom Cherones . Since the start of the show , NBC executives , especially Warren Littlefield , had been pressuring the writing staff to get Jerry and Elaine back together . Larry David had been against this idea from the start . However , brainstorming for an episode idea , he remembered he had once made a deal with a woman to have a purely physical relationship , which he thought " would make a really funny show , even if they had never [ told us to get Jerry and Elaine back together ] " . Though Jerry and Elaine are still in a relationship at the end of the episode , they are no longer together by the end of the season . Seinfeld and David decided that they had satisfied the NBC executives and went back to the original format . Seinfeld and David have also noted that " The Deal " is the only Seinfeld episode ever to contain sincere emotions , during the scene in which Jerry and Elaine discuss the ending of their physical relationship .
On February 25 , 1991 , the table @-@ read of the episode was held , subsequent filming occurred at CBS Studio Center in Studio City , Los Angeles , California three days later . " The Deal " is the first episode in which Elaine 's apartment is shown . During rehearsals controversy arose over how Jerry and Elaine would sit during their " this and that " conversation . Several producers believed that , as the scene was intimate , the two should sit close together . David , however , believed the discussion was more of a transaction than an intimate scene and felt that Jerry and Elaine should sit further apart . On audio commentary recorded for the Seinfeld : Volume 1 DVD set , David commented that when he showed his idea of the scene , " I remember everybody saying ' there 's no heat , there 's no heat ' , and I said , that 's the point , there 's not supposed to be any " . David and producer Andrew Scheinman got into a big argument over the issue , which David eventually won .
Aside from showing Elaine 's apartment for the first time , " The Deal " also marks the first appearance of Elaine 's roommate Tina , who had been mentioned in earlier episodes . Siobhan Fallon was cast in the role ; she would reprise the character two more times , in season three 's " The Truth " and in the season five finale " The Opposite " . Norman Brenner , who worked as Richards ' stand @-@ in on the show for all its nine seasons , appears as an extra , working in the store George and Jerry visit to look for a gift for Elaine .
= = Reception = =
" The Deal " was first broadcast on May 2 , 1991 on NBC and received a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 5 and an audience share of 25 , indicating that 15 @.@ 5 percent of American households watched the episode , and that 25 percent of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it . With averagely 22 @.@ 6 million homes watching the episode , the series was the eleventh most @-@ watched show in the week it was broadcast , tied with NBC 's The Golden Girls . David received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series , but lost the award to Gary Dontzig and Steven Peterman , writers of the Murphy Brown episode " Jingle Hell , Jingle Hell , Jingle All the Way " .
Critics reacted positively to the episode . Eric Kohanik of The Hamilton Spectator called " The Deal " a " hilarious episode " . Entertainment Weekly critics Mike Flaherty and Mary Kaye Schilling commented " Jerry and Elaine 's circuitous verbal dance pondering the relative worth of that [ sex ] versus this [ the friendship ] is sublime . The show 's ability to be both explicit and vague will become a hallmark . "
= Siege of Varaždin Barracks =
The Siege of Varaždin Barracks , also referred to locally as Varaždin 's Days of War ( Croatian : Varaždinski dani rata ) , was the blockade and capture of the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) barracks and other facilities in and around the city of Varaždin during the Croatian War of Independence . The blockade began on 14 September 1991 , quickly escalated into fighting , and ended on 22 September with the surrender of the JNA garrison . It was part of the Battle of the Barracks — an effort by Croatian armed forces to isolate JNA units based at barracks in Croatia , or capture the barracks to provide arms for Croatia 's nascent army .
The besieging force outnumbered the JNA garrison in Varaždin , which was divided among several barracks , storage depots and other facilities , but the JNA possessed substantially greater firepower . The balance shifted in favour of the Croatian forces after smaller JNA posts were captured in the first few days of the siege , until only one barracks along with the headquarters of the JNA 32nd Corps remained under JNA control . At that point , the commander of the 32nd Corps , Major General Vladimir Trifunović , and the civilian authorities in Varaždin agreed that the remaining JNA forces in the city would surrender , but all those wishing to leave would be permitted to do so , leaving their weapons behind .
The capture of the 32nd Corps ' weapons was the most significant achievement of the Battle of the Barracks , and greatly augmented the capabilities of the Croatian military . After he left Croatia , Trifunović was indicted for war crimes by Croatia , tried in absentia and convicted for the combat deaths of six Croatian soldiers and the wounding of dozens of Croatian citizens before and during the siege . He was also prosecuted by Yugoslav authorities for treason , but subsequently pardoned . In 2013 , he requested a re @-@ trial on his Croatian war crimes conviction .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , ethnic tensions between Serbs and Croats worsened after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( Croatian : Hrvatska demokratska zajednica – HDZ ) . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Serbian : Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Croatian : Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin ( approximately 60 kilometres ( 37 miles ) north @-@ east of Split ) , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . In January 1991 , Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , unsuccessfully tried to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces . The request was denied and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March prompted the JNA itself to ask the Federal Presidency to give it wartime authority and declare a state of emergency . Even though the request was backed by Serbia and its allies , the JNA request was refused on 15 March . Serbian President Slobodan Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia with Croatia as a federal unit , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal Presidency . The threat caused the JNA to abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of expansion of Serbia as the JNA came under Milošević 's control . By the end of March , the conflict had escalated with the first
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fatalities . In early April , leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to amalgamate the areas under their control with Serbia . These were viewed by the Government of Croatia as breakaway regions .
At the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . To bolster its defence , Croatia doubled its police numbers to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the Croatian police force was 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police comprising twelve battalions organised along military lines . There were also 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons . In response to the deteriorating situation , the Croatian government established the Croatian National Guard ( Croatian : Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) in May by expanding the special police battalions into four all @-@ professional guards brigades . Under Ministry of Defence control and commanded by retired JNA General Martin Špegelj , the four guards brigades comprised approximately 8 @,@ 000 troops . The reserve police , also expanded to 40 @,@ 000 , was attached to the ZNG and reorganised into 19 brigades and 14 independent battalions . The guards brigades were the only units of the ZNG that were fully equipped with small arms ; throughout the ZNG there was a lack of heavier weapons and there was poor command and control structure above the brigade level . The shortage of heavy weapons was so severe that the ZNG resorted to using World War II weapons taken from museums and film studios . At the time , the Croatian weapon stockpile consisted of 30 @,@ 000 small arms purchased abroad and 15 @,@ 000 previously owned by the police . To replace the personnel lost to the guards brigades , a new 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police was established .
= = Prelude = =
The views of the Croatian leadership on how to deal with the JNA 's role in the Croatian Serb revolt gradually evolved between January and September 1991 . Croatian President Franjo Tuđman 's initial plan was to win European Community ( EC ) and United States support ; so he dismissed advice to seize JNA barracks and storage facilities in the country . This course of action was first advocated by Špegelj in late 1990 ; he again urged Tuđman to act while the JNA fought Slovenia 's TO in the Ten @-@ Day War in June – July 1991 . Špegelj 's calls were echoed by Šime Đodan , who succeeded Špegelj as Defence Minister in July . Špegelj remained in command of the ZNG .
Tuđman 's initial stance was based on his belief that Croatia could not win a war against the JNA . The ZNG was therefore limited to defensive operations , even though the actions of the JNA appeared to be coordinated with Croatian Serb forces . This impression was reinforced by buffer zones established by the JNA after fighting between Croatian Serb militia and the ZNG . The JNA often intervened after the ZNG had lost territory , leaving the Croatian Serbs in control of areas they had captured before the JNA stepped in . The JNA provided some weapons to the Croatian Serbs , although most of their weaponry was sourced from Serbia 's TO and the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs .
In July 1991 , Špegelj and Đodan 's advice was supported by a number of Croatian Parliament members . In response , Tuđman dismissed Đodan the same month he was appointed Defence Minister , and Špegelj resigned his command of the ZNG on 3 August . The deteriorating situation in eastern Croatia , including the JNA expulsion of ZNG troops from Baranja , intermittent fighting around Osijek , Vukovar and Vinkovci , increasing losses and the growing conviction that the JNA were actively supporting the Croatian Serb revolt , forced Tuđman to act . On 22 August , he issued an ultimatum to the federal Yugoslav authorities demanding the withdrawal of the JNA to its barracks by the end of the month . The ultimatum stated that if the JNA failed to comply , Croatia would consider it an army of occupation and take corresponding action . On 1 September , the EC proposed a ceasefire and a peace conference was accepted by the Yugoslav Presidency and by Tuđman , despite his earlier ultimatum . The conference started on 7 September , but only four days later , the Croatian member and chair of the presidency , Stjepan Mesić , ordered the JNA to return to its barracks within 48 hours . This order was motivated by Tuđman 's concern that the conference would drag on while the ZNG lost territory . Even though the order was opposed by other members of the presidency , it gave Croatia justification to openly confront the JNA .
Prime Minister Franjo Gregurić advised Tuđman to implement Špegelj 's plan . According to General Anton Tus , Tuđman ordered the ZNG to capture JNA barracks on 12 September , but rescinded the order the next day . The order was reinstated on 14 September after Tus pleaded with Tuđman to re @-@ authorize action , arguing that the ZNG was running out of time . The same day , the ZNG and the Croatian police blockaded and cut utilities to all JNA facilities it had access to , beginning the Battle of the Barracks . This action comprised blockades of 33 large JNA garrisons in Croatia , and numerous smaller facilities , including border posts , and weapons and ammunition storage depots .
= = Order of battle = =
Varaždin was the garrison of the JNA 32nd Corps commanded by Major General Vladimir Trifunović . In addition to the Corps headquarters there were several other JNA facilities in and around the city . The most substantial of these were located in Varaždin itself – the Kalnički partizani barracks where Colonel Berislav Popov 's 32nd Mechanised Brigade was based , and the Jalkovečke žrtve barracks of the 32nd Mixed Artillery Regiment , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Vladimir Davidović . The Corps ' area of responsibility extended beyond Varaždin and its immediate surroundings , where further significant combat units were based . The most significant among them were the 32nd Engineer Regiment in Čakovec , the 411th Mixed Antitank Artillery Regiment based in Križevci , the 73rd Motorised Brigade headquartered in Koprivnica , the 265th Mechanised Brigade based in Bjelovar , and the 288th Mixed Antitank Artillery Brigade in Virovitica . In Varaždin itself , the JNA units included approximately 1 @,@ 000 troops , making the JNA garrison of Varaždin the second largest in Croatia . Despite this , the JNA did not have sufficient number of troops in the area to secure all its facilities .
Croatian forces in and around Varaždin and nearby Čakovec consisted of 640 ZNG troops ( including 60 who had been deployed from Zagreb ) , 100 police , 300 People 's Protection ( Narodna zaštita ) troops and several hundred armed civilians . The ZNG troops were subordinated to the 104th Brigade and to the 5th Battalion of the 1st Guards Brigade – but were lightly armed . Besides small arms , they had only 17 mortars , two 9M14 Malyutka anti @-@ tank guided missile systems , two 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machine guns and four armoured personnel carriers . Initially , command of Croatian forces in the city was not unified and Colonel Želimir Škarec of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia only had a coordination role .
= = Timeline = =
= = = First hostilities = = =
A blockade of the JNA facilities in and around Varaždin was ordered on 13 September 1991 , which took effect the next day when utilities and access to the barracks were cut . In response , the Corps command informed Croatian forces that they could no longer guarantee peace unless utilities were restored and JNA military vehicles were allowed to move freely . On 15 September , the Corps began preparing for the demolition of all minor military facilities which could not be defended . At the same time , negotiations began between the Corps command and civilian authorities in Varaždin . At 15 : 30 , the Yugoslav Air Force attacked the Varaždin Airfield . The strike was intended to disrupt flights of Antonov An @-@ 2 agricultural aircraft converted to carry 1 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 1 @.@ 5 long tons ; 1 @.@ 7 short tons ) of cargo — transporting weapons from the Hungarian town of Nagykanizsa . The attacking force comprised two planes sortied from Željava Air Base , which broke the sound barrier above Varaždin to produce a sonic boom and bombed the airfield . One bomb destroyed an An @-@ 2 on the ground and damaged the runway , while the second landed in a nearby field .
Between 16 : 50 and 17 : 07 , there was an exchange of small arms fire between the JNA troops in the Corps headquarters and a nearby police checkpoint , and at 17 : 35 a mortar attack was launched by the 32nd Mechanised Brigade . The mortar fire targeted the police station and surrounding buildings , and an electrical substation in the nearby village of Nedeljanec . The civilian authorities in Varaždin promptly notified the European Community Monitoring Mission of damage to the city . By 16 September , the JNA artillery bombardment of the city had extended to various street intersections and approaches to the Drava bridge on the Varaždin – Čakovec road . The latter was counter @-@ battery fire , targeting ZNG mortars which fired approximately 150 bombs against the JNA during the entire operation . By the end of 16 September , 42 JNA officers and soldiers had deserted from the 32nd Mechanised Brigade . The JNA ordered its border guards posted along the Hungarian border from Čakovec to Ludbreg to lay land mines around their facilities , then cross into Hungary and surrender to that country 's authorities .
= = = Peak of the fighting = = =
On 17 September , the commander of the 104th Brigade , Colonel Ivan Rukljić , took command of all Croatian forces in Varaždin . The Yugoslav Air Force attacked an airfield in Čakovec , mimicking the strike carried out in Varaždin a few days earlier . That evening , the heaviest fighting of the siege erupted in Varaždin , and the 104th Brigade reported it was uncertain how long it would be able to maintain the blockades . Croatian forces received additional weapons that day , after the JNA garrisons in Čakovec , Križevci and Virovitica surrendered to the ZNG . In Varaždin itself , corps @-@ level units of the JNA 32nd Corps based at the 15 @.@ maj barracks also surrendered to the ZNG that day . The following day , fighting intensified again , as Croatian forces captured several minor JNA facilities in Varaždin itself — leaving the Corps headquarters , the Kalnički partizani barracks and the Jalkovečke žrtve barracks as the only JNA @-@ held military bases in the city . In the course of this fighting , the ZNG suffered one fatality and captured nine JNA officers and 30 soldiers .
On 19 September , Croatian forces managed to interdict radio communications between the 32nd Mechanised Brigade artillery and its artillery observers , and set up their own transmitter to direct JNA artillery fire against the Jalkovečke žrtve barracks . This deception was designed to deceive Davidović into thinking that the ZNG had much greater firepower than it did . The plan worked and when ZNG troops entered the barracks compound that day , the 32nd Mixed Artillery Regiment ( four officers and 196 soldiers ) surrendered . Late in the evening of 19 September , Croatian police and elements of the 3rd Battalion of the 104th Brigade secured the Varaždinbreg weapons storage facility located in the village of Banjšćina near Varaždin , after its JNA commander surrendered the facility and its garrison of 60 without resistance . The capture of JNA weapons greatly improved the Croatian position in negotiations when trying to convince JNA commanding officers of the 32nd Corps to surrender .
= = = Surrender of the JNA garrison = = =
The blockade continued for two more days , with continuing clashes between Croatian and JNA troops . On 21 September , the 32nd Corps found itself in a difficult position . It reported that it could not continue to resist as its weapons and ammunition storage facilities had been lost , and all the barracks had been captured except the base of the 32nd Mechanised Brigade . Furthermore , it noted that there was a possibility that the remaining troops might desert en masse . According to Trifunović , he notified Colonel General Života Avramović , his immediate superior and commander of the 5th Military District , of his intention to surrender . Avramović then told Trifunović to do as he saw fit . A Croatian ultimatum was issued early on 22 September , demanding the surrender of JNA troops in the city , and offering its personnel the chance to leave Croatia " honourably " . Trifunović accepted the Croatian terms at 11 : 00 .
= = Aftermath = =
One JNA officer and one non @-@ commissioned officer were killed during the fighting , and 15 JNA troops were wounded . Croatian forces sustained losses of two killed and 24 wounded . Two civilians were also killed . Approximately 1 @,@ 000 JNA officers and soldiers surrendered to the ZNG . The officers and their families living in Varaždin , as well as approximately 450 soldiers who wanted to leave Croatia were transported to Serbia in a convoy comprising twelve buses and several passenger cars . The convoy was provided with a police escort and two representatives of the civilian authorities in Varaždin accompanied the convoy as hostages to guarantee its safe passage . One of the hostages was Radimir Čačić , who became Deputy Prime Minister of Croatia 20 years later .
The ZNG captured 74 T @-@ 55 tanks , approximately ten special @-@ purpose vehicles ( such as PT @-@ 76 amphibious light tanks ) , armoured recovery vehicles , and armoured vehicle @-@ launched bridges , 48 BVP M @-@ 80 infantry fighting vehicles , 18 self @-@ propelled anti @-@ aircraft weapons , six 2S1 Gvozdika self @-@ propelled howitzers , six M @-@ 63 Plamen and four M @-@ 77 Oganj multiple rocket launchers , eighteen 155 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) and twelve 152 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) guns with towing vehicles , approximately 180 artillery pieces below 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) calibre , several batteries of 60 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) , 82 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) and 120 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) mortars , 25 @,@ 000 small arms , 250 vehicles and pieces of engineering equipment , a large stock of communication equipment and several hundred thousand tonnes of ammunition . Some of the weapons had been disabled on Trifunović 's orders shortly before the surrender . The captured weapons were distributed to units deployed in eastern Slavonia , Lika and Dalmatia , and were also used to equip new ZNG units .
When the last JNA @-@ held barracks and the 32nd Corps headquarters surrendered , only two major JNA bases remained in the area of responsibility of the Corps — Bjelovar and Koprivnica . The JNA 's Bjelovar garrison was captured by the ZNG a week later , while its barracks in Koprivnica surrendered a day after that . The capture of the JNA barracks in and around Varaždin , and particularly the storage facilities of the 32nd Corps was very significant for development of Croatian military . The capture of the barracks is celebrated annually in Varaždin , and is locally referred to as " Varaždin 's Days of War " ( Varaždinski dani rata ) .
War crimes charges were brought against Trifunović in Croatia , where he was indicted for the combat deaths of six Croatian soldiers in and around Varaždin , and the wounding of a further 37 individuals ( both soldiers and civilians ) . After a trial in absentia , he was found guilty and in 1991 he was sentenced to 15 years in prison . In 1994 , Trifunović was charged with treason by Yugoslav authorities for surrendering the entire JNA 32nd Corps to the ZNG . He was convicted and sentenced to 11 years in prison . In early 1996 , he was pardoned and released , and the Yugoslav authorities paid him € 62 @,@ 000 compensation for spending nearly two years in prison . In 2013 , Trifunović formally requested re @-@ trial in Croatia .
= Happy Chandler =
Albert Benjamin " Happy " Chandler , Sr. ( July 14 , 1898 – June 15 , 1991 ) was an American politician from the U.S. state of Kentucky . He represented the state in the U.S. Senate and served as its 44th and 49th governor . Aside from his political positions , he also served as the second Commissioner of Baseball from 1945 to 19
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51 and was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1982 . His grandson , Ben Chandler , later served as congressman for Kentucky 's Sixth District .
A multi @-@ sport athlete during his college days at Transylvania College , Chandler briefly considered a career in professional baseball before deciding to pursue a law degree . After graduation , he entered politics and was elected as a Democrat to the Kentucky Senate in 1928 . Two years , later , he was elected lieutenant governor , serving under Governor Ruby Laffoon . Chandler and Laffoon disagreed on the issue of instituting a state sales tax and when Chandler , the presiding officer in the state senate , worked to block the legislation , Laffoon 's allies in the General Assembly stripped him of many of his statutory powers . The tax then passed by a narrow margin . Knowing that Laffoon would try to select his own successor at the Democratic nominating convention , Chandler waited until Laffoon left the state — leaving Chandler as acting governor — and called the legislature into session to enact a mandatory primary election bill . The bill passed , and in the ensuing primary , Chandler defeated Laffoon 's choice , Thomas Rhea . He then went on to defeat Republican King Swope by the largest margin of victory for a Kentucky gubernatorial race to that time . As governor , Chandler oversaw the repeal of the sales tax , replacing the lost revenue with new excise taxes and the state 's first income tax . He also enacted a major reorganization of state government , realizing significant savings for the state . He used these savings to pay off the state debt and improve the state 's education and transportation systems .
Convinced that he was destined to become President of the United States , Chandler challenged Senate Majority Leader Alben Barkley for his U.S. Senate seat in 1938 . During the campaign , President Franklin D. Roosevelt came to the state to campaign for Barkley , and Chandler lost a close race . The following year , Kentucky 's other senator , Marvel Mills Logan , died in office , and Chandler resigned as governor so his successor could appoint him to the vacant seat . A fiscal conservative and disciple of Virginia 's Harry F. Byrd , Chandler opposed parts of Roosevelt 's New Deal and openly disagreed with the president 's decision to prioritize European operations in World War II over the war in the Pacific . In 1945 , Chandler resigned his senate seat to succeed the late Kenesaw Mountain Landis as commissioner of baseball . His most significant action as commissioner was the approval of Jackie Robinson 's contract with the Brooklyn Dodgers , effectively integrating Major League Baseball . He also established the first pension fund for Major League players , earning him the title " the players ' commissioner " . Baseball owners were upset with Chandler 's governance , however , and did not renew his contract in 1951 .
Following his term as commissioner , Chandler returned to Kentucky and won a second term as governor in 1955 . The major accomplishments of his second term were enforcing the integration of the state 's public schools and establishing a medical school at the University of Kentucky which was later named the Chandler Medical Center in his honor . Following his second term as governor , his political influence began to wane as he made three more unsuccessful runs for governor in 1963 , 1967 , and 1971 . His endorsement of dark @-@ horse candidate Wallace G. Wilkinson was seen as critical to Wilkinson 's successful gubernatorial campaign in 1988 . Wilkinson later resisted calls to remove Chandler from the University of Kentucky board of trustees following Chandler 's use of a racial epithet during a board meeting in 1988 . Chandler died June 15 , 1991 , a month before his ninety @-@ third birthday . At the time of his death , he was the oldest living former Kentucky governor .
= = Early life = =
Albert Benjamin Chandler was born in the farming community of Corydon , Kentucky in 1898 . He was the eldest child of Joseph Sephus and Callie ( Saunders ) Chandler . Chandler 's father allegedly rescued his mother from an orphanage and married her when she was fifteen , though no record of their marriage has ever been found . In 1899 , Chandler 's brother Robert was born . Two years later , their mother , still in her teens and unable to cope with raising two young children , abandoned the family . She fled the state and left her sons with their father . In his autobiography , Chandler said his mother leaving them was his earliest memory . Years later , he sought his mother and found her living in Jacksonville , Florida . She had married again and he had three half @-@ siblings . His full brother , Robert Chandler , died when he fell from a cherry tree when he was 13 years old .
Chandler was raised by his father and relatives , and by age eight virtually supported himself financially from his paper route and doing odd jobs in his community . In 1917 he graduated from Corydon High School , where he had been captain of the baseball and football teams . His father wanted him to study for the ministry , but Chandler instead entered Transylvania College ( now Transylvania University ) in Lexington , Kentucky . It was there that he received his lifelong nickname " Happy " because of his jovial nature . He paid for his education by doing chores for the local citizens . Chandler was captain of Transylvania 's basketball and baseball teams and the quarterback of the football team . He was a teammate of Dutch Meyer , a future member of the College Football Hall of Fame . He also joined the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity and the Omicron Delta Kappa honor society . In 1918 , during World War I , the United States Army started a Student Officers ' Training Corps at Transylvania , and Chandler began training to be an officer ; the war ended before he was called to active duty .
In 1920 , Chandler pitched a no @-@ hitter for Grafton , North Dakota 's team in the Red River Valley League . He attended a professional baseball tryout in Saskatoon , but did not make the team . He returned to Transylvania and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in June 1921 . He then signed with the Class D baseball team the Lexington Reds , where he was a teammate of future Hall of Famer Earle Combs . Briefly considering a career in baseball , he finally decided to study law . He entered Harvard Law School that same year , paying his way by coaching high school sports in Wellesley , Massachusetts . His former teammate Charlie Moran , then coaching the Centre College Praying Colonels football team in Danville , Kentucky , asked him to scout the national powerhouse Harvard Crimson , an upcoming opponent for Centre . Chandler took copious notes for Moran , and Centre defeated Harvard 6 – 0 in what is considered one of the greatest college football upsets of all time .
After a year , Chandler was not able to afford Harvard . He returned to Kentucky and continued at the University of Kentucky College of Law , coaching high school sports in Versailles and served as the head coach of the women 's basketball at the University of Kentucky in 1923 . He was an assistant coach and scout for Charlie Moran at Centre , and coached the freshman football team there . A member of the Order of the Coif , he received his Bachelor of Laws degree in 1924 . He was admitted to the bar the following year and opened his law practice in Versailles .
On November 12 , 1925 , Chandler married Mildred Watkins , a teacher at the Margaret Hall School for Girls . They would have four children : Marcella , Mildred ( " Mimi " ) , Albert , Jr . , and Joseph Daniel . Mimi Chandler played one of the four singing sisters in the 1944 film And the Angels Sing , appearing with Dorothy Lamour , Betty Hutton , and Diana Lynn before abandoning acting and working for the Kentucky Department of Tourism .
For the next five years , Chandler simultaneously practiced law , coached high school sports , and served as a scout for Centre . He joined numerous fraternal organizations including the Freemasons , Shriners , Knights Templar , Forty and Eight , and Optimist International .
= = Early political career = =
Chandler entered politics when he was named chairman of the Woodford County Democratic Committee . In 1928 , he was appointed master commissioner of the Woodford County circuit court . The following year , he was elected as a Democrat to represent the Twenty @-@ second district in the Kentucky Senate . As a member of the Senate , he was part of a Democratic coalition that passed legislation to strip Republican Governor Flem D. Sampson of many of his statutory powers .
As the 1931 gubernatorial election approached , Chandler and Prestonsburg native Jack Howard were mentioned as candidates for lieutenant governor . Congressman Fred M. Vinson backed Howard , a fellow Eastern Kentuckian , while political bosses Billy Klair , Johnson N. Camden , Jr . , and Ben Johnson supported Chandler . The support of another political boss , Mickey Brennan , gave Chandler the edge at the party 's nominating convention . Democratic gubernatorial nominee Ruby Laffoon also owed his selection to the machinations of the state 's political bosses , notably his uncle , Congressman Polk Laffoon . Problematically , Chandler was an ally of former Governor J. C. W. Beckham , Louisville Courier @-@ Journal publisher Robert Worth Bingham , and political boss Percy Haly , which put him at odds with Laffoon , a member of a Democratic faction headed by Russellville political boss Thomas Rhea and opposed to Beckham , Worth , and Haly . Despite disharmony within the ticket , the worsening of the Great Depression under Republican President Herbert Hoover and Governor Sampson ensured a Democratic victory . Chandler was elected over John C. Worsham by a vote of 426 @,@ 247 to 353 @,@ 573 . In a break with precedent , Chandler set up an office on the executive floor of the state capitol and worked there full @-@ time ; previous lieutenant governors had stayed in Frankfort only during legislative sessions , when they were charged with presiding over the state senate .
Shortly after their election , the divide between Chandler and Laffoon widened over the issue of implementing a state sales tax . Laffoon favored the tax ; Chandler opposed it . As presiding officer of the state senate , Chandler worked with Speaker of the House John Y. Brown , Sr. to block passage of the tax . In retaliation , Laffoon 's allies in the General Assembly stripped Chandler of some of his statutory power as lieutenant governor , after which they were able to pass the tax by a single vote in each house of the legislature .
Free from any constitutional duties during the time between sessions , Chandler had begun laying the groundwork to succeed Laffoon as governor almost from the beginning of his term as lieutenant governor . Laffoon , however , had made it clear that he favored Thomas Rhea to be his successor . Rhea secured the services of rising political boss Earle C. Clements as his campaign manager . Hailing from Morganfield , only a short distance from Chandler 's hometown of Corydon , Clements later said that if Chandler had asked him first , he might have managed Chandler 's campaign instead of Rhea 's . Instead , by virtue of managing the opposing campaign , Clements became the leader of a Democratic faction that opposed Chandler for the next three decades .
Chandler feared Laffoon , who controlled the State Democratic Central Committee , would attempt to hand @-@ select the Democratic gubernatorial nominee by calling a nominating convention instead of holding a primary election , and he used a bold move to circumvent Laffoon 's ability to carry out such an action . Under the Kentucky Constitution , Chandler became acting governor any time Laffoon left the state . When Laffoon traveled to meet with President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Washington , D. C. on February 6 , 1935 , Chandler used his authority to call the legislature into session to consider a bill requiring that each party 's gubernatorial candidates be chosen by a primary rather than a nominating convention . Laffoon returned to the state the next day and challenged Chandler 's authority to make the call , but Chandler 's actions were validated by the Kentucky Court of Appeals on February 26 .
Laffoon knew the primary bill would be widely supported in the General Assembly , since both legislators and their constituents had grown to distrust party nominating conventions . Accordingly , he proposed a bill enacting a mandatory two @-@ stage primary in which a runoff election would be held between the top two candidates in the first round . Historian Lowell H. Harrison maintained that Laffoon expected his rival faction to nominate the aging Beckham to oppose Rhea , and that he hoped a two @-@ stage primary would wear Beckham down . Journalist John Ed Pearce , however , contends that Beckham had already declined to become a candidate — citing his own ill health and that of his son — before the special session convened . Whatever the case , the legislature passed the bill that Laffoon proposed .
= = First term as governor = =
After Beckham declined to run for governor , the anti @-@ Laffoon faction supported Chandler against Rhea . During the primary campaign , Chandler seized upon the unpopular sales tax , labeling Rhea " Sales Tax Tom " and calling on the electorate to redeem the state from " Ruby , Rhea , and Ruin " . In the first round of the primary , Rhea garnered 203 @,@ 010 votes to Chandler 's 189 @,@ 575 . Frederick A. Wallis received 38 @,@ 410 votes and Elam Huddleston received 15 @,@ 501 . The votes for Wallis and Huddleston meant that neither Rhea nor Chandler had achieved a majority , triggering the runoff primary . Both Wallis and Huddleston backed Chandler in the runoff , and Chandler defeated Rhea by a vote of 260 @,@ 573 to 234 @,@ 124 to secure the nomination .
Chandler promised to repeal the unpopular sales tax , lower the gasoline tax , oppose any increase in property taxes , and end the common practice of assessing state employees a percentage of their salaries to be used for campaign activities . Infuriated by their loss , Laffoon and his allies abandoned the party and supported Republican nominee King Swope . Policy @-@ wise , there were few differences between the two , and personal attacks were employed by both sides . Swope 's reputation as a stern judge contrasted sharply with Chandler 's charisma , and Chandler used this to his advantage by dubbing Swope " his majesty " . When Chandler touted his service during World War I , Laffoon 's adjutant general Henry Denhardt countered by pointing out that Chandler had only been a cadet in training and never engaged in active service in the war . Ultimately , the campaign turned on the failed presidential administration of Republican Herbert Hoover versus that of the sitting president , Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt . Chandler defeated Swope by a vote of 556 @,@ 262 to 461 @,@ 104 in the general election . The 95 @,@ 000 @-@ vote margin of victory was , at the time , the largest ever recorded in a Kentucky gubernatorial election , and at age 37 , Chandler was the youngest governor of any U.S. state .
One of Chandler 's first acts as governor was to secure the repeal of the sales tax passed under Laffoon . He also successfully lobbied the legislature to abolish the two @-@ round primary in favor of a single primary for future elections . Knowing that he would need to raise revenue to offset the repeal of the sales tax and bring the state 's expenditures in line with its income , Chandler appointed a commission headed by former Governor Beckham to draft suggested budgetary legislation . Knowing that lobbyists hostile to the suggestions would likely try to encourage legislative gridlock until the constitutionally @-@ mandated end of the sixty @-@ day session , Chandler asked his allies in the General Assembly to adjourn after thirty @-@ nine days and allow him to call a special legislative session that would not be time @-@ limited and could only entertain the agenda he specified . Legislators obliged this request .
Acting on recommendations from Beckham 's commission , legislators helped offset the lost revenue from the sales tax by raising excise taxes ; of particular import was the tax on whiskey , which was made possible by the repeal of Prohibition in 1935 . Legislators also enacted the state 's first income tax during the session . Chandler further proposed to achieve savings through the Governmental Reorganization Act of 1936 . The bill realized significant cost savings by restructuring the state government , reducing the number of boards and commissions in the executive branch from 133 to 22 . Critics pointed out that the act also centralized more power in the hands of the governor and accused Chandler of ulterior motives in supporting it .
Chandler used the savings realized from his reorganization of government to eliminate the state 's budget deficit and pay off most of the state 's debt . This brought about further savings by eliminating debt service costs ; these were applied to improvements in the state 's infrastructure and educational institutions . Chandler allocated funds for free textbooks for the state 's school children , created a teacher 's pension fund , and provided extensive funding for the state 's colleges and universities . Because segregation prevented blacks from attending graduate school in the state , Chandler secured an allocation of $ 5 @,@ 000 annually to help blacks attend out @-@ of @-@ state graduate schools . He stopped short of desegregating the state 's universities , however , telling a group of black and white educators that " it is not wise to educate the white and colored in the same school in the South . It is not prepared for it yet . "
In 1939 , Governor Chandler appointed the first woman trustee on the University of Kentucky Board of Trustees , Georgia M. Blazer of Ashland . She served from 1939 to 1960 .
In 1936 , Chandler urged implementation of the state 's first rural roads program and development of electrical infrastructure with assistance from the federal Rural Electrification Act . He implemented an old @-@ age assistance program authorized by an earlier constitutional amendment and in 1938 , proposed another amendment that would add dependent children and needy blind people to the state 's assistance rolls . He increased funding to the state 's hospitals and asylums , and personally aided with the evacuation of the Frankfort Penitentiary during the Ohio River flood of 1937 . Following the flood , Chandler convinced the legislature to construct a new reformatory at La Grange .
Generally a friend of organized labor , Chandler supported miners ' efforts to unionize , organized the state Department of Industrial Relations , and prohibited mine operators from being appointed as deputy sheriffs . He also endorsed the proposed Child Labor Amendment to the federal constitution and secured passage of a state anti @-@ child @-@ labor law that had previously been defeated twice in the state legislature by overwhelming margins . However , he opposed closed shops and sitdown strikes , and utilized the Kentucky National Guard to quell labor @-@ related violence in Harlan County .
In the 1936 senatorial contest in Kentucky , incumbent Democrat Marvel Mills Logan was seen as vulnerable , and Chandler backed Democratic challenger J. C. W. Beckham in the Democratic primary . This endorsement drew the ire of Chandler 's former ally , Democratic Congressman John Y. Brown , Sr. , who believed that , in exchange for his support of Chandler in the 1935 gubernatorial race , Chandler would support him in the U.S. Senate contest . An embittered Brown entered the race anyway , and the votes he pulled from Beckham likely allowed Logan to retain the seat . Brown remained Chandler 's political enemy for the rest of his political career .
In 1936 , Chandler was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Kentucky ; the following year , Harvard University awarded him the same degree .
= = U.S. Senator = =
= = = Aspirations = = =
Both Robert Bingham and Percy Haly died in 1937 ; with J. C. W. Beckham aging — he would die in 1940 — Chandler moved to fill the leadership void in the faction . He soon came to believe he was destined to become President of the United States . In mid @-@ 1937 , he began advocating for Marvel Mills Logan , Kentucky 's junior senator , to be appointed to the Supreme Court , creating a Senate vacancy to which Chandler , as governor , could appoint himself . The death of Justice George Sutherland in January 1938 gave President Franklin D. Roosevelt the opportunity to accommodate Chandler 's wishes , but Roosevelt preferred younger justices — Logan was 63 — and Kentucky 's senior Senator , Alben Barkley , recommended Solicitor General Stanley Forman Reed for the appointment . Roosevelt heeded Barkley 's advice and appointed Reed instead of Logan .
Eager to augment his power and angered by Roosevelt 's and Barkley 's refusal to accept his suggestion of appointing Logan to the Supreme Court , Chandler did not attend a long @-@ planned dinner in Barkley 's honor on January 22 , 1938 ; instead , he held an event of his own at Louisville 's exclusive Pendennis Club at which he alluded to his intentions of challenging Barkley during the upcoming Democratic senatorial primary . Barkley officially announced his re @-@ election bid the following day . The death of another federal judge on January 26 provided a second opportunity for Roosevelt to appoint Senator Logan to a judgeship and appease Chandler , but Logan refused to consider the appointment . Following a January 31 meeting in Washington , D.C. between Roosevelt and Chandler , during which Roosevelt urged Chandler to put his senatorial ambitions on hold , Chandler was encouraged by his political mentor , Virginia 's Harry F. Byrd to challenge Barkley . Chandler heeded Byrd 's advice , making an official announcement of his candidacy on February 23 , 1938 , in Newport , Kentucky .
Barkley , recently chosen as Senate Majority Leader by a single vote , was a strong supporter of President Roosevelt and the New Deal . Chandler identified with the more conservative southern Democrats who , wary of Roosevelt and his New Deal , sought to gain control of the party ahead of the 1940 presidential election . Because Roosevelt was very popular in Kentucky , Chandler was put in the awkward position of expressing personal support of the president while opposing his hand @-@ picked leader in the Senate and his New Deal legislation . In April , polls showed Barkley ahead of Chandler by a 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 margin , and the May 3 primary victory of New Deal Florida Senator Claude Pepper finally persuaded Chandler to abandon his attacks of the program .
In late May 1938 , Chandler 's campaign manager publicly claimed that federal relief agencies — especially the Works Progress Administration — were openly working for Barkley 's re @-@ election . Although the WPA administrator in Kentucky denied the charges , veteran reporter Thomas Lunsford Stokes launched an investigation of the agency 's activities in the state and eventually raised twenty @-@ two charges of political corruption in a series of eight articles covering the Barkley @-@ Chandler campaign . Federal WPA administrator Harry Hopkins claimed an internal investigation of the agency refuted all but two of Stokes ' charges , but Stokes was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Reporting in 1939 for his investigation . In the wake of the investigation . Congress passed the Hatch Act of 1939 to limit the WPA 's involvement in future elections .
The negative effects of the investigation on Barkley 's campaign were minimal because of Chandler 's own use of his gubernatorial power and patronage on behalf of his own campaign . Dan Talbott , one of Chandler 's chief political advisors , encouraged supervisors of state workers to take punitive action against employees who made " pessimistic expressions " concerning Chandler 's chances in the primary . Furthermore , Chandler initiated a rural road building project in the state , employing loyal supporters to construct and maintain the new roads . State workers who supported Chandler were employed to deliver pension checks to the state 's elderly citizens , and Talbott did not deny charges that these workers threatened to withhold the checks if the recipients did not pledge their support to Chandler .
President Roosevelt personally visited Kentucky to campaign on Barkley 's behalf on July 8 , 1938 . As governor of the state , Chandler was on hand to greet Roosevelt on his arrival in Covington . Seeking to benefit from being nearest to the president , Chandler sat between Roosevelt and Barkley in the back seat of the open @-@ topped vehicle that transported them to Latonia Race Track , the site of Roosevelt 's first speech . Throughout his tour of the state , Roosevelt endorsed Barkley while remaining friendly with Chandler ; after Roosevelt 's departure , Chandler played up Roosevelt 's complimentary remarks about him while downplaying or ignoring critical remarks .
Late in the campaign , Chandler fell ill with chills , stomach pains , and a high fever . After first claiming the symptoms were similar to those he experienced a year earlier , Chandler later described his malady as " intestinal poisoning " . His doctor announced that Chandler , Dan Talbott , and a state police officer had all been sickened after drinking " poisoned water " provided to Chandler for a radio address . Chandler maintained that someone from the Barkley campaign had tried to poison him , but the charge never gained much credence with the press or the electorate . Barkley frequently mocked it on the campaign trail by first accepting a glass of water offered to him , then shuddering and rejecting it . He pointed out to audiences that it was the young Chandler , and not he , who had broken down first under the strain of the grueling campaign .
With Chandler ally Robert Bingham no longer at its helm , The Courier @-@ Journal supported Barkley , and organized labor , a key Chandler supporter in 1935 , also threw their support to Barkley . Former Chandler ally John Y. Brown , Sr. also took an active part in the Barkley campaign . Ultimately , Barkley defeated Chandler by a vote of 294 @,@ 391 ( 56 % ) to 223 @,@ 149 ( 42 @.@ 6 % ) . The remaining 1 @.@ 4 % of the vote was dividing among minor candidates . Chandler 's 70 @,@ 872 @-@ vote loss was the worst loss for a primary candidate in state history .
= = = Appointment = = =
On October 9 , 1939 , following the death of Senator Logan , Chandler resigned as governor , elevating Lieutenant Governor Keen Johnson to the governorship ; the following day , Johnson appointed Chandler to Logan 's vacated seat in the Senate . In a subsequent special election to fill the remainder of the unexpired term , Chandler first defeated Charles R. Farnsley in the Democratic primary , then bested Republican Walter B. Smith by a vote of 561 @,@ 151 to 401 @,@ 812 in the November 5 , 1940 , general election . Although he never forgave President Roosevelt for backing Barkley in the 1938 senatorial primary , he generally supported his administration , although he opposed parts of the New Deal .
Chandler 's mentor Harry F. Byrd led a group of Southern conservatives in the Senate , and through Byrd 's influence , Chandler was appointed to the Committee on Military Affairs . In 1943 , he was part of a five @-@ person delegation from the Military Affairs Committee that traveled the world , inspecting U.S. military bases . He vociferously disagreed with Roosevelt 's decision to prioritize European operations in World War II over the war in the Pacific .
Chandler upset many in the black community by voting against an anti @-@ lynching bill soon after taking office . The bill levied fines against local governments and individual government officials in counties where illegal lynchings occurred . Of his vote against the bill , Chandler remarked , " I am against lynching by anybody and of anybody , black or white , but the present bill carries penalties on local officials and local subdivisions which I think are too severe . " The bill passed in the House of Representatives , but died in the Senate . Later , Chandler joined with senators from other southern states in opposing the repeal of poll taxes , long used as a mechanism to prevent blacks from voting .
At the expiration of his partial term in 1942 , Chandler faced a challenge from former ally John Y. Brown , Sr. in the Democratic primary . As a result of his votes on the anti @-@ lynching bill and the poll tax repeal , the Louisville chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People worked against his re @-@ election effort . During the campaign , Brown accused Chandler of abusing his power , including having a swimming pool installed at his home in violation of the federal rationing provisions implemented during World War II . Chandler invited the Truman Committee to investigate the installation of the pool ; the committee found no violations of the federal rationing provisions . Chandler went on to defeat Brown and was easily re @-@ elected in the general election over Republican Richard J. Colbert .
Chandler believed that he had enough support at the 1944 Democratic National Convention to be nominated as President Roosevelt 's running mate for the upcoming presidential election . That support failed to materialize , however , after the Kentucky delegation and Earle C. Clements in particular , refused to back his nomination . The convention nominated Harry S Truman as Roosevelt 's running mate . Truman became president upon Roosevelt 's death in 1945 , and Chandler never forgave Clements for costing him the chance to be president .
= = Commissioner of baseball = =
Following the death of Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis in November 1944 , John O. Gottlieb , a friend of Chandler 's in the War Department , suggested Chandler as a successor . Baseball owners who had been afraid that their players would be made eligible for the draft during the war had decided that their new commissioner needed to have the skills and influence to represent baseball 's interests in Washington , D. C. As a senator , Chandler had advocated on behalf of baseball during the war , endearing him to the owners . Furthermore , the commissioner 's $ 50 @,@ 000 annual salary — about five times that of a US senator at the time — proved a significant enticement , and Chandler agreed to be considered for the job .
Other candidates being considered for the position included National League president Ford Frick , Democratic National Committee chairman Robert E. Hannegan , former Postmaster General James Farley , US Senator John W. Bricker , FBI director J. Edgar Hoover , former federal judge Fred M. Vinson , Ohio Governor Frank Lausche , and Undersecretary of War Robert P. Patterson . After Cincinnati Reds owner Warren Giles and Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley raised strong opposition to Frick , formerly the front runner , New York Yankees co @-@ owner Larry MacPhail began to advocate for Chandler . When the owners met in Cleveland , Ohio on April 24 , 1945 to vote for a new commissioner , Chandler
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re stated that the flesh was tough to eat , and that some considered it unpalatable and even poisonous . He wrote that he and the other inhabitants often consumed it , and that he experienced no ill @-@ effects from it . He also stated that the native people wore the feathers decoratively on their heads and as moustaches through the septum of the nose . He described how it was hunted by the native population :
The natives make use of a stratagem to take them alive ; they watch for a chance to find them on the ground , eating the fruit which has fallen from the trees , when they approach quietly under cover of the trees , then all at once run forward , clapping their hands and filling the air with cries capable not only of astounding the birds , but of terrifying the boldest . Then the poor birds , surprised and distracted , as if struck with thunderbolt , lose the use of their wings , and , making a virtue of necessity , throw themselves on their backs and assume the defensive with the weapons nature has given them – their beaks and claws – with which they defend themselves so bravely that not one of the natives dares to put his hand on them . One of the natives brings a big stick which he lays across the belly of the bird , who seizes it with beak and claws ; but while he is occupied in biting it , the native ties him so adroitly to the stick that he can do with him anything he wishes ...
Since Du Tertre wrote that the macaws were prone to sickness , an outbreak of a disease , along with hunting , may have contributed to its demise . In 1760 , the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson quoted a letter by French writer M. de la Borde , which stated that macaws had become very rare in the Antillean islands because they were hunted for food . By then they could only be found in areas not frequented by humans , and were probably extinct soon afterwards . Parrots are often among the first species to be exterminated from a given locality , especially islands .
= The 23rd Psalm =
" The 23rd Psalm " is the tenth episode of the second season of Lost , and the 35th episode overall . The episode was directed by Matt Earl Beesley , and written by Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof . It first aired on January 11 , 2006 , on ABC , and was watched by an average of 20 @.@ 56 million American viewers . The episode is centered on the character of Mr. Eko ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) , who in flashbacks is revealed to be a former warlord in Nigeria , and in the present day events goes with Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) to the Nigerian airplane which had crashed on the island .
The episode has an overall theme of redemption , and was written by drawing inspiration from " Deus Ex Machina " , the episode where the Nigerian airplane was first introduced . Reviews for " The 23rd Psalm " were positive , praising the flashback and Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje 's performance as Eko . The episode 's script was later nominated for an Emmy Award .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
Nigerian guerrillas arrive at a small village , grab a young boy named Yemi and try to force him to shoot an old man . The boy hesitates and his older brother , Eko , takes the gun and shoots the man himself , thus saving his brother from the act . The guerrillas are pleased with this , and force him to join their group , tearing his Christian cross from his neck , which is then taken by Yemi .
Years later , Eko has become a powerful warlord . He meets with a drug dealer who is trying to get his heroin out of the country . Eko offers to do him a " favour , " buying the drugs at a low price and spiriting them out of the country . The drug runner agrees , but is killed after telling that he believed Eko had no soul . Later , Eko visits the church of his hometown , where Yemi has become a priest . Eko asks him for a plane , because only United Nations relief and missionary aircraft are allowed to fly out of Nigeria , saying he will fly the drugs away from the Nigerians and give his brother money for a polio vaccine . Yemi refuses to help . Later , Eko approaches his brother again , asking simply for Yemi to sign ordination papers that make Eko and two associates priests so that they can arrange the flight themselves . His brother refuses , but reluctantly signs after Eko says that his two friends will burn the church to the ground if Yemi does not collaborate . Eko also buys Virgin Mary statues to hide the heroin within .
Dressed as priests , Eko and two associates are loading drugs onto a Beechcraft airplane , when Yemi drives up and tells him not to leave . The Nigerian military arrives shortly thereafter , killing a henchman and shooting Yemi . Eko loads his brother onto the plane , but the pilot , who has a gold tooth , prevents Eko from boarding and flies away . Then the military approach and , mistaking Eko for a real priest , ask Eko , " Are you alright , Father ? "
= = = On the Island = = =
On the island , Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) watches Eko whittling scripture into the head of his club , and mentions that Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) carries a Virgin Mary statue . Eko immediately demands to see the statue , which he breaks open and shows Claire the heroin inside . Eko then goes to Charlie , demanding him to take him to the plane .
Meanwhile , Locke teaches Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) how to use a gun , and Michael then asks Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) to have her shift at the hatch computer . At the computer , Michael continues his conversation with his son Walt ( Malcolm David Kelley ) , which is interrupted by the arrival of Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) , who remains unaware of it .
On the way to the Beechcraft , Eko and Charlie find a parachute in a tree , which leads to the corpse of a Nigerian man dressed as a priest that Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) and John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) had previously found . When Eko sees the dead man 's gold tooth , he tells Charlie that the man " saved his life . " Charlie loses his way , and Mr. Eko tells him to climb a tree . As he is above the tree , explosions and a cloud of black smoke emerge from the jungle . It confronts him whilst flashing images to him of his past . Mr. Eko stands his ground , despite Charlie telling him to run , and stares at the smoke before it pulls back and disappears . Eko and Charlie then find the plane , inside which Eko finds another corpse which Eko recognizes as Yemi . After taking the cross from Yemi 's body , Eko tells Charlie that it is his brother , gives Charlie a Virgin Mary statue " for the one [ he ] broke " and sets the plane on fire . Charlie asks Eko if he is a priest himself , and as Eko puts the cross around his neck he replies " Yes , I am . " The two then recite Psalm 23 from the Old Testament as the plane burns .
After arriving at the camp , Charlie apologizes to Claire , but Claire tells him to leave her and her son alone . Charlie then goes into the jungle , and opens a hiding place where he is keeping Virgin Mary statues to put the one Eko gave him .
= = Production = =
During the production of " Deus Ex Machina " , which introduced the Nigerian airplane , a corpse dressed as a priest with a gun , and Virgin Mary statues filled with heroin , the Lost writers decided that the story of the Beechcraft would coincide with one of the characters ' flashbacks . They decided to use one of the tail section characters to be introduced in season 2 , " essentially a bad guy who was forced to disguise himself as a priest , and how would that come about , and could he now be presenting himself as a priest " . Since Eko and Locke are both spiritual leaders on the island - but with Locke having a " paganistic , ritualistic appreciation " for the island 's powers and Eko , " pure religious faith " - writers Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof decided to write in this episode parallels with " Deus Ex Machina " , where Locke and Boone find the Beechcraft . The biggest similarity is Charlie unwillingly become Eko 's " acolyte " , just like Boone was being Locke 's follower in their expedition to the airplane .
The main theme of " The 23rd Psalm " was redemption , which both Eko and Charlie are seeking , with Eko eventually getting his upon finding his brother . Charlie was chosen to be Eko 's companion because the character did not have much screentime up to that point in the season , and the writers found similarities between Charlie and Eko , such as both having difficult relationships with their brothers . The writers accidentally transcribed Psalm 23 wrong , with " the shadow of the valley of death " instead of " the valley of the shadow of death , " but decided to keep the mistake , feeling it was appropriate as Eko was never a proper priest .
The flashbacks had the intent of showing that Eko was the opposite of his religious brother , but eventually ended up similar to Yemi . Nigeria 's depiction was described by art director Bill Matthews as a " very dusty @-@ dirty brown kind of Nigerian @-@ earth look " , with touches such as vendors on the street , and a square where children play soccer . The interior of the church was an actual location in Haleiwa , and a facade was built on the set to match it . While editing , the producers decided to separate a part of the final scene involving the airplane getting attacked and taking off , where a soldier confuses Eko for a priest , to juxtapose with Eko 's spiritual epiphany on the island and set up his next flashback on " ? " , where he is a priest in Australia . As the casting team was having trouble finding a Moroccan to play the drug dealer , set caterer Moumen El Hajji was selected for the role .
As the Monster had not yet appeared in the second season , the producers decided to expand on his mythology in " The 23rd Psalm " , as they thought Eko was a good character to confront the Monster because of his spirituality and " self @-@ awareness " . Visual effects supervisor Kevin Blank suggested on adding imagery representing Eko 's past on the smoke , such a cross and the man he shoots at the opening scene .
= = Reception = =
The original broadcast of " The 23rd Psalm " was on January 11 , 2006 on ABC , being preceded by a clip show titled " Lost : Revelations " . It was watched by approximately 20 @.@ 56 million American viewers , being third in the weekly audience ranking , behind the AFC playoffs and Desperate Housewives .
Reviews for " The 23rd Psalm " were mostly positive . Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen gave the episode an A , describing it as a " wonderfully strange parable about redemption and fate " . Mac Slocum of Filmfodder.com considered the episode a worthy return after the two @-@ month break , saying that Eko 's " simple looks and simple phrases pummel the screen with gravitas and charisma " . Ryan Mcgee of Zap2it considered highlights of the episode the scene with the Monster , and the flashback , which in his opinion " [ did ] so great a job at explaining an entire character so succinctly " . IGN 's Chris Carabott gave the episode an 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 , praising the development of Eko 's character and the flashback .
Writers Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof 's script for " The 23rd Psalm " was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series . IGN ranked " The 23rd Psalm " 40th out of the 115 Lost episodes , calling the flashback " one of most action @-@ packed and ambitious on the series " . A similar list by Los Angeles Times ranked the episode at 49th , describing it as " a great first chapter that sadly never got a worthy follow @-@ up . "
= Redland railway station =
Redland railway station is on the Severn Beach Line and serves the districts of Cotham and Redland in Bristol , England . It is 3 @.@ 3 miles ( 5 @.@ 3 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . Its three letter station code is RDA . As of 2015 it is managed by Great Western Railway , which is the third franchise to be responsible for the station since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , mainly a train every forty minutes in each direction between Bristol Temple Meads and Avonmouth .
The line through Redland was opened in 1874 by the Great Western and Midland Railways as part of the Clifton Extension Railway . The station itself was opened in 1897 following a petition by local residents . There were two platforms , with the main station building on the Bristol @-@ bound platform and smaller facilities on the opposite platform . No goods facilities were provided . The main station building , although no longer in railway use , is the only original station building left on the line . In 1903 the station had 11 staff .
The Severn Beach Line declined over the latter half of the twentieth century , with passenger numbers falling significantly . All station staff were withdrawn in 1967 , with the line through the station reduced to single track in 1970 , with the second platform taken out of use . Services had decreased to ten per day each direction by 2005 , but have since increased to twenty @-@ four trains per day .
= = Description = =
Redland railway station is on the Severn Beach Line , serving the areas of Cotham and Redland , Bristol . The surrounding area is mostly residential , with some commercial premises to the east . A park and tennis centre are directly to the south . The station is located 3 miles 25 chains ( 5 @.@ 3 km ) along the line from Bristol Temple Meads , and 10 miles 18 chains ( 16 @.@ 5 km ) from Severn Beach . It is the fourth station from Temple Meads . There is a single 130 @-@ yard ( 120 m ) -long platform which serves trains in both directions , situated on the north side of the track and angled at 062 degrees . The station 's southern platform was abandoned in 1970 and is overgrown .
Facilities at the station are minimal – there are a few chairs and timetable information is provided . Help points , giving next train information , were installed in 2010 . There is no ticket office , but there are self @-@ service ticket machines which can be used to buy or collect tickets . The Victorian @-@ era station building is only original station building left on the line , decorated with a mural painted by local students , it is used as an upholsterer 's showroom rather than for railway purposes . Access is step @-@ free from South Road , through an area containing residents ' garages . The platform backs onto the gardens on the south side of the road .
At the west end of the station are two bridges , neither directly accessible from the station : the first is a footbridge carrying the Lovers ' Walk footpath , then some 10 metres ( 11 yd ) beyond is a road bridge carrying Redland Grove . The line crosses over Redland Road just beyond the east end of the station .
There is no car park or taxi rank . Cycle storage is available on the platform . There is a bus stop on South Road , and another on Redland Grove .
= = Services = =
Services at Redland are all operated by Great Western Railway , mainly using diesel Class 150 Sprinter units , occasionally supplemented by Class 153 Super Sprinter and Class 158 Express Sprinter units . Until 2012 , Class 143 Pacer units were a regular sight , but these have mostly been moved south to work in Devon and Cornwall following a cascade of Class 150 / 1 units from London Midland and London Overground . Monday to Friday , three trains every two hours run from Bristol Temple Meads to Avonmouth , with one extended to St Andrew 's Road and Severn Beach , giving a service at Redland of one train in each direction every 40 minutes . Most services start at Bristol , but one evening service to Avonmouth begins at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . On Saturdays there is a similar level of service , but more trains continue to Severn Beach . Sunday sees a roughly hourly service to and from Bristol , with only two services extending to Severn Beach , except during the May – September timetable period , when all services are extended . The first and last Sunday trains towards Bristol are extended to Taunton via Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and there are similar workings in the other direction .
There is a short interval between services to Avonmouth and those to Bristol , due to the line 's passing point , Clifton Down , being the next station . Most trains call at all stations , but some services omit Lawrence Hill . The typical journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is roughly 15 minutes , and about the same to Avonmouth . In 2012 , the single fare to Clifton Down or Bristol was £ 1 @.@ 50 , and £ 3 return for the whole line .
= = History = =
The Clifton Extension Railway was opened from Narroways Hill Junction to Clifton Down as a joint venture between the Great Western Railway and Midland Railway , to connect their main lines to the Bristol Port Railway and Pier in the Avon Gorge . Passenger services to Clifton Down began in 1874 , and through services to Avonmouth started in 1885 . There was not initially a station at Redland , but there was local support , with several petitions submitted to the line 's Joint Railway Committee . The first was received in October 1885 , but was rejected due to the estimated cost of £ 3 @,@ 410 to provide the station . A second petition was rejected eighteen months later . The Bristol Chamber of Commerce petitioned for a station in 1892 , but the Committee again rejected the request , stating that estimated traffic levels would not justify the expense . It took until 1896 until a revised plan was accepted by the Committee .
Construction of the station was complicated by the need to keep the line open : trains ferrying materials were unable to stay on @-@ site for long , and frequently had to switch from one track to the other , necessitating trips to nearby Montpelier railway station , where the nearest crossover points were located . The station finally opened on 12 April 1897 . The first train was the 7 am service : 94 tickets were issued to Clifton Down , and an estimated 550 passengers bought tickets from the station the same day . Some local writers were sceptical , claiming that many of those first day passengers were not new passengers , but would previously have travelled from Montpelier or Clifton Down . Construction took nine months , and cost £ 2 @,@ 000 .
The station as built had two through lines , with platforms on either side . The southern " down " platform was for trains towards Clifton Down and Avonmouth , the northern " up " platform for trains towards Montpelier and Bristol . The main station building , comprising the station master 's office , general waiting room , ladies ' waiting room and cloakroom , was on the northern platform . A smaller building was built in the same style on the southern platform , and was used as a general waiting room . No goods facilities were provided . A footbridge at the west end of the platforms , between the preexisting Lovers ' Walk and Redland Grove bridges , allowed access between the two platforms . The ticket office was situated at the north end of this bridge , on South Road . In September 1899 , a Midland Railway @-@ style signal box was opened at the east end of the northern platform . Services were provided by the Great Western Railway and the Midland Railway . Midland trains worked between Clifton Down and Fishponds or Mangotsfield , where passengers could change for services to Bath , Birmingham and other Midland destinations . The Great Western provided services from Bristol Temple Meads to Clifron Down and Avonmouth , many looping back to Temple Meads via Henbury or Pilning . Bristol Temple Meads was the city 's major station , where passengers could change for trains to London , Exeter and Wales , among others . There were also occasional through services to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . In 1910 , Redland saw 20 Great Western trains each day to and from Clifton Down , a further 17 from and 15 to Avonmouth , and 13 Midland trains in each direction between Clifton Down and Mangotsfield or Fishponds . Midland services were suspended from 1 January 1917 due to the First World War , but resumed in May 1919 .
In 1903 , the station employed 11 men , but the post of station master was abolished on 27 August 1909 as a cost @-@ cutting measure , with responsibility passing to Clifton Down . There were six staff by 1938 . In 1923 , grouping resulted in the Midland Railway being absorbed into the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) , and the line continued in a joint arrangement between the Great Western and the LMS . Services to Fishponds ended on 31 March 1941 . When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , when it came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways . The signal box closed in 1950 , and by 1958 there were only three staff members : a booking clerk and two porters . Through services to Pilning and Henbury ceased with the Beeching
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= Family in advertising =
Since the industrial revolution , the image of the family in advertising has become a prominent symbol in advertising and is utilized in marketing campaigns to increase profits . While some sociologists argue that these advertisements are ways in which behavior and attitudes towards society are influenced , others merely argue that the image of family in advertising mirrors reality and therefore holds only a representative or symbolic role . Regardless , different members of the family are portrayed in different ways within advertising and such portrayals often reflect the traditional roles of each member during the time in history in which the advertisement is presented .
= = History = =
The family symbol in advertising may be observable before the industrial revolution , but it was not until after the industrial revolution that advertising boomed and the use of family images in advertising became prevalent . The industrial revolution changed advertising from informative flyers marking the availability of goods in 17th and 18th century Europe , whose audience were those within physical propinquity , to multimillion @-@ dollar campaigns that attempted to instantly connect and persuade peoples from across the world . After the industrial revolution , large companies emerged as mass @-@ producers , products became branded , and customers began establishing brand loyalties . Thus , persuading customers to purchase one brand rather than another became vital to advertising . An advertisement was responsible for making products and services salient in order to earn consumer attention in competitive industrial markets . During this period , not only did the immensity of the advertising industry drastically change , but so did its marketing strategies as it began to incorporate images and specify an audience . This change from largely informative to largely persuasive strategies and from general to specific audiences explains the increase in presence and usage of symbols , representations , and stereotypes in advertising — including those of the family .
Different societies and cultures have used family symbols in advertising to varying extents of success . Because family life stresses in @-@ group benefits , preferences , and successes over those of the individual , collectivist societies tend to use more family symbols in advertising than individualist societies . For example , Korea , which is reputably collectivistic , has more success with family advertisements than the United States , which is reputably individualistic .
The modern post @-@ industrial era in advertising was one of reaffirming widely held social values , such as heterosexuality and the middle @-@ class , while neglecting alternative values or lifestyles . The advertising industry was conservative and did not deviate from images that were socially acceptable . Some countries , such as Japan , continue to present the family stereotypically , especially in their television advertisements . In the past decade , however , many advertising agencies have begun to more accurately capture reality and the diversity of lifestyles and family types of consumers .
= = Function = =
'Family ' is a popular symbol in commercial advertising that is commonly used to persuade audiences into consuming one 's business ' goods or services over a competitors . Consequently , the symbol of family as used in advertisements is functional – it both increases profit and builds a positive reputation among customers .
The family symbol functions on three levels of persuasion : social , psychological , and personal .
Social persuasion appeals to one ’ s role in a group and corresponding expectations ; it appeals to reference groups , social class , culture , and subculture . The family symbol is socially persuasive in that it appeals to one ’ s role within the family and their corresponding expectations .
One does not only feel a social or external pressure to fulfill roles and expectations of being a good parent , sibling , or child , however . There is a distinctly emotional and internal pressure to be ‘ good ’ due to psychological attachments in spousal , sibling and / or parent @-@ children relationships . Psychological persuasion in advertisements appeals to one 's motives , attitudes and personalities . The family symbol is psychologically persuasive in that it appeals to the emotional attachments between spouses , siblings , or parent @-@ child relationships . To continue the above example , the mother not only wants to purchase a product that purportedly limits irritation or harm for her child due to her social role and expectations , but also because she feels an emotional attachment to her child . The attempt to activate the emotions of audiences and to psychologically persuade is popular among advertisements . Family affects us significantly on this psychological level – the level at which advertisements are most effective .
Personal persuasion appeals to one ’ s demographic identity or consumer behaviors . The family symbol is personally persuasive because families make buying decisions together as a unit . Furthermore , one person in a family may make the majority of the buying decisions . To target that person in advertising , referencing their location within the family and their responsibility to make purchasing decisions for the family , will be more profitable than targeting others . For an example of personal persuasion , the McDonald 's corporation in India has had great marketing success in designating themselves as the " McDonalds Family Restaurant " .
= = = Sociological interpretations = = =
Advertisements are used to attract customers to a business ’ products or services . In doing so , they are also making statements regarding race , social class , gender , values , and family . They not only describe these social categories , they prescribe behaviors or show one how it is that they should act in accordance with social ideals or norms . According to Belk and Pollay , “ not only do [ advertisements ] show us the ideal life , they instruct us [ on ] how to live . ” Through targeting specific groups of people for products and services , advertisements both reflect changes of social norms and are changers of social norms regarding acceptable behavior . Some argue that the image of family only plays a symbolic role by reflecting the current cultural values . Advertisements may not only reflect changes in social norms , but also be asserting that such behavior is acceptable . As a result , sociologists have challenged the public to study ads containing images of the family not just as marketing messages but also as vehicles for behavior and attitudes towards society .
Advertisements , specifically ones that show the family , commentate on the transition from modernity to postmodernity . This transition is the transition of middle class nuclear families where heterosexuality is the norm to the recognition and acceptance of a variety of different family types , an embracing of societal polysexuality and plurality ; it is furthermore the transition from mass culture to the prevalence of sub @-@ cultures and multiculturalism . Literary critic Fredric Jameson says that " our advertising ... is fed by postmodernism in all the arts , and is inconceivable without it . "
= = Family members in advertising = =
= = = Wives = = =
In general , advertisements tend to reflect the popular attitudes surrounding the appropriate gender roles of the time . For example , in the 1920s , when such a tiny proportion of wives were working for economic gain outside of their homes , it was rare to see wives portrayed within advertising in a role in which they were working for monetary gain . Instead , women were primarily portrayed doing household tasks . The exceptions to this rule came about in times of economic hardship when wives were thrown into the labor force to ensure a families ’ economic survival . One of these times was the Great Depression during the 1930s . Since then , as housekeeping becomes less and less important of a family role , the amount of advertisements portraying women solely as performing household tasks have been on the decline .
= = = Husbands = = =
Just as the image of the wife in advertising has reflected the general views of the appropriate roles of a wife , images of the husband also reflect the cultural values surrounding what role was believed a husband should be engaged in . For example , over time , it is common find images of the husband as performing work outside of the home and taking care of the family finances . It has been noted that this role has been especially prevalent during 1920 , 1936 , and 1970 . On the other hand , one is not likely to find an advertisement depicting husbands engaged in household chores , except when they are depicted as particularly bad at performing the housework . In addition , it has been noted that over time , the portrayal of husbands and wives in an intimate , romantic relationship has been on the rise .
= = = Mothers and fathers = = =
Throughout history , mothers have been portrayed as the primary physical caregivers of children . Physical caregiving includes tasks such as breast @-@ feeding and changing diapers . Some theorize that this has to do with the idea of women as having a natural instinct towards motherhood . Fathers , on the other hand , have been more likely to be portrayed in play activities with their children and are often more likely to be shown interacting with sons than daughters .
Similar to the decline over time in wives as being portrayed solely as housekeepers , the portrayal of mothers as the primary physical care takers of children has been on the decline . Instead , there has been an increase in the portrayal of mothers as facilitating recreational activities with their offspring .
= = = Other family members = = =
Much like fathers are depicted primarily in recreational activities with their children , other male members of the family , including sons and male grandchildren , are portrayed in play activities the majority of the time . Interestingly , young female members of the family are depicted similarly in play activities , but nevertheless tend to be more likely shown in activities related to chores and child @-@ care . In addition , the image of the grandparent has been largely nonexistent in advertising .
It is important to also note that images of the family depend upon the specific source in which the image is found and the type of audience that the source aims to reach . For example , in a women ’ s magazine such as Good Housekeeping , one can expect to find women in the family portrayed solely as domestic housewives .
= The Real Housewives of Atlanta =
The Real Housewives of Atlanta ( abbreviated RHOA ) is an American reality television series that premiered on October 7 , 2008 , on Bravo . Developed as the third installment of The Real Housewives franchise , following The Real Housewives of Orange County and New York City , it has aired eight seasons and focuses on the personal and professional lives of several women residing in Atlanta , Georgia .
The series originally focused on Lisa Wu @-@ Hartwell , DeShawn Snow , NeNe Leakes , Kim Zolciak , and Shereé Whitfield ; the eighth season lineup consists of Kandi Burruss , Cynthia Bailey , Phaedra Parks , Kenya Moore , Porsha Williams , and Kim Fields . Of the original housewives , Snow , Wu @-@ Hartwell , and Whitfield respectively left after the first , second , and fourth seasons ; Zolciak stopped filming during production of the fifth season ; and Leakes left after the seventh . The remaining housewives joined in later seasons ; Burruss in the second , Bailey and Parks in the third , Moore and Williams in the fifth ( the latter of whom was a friend of the housewives in the seventh ) , and Fields in the eight . Past housewives include Claudia Jordan ( season 7 ) .
The Real Housewives of Atlanta has received moderately favorable reviews from critics and has been recognized as a " guilty pleasure " by several media outlets . However , the series has been criticized for appearing to fabricate portions of its storyline . As of February 2014 , it was the highest @-@ rated installment of The Real Housewives franchise and the most @-@ watched series airing on Bravo . Its success has resulted in the conceptions of the spin @-@ offs The Kandi Factory ( featuring Burruss ) , Don 't Be Tardy ( featuring Zolciak ) , I Dream of NeNe : The Wedding ( featuring Leakes ) , Kandi 's Wedding and Kandi 's Ski Trip ( again , featuring Burruss ) .
= = Overview and casting = =
The Real Housewives of Atlanta was announced as the third installment in The Real Housewives franchise , intending to capitalize on the successes of its predecessors The Real Housewives of Orange County and New York City . Its television network Bravo stated that the series ' planned storyline focused on " [ balancing ] motherhood , demanding careers and a fast @-@ paced social calendar " .
Throughout its run , The Real Housewives of Atlanta has been led by five ( seasons 1 – 2 ) , six ( seasons 3 – 8 with the exception of some of season 5 ) , and seven ( some of season 5 ) housewives , who are credited by their first names , and is distinguished within The Real Housewives franchise in that it was , until the introduction of The Real Housewives of Potomac in 2016 , the only installment with a predominantly black cast . Its original main housewives were Lisa Wu @-@ Hartwell , DeShawn Snow , NeNe Leakes , Kim Zolciak , and Shereé Whitfield . Snow departed from the program after the first season , and alleged that producers considered her to be " too human for a circus show " and was replaced by Kandi Burruss in the second season .
The third season saw the departure of Hartwell and the addition of Cynthia Bailey and Phaedra Parks . The main lineup remained unchanged during the fourth season , although Marlo Hampton joined as a friend of the housewives . Whitfield exited the series upon the conclusion of the fourth season , and was replaced by Porsha Williams and Kenya Moore in the fifth season . Zolciak departed from the program in the middle of the fifth season , and was not replaced in the sixth season . The departure of Zolciak made Leakes the only remaining original cast member as of season six ; however , Zolciak commented that she might be interested in returning to the series . In the seventh season , Williams became a friend of the housewives , alongside new cast member Demetria McKinney , while Claudia Jordan was introduced as a main housewife .
In June 2015 , the network announced that The Real Housewives of Atlanta had been renewed for an eight season , with both NeNe Leakes and Claudia Jordan departing from the show . After Leakes ' departure , the series became the first Real Housewives franchise to not retain any original cast members as full @-@ time participants . In September 2015 , Bravo announced that Porsha Williams had assigned to be a full @-@ time housewife once again , along with newcomer actress Kim Fields . The network also announced that former housewife Shereé Whitfield , together with new cast member Shamea Morton , would join the series in a supporting capacity , with former cast members , Leakes , Hampton , Jordan and McKinney making guest appearances .
In April 2016 , Bravo announced that the series is renewed for a ninth season . Leakes revealed she would be returning to season 9 in some capacity .
= = = Timeline of housewives = = =
= = Episodes = =
= = Storylines = =
In its series premiere , The Real Housewives of Atlanta introduced Wu @-@ Hartwell , Snow , Leakes , Zolciak , and Whitfield . Leakes and Whitfield were in the midst of a personal conflict , which was escalated after Leakes was excluded from Whitfield 's divorce party . Meanwhile , Zolciak was revealed to be dating a publicly unknown boyfriend nicknamed " Big Papa " , and later decided to pursue her aspirations of becoming a country music singer . Her friendship with Leakes deteriorated after she established a companionship with Whitfield , and was ended after Leakes made sarcastic remarks about Zolciak 's music career . Snow and Wu @-@ Hartwell additionally looked to establish prominence as a socialite and a jewelry designer , respectively . Whitfield attempted to launch her own fashion line and organize a lunch for the women to reconcile , although both ventures proved unsuccessful in the finale of the first season .
The second season saw the introduction of Burruss , who had recently become engaged to her boyfriend A.J. and expressed interest in reviving her music career . An attempted reconciliation between Leakes , Whitfield , and Zolciak failed to come to fruition , while a feud developed between Leakes and Burruss after the latter became friends with Zolciak and helped her record her single " Tardy for the Party " . Meanwhile , Zolciak attempted to launch her own wig line and became engaged to Big Papa , while Wu @-@ Hartwell and Whitfield launched their own clothing collections .
The third season saw the introduction of Bailey and Parks , while Leakes and Zolciak reconciled as the former contemplated divorcing her husband Gregg and the latter began a lesbian relationship . Parks , who was in the middle of her pregnancy , clashed with her husband Apollo Nida over their differing opinions on parenting ; she gave birth later in the season . Meanwhile , Zolciak and Burruss continued recording music together , although they clashed over their creative differences . Bailey later became engaged to her boyfriend Peter Thomas , while Zolciak set her affections on football player Kroy Biermann ; a conflict between Burruss , Leakes , and Zolciak later ensued while the latter two women embark on a promotional concert tour . Against the advice of her mother and sister , Bailey married Thomas in the third season finale .
The fourth season began as Zolciak was in the middle of her first pregnancy by her boyfriend Biermann ; she later gave birth to their son . Leakes continued divorce proceedings with Gregg , while Whitfield found herself in financial difficulties after her ex @-@ husband failed to pay child support . Meanwhile , Bailey opened her own modeling agency , while Parks looked to launch a family @-@ operated funeral home . Leakes 's new friendship with Hampton caused tension between all of the women , which escalated during a group vacation in South Africa ; while Zolciak , who had remained home with her children , became upset by negative comments Bailey ( not Burruss ) made about her during the group vacation . As the season closed , Leakes began to reconsider her divorce from Gregg .
As the fifth season introduced former Miss USA Moore and football player Kordell Stewart 's wife Williams , Leakes reconciled with Gregg and pondered the possibility of remarrying him . Zolciak was forced to move out of her mansion , which she and Biermann had attempted to purchase less than a year earlier , Leakes began to question Moore 's seemingly unfaithful behavior towards her boyfriend Walter during a group trip to Anguilla , which began a feud between Leakes and Williams against Moore . Moore wished to marry Walter although their relationship had begun to deteriorate , while Parks and Moore created competing workout DVDs after plans to make the project a joint venture proved unsuccessful . Toward the end of the season , Williams attempted to revive her failing marriage to Stewart with therapist sessions .
Williams came to the realization that her marriage was not salvageable as the sixth season commenced , while Leakes became upset with Moore after the later went against " girl code " by inappropriately communicating with Nida . Moore moved out of her rental property after being evicted , while Leakes returned to Atlanta full @-@ time after her television series The New Normal was canceled . Burruss struggled to manage the conflict between her estranged mother Joyce and her longtime boyfriend Todd Tucker , although they attempted to reconcile as the couple became engaged and began planning their nuptials . In a later attempt to salvage the relationships between the women , Leakes hosted a couples pajama party for their group , although the women continued to clash with one another ; a later spa gathering failed to resolve residual tension between Leakes and Moore . Meanwhile , Williams attempted to launch her career as an actress after being cast in Burruss 's musical .
= = Critical reception = =
The Real Housewives of Atlanta has been moderately well received by critics . Writing for Common Sense Media , Melissa Camacho spoke favorably of the series ' emphasis on " a successful and powerful segment of the African @-@ American community " that appears to be frequently neglected by the popular television . Tim Hall from the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer commented of his general distaste for reality television , particularly describing The Real Housewives of Orange County as " utterly ridiculous " . However , he admitted that the dynamic and conflict between the women , in addition to the wealthy lifestyles they led , to be " somewhat entertaining " . In a more mixed review , Alessandra Stanley from The New York Times joked that its portrayal of wealth served as " the best choice for a time capsule of the Bling Decade " when noting the economic downturn the United States experienced around the time that the series premiered , although more seriously stated that the housewives ' luxuries " was never all that enviable , and now it looks as if it might not be viable . " Hanh Nguyen from Zap2It shared a similar sentiment , criticizing that the " showy elite and rampant consumerism " that the women regularly display " seems rather out of touch " given the United States ' economic hardship , although she elaborated that the program " [ is ] not by any means boring , but you do have to be in the mood to watch . "
The Real Housewives of Atlanta has been recognized as a " guilty pleasure " by several media outlets . Writing for About.com , Latoya West commented that the " self @-@ absorbed " nature of the housewives may become irritating to viewers , but noted that the series ' " divalicious drama might be addictive . " The staff from Entertainment Weekly joked that they " are never tardy for this party " ; they felt that " [ Leakes ] alone could keep [ The Real Housewives of Atlanta ] on the map " , and additionally credited Zolciak 's " slow train to cuckootown , making all local stops " for helping to establish " the franchise for the ages . " In 2009 , a writer from Essence mentioned that they " couldn 't get enough of the ladies " from the program , and recognized it as the best reality show of the year . Writing for Today , Leslie Bruce commented that The Real Housewives franchise in general rose to prominence for its depiction of " foul @-@ mouthed , often catfighting and always self @-@ promoting " women , and stated that they " dominate water @-@ cooler discussions [ ... ] by showcasing at times the worst of female behavior . "
The Real Housewives of Atlanta has been criticized for appearing to fabricate portions of its storyline . One source of speculation arose during the fifth season , when Kenya Moore allegedly requested that Walter Jackson pretend to be her boyfriend ; series producers were reportedly unaware of said arrangement . Moore commented that such claims were " completely false " , and further " [ urged ] viewers to stay tuned because the truth will come to light . " Moore was also criticized for alleging that she was financially stable , although she reportedly joined the series as a source of income to offset the difficulties with her lawsuits from several creditors . In May 2013 , Porsha Williams allegedly staged her divorce from Kordell Stewart to secure her position on the series , which she reportedly feared was in jeopardy . In December 2013 , Williams received additional criticism for comments made in an episode aired during the sixth season , where she indicated that she believed the Underground Railroad was an actual railroad line .
= = U.S. television ratings = =
The first season of The Real Housewives of Atlanta maintained an average of 1 @.@ 495 million weekly viewers ; Bravo announced that the series had become the first program from the network to " crack the two million viewer mark among adults 18 – 49 . " The premiere episode of the second season was watched by 2 @.@ 66 million people , setting the record for the highest @-@ rated The Real Housewives premiere episode in the franchise 's history at the time . The third season averaged a weekly viewership of 3 @.@ 6 million people , while the fourth and fifth seasons premiered with 2 @.@ 8 million and 3 @.@ 2 million viewers , respectively . The sixth season premiere was watched by 3 @.@ 1 million people ; with 1 @.@ 9 million viewers being classified in the adults 25 – 54 demographic , it became the highest @-@ rated episode in this target demographic . As of February 2014 , The Real Housewives of Atlanta is the highest @-@ rated installment of The Real Housewives franchise , and is additionally the most @-@ watched series airing on Bravo . The premiere episode of the seventh season attracted over 3 @.@ 8 million viewers during its initial broadcast on November 9 , 2014 , including 2 @.@ 2 million viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic via Nielsen ratings . It marked as the most watched season premiere ever to air on Bravo .
= = Broadcast history = =
The Real Housewives of Atlanta airs regularly on Bravo in the United States ; most episodes are approximately one hour in length , and are broadcast in standard definition and high definition . Since its premiere , the series has alternated airing on Monday , Tuesday , Thursday , and Sunday evenings and has been frequently shifted between the 8 : 00 , 9 : 00 , and 10 : 00 PM timeslots . The first season of The Real Housewives of Atlanta included seven episodes and one reunion special , and aired from October 7 , 2008 , until November 25 , 2008 . The second season consisted of fourteen episodes , a two @-@ part reunion special , and a deleted scenes special ; it premiered on July 30 , 2009 , and concluded on November 5 , 2009 . The third season commenced airing on October 4 , 2010 , after airing sixteen episodes and a two @-@ part reunion special , it ended on January 30 , 2011 . The fourth season aired from November 6 , 2011 until April 22 , 2012 ; it included twenty episodes and a three @-@ part reunion special . The fifth season premiered on November 4 , 2012 , and concluded on April 21 , 2013 after broadcasting twenty episodes and a three @-@ part reunion special . The sixth season commenced airing on November 3 , 2013 , and ended on May 18 , 2014 . It included a three @-@ part reunion special , a secrets revealed special , and ( for the first time in Real Housewives history ) , a husbands revealed special .
The Real Housewives of Atlanta was renewed for a seventh season in April 2014 . The season premiered on November 9 , 2014 , and concluded with a three @-@ part reunion . The eighth season premiered on November 8 , 2015 .
= = = Spin @-@ offs = = =
Zolciak received the first spin @-@ off from The Real Housewives of Atlanta , titled Don 't Be Tardy for the Wedding , which documented the preparations for her nuptials to Kroy Biermann . It premiered on April 9 , 2012 and was renewed for a second season on April 16 , 2013 , at which time its title was shortened to Don 't Be Tardy . The show returned for a third season on July 17 , 2014 . Subsequent seasons follow the daily lives of Kim and her now @-@ husband Kroy as he tries to juggle between his professional career and personal life while Kim deals with her growing family . Originally planned as a one @-@ time television special , The Kandi Factory was launched as the second spin @-@ off from The Real Housewives of Atlanta in 2012 . It followed Burruss and her record producers as they attempted to launch the music careers of undiscovered artists , although it was confirmed in 2013 that the series was canceled after airing one season . After reconciling with her ex @-@ husband Gregg , Leakes received her own spin @-@ off series I Dream of NeNe : The Wedding , which documented the preparations for their second wedding ; it premiered on September 17 , 2013 . Bravo announced Burruss and Tucker 's wedding spin @-@ off , Kandi 's Wedding , on April 8 , 2014 . The series premiered on June 1 , 2014 , and concluded on July 6 , 2014 . Kandi 's Wedding brought in very high ratings for Bravo , and topped NeNe Leakes and Kim Zolciak 's previous spin @-@ offs . In March 2015 , Bravo renewed Don 't Be Tardy ... for a fourth season as well as announced another spin @-@ off show , NeNe and Kim : The Road to Riches , starring both Leakes and Zolciak . However , the network later decided not to move forward with the show . The network later announced another series titled Kandi 's Ski Trip , the third offshoot starring Burruss . The three @-@ part special premiered after the conclusion of the seventh season of The Real Housewives of Atlanta .
= Zach Hyman =
Zachary Martin " Zach " Hyman ( born June 9 , 1992 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey player with the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He is currently on loan to the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . Hyman is also a published author of children 's literature under contract with Penguin Random House .
Following an outstanding 2010 – 11 season , Hockey Canada named him the 2011 CJHL Player of the Year . During the 2014 – 15 season , Hyman won a plethora of awards , including being named the University of Michigan 's Athlete of the Year , a First Team All @-@ American and one of the finalists for the Hobey Baker Award .
Hyman was selected by the Florida Panthers in the 5th round of the 2010 NHL Entry Draft , however , the two parties were unable to agree on a contract , and Hyman 's rights were traded to the Maple Leafs on June 19 , 2015 .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Hyman played for the Hamilton Red Wings from 2008 to 2011 . During his rookie season , Hyman recorded 13 goals and 24 assists in 49 regular season games , and two goals in five playoff games . He was named the Red Wings ' Rookie of the Year . During his sophomore season , Hyman was voted team captain . He recorded 35 goals and 40 assists in 49 regular season games , and seven goals and nine assists in 11 playoff games .
During his final season of Junior A hockey , Hyman was the leading scorer for the Red Wings , recording 42 goals and 60 assists in 43 regular season games , and three goals and five assists in seven playoff games . Hyman ranked second in the Canadian Junior Hockey League in scoring , recording 102 points in 43 games , and led all players with 2 @.@ 37 points per game .
Following an outstanding season with the Red Wings , Hyman was named to the OJHL 's North @-@ West Conference First All @-@ Star Team , and Hockey Canada awarded him the CJHL Player of the Year Award . He became just the second player from the OJHL to win the award , following Trent Walford in 1995 – 96 . In 2010 , Hyman was chosen as the OJHL 's Most Gentlemanly Player . A two @-@ time Red Wings ' MVP , the OHA also selected him as the BJ Monroe Trophy recipient . The award recognized Zach Hyman as the Association 's Top Pro Prospect . At the conclusion of the 2010 – 11 season , Hyman 's jersey was displayed in the Hockey Hall of Fame .
= = = College = = =
Hyman was originally committed to play for Princeton during the 2010 – 11 season . However , he decommitted after Princeton head coach Guy Gadowsky left the school to start the Division I hockey program at Penn State . Following Gadowsky to Penn State was not an option , as the program did not have a varsity team at the time . In May 2011 , Hyman was offered a full Athletic Scholarship and committed to play for the University of Michigan for the 2011 – 12 season .
During his freshman season at Michigan , Hyman recorded two goals and seven assists in 41 games . He scored his first career goal on October 21 , 2011 , in a game against Northern Michigan . During his sophomore season , he recorded four goals and five assists in 38 games . During his junior season , he recorded seven goals and ten assists in 35 games . Zach Hyman was selected as the 2014 Bates / Deskins Award Winner , which is a prestigious honour bestowed upon the University of Michigan 's Top Junior Student Athlete .
During his senior season , Hyman was named alternate captain . He was Michigan 's leading scorer , and the Big Ten Scoring Champion setting a new record with 54 points , scoring 22 goals , and 32 assists in only 37 games . Hyman became the first Michigan player to record 20 goals in a season since Louie Caporusso , and the first player to record 50 points or more since Carl Hagelin during the 2009 – 10 season . Hyman led the team with 17 multiple @-@ point games , including six games with three or more points . On October 24 , 2014 , Hyman recorded a career @-@ high five points , and his first career hat @-@ trick against UMass Lowell .
In December 2014 , Hyman was named to the 50th Great Lakes Invitational Tournament team , where he scored both game @-@ winning goals against Michigan Tech and Michigan State , to help lead Michigan to its 16th Tournament Title .
Following an outstanding senior season with the Wolverines , Hyman was named to the 2014 – 15 All @-@ Big Ten First Team , and named an AHCA First Team All @-@ American . Hyman was also named a top @-@ ten finalist for the Hobey Baker Award . He was also selected as the SB Nation College Hockey Big Ten Media Most Valuable Player .
On March 27 , 2015 , Hyman received the 2015 All @-@ American Athlete Award by The National Strength and Conditioning Association ( NCSA ) and EAS Sports Nutrition . The award recognized Hyman 's athletic accomplishments and his dedication to strength and conditioning .
In a National awards ceremony at the Atlanta History Center on April 27 , 2015 , Hyman was honoured as one of five finalists for the 11th Annual Coach Wooden Citizenship Cup Award and was recognized as one of the most outstanding role models amongst athletes .
Hyman graduated from Michigan with a history major in the College of Literature , Science and the Arts . He was a three @-@ time Big Ten All @-@ Academic selection and a two @-@ time recipient of the Big Ten Distinguished Scholar Award having earned a minimum grade @-@ point average ( GPA ) of 3 @.@ 7 or higher for the previous academic year .
On May 4 , 2015 , Hyman was selected as a Senior Athlete of The Year Award winner for the 2014 – 2015 season at Michigan 's Bob Ufer Quarterback Club 's Annual Banquet , an award previously won by former standout Michigan quarterbacks Jim Harbaugh in 1987 and Tom Brady in 2000 . Past recipients include Heisman Winner Desmond Howard in 1992 , Brian Wiseman in 1994 , Marty Turco in 1998 , TJ Hensick in 2007 , Kevin Porter in 2008 , and Carl Hagelin in 2011 .
On May 14 , 2015 , Hyman was part of a quartet of University of Michigan student @-@ athletes that were named Capital One First Team Academic All @-@ District selections , the announcement coming from the College Sports Information Directors of America ( CoSIDA ) , and his name was put forward for Academic All @-@ American consideration . On June 11 , 2015 , Hyman was named to the 2015 Capital One Academic All @-@ America Division I Men 's At @-@ Large team , as selected by CoSIDA . Hyman is the second ice hockey player at Michigan to be named an Academic All @-@ America honoree , following Jeff Jillson in 2001 , and the first to be named First Team Academic All American .
On June 22 , 2015 , the University of Michigan Athletic Department named Hyman the 2014 – 15 Michigan Athlete of the Year . Hyman is the third ice hockey player to receive this honour , following Brendan Morrison in 1997 and Kevin Porter in 2008 .
= = = Professional = = =
Hyman was drafted 123rd overall by the Florida Panthers in the 2010 NHL Entry Draft . At the conclusion of his college career , the Panthers offered Hyman an NHL contract , but Hyman announced his intent not to sign with the Panthers , and opted for free agency .
On June 19 , 2015 , Hyman 's rights were acquired by the Toronto Maple Leafs from the Florida Panthers in exchange for centre Greg McKegg . On June 23 , Hyman signed a two @-@ year entry @-@ level contract with the Maple Leafs .
Hyman made his professional debut for the Toronto Marlies on October 9 , 2015 , where he recorded his first professional point , an assist on Byron Froese 's goal in the second period . On November 7 , Hyman recorded his first professional goal , a short @-@ handed goal against Matt O 'Connor of the Binghamton Senators .
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29 , 2016 , Hyman was recalled by the Toronto Maple Leafs . Prior to being recalled , he recorded 13 goals and 20 assists in 54 games for the Marlies this season . He made his NHL debut in a game against the Tampa Bay Lightning later that night , recording 15 : 58 of ice time , 22 shifts , two shots , and one hit . He subsequently scored his first career NHL goal one week later on March 7 against Chad Johnson of the Buffalo Sabres .
On March 31 , 2016 , Hyman was loaned to the Marlies in preparation for the AHL Calder Cup playoffs .
= = International play = =
In 2010 , as a 17 @-@ year @-@ old underage player , Hyman served as Assistant Captain and represented Canada in the U20 Three Nations tournament in Norrtälje , Sweden . He was named game MVP vs. Finland , after scoring two goals in the game . He finished the tournament with three goals and one assist in four games .
Hyman represented Canada East at the 2010 World Junior A Challenge . He was named MVP of the game vs. Russia . He was one of the tournament 's leading scorers recording two goals and three assists in five games , and won a silver medal .
In July 2013 , Hyman served as an Assistant Captain representing Canada at the 2013 Maccabiah Games held in Israel , where he recorded three goals and three assists in two games and won a gold medal .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and achievements = =
= = Writing career = =
Hyman is also a published author under contract with Random House .
His award winning children 's book The Bambino and Me conjures 1920s New York and tells the story of a young Yankees fan named George , who especially admires Babe Ruth and carries his baseball card everywhere . His other book , Hockey Hero was released in October 2015 and is about a shy hockey player who overcomes playing in his brother 's shadow and eventually makes his dream come true .
Hyman has signed another two book deal with Penguin Random House , with books to be published in 2016 and 2017 .
= Thomas Lee ( Virginia colonist ) =
Thomas Lee ( c . 1690 – November 14 , 1750 ) was a leading political figure of colonial Virginia . He was a member of the Lee family , a political dynasty which included many figures from the pre @-@ American Revolutionary War era until the late 20th century . Lee became involved in politics in 1710 and he became the resident manager of the Northern Neck Proprietary for Lady Catherine Fairfax . After his father died , he inherited land in Northumberland and Charles County . Lee later acquired vast holdings in what are now Arlington , Fairfax , Fauquier , Prince William , and Loudoun Counties . These properties were developed as tobacco plantations .
When Lee married Hannah Harrison Ludwell in 1722 , he benefited by the connections of the already established Harrison family . A year later he would become a member of the House of Burgesses . After Lee 's home was burnt down by criminals , he lost almost all of his possessions and a fair sum of money . With donations received from Caroline of Ansbach and English Commissioners , he built his new home on the Potomac River , naming it Stratford Hall . Four years later in 1733 , he was appointed to the Governor 's Council , upper house of the General Assembly . In 1747 , he founded the Ohio Company of Virginia with fellow Virginian colonists who wished to expand Virginia 's territory into the Ohio River Valley . For a period of less than a year , in 1749 , he became the de facto Governor of Virginia in place of the absent William Gooch . Lee was favored for an appointment as governor by George II but the colonist died in 1750 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Thomas Lee was born around 1690 at Mount Pleasant , on the Machodoc River in Westmoreland County , Virginia . His parents were Richard Lee II , " the scholar " , and Laetitia Corbin . His ancestors had immigrated from Coton , Shropshire , England to Virginia in 1642 . As the fourth son of the couple , Lee would not receive as large an inheritance as his older brothers . This did not prevent him from becoming successful in politics .
Lee attended college at The College of William and Mary around 1700 . Lee 's education was referred to as a " common Virginia education " . He soon became interested in the working of the tobacco industry . He left home to work with his uncle Thomas Corbin in the tobacco business .
= = Political career = =
Lee 's political career began in 1710 when he was appointed as Naval Officer of the Potomac River . The position was previously held by his father and upon his resignation , Lee was appointed as the new Naval Officer . In 1711 , Lee 's uncle Thomas Corbin helped him gain the position of Virginia agent for the Northern Neck Proprietary . As a result , he was appointed by Catherine ( Culpeper ) Fairfax , Lady Fairfax who was living in England , as her agent and resident manager for the Northern Neck Proprietary , which she had inherited from her father , Governor Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper . Catherine was the wife of Thomas Fairfax , 5th Baron Fairfax . This property , which consisted of approximately six million acres ( 24 @,@ 000 km ² ) , included all the land between the Potomac and Rappahnnock rivers .
At one time Edmund Jenings , another Lee uncle , headed this Proprietary . While Jenings was in England , the offices of the agency were located at the plantation at Machodoc and under Lee 's supervision . Due to Jening 's poor management , the agency was given to Governor Robert " King " Carter in 1720 . This event led to animosity between the competitive Lee and Carter families . The members of the families refused to marry each other until Henry " Light Horse Harry " Lee married Anne Hill Carter . Their most notable child was Robert E. Lee .
Thomas held this position until 1722 . In 1713 , Thomas succeeded his father as Naval Officer in charge of collecting customs for the south side of the Potomac .
In 1714 , upon his father 's death , Lee inherited lands in Northumberland County near Dividing Creek , as well as land in Maryland adjoining his brother Philip Lee , Sr. of “ Blenheim " . Thomas leased the estate “ Machodoc " from his brother Richard Lee III who was in London . That same year Thomas visited England , remaining for about a year .
Lee thought that marriage was not only important between two individuals but for their families . A nephew of his later said , " Our Late Hon [ ora ] ble & worthy Unkle Presid [ ent ] Lee said that the first fall & ruin of families and estates was mostly Occasioned by Imprudent Matches to Imbeggar families and estates & to beget a race of beggars . " He was engaged to Jenny Wilson in 1716 . That year he returned to England to formalize the lease to the plantation before he married . Before his return , Jenny Wilson had found another husband , James Roscoe . Lee learned this from William Byrd .
Lee and his brother Henry negotiated a lease for 99 years on the plantation . During his stay in England , Lee had decided to buy some property on the Potomac River called the " Clifts Plantation " in Westmoreland County . At the time , the property was owned by Nathaniel Pope , Jr . , a mariner , of London . Lee believed that when Virginia gained its independence , the capital would be located on the Potomac River . He later renamed it as Stratford . Thomas purchased his father 's old estate " Machodoc " , from his sister @-@ in @-@ law , Martha Silk , the former wife of his older brother , Richard Lee III . " Machodoc " was later known as " Mount Pleasant " .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
In May 1722 , Thomas Lee married Hannah Harrison Ludwell ( December 5 , 1701 – January 25 , 1750 ) , a member of the prominent Harrison family , at " Greenspring " , James City County , Virginia . The marriage lasted his life and brought him increased wealth and status . Hannah was the daughter of Philip Ludwell II of " Greenspring " , and Hannah Harrison . The couple had eleven children ; eight survived to adulthood :
Richard Lee ( b . 1723 )
Philip Ludwell Lee ( February 24 , 1726 – February 21 , 1775 )
John Lee ( b. and d . January 1728 )
Hannah Ludwell Lee ( February 1729 – 1782 )
Thomas Ludwell Lee ( December 13 , 1730 – April 13 , 1778 ) ; a member of the Virginia Delegates and editor of the Virginia Declaration of Rights .
Richard Henry Lee ( January 20 , 1732 – January 19 , 1794 ) ; signer of the United States Declaration of Independence
Francis Lightfoot Lee ( October 14 , 1734 – January 11 , 1797 ) ; signer of the United States Declaration of Independence
Alice Lee ( June 4 , 1736 – March 25 , 1817 )
William Lee ( August 31 , 1737 – June 27 , 1795 )
James Lee ( b. and d . 1739 )
Arthur Lee ( December 21 , 1740 – December 12 , 1792 )
1728 was a tragic year for Lee and his family . On January 29 , thieves broke into the house stealing the Lee family plate , jewelry , and other articles of value , and upon leaving , set fire to the plantation house at Machodoc . The fire destroyed the entire plantation , including Thomas ' office , the barns , and outhouses . Almost all of the Lees ' possessions were destroyed , as well as up to 10 @,@ 000 pounds in cash ( equal to £ 1 @,@ 219 @,@ 726 today ) . The house quickly burned and Hannah Lee , being pregnant with her fourth child , had to be thrown from her chamber window on the second floor . This resulted in Hannah 's miscarriage of a son ( they named him John ) . also injured in the fire was a slave girl , who died . Virginia Governor William Gooch blamed transported convicts for the crime . It is said that Col. Lee 's loss was not less than 50 @,@ 000 pounds ( equal to £ 6 @,@ 098 @,@ 629 today ) . English Commissioners later gave Lee 300 pounds ( equal to £ 36 @,@ 592 today ) as compensation and Queen Caroline also gave him money from her private purse to help with rebuilding . The convicts and an accomplice were later found guilty . Their punishment is unknown because the trial records were destroyed . When construction began on the new Lee mansion , the family stayed with Thomas 's brother Henry at Lee Hall . Lee sold the " Machodoc " estate to Richard Lee III 's son , George Lee , who built " Mount Pleasant " .
Lee 's political career required trips to Williamsburg , causing him to be away from his family for extended periods of time . Lee managed to make the 80 @-@ mile ( 130 @-@ km ) journey to his family and to be with his wife at the births of each of their children . Several of the sons became high @-@ ranking political figures and were active in the American Revolutionary War and post @-@ Revolution politics . Richard Henry was a senator from Virginia to the United States Senate and Francis Lightfoot was in the Virginia Senate . Lee 's youngest sons William Lee and Arthur Lee served as diplomats to various European countries . William , along with Jan de Neufville , drafted an unofficial treaty between the United States and the Netherlands which Great Britain used as a reason for the Fourth Anglo @-@ Dutch War .
Lee later became a vestryman for Copole Parish and Justice of the Peace in Westmoreland County . In 1723 , Lee became a member of the House of Burgesses . He held this office until he was appointed to the Governor 's Council in the Virginia General Assembly in 1733 . This position was a lifetime appointment . The Council was made up of twelve appointees who were selected by the Governor of Virginia and was the upper half of the Virginia General Assembly . The lower half was made up of the House of Burgesses . This position also gave Lee the rank of Colonel , a military rank that was second only to the governor . Members of the Council were advisers to the governor and judges in the General Court of the colony . Their work led them to spend about a third of the year in the capital Williamsburg .
When Governor William Gooch was recalled to England in 1749 , Lee was named President of the King 's Council of Virginia and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the colony . Nominated for appointment as Governor of Virginia by King George II , he died before it took place .
= = = Ohio Company = = =
Lee was appointed commissioner , along with William Beverley , to negotiate with the Six Nations of the Iroquois at the Treaty of Lancaster in 1744 . At the treaty , an agreement was made with the Six Nations for 400 pounds ( equal to £ 61 @,@ 424 today ) in return for the right for Virginians to travel through and settle in the Shenandoah Valley .
In 1747 , Lee co @-@ founded the Ohio Company of Virginia along with Lawrence Washington , Augustine Washington , Jr . , the Duke of Bedford , and John Hanbury . The Ohio Company was a land speculation venture which helped colonize the Ohio Country . Lee 's influence as a member of the Governor 's Council helped lead to the success of the Ohio Company and within seven years the company had 100 families living in Ohio . He was also the first president of the Company and after Lee died , was succeeded by Lawrence Washington .
= = = Stratford Hall = = =
With Lee 's higher rank in society and wealth , he decided he needed to build a mansion to secure his position as one of the Virginia gentry. he chose the " Clifts , " which he had owned since the mid @-@ 1710s . Lee decided on this site because it was located in Westmoreland County , where he was born , and because it was located on the Potomac River . The land was sufficient for having many construction laborers live there . Hannah had an influential say in the design and planning of the interior of the house . Philip , the couple 's eldest son , had said , " See what it is to be ruled by a woman . I should have been now living in a house like this ... had not my father been persuaded by his wife to put up this very inferior dwelling , now over my head . " The exact construction date of the house is unknown but it is estimated that construction began around 1725 @-@ 30 , as all of Lee 's sons were born at Stratford . Workers on the plantation were from all the working class : free people and indentured servants mostly from the British Isles , and African slaves .
Between 1719 and 1746 , Lee acquired vast holdings in what are now Arlington , Fairfax , Fauquier , Prince William , and Loudoun counties . The town of Leesburg , was named in his honor as recommended by his two sons , who were the founders and trustees .
Hannah Harrison died at " Stratford " on January 25 , 1749 , having borne eleven children . She was buried in the old family burying ground , called the " Burnt House Fields " , at " Mount Pleasant " . Her tombstone was later removed to " Stratford Hall " , probably by Henry Lee , who built the new vault at that place . On November 14 , 1750 , Thomas Lee died at age sixty and was buried in the old " Burnt House Fields " at Mount Pleasant . According to his will , he wished to be buried in between his wife and his mother . He bequeathed Stratford Hall to his eldest son , Philip Ludwell Lee , and the Machodoc plantation to his nephew , George Lee .
= Wihtred of Kent =
Wihtred ( c . 670 – 23 April 725 ) was king of Kent from about 690 or 691 until his death . He was a son of Ecgberht I and a brother of Eadric . Wihtred acceded to the throne after a confused period in the 680s , which included a brief conquest of Kent by Cædwalla of Wessex and subsequent dynastic conflicts . His immediate predecessor was Oswine of Kent , who was probably descended from Eadbald of Kent , though not through the same line as Wihtred . Shortly after the start of his reign , Wihtred issued a code of laws — the Law of Wihtred — that has been preserved in a manuscript known as the Textus Roffensis . The laws pay a great deal of attention to the rights of the Church , including punishment for irregular marriages and for pagan worship . Wihtred 's long reign had few incidents recorded in the annals of the day . He was succeeded in 725 by his sons , Æthelberht II , Eadberht I , and Ælfric .
= = Kent in the late seventh century = =
The dominant force in late @-@ seventh @-@ century politics south of the River Humber was Wulfhere of Mercia , who reigned from the late 650s to 675 . The king of Kent for much of this time was Ecgberht , who died in 673 . Ecgberht 's sons , Eadric and Wihtred , were probably no more than infants of two or three years old when their father died , and Wulfhere was their uncle by virtue of his marriage to Eormenhild , Ecgberht 's sister . Hlothhere , Ecgberht 's brother , became king of Kent , but not until about a year later , in 674 , and it may be that Wulfhere opposed the accession of Hlothhere and was the effective ruler of Kent during this year @-@ long interregnum .
Eadric raised an army against his uncle and Hlothhere died of wounds sustained in battle in February 685 or possibly 686 . Eadric died the following year , and according to Bede , whose Ecclesiastical History of the English People is one of the primary sources for this period , the kingdom fell apart into disorder . Cædwalla of Wessex invaded in 686 and established his brother Mul as king there ; Cædwalla may have ruled Kent directly for a period when Mul was killed in 687 . When Cædwalla departed for Rome in 688 , Oswine , who was probably supported by Æthelred of Mercia , took the throne for a time . Oswine lost power in 690 , but Swæfheard ( son of Sebbi , the king of Essex ) , who had been a king in Kent for a year or two , remained . There is clear evidence that both Swæfheard and Oswine were kings at the same time , as each witnessed the other 's charters . It seems that Oswine was king of east Kent , which was usually the position of the dominant king , while Swæfheard was king of west Kent .
= = Accession and reign = =
Wihtred emerged from this disarray and became king in the early 690s . Bede describes his accession by saying that he was the " rightful " king , and that he " freed the nation from foreign invasion by his devotion and diligence " . Oswine was also of the royal family , and arguably had a claim to the throne ; hence it has been suggested that Bede 's comments here are strongly partisan . Bede 's correspondent on Kentish affairs was Albinus , abbot of the monastery of St. Peter and St. Paul ( subsequently renamed St. Augustine 's ) in Canterbury , and these views can almost certainly be ascribed to the Church establishment there .
Two charters provide evidence of Wihtred 's date of accession . One , dated April 697 , indicates Wihtred was then in the sixth year of his rule , so his accession can be dated to some time between April 691 and April 692 . Another , dated 17 July 694 , is in his fourth regnal year , giving a possible range of July 690 to July 691 . The overlap in date ranges gives April to July 691 as the likely date of his accession . Another estimate of the date of Wihtred 's accession can be made from the duration of his reign , given by Bede as thirty four and a half years . He died on 23 April 725 , which would imply an accession date in late 690 .
Initially Wihtred ruled alongside Swæfheard . Bede 's report of the election of Beorhtwald as Archbishop of Canterbury in July 692 mentions that Swæfheard and Wihtred were the kings of Kent , but Swæfheard is not heard of after this date . It appears that by 694 Wihtred was the sole ruler of Kent , though it may also be that his son Æthelberht was a junior king in west Kent during Wihtred 's reign . Wihtred is thought to have had three wives . His first was called Cynegyth , but a charter of 696 names Æthelburh as the royal consort and co @-@ donor of an estate : the former spouse must have died or been dismissed after a short time . Near the end of his reign , a new wife , Wærburh , attested with her husband and son , Alric .
It was also in 694 that Wihtred made peace with the West Saxon king Ine . Ine 's predecessor , Cædwalla , had invaded Kent and installed his brother Mul as king , but the Kentishmen had subsequently revolted and burned Mul . Wihtred agreed compensation for the killing , but the amount paid to Ine is uncertain . Most manuscripts of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle record " thirty thousand " , and some specify thirty thousand pounds . If the pounds are equal to sceattas , then this amount is the equal of a king 's wergild — that is , the legal valuation of a man 's life , according to his rank . It seems likely that Wihtred ceded some border territory to Ine as part of this settlement .
= = Laws = =
The earliest Anglo @-@ Saxon law code to survive , which may date from 602 or 603 , is that of Æthelberht of Kent , whose reign ended in 616 . In the 670s or 680s , a code was issued in the names of Hlothhere and Eadric of Kent . The next kings to issue laws were Ine of Wessex and Wihtred .
The dating of Wihtred ’ s and Ine ’ s laws is somewhat uncertain , but there is reason to believe that Wihtred ’ s laws were issued on 6 September 695 , while Ine ’ s laws were written in 694 or shortly before . Ine had recently agreed peaceful terms with Wihtred over compensation for the death of Mul , and there are indications that the two rulers collaborated to some degree in producing their laws . In addition to the coincidence of timing , there is one clause that appears in almost identical form in both codes . Another sign of collaboration is that Wihtred ’ s laws use gesith , a West Saxon term for noble , in place of the Kentish term eorlcund . It is possible that Ine and Wihtred issued the law codes as an act of prestige , to re @-@ establish authority after periods of disruption in both kingdoms .
Wihtred 's laws were issued at " Berghamstyde " ; it is not known for certain where this was , but the best candidate is Bearsted , near Maidstone . The laws are primarily concerned with religious affairs ; only the last four of its twenty @-@ eight chapters do not deal with ecclesiastical affairs . The first clause of the code gives the Church freedom from taxation . Subsequent clauses specify penalties for irregular marriages , heathen worship , work on the sabbath , and breaking fasts , among other things ; and also define how members of each class of society — such as the king , bishops , priests , ceorls , and esnes — can clear themselves by giving an oath . In addition to the focus of the laws themselves , the introduction makes clear the importance of the Church in the legislative process . Bertwald , the Archbishop of Canterbury , was present at the assembly which devised the decrees , and so was Gefmund , the Bishop of Rochester ; and " every order of the Church of that nation spoke in unanimity with the loyal people " .
The privileges given to the Church are notable : in addition to the freedom from taxation , the oath of a bishop is " incontrovertible " , which places it at the same level as the oath of a king , and the Church receives the same level of compensation for violence done to dependents as does the king . This has led one historian to describe the Church 's power , less than a century after the original Roman mission landed in Kent , as " all but co @-@ ordinate with the king himself in the Kentish state " , and it has also been described as presupposing " a frightening degree of royal power " . However , the presence of clauses that provide penalties for any of Wihtred 's subjects who " sacrifice to devils " makes it clear that although Christianity was dominant , the older pagan beliefs of the population had by no means died out completely .
Clause 21 of the code specifies that a ceorl must find three men of his own class to be his " oath @-@ helpers " . An oath @-@ helper would swear an oath on behalf of an accused man , to clear him from the suspicion of the crime . The laws of Ine were more stringent than this , requiring that a high @-@ ranking person must be found to be an oath @-@ helper for everyone , no matter what class they were from . The two laws taken together imply a significant weakening of an earlier state in which a man 's kin were legally responsible for him .
= = Death and succession = =
On his death , Wihtred left Kent to his three sons : Æthelberht II , Eadberht I , and Alric . The chronology of the reigns following Wihtred is unclear , although there is evidence of both an Æthelbert and at least one Eadbert in the following years . After Wihtred 's death , and the departure of Ine of Wessex for Rome the following year , Æthelbald of Mercia became the dominant power in the south of England .
= Muckaty Station =
Muckaty Station , also known as Warlmanpa , is a 2 @,@ 380 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 920 sq mi ) Aboriginal freehold landholding in Australia 's Northern Territory , 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) north of Tennant Creek , and approximately 800 kilometres ( 500 mi ) south of Darwin . Originally under traditional Indigenous Australian ownership , the area became a pastoral lease in the late 19th century and for many years operated as a cattle station . It is traversed by the Stuart Highway , built in the 1940s along the route of the service track for the Australian Overland Telegraph Line . It is also crossed by a natural gas pipeline built in the mid @-@ 1980s , and the Adelaide – Darwin railway , completed in early 2004 . Muckaty Station was returned to its Indigenous custodians in 1999 .
The area comprises semi @-@ arid stony ridges , claypans and a stony plateau , and experiences a sub @-@ tropical climate , with a wet season between January and March . The vegetation is mostly scrubland , including spinifex grasslands . The fauna is generally typical of Australian desert environments , and includes the red kangaroo , the eastern wallaroo , the northern nail @-@ tail wallaby , and the spinifex hopping mouse .
A site within Muckaty was being considered for Australia 's low @-@ level and intermediate @-@ level radioactive waste storage and disposal facility . Indigenous custodians of Muckaty Station were divided over the proposal , which also met resistance from environmental organisations and the Northern Territory government . The plan was abandoned after a Federal Court of Australia case in 2014 .
= = History = =
Indigenous Australians have lived in parts of the Northern Territory for around 40 @,@ 000 years . Pre @-@ European settlement numbers are not known with any precision , although the Indigenous population of the Northern Territory has been estimated at " well over 10 @,@ 000 " . The area now known as Muckaty Station ( often referred to as just " Muckaty " , though the origin of this name and near variants such as " Mucketty " is unknown ) was – and is – the responsibility of seven clans of traditional Indigenous owners : Milwayi , Ngapa , Ngarrka , Wirntiku , Kurrakurraja , Walanypirri and Yapayapa . The country is known by the Indigenous name Warlmanpa , which is also the name of a local language .
Although there had been several unsuccessful attempts by British or colonial authorities to settle in the Northern Territory , there was no permanent European presence until surveyor George Goyder in 1869 established what is now known as Darwin . The timing was auspicious : in October 1870 the South Australian government decided to construct an overland telegraph line , from Port Augusta on the continent 's south coast , to the new settlement just established in the country 's tropical north . The line traversed what is now Muckaty Station , with repeater stations built at Powell 's Creek to the north and Tennant 's Creek to the south . At the same time as the telegraph line was completed in August 1872 , a cattle industry was beginning to develop in central and northern Australia . The first pastoral lease in the Northern Territory was granted in 1872 , and by 1911 there were at least 250 such leases covering over 180 @,@ 000 square miles ( 470 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the jurisdiction . The Muckaty pastoral lease was created in the late 19th century . Currently the property is surrounded by other leases including Powell Creek to the north , Helen Springs Station to the east with Philip Creek and Banka Banka Stations to the south . In the 1930s , the Australian government was sufficiently concerned about the condition and lack of development of these leases that it held two inquiries between 1932 and 1938 . Historian Ted Ling 's accounts of those inquiries , however , make no mention of Muckaty , which was not singled out for comment by either investigation .
Throughout the history of Australia 's pastoral industry , Indigenous Australians were a major part of the workforce . In 1928 for example , 80 per cent of Indigenous people with jobs were employed on the stations , including Muckaty , with many living on and travelling across the pastoral leases . The local language , Warlmanpa , was recognised in some publications from the 1930s onward , while anthropologists and administrators made some records of language and population in the region of Muckaty Station . Only one record from the period lists both Muckaty Station as a location and Warlmanpa as a language . A record of Aboriginal wards of the state , it showed only three Indigenous adults living on Muckaty , compared to almost fifty on Banka Banka Station , to the east . This reflects the fact that , by 1940 , " Warlmanpa country had been depopulated " .
By the 1940s the lessee at Muckaty was Fred Ulyatt . The 1940s also marked a significant change in the region 's road infrastructure . A dirt track had been formed to service the telegraph line in the late nineteenth century . This became the Stuart Highway , crossing the eastern part of Muckaty , and it was upgraded to an all @-@ weather road in late 1940 , before being bitumenised in 1944 . Sources do not say who leased the property between the 1940s and 1982 , at which point the lease was held by James and Miriam Hagan . In 1988 it was transferred to Hapford Pty Limited and Kerfield Pty Limited . Between 1985 and 1987 a natural gas pipeline was built across the station , carrying gas from Palm Valley in the Amadeus Basin to Channel Island near Darwin .
In 1991 , the cattle station was taken over by the Muckaty Aboriginal Corporation . The Corporation focused on rehabilitating the land , which had been degraded by excessive numbers of cattle , and by late 1993 Muckaty had been destocked of cattle for several seasons . On 20 December 1991 , the Northern Land Council lodged a claim over Muckaty on behalf of traditional owners under the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976 . The claim was made by members of the seven groups that each has responsibility for different sites and dreamings in the area . In 1997 , the Aboriginal Land Commissioner recommended that Muckaty Station be handed back to the traditional owners , and in February 1999 , title to the land was returned . At the time there were about 400 formal traditional owners , among 1 @,@ 000 people with traditional attachments to the land ; some lived on the station , but others were elsewhere in the region , including in the nearby towns of Tennant Creek and Elliott . As Aboriginal Freehold land it is inalienable communal title , and cannot be bought or sold . The pastoral lease holder and manager of the station since 1997 has been Ray Aylett . The Adelaide – Darwin railway , which passes through the western part of Muckaty Station , was completed in early 2004 .
= = Geology and geography = =
Muckaty Station covers an area of 2 @,@ 380 square kilometres ( 920 sq mi ) and lies 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) north of Tennant Creek , in Australia 's Northern Territory . It includes a homestead that lies 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) west of the Stuart Highway and 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) east of the railway . The residence has associated cattle yards , an airstrip , and workers ' accommodation . It is adjacent to Banka Banka Station to the east , and Powell Creek Station ( also referred to as an outstation ) to the north .
The climate is subtropical , with a wet season between January and March , during which the area receives monthly rainfall of between 50 and 125 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 and 4 @.@ 9 in ) . For the rest of the year there is usually less than 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) of rain each month .
The station 's geology is dominated by the Tomkinson Group , a formation comprising sedimentary rocks of the Paleoproterozoic era that is over 1 @.@ 6 billion years old . The Tomkinson Group includes layers of coarse
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Reynolds . While oldschool @-@ sounding , the song was developed with a modern beat , so listeners could also dance to it . The group envisioned " Wings " to be " a bit different " from other singles released at the time , and a combination of pop , hip hop and R & B. The track was also composed with an American audience in mind .
= = Composition and structure = =
" Wings " is an upbeat , bubblegum pop and R & B song with elements of 1990s music and a length of 3 : 39 ( 3 minutes and 39 seconds ) . It is composed in simple time and in the key of E minor with a fast tempo of 112 beats per minute . The song has a minimal beat . It contains a varying kick and snare drum arrangement throughout , pertaining to a sound reminiscent of a marching band . A number of other instruments are also used , including : an alto saxophone , a Baritone saxophone , guitar , keyboards , a tenor saxophone , a trombone and trumpet . Little Mix 's vocals span the notes B3 to E5 .
The track opens with a brief instrumental introduction comprising rhythmic clapping and a brass backbeat . Before leading into the first verse , the group chant the chorus : " Mama told me not to waste my life / She said spread your wings my little butterfly / Don 't let what they say keep you up at night / And if they give you shhhh / Then they can walk on by . " The arrangement is primarily four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor during this segment ( 0 : 03 – 0 : 17 ) , leading to a sparser sound than that on the later double @-@ chorus . The lyric " shhhh " is sung as a replacement for the word " shit " . A bass synthesizer plays on the lyric " running up your mouth " ( 0 : 26 ) in the first verse .
Halfway on the double chorus – on the lyric " fly " ( 1 : 01 ) – the group harmonize altogether and a major chord substitution takes place . This is preceded by a build @-@ up of a variety of transition effects and a brief return to the four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor kick drum sequence . When the substitution takes place , Little Mix 's vocals ( along with the backing vocals by James and singer Carmen Reece ) become more sustained and melismatic as the stereo widens and their pitch increases .
The second verse is introduced with eighth note delay taps ( 1 : 20 – 1 : 22 ) on the verse 's first lyric " I 'm " which gradually increases until properly sung . The lyric features an A – B pitch change which increases harmonic momentum for the second verse by implying a return to the cadential D chord in the chorus , instead of a continuation of the tonic E. The second verse is shorter than the first , although it also features bass synthesizer , on " ready steady go , no " ( 1 : 29 ) . A dubstep @-@ influenced breakdown occurs after the second double chorus during which the group chant the lyric " hey " repeatedly at the end of each line . Following the breakdown and a third double chorus , the song ends in an outro harmony .
= = Release = =
" Wings " served as the lead single from DNA . Little Mix first announced the single 's title during a live Twitcam with their fans on 30 May 2012 , and shared the single 's cover art on Facebook the following day . It features them against a sky @-@ blue background , as well as a new logo comprising four icons ( one for each member ) . The cover art was designed by Studio Output . The group previewed a short snippet of " Wings " during an interview on Alan Carr : Chatty Man on 1 June 2012 . The same day , the single was made available for pre @-@ order with a release date of 22 July 2012 . However , it was announced on 11 June 2012 that the single 's release was postponed to 19 August 2012 . " Wings " received its radio premiere on BBC Radio 1 on 2 July 2012 . An accompanying lyric video was posted on the group 's Vevo channel the same day .
Syco first released " Wings " for digital download in Ireland on 24 August 2012 , and in the UK on 26 August 2012 , after being pushed back a second time . The single was later made available in New Zealand on 4 October 2012 , and in Australia on 5 October 2012 . It was also released as a CD single in the UK on 26 August 2012 , and in Australia on 30 October 2012 . In January 2013 , Little Mix signed to Columbia Records ; " Wings " was released by the label for digital download on 5 February 2013 as the group 's debut single in Canada and the US . The single impacted contemporary hit radio in the US on 19 February 2013 . The group recorded a Korean version of " Wings " featuring verses mainly sung in Korean ; it was released in South Korea on 19 August 2013 .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
" Wings " received acclaim from critics . Joe Rivers of No Ripcord gave the song a rating of nine out of ten , describing it as " vivacious , fun , brash and confident " , and praising its " absolute belter of a chorus " . Rivers concluded : " ' Wings ' is really pretty darn good . Not just good @-@ for @-@ X @-@ Factor good , but good @-@ in @-@ the @-@ context @-@ of @-@ all @-@ pop @-@ music good . " Robert Copsey from Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars , and said it resoundingly lived up to expectations and was " a seriously promising start " for the group . John Earls of the Daily Star rated the track eight out of ten , writing : " Their modern , confident attitude fits in nicely with the song , while the military drums and lairy vocals show Little Mix have big ideas . " Daniella Graham from Metro found the inspirational lyrics to be a good fit for the group who she believed " were styled as perfect role models for teenage girls during their time on X Factor " .
Michael Cragg of The Guardian said the group were poised to succeed " where other X Factor winners have failed by releasing a great single at the right time " . Cragg wrote that the song 's production made it " brilliant " and had " everything you 'd want to hear in a pop song in 2012 " , and likened Little Mix 's " ridiculous vocal runs " to those of Christina Aguilera . Gordon Smart from The Sun regarded the track as a " polished slice of pop " and its lyrics " straight from the Spice Girls ' book of inspirational girl power lines " , comparing it to Aguilera 's 2007 single " Candyman " . Popjustice also compared " Wings " to songs by Aguilera , and praised its outro as " so astounding that it will probably be the best outro of any song to be released this summer " . They complimented the track 's " really breezily defiant and carefree " take on anti @-@ bullying lyrics , and opined : " There 's enough intense greatness in this song to launch Little Mix in at least eight countries that aren 't the UK . " The website went on to deem " Wings " the best girl group single since Girls Aloud 's " Call the Shots " ( 2007 ) .
Elizabeth Thompson of Paper magazine called it " an effervescent single with a debt to En Vogue " . Similarly , Bill Lamb from About.com likened the group 's vocal style to that of En Vogue , and deemed the track " irresistibly catchy " , concluding : " it 's impossible to dismiss the pop power of a record like ' Wings ' " . Ailbhe Malone of The Irish Times commented that " Wings " was " a stomper " reminiscent of a combination of Beyoncé 's " Get Me Bodied " and Lisa Lopes ' " The Block Party " , explaining : " Basically , this means hand claps , vocal harmonies and an X Factor 's worth of attitude . " Ian Gittins from Virgin Media described " Wings " as a " swoon of pop bliss suggestive of Sugababes rulin Tamla Motown . " James Robertson of the Daily Mirror cited the track as " exactly what made the girls so popular " , and in his opinion , Little Mix " made history " by becoming the first winner from The X Factor to release a second single that was a vast improvement on their first . Al Fox from BBC Music deemed the song " addictive " , while Vicki Newman of the Shields Gazette wrote that it " firmly cemented the girls ' signature sound " . Joey Guerra from the Houston Chronicle viewed it as " ridiculously catchy " , and quipped , " All hail the Spice Girls 2 @.@ 0 ! "
= = = Recognition = = =
" Wings " placed at number 21 on Popjustice 's list of The Top 45 Singles of 2012 . It was ranked at number 35 on No Ripcord 's Top 40 Tracks of 2012 list . The song was nominated for the 2012 Popjustice £ 20 Music Prize , but lost to Will Young 's " Jealousy " . The single also placed at number three on About.com 's list of Top 100 Pop Songs of 2013 . It received a nomination for Best Song to Dance To at the 2014 Radio Disney Music Awards , losing to Selena Gomez 's " Birthday " . In 2015 , " Wings " was voted the favourite girl group single by Billboard magazine readers , ahead of the Spice Girls ' " Wannabe " and T.A.T.u 's " All the Things She Said " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Wings " debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart – for the week ending 8 September 2012 – with first @-@ week sales of 106 @,@ 766 copies , becoming Little Mix 's second consecutive number @-@ one single on the chart after 2011 's " Cannonball " . The single fell to number four in its second week , selling 59 @,@ 355 copies . The group became only the third winner from The X Factor ( UK ) , after Leona Lewis and Alexandra Burke , to follow up their winner 's single with a second number one single . By the end of 2012 , " Wings " had sold more than 380 @,@ 000 copies , placing at number 40 on the year @-@ end chart . It spent a total of 25 weeks on the chart . On 22 July 2013 , the single was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting sales in excess of 400 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . As of 24 July 2015 , " Wings " has sold 526 @,@ 717 units in the UK .
The track had similar success in Ireland where it bowed at number one on the Irish Singles Chart . It marked Little Mix 's second consecutive number @-@ one single and accumulated a total of 25 weeks on the chart . The song became the group 's highest @-@ charting single in Australia , debuting at number 34 and peaking at number three on the ARIA Singles Chart in its fourth week . " Wings " is among the best @-@ selling girl group singles in Australia , having been certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of 210 @,@ 000 copies . The track entered at number 17 on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and reached a peak of number 15 in its third week . It received a gold certification from Recorded Music NZ ( RMNZ ) , denoting sales of 7 @,@ 500 copies .
" Wings " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 98 for the week ending 11 April 2013 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the single had already sold 97 @,@ 000 copies prior to its chart debut . Brian Mansfield of USA Today wrote that " Wings " was poised to become " [ 2013 's ] ' What Makes You Beautiful ' " in the US . However , it stalled at number 79 and spent a total of nine weeks on the chart . The single fared better on the US Mainstream Top 40 chart where it reached number 26 . On 16 August 2013 , " Wings " received a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting sales in excess of 500 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada , the song peaked at number 69 on the Canadian Hot 100 , and was certified gold by Music Canada for sales of 40 @,@ 000 copies . " Wings " became Little Mix 's highest @-@ charting single in Japan where it climbed as high as number seven on the Japan Hot 100 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The accompanying music video for " Wings " was directed by Max & Dania . The group began rehearsing choreography for the video on 3 May 2012 . It was filmed at Elstree Studios on 6 – 7 June 2012 . As a result of several re @-@ takes of the group 's dance routine , the video was shot over a 22 @-@ hour period from 04 : 00 to 02 : 00 BST . The group 's wardrobe included outfits from Topshop , American Apparel and Dr. Martens . The set used was an abandoned warehouse . The group regard " Wings " as their " first proper video " ; their previous music video for " Cannonball " was a montage of scenes from their experiences on The X Factor . The music video premiered on The Box on 25 July 2012 .
The music video follows no storyline . Each group member wears three different outfits throughout , all of which portray their individual styles . The video is introduced with a screen split into four in which each member is shown singing to the camera . They then dance separately in front of different , brightly @-@ coloured backdrops which manifest their individual personalities : a flower and gramophone record backdrop ( Edwards ) , a bow tie backdrop ( Thirlwall ) , graffiti @-@ decorated ( Pinnock ) , and boomboxes ( Nelson ) . Near the end of the video , the group are accompanied by male backing dancers for a hip hop and chair @-@ dance dance routine in front of a large Union Jack .
= = = Reception = = =
Newman opined that the visual had viral video popularity and poised " Wings " for commercial success . The video was accidentally released on the iTunes Store in the US the same day as its premiere to instant sales success , before being promptly taken down . When released in December 2012 , Gary Trust of Billboard magazine noted that the video was a consistent seller for the group ahead of the US debut of " Wings " in February 2013 .
The music video was well received among critics . Sam Lansky from MTV News called it dazzling and colourful , and cited the chair @-@ dancing sequence as his favourite since that of Britney Spears ' " Stronger " ( 2000 ) . Lansky concluded : " Who needs to be high @-@ concept when you have this much attitude ? " Similarly , Lewis Corner from Digital Spy highlighted the group 's " sassy poses , on @-@ point strutting and [ ... ] whole lot of attitude . " Rebecca Martin of Sky Living complimented their " quirky outfits " and " fun dance moves " , concluding that the video " proves [ Little Mix are ] ready to give other girlbands on the scene a serious run for their money . " Sarah Deen of Metro wrote that the visual demonstrated the group 's dancing abilities and " truly shows off their individual style " . Deen said it made sure the song " leaves a lasting impression " , describing it as " eye @-@ catching " and a " vibrant and attitude @-@ packed pop video " . Ellie Ross from The Sun deemed the video " sassy " and felt it portrayed Little Mix as " fully grown up " , noting that " they 've stepped up their game even more since [ The X Factor ] " .
= = Live performances = =
Little Mix gave their first live performance of " Wings " at T4 on the Beach on 1 July 2012 . The group promoted the single in the UK with televised performances of it on This Morning on 20 August 2012 , Red or Black ? on 25 August 2012 , and Daybreak on 3 September 2012 . They also performed the song along with " DNA " at the BBC Radio 1 Teen Awards on 7 October 2012 . In Australia , Little Mix promoted " Wings " with live performances of the track on Sunrise and the fourth series of The X Factor ( Australia ) on 30 October 2012 . In the US , the group performed the song on Good Morning America on 7 June 2013 , and twice on The Today Show ( 17 June 2014 and 19 August 2015 ) .
" Wings " was the sixth song , and encore reprise on the setlist for Little Mix 's 2013 DNA Tour . The group sported 1990s style outfits for the renditions with each member wearing baggy jeans and personalised crop tops with their names printed in graffiti font . For 2014 's The Salute Tour , " Wings " was also the setlist 's encore closer . Performances of the song ended in confetti showers .
= = Usage in the media = =
English pop @-@ rock band Scouting for Girls performed a cover of the song for BBC 's Live Lounge on 30 August 2012 . On 1 May 2013 , American Idol ( season 12 ) finalists Candice Glover , Angie Miller , Kree Harrison and Amber Holcomb performed " Wings " during the quarterfinal round of the live shows . The dance troupe of Lancaster , Lancashire performed a routine to " Wings " joint appearance with the dance troupe of York in the 2013 Roses Tournament . Many of the group 's fans designed tattoos based on the song 's inspirational message . Leigh @-@ Anne Pinnock later inked a tattoo featuring a musical note and four butterflies as a tribute to Little Mix fans and " Wings " . The song was performed by Jessica Sanchez in the fourth @-@ season finale of Glee , " All or Nothing " , which aired on 9 May 2013 . " Wings " was featured twice during the 21st episode of the third season of Hawaii Five @-@ 0 .
It was also featured in Baggage Claim ( film ) movie in 2013 . In 2014 , the song was covered on the television series Rising Star by contestant Alice Lee .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the album liner notes of DNA , and the single liner notes of " Wings " .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= David Clyde =
David Eugene Clyde ( born April 22 , 1955 in Kansas City , Kansas ) is a former left @-
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2013 , working the entire tour opposite the Bullet Club stable , which also included his fellow CMLL worker Rey Bucanero . Dorada 's tour concluded on September 29 at the Destruction pay @-@ per @-@ view , where he pinned Bucanero in an eight @-@ man tag team match , where he teamed with Captain New Japan , Togi Makabe and Tomoaki Honma against Bucanero , Bad Luck Fale , Karl Anderson and Tama Tonga . Dorada returned to Japan in January 2014 , when he took part in the five @-@ day Fantastica Mania 2014 tour . The tour concluded on January 19 with a main event , where Dorada unsuccessfully challenged Volador Jr. for the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship . From April to July 2014 , Dorada worked an extended tour with New Japan , which included a two @-@ day tour of Taiwan , the Wrestling Dontaku 2014 tour , the 2014 Best of the Super Juniors , where he finished with a record of three wins and four losses and thus missed the semifinals of the tournament , and the Kizuna Road 2014 tour . On October 25 , 2014 , Dorada returned to NJPW , teaming up with Bushi for the 2014 Super Junior Tag Tournament . The team lost to reDRagon ( Bobby Fish and Kyle O 'Reilly ) in the first round . Dorada remained with NJPW until November 8 .
In January 2015 , Dorada returned to Japan to take part in the Fantastica Mania 2015 tour , during which he and Atlantis won the Fantastica Mania 2015 Tag Tournament . Dorada 's participation in the tour was built around a rivalry with La Sombra , which culminated in a singles match between the two on January 19 , where La Sombra was victorious . During the final event , Dorada announced he had signed a one @-@ year contract with NJPW . After doing interviews suggesting the unification of his CMLL World Welterweight Championship and the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship , Dorada entered the IWGP title picture by challenging reigning champion Kenny Omega on February 11 at The New Beginning in Osaka . He received his title shot on April 5 at Invasion Attack 2015 , but was defeated by Omega . The following month , Dorada entered the 2015 Best of the Super Juniors . He finished third in his block with a record of five wins and two losses , failing to advance to the finals of the tournament . On December 19 , Dorada lost the CMLL World Welterweight Championship to Bushi following outside interference from Bushi 's Los Ingobernables de Japón stablemate Evil . He regained the title from Bushi on January 22 , 2016 , at Fantastica Mania 2016 . Dorada 's final match under his NJPW contract took place two days later .
= = = WWE ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On June 13 , 2016 , WWE announced Dorada , under the ring name " Gran Metalik " , as a participant in the upcoming Cruiserweight Classic tournament . In a subsequent interview he revealed that he was only working the Cruiserweight Classic matches with WWE and was still full time with CMLL beyond that . He credited Finn Bálor , who worked as Prince Devitt in NJPW as being the reason he was invited to the tournament . He wanted to use " Metalik " as his ring name but WWE decided to go with " Gran Metalik " instead . The tournament kicked off on June 23 with Metalik defeating Alejandro Saez in his first round match . On July 14 , Metalik defeated Tajiri in his second round match . The following day , it was reported that Metalik had signed with WWE .
= = Personal life = =
During a 2016 interview with Lucha World , Máscara Dorada revealed that he was the father of two young girls . His immediate family still resides in Guadalajara , Jalisco . He has relatives living in Los Angeles , California while Dorada himself lives in Mexico City .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Corkscrew somersault senton bomb
Dorada Screwdriver ( Modified sitout scoop slam driver )
Springboard dragonrana
Signature moves
Brillo Dorada ( Topé con Giro , after springboarding off the tope rope )
Double jump springboard victory roll
Multiple hurricanrana variations
Dorada runs down the ramp , jumps over the ropes and executes a hurricanrana
Double jump springboard
Slingshot
Topé con Giro
Sunset flip powerbomb
Nicknames
" El Joven Maravilla " ( Spanish for " The Boy Wonder " )
Entrance themes
" El Son de la Negra " by Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán
" Tornado " by May 's
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre
CMLL World Super Lightweight Championship ( 1 time )
CMLL World Trios Championship ( 2 times ) – with La Sombra and La Máscara ( 1 ) and Místico and Valiente ( 1 )
CMLL World Welterweight Championship ( 4 times )
Mexican National Trios Championship ( 1 time ) – with Metro and Stuka , Jr .
NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship ( 1 time )
CMLL Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles ( 2010 , 2011 ) – with Atlantis
Torneo Corona - with La Sombra
CMLL Trio of the Year ( 2010 ) – with La Sombra and La Máscara
CMLL Guadalajara
Occidente Welterweight Championship ( 1 time )
New Japan Pro Wrestling
Fantastica Mania Tag Tournament ( 2015 ) – with Atlantis
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 152 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2013
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
= The Falcon and the D 'ohman =
" The Falcon and the D 'ohman " is the season premiere of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 25 , 2011 . In the episode , the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant hires a new security guard named Wayne and Homer soon becomes friends with him . " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " also reveals the fate of the relationship between the characters Ned Flanders and Edna Krabappel that was initiated in the previous episode of the series , " The Ned @-@ Liest Catch " , that aired in May 2011 .
Actor Kiefer Sutherland guest starred in the episode as the voice of Wayne . This was the third time he appeared on The Simpsons . The episode also features a guest appearance by American chef and Top Chef judge Tom Colicchio as himself in a segment in which Marge dreams about being a contestant in a show similar to Top Chef . " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " has received mixed reviews from television critics , with criticism directed at the plot and the cultural references featured . However , a reference in the episode to the computer animated re @-@ enactments of news stories done by the Taiwan @-@ based Next Media Animation has been particularly praised .
= = Background = =
" The Falcon and the D 'ohman " features a reference to the previous episode of the series , the twenty @-@ second season finale " The Ned @-@ Liest Catch " that aired on May 22 , 2011 . In that episode , the characters Ned Flanders and Edna Krabappel start dating . The episode ends with Homer and Marge Simpson giving viewers a link to the official The Simpsons website , TheSimpsons.com , and encouraging them to go on the website and vote over the 2011 summer on whether Ned and Edna should stay together . The result of the poll was revealed in " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " — a majority had voted for the couple to remain in a relationship . According to executive producer Al Jean , the poll was " very strong in one direction " . In an interview before the result was presented , Jean guaranteed that the poll was authentic and that the writers would not undo the viewers ' decision , adding " What our fans have joined together , let no writer tear asunder . "
= = Plot = =
Comic Book Guy opens the season premiere by telling the viewers that there will be hints in the episode as to the conclusion of the romance between Ned and Edna . After the revised introduction , where Homer sneaks late into work , sings to the tune of The Police 's " Walking on the Moon " , and marks up his time card to make it seem like he was on time and had put in some overtime hours , Homer is surprised to find that a new security guard named Wayne has been hired at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant . He repeatedly tries to befriend Wayne , only to be coldly shunned at every attempt . Meanwhile , while making crackers for Bart and Lisa , Marge daydreams that she has become a contestant on a cooking show called Master Chef . The show is judged by Tom Colicchio and he praises her crackers , awarding her the prize of a new kitchen . However , when Marge stops daydreaming and gives the crackers to her children , they tell her they do not like them because they do not like change .
One day while Wayne is walking home in the rain and hail , Homer sees Wayne and he reluctantly agrees to let Homer drive him to Moe 's Tavern for a drink . While Wayne is in the bathroom , Snake Jailbird dramatically crashes through the door on his motorcycle to rob everyone . As soon as Wayne comes out , he soundly beats up Snake . The story spreads quickly and a news segment that features an interview with Wayne by Kent Brockman and a computer animated Taiwanese dramatization of the incident soon airs on television . It is discovered that Wayne is a highly trained former CIA black ops agent , who decided to go into hiding in Springfield . He is plagued by recurring flashbacks from his previous missions , which cause him to act or shout them out , as evidenced when he unintentionally attacks Mr. Burns , the boss of the power plant , which results in Wayne being fired .
Homer allows Wayne to stay in Bart 's treehouse because Wayne can no longer afford his apartment . One night , Wayne speaks loudly about a past mission in his sleep , causing the couples in the nearby houses to lose sleep . Ned and Edna are one of these couples , and they are shown holding each other in bed . News of what happened to Mr. Burns is leaked onto YouTube and is seen by one of Wayne 's gangster enemies , Viktor , in Kiev , Ukraine . Apparently , Wayne accidentally killed Viktor 's wife with a stray bullet on a previous mission . Thus , the Ukrainian gangster and his henchmen kidnap and torture Homer as bait to lure Wayne . Wayne tracks Homer down through tracking devices he unknowingly ate , frees him and kills all of the Ukrainian gangsters . Afterwards , Wayne decides to leave Springfield , but not before giving Homer the fist pound Homer wanted when they first met . However , Marge suggests that Wayne get a job at the Springfield Department of Motor Vehicles ( DMV ) , and he does . At the DMV , he has a flashback to the time he was a prisoner in North Korea and was forced to write a ridiculous musical play paying tribute to Kim Jong @-@ il . During the closing credits of the episode , Ned and Edna thank the fans for voting for their relationship to continue .
= = Production = =
" The Falcon and the D 'ohman " was written by Justin Hurwitz and directed by Matthew Nastuk . The storyline of the episode resembles David Cronenberg 's film A History of Violence . " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " features several references to popular culture . For example , in a sequence at the beginning of the episode , Homer sings about working at the power plant to the melody of The Police 's song " Walking on the Moon " . According to Chris Ledesma , music editor on The Simpsons , the staff was " very fortunate to have obtained the original master tracks from The Police without vocals . This is a rare instance . When we need to do our own lyrics to an established hit song , [ composer Alf Clausen ] usually arranges and records a ' sound @-@ alike ' that tries to capture all the spirit and nuance of the original so that the audience immediately identifies the track , but allows us to add our own vocals . " The episode also made frequent use of the sequence " Dance of the Knights " from the ballet Romeo and Juliet by Sergei Prokofiev . The sequence had to be licensed , as it was under copyright in most parts of the world .
Another cultural reference appears in one of Wayne 's flashbacks , in which he is seen receiving special training against enemies such as Chucky of the Child 's Play film series and basketball player Kobe Bryant . The Taiwanese dramatization of Wayne 's fight with Snake at Moe 's Tavern parodies the humorous computer animated re @-@ enactments of news stories done by the Taiwan @-@ based Next Media Animation . One YouTube clip that Viktor sees is a reference to The Gregory Brothers , the creators of the popular online Auto @-@ Tune the News series , in that a news segment featuring a lady who has lost her cat has been autotuned into a song . Marge 's dream of becoming a contestant in a cooking competition parodies the American reality competition series Top Chef . American chef Tom Colicchio , who is a judge on that show , guest starred in " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " as himself .
Canadian actor Kiefer Sutherland guest starred in " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " as the security guard Wayne . This was the third episode of The Simpsons that he appeared in , the first being the 2006 episode " G.I. ( Annoyed Grunt ) " ( playing a colonel ) and the second being the 2007 episode " 24 Minutes " ( playing his character Jack Bauer from the television series 24 ) . As noted by Rick Porter of the website Zap2it , Sutherland 's appearance in " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " makes him " one of the relatively few Simpsons guest stars who 've appeared more than once and voiced different characters rather than recurring residents of Springfield . " Other guest stars to have done this are Albert Brooks , Jon Lovitz , and Phil Hartman , all of whom have played one @-@ time characters and recurring parts . The character Wayne is partly based on Sutherland 's 24 character Jack Bauer , who , according to Christopher Hooton of Metro , is also a " po @-@ faced anti @-@ terrorism agent constantly finding his loved ones kidnapped by megalomaniacs . " After the episode had aired in the United States , the Ukrainian press reported that the mafioso Viktor bears a resemblance to the Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych .
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 25 , 2011 , as the premiere of the twenty @-@ third season of The Simpsons . It was watched by approximately 8 @.@ 08 million people during this broadcast . It received a 3 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 ( up three percent from the last season 's premiere ) , and a ten percent share . The Simpsons became the second highest @-@ rated program in the 18 – 49 demographic in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night , finishing with a higher rating than The Cleveland Show and American Dad ! but a lower rating than Family Guy . The Simpsons was , however , the most @-@ watched show in the lineup in terms of total viewers .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Since airing , " The Falcon and the D 'ohman " has received mixed reviews from critics . The plot of the episode has been criticized by some reviewers . Kyle Lemmon of Under the Radar gave the episode a three out of ten rating , concluding that " this new episode is rarely grounded in any kind of reality . The best examples of The Simpsons center the situational humor in somewhat plausible scenarios within the town . I guess after so many years , they 've completely run out of ideas . " Similarly , Television Blend 's Jesse Carp wrote that the plot shows " essentially what is wrong with the show and why I stopped watching . Because of the endless amount of material needed to keep a series running for twenty three years , they have to resort to outlandish plots and endless cameos to stay interesting . The best episodes , ... definitely have some absurd elements but they 're all firmly grounded in a fairly real world of Springfield , USA and its colorful cast of characters . I 'd like to see more of that . I miss them . "
The cultural references featured in the episode have attracted both criticism and praise . The parody of Next Media Animation has been commended by several reviewers . Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club commented that the episode " features a couple of quite funny sight gags , like the fresco on Moe 's ceiling and the delightful Taiwanese dramatization of certain events " , but further wrote that the " rest of the jokes and references clang away without being too funny or too insulting , and that is probably the best that any viewers can ask of The Simpsons in its advanced age . " Television Blend 's Steve West commented that the episode was the worst of the Animation Domination lineup that week and further elaborated that the cultural references " are always a year behind , and the smart writers who used classic American culture to bring wit to the series have been replaced by those who want to mimic South Park and Family Guy . They fail miserably , and it 's gotten so bad that I now no longer care about the relationship between Marge and Homer . "
Matt Roush of TV Guide wrote more positively about the episode , noting that " Fox 's eternal The Simpsons kicks off a night of all @-@ new animation , welcoming Kiefer Sutherland in a very clever guest role as a security guard trying without much success to escape his violent past . A nod to Taiwanese animation is just one of the highlights in this homage to 24 @-@ style mayhem . " Similarly , Umika Pidaparthy of CNN 's The Marquee Blog commented that " there were a lot of light laughs in this episode , like when Wayne walks through the Ukrainian part of Springfield ( Tsarbucks , anyone ? ) . Pop culture references like the Taiwanese animation of the robbery were hilarious . I was disappointed , though , to see that Marge 's daydream about being on Top Chef didn 't become a side story . " Mike Hughes of the Lansing State Journal commented that the episode was " inconsistent , but [ had ] great moments " , and that it was " much better than Fox 's other season @-@ openers " that premiered on the same day .
= Sieges of Taunton =
The sieges of Taunton were a series of three blockades during the First English Civil War . The town of Taunton , in Somerset , was considered to be of strategic importance because it controlled the main road from Bristol to Devon and Cornwall . Robert Blake commanded the town 's Parliamentarian defences during all three sieges , from September 1644 to July 1645 .
The first siege was laid by Edmund Wyndham on 23 September , and was primarily composed of Royalist troops from local Somerset garrisons . After initial assaults drove Blake and his troops back into Taunton Castle , the blockade was conducted from 1 – 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 2 km ) away , and concentrated more on starving the garrison than continued attacks . The town was relieved by a force under James Holborne on 14 December .
Over the next three months , Blake was able to establish a network of earthen defences in Taunton , including a basic perimeter and a number of forts . The Royalists began the second , and bloodiest , siege in late March 1645 , initially under Sir Richard Grenville . A series of disputes between the Royalist commanders allowed Taunton some respite at the start of the siege , but in May the attacks were fierce under the command of Sir Ralph Hopton . After five days of intense fighting , which had once again driven the defending army back to a small central perimeter including the castle , the Royalists retreated in the face of a Parliamentarian relief army commanded by Ralph Weldon .
Lord Goring , who had proposed the second siege , renewed the blockade for a third time in mid @-@ May , after engaging Weldon 's departing army and forcing it back into Taunton . Goring 's siege was lax and allowed provisions into the town , diminishing its effectiveness . The Parliamentarian defence tied up Goring and his 10 – 15 @,@ 000 troops , who would have otherwise been available to fight for the King at Naseby , where historians believe they could have tipped the battle in favour of the Royalists . Instead , after securing a Parliamentarian victory at Naseby , Thomas Fairfax marched his army to relieve Taunton on 9 July 1645 .
= = Background = =
Loyalties in Somerset were divided at the start of the First English Civil War ; many of the prominent landowners and those living in the countryside favoured King Charles I , but most of the towns , including Taunton , were Parliamentarian , predominantly due to their Puritan beliefs . By August 1642 , the town was held by a small Parliamentarian force . In June the following year , Sir Ralph Hopton led his Royalist army , consisting of eighteen regiments equally split between foot and cavalry , out of Cornwall and into Somerset . He forced the surrender of Taunton to the King without engaging in battle , and established a garrison in Taunton Castle .
In mid @-@ 1644 , Robert Devereux , 3rd Earl of Essex , the Chief Commander of the Parliamentary army , decided to reclaim the West Country . He moved through Dorset , retaking Dorchester and Weymouth , and then left the coast and headed towards Chard . At the time , Taunton was held by a garrison of 800 men commanded by Colonel John Stawell , but the proximity of the Earl of Essex 's army led the town to be abandoned , leaving only 80 men to defend the castle . The historian Robert Morris , in The Sieges of Taunton 1644 – 1645 , suggests that Stawell and his men retreated to Bridgwater , but in The History of the Rebellion , the 17th @-@ century historian Edward Hyde claims that the troops were requisitioned by Prince Maurice during his retreat from Lyme Regis to Plymouth .
On 8 July 1644 , the Earl of Essex sent a Parliamentarian force , led by Colonel Sir Robert Pye with Lieutenant Colonel Robert Blake as his second in command , to reclaim Taunton . They took the town without a fight , and surrounded the castle . The Royalist forces under Major William Reeve that were garrisoned at Taunton Castle surrendered and retreated to Bridgwater . Pye left Taunton shortly after the capture , leaving Blake to hold the town . Blake had an army of about 1 @,@ 000 men , and was charged with trying to blockade the roads to support the Earl of Essex 's campaign in Devon and Cornwall .
= = Sieges = =
= = = First siege = = =
The Earl of Essex 's campaign failed , suffering a total defeat at the Battle of Lostwithiel in early September 1644 . His remaining forces retreated back to Dorset , leaving only Plymouth , Lyme Regis and Taunton under Parliamentarian control in the South West . Blake was aware of the vulnerability of Taunton , which , unlike many towns and cities of the time , did not have any town walls . On the eastern side of the town , which was the most vulnerable , he dug trenches outside the Eastern gate and erected a barricade across the street within it . At least three earthen forts were also built in that end of town . King Charles I held council in Chard , and shortly after ordered a Royalist force numbering 3 @,@ 000 troops to set up the first siege of Taunton . Initially , Sir Francis Dodington was going to command the attack , but the only available men were those in Bridgwater under the command of Colonel Edmund Wyndham .
The siege began on 23 September 1644 . Wyndham was assisted in the attack by his brother , Francis Wyndham , who brought his garrison from Dunster Castle , and Edward Rodney , who commanded an infantry regiment . The Royalist forces initially set themselves up around the town , where they were able to use their artillery to bombard the castle from the west and the town from the east . In his record of the siege , Morris claims that the besieging forces were unable to establish a presence in the town , and set up a wide perimeter roughly 1 – 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 2 km ) away . However , almost all other sources agree that after initial skirmishes , the Royalists broke through the eastern defences and forced Blake 's troops back into the castle itself .
During the siege , Edmund Wyndham and Blake exchanged letters ; Wyndham initially wrote to explain that he felt the siege was a gentle method of attack , rather than using " fire and sword " . He offered generous terms for surrender , and signed the letter " Your well @-@ wishing Neighbour and Country @-@ man " ; the pair had served as members of parliament together for Bridgwater in 1640 . Blake was unmoved , and wrote back to unequivocally reject the offer . Blake sent skirmishing parties out against the attackers with some success , though food and ammunition began to run out for the defending troops . To further this , Wyndham heavily rationed the town 's population to prevent them smuggling food to the garrison . A petition to Parliament for help was answered when Sir William Waller , who commanded the Parliamentarian army in Wiltshire , sent a force of 3 @,@ 000 men under the command of his deputy , Major General James Holborne , in support of the town .
Wyndham had initially planned to attack Holborne 's forces at Chard , but instead retreated back to his garrison at Bridgwater on 14 December . He recorded that during his retreat , " the enemy sallied upon me but they were so hungry that they could not follow me . " The day after the arrival of Holborne , a supply caravan containing food , 2 @,@ 000 muskets and 40 barrels of gunpowder restocked the town . Fearing further Royalist assaults , Holborne provided 1 @,@ 000 of his own men as reinforcements for the town 's defence .
= = = Second siege = = =
In early 1645 , Blake sent raiding parties out from Taunton that , according to Hyde , controlled a large area and disrupted activities throughout Somerset . Around that time , Lord Goring , the lieutenant @-@ general of the south @-@ eastern counties in the Royalist army , requested troops from the King so that he could mount a " large @-@ scale southeastern campaign " . His request was rejected , and he was despatched to the South West instead . He duly changed his focus , electing to target first Weymouth , and then Taunton , both Parliamentarian strongholds in the area . He took Weymouth , but was unable to hold it in the face of Parliamentarian reinforcements . In a letter he received from the King shortly after that loss , he was ordered to gather the Royalist forces of the area together in order to " [ clear ] those parts of the rebels ' forces . "
The King sent orders for Sir Richard Grenville and John Berkeley to support Goring in the attack on Taunton . Goring arrived outside Taunton on 11 March , and a sizeable part of Berkeley 's garrison from Exeter arrived soon after . Grenville did not leave his siege of Plymouth and , coupled with the threat from a Parliamentarian force formed by Waller and Oliver Cromwell combining their armies in Hampshire , the attack on Taunton was postponed . After further urging from the King and the Prince of Wales , Grenville did eventually travel up towards Taunton and was ordered to follow Goring to support the King in the north , as Grenville 's force of 3 @,@ 000 men was considered too small to assault Taunton . He refused , claiming that " he had promised the commissioners of Devon and Cornwall , that he would not advance beyond Taunton " , while also boasting that he could claim the town in ten days . He was delegated command of the siege , and arrived outside Taunton on 2 April . Only a day after his arrival , Grenville was injured while attacking Wellington House , and as the wound was serious , he was carried to Exeter .
The blockade set by Grenville was initially some distance from the town , and did not prevent Blake from sending and receiving messages . The besieging army was reinforced soon after with Goring 's infantry and artillery units , and so , with a large force , the attackers closed in on the town , establishing entrenchments within musket @-@ shot of Taunton 's defences . Command of the siege passed to Berkeley , though Grenville 's troops often failed to follow the new commander 's orders , and some of them deserted . Despite Grenville 's retirement from the battle due to injury , he and Berkeley clashed ; Grenville complained to the Prince of Wales that Berkeley was conducting the siege badly , while Berkeley claimed that Grenville had given his men orders to desert . These disagreements led Hopton , by now the commander of the Royalist forces in the West Country , to be given command of the siege .
As the siege continued , supplies once again began to run out for the defending army , and Parliament identified the relief of Taunton as being a priority . On 28 April , they ordered Thomas Fairfax , the Commander in Chief of the recently established New Model Army , to relieve the town . Fairfax marched with the whole of his army towards Taunton ; the Royalists considered sending their own army to meet him before he could reach London , but Prince Rupert convinced them instead to focus on conquering the north of England . In response to the Royalist movement north , Fairfax split his own army in two , sending a force of between 6 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 000 on to Taunton under Colonel Ralph Weldon , while Fairfax led the rest north .
Aware that the Parliamentarians under Fairfax were on their way , Hopton increased the attacks on the town on 6 May . Further attacks the following day focused on the east side of the town , first bombarding it with cannon shot , and then storming the earthen redoubt that Blake had established . After some early success in which they captured one of the earthen forts , the attackers were forced back by a combination of musket shot , stones and boiling water . The next day , after yet more attacks made little impact , Hopton staged a battle on the south side of the town between two parties of his own army in an attempt to make Blake believe the Parliamentarian army had arrived . Hopton hoped that Blake would send out some of his own men to support the relieving force , but the feint failed . That evening , at around 7 pm , the Royalist force , which consisted of around 4 @,@ 200 infantry and 2 @,@ 000 cavalry , launched an all @-@ out assault against the town . In heavy fighting , the attackers captured two of the earthen forts on the eastern side of town , and broke through the defences . Once inside Blake 's outer perimeter , the besieging army discovered that there were Parliamentarian musketeers within every house , which prevented them advancing any further , though they did set fire to a number of buildings , hoping to force the defenders to retreat . The tactic failed when the wind blew the flames back towards the Royalists , halting their attack .
The attack was renewed around 11 am on 9 May , and over the next seven hours , Hopton 's army advanced slowly through the town . His forces pushed the Parliamentarian troops back one building at a time , until they were left with only a small area of land in the middle of the town . Within the perimeter was the castle , an entrenchment in the market square , St Mary Magdalene Church and an earthen defence known as " Maiden 's fort " . By this time , a combination of artillery and arson attacks had set most of the east side of town on fire . An attempt by three people — two men and a woman — to set fires inside the remaining defences was quashed , and the culprits lynched .
Further assaults were made on 10 May , along with a demand for Blake and his men to surrender , to which Blake responded that he " had four pairs of boots left and would eat three of them before he yielded . " Weldon 's relieving force had met with small parties of the Royalist army around Chard and Pitminster , and they sent an advance party ahead of them , which reached Orchard Portman , roughly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Taunton , on 10 May . Fearing that they were facing the entirety of Fairfax 's army , Hopton ordered his forces to abandon their attacks and retreat to Bridgwater . As they left , they felled trees across roads to slow the Parliamentarian advance . Weldon 's army arrived in Taunton on 11 May , relieving and restocking the town . Accounts of Taunton 's losses vary between 50 and 200 killed , with 200 or more casualties on top of that , while two thirds of the houses in the town had been razed . Having relieved Taunton , Weldon and his army left the following day and marched eastwards .
= = = Third siege =
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Over the course of the siege , Lord Goring had been with the King in Oxford , and on 10 May he returned to Bristol with a royal warrant pronouncing him the Commander of the Royalist Army in the West Country , replacing Hopton . Goring began his operations by harrying Weldon 's army , and forcing them to retreat back to Taunton . Goring , commanding about 10 @,@ 000 men , established a third siege of the town in under a year . He ignored orders from the King for him to support the Royalist efforts in the Midlands , claiming that " Taunton would be taken in a few days . " Despite his promises , he soon discovered that his army was too small to enact a rapid takeover of the town , and he established a loose blockade . Hyde , who is frequently scathing of Goring in his description of the Civil War , recalls that " Goring was so far from making any advance upon Taunton , that he grew much more negligent in it than he had been ; suffered provisions , in great quantities , to be carried into the town . " As well as being lax in his siege , Goring was often drunk and — reminiscent of the earlier siege — was deserted by many of his troops .
The regional commander of the Parliamentarian forces , Colonel Edward Massey , was ordered to relieve Taunton in June , but he could only raise 3 @,@ 000 men ; far less than was needed to dispel Goring 's army . The New Model Army , with Fairfax at their head , were busy in the Midlands defeating the bulk of the Royalist army at the Battle of Naseby , described by modern sources as " the decisive clash of the English Civil War " . Goring had been ordered by the King to abandon his siege and join the Royalist forces at Naseby , and it has been suggested by modern historians that with his forces , and his leadership , the Royalists might have won the battle . Immediately after securing that victory , Fairfax led his army down towards Taunton once again . Aware of the approaching army , Lord Goring mounted a final assault on the town , hoping to catch Blake unaware by sending his cavalry towards the town on 9 July . The attack was neutralised by a section of Fairfax 's army in Ilminster , and Goring withdrew from Taunton to meet Fairfax at the Battle of Langport , relieving the third and final siege of Taunton during the English Civil War .
= = Aftermath = =
In his history of Taunton , H. J. Wickenden suggests that over half of the town was burned or destroyed during the three sieges , while Diane Purkiss claims that it was as high as two thirds of the town . Several compensation payouts were made to the town and some of its residents , funded by fines against those who had fought for the Royalists , such as Sir William Portman , who had been the Member of Parliament for Taunton at the outbreak of the war and was fined £ 7 @,@ 000 . Although the Parliamentarians destroyed many of the castles that had featured in the Civil War , Taunton Castle was considered a Parliamentarian stronghold , and remained intact . In 1647 , only two years after the end of the sieges , the castle was sold as part of the estate of Taunton Manor . In 1660 , shortly after taking the throne , Charles II stripped Taunton of its town charter for its part in the Civil War , and had the castle 's outer walls removed .
After commanding the defence of Taunton , Blake was ordered to capture Dunster Castle , which he achieved after a nine @-@ month siege . After the war , he was honoured by Parliament for his efforts and rewarded with £ 500 , while a further £ 2 @,@ 000 was split amongst his men . He took no side during the Second Civil War and , three years later , under the Commonwealth of England , he became a general at sea , as one of the three commissioners of the navy , and spent the rest of his life as a naval commander , for which he remains best known .
= Zooropa =
Zooropa / zuːˈroʊpɑː / is the eighth studio album by Irish rock band U2 . Produced by Flood , Brian Eno , and The Edge , it was released on 5 July 1993 on Island Records . Inspired by the band 's experiences on the Zoo TV Tour , Zooropa expanded on many of the tour 's themes of technology and media oversaturation . The record was a continuation of the group 's experimentation with alternative rock , electronic dance music , and electronic sound effects that began with their previous album , Achtung Baby , in 1991 .
U2 began writing and recording Zooropa in Dublin in February 1993 , during a six @-@ month break between legs of the Zoo TV Tour . The record was originally intended as an EP to promote the " Zooropa " leg of the tour that was to begin in May 1993 , but during the sessions , the group decided to extend the record to a full @-@ length LP . Pressed for time , U2 wrote and recorded at a rapid pace , with songs originating from many sources , including leftover material from the Achtung Baby sessions . The album was not completed in time for the tour 's resumption , forcing the band to travel between Dublin and their tour destinations in May to complete mixing and recording .
Zooropa received generally favourable reviews from critics . Despite none of its three singles — " Numb " , " Lemon " , and " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " — being hits consistently across regions , the record sold well upon release and peaked at number one in multiple countries . The album 's charting duration and lifetime sales of 7 million copies , however , were less than those of Achtung Baby . In 1994 , Zooropa won the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album . Although the record was a success and music journalists view the album as one of the group 's most creative works , the band regard it with mixed feelings .
= = Background = =
U2 regained critical favour with their commercially successful 1991 album Achtung Baby and the supporting Zoo TV Tour in 1992 . The record was a musical reinvention for the group , incorporating influences from alternative rock , industrial music , and electronic dance music into their sound . The tour was an elaborately staged multimedia event that satirised television and the viewing public 's over @-@ stimulation by attempting to instill " sensory overload " in its audience . The band finished 1992 with one of their most successful years , selling 2 @.@ 9 million concert tickets and reaching 10 million copies sold for Achtung Baby . Their 73 North American concerts from the year grossed US $ 67 million , easily the highest amount for any touring artist in 1992 .
The group concluded the North American " Outside Broadcast " leg of the tour on 25 November 1992 , leaving them with a six @-@ month break before the tour resumed in Europe in May 1993 with the " Zooropa " leg . Rather than use the time to rest , lead vocalist Bono and guitarist The Edge were keen to record new material . Following a hectic year of touring , the two did not want to settle back into domestic life . Bono said , " We thought we could live a normal life and then go back on the road [ in May 1993 ] . But it turns out that your whole way of thinking , your whole body has been geared toward the madness of Zoo TV ... So we decided to put the madness on a record . Everybody 's head was spinning , so we thought , why not keep that momentum going ... ? " The Edge also wished to distract himself from the emotions he was feeling after separating from his wife during the Achtung Baby sessions in 1991 . The other members , bassist Adam Clayton and drummer Larry Mullen , Jr . , ultimately agreed to join them for recording .
= = Recording and production = =
After handling audio engineering for the recording of Achtung Baby , Robbie Adams was invited by U2 to manage sound mixing on the Zoo TV Tour . Adams also recorded the group 's tour soundchecks . In January 1993 , the band asked him to compile these recordings and create loops of interesting parts that they could play to in the studio . After Adams spent a few weeks assembling loops , the group entered The Factory in Dublin that February to begin composing rough demos . Bono and The Edge were most involved during this initial demoing process , which lasted six weeks .
The group employed Brian Eno and his assisting partner Mark " Flood " Ellis — both of whom worked on Achtung Baby — to produce the sessions ; long @-@ time Eno collaborator Daniel Lanois was busy promoting his solo album and was unavailable . Similar to the Achtung Baby sessions , Eno worked two @-@ week shifts . The group often gave him in @-@ progress songs to adjust and to which he could add his own personality . Initially , the band did not have a clear plan for how they would release the material being written . At the time , Clayton said , " I don 't know if what we 're doing here is the next U2 album or a bunch of rough sketches that in two years will turn into the demos for the next U2 album . " The Edge was a proponent of making an EP of new material to promote the upcoming leg of the tour , describing his mentality as thus : " We 've got a bit of time off . We 've got some ideas hanging around from the last record , let 's do an EP , maybe four new songs to spice the next phase of the tour up a bit . It 'll be a fan thing . It 'll be cool . "
Soon after the sessions commenced , Bono pushed for the band to work towards a full @-@ length LP . The Edge was initially hesitant , but saw the opportunity as a challenge to quickly record an album before returning to tour and prove the band had not become spoiled by the luxury of ample recording time . Additionally , Bono and band manager Paul McGuinness had discussed the possibility of releasing a " one @-@ two punch " of records since the beginning of the Achtung Baby sessions . In early March , U2 reached a consensus to work towards an LP . Much like they had for the Achtung Baby sessions , the band split work between two studios at once ; Adams operated a Soundtracs mixing console at The Factory , while Flood used an SSL console at the newly relocated Windmill Lane Studios .
Due to the time limit , U2 were forced to write and record songs at a more rapid pace . They continued their long @-@ time practice of jamming in the studio . Eno and Flood edited together song sections they liked and then discussed the arrangements with the group . U2 suggested alterations and added lyrics and melodies , before performing to the edited arrangements . Eno used an eraseable whiteboard to give instructions and cues to the band while they jammed ; he pointed at chords and various commands , such as " hold " , " stop " , " change " , and " change back " , to direct their performances . To record all of the band 's material and test different arrangements , the engineers utilised a technique they called " fatting " , which allowed them to achieve more than 48 tracks of audio by using a 24 @-@ track analogue recording , a DAT machine , and a synchroniser . The production crew faced issues with audio spill at The Factory , as all group members recorded in the same room as the mixing desk and Bono frequently sang in @-@ progress lyrics that would need to be replaced . Flightcases and wood booths were built to separate the performers ' sounds as much as possible .
Songs originated from and were inspired by a variety of sources . " Zooropa " was the result of combining two separate pieces of music together , one of which the band discovered while reviewing recordings of tour soundchecks . The verse melody to " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " and an instrumental backing track that became " Numb " were originally from the Achtung Baby sessions . " Babyface " , " Dirty Day " , " Lemon " , and " The Wanderer " were written during the Zooropa sessions . Country singer Johnny Cash recorded vocals
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for " The Wanderer " during a visit to Dublin , and although Bono recorded his own vocals for the song , he preferred Cash 's version . The production crew and the band debated which version to include on the record . Throughout the sessions , U2 were undecided on a unifying musical style for the release , and as a result , they maintained three potential track listings — one for the best songs , one for " vibes " , and one for a soundtrack album . Bono suggested editing the best segments of songs together to create a montage .
As May 's " Zooropa " tour leg approached , U2 continued to record while simultaneously rehearsing for the tour . Their time limit prevented them from working on live arrangements for any of the new songs . Despite the sessions ' rapid pace , the album was not completed by the time they had to resume touring . Moreover , Flood and Eno had to begin work on other projects . The Edge remembers everyone was telling the group , " Well , it 's an EP . You did good but there 's a lot more work needed to finish some of these songs . " However , the band did not want to shelve the project , as they believed they were on a " creative roll " and that they would be in a completely different frame of mind if they revisited the material six months later .
The group 's solution was to fly back and forth between Dublin and their concert destinations for about ten days to finish recording and mixing at night and during their off @-@ days . Clayton called the process " about the craziest thing you could do to yourself " , while Mullen said of it , " It was mad , but it was mad good , as opposed to mad bad . " McGuinness later said the band had nearly wrecked themselves in the process . The group simultaneously used three separate rooms at Windmill Lane to mix , overdub , and edit . Adams said the hectic approach meant " there was never anybody sitting around waiting or doing nothing " . Flood called the period one of " absolute lunacy " . Eschewing console automation , the engineers adopted a " live performance " attitude to mixing , based on past experiences with Lanois . The band and production crew sat in on the mixing and offered encouragement , creating , as Adams put it , " a kind of cheerleader thing . It all induces a nervous energy in you and creates a lot of pressure , and gives the whole thing a performance feel . " Recording concluded on 14 May 1993 .
In the final weeks , the band decided to exclude the traditional rock songs and guitar @-@ driven tracks they had written in favour of an " album of disjointed , experimental pop " . The Edge received a production credit — his first on a U2 record — for the extra level of responsibility he assumed for the album . Twenty songs were recorded during the sessions , but ultimately 10 were chosen for the final track listing . One piece that was left off the record was " In Cold Blood " , which featured somber lyrics written by Bono in response to the Bosnian War and was previewed prior to the album 's release . Other tracks that were left off the album included " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " , " If God Will Send His Angels " , " If You Wear That Velvet Dress " , and " Wake Up Dead Man " . The first was later released as a single from the Batman Forever soundtrack in 1995 , and the latter three were included on the band 's following studio album , Pop , in 1997 .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
With an even more " European " musical aesthetic than Achtung Baby , Zooropa is a further departure from the group 's " rootsy " sound of the late 1980s . Much like how the group embraced technology for the Zoo TV Tour , they utilized technology as a musical resource to a greater extent on Zooropa . The record exhibits additional influences from alternative rock , electronic dance music , and industrial music — it is more synthesised than U2 's past work , featuring various sound effects , audio loops , and use of synthesisers . In addition to The Edge playing synthesiser , Brian Eno received credit for the instrument on six tracks .
The Edge 's guitar playing on Zooropa marks a further shift away from his trademark style , highlighted by a heavier reliance on guitar effects and the songs ' reduced emphasis on his guitar parts . The danceable " Lemon " , called a " space @-@ age German disco " by Stephen Thomas Erlewine , features a guitar part played with rhythmic gated reverb effect . The distorted " Daddy 's Gonna Pay For Your Crashed Car " was described by Bono as " industrial blues " . The instrumentation of the closing song , " The Wanderer " , consists primarily of a synthesised bassline and was described by the group as resembling the " ultimate Holiday Inn band from hell " . The song was sequenced as the final track because U2 wanted to end the album on a " musical joke " .
Similar to how the Zoo TV Tour display screens sampled video footage from television programming , a number of songs from Zooropa sample audio . The introduction to the title track , " Zooropa " , contains a noisy collage of indecipherable human voices from radio signals — credited to the " advertising world " — played over sustained synthesiser chords . The industrial @-@ influenced " Numb " features a noisy backdrop of sampled , rhythmic noises , including " arcade sounds " , a Walkman rewinding , and a Hitler Youth boy banging a bass drum in the 1935 propaganda film Triumph of the Will . " Daddy 's Gonna Pay For Your Crashed Car " begins with a snippet of fanfare from Lenin 's Favourite Songs and samples MC 900 Ft . Jesus ' song " The City Sleeps " .
The vocals on Zooropa are a further departure from U2 's previous style . As Jon Pareles described , Bono " underplays his lung power " throughout the record , in contrast to his impassioned , belting vocals from past work . Additionally , in songs such as " Lemon " and " Numb " , Bono sings in an operatic falsetto he calls the " Fat Lady " voice . Two tracks feature other people on lead vocals : for " Numb " , The Edge provides lead vocals in the form of a droning , monotonous list of " don 't " commands ; for " The Wanderer " , country musician Johnny Cash sings lead vocals , juxtaposing the electronic nature of the song with his haggard voice .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Bono is credited as the sole lyricist for eight of the ten songs , while The Edge received sole credit for " Numb " . The duo share credits for the lyrics to " Dirty Day " . Technology is a common theme on Zooropa , inspired by the group 's experiences on the Zoo TV Tour . Jon Pareles wrote that the songs are about how " media messages infect characters ' souls " , while music journalist David Browne said the songs are concerned with " emotional fracturing in the techno @-@ tronic age " . Critic Robert Hilburn interpreted the album as U2 probing into what they saw as the " disillusionment of the modern age " .
" Zooropa " is set amongst neon signs of a brightly lit futuristic city . In the song 's introduction , background voices ask , " What do you want ? " In response to the question , the lyrics in the first three verses consist of various advertising slogans , including , " Better by design " , " Be all that you can be " , and " Vorsprung durch technik " . Critic Parry Gettelman interpreted these lines as meaning to " signify the emptiness of modern , godless life " . In the song 's second half , the theme of moral confusion and uncertainty is introduced , particularly in the lines " I have no compass / And I have no map " . " Babyface " is about a man practicing his obsessive love for a celebrity by manipulating her image on a TV recording . " Lemon " , inspired by an old video of Bono 's late mother in a lemon @-@ coloured dress , describes man 's attempts to preserve time through technology . This is reflected in lines such as , " A man makes a picture / A moving picture / Through the light projected he can see himself up close " . The lyrics to " Numb " are a series of " don 't " commands , amidst a noisy backdrop of sounds . The Edge notes that the song was inspired by one of the themes of Zoo TV , " that sense that you were getting bombarded with so much that you actually were finding yourself shutting down and unable to respond because there was so much imagery and information being thrown at you " .
In contrast to the technology @-@ inspired lyrics of many songs , others had more domestic themes . " The First Time " was Bono 's interpretation of the story of the Prodigal son , but in his version , the son decides not to return home . Similarly , " Dirty Day " was written about a character who abandons his family and returns years later to meet his son . Many of the track 's lyrics are taken from phrases that Bono 's father commonly used , such as " No blood is thicker than ink " and " It won 't last kissing time " . " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " is a love song written for an abused woman . Bono based his lyrics to " The Wanderer " on the Old Testament 's Book of Ecclesiastes , and he modeled the song 's character after the book 's narrator , " The Preacher " . In the song , the narrator wanders through a post @-@ apocalyptic world " in search of experience " , sampling all facets of human culture and hoping to find meaning in life . Bono described the song as an " antidote to the Zooropa manifesto of uncertainty " , and he believes it presents a possible solution to the uncertainty expressed earlier on the album .
= = Packaging and title = =
The sleeve was designed by Works Associates of Dublin under the direction of Steve Averill , who had created the majority of U2 's album covers . Brian Williams was the graphic designer and created the digital images and layout . Inspired by the Zoo TV Tour 's " highly charged electronic TV images in all of their saturated colours and fizz " , Works Associates conceived a " kind of electronic flag " for Zooropa . The cover features a sketch of the circle of stars from the Flag of Europe with an " astrobaby " drawing in the center . The illustration , created by Shaughn McGrath , was an alteration of the " graffiti babyface " by Charlie Whisker that was originally on the face of the Achtung Baby compact disc / vinyl record . The cover 's drawing was meant to represent an urban legend of a Soviet cosmonaut supposedly left floating in orbit for weeks after the collapse of the Soviet Union . In the background is a montage of blurred images , similar to the arrangement of images on Achtung Baby 's sleeve . The images include shots of a woman 's face and mouth , as well as photographs of European leaders , including Vladimir Lenin , Benito Mussolini , and Nicolae Ceauşescu . These images are obscured by distorted purple text comprising the names of songs planned for the record that were provided to Works Associates during the sleeve design process . However , the album 's track listing was eventually changed and the titles of several songs withheld from the album were accidentally left in the cover image ; the songs include " Wake Up Dead Man " , " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " , and " If You Wear That Velvet Dress " . Author Višnja Cogan described this text as giving the impression of a " torn veil " .
Zooropa was named for the " Zooropa " leg of the Zoo TV Tour , which began in May 1993 while the band completed the record . The name is a portmanteau of " zoo " ( from Zoo TV Tour and " Zoo Station " ) and " Europa " . During the album 's production , one of the proposed titles was Squeaky . The Album cover won multiple awards for the artwork including Best Cover voted by Music Maker magazine .
= = Release = =
Zooropa completed U2 's contractual obligation to Island Records , and to PolyGram , the multinational that purchased Island in 1989 . Although the group were free to sign a new contract elsewhere , their strong relationship with the label and its founder Chris Blackwell prompted the band to remain with Island / Polygram by signing a long @-@ term , six @-@ album deal . The Los Angeles Times estimated that the deal was worth US $ 60 million to U2 , making them the highest @-@ paid rock group ever . At the time , the group were cognizant of several emerging technologies that would potentially impact the delivery and transmission of music to consumers in the following years . Author Bill Flanagan speculated , " Record stores could become obsolete as music is delivered over cable , telephone wires , or satellite transmissions directly into consumers ' homes . " With uncertainty over the future of these technologies and the implications of entertainment and telecommunications companies merging , the band negotiated with Island that the division of their earnings from future transmission systems would be flexible and decided upon at a relevant time . U2 toyed with the idea of releasing Zooropa as an interactive audio @-@ video presentation in lieu of conventional physical formats , but the deadline imposed by the Zoo TV Tour prevented the band from realising this idea .
U2 's delivery of Zooropa in late May caught PolyGram somewhat off @-@ guard , because they were not expecting a new album by the group for several years . With Achtung Baby , PolyGram had approximately six months to market the record and plan its release strategy , but the sudden completion of Zooropa necessitated a more hurried promotional plan . PolyGram president / CEO Rick Dobbis explained : " For the last one , we prepared for six months . It was like a marathon . But this is like a sprint , and that is the spirit it was made in . The band was so excited about it , they sprinted to complete the album before the ... tour . We want to bring it to the street with that same spirit . " Island / PolyGram 's and U2 's marketing for Zooropa was intended to focus less on singles and more on the record as a whole , and ultimately , only three singles were released , compared to Achtung Baby 's five singles . The first single " Numb " was released in June 1993 exclusively on VHS as a " video single " . The music video was directed by Kevin Godley . The song peaked at number seven in Australia and number nine in Canada , while reaching number two on the US Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart . However , it failed to chart on the singles charts in the UK or US .
Zooropa was released on 5 July 1993 , during the Zooropa leg of the Zoo TV Tour . An initial shipment of 1 @.@ 6 million copies was made available in stores at the time of release . The album performed very well commercially , debuting at number one in the United States , United Kingdom , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , France , Germany , Austria , Sweden , and Switzerland . It also reached number one in the Netherlands , Italy , Japan , Norway , Denmark , Ireland , and Iceland . In the US , the album spent its first two weeks on the Billboard 200 at the top spot , staying in the top 10 for seven weeks . In its first week on sale , Zooropa sold 377 @,@ 000 copies in the US , the group 's best debut in the country to that point . The album reached the top 10 in 26 countries . Despite reaching impressive peak positions , it had a shorter stay on the music charts than Achtung Baby did . In total , Zooropa spent 40 weeks on the Billboard 200 , 60 fewer weeks than Achtung Baby . Similarly , the album 's stay of 31 weeks on the UK Albums Chart was a decrease of 56 weeks from its predecessor .
Two additional commercial singles were released from the album . " Lemon " received a limited commercial release in North America , Australia , and Japan in September 1993 . The single peaked at number six in Australia and number three on the Modern Rock Tracks chart . The final commercial single was " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " , released worldwide on 22 November 1993 . It was the album 's most successful single , topping the Irish Singles Chart and peaking at number five in Australia , number six in New Zealand , number four in the UK , and number 61 in the US — making it the record 's only single to chart on the UK Singles Chart and Hot 100 . " Zooropa " was released as a promotional single in Mexico and the United States . By the end of 1993 , Zooropa had sold 1 @.@ 8 million copies in the US .
= = Reception = =
Zooropa received generally favourable reviews from critics . Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone wrote in his four @-@ star review that the album was " a daring , imaginative coda to Achtung Baby " and that " it is varied and vigorously experimental , but its charged mood of giddy anarchy suffused with barely suppressed dread provides a compelling , unifying thread " . Spin wrote a positive review , commenting that the record " sounds mostly like a band shedding its skin , trying on different selves for size " . The review said the album " has the feel of real collectivity " , praising the cohesiveness of the individual band members ' playing . The review concluded by saying Zooropa " indicates U2 might be worthy of whatever absurd mutations the ' 90s throw our way " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the group for transforming themselves and becoming " raucous , playful and ready to kick its old habits " . Pareles enjoyed the sonics and electronic effects that made the " sound of a straightforward four @-@ man band ... hard to find " , and he commented that " The new songs seem destined not for stadiums ... but for late @-@ night radio shows and private listenings through earphones . " The Orlando Sentinel gave the record a rating of three @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five stars , commenting , " Although U2 leans heavily on the electronic sound of contemporary dance music , the rhythm tracks on Zooropa are less than propulsive . " The review said that Brian Eno 's production and the electronic flourishes made the album interesting , but that ultimately , " there 's nothing especially hummable " and " the songs are not very memorable " .
David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave Zooropa an " A " , calling it " harried , spontaneous @-@ sounding , and ultimately exhilarating album " . Browne noted that it sounds " messy " and " disconnected " , but clarified " that sense of incoherence is the point " in the context of the record 's technology themes . He concluded , " For an album that wasn 't meant to be an album , it 's quite an album . " Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times gave the record a maximum score of four stars . In two separate articles , he said that it " captured the anxious , even paranoid tone of the Zoo TV Tour " so much so that " it stands as the first tour album that doesn 't include any of the songs from the tour " and yet sounds like a " souvenir " of Zoo TV . In a positive review , Jim Sullivan of The Boston Globe called the album a " creative stretch " , noting that the band experiments more yet retains their recognizable sound . He commented that the group 's " yearning anthemic reach " and " obvious , slinky pop charm " are replaced with " darker corners , more disruptive interjections , more moodiness " . Paul Du Noyer of Q gave Zooropa a score of four @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five stars , finding a " freewheeling feel of going with the flow " throughout the album and calling it " rootless and loose , restless and unsettled " . For Du Noyer , U2 sounded " monstrously tight as a performing unit and fluidly inventive as composers , so the results transcend the merely experimental " .
A review from The New Zealand Herald was more critical , noting that the album started as an EP and " just got longer but not necessarily better " . The publication called it " more perplexing than challenging " and commented that it " sounds like the biggest band in the world having one of the biggest , strangest mid @-@ life crises " . Jim DeRogatis of the Chicago Sun Times gave the record a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star review , calling it " inconsistent " , but admitting " it 's satisfying and surprising to hear a band of U2 's status being so playful , experimental , and downright weird " . Robert Christgau gave the album a B − , calling it " half an Eno album " in the same manner that David Bowie 's Eno @-@ produced albums Low and " Heroes " were , but saying , " The difference is that Bowie and Eno were fresher in 1977 than Bono and Eno are today . " The Irish media was most consistently negative in their reviews of the album ; George Byrne of the Irish Independent said , " The songs sound like they were knocked up in double @-@ quick time and with about as much thought put into the lyrics as goes into a DJ 's timecheck " . Byrne remarked that the record resembles " a lot of mickey @-@ taking over a variety of drum patterns " . In a retrospective , four @-@ star review , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated that " most of the record is far more daring than its predecessor " . For him , although there were moments that the album was " unfocused and meandering ... the best moments of Zooropa rank among U2 's most inspired and rewarding music " .
Zooropa finished in 9th place on the " Best Albums " list from The Village Voice 's 1993 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . At the 36th Annual Grammy Awards , it won the award for Best Alternative Music Album . In his acceptance speech , Bono sarcastically mocked the " alternative " characterisation the album received and used a profanity on live television : " I think I 'd like to give a message to the young people of America . And that is : We shall continue to abuse our position and fuck up the mainstream . "
= = Zoo TV Tour = =
The band began the Zoo TV Tour in February 1992 in support of Achtung Baby . In contrast to the austere stage setups of previous U2 tours , Zoo TV was an elaborate multimedia event . It satirised television and the viewing public 's over @-@ stimulation by attempting to instill " sensory overload " in its audience . The stage featured large video screens that showed visual effects , random video clips from pop culture , and flashing text phrases . Live satellite link @-@ ups , channel surfing , crank calls , and video confessionals were incorporated into the shows .
The Zooropa album was released in July 1993 , halfway through the Zooropa leg of the tour . Of the 157 shows the band played during the Zoo TV Tour , approximately 30 of them were after the release of Zooropa . Many of the album 's songs found permanent places in the shows ' setlists . " Lemon " and " Daddy 's Gonna Pay for Your Crashed Car " were performed with Bono in his MacPhisto persona , during encores of the Zoomerang Leg of the tour . " Dirty Day " was also played on this leg after the acoustic set . " Numb " was performed with The Edge playing guitar and on lead vocals , with Mullen performing backing vocals while drumming . " Zooropa " was played only three times and " Babyface " twice more at the same shows on the Zooropa leg , but they were cut out of the setlist after the band were displeased with how they sounded live . " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " was performed acoustically for the Zooropa and Zoomerang legs .
= = Legacy = =
Zooropa is certified 2 × Platinum in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America , 3 × Platinum in Australia , Platinum in the UK , and 4 × Platinum in both New Zealand and Canada . To date , it has sold more than 7 million copies .
After the release of the record , David Bowie praised the band , writing , " [ U2 ] might be all shamrocks and deutsche marks to some , but I feel that they are one of the few rock bands even attempting to hint at a world which will continue past the next great wall — the year 2000 . " Although the record was a success , in the years following its release , the group have regarded it with mixed feelings and rarely play its material in live performances . Bono said , " I thought of Zooropa at the time as a work of genius . I really thought our pop discipline was matching our experimentation and this was our Sgt. Pepper . I was a little wrong about that . The truth is our pop disciplines were letting us down . We didn 't create hits . We didn 't quite deliver the songs . And what would Sgt. Pepper be without the pop songs ? " The Edge said that he did not think the songs were " potent " , further stating , " I never thought of Zooropa as anything more than an interlude ... but a great one , as interludes go . By far our most interesting . " Clayton said , " It 's an odd record and a favourite of mine . "
Neil McCormick wrote about Zooropa , " It feels like a minor work , and generally U2 don 't do minor . But if you 're not going to make the Big Statement , you 're maybe going to come up with something that has the oxygen of pop music . " In 1997 , Spin wrote , " Zooropa took U2 as far from the monastic mysticism of The Joshua Tree as they could go . It freed U2 from itself . " Edna Gundersen of USA Today said in 2002 , " the alien territory of Achtung Baby and Zooropa cemented U2 's relevance and enhanced its cachet as intrepid explorers " . In 2011 , Rolling Stone ranked the record at number 61 on its list of " 100 Best Albums of the Nineties " .
= = Track listing = =
All music composed by U2 .
After " The Wanderer " fades out , a " hidden track " , consisting of a ringing alarm used to alert disc jockeys of " dead air " , plays for 30 seconds .
= = Personnel = =
U2
Bono – vocals , guitar
The Edge – guitar , piano , synthesisers , vocals
Adam Clayton – bass guitar
Larry Mullen , Jr . – drums , percussion , backing vocals
Additional performers
Brian Eno – synthesisers , piano , arcade sounds , backing vocals , loops , strings , harmonium
Des Broadbery – loops ( tracks 2 , 6 , 7 )
Flood – loops ( tracks 6 , 10 )
Johnny Cash – lead vocals ( track 10 )
Technical
Production – Flood , Brian Eno , The Edge
Mixing – Flood , Robbie Adams
Engineering – Flood , Robbie Adams
Engineering and mixing assistance – Willie Mannion , Rob Kirwan , Mary McShane
Digital editing – Stewart Whitmore
Mastering – Arnie Acosta
= = Charting and certifications = =
= Born This Way ( Glee ) =
" Born This Way " is the eighteenth episode of the second season of the American television series Glee , and the fortieth episode overall . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on April 26 , 2011 . The episode was written by Brad Falchuk and directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , and is a tribute to Lady Gaga , the second such tribute to the artist in the show 's history ; the first one was " Theatricality " . Most of the major plots of the episode center on the topic of homosexuality , as Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) lays the groundwork for his longtime bully Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) to come to terms with his sexuality , and Santana ( Naya Rivera ) plots to run for school prom queen in the hopes of winning her love interest Brittany ( Heather Morris ) from Artie ( Kevin McHale ) .
" Born This Way " attracted mostly positive reception from most critics of the show , as many felt that it was one of the better episodes of the season . However , the episode came under scrutiny by several conservative media critics who criticized the show 's depiction of homosexuality . This episode featured cover versions of seven songs , notably a cover of " Born This Way " by Lady Gaga . Other musical works featured in the episode include cover versions of the Keane song " Somewhere Only We Know " and " I 've Gotta Be Me " from the 1968 Broadway production Golden Rainbow . The musical covers and performances were met with generally positive reception from critics , with several noting that it contained the best musical selection in a while . With the exception of " Barbra Streisand " , all cover versions were released as singles available for digital download .
Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 62 million American viewers , and garnered a 3 @.@ 4 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , the lowest ratings and total viewership of the season . The episode 's ratings and total viewership significantly declined from the previous episode , " Night of Neglect " , which had previously been the low point in viewership .
= = Plot = =
During dance rehearsals for the upcoming Nationals competition , New Directions glee club co @-@ captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) accidentally breaks Rachel Berry 's ( Lea Michele ) nose . Her doctor ( George Wyner ) recommends septoplasty and elective rhinoplasty ; Rachel considers modelling her nose after Finn 's current girlfriend Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) , and the two girls duet on the mash @-@ up " I Feel Pretty / Unpretty " . Both Finn and Puck ( Mark Salling ) oppose her planned transformation . Puck tries to help her accept her nose as part of her Jewish heritage , and recruits Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) , who convinces her to look to her idol Barbra Streisand , who refused to succumb to pressure to alter her nose . Ultimately , Rachel decides against having surgery .
Club member Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) uses Rachel 's broken nose as a launching point to highlight the other group members ' physical flaws . Aiming to help them achieve self @-@ acceptance , glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) urges them to embrace their perceived flaws by printing them on T @-@ shirts to be worn during a group performance of Lady Gaga 's " Born This Way " . He also encourages school guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) to confront her OCD ; she begins treatment with a psychiatrist , Dr. Shane ( Kathleen Quinlan ) .
Santana , who is a closeted lesbian , decides to run for school prom queen in the hope that she can win the love of her best friend Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) , who is dating Artie ( Kevin McHale ) . She realizes that popular jock Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) is also in the closet , after noticing him checking out Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) , and hatches an elaborate scheme to attain her goals : she threatens to out Karofsky unless he agrees to stop the bullying that drove Kurt from McKinley and the glee club . The pair form an anti @-@ bullying club to make the school safer in order to entice Kurt back and bolster the glee club 's chance at Nationals , though mostly to boost Santana 's popularity before the prom . They also become one another 's " beard " to bolster their heterosexual facades .
Karofsky issues an apology to Kurt at a group meeting involving Will , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , and their fathers . Though Kurt wants to transfer back to McKinley from Dalton Academy , he is hesitant until Karofsky admits privately that Santana 's prom queen scheme is behind his change of heart and the anti @-@ bullying movement ; Kurt agrees to return , but only if Karofsky will start a school PFLAG club with him . As Kurt arrives back at McKinley , the Dalton Academy Warblers glee club that he had joined while he was away — fronted by his boyfriend Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) — serenades him in farewell with a rendition of Keane 's " Somewhere Only We Know " . Kurt marks his re @-@ entry to New Directions with a solo performance of " As If We Never Said Goodbye " from Sunset Boulevard .
As the race for prom queen intensifies , Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) begins campaigning against Quinn . She discovers that Quinn 's first name is Lucy , and that she used to be an overweight outcast who had rhinoplasty before re @-@ inventing herself and transferring to McKinley . Lauren attempts to sabotage Quinn 's campaign by revealing her former image to the other students , but it backfires when Quinn 's popularity actually increases amongst the girls like Lauren . Lauren apologizes to Quinn , but Quinn commends her for her confidence and pride . Brittany shows off her shirt to Santana , and gives Santana a shirt reading " Lebanese " , believing that it reads " Lesbian " . Santana balks at wearing it , and the two argue ;
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out that , in Craii ... , Caragiale used characters and dialogues to illustrate his own worldview and historical points of reference . Among the rich cultural references present in the novel , Șerban Cioculescu identified various direct or hidden portrayals of Caragiale 's contemporaries , several of which point to his own family . Thus , Cioculescu argued , the character Zinca Mamonoaia is the writer 's step aunt Catinca Momuloaia , while an entire passage sheds a negative light on Ion Luca ( the unnamed " leading writer of the nation " who prostitutes his trade ) . Commenting on the brief mention of one of Pirgu 's associates , " the theosophist Papura Jilava " , the critic concluded that it most likely referred to novelist and traveler Bucura Dumbravă .
Cioculescu identifies several other characters , including Pirgu and two secondary characters , the journalist Uhry and the homosexual diplomat Poponel , were Caragiale 's companions : the latter two were based , respectively , on Uhrinowsky and a member of " an old Oltenian family " . Ion Vianu , who believes the unnamed narrator is a projection of Caragiale 's ego , emphasizes connections between the various characters and other real @-@ life persons , including Ion Luca , Bogdan @-@ Pitești and Anghel Demetriescu . In addition , Barbu Cioculescu believed to have identified other traits shared by the narrator and author , as well as a covert reference to Marica Sion , while researcher Radu Cernătescu suggests further allusions to real @-@ life eccentric noblemen , from Pantazi Ghica to " Claymoor " Văcărescu . Perpessicus noted that , in one of his outbursts , the character Pașadia criticizes the Brâncovenesc style developed in 17th century Romanian art ( which he contrasts with " the tumultuous flowering of the baroque " ) , only to have the narrator speak out against him ; in the process , the reader is informed about Caragiale 's own tastes .
= = = Other prose works = = =
Remember is a fantasy novella set in Berlin , depicting dramatic events in the life of dandy Aubrey de Vere . Perpessicius argued that the main protagonist was " taken , apparently , from a short story by Oscar Wilde " , while others noted a direct reference to the 19th century writer Aubrey de Vere , an indirect one to Poe 's Lenore ( the lyric : " And , Guy de Vere , hast thou no tear ? - weep now or nevermore ! " ) , or a partial anagram of the name Barbey d 'Aurevilly . The mysterious events standing at the center of the writing have been interpreted by several critics as an allusion to de Vere 's homosexuality . Probably taking place in 1907 , it contrasts Caragiale 's other , more tenebrous , writings of its kind — one of its main traits is the writer 's nostalgia towards the German capital , which serves to give the story an atmospheric rather than narrative quality . Its depiction of hallucinatory visions probably owes inspiration to Gérard de Nerval , while , according to historian Sorin Antohi , the main character is reminiscent of Joris @-@ Karl Huysmans ' Des Esseintes ( see À rebours ) . Lovinescu praises the story for " the gravity of its tone , [ ... ] the cadence of its sumptuous , cultured and noble style . " George Călinescu , who referred to the narrative as " a pastiche " , and to Berlin as portrayed in Caragiale 's story as " a Berlin @-@ Sodom " , concluded that the text allowed readers to form " the direct sensation " of Bucharest as a " Balkan Sodom " to be discerned from the German landscape .
Caragiale 's Sub pecetea tainei has been the subject of debates in the literary community . One disagreement refers to its nature : some see it as a standalone novella , while others , including Alexandru George , view it as an unfinished novel . In this context , a singular position was held by Ovid Crohmălniceanu , who believed that Caragiale was building up to a sequel of his Craii .... The other point of contention involves its artistic value . Ovidiu Cotruș saw the story as proof that Mateiu Caragiale was running out of " narrative resourcefulness " and creating " the [ writing ] most detached from his work 's obsessions " , while Șerban Cioculescu deplored Caragiale 's move to abandon work on Soborul țațelor ( which he considered a more promising venture ) in order to " implant a sort of Romanian detective novel " .
Written as a frame story , Sub pecetea tainei comprises the recollections of Teodor " Rache " Ruse , a retired Police officer . Punctuated by willing omissions , for which rows of ellipses are employed , the text is structured into accounts of three unsolved cases : that of a missing person , the clerk Gogu Nicolau , who may or may not have been murdered by his wife ; that of an epileptic minister whom Ruse is supposed to guard and who , after going missing and returning , presents his resignation and dies , leaving the general public clueless as to his fate ; finally , that of a Viennese couple of con artists and presumed murderers ( one of whom may be a transvestite woman ) whose arrival in Bucharest poses a threat on the life of their female host , Lena Ceptureanu . Ruse 's accounts , which oblique references in the text seem to place in 1930 , form part of his conversations with the unnamed narrator , which are set in Caru cu bere restaurant and in the narrator 's Bucharest home ; this , Manolescu notes , echoes scenes in Craii .... A recurring element in the plot is the role played by secretive women , who may be directly or indirectly responsible for the deaths of male characters . Commentators have since attempted to match several of the protagonists with real people in Caragiale 's life . Such theories identify Rache Ruse himself with Cantuniari , a policeman whom Caragiale had befriended , the minister with the leading Conservative Party member Alexandru Lahovary , and the female character Arethy with Miller Verghy .
According to Manolescu , Mateiu Caragiale took direct inspiration from foreign works of detective fiction when outlining his story , but also mocked their conventions by having Ruse rely on literature and even cartomancy for his crime solving techniques . Vartic drew a parallel between Caragiale 's style and that of two 20th century foreign authors of crime fiction — Dashiell Hammett and Giorgio Bassani . The general intent , Manolescu notes , is not in realistically depicting police procedures , but in showing " the human mystery . " Thus , Ion Vartic argues , Gogu Nicolau may be Caragiale 's attempt to see himself from the outside , and his disappearance may be a clue that the writer was planning to sever links with the cultural milieu . The work 's title and its generic meaning are found in Ruse 's final statement : " There are such things meant to always remain — since forever — under the seal of secrecy . "
= = = Poetry = = =
Caragiale 's Symbolist poems , including a series of sonnets , also display his profound interest in history . Pajere , which reunited all of the poems Caragiale had published in Viața Românească and Flacăra , was defined by Lovinescu as a series of " archaically @-@ toned tableaux of our ancient existence " , and by Ion Vianu as " a picturesque history of Wallachia " , while George Călinescu remarks their " savant " character . The same critic also noted that Pajere , which drew inspiration from Byzantine settings , were more accomplished versions of a genre first cultivated by Dumitru Constantinescu @-@ Teleormăneanu . According to Perpessicius , Caragiale had " a certain outlook [ ... ] , according to which the past [ ... ] should not be sought in books , but in the surrounding landscape " . He illustrated this notion with a stanza from Caragiale 's Clio :
Călinescu noted that , in several of his poems , Mateiu Caragiale had infused his search for aristocratic heredities . He saw this present in the poem Lauda cuceritorului ( " In Praise of the Conqueror " ) :
In various pieces , the poetic language is characterized by pessimism , and , according to Barbu Cioculescu and Ion Vianu , was influenced by Romania 's national poet , Mihai Eminescu . One of them , Singurătatea ( " The Loneliness " ) , notably expresses , through the voice of its demonic protagonist , misanthropy and a vengeful attitude , believed by Vianu to stand as one of Caragiale 's most personal messages on one 's disappointment with the world :
= = Legacy = =
= = = Early decades = = =
Caragiale continued to be hailed as a relevant writer during the ten years following his death , and his wors went through new critical editions . Pajere was published in spring 1936 , having been edited by Marica Caragiale @-@ Sion and Alexandru Rosetti . Later in the year , a volume of collected works , Opere , was published by Rosetti and featured prints made by Mateiu Caragiale at various moments during his lifetime . Large portions of the diaries kept by Mateiu Caragiale are lost . The transcript made by Perpessicius was criticized for having selectively discarded much content , while originals kept by Rosetti were mysteriously lost during the Legionnaires ' Rebellion of 1941 . Additional notes , which notably featured Caragiale 's criticism of his father , were preserved for a while by Șerban Cioculescu , before being borrowed to Ecaterina Logadi , Ion Luca 's daughter , and never recovered . A significant number of his drawings and paintings , which Vianu assumed had survived by 1936 , have also been misplaced .
Caragiale 's work exercised some influence from early on . Ion Barbu coined the terms mateist and matein , referring , respectively , to supporters of and things connected to Caragiale 's literature . Barbu is also credited with having set up and presided the first mateist circle . In 1947 , Ion Barbu wrote the poem Protocol al unui Club ( " The Protocol of a Club " ) , intended as an homage to his friend 's memory . The traditionalist poet Sandu Tudor took up the genre of Byzantine portraits as cultivated by him and by Constantinescu @-@ Teleormăneanu , creating a piece titled Comornic ( roughly , " Cellar " or " Cellar @-@ Keeper " ) . Around the same period , the writer known as Sărmanul Klopștock took inspiration from the style of his novels .
= = = Mateism under communism = = =
Mateism , growing during the late stages of the interwar period , took the aspect of an underground cultural phenomenon during the communist regime . Tașcu Gheorghiu , a Surrealist author whose Bohemian lifestyle was itself described as a reflection of Craii ... , had memorized large sections of the novel and could recite them by heart . According to Eugen Simion , dramatist Aurel Baranga is reputed to have done the same . During communism , Gheorghiu published a translation from Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa 's The Leopard , which literary critic Carmen Mușat believes was marked by the tone of mateism . Caragiale 's aesthetics contrasted with those of the 1950s Socialist Realist establishment . However , after the death of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin signaled a relative change in cultural tenets , Communist Party affiliate and writer Petru Dumitriu wrote in favor of recovering supposed " realistic sections " of works by both Mateiu Caragiale and Tudor Arghezi . Eugen Simion writes that , late in the same decade , students at the University of Bucharest were investing their time trying to determine the exact location of houses described in Craii .... Also according to Eugen Simion , an attempt by poet Anatol E. Baconsky to republish the volume was met with a stiff reaction from the censorship apparatus , and , as a consequence of this episode , the main Communist Party organ , Scînteia , renewed its campaign against Caragiale . Matei Călinescu recalled that , " during the dark 1950 – 60 decade " , he clandestinely read Craii ... and shared his thoughts on it with a group of friends , noting that this was part of a " secret life " which contrasted with the rigors one had to obey in public .
With the relative liberalization during the 1960s , which followed the rise of Nicolae Ceaușescu as communist leader , Caragiale 's work enjoyed a more favorable reception . At that stage , nationalism and national communism became standards of official discourse , and intellectuals such as Edgar Papu were allowed to reinterpret Romanian culture on the basis of nationalist tenets : Papu 's controversial theory , known as " Protochronism " , claimed that Romanians as a group were at the source of any innovative movement in world culture . Papu thus believed that Caragiale , whom he described as superior to Flaubert , had foreshadowed Lampedusa 's writing techniques . Independent of this approach , Mateiu Caragiale was being rediscovered by new generations of writers . In 1966 , Viața Românească published Radu Albala 's În deal , pe Militari ( " On the Hill , in Militari " ) , which was a sequel and final chapter of Sub pecetea tainei . Albala was significantly influenced by Caragiale throughout his work , as was his contemporary Alexandru George in his series of fiction writings . Other such authors are Fănuș Neagu , who was inspired by Craii ... to write his 1976 book The Handsome Lunatics of the Big Cities , and Virgiliu Stoenescu , whose poetry , according to Barbu Cioculescu , was influenced by " the charm of word appositions " in Caragiale 's poems . Caragiale 's name was also cited by the writer Geo Bogza , who , in his youth , was a major figure of the Romanian avant @-@ garde movement . In one of his late prose pieces , titled Ogarii , " The Borzois " , Bogza , who praised the dog breed for its innate grace , wrote : " I do not know if Mateiu Caragiale , who thought himself so uncommon , ever owned borzois . But , if he did , I 'm sure he gazed on them with melancholy and with secret envy . "
During the final stages of Ceaușescu 's rule , when liberalization was curbed , matein writings were rediscovered and reclaimed by the Optzeciști group of authors , themselves noted for attempting to evade cultural guidelines by adopting fantasy and avant @-@ garde literature . Mircea Cărtărescu , a leading exponent of the Optzeciști and an advocate of Postmodernism , referred to Caragiale as one of his interwar precursors , while Ștefan Agopian acknowledged he pursued Mateiu 's interests in his 1981 novel Tache de catifea ( " Tache de Velvet " ) . According to critic Dumitru Ungureanu , it was mainly through Radu Albala that the matein model seeped into the work of various Optzeciști — Cărtărescu , Horia Gârbea and Florin Șlapac among them . Another Postmodernist author , Fundulea native Mircea Nedelciu , paid tribute to matein prose by basing a character of his 1986 novel Tratament fabulatoriu ( " Confambulatory Treatment " ) on Caragiale , and again much later , by adopting the same practice in his final novel Zodia Scafandrului ( " Sign of the Deep @-@ sea Diver " ) . The isolated Postmodernist figure and former Communist Party ideologue Paul Georgescu is also believed to have used elements of Craii ... as inspiration for his novels of the 1980s . In parallel , as an echo of mateism , more critics grew interested in subjects relating to Caragiale 's work . Various comprehensive monographs were published after 1980 , including a volume edited by the Museum of Romanian Literature and two influential works written by , respectively , Alexandru George and philosopher Vasile Lovinescu . The latter , with its claim to uncover esoteric layers in Matein texts , remains controversial .
= = = Post @-@ 1989 recovery and debates = = =
Caragiale was completely recovered in mainstream cultural circles after the Romanian Revolution of 1989 . Craii de Curtea @-@ Veche was chosen " best Romanian novel of the twentieth century " in an early 2001 poll conducted among 102 Romanian literary critics by the literary magazine Observator Cultural , while its author endures as one of the most @-@ studied Romanian fiction writers . The writer , his prose works , and the manner in which the reader relates to them were the themes for a 2003 book by Matei Călinescu , titled Mateiu I. Caragiale : recitiri ( " Mateiu I. Caragiale : Re @-@ readings " ) . Several other new monographs were dedicated to Caragiale , including a favorable review of his work authored by literary researcher Ion Iovan in 2002 . Iovan is noted for defending Caragiale against the traditional topics of criticism . In contrast to his father Șerban , who was often a vocal critic of Mateiu Caragiale 's literature and lifestyle choices , Barbu Cioculescu is likewise one of the writer 's most noted promoters , and has occasionally been described as a mateist .
Reflecting on Mateiu 's growing popularity , Matei Călinescu has argued that Craii ... is to Romanian literature what El Aleph is in the eponymous Jorge Luis Borges story : a place containing all other conceivable places . In his 2008 synthesis , Istoria critică a literaturii române ( " The Critical History of Romanian Literature " ) , Nicolae Manolescu revisits George Călinescu 's pronouncements on interwar literature . Manolescu places Mateiu Caragiale , Max Blecher , Anton Holban and Ion Pillat , all of whom do not take the forefront in Călinescu 's work , among their generation 's " canonical writers " . A diverging opinion was expressed by literary critic and Anglicist Mircea Mihăieș , who suggested that , despite the theoretical potential presented by Mateiu 's lifestyle and background , Craii ... is primarily a poorly written work , characterized by " a disconcerting naïvite " , " kitsch " aesthetics and " embarrassing affectations " . Mihăieș , who believes that Caragiale 's only valuable writings are Pajere and his private correspondence , further suggests that Caragiale 's various admirers , including exegetes such as Matei Călinescu , Vasile Lovinescu , Ovidiu Cotruș and Ion Negoițescu , are responsible for overvaluing their favorite author .
In 2001 , Caragiale 's collected writings , edited by Barbu Cioculescu , were republished in a single edition , while his copy of Octav @-@ George Lecca 's Familii boierești române , featuring his many comments and sketches , was the basis for a 2002 reprint . In addition to the volumes of recollections by " Grigri " Ghica and Ionel Gherea , Mateiu Caragiale is mentioned in Gheorghe Jurgea @-@ Negrilești 's book of memoirs , Troica amintirilor . Sub patru regi ( " The Troika of Recollections . Under Four Kings " ) , published only after the Revolution . The work depicts notable episodes in his Bohemian life , including a scene where the overweight and inebriated Admiral Vessiolkin leaps over tables at Casa Capșa and recites English @-@ language quotes from William Shakespeare to an audience comprising Caragiale and various by @-@ standers . In 2007 , Remember was issued as an audiobook , read by actor Marcel Iureș .
In the post @-@ Revolution era , authors continued to take direct inspiration from Caragiale . In 2008 , Ion Iovan published Ultimele însemnări ale lui Mateiu Caragiale ( " Mateiu Caragiale 's Final Records " ) , a mock @-@ diary and speculative fiction work covering the final events in Caragiale 's life . In addition to covering the elements of his biography , it invents a character by the name of Jean Mathieu , Caragiale 's secret son . Caragiale 's work was also treasured by Romanian @-@ language writers in newly independent Moldova , formerly part of the Soviet Union . One of them , Anatol Moraru , wrote Craii de modă nouă ( " A New Fashion of Rakes " ) , which is both a memoir and a tribute to Craii ....
= = = Visual tributes , filmography and landmarks = = =
Published within the 1925 anthology compiled by Perpessicius and Pillat , Marcel Janco 's modernist portraits of Caragiale and avant @-@ garde writer Stephan Roll , were described by a number critics as Expressionist in style , based on their " energetic and spontaneous superposition of lines . " One later reprint of Craii de Curtea @-@ Veche was notably illustrated with drawings by graphic artist George Tomaziu .
An eponymous stage version of Craii ... , directed by Alexandru Repan was performed by the Nottara Theater company , with stage design by Sică Rudescu . Dramatist Radu Macrinici also adapted fragments from the novel , alongside texts by Ion Luca and Ion Luca 's uncle Iorgu Caragiale , into the play Un prieten de când lumea ? ( " A Friend as Old as Time ? " ) . In 2009 , actor @-@ choreographer Răzvan Mazilu adapted Remember into an eponymous musical theater and contemporary ballet piece , set to the music of Richard Wagner . The original cast included Mazilu as Aubrey de Vere and Ion Rizea as Mr. M. ( a character loosely based on Caragiale ) , with a set design and videos by Dionisis Christofilogiannis .
In the early 1970s , Mateiu Caragiale 's life inspired a Romanian Television production produced and directed by Stere Gulea . In 1995 , Craii ... was turned into an eponymous cinema production , directed by Mircea Veroiu . It starred Mircea Albulescu , Marius Bodochi , and Gheorghe Dinică . The book and its author were also the subject of one episode in a documentary series produced by journalist and political scientist Stelian Tănase , dealing with the history of Bucharest ; titled București , strict secret ( " Bucharest , Top Secret " ) , it was aired by Realitatea TV in 2007 .
Mateiu Caragiale 's name was assigned to a street in Bucharest ( and officially spelled Matei Caragiale in this context ) . Formerly known as Strada Constituției ( " Constitution Street " ) , it is located in a low @-@ income area on the outskirts of Drumul Taberei quarter .
= Novacane ( song ) =
" Novacane " is the debut single by American recording artist Frank Ocean . It was released as the lead single from his mixtape Nostalgia , Ultra . The song was written by Ocean , Tricky Stewart and Victor Alexander , and produced by Stewart . Lyrically , the song narrates a tale of a young female dental student who makes a living doing porn and who recreationally uses local anesthetic drugs that she acquires from her place of study . The song explores themes of isolation , loneliness and a lack of feeling caused by numbness . The song received highly positive reviews from music critics and was listed as one of the best songs of the year by publications such as The New York Times , Spin , Ology , Zimbio and Pitchfork . Reviews praised the dark subject matter of the song , and praised Ocean 's ability to create narratives and the sonic atmosphere of the track .
When Nostalgia , Ultra was expected to be released as an EP by Def Jam , " Novacane " was released as the first single , though the EP release was later cancelled . The song peaked at number 82 on the Billboard Hot 100 and entered the top 10 on the Heatseekers Songs chart . The song received a music video directed by Australian director Nabil Elderkin released on June 16 . The highly stylized video shows a long take of Ocean sitting around in a darkly lit room . Ocean performed the song during a show in New York with alternative hip hop group OFWGKTA , and during his seven show tour through North America and Europe . It was also performed during his 14 show Channel Orange tour through North America .
= = Background = =
" Novacane " was written by Frank Ocean and Victor Alexander with co @-@ writing by Tricky Stewart who also produced the track . The song appears on his debut mixtape Nostalgia , Ultra which was released on February 18 , 2011 . When asked by The Quietus if the song drew from his personal experiences , Ocean commented that " I don 't do cocaine for breakfast ! " , a reference to the lyrics from the song . He continued , " My kitchen is usually pretty clean , you know . But you have fun with the imagery , and for me the whole concept that everything has to be … Like , nobody gets upset with a director when a director 's film isn 't about his life . People think that with a recording artist that shit has to be like a fucking play by play of their whole life , but it 's not . It 's imagery , and a little bit of satire . " When asked if the song was an R & B track , Ocean replied that he disliked how that in the United States , " if you 're a singer and you 're black , you 're an R & B artist . Period . " Ocean stated that the song does contain R & B influences , though he didn 't feel it wasn 't entirely one in nature . The track was released as a digital download on May 31 , 2011 by Def Jam Records .
= = Composition = =
" Novacane " expresses a story through its lyrics , and has been described as " nightmarish " in nature . It has been called a " love song of sorts " , with influence taken from alternative hip hop group The Pharcyde . Lyrically the track explores a narrative in which the singer meets a girl attempting to pay her way through dental school by working in porn , or at least that 's what she told him . Protagonist meets the girl at Coachella , a musical festival which takes place in Indio , California . Ocean serves as the protagonist in the song , in love with a girl " so gone on drugs that Ocean , wanting to be close to her , has no choice but to get gone on those same drugs " . The pair get high using dental local anesthetics . Though Ocean serves as an unreliable narrator , Pitchfork wrote that he was " probably still the most reliable character in the whole song . " The song contains reference to film director Stanley Kubrick and his 1999 drama Eyes Wide Shut . In addition , it also makes a comparison of the numbness that drugs produce with the use of auto @-@ tune in the music business . Summing up the song , Pitchfork also commented that " Novacane " " is a song about personal connection but also about all the stupid numb human shit that gets in the way of personal connection , which means it 's probably the most honest song about personal connection on the radio . " Rappers Joe Budden , Tyga and Prodigy have all released freestyles to " Novacane " .
= = Reception = =
" Novacane " received highly positive reviews from music critics , and has been described as the best song on Nostalgia , Ultra . Pitchfork editor Tom Breihman made the song " Best New Track " and commented that the song had a " stripped @-@ back melodic construction with Ocean crooning over a synthetic backing that practically fades into nonexistence " and that " it draws its power from tiny little details , like throwaway observations or catches in Ocean 's voice . Andrew Noz of NPR also praised the details in Ocean 's song writing , stating " in ' Novacane , ' Ocean sings about falling for a porn star who wants to be a dentist , it 's easy to believe that he 's more enticed by her dentistry aspirations than her day job . The New York Times critic Jon Caramanica described the song as a " story of meeting a cute girl at Coachella , tripping hard on intoxicants and getting quickly to love that he may or may not remember the next day " , and called the song " bliss . " Ology writer JT Langley noted that though the song was " massively depressing " and that " Frank makes a foul mouth sound sweeter than your usual R & B through his brand of crooning ... Tricky Stewart 's production adds yet another morose element to provide the more macabre side of the drugs @-@ for @-@ love @-@ lost genre . "
The song was listed as one of the best songs of the year by several publications . The New York Times placed the song amongst the best tracks of 2011 . Ology 's JT Langley placed the song amongst the best of the year , writing " Frank makes a foul mouth sound sweeter than your usual R & B through his brand of crooning , and Tricky Stewart 's production adds yet another morose element to provide the more macabre side of the drugs @-@ for @-@ love @-@ lost genre . " Pitchfork named the song the 41st best song of the year , musing that " he might be fronting like the Drakes and post- " 808s " Kanyes of the world , but there 's too much self @-@ effacement happening for Ocean not to realize the inherent humor in his own drama . If Ocean really is on that visionary Kubrick shit like he claims , then " Novacane " could very well be his Dr. Strangelove . Zimbio placed the song at number 2 on their best hip @-@ hop songs of the year list , writing " while every track on his mixtape , nostalgia , Ultra , warrants a listen , it 's the radio @-@ friendly " Novacane " that stands out as his most mature and enjoyable song to date . " Spin named the song the fifth best of the year , describing the track as " a fully evolved Drake song , where you 're slyly immersed in youthful , aww @-@ shit decadence , while simultaneously watching your dreams of recreational stripper booty and complimentary cocaine breakfasts get methodically dismantled . "
= = Promotion = =
According to Ocean , the music video for " Novacane " was a simple process . Talking about the concept of the video , he stated " I was just trying to connect or articulate visually the feeling of being numb . The feeling of wanting to feel something you can 't feel . A lot of things can cause that numbing , but in the video it was some sort of topical aesthetic and a little bit of special effects . " The video doesn 't last the entirety of the song , which director Nabil Elderkin stated was for artistic reasons . In an interview with Pitchfork , he reasoned " to me , videos don 't always have to be the length of the song . I like the idea of people thinking , ' What was that ? ' "
The video is shot as one long take , shot in a mostly dark room . Ocean sits in the room , smoking an unspecified drug . Eventually , he gets up and begins to smear an unknown substance onto his face . Random shots of pandas and rain forest imagery are also spliced into the video , and it ends with Ocean being slapped by the ghostly image of a woman . MTV further summarized the video ; " Ocean is surrounded by ghostly incarnations of beautiful women , tigers and pandas . At one point , Ocean smears what appears to be novocaine — or Procaine — on his solemn @-@ looking face . " Supposedly , it required several takes to achieve the correct angle for the slapping moment , and the spliced images were placed in the video because Ocean asked the director whether or not they " can we put some kind of Asian @-@ rain @-@ forest stuff in there ? " Billboard wrote that the video was " minimalist " and " eerie " . Pitchfork named the video amongst the best of the year .
Ocean embarked on a solo tour through North America and Europe to promote both the mixtape and his other musical projects . The set lists to the various shows varied , though " Novacane " was performed at all shows . Ocean performed " Novacane " and " She " with Tyler , The Creator at an OFWGKTA performance in New York . The track was included during Ocean 's setlist at the April 2012 Coachella Musical Festival . Complex magazine stated that he " left his most popular and best for last , wrapping the evening with " Novacane , " which shouts out the festival itself . " Ocean performed the track during his 14 show Channel Orange tour through North America .
= = Charts = =
The song peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at position 82 . The song also charted at position 6 on the Billboard Heatseekers Songs chart and 17 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
= = Certifications = =
= 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama ( 2nd Croatian ) =
The 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama ( 2nd Croatian ) was a German mountain infantry division of the Waffen @-@ SS , the armed wing of the German Nazi Party that served alongside but was never formally part of the Wehrmacht during World War II . It was composed of German officers and Bosnian Muslim soldiers . Named Kama after a small dagger used by Balkan shepherds , it was one of the thirty @-@ eight divisions fielded by the Waffen @-@ SS during World War II . Formed on 19 June 1944 , it was built around a cadre from the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar ( 1st Croatian ) but did not reach its full strength and never saw action as a formation .
Elements of the division fought briefly against Soviet forces in southern Hungary in early October 1944 alongside the 31st SS Volunteer Grenadier Division . They were soon disengaged from the front line in Hungary and had begun a move to the German puppet state , the Independent State of Croatia , to join the 13th SS Division when the Bosnian Muslim soldiers of the Kama division mutinied on 17 October 1944 . The cadre quickly regained control , but the mutiny resulted in the division being formally dissolved on 31 October 1944 .
= = Background = =
After the invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers on 6 April 1941 , the extreme Croat nationalist and fascist Ante Pavelić , who had been in exile in Benito Mussolini 's Italy , was appointed Poglavnik ( leader ) of an Ustaše @-@ led Croatian state – the Independent State of Croatia ( often called the NDH , from the Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska ) . The NDH combined almost all of modern @-@ day Croatia , all of modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern @-@ day Serbia into an " Italian @-@ German quasi @-@ protectorate
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12 May , sailing to Alexandria , Egypt two days later for permanent repairs and to off @-@ load her cargo . This was completed by 18 June , but the ship lay idle until the end of the month when she was provided with an Arab crew and sailed to Port Said .
Aenne Rickmers rendezvoused with the French armoured cruiser Jeanne d 'Arc on 18 July at Scarpanto and the carrier searched the Turkish coast for U @-@ boat bases and observed while the French ship bombarded coastal installations . The ship then returned to Port Said where she was fitted with a 12 @-@ pounder gun . Aenne Rickmers was commissioned into the Royal Navy on 5 August 1915 and renamed HMS Anne the same day . She rendezvoused with Jeanne d 'Arc and the French pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Jauréguiberry around 13 August and observed while they bombarded Turkish installations in Haifa . On 17 August , aircraft from both Anne and Raven II spotted for Jeanne d 'Arc as she bombarded Tarsus and then assisted Jeanne d 'Arc and Jauréguiberry on 30 August as they captured Ruad Island .
In early September , the ship assisted the French as they evacuated Armenian troops and civilians from Alexandretta and the surrounding area and then resumed her earlier work of reconnaissance and espionage . Anne lost her first aircraft when it suffered an engine failure whilst on a reconnaissance mission over Beersheba on 9 October . The ship had her bottom cleaned in Alexandria during November and lost another aircraft , again over Beersheba , on 22 December . In January 1916 , she was assigned to the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron together with the carriers Empress , Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree and Raven II . The squadron was under the command of the General Officer Commanding , Egypt and its primary duty was to watch Turkish positions and movements in southern Palestine and the Sinai in early 1916 . Around 17 April , Anne was attacked by two German aircraft , but was not damaged . A few days later , she discovered a U @-@ boat base at Makry , whilst operating near Kastellorizo . The ship loaded aboard the French seaplane contingent in Egypt at the end of the month , and delivered it to Malta on 9 May for transfer , including her own Nieuports , to the French seaplane carrier Campinas . Her aircraft had made a total of 118 flights since she began operating them in January 1915 and only two had been lost .
Later that month , Anne exchanged her existing 12 @-@ pounder for an anti @-@ aircraft gun of the same calibre and was back at Port Said by 21 May . She lay idle there until mid @-@ June when she began transporting military supplies between Port Said and several ports in the Red Sea . This lasted until 2 August when she embarked British seaplanes , including Short Type 184 , Sopwith Schneider and Baby floatplanes , and she observed for the French cruiser Pothuau on 10 August as the latter ship bombarded Mersina . The East Indies and Egypt Squadron reassembled in late August with Raven II , Anne and Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree and the aircraft from the three carriers attacked the Turkish supply dump at El Afule for thirty minutes . The squadron then steamed south along the Palestinian coast where they encountered two Turkish supply dhows . One was sunk by the escorting French destroyer Arbalete while the other was captured . The squadron flew off seven aircraft that attacked an encampment at Bureir and a nearby railroad viaduct . One of Anne 's seaplanes was lost during this mission and the pilot was captured . Despite the loss , her aircraft bombed Turkish installations at Tull Keram , Nablus , Ludd and Ramleh before returning to Port Said on 27 August .
A few days later , Anne replaced Raven II , after that ship had been damaged by an air attack on 1 September , on an expedition into the Red Sea to support the Arab Revolt against the Turks . She rendezvoused with the elderly cruiser HMS Fox and Dufferin of the Royal Indian Marine ( RIM ) and they arrived at Rabigh on 9 September . The ship briefly ran aground off Yenbo , but got off and was able to observe for Fox and Hardinge of the RIM as they shelled Turkish positions near Wejh on 13 September . Aside one brief visit to Suez to recoal , Anne remained in the area while her aircraft flew bombing and reconnaissance missions until she was relieved by Raven II on 26 October . The ship was idle at Port Said for the rest of the year other than one trip to Cyprus transporting coal . In January 1917 , Anne returned to the Red Sea and joined Hardinge and the Armed boarding steamer Suva . Together with some 500 Arabs , the crews of the three ships made an amphibious landing and captured Wejh . The ship returned to Suez on 27 January and seems to have been used only as a collier until she was paid off on 8 August .
= = = Commercial service = = =
Anne served as a collier under the Red Ensign from 29 January 1918 until the end of the war under the management of F. C. Strick and Co . She was sold in 1922 to S.N. Vlassopoulos of Greece and was renamed Ithaki . The ship was sold to a Romanian company in 1939 and renamed Moldova ; she was then transferred to Panamanian registry in 1942 with the same name . Moldova was sold in 1949 to Wallem & Co. and renamed Jagharat in 1954 . She resumed her former name of Moldova in 1955 and arrived at Hong Kong to be scrapped on 8 November 1958 .
= I Blame Myself =
" I Blame Myself " is a song by American recording artist Sky Ferreira from her debut studio album Night Time , My Time ( 2013 ) . It was released in the United Kingdom on June 9 , 2014 by Capitol Records as the second single from the record . The song was written and produced by Ariel Rechtshaid and Justin Raisen , with additional songwriting provided by Ferreira , Daniel Nigro , and Jordan Benik . " I Blame Myself " is a synthpop song , in which Ferreira acknowledges that she is responsible for her public image .
Contemporary music critics commended " I Blame Myself " in their reviews of Night Time , My Time , and placed particular praise on its production . An accompanying music video for the track was filmed in Compton , California and directed by Grant Singer ; it was premiered through Ssense on April 16 , 2014 . It depicts Ferreira as a gang leader , who is called in to settle a conflict between rivaling groups . She has performed the track on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon in April 2014 .
= = Background = =
In February 2014 , it was reported that " Boys " would be serviced as the second single from Night Time , My Time , following its lead single " You 're Not the One " which had been premiered in September 2013 . However , Capitol Records instead released the song as a free digital download in the United Kingdom on March 1 , preceding the launch of Night Time , My Time in the country . " I Blame Myself " was confirmed as the official second single from the record in April , while Ferreira was filming its accompanying music video .
" I Blame Myself " was written and produced by Ariel Rechtshaid and Justin Raisen , with additional songwriting provided by Ferreira , Daniel Nigro , and Jordan Benik . Rechtshaid and Raisen additionally collaborated for the drums . Individually , Rechshaid contributed vocal production , while Raisen was responsible for recording , Pro Tools engineering , additional vocals , synthesizers , and mixing . Mereki Beach provided additional vocals for the track , while Jeremiah Raisen assisted during its production .
Ferreira commented that she had co @-@ written the track during summer 2013 ; she sings " 10 years old without a voice / I feel like nothing 's really changed / Now I 'm just a little older " during the second verse , which she revealed was inspired by a two @-@ year period in which she did not speak because she felt like she had had nothing to offer .
= = Composition = =
Drawing from synthpop music , " I Blame Myself " incorporates minimalist production elements. with styles commonly seen in new wave music . Distinguished as the " poppiest " track from Night Time , My Time , its lyrics see Ferreira accepting that her behavior contributes to the public image she is given by the media ; during the chorus , she states " I just want you to realize I blame myself for my reputation . " " I Blame Myself " was assumed to have been inspired by the " anthemic pop fizz " from her breakthrough single " Everything Is Embarrassing " from her second extended play Ghost ( 2012 ) . Jenn Pelly from Pitchfork Media implied that " I Blame Myself " referenced the struggles Ferreira faced while creating her long @-@ delayed debut studio album ; Pelly suggested that the track was inspired by her frequent conflicts with her record label during production of the project , and added that it " lays out the emotional core " of her process . Jillian Mapes from the same publication assumed that Ferreira crafted the song in response to being labeled a " socialite [ and ] Forever 21 model " and receiving criticism after her drug arrest in September 2013 , which she expected would highlight that her side projects " have nothing to do with the kind of songs Ferreira writes these days " . " I Blame Myself " , in addition to the tracks " 24 Hours " and " Love in Stereo " , blend " tenderized vocal hooks [ and ] chiming synth melodies " , which reminded Lauren Martin from Fact of 1980s music . With his similar observation , Dan Keenan from Impact noted that the " chiming synths " that Martin recognized developed into the " undeniably cathartic " refrain .
= = Critical reception = =
" I Blame Myself " received generally favorable reviews from contemporary music critics . Writing for The A.V. Club , Annie Zaleski called the track the " most stunning song " from Night Time , My Time ; she commended Ferreira 's " confident " vocal delivery and the " strident tone " of the recording , which Zaleski felt was " deeply affecting . " Dan Keenan from Impact felt that its lyrics showcased that pop music is not always equivalent with insincerity . Writing for Pitchfork Media , Carrie Battan felt that " I Blame Myself " sounded like " an uptempo beast " that deserved to be successful . Jordan Sargent from Spin felt that " I Blame Myself " positively exemplified a " darkness " among the stand @-@ out tracks from the record , which he credited to having her adolescence " drained away by airplane flights , photo shoots , and useless recording sessions " . The New York Times ' Jon Caramanica was unsure why Ferreira " [ painted ] such a dark picture of herself " with the lyrics , and felt that the self @-@ punishment was unnecessary given the strength of " I Blame Myself " and Night Time , My Time overall . John Preston from Polari believed that the track was a worthy substitute for fans that " mourn the overall departure " of the mainstream pop sound of Ferreira 's 2010 single " One " , and raved that it was an example of " airy and gleaming brilliance " .
Two critics from Pitchfork Media reviewed " I Blame Myself " separately from Night Time , My Time . Jenn Pelly ranked the track as the twelfth @-@ best song released in 2013 . She spoke favorably of its lyrical content , commending the chorus lyrics " How could you know what it feels like to fight the hounds of hell ? " and " You think you know me so well " for painting Ferreira as an exemplar for " bullied high school weirdos " , and appreciating that the lines " I know it 's not your fault / That you don 't understand / I blame myself " for acknowledging her own wrongdoings with the intention of starting anew . Jillian Mapes complimented the " bluntness " that was delivered throughout the song , and suggested that the track had " anthem potential " . She praised the verses for verbalizing self @-@ confidence issues that are often associated with young women , with particular acclaim being placed on the lines " I ’ m just a face without a choice / Trust you ’ d never like to guess what I think above the shoulders . " She concluded her review by noting that the song should be recognized as a " declaration of force [ and ] a song about the power of vulnerability " rather than confusing it for an " admission of weakness " .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video for " I Blame Myself " was filmed in Compton , California and directed by Grant Singer . During an interview with Idolator , Ferreira commented that " I can 't really give too many details about it yet , but I shot it in L.A. with Grant Singer , who does all my other videos . And my family ’ s in it . " A 15 @-@ second preview of the project was released on April 14 , 2014 , while the final product was premiered through the online retailer Ssense on April 16 , 2014 . It was the first of several " shoppable " music videos released through the retailer , in partnership with London magazine System . The clip was inspired by the visuals for 1990s hip hop music and the catalog of Michael Jackson , which Ferreira revealed " inspire me and played a big part of my childhood . "
The video depicts an ongoing conflict between gangs , which Ferreira attempts to remedy upon her arrival ; she is eventually taken in for questioning by law enforcement , although she resists her arrest and later escapes from jail . She commented that its concept was inspired by real events , and elaborated that " people always ask me questions about certain things , and it 's kind of like my response . " Jeremy Gordon from Pitchfork Media interpreted Ferreira 's commentary to be referencing her arrest in September 2013 , in which she was charged with possession of ecstasy . Ferreira was criticized on social media networks for allegedly objectifying African American people in the music video , with whom she was seen dancing with during several scenes interspersed throughout the clip . On her Facebook account , Ferreira commented that " I never have and never will look at any human being as a prop " and criticized false assumptions of the " rich little white girl exploiting the black people and the ghetto " .
= = Live performances = =
Having appeared as the musical guest that evening , Ferreira performed " I Blame Myself " on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on April 5 , 2014 . She was dressed in a sequined blazer , a white shirt , black shorts , a black tie , and sunglasses . Ferreira stood in place while singing the track ; the onstage visuals consisted of several blue and red strobe lights . Having taken place before the music video was made publicly available , she revealed that the visuals for the song had been filmed and would be released shortly .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Night Time , My Time .
Recording
Recorded at White Bronco Studios ( Highland Park , California )
Personnel
Mereki Beach – additional vocals
Jordan Benik – songwriter
Sky Ferreira – songwriter
Daniel Nigro – songwriter , additional vocals , editing
Jeremiah Raisen – assisting
Justin Raisen – songwriter , recording , Pro Tools engineering , additional vocals , drums , synthesizer , mixing
Ariel Rechtshaid – songwriter , vocals , drums
= Mycena intersecta =
Mycena intersecta is a species of mushroom in the Mycenaceae family . First reported as a new species in 2007 , it is known only from central Honshu , in Japan , where it is found growing solitarily or scattered , on dead leaves in lowland forests dominated by oak . The mushrooms have olive @-@ brown caps up to 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) in diameter atop slender stems that are 50 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) long by 0 @.@ 7 to 1 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 03 to 0 @.@ 05 in ) thick . On the underside of the cap are the distantly spaced , whitish gills that have cross @-@ veins running between them . Microscopic characteristics of the mushroom include the smooth , irregularly cylindrical cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) , the absence of pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) , the diverticulate elements of the cap cuticle , the broadly club @-@ shaped to irregularly shaped caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) , the weakly dextrinoid flesh ( staining reddish to reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent ) , and the absence of clamp connections . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown .
= = Taxonom and naming = =
The mushroom was first collected by Japanese mycologist Haruki Takahashi in 1999 , and published as a new species ( along with seven other Japanese Mycenas ) in a 2007 publication . The specific epithet is from the Latin word intersecta or " intersected " , and refers to the intervenose gills . Its Japanese name is Oriibu @-@ ashinagatake ( オリーブアシナガタケ ) .
According to Takahashi , the fungus is best classified in the section Fragilipedes ( Fr . ) Quél . , as defined by the Dutch Mycena specialist Maas Geesteranus .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. intersecta is initially conical to convex to bell @-@ shaped , eventually reaching 8 to 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 to 0 @.@ 47 in ) in diameter . When it is moist , it is partly translucent , so that the outlines of the gills underneath the cap can be seen . The cap is somewhat hygrophanous , and dry . Its surface is initially minutely pruinose ( as if covered with a fine white powder ) , but this effect soon sloughs off , leaving the surface smooth . The cap color is initially olive @-@ brown to yellowish @-@ brown , then somewhat paler from the margin . The white flesh is up to 0 @.@ 7 mm thick , and lacks any distinctive taste and odor . The slender stem is 50 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) long by 0 @.@ 7 to 1 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 03 to 0 @.@ 05 in ) thick , cylindrical , and hollow . Its surface is dry , and colored pale olive @-@ brown near the top , becoming olive @-@ brown downward . Like the cap , it is at first pruinose , but smooths out in age . The base of the stem is covered with coarse white hairs . The gills are adnate to subdecurrent ( running slightly down the length of the stem ) , and distantly spaced , with 16 – 19 gills reaching the stem . The gills are up to 1 @.@ 5 mm broad , thin , somewhat intervenose , and whitish , with edges that are the same color as the gill faces . Takahashi 's description does not include any discussion of the mushroom 's edibility .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The basidiospores are roughly ellipsoid and measure 7 @.@ 5 – 8 @.@ 5 by 5 – 6 µm . They are thin @-@ walled , smooth , colorless , and inamyloid to weakly amyloid — indicating a weak ability to absorb the iodine in Melzer 's reagent . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia are 22 – 31 by 5 @.@ 5 – 7 µm , club @-@ shaped , and mostly two @-@ spored . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are 27 – 40 by 3 – 6 µm , abundant , and form a sterile gill edge . They are irregularly cylindrical to constricted , smooth , colorless , and thin @-@ walled . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are absent . The hymenophoral tissue is made of thin @-@ walled hyphae that are 5 – 18 µm wide , cylindrical , smooth , colorless , and weakly dextrinoid . The cap cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae that are 2 – 6 µm wide , cylindrical , and densely covered with warty or finger @-@ like thin @-@ walled diverticulae that are colorless and inamyloid . The layer of hyphae underneath the cap cuticle are parallel , olive @-@ brown , and weakly dextrinoid , with short and inflated cells up to 22 µm wide . The stem cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae that are 2 – 4 µm wide , cylindrical , smooth to sparsely diverticulate . These hyphae curve outward to form club @-@ shaped or irregularly shaped caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) that are olive @-@ brown , inamyloid , and thin @-@ walled . They measure 13 – 29 by 3 – 7 µm , and are broadly club @-@ shaped to irregularly shaped , and often have one to three knob @-@ like excrescences . The stem tissue is made of longitudinally running , cylindrical hyphae that are 5 – 12 µm wide , smooth , colorless , and have a weakly dextrinoid in Melzer 's reagent . Clamp connections are absent in all tissues of M. intersecta .
= = = Similar species = = =
The European species Mycena viridimarginata is somewhat similar to M. intersecta in appearance , but may be distinguished by its greenish @-@ edged gills , cheilocystidia with abruptly tapering points , and clamp connections .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Mycena intersecta is known only from Kanagawa , Japan . The fruit bodies are found solitary or scattered , on dead leaves in lowland forests dominated by the oak trees Quercus myrsinaefolia and Q. serrata .
= Evanescence ( Evanescence album ) =
Evanescence is the self @-@ titled and third studio album by the American rock band Evanescence . It was released on October 7 , 2011 on Wind @-@ up Records . The band began writing the album in June 2009 . Its release was delayed several times ; on February 22 , 2010 , the band entered the studio with producer Steve Lillywhite but later stopped working with him because he " wasn 't the right fit " . At the time the album was scheduled for an August or September 2010 release , but Lee later announced that Evanescence had suspended recording to write more material . On April 11 , 2011 , the band returned to the studio with producer Nick Raskulinecz .
According to Lee , the band brought influences from Björk , Depeche Mode , Massive Attack , MGMT and Portishead to the album . Evanescence 's songs contain sounds and influences characteristic of nu metal , hard rock and electro . Although the album received generally @-@ positive reviews from music critics , who praised Lee 's vocals and its innovative sound , some noted a similarity to the band 's older material . Evanescence debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart with 127 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week , and topped four other Billboard charts ; Rock Albums , Digital Albums , Alternative Albums and Hard Rock Albums . The album was successful worldwide , appearing on the charts of over twenty countries . The band promoted Evanescence by premiering songs online on a number of websites and appearing on several television shows .
The first single from the album , " What You Want " , was released on August 9 , 2011 ; " My Heart Is Broken " , the album 's second single , was released on November 11 . " Lost in Paradise " was released internationally as its third single on May 25 , 2012 , and " The Other Side " was distributed to U.S. modern rock radio stations as a promotional single on June 11 . In 2011 the band embarked on the Evanescence Tour , their third worldwide tour , to promote the album with The Pretty Reckless and Fair to Midland .
= = Background and writing = =
After finishing a tour to promote Evanescence 's previous album , The Open Door , Amy Lee said that she " just sort of took off and didn 't know what I was going to do next . " According to Lee , she was unsure at the time when ( or if ) Evanescence would continue . After taking a break from music for 18 months , she decided she wanted to work with the band members and it " became more of a group project " . Lee admitted to an identity crisis : " [ The success with ] Fallen happened really fast , and it was just go , go , go for a couple years , and we went right into writing and wrote the next record . By the time we finished touring with The Open Door , I just needed to go , ' Who am I as an adult ? ' " During her hiatus , Lee began painting , attended concerts and museums and listened to folk and indie music .
In a June 2009 post on the Evanescence website , Lee wrote that the band was in the process of writing material for an album planned for release the following year . According to Lee , the music would be an evolution of previous work and " better , stronger , and more interesting " . She described Evanescence 's music as epic , dark , big , beautiful and desperate . In a Spin interview , Lee called the record " fun " – according to her , a " totally new thing " for the band : " When I listen to our old music I see that 's where I was in my life at that time . This has been a long trip and parts have been hard . But it 's about not taking everything so seriously this time . "
Writing for the album began in 2009 , when Lee wrote an electronic @-@ driven song different from her usual style . She said , " I remember listening to it over and over , just obsessing over it the way I used to obsess over Evanescence music . That was the spark for me – and the spark to go in the electronic direction and bring some of that into what Evanescence is doing . " Unlike the band 's two previous albums ( primarily written by Lee ) , every band member contributed to the writing process .
= = Recording and development = =
Evanescence entered the studio on February 22 , 2010 to begin recording the album . Will Hunt returned as drummer ; a second drummer and programmer , Will " Science " Hunt , was brought in to assist with writing but did not join the band . David Campbell , who previously worked with Evanescence on The Open Door , was brought back to handle string arrangements and the album was scheduled for release by producer Steve Lillywhite . Lee later said that Lillywhite " wasn 't the right fit " , adding that the band was experimenting and when they tried to record the songs Lee wrote without the band " it wasn 't working . " According to Lee , the slow , acoustic songs written with Lillywhite did not mesh with Evanescence 's sound .
When the band began recording with Lillywhite , the album was intended for an August or September 2010 release . However , on June 21 , 2010 Lee announced on EvThreads.com that Evanescence had suspended recording to continue work on the album and " get our heads into the right creative space " . According to Lee , Wind @-@ up Records was experiencing " uncertain times " which would further delay the album 's release . Label president Ed Vetri supported Lee 's decision : " One thing we do at Wind @-@ up is , we 're patient . I [ f ] it 's not right , it 's not coming out . If it takes a year or four years , [ we 're ] going to take the time it needs to write the right record . " After visiting the studio several times to see the album 's progress , Vetri said that " her core fans will be really happy . "
Evanescence re @-@ entered Blackbird Studio in Nashville in early April 2011 with nineteen songs and new producer Nick Raskulinecz , who previously produced for Alice in Chains and Foo Fighters . The album was mixed by Randy Staub . After an initial denial by band management , on June 12 Lee confirmed that guitarist Troy McLawhorn had rejoined Evanescence . She also announced that the album would be released on October 4 , 2011 ; the date was later pushed back a week by Wind @-@ up Records . According to Lee , when the band returned to the studio , she wanted the album released as soon as possible because of the long time since Evanescence 's last album . The instruments other than pianos were recorded first , followed by the pianos and then by Lee 's vocals ; she said the demanding songs made her " push " herself vocally . Raskulinecz 's production , she said , made Evanescence a rock album . Lee appreciated his work , including the producer 's willingness to answer her questions and determine when the album would be finished :
Nick is an awesome producer . He really helped me get the plan and have confidence in the decisions that we made . For me , I have a lot of ideas and sometimes it just comes down to " OK , everything that I 'm doing I have two options ! " He 's awesome , because as I 'm doing these things I 'm asking him from the vocal booth or the piano room or whatever , " Which one of these should I do ? " He 's good at helping me make a quick decision . I really trust his opinion because he makes great records .
In December 2015 , Lee posted a cover of " Baby Did a Bad Bad Thing " by Chris Isaak , which she stated was originally intended to appear on the album produced by Lillywhite in 2010 . She also further explained that the original album did not share any of the same tracks that the version produced by Raskulinecz had , as the record company rejected these recordings . Lee said she used her frustration with being forced to start over to write what she called " ( Evanescence 's ) heaviest album . "
= = Title and concept = =
In a June 2011 Kerrang ! interview , Lee said that the album would be self @-@ titled and was " about the band ; it 's more of a band record . " Lee explained that the concept " to me is about falling back in love with this thing , with Evanescence , with what I 've obsessed over for a decade , longer than that . " There were originally many album @-@ title ideas , but Lee said that as the project became more collaborative " it just felt like this is who we are , it 's a band . And to have that feeling in the music where the band is so pumped up , it was just the only title that felt right . It 's about falling back in love with this thing in a major way . " In an MTV News interview , she said that sixteen songs had been recorded but not all would be included on the album . It was later decided to release two versions of the album : a deluxe edition with all sixteen songs and a standard edition with twelve .
Eveanescence 's cover artwork was introduced on the band 's website on August 30 , 2011 . It is their first album cover which does not feature Lee . In an interview , she discussed the cover : " Well , both of our other records are me on the cover , and I think it 's cool to have that photo , you know , that people can look at and go , ' OK , that 's who that is . ' But I feel like , by now , they know who we are , and I wanted something really different
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. I didn 't feel like we had to put a photo on the cover , I wanted it to be more mysterious and more about Evanescence itself , not just me . " The cover , black with vapor behind the band 's name , is a play on the meaning of " evanescence " ( " to dissipate like vapor " ) .
= = Composition = =
= = = Musical style and inspiration = = =
During the Steve Lillywhite sessions , Lee described the album as a " rainbow of sounds " with heavy , stripped @-@ out songs . According to Lee , it had electro influences and a lot of drum programming . During the later sessions with Nick Raskulincecz , she discussed two of the album 's themes : brokenness ( " Brokenness has become a little bit of theme , without necessarily offering a solution " ) and oceans . In a later MTV interview , Lee mentioned other themes : " the quest for freedom , and then there 's songs that are just about falling in love " . She said that Evanescence used new and vintage instruments ( such as a harp , synthesizers and the Moog Taurus Pedal ) and recorded the ballads " Secret Door " and " My Heart Is Broken " . In a Kerrang ! interview , Lee said she was inspired by her life and personal relationships .
According to Lee , the album was fun but not in a " poppy way " and the band enjoyed its recording . She was inspired by her relationship with Evanescence 's fans : " I can really hear myself singing about my relationship with Evanescence and with the fans . There 's always one big relationship on a record that I sing about the most . I feel like my big relationship on this album [ is ] with Evanescence itself , and with the fans . I think lyrically you 're hearing a lot about a relationship , a struggle with a relationship or love in a relationship , and mostly I 'm singing about that . "
For the album , the band was influenced by artists such as Björk , Depeche Mode , Massive Attack , MGMT and Portishead . Lewis Corner of the Digital Spy website noted that rumbling guitars and dainty strings were present on most of the album 's songs : " Amy Lee declares over roaring guitars and classical strings , reinforcing their medieval influences as opposed to the electronic sound they 've been purporting . "
= = = Music and lyrics = = =
Lee shares writing credits with other members of the band on 11 of the standard @-@ edition album 's 12 songs . Evenescence 's first track and lead single , " What You Want " , was described as one of the band 's most unusual songs with heavy guitar melodies , loud drums and a freedom theme . Opening with drums and a synchronized synthesizer , Lee sings " Do what you , what you want / If you have a dream for better / Do what you , what you want / ' Til you don 't want it anymore " before the song 's rhythmic , guitar @-@ driven beat . Lyrically , the song explores a relationship which is not working out , despite present love . " Made of Stone " , one of the album 's oldest songs , has heavy @-@ metal influences . " The Change " ( originally entitled " Purple " ) , which begins gently and grows more insistent , has been compared to " Digital Bath " by the American alternative metal band Deftones . The fourth track ( and second single ) , " My Heart Is Broken " , is a ballad written for harp and recorded with a piano . It begins with the piano and Lee 's vocals , evolving into rhythmic guitars and strings . In the chorus Lee sings , " I will never find a way to heal my soul / And I will wander ' til the end of time / Torn away from you / My heart is broken " .
The fifth track , " The Other Side " , has churning , chunky guitars , a double @-@ bass drum and Lee 's " ethereal , widescreen " vocals with elements of R & B. Lyrically , the song 's theme is death . " Lost in Paradise " is a symphonic rock ballad which begins with piano , strings and Lee 's unlayered vocals before adding the band for the song 's climax ; its lyrics reflect Lee 's past struggles , apologizing to her fans for the band 's five @-@ year absence . The song 's musical structure was compared to " Jóga " , by the Icelandic recording artist Björk . " Sick " has a loose , lazy melody and a chanted chorus ; one of the first songs written for the album , it " set [ s ] a heavy direction for the rest of the record . " " End of the Dream " begins " full bore with chunky guitar , then falls into a brooding grove with piano underpinning Lee 's unmistakable vocals . " In the chorus , Lee sings " Follow your heart ' til it bleeds , " evincing the track 's " seize the day " message . Lee said about the song , " It 's about understanding that this life isn 't forever , and how you have to live it , embrace even the pain , before it 's all over . As much as it hurts , it just means you 're alive . So don 't be so afraid to get hurt that you miss out on living . " " Oceans " begins with a big , low synth and a vocal before the band joins in . According to Lee , " It 's big and lush . We 've been having a lot of fun playing that one especially . " " Never Go Back " ( originally called " Orange " ) examines " loss from the perspective of someone losing someone in a tragedy " . Lee said that the song , with the lyrics " It 's all gone , the only world I 've ever known " , was inspired by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . " Swimming Home " is an electro @-@ pop song with grinding guitars and a " weeping " piano .
= = Release and promotion = =
Evanescence was first released in snippets , with portions of " What You Want " , " The Other Side " and " Lost in Paradise " previewed on MTV News on July 11 , 13 and 15 respectively . Several songs were made available online , including " The Other Side " , which premiered on September 21 at Hot Topic ; " My Heart Is Broken " on September 27 , and " End of the Dream " on Spin on October 4 . All songs became available on Spin on October 7 . A Renholdër remix of " Made of Stone " appears on the soundtrack and in the closing credits of the film Underworld : Awakening , and a Photek remix of " A New Way to Bleed " is on The Avengers soundtrack Avengers Assemble : Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture .
On August 8 , Evanescence appeared on " MTV First : Evanescence " to introduce the album 's first single , " What You Want " , with a live performance and an extended interview . Lee went to Toronto 's Liberty Studios on August 22 to preview five mastered songs from the new album ( " What You Want " , " The Change " , " The Other Side " , " My Heart Is Broken " and " Lost in Paradise " ) to a selected audience of thirty . Evanescence appeared at the Rock in Rio festival on October 2 , 2011 , performing " What You Want " , " Made of Stone " , " The Change " , " The Other Side " , " My Heart Is Broken " , " Sick " and several songs from their previous two albums . Before Evanescence 's U.S. release , Lee appeared on billboard.com on October 11 to promote the album . The band appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! on October 15 , performing " What You Want " and " Going Under " . On December 12 , Evanescence appeared at the Nobel Peace Prize Concert , where they performed " Lost in Paradise " and 2003 's " Bring Me to Life " . On February 1 , 2012 , the band performed " My Heart Is Broken " on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , and two days later they played " Made of Stone " and " The Other Side " on Conan .
= = = Tour = = =
Evanescence began their tour to promote the album with a concert at War Memorial Auditorium in Nashville , Tennessee on August 17 , 2011 . This was followed by performances at Rock on the Range in Winnipeg on August 20 , Rock in Rio on October 2 and at the José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum in Puerto Rico on October 6 . The band began the first U.S. leg of their tour on October 10 in Oakland , California , and finished it in New York City . Evanescence then played several concerts in the United Kingdom , beginning at London 's Hammersmith Apollo on November 4 and finishing the leg on November 13 at the O2 Academy Birmingham . Supported by The Pretty Reckless , Fair to Midland and Rival Sons , the tour 's set list included songs from Evanescence 's three albums . Lee said , " We 're definitely focusing mainly on the new material . We 're really excited about that music the most – obviously it 's the newest – but of course we 'll be playing some from both of our other albums too . I guess I 'd say in general , our show 's on the heavy @-@ energy side , so we 'll be running around singing a lot of fast songs . "
The Evanescence Tour continued in 2012 with concerts in the United States , Asia and Europe , including Lisboa V in Portugal and Rock am Ring in Germany . Their South American tour began on October 4 in Porto Alegre , Brazil , and the band returned to the UK for four shows in November . Evanescence also played on the Carnival of Madness tour with Halestorm , Cavo , New Medicine and Chevelle . That tour began on July 31 , 2012 , at the Prairie Capital Convention Center in Springfield , Illinois and ended on September 2 at the Outer Harbor in Buffalo , New York .
= = = Singles = = =
" What You Want " , the album 's first single , was released digitally on August 9 , 2011 . The song 's lyrics are about freedom , one of Evanescence 's themes . It debuted at number one on the UK Rock Chart , making Evanescence the artist with the most number @-@ one singles on the chart in 2011 . " What You Want " peaked at numbers 68 and 72 on the Billboard Hot 100 and UK Singles Chart , respectively . Its video , filmed in a Brooklyn , New York warehouse on July 30 , 2011 with the band performing the song live , was directed by Meiert Avis and released on September 13 .
" My Heart Is Broken " was distributed to hot , modern and adult @-@ contemporary radio stations on October 31 , 2011 and to pop stations the following day as the album 's first mainstream single . Its video was released in January 2012 , and the song was distributed to alternative and modern @-@ rock stations on February 13 . The next mainstream single , " Lost in Paradise " , was released internationally on May 25 . Its video , released on February 14 , 2013 , focuses on Evanescence 's tour with footage of the band performing the song filmed by fans around the world . " The Other Side " was a promotional single which was distributed to modern @-@ rock stations on June 11 and alternative stations the following day . Although a lyric video was uploaded to the band 's YouTube channel on August 30 , 2012 , Lee said that no other video would be made for the song .
= = Critical reception = =
Evanescence has received mostly @-@ positive reviews from music critics . Metacritic assigned an average score of 63 to the album based on nine reviews , indicating a generally favorable reception . Before its release the album appeared on several lists , including Spin 's " 26 Fall Albums That Matter Most " , Entertainment Weekly 's " Fall Albums We Can 't Wait to Hear " and Rolling Stone 's " Fall Music Preview : The Season 's Hottest Albums " . Steve Beebee of Kerrang ! gave the album five stars out of five , calling it " easily their most cohesive and confident work " and their " best album to date " . According to Rick Florino of Artistdirect , Evanescence was " their best album to date and a new classic " and " [ they ] manage to experiment while staying unshakably infectious . That 's not an easy feat , and few acts manage to do that . "
Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised Raskulinecz 's production , Lee 's vocals and the " fair share of crossover hooks " , adding that the band sounded " less tortured tonally even if it remains quite dramatic . " Entertainment Weekly 's Kyle Anderson said , " When [ Lee ] uses baroque orchestral accoutrements to wage an air assault on her demons ... she 's more than just the token girl in the pit . " Lewis Corner of Digital Spy gave the album four stars out of five , saying that the band 's trademark sound was present on the album " and truth be told , we wouldn 't want it any other way . " Mark Lepage of the Montreal Gazette praised the album , calling it " one rolling , chugging , plangent epic . " According to Chad Grischow of IGN , Evanescence is a " great album that delivers the familiar while keeping an eye on the future . " Rob Williams of the Winnipeg Free Press described the album as gothic nu @-@ metal and hard rock , with dramatic orchestration which makes everything sound " big and alive " : " With so many extra bells and whistles , despair has never sounded so epic . " Marc Hirsh of The Boston Globe wrote that the album captures " each party elevating the other far above where their proclivities would get them on their own . "
According to Nick Catucci of Rolling Stone , Evanescence is primarily a " syrupy mix of piano , guitar and strings " which is not as " saucy " as the band 's older material . Chris Willman of Reuters wrote , " Every interchangeable tune on the new album also sounds designed to play over the end credits of an action blockbuster that takes itself too seriously " . Theon Weber of Spin gave the album a mixed review ; rather than holding back too much , Weber wrote , Lee did not do enough to restrain her performance : " Evanescence gets lost in the cavernous spaces carved out by their unsecret weapon . " Edna Gundersen of USA Today criticized Raskulinecz 's production and the album 's electronics : " Tempered , her [ Lee 's ] emotional wail enhances the hypnotic medieval magic of signature Evanescence tunes . Some electronics slip into the mix , but the band 's rock essence and penchant for weepy strings remain prominent , as does its flair for conveying wretched despair . " Although PopMatters ' Dane Prokofiev criticized the album 's eponymous title as a new @-@ band strategy , he praised the " noticeable increase in the prominence of choir singing , tinkling piano motifs , and the silky sound of string instruments " with the caveat that the additional deluxe @-@ edition songs were superior to those on the standard edition . Steven Hyden of The A.V. Club called the album " narcissistic " , " corny " and " irredeemably stupid " .
= = Chart performance = =
Evanescence was released on October 11 , 2011 in the United States . The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 ( the band 's second album to debut at number one on the chart ) , selling more than 127 @,@ 000 copies during its first week . The first week 's sales were lower than those for Evanescence 's previous album , The Open Door , which sold more than 447 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album fell to fourth place the following week , selling over 40 @,@ 000 copies . Evanescence also topped the Digital Albums , Top Rock Albums , Alternative Albums and Hard Rock Albums charts in the U.S. , and was 2011 's 141st @-@ bestselling album in that country . As of August 2012 , Evanescence had sold 421 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S.
The album sold more than 2 @,@ 000 copies on its first day of sales in the United Kingdom and debuted at number four on the UK Albums Chart , selling 26 @,@ 221 copies in its first week . It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry on August 22 , 2014 , for shipments of over 100 @,@ 000 copies . Evanescence was certified gold in Australia in 2012 , for shipments of over 35 @,@ 000 copies . By January 12 , 2012 , the album sold over 40 @,@ 000 copies in Canada and was certified gold by Music Canada .
= = Track listing = =
All songs produced by Nick Raskulinecz .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from Allmusic and the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Grey 's Anatomy ( season 4 ) =
The fourth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , commenced airing in the United States on September 27 , 2007 and concluded on May 22 , 2008 . The season continues the story of a group of surgeons and their mentors in the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital , describing their professional lives and the way they affect the personal background of each character . Season four had twelve series regulars with ten of them returning from the previous season , out of which eight are part of the original cast from the first season . The season aired in the Thursday night timeslot at 9 : 00 EST . In addition to the regular seventeen episodes , a clip @-@ show narrated by the editors of People recapped previous events of the show and made the transition from Grey 's Anatomy to Private Practice , a spin @-@ off focusing of Dr. Addison Montgomery and aired on September 19 , 2007 , before the season premiere . The season was officially released on DVD as a five @-@ disc boxset under the title of Grey 's Anatomy : Season Four – Expanded on September 9 , 2008 by Buena Vista Home Entertainment .
For the first time in the show 's history , many cast changes occur , seeing the first departure of two main cast members . The season received mixed response from critics and fans , resulting in several awards and nominations for the cast members and the production team . Show creator Shonda Rhimes heavily contributed to the production of the season , writing five out of the seventeen episodes . The highest @-@ rated episode was the season premiere , which was watched by 20 @.@ 93 million viewers . The season was interrupted by the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , which resulted in the production of only seventeen episodes , instead of twenty @-@ three originally planned .
= = Production = =
This is the first season to be produced by ABC Studios under its current name , after the transition from Touchstone Television in May 2007 . It was also produced by ShondaLand Production Company , and The Mark Gordon Company , whereas Buena Vista International , Inc. distributed it . The executive producers were creator and show runner Shonda Rhimes , Betsy Beers , Mark Gordon , Krista Vernoff , Rob Corn , Mark Wilding , Joan Rater , and James D. Parriott , all part of the production team since the series ' inception . The regular directors were Rob Corn and Jessica Yu . Producer Shonda Rhimes wrote five of the seventeen episodes , two of which were along with fellow producer Krista Vernoff . Unlike the other seasons , except from the first one , which aired mid @-@ season , the fourth season of Grey 's Anatomy had a reduced number of episodes , due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , which caused the production to cease from February to April , leaving the show with no writing staff during that time . Since the show had only produced ten episodes before the winter @-@ holiday hiatus , and aired another one after the break ended , the show decided to complete the season with six new episodes , and returned on April 24 , 2008 . Only seventeen episodes were produced out of the twenty @-@ three originally conceived for the season .
After Kate Walsh 's transition the Grey 's Anatomy spin @-@ off , Private Practice , her character left the show after a two @-@ year run . On June 7 , 2007 , it was announced that Isaiah Washington 's contract had not been renewed . Former Reunion star , Chyler Leigh , guest starred in the final two episodes of season three as Lexie Grey , a new intern and Meredith Grey ’ s younger half @-@ sister . On June 11 , 2007 , it was announced that Leigh would become a series regular , instead of a 13 episode story arc as previously planned . The character Dr. Erica Hahn , portrayed by Brooke Smith joined the main cast , reprising her antagonizing role in the season 's fifth episode . She replaces Preston Burke as head of Cardiothoracics . Upon her return , she makes Sandra Oh 's character , Cristina Yang work harder for her success in Cardiothoracics and initially served as a new love interest for Eric Dane 's Mark Sloan . Even though a new male character was originally thought to be introduced as a rival for Dr. Derek Shepherd , the change didn 't occur . Former Dawson 's Creek star Joshua Jackson was scheduled to make his return to television in a multi @-@ episode arc as a doctor with his first appearance in the season 's eleventh episode . Jackson 's appearance was
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cancelled due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , and the storyline of the character he was supposed to play has never been aired on the show .
= = Cast = =
The fourth season had twelve roles receiving star billing , with ten of them returning from the previous season , eight of whom are part of the original cast from the first one . All the actors who are billed as series regulars portray physicians from the surgical wing of the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital . The majority of the show 's episodes are narrated by Ellen Pompeo , who portrayed protagonist Dr. Meredith Grey , a surgical resident whose storylines are the series ' focal points . Sandra Oh acted as Meredith 's best friend , highly competitive resident Dr. Cristina Yang . Fellow resident Dr. Isobel " Izzie " Stevens was portrayed by Katherine Heigl , while Dr. Alexander " Alex " Karev was played by Justin Chambers . T.R. Knight acted as insecure resident with self @-@ confidence issues , Dr. George O 'Malley , whereas Chandra Wilson portrayed Chief Resident and general surgeon Dr. Miranda Bailey , former mentor of the five residents during their internship . James Pickens , Jr. portrayed attending physician and general surgeon Dr. Richard Webber , who continues his position as Chief of Surgery , despite his former wishes of retirement . Orthopedic surgeon and fifth @-@ year resident Dr. Calliope " Callie " Torres , who was portrayed by Sara Ramirez , has to face her husband 's unfaithfulness and her unexpected bisexuality . Attending plastic surgeon , Dr. Mark Sloan was portrayed by Eric Dane , who is constantly seeking reconciliation with former best friend , attending physician and Chief of Neurosurgery Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , whose lasting relationship with Meredith Grey faces difficulties . Former Reunion star Chyler Leigh was promoted to series regular status , after short appearances in the final two episodes of the third season , portraying Meredith 's half @-@ sister Lexie Grey , who opts for a surgical internship at Seattle Grace Hospital against Massachusetts General Hospital , after her mother 's sudden death . Silence of the Lambs star , Brooke Smith was upgraded to series regular status after multiple guest appearances in the second and third seasons . An antagonizing character at first , she replaces Preston Burke as the Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery , constantly displaying disrespect for Cristina 's previous relationship with him .
Numerous supporting characters have been given recurring appearances in the progressive storyline , including former Gilmore Girls actor Edward Herrmann who appeared in three episodes . Seth Green of Buffy the Vampire Slayer guest starred in two episodes , whereas Lauren Stamile portrayed nurse Rose , a love interest for Derek . Former regular Kate Walsh appeared for the first time since her departure on May 1 , 2008 receiving a special guest star billing in the role of Addison Montgomery , now the main character of the spin @-@ off Private Practice . Jeff Perry , Loretta Devine and Debra Monk reprised their roles as Thatcher Grey , Adele Webber and Louise O 'Malley , respectively . Diahann Carroll and Elizabeth Reaser continued their season three @-@ introduced roles as Jane Burke and Rebecca Pope , respectively .
In October 2006 , news reports surfaced that Washington had insulted co @-@ star T.R. Knight with a homophobic slur during an argument with Patrick Dempsey . Shortly after the details of the argument became public , Knight publicly disclosed that he was gay . The situation seemed somewhat resolved when Washington issued a statement , apologizing for his " unfortunate use of words during the recent incident on @-@ set . " The controversy later resurfaced when the cast appeared at the Golden Globes in January 2007 . While being interviewed on the red carpet prior to the awards , Washington joked , " I love gay . I wanted to be gay . Please let me be gay . " After the show won Best Drama , Washington , in response to press queries as to any conflicts backstage , said , " I never called T.R. a faggot . " However , in an interview with Ellen DeGeneres on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , Knight said that " everybody heard him . "
After being rebuked by his studio , Touchstone Television , Washington issued a statement apologizing for repeating the word on the Golden Globes carpet . On January 30 , 2007 , a source told People magazine that Washington was scheduled to return to the Grey 's Anatomy set as early on that Thursday for the first time since entering " executive counseling " after making the comments at the Golden Globes . However , on June 7 , 2007 , ABC announced it had decided not to renew Washington 's contract , and that he would be dropped from the show . " I 'm mad as hell and I 'm not going to take it anymore , " Washington said in a statement released by his publicist , borrowing the famous line from Network . In another report , Washington stated he was planning to " spend the summer pursuing charity work in Sierra Leone , work on an independent film and avoid worrying about the show . " In a subsequent interview , Washington claimed that " they fired the wrong guy " , referring to Knight , and said he was considering filing a lawsuit as a result . He accused Knight of using the controversy to bolster his own career and increase his salary on Grey 's Anatomy . Washington , in late June 2007 , began asserting that racism within the media was a factor in his firing from the series . On July 2 , 2007 , Washington appeared on Larry King Live on CNN , to present his side of the controversy . According to Washington , he never used the " F Word " in reference to Knight , but rather blurted it out in an unrelated context in the course of an argument " provoked " by Dempsey , who , he felt , was treating him like a " B @-@ word , " a " P @-@ word , " and the " F @-@ word , " which Washington said conveyed " somebody who is being weak and afraid to fight back . " Washington himself said that his dismissal from Grey 's Anatomy was an unfortunate misunderstanding that he was eager to move past . He later stated that if he were to be asked to make a cameo appearance on the show , he would not hesitate to say " yes " . Washington 's image was used in advertisements for the May 9 , 2008 episode " The Becoming " . After this aired , Washington 's attorney Peter Nelson contacted ABC and Screen Actors Guild and cited this as an unlawful use of his client 's image . His publicist , Howard Bragman , told The Hollywood Reporter that " they have the rights of the character to advance the story , but not the image " and stated he expected this to result in a " financial settlement " , but it is still uncertain whether this ultimately happened .
= = Reception = =
Debbie Chang of BuddyTV.com expressed disappointment in the shows ' development throughout the season , by stating it was " all about couples , jumping in and out of relationships , trying their darnedest to have hot sex on the cramped , twin @-@ sized bunk @-@ beds in the on @-@ call room " . Chang also noted the little screen time of characters Mark Sloan and Richard Webber , and the lack of romantic development in their storylines . Many critics negatively reviewed Izzie Stevens 's development in the show 's fourth season , particularly her affair with George . Katherine Heigl herself deemed their relationship " a ratings ploy " . Heigl explained : " They really hurt somebody , and they didn ’ t seem to be taking a lot of responsibility for it . I have a really hard time with that kind of thing . I ’ m maybe a little too black and white about it . I don ’ t really know Izzie very well right now . She ’ s changed a lot . " Laura Burrows of IGN stated the series became " a little more than mediocre , but less than fantastic " in its fourth season . She also said that " this season proved that even strong chemistry and good acting cannot save a show that suffers from the inevitable recycled plot . " However , the episode " Physical Attraction , Chemical Reaction " received a positive review , with Burrows stating that it " fully encompassed all the things that make this show great : intense emotional drama and macabre OR activities " . The Derek / Rose relationship received negative reviews , with Burrows stating that it was " emotional , but not remarkable " . Jack Florey of IndieLondon reviewed the characters , stating that their behaviour is the show 's biggest problem : " the self @-@ absorbed , pretentious and frequently selfish attitudes that drive the surgeons at the centre of Grey ’ s exasperate more than reward . " As for the storylines , Foley stated that they didn 't " ring true " and that " the plot devices became increasingly clunky " , noting the lack of realism in arcs such as George and Callie 's marriage and the Izzie 's affair " as a means of ripping it apart " . Florrey also commented on Meredith Grey 's arc , by stating that she turned into " one of the most selfish , self @-@ centered characters on television " , whereas Mark Sloan 's storyline was named " sex @-@ obsessed , borderline misogynistic and close to scandalous " . Daniel Fienberg of Zap2It said " One of the season 's best performances came from Emmy @-@ nominated guest star Elizabeth Reaser . " Pajiba TV reviewed Reaser 's performance by stating that it " has been one of the only good things that show 's had going for it anymore . " Entertainment Weekly called Reaser 's performance as Ava the sixth most memorable patient performance on the show . About.com stated that Alex Karev developed into " a bold and overly confident surgeon " .
Several actors and members of the production team have been awarded for their work on the show during the season . At the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards on September 21 , 2008 , Sandra Oh was nominated for her performance as Cristina Yang in the episode " The Becoming " , whereas Chandra Wilson received a nomination for her portrayal of Miranda Bailey in " Lay Your Hands on Me " , both for the Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series . Katherine Heigl who portrayed Izzie Stevens declined to put her name forward for consideration at the Emmy Awards , claiming that she had been given insufficient material on the series to warrant a nomination . Diahann Carroll was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for her portrayal of Jane Burke in " Love / Addiction " . The make @-@ up team , consisting of Norman T. Leavitt , Brigitte Bugayong , Thomas R. Burman and Bari Dreiband @-@ Burman , was nominated for both Best Prosthetic Make @-@ Up in " Forever Young " and Best Non @-@ Prosthetic Make @-@ Up in " Crash Into Me " . Sara Ramirez 's portrayal of Callie Torres was positively reviewed , resulting in her receiving a nomination at the 2008 American Latino Media Arts Awards . At the 65th Golden Globe Awards in January 13 , 2008 , the series was nominated for Best Drama Television Series , whereas Katherine Heigl 's individual performance resulted in a nomination for Best Supporting Actress in a Television Series . At the 40th National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Image Awards , Chandra Wilson won Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series , where Shonda Rhimes was awarded at the Outstanding Writing in a Dramatic Series category , for " Freedom " . James Pickens , Jr. also received a nomination for his performance as Richard Webber at the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series category . At the 2008 Prism Awards , Justin Chambers was nominated for Performance in a Drama Series Episode , whereas Elizabeth Reaser received a nomination for Performance in a Drama Multi @-@ Episode Storyline . At the Teen Choice Awards in 2008 , Patrick Dempsey and Katherine Heigl were nominated for Choice Television Actor and Actress .
The season was the second to air in the Thursday night time slot , at 9 : 00 ET , after it was moved at the beginning of the third season , following two seasons in the Sunday night timeslot , as a lead @-@ out to Desperate Housewives , which aired at 9 : 00 ET for its entire run . The season aired as a lead @-@ out to Ugly Betty , then in its second season , which aired on Thursday nights at 8 : 00 ET . Grey 's Anatomy averaged 15 @.@ 92 million viewers in its fourth season , ranking tenth in viewership . The highest @-@ rated episode of the season was the season premiere , with 20 @.@ 93 million viewers tuning in and a 7 @.@ 3 rating , ranking the third for the week . The episode showed a decrease in ratings compared to the previous season premiere , which had almost five more million viewers tuning in and a 9 @.@ 0 rating . The season premiere also attracted less viewers than the previous season finale , which was watched by 22 @.@ 57 million viewers , and received an 8 @.@ 0 rating Although " A Change is Gonna Come " attracted more viewers than Desperate Housewives 's " Now You Know " , which was watched by 19 @.@ 32 million viewers , received a 6 @.@ 7 rating and ranked fourth in the week , the episode was outperformed by CSI : Crime Scene Investigation 's " Dead Doll " , which aired in the same hour and ranked first in the week , with 25 @.@ 22 million viewers tuning in and an 8 @.@ 8 rating . The lowest @-@ rated episode was the ninth , watched by 14 @.@ 11 million viewers and ranked fourteenth in the week , with a 4 @.@ 9 rating , seeing a sudden decrease , after the previous episode , the second most @-@ watched in the season , which attracted 19 @.@ 61 million viewers and received a 6 @.@ 8 rating . " Crash Into Me : Part 1 " was outperformed in the time slot by CSI : Crime Scene Investigation 's " You Kill Me " , the Thanksgiving special episode which attracted 14 @.@ 75 million viewers and received a 5 @.@ 2 rating , ranking eleventh in the week . The season finale was watched by 18 @.@ 09 million viewers , being the first season finale of Grey 's Anatomy to attract less than 20 million viewers . It was ranked fifth in the week , and received a 6 @.@ 3 rating . There was a significant decrease in the number of viewers , compared to the previous season finale , which attracted almost four more million viewers and received an 8 @.@ 0 rating .
= = Episodes = =
The number in the " No. in series " column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series , whereas the number in the " No. in season " column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season . " U.S. viewers in millions " refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live . The fourth season 's episodes are altogether 740 minutes in length .
= = DVD Release = =
The fourth season was officially released on DVD in region 1 on September 9 , 2008 , almost three weeks before the
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vičius and Antanas Gustaitis were instrumental in improving on aeronautical designs . While at the military school Marcinkus played for the KSK ( Kauno sporto klubas ) football club . After his father 's death in 1927 , Marcinkus took on the responsibility of supporting his remaining family , he also began playing football for LFLS Kaunas .
The aviator Steponas Darius , with associates , had established the Lietuvos Fizinio Lavinimo Sąjunga , which soon became one of the leading football clubs in Lithuania . Marcinkus joined the club and won a national championship during his first season . On 27 July 1927 , Marcinkus played for Lithuania in an international match . Although they lost , Marcinkus managed to score his first goal in an international game . The Lithuanian team 's coach predicted a bright future for Marcinkus in football . At that time football was among the most popular sports in Kaunas .
In 1928 Marcinkus graduated from the Kaunas Military School and received a commission as an infantry second lieutenant . From 1930 until 1932 he attended the Vytautas the Great Military Institute 's aviation department and became a military pilot . While pursuing his military career , Marcinkus did not abandon his passion for football . He became a Lithuanian football champion three times . His team won the cup for the Baltic states ' championship twice , and he played over forty games for the national team . Eventually , Marcinkus became a coach for the national team . He also wrote several articles about football and ethics in sports . His many successes made him a celebrity in his home county . He is considered one of the best Lithuanian players of that time .
In 1933 , Marcinkus advanced to the rank of lieutenant , which was conferred by Lithuanian President , Antanas Smetona . In the same year he married Aleksandra Lingytė . Lingytė was also a prominent Lithuanian sportswoman ; she won several basketball championships for Lithuania . Around the same time , inspired by Klemensas Martinkus , Marcinkus became a paratrooper instructor . Soon he became a parachuting master in the air force and participated in various air shows .
In 1934 Marcinkus was transferred to the air reconnaissance department , there he started improving his expertise in independent flying , mapping , photography , and weapon systems . 1934 proved to be a challenging year for Marcinkus . Antanas Gustaitis , a prominent Lithuanian aircraft constructor and commander of Lithuanian Military Aviation , invited Marcinkus to participate in a trans @-@ European flight , along with Jonas Liorentas , Juozas Namikas , Jonas Mikėnas , and Kazys Rimkevičius . After detailed planning and preparation , the trans @-@ European flight was begun in the same year . During the 25 days of their flight , the pilots flew three of Gustaitis ' designed aircraft , the ANBO IVs , over 10 @,@ 000 kilometers and visited 12 European capitals . The Lithuanian pilots were warmly welcomed in the countries they visited . They were received by the British Royal Family and the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini .
Upon his return , Marcinkus was promoted to the rank of captain and decorated with the Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas Knight 's Cross . He was also named head of the aviation physical education department . He went on to establish a junior football team and teach German . His superiors noted that Marcinkus seemed more interested in sports than in his military duties at that time . His sporting career ended in 1938 , however , when he injured a knee and was forced to abandon football . Despite the fact that he was decorated with steel wings ( plieno sparnai ) , the highest award in Lithuanian military aviation , the following year proved very trying on a personal level . He was burdened with debts and underwent a nervous breakdown . His military career was interrupted by a scandal and he was transferred to the reserves .
While the Winter War was gathering momentum , Marcinkus argued for supporting Finland , but Lithuania remained neutral during the conflict . Nevertheless , some Lithuanians left to fight alongside the Finns . In 1940 Marcinkus also left Lithuania , apparently intending to help Finland , although the war had ended by the time he arrived . Soon afterwards he traveled to France , then at war with Germany .
= = In French army service = =
Marcinkus arrived in France in mid @-@ March 1940 and immediately requested acceptance into the French Air Force . Bureaucratic delays hindered his enlistment . By the time these hurdles were cleared , the Battle for France was rapidly drawing to a close . It is possible , however , that Marcinkus succeeded in shooting down several German military planes during his short career in the French air force .
After France surrendered , Marcinkus managed to make his way to the French colonies in Africa ( Morocco and Algeria ) . He decided to go to Great Britain and continue fighting , but the French army 's terms of armistice at Compiègne and tensions between Britain and France made this difficult . On 12 August 1940 he was finally demobilized from the French army . Marcinkus and some of his associates concocted a daring plan to commandeer several aircraft without authorization and fly to England . The plan was not executed due to increased security at airfields and other circumstances . He finally received the necessary documents enabling him to go to Britain in autumn of 1940 .
= = In British service = =
In October 1940 , Marcinkus reached Liverpool , and from there travelled on to London . On 24 December of the same year , Marcinkus became a pilot in the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . To achieve that , he changed some of his personal data ; he stated that he was three years younger , otherwise he would have been too old for service in the RAF . At that time , his homeland Lithuania had already lost its independence , and the Lithuanian air force was rapidly liquidated by its occupiers . Throughout the years , Maricinkus maintained close contacts with the Lithuanian attaché in Britain in order to receive news about Lithuania and his family .
On 1 January 1941 , Marcinkus was transferred to a training base . He demonstrated his flying skills , hoping to fly the British Hurricane fighter aircraft . He was successful and was transferred to No. 1 Squadron RAF . Marcinkus became the only Lithuanian pilot to fly for the RAF during the Second World War . Marcinkus wrote in his letter about the new challenges lying ahead :
I was transferred to the night fighters – at that time the most dangerous kind of military aviation . But I like danger – I faced danger during my entire life , in flying , sports , and personal life . With this I am satisfied , but ... I am lacking warmth and the comfort of my personal life in this country of " cold slob weather and so called correctness " .
In one of the Marcinkus 's letters to the Lithuanian envoy , Bronius Balutis , he notes that he shot down his first German bomber , a Dornier Do 17 in March . Marcinkus also wrote that he was gathering skills and knowledge in order to make a contribution towards liberating Lithuania and restoring its independence .
In the RAF , Marcinkus carried out multiple tasks , including various training missions , night combat and bomber escort . In June , Marcinkus and his squadron members engaged in prolonged air combat with the Luftwaffe . As later reports confirm , the Germans lost four Me 109 fighter aircraft , one of which was shot down by Marcinkus . The original report submitted by Marcinkus claiming one Me 109 shot down on 21 June 1941 is held in The National Archives ; he states that he fired two short bursts from his guns from 100 yards behind the German . Sergeant Blasil , also of 1 Squadron , witnessed the plane break up in the air . On the allied side , one American pilot was missing . The last mission Marcinkus carried out as a RAF pilot was on 12 February 1942 .
On 11 February 1942 , a German operation codenamed " Cerberus " had commenced , in which a German Kriegsmarine squadron consisting of Scharnhorst , Gneisenau and Prinz Eugen , supported by a number of smaller ships , attempted to sail to their home bases via the English Channel . Six fighters from No. 1 Squadron were tasked with intercepting German ships and attacking German torpedo boats . Marcinkus was among the pilots . On 12 February , while attacking the Scharnhorst , his plane was shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire and crashed into the sea . Romualdas Marcinkus suffered a spinal fracture and was rescued by Germans , subsequently becoming a prisoner of war . During the course of the battle , the British lost approximately forty planes and failed to prevent the German fleet from returning to Kiel and Wilhelmshaven .
= = The Great Escape = =
Marcinkus was sent to Stalag Luft III , a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp near Sagan that housed captured air force servicemen during the Second World War . The camp was restructured several times in order to accommodate more POWs . It would eventually hold over 10 @,@ 000 inmates . Marcinkus was the only known Lithuanian at the camp .
Squadron Leader Roger Bushell selected inmates and began planning an escape , at first focused on digging a tunnel . Already experienced from earlier escapes , Bushell became the nominal leader of this endeavour . The group expanded and accepted Marcinkus into their ranks — his fluent command of several languages , most importantly German , was seen as valuable .
The prisoners delegated various tasks amongst themselves in order to better implement their escape . Marcinkus began working on creating forged documents that would aid the escapees once they were out of the confines of the Stalag . He also contributed his intelligence to analyses of the Baltic and Low Countries . His extensive knowledge of Germany 's military and transport positions led to his nickname as " Know @-@ it @-@ All . " He analyzed German news reports , but his most important contribution was his compilation of the German railway schedules , an essential part of the escape plan . Bertram James remembered Marcinkus ' contribution to the escape operation :
While I didn 't know Marcinkus directly , but I remember him very well . I remember him as friendly guy , having a good character , he also had a phenomenal memory . He was especially good at memorizing numbers , dates , and after analyzing a pile of information , he made a precise compilation of the Reich 's railway schedules . These schedules were used by men , who during the Great Escape traveled by train , including me ... He was fluent in German , perhaps this allowed him to bribe or negotiate with German officials in order to get needed information , but I know for sure , that Marcinkus ' analyzed vast amounts of information and became very useful during the Great Escape .
During March 1944 , final preparations for the escape gathered momentum . In its original form about 200 prisoners were to escape . As cover stories , they were to pose as foreign workers from a number of countries . According
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to the plan , Marcinkus needed to be among the first escapees . He was selected to lead a group of four prisoners posing as Lithuanian workers traveling back to Lithuania . The group 's prospects hinged on the hope that the Germans encountered on the way would not speak or understand Lithuanian , as Marcinkus was the only member fluent in that language .
On the night of 25 March , the prisoners enacted their plan . Serious problems arose immediately . The tunnel hatch proved difficult to open and the tunnel exit was several metres short of the relatively safe forested area . These problems led to delays and only 76 POWs managed to make their break for freedom . As originally intended , Marcinkus was one of the first ten to escape .
Marcinkus and the three prisoners in his group posing as Lithuanians – Tim Walenn , Henri Picard and Gordon Brettell – managed to reach a train heading towards Danzig ( now Gdansk , Poland ) . Most likely , they intended to travel to East Prussia , cross the Lithuanian border , and somehow cross the Baltic Sea to neutral Sweden . However , officials at the Stalag had discovered the escape and began manhunts . Marcinkus and his group travelled further than most of the escapees , but were captured by the Gestapo near Schneidemühl on 26 March . Marcinkus and his associates were brought to Stalag XXB and spent the night there . On the following day they were handed over to the Danzig Gestapo .
= = Death = =
Officers of the Danzig Gestapo took Marcinkus to a forest near Pruśce and executed him . On 29 March his body was cremated in Danzig 's Gestapo crematorium .
The executions of the fifty recaptured servicemen were sanctioned by Adolf Hitler . Only three escapees managed to reach their final destinations . The Gestapo claimed that the recaptured servicemen were shot after resisting arrest and while attempting to escape again . By the time of his death Marcinkus held the rank of flight lieutenant in the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve .
= = Commemoration = =
Details of the Great Escape executions reached the British Government . Its Foreign Secretary , Anthony Eden , then delivered this speech to the House of Commons :
His Majesty 's Government must , therefore , record their solemn protest against these cold @-@ blooded acts of butchery . They will never cease in their efforts to collect the evidence to identify all those responsible . They are firmly resolved that these foul criminals shall be tracked down to the last man wherever they may take refuge . When the war is over they will be brought to exemplary justice .
The remaining inmates at Stalag Luft III erected a memorial to their fifty executed comrades at the end of 1944 . Following the war , the Allies launched an investigation into the escaped prisoners ' executions and named seventy @-@ two individuals as responsible . Marcinkus ' killer was convicted in 1948 . In the same year Marcinkus ' burial place was identified and an urn containing his ashes was transferred to the British section of the Old Garrison Cemetery in Poznań , his grave is marked by a Commonwealth War Graves Commission headstone .
Marcinkus was posthumously mentioned in despatches in the 1944 King 's Birthday Honours , he also received the 1939 – 45 Star , the Air Crew Europe Star , and the War Medal 1939 – 1945 . British authorities attempted to contact his relatives in Lithuania , but Lithuania — as a Soviet Socialist Republic — was behind the Iron Curtain , and they were advised to stop these attempts since his relatives might suffer negative consequences . At the time Soviet authorities saw those people who maintained contacts with the West as untrustworthy .
Marcinkus was seldom mentioned during the Cold War and his pre @-@ war biography was only reprinted in the Lithuanian émigré press , particularly in the US During the 1950s articles about Marcinkus began to appear in these newspapers , including Karys , Vienas iš daugelio ( 1950 ) , Paskutinis žuvusiojo lakūno atvirukas ( 1955 ) , and Kapitono Marcinkaus mirtis nelaisvėje ( 1956 ) . The first significant publication discussing Marcinkus in Soviet Lithuania appeared in a 1967 issue of the journal Švytūrys . Thereinafter Marcinkus 's life was more frequently mentioned , although much of the information presented was inaccurate and incomplete .
After Lithuania successfully re @-@ established its independence , interest in his story gained momentum in Lithuania and elsewhere . In Jurbarkas , a street was named after him . The Lithuanian Air Force now sponsors the Marcinkus Pistol Marksmanship Cup . In 2001 the British Ambassador in Vilnius gave Marcinkus ' previously unclaimed war medals to a surviving relative , his nephew , Alvydas Gabėnas , during a commemorative ceremony . The RAF provided a fly @-@ past of Harrier jets from Marcinkus ' No. 1 Squadron RAF , in which one aircraft saluted the ceremony . In the same year a plaque was dedicated to honour the famous Lithuanian pilot in Kaunas . Gražina Sviderskytė , a CNN award @-@ winning journalist , wrote a detailed account of Marcinkus ' life in her book Uragano kapitonas ( " Hurricane Captain " ) , which was published in 2004 . A documentary film with the same title was produced in 2004 . Marcinkus ' life story was reprinted in various foreign publications in the USA , Canada , and Japan .
= Mount Hood =
Mount Hood , called Wy 'east by the Multnomah tribe , is a potentially active stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc of northern Oregon . It was formed by a subduction zone on the Pacific coast and rests in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States . It is located about 50 miles ( 80 km ) east @-@ southeast of Portland , on the border between Clackamas and Hood River counties . In addition to being Oregon 's highest mountain , it is one of the loftiest mountains in the nation based on its prominence .
The height assigned to Mount Hood 's snow @-@ covered peak has varied over its history . Modern sources point to three different heights : 11 @,@ 249 feet ( 3 @,@ 429 m ) , a 1991 adjustment of a 1986 measurement by the U.S. National Geodetic Survey ( NGS ) , 11 @,@ 240 feet ( 3 @,@ 426 m ) based on a 1993 scientific expedition , and 11 @,@ 239 feet ( 3 @,@ 426 m ) of slightly older origin . The peak is home to 12 named glaciers and snowfields . It is the highest point in Oregon and the fourth highest in the Cascade Range . Mount Hood is considered the Oregon volcano most likely to erupt , though based on its history , an explosive eruption is unlikely . Still , the odds of an eruption in the next 30 years are estimated at between 3 and 7 percent , so the U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) characterizes it as " potentially active " , but the mountain is informally considered dormant .
= = Establishments = =
Timberline Lodge is a National Historic Landmark located on the southern flank of Mount Hood just below Palmer Glacier , with an elevation of about 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) .
The mountain has six ski areas : Timberline , Mount Hood Meadows , Ski Bowl , Cooper Spur , Snow Bunny , and Summit . They total over 4 @,@ 600 acres ( 7 @.@ 2 sq mi ; 19 km2 ) of skiable terrain ; Timberline offers the only year @-@ round lift @-@ served skiing in North America .
Mount Hood is within the Mount Hood National Forest , which comprises 1 @,@ 067 @,@ 043 acres ( 1 @,@ 667 sq mi ; 4 @,@ 318 km2 ) of land — including four designated wilderness areas that total 314 @,@ 078 acres ( 491 sq mi ; 1 @,@ 271 km2 ) — and more than 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) of hiking trails .
The most northwestern pass around the mountain is called Lolo Pass . Native Americans crossed the pass while traveling between the Willamette Valley and Celilo Falls .
= = Name = =
The Multnomah name for Mount Hood was Wy 'east . In one version of the legend , the two sons of the Great Spirit Sahale fell in love with the beautiful maiden Loowit , who could not decide which to choose . The two braves , Wy 'east and Klickitat , burned forests and villages in their battle over her . Sahale became enraged and smote the three lovers . Seeing what he had done , he erected three mountain peaks to mark where each fell . He made beautiful Mount St. Helens for Loowit , proud and erect Mount Hood for Wy 'east , and the somber Mount Adams for the mourning Klickitat .
There are other versions of the legend . In another telling , Wy 'east ( Hood ) battles Pahto ( Adams ) for the fair La @-@ wa @-@ la @-@ clough ( St. Helens ) . Or again Wy 'east , the chief of the Multnomah tribe , competed with the chief of the Klickitat tribe . Their great anger led to their transformation into volcanoes . Their battle is said to have destroyed the Bridge of the Gods and thus created the great Cascades Rapids of the Columbia River .
The mountain was given its present name on October 29 , 1792 , by Lt. William Broughton , a member of Captain George Vancouver 's discovery expedition . Lt. Broughton observed its peak while at Belle Vue Point of what is now called Sauvie Island during his travels up the Columbia River , writing , " A very high , snowy mountain now appeared rising beautifully conspicuous in the midst of an extensive tract of low or moderately elevated land [ location of today 's Vancouver , Washington ] lying S 67 E. , and seemed to announce a termination to the river . " Lt. Broughton named the mountain after Lord ( Samuel ) Hood , a British Admiral at the Battle of the Chesapeake .
Lewis and Clark spotted the mountain on October 18 , 1805 . A few days later at what would become The Dalles , Clark wrote , " The pinnacle of the round topped mountain , which we saw a short distance below the banks of the river , is South 43 @-@ degrees West of us and about 37 miles ( 60 km ) . It is at this time topped with snow . We called this the Falls Mountain , or Timm Mountain . " Timm was the native name for Celilo Falls . Clark later noted that it was also Vancouver 's Mount Hood .
Two French explorers from the Hudson 's Bay Company may have traveled into the Dog River area east of Mount Hood in 1818 . They reported climbing to a glacier on " Montagne de Neige " ( Mountain of Snow ) , probably Eliot Glacier .
= = = Ships = = =
There have been two United States Navy ammunition ships named for Mount Hood , despite the mountain 's namesake having been an enemy commander . USS Mount Hood ( AE @-@ 11 ) was commissioned in July 1944 and was destroyed in November 1944 while at anchor in Manus Naval Base , Admiralty Islands . Her explosive cargo ignited , resulting in 45 confirmed dead , 327 missing and 371 injured . A second ammunition ship , AE @-@ 29 , was commissioned in May 1971 and decommissioned in August 1999 .
= = Volcanic activity = =
The glacially eroded summit area consists of several andesitic or dacitic lava domes ; Pleistocene collapses produced avalanches and lahars ( rapidly moving mudflows ) that traveled across the Columbia River to the north . The eroded volcano has had at least four major eruptive periods during the past 15 @,@ 000 years .
The last three eruptions at Mount Hood occurred within the past 1 @,@ 800 years from vents high on the southwest flank and produced deposits that were distributed primarily to the south and west along the Sandy and Zigzag rivers . The last eruptive period took place around 220 to 170 years ago , when dacitic lava domes , pyroclastic flows and mudflows were produced without major explosive eruptions . The prominent Crater Rock just below the summit is hypothesized to be the remains of one of these now @-@ eroded domes . This period includes the last major eruption of 1781 to 1782 with a slightly more recent episode ending shortly before the arrival of Lewis and Clark in 1805 . The latest minor eruptive event occurred in August 1907 .
The glaciers on the mountain 's upper slopes may be a source of potentially dangerous lahars when the mountain next erupts . There are vents near the summit that are known for emitting gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide . Prior to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens , the only known fatality related to volcanic activity in the Cascades occurred in 1934 , when a climber suffocated in oxygen @-@ poor air while exploring ice caves melted by fumaroles in Coalman Glacier .
Since 1950 , there have been several earthquake swarms each year at Mount Hood , most notably in July 1980 and June 2002 . Seismic activity is monitored by the USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory in Vancouver , Washington , which issues weekly updates ( and daily updates if significant eruptive activity is occurring at a Cascades volcano ) .
The most recent evidence of volcanic activity at Mount Hood consists of fumaroles near Crater Rock and hot springs on the flanks of the volcano .
= = Elevation = =
Mount Hood was first seen by European explorers in 1792 and is believed to have maintained a consistent summit elevation , varying by no more than a few feet due to mild seismic activity . Elevation changes since the 1950s are predominantly due to improved survey methods and model refinements of the shape of the Earth ( see vertical reference datum ) . Despite the physical consistency , the estimated elevation of Mount Hood has varied substantially over the years .
Early explorers on the Columbia River estimated the elevation to be 10 @,@ 000 to 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 700 m ) . Two people in Thomas J. Dryer 's 1854 expedition calculated the elevation to be 18 @,@ 361 feet ( 5 @,@ 596 m ) and that the tree line was at about 11 @,@ 250 feet ( 3 @,@ 430 m ) . Two months later , a Mr. Belden claimed to have climbed the mountain during a hunting trip and determined it to be 19 @,@ 400 feet ( 5 @,@ 900 m ) upon which " pores oozed blood , eyes bled , and blood rushed from their ears . " Sometime by 1866 , Reverend G. H. Atkinson determined it to be 17 @,@ 600 feet ( 5 @,@ 400 m ) . A Portland engineer used surveying methods from a Portland baseline and calculated a height of between 18 @,@ 000 and 19 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 and 5 @,@ 800 m ) . Many maps distributed in the late 19th century cited 18 @,@ 361 feet ( 5 @,@ 596 m ) , though Mitchell 's School Atlas gave 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) as the correct value . For some time , many references assumed Mount Hood to be the highest point in North America .
Modern height surveys also vary , but not by the huge margins seen in the past . A 1993 survey by a scientific party that arrived at the peak 's summit with 16 pounds ( 7 @.@ 3 kg ) of electronic equipment reported a height of 11 @,@ 240 feet ( 3 @,@ 426 m ) , claimed to be accurate to within 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 32 mm ) . Many modern sources likewise list 11 @,@ 240 feet ( 3 @,@ 426 m ) as the height . However , numerous others place the peak 's height one foot lower , at 11 @,@ 239 feet ( 3 @,@ 426 m ) . Finally , a height of 11 @,@ 249 feet ( 3 @,@ 429 m ) has also been reported .
Mount Hood 's tree line is generally around 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) .
= = Glaciers = =
Mount Hood is host to 12 named glaciers or snow fields , the most visited of which is Palmer Glacier , partially within the Timberline Lodge ski area and on the most popular climbing route . The glaciers are almost exclusively above the 6 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) level , which also is about the average tree line elevation on Mount Hood . More than 80 percent of the glacial surface area is above 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) .
The glaciers and permanent snow fields have an area of 3 @,@ 331 acres ( 1 @,@ 348 ha ) and contain a volume of about 282 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 348 km3 ) . Eliot Glacier is the largest glacier by volume at 73 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 09 km3 ) , and has the thickest depth measured by ice radar at 361 feet ( 110 m ) . The largest glacier by surface area is the Coe @-@ Ladd Glacier system at 531 acres ( 215 ha ) .
Glaciers and snowfields cover about 80 percent of the mountain above the 6 @,@ 900 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) level . The glaciers declined by an average of 34 percent from 1907 – 2004 . Glaciers on Mount Hood retreated through the first half of the 20th century , advanced or at least slowed their retreat in the 1960s and 1970s , and have since returned to a pattern of retreat . The neo @-@ glacial maximum extents formed in the early 18th century .
During the last major glacial event between 29 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago , glaciers reached down to the 2 @,@ 600 @-@ to @-@ 2 @,@ 300 @-@ foot ( 790 to 700 m ) level , a distance of 9 @.@ 3 miles ( 15 @.@ 0 km ) from the summit . The retreat released considerable outwash , some of which filled and flattened the upper Hood River Valley near Parkdale and formed Dee Flat .
Older glaciation produced moraines near Brightwood and distinctive cuts on the southeast side ; they may date to 140 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = Climbing = =
Mount Hood is Oregon 's highest point and a prominent landmark visible up to 100 miles ( 160 km ) away . It has convenient access and a minimum of technical climbing challenges . About 10 @,@ 000 people attempt to climb Mount Hood each year . There are no trails to the summit . Even the " easier " southside climbing route is a technical climb with crevasses , falling rocks , and often inclement weather . Ropes , ice axes , crampons and other technical mountaineering gear are necessary . Peak climbing season is generally from April to mid @-@ June .
There are six main routes to approach the mountain with about 30 total variations for summiting . The climbs range in difficulty from class 2 to class 5 @.@ 9 + ( for Arachnophobia ) . The most popular route , dubbed the south route , begins at Timberline Lodge and proceeds up Palmer Glacier to Crater Rock , the large prominence at the head of the glacier . The route goes east around Crater Rock and crosses Coalman Glacier on the Hogsback , a ridge spanning from Crater Rock to the approach to the summit . The Hogsback terminates at a bergschrund where Coalman Glacier separates from the summit rock headwall , and then to Pearly Gates , a gap in the summit rock formation , then right onto the summit plateau and the summit proper .
Technical ice axes , fall protection , and experience are now recommended in order to attempt the left chute variation or Pearly Gates ice chute . The Forest Service is recommending several other route options due to these changes in conditions ( e.g. " Old Chute " , West Crater Rim , etc . ) .
= = = Climbing accidents = = =
As of May 2002 , more than 130 people had died in climbing @-@ related accidents since records have been kept on Mount Hood , the first in 1896 . Incidents in May 1986 , December 2006 , and December 2009 attracted intense national and international media interest . Though avalanches are a common hazard on other glaciated mountains , most Mount Hood climbing deaths are the result of falls and hypothermia . Despite a quadrupling of forest visitors since 1990 , fewer than 50 people require rescue per year . Only 3 @.@ 4 percent of search and rescue missions in 2006 were for mountain climbers .
= = Hiking = =
The Timberline Trail , which circumnavigates the entire mountain , was built in the 1930s by the Civilian Conservation Corps . Typically , the 40 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 65 @.@ 5 km ) hike is snow @-@ free from late July until the autumn snows begin . A portion of the Pacific Crest Trail is coincident with the Timberline Trail on the west side of Mount Hood .
The predecessor of the Pacific Crest Trail was the Oregon Skyline Trail , established in 1920 , which connected Mount Hood to Crater Lake .
= Pee ( South Park ) =
" Pee " is the thirteenth season finale of the American animated television series South Park . The 195th overall episode of the series , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on November 18 , 2009 . In the episode , the boys visit Pi Pi 's Splashtown waterpark , where so many people urinate in the pools that the entire park becomes engulfed in tsunamis of urine .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . " Pee " served as a parody of the disaster film genre , particularly the movie 2012 which was released five days before " Pee " was broadcast . According to Nielsen ratings , the finale episode was seen by 2 @.@ 87 million households , making it the highest rated cable show of the night . The episode received generally mixed reviews .
= = Plot = =
Cartman , Stan , Kyle , Kenny , Butters and Jimmy arrive at Pi Pi 's Splashtown waterpark . Cartman is distraught to discover that most of the park 's attendants are people of different races , while Kyle is disgusted to learn so many people freely urinate in the pools . Based on his observance of more minorities at the park than white people , Cartman calculates there will be no white people left by the year 2012 , and interprets this as a sign that Mayans accurately predicted the world would end the same year , and that the new world will be " made up of minorities . " Annoyed by Cartman 's racism , Kyle points out that since white people do not make up the majority of the park 's attendance , then they are the new minority , but Cartman refuses to believe it , ignorantly thinking that a minority is someone who is " black or brown . " At the same time , a scientist tests the park 's water and discovers it is 98 percent urine . He urges Pi Pi , the park 's Venetian owner , to immediately close and evacuate his park , claiming the high urine content will soon trigger a cataclysmic event . Pi Pi dismisses the warning , but the park is soon overcome by tsunamis of urine and volcanic eruptions . Hundreds drown in the subsequent flood , including Kenny , but the other boys manage to survive .
The park is quarantined , and the scientist advises against a mission to rescue those trapped inside , fearing their exposure to " pee contamination " has turned them into dangerous , hate @-@ filled mutants . To prove his theory , the scientist urinates onto a test monkey , which clearly becomes annoyed and enraged . An antidote to this reaction is then tested on other monkeys , but proven unsuccessful when the monkeys still become angered when urinated on . Meanwhile , Cartman clings to debris to stay afloat , while the other boys have reached higher ground . Cartman is rescued by the occupants of an inflatable raft . Noticing he is the only white person in the raft , Cartman assumes he is the " last of his species , " and that his envisioned 2012 scenario has occurred three years early . He imagines a world in which he must speak in minority slang , is paid lower wages , and eventually forced to live in a concentration camp .
The other boys find Pi Pi , who informs them the park can be drained of the inundation if someone can swim through the pee to reach an emergency release valve . Kyle reluctantly agrees to do the job as he said at the start of the episode that he could hold his breath for the longest , but is horrified to learn he must drink some of the pee in order to offset the fluid pressure he will encounter at the depths . Outside , an antidote that keeps the monkeys calm during yet another urination test is discovered : bananas . Back inside the park , Kyle reluctantly drinks a jarful of pee in preparation for his plunge into the flood . Just after he finishes the jar , helicopters arrive as part of the rescue mission . Just as Kyle complains that eating a banana would be the only ordeal more disgusting than what he has just been through , he is ordered at gunpoint to consume the antidote , much to his anger .
= = Production = =
" Pee " , the South Park thirteenth season finale , was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . Since the episode takes place in a waterpark , all animation had to be drawn from scratch . The episode was conceived a mere week before its initial broadcast , and the animation was almost completely unfinished two days before airing . Parker and Matt Stone had the idea of a waterpark @-@ themed episode for a long time and reminisced about Water World in Denver , Colorado during the episode 's production . Initially , the name of the park in the episode was Pi Pi 's Urine World . " Pee " first aired on November 18 , 2009 in the United States on Comedy Central . The episode marked the third time during the thirteenth season that Kenny was killed , a running gag throughout the series . He also died during the season premiere , " The Ring " and during " W.T.F. " During one of the final scenes , an alien holding a banana is visible among the crowd in the background . The alien was placed in the episode as part of a contest offered by the show 's official website , in which viewers who could find and identify the alien in the episode could enter a contest , with the winner getting an animated version of himself or herself placed in the South Park opening credits .
The episode featured a musical number sung by Cartman called " Not My Water Park " , in which he despairs over the number of minorities at the waterpark . He also reminisces about the park before the ride instructions were also read in Spanish . The day after " Pee " was originally broadcast , three different kinds of T @-@ shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on the episode were made available on South Park Studios , the official website of South Park . One featured Butters standing next to a puddle of urine saying , " 1 in 3 People Admit They Pee in Pools " . The second included Cartman and his quote from the episode , " Your world is cold and void of any humanity " . The third featured Stan , Cartman , Kyle and Kenny wearing bathing suits and standing in front of a Pi Pi 's Splashtown logo .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode is a parody on the disaster film genre , which has been parodied in previous South Park episodes , like " Pandemic " , the twelfth season parody of the film Cloverfield . " Pee " included a particularly large number of references to 2012 , a science fiction film about the end of the world as predicted by the Mayan calendar , which was released only days before " Pee " was originally broadcast . The episode parodies many common elements of such disaster films , including scientists struggling to figure out the source of the problem . The destruction of rides and park amenities by the tsunami of urine is a reference to the destruction of historical monuments in 2012 , and other such disaster films by Roland Emmerich , the director of 2012 , Independence Day and The Day After Tomorrow . " Pee " also includes several references to the 2012 phenomenon , the prediction that cataclysmic events would occur in the year 2012 , which is said to be the end of the Mayan Long Count calendar . The scene in which Kyle is forced to drink three cups of urine in order to prevent his body from enduring the effects of fluid pressure before swimming down to drain it all out , is a parody of a scene in the 1989 film The Abyss , where the protagonist inhales a liquid breathing medium before venturing into the ocean depths . There is also a reference to the film Alive ( 1993 ) when Randy comes to rescue the children on a helicopter . He is holding a baby red shoe , just as Nando Parrado at the end of the movie .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on November 18 , 2009 , " Pee " was watched by 2 @.@ 87 million overall households , according to the Nielsen ratings , making it the most watched cable show of the night . It beat the second highest @-@ ranked cable show , Bravo 's Top Chef , by about 600 @,@ 000 households . The episode received generally mixed reviews . If Magazine writer Carl Cortez , who was critical of the second half of season thirteen , said " Pee " ranked as one of the best episodes of the season , and said it included several " classic South Park moments " . Cortez called it a " wonderfully twisted spoof " of disaster films and called the script " pretty biting stuff ... without being wholly offensive " . Ramsey Isler of IGN said the emergency staff subplot working on a cure was not " quite perfect parody " . But he praised Kyle in the ending scene , as well as the way South Park found a new , literal twist on " toilet humor " by featuring rivers and tsunamis of pee . Sean O 'Neal of The A.V. Club said that the episode was overly offensive , rather than an ironic commentary on racism . Although O 'Neal said previous South Park episodes like " With Apologies to Jesse Jackson " were effective , " Pee " and its references to minority park attendees and the Italian waterpark owner " came off less like ironic racism and more as good , old @-@ fashioned , butter @-@ your @-@ cornbread @-@ with @-@ it racism " .
= = Home release = =
" Pee " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson .
= New York State Route 350 =
New York State Route 350 ( NY 350 ) is a north – south state highway in western Wayne County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 11 @.@ 40 miles ( 18 @.@ 35 km ) from an intersection with NY 31 and NY 31F in the village of Macedon to a junction with NY 104 in the town of Ontario . NY 350 serves as the eastern terminus for three routes : the aforementioned NY 31F , NY 286 , and NY 441 , all of which originate in the Rochester area . Aside from the village of Macedon at its south end and the hamlet of Ontario Center at its north terminus , NY 350 serves mostly rural areas dominated by farmland . NY 350 was assigned c . 1932 to the portion of its routing south of Cator Corners , the north junction with NY 31F . It was extended northward to its current terminus in the 1940s .
= = Route description = =
NY 350 begins at an intersection with NY 31 in the village of Macedon near the former Mobil Chemical and Tyco plant . The junction also serves as the eastern terminus of NY 31F , which overlaps NY 350 north from the intersection on Ontario Center Road . The conjoined routes cross over the Erie Canal and an industrial railroad spur off of the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision before exiting the village and entering the surrounding town of Macedon . NY 31F and NY 350 pass through forested areas up to an overpass carrying the Rochester Subdivision line over the road , at which point the wooded areas give way to open fields . The two routes split roughly 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 2 @.@ 82 km ) north of Macedon at a junction named Cator Corners . While NY 31F heads west through Macedon Center toward Monroe County , NY 350 continues east as Ontario Center Road .
As NY 350 departs Cator Corners , it curves back to the north , leaving Macedon Center Road — the east – west roadway that NY 31F follows from Cator Corners west to the county line — to continue east as a county road . NY 350 continues across rolling farmland to the town of Walworth , where it meets the eastern terminus of NY 441 at a four @-@ way intersection with Walworth – Penfield Road west of the hamlet of Walworth . The route continues on , entering a slightly more forested area as it heads toward a junction with NY 286 at Atlantic Avenue . Like NY 31F and NY 441 before it , NY 286 serves as an east – west connector between NY 350 and the eastern suburbs of the city of Rochester 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the west .
Past NY 286 , the wooded areas become more sporadic as NY 350 turns to travel in a more northwesterly direction across farmlands and fields . It soon enters the town of Ontario , where development along the road increases as it heads into the hamlet of Ontario Center . Here , it passes Wayne High School of the Wayne Central School District prior to intersecting Ridge Road in the center of the community . This junction once served as Ontario Center 's main business district ; however , it has been replaced in purpose by the adjacent four @-@ lane NY 104 , located just 200 yards ( 183 m ) north of Ridge Road . NY 350 ends upon intersecting the NY 104 divided highway ; however , Ontario Center Road continues north of the east – west commercial strip for 3 miles ( 5 km ) to
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-@ 200M variant . The stretched 757 @-@ 300 was only available as a passenger model . When referring to different versions , Boeing and airlines have been known to collapse the model number ( 757 ) and the variant designator ( e.g. -200 or -300 ) into a truncated form ( e.g. " 752 " or " 753 " ) . The International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) classifies all variants based on the 757 @-@ 200 under the code " B752 " , while the 757 @-@ 300 is referred to as " B753 . "
= = = 757 @-@ 200 = = =
The 757 @-@ 200 , the original version of the aircraft , entered service with Eastern Air Lines in 1983 . The type was produced with two different door configurations , both with three standard cabin doors per side : the baseline version has a fourth , smaller cabin door on each side aft of the wings , and is certified for a maximum capacity of 239 , while the alternate version has a pair of over @-@ the @-@ wing emergency exits on each side , and can seat a maximum of 224 . The 757 @-@ 200 was offered with a MTOW of up to 255 @,@ 000 pounds ( 116 @,@ 000 kg ) ; some airlines and publications have referred to higher gross weight versions with ETOPS certification as " 757 @-@ 200ERs " , but this designation is not used by the manufacturer . Similarly , versions with winglets are sometimes called " 757 @-@ 200W " or " 757 @-@ 200WL " . The first engine to power the 757 @-@ 200 , the Rolls @-@ Royce RB211 @-@ 535C , was succeeded by the upgraded RB211 @-@ 535E4 in October 1984 . Other engines used include the RB211 @-@ 535E4B , along with the PW2037 and PW2040 from Pratt & Whitney . Its range with full payload is 3 @,@ 850 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 130 km ) .
Although designed for short and medium length routes , the 757 @-@ 200 has since been used in a variety of roles ranging from high @-@ frequency shuttle services to transatlantic routes . In 1992 , after gaining ETOPS approval , American Trans Air launched 757 @-@ 200 transpacific services between Tucson and Honolulu . Since the turn of the century , mainline U.S. carriers have increasingly deployed the type on transatlantic routes to Europe , and particularly to smaller cities where passenger volumes are unable to support wide @-@ body aircraft . Production for the 757 @-@ 200 totaled 913 aircraft , making the type by far the most popular 757 model . In July 2015 , 683 of different 757 @-@ 200 versions were in service . The longest commercial route served by a 757 is United Airlines ' New York to Berlin flight at over 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 410 km ) as of February 2015 ; the aircraft assigned to this route cannot fly with full payload . United 's 757s assigned to transatlantic routes are fitted with 169 seats .
= = = 757 @-@ 200PF = = =
The 757 @-@ 200PF , the production cargo version of the 757 @-@ 200 , entered service with UPS Airlines in 1987 . Targeted at the overnight package delivery market , the freighter can carry up to 15 containers or pallets on its main deck , for a volume of up to 6 @,@ 600 cubic feet ( 187 m3 ) , while its two lower holds can carry up to 1 @,@ 830 cubic feet ( 51 @.@ 8 m3 ) of bulk cargo . The maximum revenue payload capability is 87 @,@ 700 pounds ( 39 @,@ 800 kg ) including container weight . The 757 @-@ 200PF is specified with a MTOW of 255 @,@ 000 pounds ( 116 @,@ 000 kg ) for maximal range performance ; when fully loaded , the aircraft can fly up to 3 @,@ 150 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 830 km ) . Because the freighter does not carry any passengers , it can operate transatlantic flights free of ETOPS restrictions . Power is provided by RB211 @-@ 535E4B engines from Rolls @-@ Royce , or PW2037 and PW2040 engines from Pratt & Whitney .
The freighter features a large , upward @-@ opening main deck cargo door on its forward port @-@ side fuselage . Adjacent to the large cargo door is a standard exit door used by the pilots . All other emergency exits are omitted , and cabin windows and passenger amenities are not available . The main deck cargo hold has a smooth fiberglass lining , and a fixed rigid barrier with a sliding access door serves as a restraint wall next to the flight deck . Both lower holds can be equipped with a telescoping baggage system to load custom @-@ fitted cargo modules . When equipped for extended @-@ range transatlantic operations , UPS 757 @-@ 200PFs feature an upgraded auxiliary power unit , additional cargo bay fire suppression equipment , enhanced avionics , and an optional supplemental fuel tank in the aft lower hold . Total production for the 757 @-@ 200PF totaled 80 aircraft . In July 2015 , 79 of these were in service .
= = = 757 @-@ 200M = = =
The 757 @-@ 200M , a convertible version capable of carrying cargo and passengers on its main deck , entered service with Royal Nepal Airlines in 1988 . Also known as the 757 @-@ 200 Combi , the type retains the passenger windows and cabin doors of the 757 @-@ 200 , while adding a forward port @-@ side cargo door in the manner of the 757 @-@ 200PF . Kathmandu @-@ based Royal Nepal Airlines , later renamed Nepal Airlines , included the convertible model as part of an order for two 757s in 1986 .
Nepal Airlines ordered the 757 @-@ 200M to fulfill a requirement for an aircraft that could carry mixed passenger and freight loads , and operate out of Tribhuvan International Airport in the foothills of the Himalayas . Patterned after convertible variants of the 737 and 747 , the 757 @-@ 200M can carry two to four cargo pallets on its main deck , along with 123 to 148 passengers in the remaining cabin space . Nepal Airlines ' 757 @-@ 200M , which features Rolls @-@ Royce RB211 @-@ 535E4 engines and an increased MTOW of 240 @,@ 000 pounds ( 109 @,@ 000 kg ) , was the only production example ever ordered .
In October 2010 , Pemco World Air Services and Precision Conversions launched aftermarket conversion programs to modify 757 @-@ 200s into 757 Combi aircraft . Vision Technologies Systems launched a similar program in December 2011 . All three aftermarket conversions modify the forward portion of the aircraft to provide room for up to ten cargo pallets , while leaving the remaining space to fit around 45 to 58 passenger seats . This configuration is targeted at commercial charter flights which transport heavy equipment and personnel simultaneously . Customers for converted 757 Combi aircraft include the Air Transport Services Group , National Airlines , and North American Airlines .
= = = 757 @-@ 200SF = = =
The 757 @-@ 200SF , a conversion of passenger 757 @-@ 200s for cargo use , entered service with DHL Aviation in 2001 . Modifications by Boeing Wichita in Kansas included the removal of passenger amenities , main deck structural reinforcement , and the installation of a 757 @-@ 200PF forward fuselage section with a port @-@ side cargo door . The forward two entry doors are retained , resulting in a main deck cargo capacity of 14 pallets , which is one less than the 757 @-@ 200PF . Environmental controls can be fitted for animal cargo , and rear exits and window pairs are retained on some aircraft . Besides Boeing , Israel Aerospace Industries , Precision Conversions , and ST Aerospace Services have also handled 757 @-@ 200SF conversions . In September 2006 , FedEx Express announced a US $ 2 @.@ 6 billion plan to acquire over 80 converted 757 freighters to replace its 727 fleet . In July 2015 , 173 converted 757 @-@ 200SFs were in service .
= = = 757 @-@ 300 = = =
The 757 @-@ 300 , the stretched version of the aircraft , entered service with Condor in 1999 . With an overall length of 178 @.@ 7 feet ( 54 @.@ 5 m ) , the type is the longest single @-@ aisle twinjet ever built . Designed to serve the charter airline market and provide a low @-@ cost replacement for the 767 @-@ 200 , the 757 @-@ 300 shares the basic design of the original 757 , while extending the fuselage before and after the wings . Eight standard cabin doors , plus a pair of over @-@ the @-@ wing emergency exits on each side , enable the 757 @-@ 300 to have a maximum certified capacity of 295 passengers A higher MTOW of 272 @,@ 500 pounds ( 124 @,@ 000 kg ) is specified , while fuel capacity remains unchanged ; as a result , the stretched variant offers a maximum range of 3 @,@ 395 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 290 km ) . Engines used on the type include the RB211 @-@ 535E4B from Rolls @-@ Royce and the PW2043 from Pratt & Whitney . Due to its greater length , the 757 @-@ 300 features a retractable tailskid on its aft fuselage .
Condor ordered the stretched 757 to replace its McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10s and serve as low @-@ cost , high @-@ density transportation to holiday destinations such as the Canary Islands . Because tests showed that boarding the 757 @-@ 300 could take up to eight minutes longer than the 757 @-@ 200 , Boeing and Condor developed zone @-@ based boarding procedures to expedite loading and unloading times for the lengthened aircraft . The 757 @-@ 300 has been operated by mainline carriers Continental Airlines ( now part of United Airlines ) , Northwest Airlines ( now part of Delta Air Lines ) , and Icelandair ; other operators have included American Trans Air ( the first North American operator ) , Arkia Israel Airlines , along with charter carriers Condor and Thomas Cook Airlines . Production for the 757 @-@ 300 totaled 55 aircraft . All 55 were in service in July 2015 .
= = = Government , military , and corporate = = =
Government , military , and private customers have acquired the 757 for uses ranging from aeronautical testing and research to cargo and VIP transport . The 757 @-@ 200 , the most widely ordered version of the aircraft , has formed the basis for these applications . The first government operator of the 757 was the Mexican Air Force , which took delivery of a VIP @-@ configured 757 @-@ 200 in November 1987 .
Airborne Research Integrated Experiments System – ARIES , a NASA platform for air safety and operational research , was created in 1999 using the second production 757 . The aircraft originally flew in the 757 flight test program before entering service with Eastern Air Lines . After NASA purchased the aircraft in 1994 to replace its 737 @-@ 100 testbed , it was initially used to evaluate a hybrid laminar flow control system , avionics systems for the proposed Northrop YF @-@ 23 jet fighter , and the 777 's fly @-@ by @-@ wire control system . Equipped with a flight deck research station , on @-@ board laboratories , and two experimental flight decks , ARIES was used for evaluating weather information and landing approach systems , as well as runway friction tests . ARIES went into storage in 2006 .
C @-@ 32 – the United States Air Force ( USAF ) operates four VIP @-@ configured 757 @-@ 200s under the designation C @-@ 32A , with missions including the transport of the Vice President of the United States under the callsign Air Force Two . The C @-@ 32As are outfitted with a communication center , conference room , seating area , and private living quarters . The USAF also operates two 45 @-@ seat 757 @-@ 200 aircraft , designated C @-@ 32B , for use by the U.S. State Department Foreign Emergency Support Team . The C @-@ 32As feature the blue @-@ and @-@ white paint scheme used by the USAF for its VIP transport fleet , while the C @-@ 32Bs are painted in solid white with minimal identification markings . The first C @-@ 32s were delivered in 1998 and replaced C @-@ 137 transports .
F @-@ 22 Flying Testbed – the first 757 built was used in 1998 as a testbed for Lockheed Martin F @-@ 22 Raptor avionics and sensor integration . The Boeing @-@ owned aircraft was fitted with a canard above its cockpit to simulate the jet fighter 's wing sensor layout , along with a forward F @-@ 22 fuselage section with radar and other systems , and a 30 @-@ seat laboratory with communication , electronic warfare , identification , and navigation sensors .
Krueger flap and Natural Laminar Flow Insect Mitigation Test Program – Boeing commenced a series of test flights on 17 March 2015 with a modified Boeing 757 , incorporating new wing @-@ leading @-@ edge sections and an actively blown vertical tail . The left wing has been modified to include a 6 @.@ 7 m @-@ span glove section supporting a variable @-@ camber Krueger flap which will be deployed during landing and which protrudes just ahead of the leading edge . Although Krueger flaps have been tried before as insect @-@ mitigation screens , previous designs caused additional drag ; the newer design being tested is variable @-@ camber and designed to retract as seamlessly as possible into the lower wing surface . Increasing the use of natural laminar flow ( NLF ) on an aircraft wing has the potential to improve fuel burn by as much as 15 % , but even small contaminants from insect remains will trip the flow from laminar to turbulent , destroying the performance benefit . The test flights have been supported by the European airline group TUI AG and conducted jointly with NASA as part of the agency ’ s Environmentally Responsible Aviation ( ERA ) program . While the left wing tests the Kreuger flaps , the right wing is being used to test coatings that prevent insects from adhering to the wing . Success here will open the door to the application of Natural Laminar Flow to reduce fuel burn .
Active Flow Control System – Boeing has mounted 31 active flow jets mounted ahead of the rudder 's leading edge . They receive air from the Auxiliary Power Unit ( APU ) . Their purpose is to recover air flow that has separated from the rudder and redirect it to the rudder so that the rudder regains effectiveness , even at high deflection angles . The air exiting the APU is very hot , at 380 degrees F , and is cooled by a heat exchanger mounted under the aft fuselage , which is connected to the ducts running along the front and back of the stabilizer 's spars . This ensures an even air supply at all times .
Royal New Zealand Air Force 757 Combi – the Royal New Zealand Air Force ( RNZAF ) operates two 757s converted to 757 @-@ 200M standard by ST Aerospace Services for delivering equipment , medical evacuation , troop movements , and VIP transport . A cargo door , upgraded auxiliary power unit , enhanced communications systems , and retractable airstairs are fitted . The aircraft , which replaced two 727 @-@ 100QCs , have carried the Prime Minister of New Zealand , and flown to the ice @-@ covered Pegasus Field near New Zealand 's Scott Base in McMurdo Sound , Antarctica .
VIP transport – the 757 @-@ 200 serves as VIP transports for the President of Argentina under the Presidential Air Group serial Tango 01 and for the President of Mexico under the Mexican Air Force call sign TP01 or Transporte Presidencial 1 . A Royal Brunei Airlines 757 @-@ 200 was used by the Sultan of Brunei in the 1980s before being sold to the Government of Kazakhstan in 1995 . The royal family of Saudi Arabia uses a 757 @-@ 200 as a flying hospital .
During the 2004 U.S. presidential election , Senator John Kerry chartered a 757 @-@ 200 from TransMeridian Airlines nicknamed " Freedom Bird " as his campaign jet . During the 2008 U.S. presidential election , then @-@ Senator Barack Obama chartered a 757 @-@ 20
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005 . Two sketches of the house were published by The Illustrated Police News .
It has occasionally been claimed that the house survives . This theory proposes that , following a renumbering of the street , No. 19 was deleted from the Land Survey to suppress its existence , and that the house is the current No. 18 on the eastern side of the street . Cleveland Street was indeed renumbered : the southernmost end was originally Norfolk Street . ( For example , the current number 22 Cleveland Street , was originally 10 Norfolk Street , and for a time was the home of Charles Dickens . ) However , the renumbering of Cleveland Street was ordered in 1867 , long before the scandal , by the Metropolitan Board of Works : " the odd numbers , commencing with 1 and ending with 175 , being assigned to the houses on the Western side ; that the even numbers , commencing with 2 and ending with 140 , to those on the Eastern side ; that such numbers do commence at the Southern end . " An Ordnance Survey of 1870 also shows No. 19 and its adjacent houses on the street 's western side . In an 1894 Ordnance Survey these properties have been subsumed by the new Middlesex Hospital wing .
= Soviet Strike =
Soviet Strike is a helicopter @-@ based shooter game developed and published by Electronic Arts for the PlayStation in 1996 and the Sega Saturn in 1997 . The game is a sequel to the Strike games which began on the Sega Mega Drive with Desert Strike : Return to the Gulf . Soviet Strike is the series ' first installment for a 32 @-@ bit console and was first conceived as 32 @-@ bit Strike . Early on , it was intended for the 3DO console , before development changed to the PlayStation .
Soviet Strike is set after the disintegration of the Soviet Union , and takes place in a fictionalised Russia , Eastern Europe and around the Caspian Sea . The player pilots an Apache helicopter and battles with the forces of Shadowman , a renegade ex @-@ Communist figure . Like its predecessors , the game features shooting action mixed with strategic management of fuel and ammunition , but has more authentic 3D graphics , as well as a modified overhead - as opposed to isometric - perspective . The game also features a more realistic enemy artificial intelligence and environment . Critics received the game positively , praising the graphics and full motion video , while commentary on the gameplay and difficulty was more mixed .
= = Gameplay = =
Soviet Strike is a helicopter @-@ based shooter game . As in its predecessors , the player views the action from outside his craft , using one of two available viewpoints . These are similar to the isometric perspective of the previous games , but are improved " overhead " versions . This removes the predecessors ' problem of buildings occasionally obstructing the player 's view ; and unlike the previous games , the player can no longer collide the helicopter into structures , instead always flying over them . The first camera system fixates on the Apache , while the second " allows you [ the player ] to rotate the screen around the helicopter " . The Apache is armed with a machine gun , Hydra rockets and Hellfire missiles , which vary in power and payload . The Sega Saturn version includes two hidden power @-@ up weapons : doubled machine guns and Maverick missiles . The craft has finite ammunition , fuel , and armour , and the player must manage the payload by collecting limited supplies .
The game has five large levels , each divided into several missions . Mission objectives include seeking and destroying enemy personnel and structures such as radars , training camps and ships ; rescuing prisoners @-@ of @-@ war and other persons ( including , in one mission , Boris Yeltsin ) , as well as recovering intercontinental ballistic missiles and capturing enemy commanders and agents . Soviet Strike employs a relatively realistic , fluid virtual battlefield and sophisticated artificial intelligence , which will put in motion set pieces even if the protagonist has not arrived to take part . The opposing intelligence can track the player using radar and reinforce positions accordingly . As such the player must sometimes pre @-@ emptively destroy radars . Enemy troops may also flee once they have lost a battle . Some missions require set piece solutions , including " starting an avalanche to crush a tank battalion and sealing a nuclear reactor core in a salt mine . " The game is " very tightly structured " , yet the player has the ability to roam the battlefield attacking enemies at will .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
The player is a helicopter pilot in STRIKE , a special covert operations force of the US military designed for preemptive action to prevent " wars that never happen . " STRIKE 's commander is General Earle , who has electronics expert Hack and agent Andrea Grey ( whose cover job is a news reporter ) working for him . The other protagonists are STRIKE asset Nick Arnold , guerrilla fighter Amad , and former Soviet Army pilot Ivan Uralia . The game 's antagonists are former KGB Chairman Uri " Shadowman " Vatsiznov , Ireki dictator Sadissa Savak , and disgraced Soviet scientist Dr Grymyenko Ukrainian .
A series of voiceovers called STRIKE Files outline the origins of STRIKE . One such file has General Earle detailing the organization 's mandate to US President Bill Clinton after his inauguration in January 1993 . In the tape , Clinton is unaware that STRIKE prevented a civil war in Mexico in 1982 which could have turned the country into a secret Warsaw Pact member @-@ state .
= = = Plot = = =
The end of the Soviet Union leaves a power vacuum in Eastern Europe that former KGB Chairman Uri Vatsiznov , AKA the Shadowman , is willing to exploit for his own ends . In the first mission , which takes place in the Crimea , the player must rescue a captured spy named Nick Arnold to retrieve intelligence on the game 's antagonist . The second level is set in the Sea of Azov : the player must battle the elements of the Black Sea Fleet which is preparing to invade Europe . The mission also involves the rescue of guerrilla fighter Amad .
STRIKE 's victory in the Black Sea leads them to the Caucasus , where Sadissa Savak , leader of the fictional state of Irek , begins aggressive overtures against local fighters . In the mission ( which is supposedly north of the main battle area where Desert Strike took place ) , the player and Amad join forces with a militia run by Amad 's relatives in stopping Ireki troops from capturing an ex @-@ Soviet chemical weapons plant . With STRIKE killing Savak ( and passed off as the victim of a car crash ) , the group goes to a heavily irradiated Transylvania to rescue Nick once more , this time from Dr Grymyenko Ukrainian , who wields an arsenal of ballistic missiles . The player is also tasked to kill the Shadowman 's lead armor commander , Vila , who operates a special red @-@ turreted T @-@ 80 , and aid in the destruction of an abandoned nuclear reactor the Shadowman is planning to use .
The final mission takes place in Moscow , with Shadowman 's unleashing his minions in the KGB , the military and the Russian mafia in attempting a coup against President Boris Yeltsin 's government . The player must prevent a bombing on the Kremlin before seeking out and killing Shadowman . The game 's end sequence depicts Andrea delivering a televised news report blaming the destruction on an earthquake and consequent gas fires .
= = Development = =
Soviet Strike began development as a game for the 3DO under the working title of 32 @-@ bit Strike . Strike series creator Mike Posehn assisted in early programming and the design but otherwise did not wish to work as part of a large team , necessitated by the move to a more advanced console . The development team , who had already spent several months working on the 3DO version , decided to rework it instead as a PlayStation game when it was clear that the 3DO 's demise was inevitable ; an additional two years ' labor time was the result . The team re @-@ evaluated the basics of the 16 @-@ bit games and aimed to create more lifelike environments and enemy behaviour . The 3D engine - created by the Road Rash 3DO team - used satellite images of real topography , imposed on polygonal maps . It also modified the preceding isometric viewpoint - which caused buildings to obstruct the player 's view - to an overhead perspective with which the player could move and see over terrain and structures . Unlike some of its predecessors , Soviet Strike features only a helicopter - albeit with power @-@ ups in some levels - and the team also abandoned the unpopular on @-@ foot levels found in Urban Strike . The developers aimed to include more humour in the game , with other additions being voice @-@ overs and full motion video .
The later Saturn version featured a number of changes : an optional easy difficulty setting ( providing the player with twice the fire @-@ power and slower fuel consumption ) , adjustable brightness on the heads @-@ up display ; two hidden powerful weapons ; hundreds of bug fixes from the PlayStation version ; extra sound effects added to helicopters ; improvements to the graphics of control and menu screens and compass ; stereo and mono versions ; cow sound effects ; and more improvised fuel added to level 4 . It was also compatible with the Saturn 's then @-@ recent analogue controllers . The game was followed by a further sequel , Nuclear Strike , released for the PlayStation in late 1997 .
= = Reception = =
Reviewers said the terrain graphics were " realistic " , " nearly photo @-@ realistic " , " photo @-@ realistic " and " Superb " . Others called them " gorgeous " . Reviewing the Saturn version , GameFan said the terrain " looks amazing " . Next Generation said : " the game makes a giant leap forward in terms of the environment " but called the explosions " average " , while those of the Saturn version impressed reviewers . GamePro said the " explosions are satisfying eye @-@ candy " . Jeff Gerstmann said the vehicles " look good " , while another reviewer called the structures " highly realistic " . Next Generation felt the structures and vehicles together with the terrain formed an " impressive " environment . The magazine felt the animation to be " average " ; Gerstmann called it " choppy " but overall felt the graphics an improvement over the game 's predecessors on older systems . GameFan 's Saturn review summarised the graphics as " first @-@ rate " , while Russian magazine Great Drakon also praised them .
Critics called the full motion video " stylish " , and praised the acting . Gerstmann said the FMV had " some of the best CD @-@ ROM acting seen in a long time " and called it the game 's " only real plus " . Edge noted the new video but felt it was " over @-@ the @-@ top " and intrusive , while others disagreed . GamePro compared the FMV to Desert Storm if reported by MTV , saying its " hip new attitude " was " part of the charm " , while another critic said the sequences " spice up the proceedings a fair bit " . Great Drakon also praised the FMV . Reviewing the Saturn version , GameFan noted a poorer quality of FMV than the PlayStation version . Gerstmann felt the sound to be " dull " , while Next Generation called it " exemplary " . Others praised the quality of the gunfire sound effects , and noted humour in the enemy troops ' utterances .
Gerstmann noted " a raw collection of messy operations " , while Edge praised the game 's " inventiveness " - saying it " makes Soviet Strike " - as well as the variety added by the games artificial intelligence . The magazine also felt that while the collecting of supplies added strategy to the action , the limited amount restricted the paths the player might take through the level . Another critic said the " real @-@ time , living battlefield enhances the urgency of the missions and the player 's involvement " and also noted " practically no load time . " GameFan complained of a high difficulty and a steep curve , long levels which return the player to the beginning should he die , infrequent opportunities to repair armour and the enemies ' tendency to attack the player from beyond his limited viewpoint , and was thankful for the Saturn version 's optional easier difficulty setting . Next Generation also criticised the player 's restricted view , calling it the game 's " worst problem " . One reviewer said revisiting levels to discover missed set pieces aided the game 's longevity ; Sega Saturn Magazine had " some reservations " about the game 's replay @-@ value , with only 5 missions , but said it was " very playable and enjoyable " , while another reviewer called it " a load of fun " . Gerstmann criticised the poor scrolling , erratic motion and imprecise control , Great Drakon praised the controls , while GameFan noted they had improved in the Saturn version . The reviewer also enjoyed this version 's new weaponry . Another reviewer pointed to some " minor flaws " , saying the HUD " smacks of 16 @-@ bit era graphics " ; The game impressed Great Drakon 's reviewer , who praised the attention to detail and the reviewer found the story convincing . IGN said : " Everything about this game is great . Excuse me for gushing , but when you come across a game that 's as fun to play as Soviet Strike , and great looking , you really sit up and take notice . "
Gerstmann called the quality FMV " a small victory in a larger conflict " , saying the game had " too many little problems to recommend it " and that it " simply doesn 't play as well as the old 16 @-@ bit Strike games . " Sega Saturn Magazine called it a " worthy addition " to the series and also noted improvements to the Saturn version . GameFan said the game " is everything you could wish for from a 32bit Strike " and that " it plays brilliantly , and exercises both your trigger finger and grey matter . " The magazine later reflected that the Saturn version was somewhat better but nevertheless very similar to the PlayStation original . It recommended the game to Strike fans but felt it would be an " in at the deep end " introduction for newcomers to the series . Edge summarised : " this is a fairly well @-@ engineered continuation of the four @-@ year @-@ old Strike series " , which retains the gameplay of the original but updates the graphics to true 3D . GamePro felt the game might be too slow for fans of faster paced action games , but recommended it for players of previous instalments in the series . Allgame later felt : " The series peaked with the release of Soviet Strike . "
= Climate of south @-@ west England =
The climate of south @-@ west England is classed as oceanic ( Cfb ) according to the Köppen climate classification . The oceanic climate is typified by cool winters with warmer summers and precipitation all year round , with more experienced in winter . Annual rainfall is about 1 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 39 in ) and up to 2 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 79 in ) on higher ground . Summer maxima averages range from 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) to 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) and winter minima averages range from 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) to 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) across the south @-@ west . It is the second windiest area of the United Kingdom , the majority of winds coming from the south @-@ west and north @-@ east . Government organisations predict the area will experience a rise in temperature and become the hottest region in the United Kingdom .
Inland areas of low altitude experience the least amount of precipitation . They have the highest summer maxima temperatures , but winter minima are lower than those of the coast . Snowfalls are more frequent in comparison to the coast , but less so in comparison to higher ground . They experience the lowest wind speeds and the total sunshine hours are between those of the coast and the moors . This typical climate of inland areas is more noticeable the further north @-@ east into the region .
In comparison to inland areas , the coast experiences high minimum temperatures , especially in winter , and slightly lower maximum temperatures during the summer . Rainfall is lowest at the coast and snowfall there is rarer than the rest of the region . Coastal areas are the windiest parts of the peninsula and they receive the most sunshine . The general coastal climate becomes more prevalent further south @-@ west into the region .
The south @-@ west has areas of moorland inland such as Bodmin Moor , Dartmoor and Exmoor . Because of their high altitude they experience lower temperatures and more precipitation than the rest of the south west ( approximately twice as much rainfall as lowland areas ) . Both of these factors also result in the highest levels of snowfall and the lowest levels of sunshine . Exposed areas of the moors are windier than the lowlands and can be almost as windy as the coast .
= = Definition = =
Information in this article relates to the Met Office definition of south @-@ west England , which covers Cornwall , Devon , Somerset , North Somerset , Bath and North East Somerset , South Gloucestershire , the City of Bristol and the Isles of Scilly . This is a smaller area than the UK Government 's South West England region , which also covers Gloucestershire , Wiltshire and Dorset . The region is also sometimes loosely described as the West Country .
= = Temperature = =
The south @-@ west experiences a seasonal temperature variation , although it is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom . This is because the sea is in closer proximity to inland areas of the south @-@ west than inland areas of most of the United Kingdom and the sea has less seasonal temperature variance . The sea is coldest between February and March ; as a result Cornwall and Devon are coldest in February with daily minima ranging from 1 @.@ 5 ° C ( 34 @.@ 7 ° F ) in inland Devon to 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) on the Isles of Scilly . The sea has less influence towards the north @-@ east of the region , causing January to be the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures from 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) or 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) . In the months of July and August ( the hottest part of the year ) daily maxima range from about 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) on the coast of Cornwall to 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) across inland areas of the north @-@ east ( Somerset and North Somerset ) .
The sea surrounding the south @-@ west peninsula has the highest annual mean temperature of any sea in the United Kingdom , with a temperature close to 11 ° C ( 52 ° F ) — 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) . Coastal areas of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly experience annual mean temperatures similar to that of the sea as the prevailing wind is from the sea . Towards the north @-@ east of the region , the annual mean temperature decreases and is closer to 10 ° C / 15 ° F The sea 's influence on annual temperature range is highest in west Cornwall , where the range is approximately 9 ° C / 14 ° F. In the north @-@ east of the region , the range is approximately 12 ° C / 22 ° F. Inland areas are affected by their altitude : the mean temperature decreases as altitude increases . Princetown on Dartmoor , with an altitude of 414 metres ( 1 @,@ 358 ft ) , has a mean temperature of 8 ° C ( 46 ° F ) .
The sea 's influence in the south @-@ west usually prevents cold temperatures , however temperatures can plummet during periods of cold easterly air flow : all of which have been recorded in January . In 1987 the minimum temperature recorded at St Mawgan , Cornwall was − 9 ° C ( 16 ° F ) and − 7 @.@ 2 ° C ( 19 @.@ 0 ° F ) was noted on the Isles of Scilly . Inland areas have experienced even colder conditions with − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) at Exeter International Airport , Devon in 1958 and at Bastreet , Cornwall in 1979 . Further to the north @-@ east of the region , temperatures reached − 16 @.@ 1 ° C ( 3 @.@ 0 ° F ) in Yeovilton , Somerset in 1982 .
Extremely high temperatures ( heat waves ) are rare in the south @-@ west . Their occurrence is caused by south @-@ easterly air flow that blows hot air from mainland Europe , combined with strong summer sunshine . The hottest recorded temperature in the south west is 35 @.@ 4 ° C ( 95 @.@ 7 ° F ) , on 3 August 1990 , at Saunton Sands , Devon .
= = Sunshine = =
Average annual sunshine totals rise above 1 @,@ 600 hours along the coast — higher totals are recorded on the region 's southern coast at the English Channel than on its northern coast along the Bristol Channel . 1 @,@ 400 – 1 @,@ 600 hours of annual sunshine are to be expected in inland areas of the south west . In June 1925 , the highest monthly sunshine totals were recorded : 381 @.@ 7 hours at Pendennis Point , Cornwall and 334 @.@ 8 hours at Long Ashton , Somerset . During the winter months , which are the dullest , less than 20 hours of monthly sunshine have occasionally been recorded . In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton .
In general , June is the sunniest month , because the days are at their longest , and December is the dullest . The Azores high pressure system affects the south @-@ west of England as it extends north @-@ eastwards towards the British Isles . The Azores is more influential in summer . The high pressure reduces cloud cover through the process of subsidence . In spring and summer , the sea is cool compared to the air temperature , causing less convective cloud cover . The convective cloud forms more frequently inland , especially on higher ground such as Dartmoor , Exmoor and Bodmin Moor , thus reducing the amount of sunshine . Coastal areas of the south @-@ west have more hours of sunshine .
= = Rainfall = =
Most of the rainfall in the south @-@ west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection . Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions , which is when they are most active . In summer , a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms .
The Isles of Scilly have annual rainfall totals of about 850 – 900 mm ( 33 – 35 in ) . Coastal areas of Cornwall and Devon typically receive 900 – 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 35 – 39 in ) of rainfall annually . The altitude increases the amount of rainfall . Highland areas are cooler , causing moist air to cool below the dew point as it rises over high ground forming clouds and then rain . Princetown is 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) from Plymouth and 403 metres ( 1 @,@ 322 ft ) higher , and has double the rainfall . Areas that fall in the rain shadows ( lees ) of higher ground have lower levels of rainfall : 800 mm ( 31 in ) near Exeter ( east of Dartmoor ) and 700 mm ( 28 in ) in parts of central Somerset ( east of Exmoor ) . The Mendip Hills , to the north @-@ east of the region , receive over 1 @,@ 100 mm ( 43 in ) per year and the Bath @-@ Bristol area receives around 800 – 900 mm ( 31 – 35 in ) .
The sea reaches its highest temperature in late summer / autumn and its lowest in late winter / spring . As a result , the highest rainfall can be expected in autumn and lowest in spring . The months with the most rainfall are in autumn and winter . Monthly rainfall can be variable . On the coast , most months have recorded less than 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) and , some months , less than 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) at some point . The wettest station of the region , Princetown , has recorded 7 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) of rain during May .
The number of days with at least 1 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) of rainfall correlates to the pattern of quantity of rainfall . In late spring / summer , 9 – 10 days per month recorded rain in coastal areas , 7 – 9 days in the north @-@ east and 12 – 13 days at high altitude ( Princetown ) . In winter these values increase to 15 – 16 on the coast , 12 – 13 in the north @-@ east and over 18 days in high altitude .
Very heavy rainfall- — spanning 5 – 15 hours — -is rare in the south @-@ west . Such incidences include the Lynmouth disaster of 15 August 1952 , caused by 228 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) of rainfall falling locally on Exmoor over 12 hours . Also , on 8 June 1957 , 203 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) fell at Camelford , Cornwall and in June 1917 , 243 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 6 in ) fell in 13 hours in Bruton , Somerset . The north @-@ Cornish village of Boscastle was flooded on 16 August 2004 ; a peak hourly rainfall of 80 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) was recorded . Approximately 100 people had to be rescued by helicopter and 116 cars were swept out to sea .
From December 2013 onwards the Somerset Levels suffered severe flooding as part of the wider winter storms of 2013 – 14 in the United Kingdom . The Levels are a low @-@ lying area around 10 to 12 feet ( 3 to 4 m ) above mean sea level ( O.D. ) which have been prone to flooding from fresh water and occasional salt water inundations . People have attempted to drain the area for hundreds of years . During December 2013 and January 2014 heavy rainfall led to extensive flooding with over 600 houses and 17 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 900 ha ) of agricultural land , including North Moor , Curry and Hay Moors and Greylake , affected . The village of Thorney was abandoned and Muchelney cut off .
= = Snowfall = =
Snowfall normally occurs between November and April and short snowfalls can occur between October and May on higher ground . The snow usually only settles between the months of December and March . Snow rarely falls when temperatures are greater than 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) and for snow to settle temperatures must normally be lower than 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) .
In the south @-@ west the number of days of snowfall increases with altitude : per approximately every 100 m ( 330 ft ) increase in altitude , the number of days of snow falling increases by five days . From 1979 to 2000 , on average there were fewer than 10 days per winter in which snow fell in the islands of the south @-@ west and the coastal areas of Devon and Cornwall , and slightly more than 10 days on average near to the Severn Estuary . Inland areas received between 8 – 15 days of snow falling ; more days of snow fall were noted particularly to the north @-@ east . Some upland areas received , on average , over 25 days per year of snow falling .
Similarly to the ratio of days of snow falling to altitude , the number of days in which snow settles on the ground increases by five days per every 100 m ( 330 ft ) increase in altitude . In the south @-@ west , it is rare that snow settles on the ground . From 1979 to 2000 on average , lowland areas did not record any lying snow in one out of every three years . During this period , snow settled , on average , fewer than three days per year across the Isles of Scilly and on the coasts of Devon and Cornwall . Inland areas had an average of 5 – 10 days of snow lying per year and , as with the days of snow falling ; this was higher towards the north @-@ east of the region . More than 20 days of snow lying can be expected on the high grounds of Dartmoor and Exmoor .
The south @-@ west , although the mildest region of the British Isles , has been affected by some of the most severe blizzards . Blizzards are a rare occurrence in the United Kingdom , but can occur when especially cold easterly winds from the continent meet an Atlantic depression , causing a prolonged snowstorm and high winds . This occurred in February 1978 , when 50 cm ( 20 in ) of snow accumulated in inland Devon and 90 cm ( 35 in ) on Dartmoor and Exmoor , causing by − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) winds at 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . In January 1982 , snow drifts were 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) deep around the Bristol area . Convective showers on 12 January 1987 left parts of Cornwall with deep snow : 35 cm ( 14 in ) at Falmouth , 39 cm ( 15 in ) Penzance and 23 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) on the Isles of Scilly .
= = Wind = =
The south @-@ west is the second most exposed area of the United Kingdom ; second to western Scotland . The strong winds are caused by deep depressions across or close to the British Isles . Winds are stronger in the winter @-@ half year , as the depressions ' strength and frequency increase . The lightest mean wind speeds are in summer . The speed of peak gusts and mean wind speed follow a similar pattern throughout the year .
Mean wind speeds are generally lower to the north @-@ east of the region and in inland areas . Yeovilton , lowland Somerset , has a mean wind speed that is two thirds that of St. Mawgan in coastal Cornwall . An increase in altitude in inland areas generally increases the mean wind speed ; similar wind speeds are recorded on the highest parts of Exmoor and Dartmoor as on the coast .
The majority , and the strongest , of the winds are from the south @-@ west and north @-@ east as Atlantic depressions pass from west to east over the United Kingdom . When an Atlantic depression reaches the United Kingdom , winds usually blow from the south or south @-@ west , and they change to west or north @-@ west when the depression leaves . If a depression passes along the English Channel , strong winds can occur from the east or north @-@ east . Due to anticyclogenesis over Scandinavia , the majority of winds in Spring are from the north @-@ east . Coastal areas of the south @-@ west usually experience calm or very light winds that do not have a classifiable wind direction less than 6 % of the time ; this figure is 15 % in the north @-@ east and inland areas .
Islands and exposed headlands have the highest number of days per year of gale @-@ force winds ( averaged out over ten consecutive minutes ) . A gale @-@ force wind is defined as being at least 34 knots ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) , which is 8 on the modern Beaufort scale . Gales are recorded approximately 24 days per year in the Isles of Scilly and coastal Cornwall . Further north @-@ east and further inland , the number of days decreases . Plymouth , coastal Devon , receives 16 days ; Yeovilton , Somerset , receives seven ; and Long Ashton , north @-@ west Somerset , receives four . Wind speeds can vary on local topography : wooded or urban areas sheltered by hills receive fewer days of gales and lower wind speeds .
On 15 December 1979 , there were gusts of 91 knots ( 169 km / h ; 105 mph ) at Lizard Point , Cornwall 99 knots ( 183 km / h ; 114 mph ) at St Mary 's , Isles of Scilly and 103 knots ( 191 km / h ; 119 mph ) at Gwennap Head , Cornwall . Widespread winds from the Burns ' Day storm on 25 January 1990 overturned vehicles and damaged buildings . It caused the highest wind speed during the 1971 – 2001 period to be recorded in two stations : 84 knots ( 156 km / h ; 97 mph ) at Plymouth and 85 knots ( 157 km / h ; 98 mph ) at St Mawgan . 79 knots ( 146 km / h ; 91 mph ) was recorded on top of a building in Bristol as well as 74 knots ( 137 km / h ; 85 mph ) at Exeter International Airport and 68 knots ( 126 km / h ; 78 mph ) at Yeovilton . At Plymouth , the maximum hourly mean speed was 60 knots ( 110 km / h ; 69 mph ) and at Yeovilton , 45 knots ( 83 km / h ; 52 mph ) . The Bristol Channel floods on 30 January 1607 apparently caused " many thousand " deaths and may have destroyed several small harbours . The cause of it is disputed to be either a European windstorm or a tsunami .
= = Future = =
According to a study by the Met Office , within 40 years the average temperature is likely to increase by 2 ° C ( 4 ° F ) in the south @-@ west and the average warmest summer day will increase by 3 ° C ( 6 ° F ) to be 31 ° C ( 88 ° F ) . It predicts that the region will have one of the highest annual temperatures in the United Kingdom and there will be an estimated 53 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 1 in ) increase in winter precipitation .
The rise in temperature could lead to outdoor citrus cultivation being possible . Sea level rises could cause spring tides to rise over many of the region 's harbour walls and an increase in sea level by about 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) at Newlyn . Following the announcement , the government of the United Kingdom called on the local authorities and other organisation to prepare for the consequences . All major government investments will have to consider the risks as a result of future climate change .
A report from the Environment Agency said that , over the next 25 years , investment would need to double for the building and upkeep of flood defences in order to maintain the current levels of flood protection and counter the effects of climate change . Flooding from rivers and the sea currently puts 65 @,@ 369 properties at risk in Devon and Cornwall , 29 @,@ 577 of which are at " significant risk " . Current flood defence schemes protect some of these properties from flooding . Richard Cresswell , the regional director for the Environment Agency in the south west , said :
" The latest UK climate change data shows that the risk of flooding and coastal erosion will continue to increase in future due to rising sea levels and more frequent and heavy storms . "
£ 357 million on flood risk management in Cornwall , Devon , Dorset , Somerset , South Gloucestershire and Wiltshire has been spent since 2002 , which includes spending continuing into 2009 / 10 .
Rising sea levels are likely to cause more flooding on the Somerset Levels .
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Athenaeus of Naucratis , wrote that Philitas studied false arguments and erroneous word @-@ usage so intensely that he wasted away and starved to death , and that his epitaph read :
St. George Stock analyzed the story as saying Philitas studied the Megarian school of philosophy , which cultivated and studied paradoxes such as the liar paradox : if someone says " I am lying " , is what he says true or false ? Stock wrote that Philitas worried so much over the liar paradox that he died of insomnia , and translated the epitaph as follows :
A more literal translation suggests that the invented epitaph pokes fun at Philitas ' focus on using the right words :
= = Works = =
Philitas wrote a vocabulary explaining the meanings of rare literary words , words from local dialects , and technical terms ; it probably took the form of a lexicon . The vocabulary , called Disorderly Words ( Ἄτακτοι γλῶσσαι , Átaktoi glôssai ) , has been lost , with only a few fragments quoted by later authors . One example , quoted in Athenaeus , is that the word πέλλα ( pélla ) meant " wine cup " in the ancient Greek region of Boeotia ; this was evidently contrasted to the same word meaning " milk pail " in Homer 's Iliad . Hermeneia , another scholarly work , probably contained Philitas ' versions and critical interpretations of Homer and other authors .
About thirty fragments of Philitas ' poetry are known , along with four definite titles :
Demeter , Philitas ' most famous work , consisted of elegiac couplets , or couplets in the elegiac meter . Its few surviving fragments suggest that it narrated the grain goddess Demeter 's hunt for her daughter Persephone . The fragments describe Demeter 's arrival on Cos and warm welcome by its royal family of Meropids , or humans twice normal size , thus presenting the founding myth of a local cult of Demeter on Cos .
Hermes was an epyllion , or brief mythological narrative , written in hexameter . It had the structure of a hymn , with a central narrative telling of Odysseus ' visit to the island of the king Aeolus , keeper of the winds , and of Odysseus ' secret affair with the king 's daughter Polymele . It is also possible that Hermes was a collection of such stories , with the patronage of Hermes himself as the common thread .
Playthings ( Παίγνια , Paígnia ) had two shorter collections . These poems had the structure of epigrams and their themes may have included erotica . The only surviving poem contains two elegiac couplets and has a puzzle or riddle structure characteristic of some ancient Greek drinking @-@ party songs .
Only one of the Epigrams has been fully reconstructed .
Another possible poem is Telephus , which may have been a companion to Demeter .
At most fifty verses of Philitas survive . Below is an example fragment of two verses , which was quoted in the Collection of Paradoxical Stories , whose putative author Antigonus ( often identified with Antigonus of Carystus , a near @-@ contemporary ) does not specify which work they came from ; indirect evidence suggests Demeter . These two verses show the confluence of Philitas ' interests in poetry and obscure words :
According to Antigonus , the " cactus " ( κάκτος , káktos ) was a thorny plant from Sicily , and " When a deer steps on it and is pricked , its bones remain soundless and unusable for flutes . For that reason Philitas spoke of it . " Antigonus quotes one more passage , and the 5th century AD anthologist Stobaeus quotes eleven passages from Philitas ; the remaining fragments are derived from ancient commentators who quoted Philitas when discussing rare words or names used by other authors .
= = Influence = =
Philitas was the most important intellectual figure in the early years of Hellenistic civilization . He gained instant recognition in both poetry and literary scholarship , and , as far as is known , was the first person called " poet as well as scholar " ( ποιητὴς ἅμα καὶ κριτικός , poiētḕs [ h ] áma kaì kritikós ) . As tutor to Philadelphus he is assumed to have had great influence on the development of the Mouseion at Alexandria , a scholarly institution that included the famous Library of Alexandria . A statue was erected of him , possibly at a Mouseion at Cos , and his work was explicitly acknowledged as a classic by both Theocritus and Callimachus .
His reputation for scholarship endured for at least a century . In Athens , the comic playwright Strato made jokes that assumed audiences knew about Philitas ' vocabulary , and the vocabulary was criticized more than a century later by the influential Homeric scholar Aristarchus of Samothrace in his Against Philitas ( Πρὸς Φιλίταν , Pròs Philítan ) . The geographer Strabo described him three centuries later as " simultaneously a poet and a critic " .
Philitas was the first writer whose works represent the combination of qualities now regarded as Hellenistic : variety , scholarship , and use of Homeric sources in non @-@ epic works . He directly influenced the major Hellenistic poets Callimachus and Apollonius of Rhodes . His poetry was mentioned or briefly quoted by Callimachus and by other ancient authors , and his poetic reputation endured for at least three centuries , as Augustan poets identified his name with great elegiac writing . Propertius linked him to Callimachus with the following well @-@ known couplet :
The 1st @-@ century AD rhetorician Quintilian ranked Philitas second only to Callimachus among the elegiac poets . Philitas ' influence has been found or suspected in a wide range of ancient writing ; Longus ' 2nd century AD novel Daphnis and Chloe contains a character likely named after him . Almost all that he wrote seems to have disappeared within two centuries , though , so it is unlikely that any writer later than the 2nd century BC read any but a few of his lines .
= Russian cruiser Pallada ( 1906 ) =
Pallada ( Russian : Паллада ) was the last of the four Bayan @-@ class armored cruisers built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . She was assigned to the Baltic Fleet during World War I where she captured codebooks from the German cruiser Magdeburg that had run aground during the first month of the war . The ship was torpedoed by a German submarine in October 1914 and exploded ; none of the crew survived . Pallada was the first warship lost by the Russians during the war .
= = Design and description = =
Pallada was 449 @.@ 6 feet ( 137 @.@ 0 m ) long overall . She had a maximum beam of 57 @.@ 5 feet ( 17 @.@ 5 m ) , a draught of 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) and displaced 7 @,@ 750 long tons ( 7 @,@ 870 t ) . The ship had a crew of 568 officers and men . Pallada was named in honour of the earlier Russian cruiser captured by the Japanese during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Both ships were named for the Greek goddess , Pallas Athena .
The ship had two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines with a designed total of 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 304 kW ) , but they developed 19 @,@ 320 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 410 kW ) on sea trials and drove the ship to a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 55 knots ( 41 @.@ 76 km / h ; 25 @.@ 95 mph ) . Steam for the engines was provided by 26 Belleville boilers . She could carry a maximum of 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 118 t ) of coal , although her range is unknown .
Pallada 's main armament consisted of two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 45 @-@ calibre guns in single turrets fore and aft . Her eight 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) gun were mounted in casemates on the sides of the ship 's hull . Anti @-@ torpedo boat defense was provided by 20 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) 50 @-@ calibre guns ; eight of these were mounted in casemates on the side of the hull and in the superstructure . The remaining guns were located above the six @-@ inch gun casemates in pivot mounts with gun shields . Pallada also mounted four 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . The ship also had two submerged 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , one mounted on each broadside .
The ship used Krupp armour throughout . Her waterline belt was 190 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) thick over her machinery spaces . Fore and aft , it reduced to 90 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) . The upper belt and the casemates were 60 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . The armour deck was 50 millimetres ( 2 in ) thick ; over the central battery it was a single plate , but elsewhere it consisted of a 30 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) plate over two 10 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) plates . The gun turrets were protected by 132 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) of armour and the conning tower had walls 136 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) thick .
= = Service = =
Pallada was built by the Admiralty Shipyard in Saint Petersburg . Construction began on 24 June 1905 , although she was not formally laid down until August , and the ship was launched on 10 November 1906 . Pallada was completed in February 1911 . She spent her entire career with the Baltic Fleet .
On 26 August 1914 , during the first month of World War I , the German light cruiser Magdeburg ran aground near the island of Odensholm in the Gulf of Finland . Her escort , the destroyer V @-@ 26 , failed to pull her off and rescued part of the crew before Pallada and the protected cruiser Bogatyr appeared and opened fire . The Germans blew up the front part of the ship , but failed to demolish the rest of the ship . They failed to destroy their naval codebooks , which were discovered by the Russians . A copy was later given to the British where it proved enormously helpful in reading German wireless traffic . Together with the armoured cruiser Rurik , Pallada unsuccessfully searched for German ships between Bornholm and Danzig on the night of 27 August . Less than two months later , on 11 October , she was torpedoed by the German submarine U @-@ 26 and blew up with the loss of all hands , the first Russian warship sunk during the war .
= = Wreck = =
On 6 October 2012 the Finnish newspaper Helsingin Sanomat reported that the wreck of Pallada had been discovered by a diver group outside Hanko near the coast of Finland in 2000 , but the group had waited until 2012 before publishing their find .
The ship is lying in three pieces , all upside @-@ down , at a depth of about 40 to 50 metres ( 130 to 160 ft ) . Although the wreck was severely damaged during the sinking and is now covered in silt , a number of details such as a large wooden emblem of the Russian double @-@ headed eagle are still intact . One of the eight @-@ inch turrets is resting on the seafloor next to the bow section .
On 6 September 2013 , Helsingin Sanomat reported that the previously largely untouched wreck of Pallada had been looted .
= Edmund Ætheling =
Edmund Ætheling ( / ˈɛdmənd ˈæθɪlɪŋ / ; c . 1015 – 17 – possibly 1046 , certainly by 1054 ) was a member of the royal House of Wessex as the son of Edmund Ironside , who briefly ruled as King of England between April and November 1016 . He fought the Danish Vikings under Cnut the Great , but following the Danish victory at the Battle of Assandun in October , it was agreed that Ironside would rule Wessex , while Cnut took Mercia and probably Northumbria . In November 1016 , Ironside died and Cnut became King of all England .
Intent on keeping his succession secure , Cnut sent Ironside 's two infant sons , Edward and Edmund Ætheling , to his brother in Sweden , where they were to be murdered . Instead , the princes were spared and sent to safety to the Kingdom of Hungary , where they remained in the care of King Stephen I. After fleeing assassins hired by Cnut , the Æthelings arrived at the royal court of Kievan Rus ' in 1028 . The princes remained under the tutelage of Prince Yaroslav the Wise until adulthood . In 1046 , the Æthelings both traveled to Hungary and helped the exiled Andrew of Hungary in his quest for the throne . Edmund died shortly after marrying a Hungarian princess , before 1054 .
= = Birth = =
Edmund was born either in 1015 , 1016 or 1017 . Edmund 's mother was probably Ealdgyth , Edmund Ironside 's wife ; it is possible that she was only his stepmother , as the king 's death in November 1016 left space of only one year for two children to be born . Although there is a possibility that Edmund was older than his brother , later known as Edward the Exile , it is also possible that they were twins . At the time , it was customary for posthumous sons to bear their father 's name ; thus , Edmund could have been the younger , posthumous son .
= = Life in exile = =
With Edmund Ironside dead and Cnut marrying Emma of Normandy , both Edmund and Edward were deprived of their rights to succeed to the English throne . Nonetheless , both were titled " Ætheling " , an Old English word which designated royal princes who were eligible for kingship . As Edmund and Edward were the rightful heirs of England , Cnut decided to have them murdered . Considering it " a disgrace " for the Ætheling to be killed on English soil , Cnut sent them to his half @-@ brother , Olof Skötkonung , the reigning King of Sweden , where they were to be put to death . An old ally of the princes ' grandfather , Æthelred the Unready , Olof instead sent the Ætheling to the Hungarian royal court of King Stephen I , fearing they were unsafe in the north , where Cnut 's power was great . Although exiled , Edmund and Edward still instilled hope in the leaderless Anglo @-@ Saxons of Danish England .
After his baptism in 985 , Stephen I had become the first Christian ruler of Hungary . By the time of Edmund and Edward 's arrival at his court , Stephen was married to Gisela of Bavaria and had led a peaceful reign . The Hungarian court was " a happy home " for the exiled English princes . However , in 1028 , Edmund and Edward were forced to flee Hungary after Cnut sent powerful assassins to carry out the task of murdering the two Æthelings . The princes found refuge at the court of Yaroslav the Wise , Grand Prince of Kiev .
Edmund and Edward were recorded as being " somewhat grown , and had passed twelve years " when they arrived in Yaroslav 's capital , Gardorika , another name for Kiev . A mid thirteenth @-@ century letopis ( chronicle ) records nothing of Edmund and Edward 's stay at the Kievan court , although later Russian chronicles do mention their refuge . The Anglo @-@ Saxons were Roman Catholics and Edmund and Edward were reserved towards the Eastern Orthodox character of Kievan Christianity ; Yaroslav is likely to not have allowed the Æthelings to voice their dissatisfaction . The Æthelings ' presence at the Kievan court presented itself as " a very useful negotiating counter " for Yaroslav 's Western @-@ orientated foreign policy .
After King Harthacnut 's death , the English considered bringing Edmund and Edward back to England , but nothing came of it , as the princes were still in Kiev in late 1042 . By 1043 , Edmund , now in his late twenties , was being left out of Yaroslav 's continental schemes , while Edward was elevated " to a position of sole responsibility where England 's crown or dynastic alliances were concerned . " This was possibly due to Edmund having an affair with a noble lady , which had caused quite a scandal . Andrew of Hungary , a Hungarian prince who had also been exiled , had established himself at Yaroslav 's court in the 1030s . In 1046 , during the Vata pagan uprising in Hungary , Andrew returned to his homeland with the intention of gaining the throne ; Edmund and Edward are likely to have fought for Andrew 's army and it is possible that they were present at his coronation .
= = Marriage and death = =
Ailred of Rievaulx , a near @-@ contemporary chronicler , recorded Edmund 's marriage to the daughter of a Hungarian king , but omitted to mention the name of the king and the name of the daughter . This could not have been a daughter of King Stephen , although a sister of King Samuel Aba , as well as any other princess of the huge Árpád dynasty is a possible candidate . It is possible that Edmund 's wife was named Hedwig . Edmund died shortly after the marriage , possibly during the military campaign of Andrew of Hungary in 1046 ; he was certainly dead by 1054 , when only Edward was recalled to England by the princes ' uncle , King Edward the Confessor . The king wanted to appoint his nephew as his heir , however Edward died soon after his arrival in London . With the death of Edward 's son , Edgar the Ætheling ( who had been proclaimed king in 1066 but was forced to swear
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allegiance to William the Conqueror and renounce his rights ) , around 1126 , the male line of the House of Wessex died out . Edmund was buried in Hungary , however the exact location of his grave is unknown .
= = Ancestry = =
= Aubrey Gibson =
Aubrey Hickes Lawson Gibson ( 4 May 1901 – 26 March 1973 ) was an Australian businessman , arts patron and art collector . Born and educated in Melbourne , Gibson became a successful businessman in the city , establishing his own company , A.H. Gibson Industries , which was listed on the stock exchange in the 1950s . He was also a director of other major manufacturers and distributors , including Volkswagen Australasia and Hoover Australia .
Gibson is notable for his services to the arts . He maintained a substantial private art collection . He was a founding director of the Australian Elizabethan Theatre Trust and of the National Trust of Australia , and deputy @-@ chairman of the National Gallery of Victoria .
= = Personal = =
Gibson was born on 4 May 1901 in Kew , Melbourne . The third child of Scottish business manager John Gibson and English born wife Ellen née Lawson , he was schooled at Melbourne Grammar and the University of Melbourne . He briefly studied art at the National Gallery of Victoria drawing school , but concluded that art was not his vocation . He said of that time that " with little resistance I allowed myself to be guided into commercial fields " .
He married twice , with children from both marriages . His first wife was Marjorie Isabel Kimpton , whom he married in Melbourne on 3 February 1930 , and with whom he had a daughter and a son . They were later divorced , and on 19 September 1947 in Colombo he remarried to Gertrude Jean Balfour , with whom he also had a son . Gibson lived in Hopetoun Rd , Toorak , Victoria for much of his life , but toward the end of his career he maintained a residence in Arthur Circle , Forrest in Canberra .
Gibson died on 26 March 1973 , survived by his second wife and a child of each of his marriages .
= = Professional career = =
Gibson pursued a successful business career . He worked as a salesman for Hoover products . In January 1933 he established his own company A.H. Gibson ( Electrical ) , which was a distributor of electrical appliances and parts . He also spent some time working in New York . His company became A.H. Gibson Industries Ltd , and was listed on the stock exchange from 1949 to 1959 , during which period he was chairman and managing director . Gibson also held other directorships , most notably of Volkswagen Australasia from 1961 to 1967 and Hoover Australia from 1964 to 1970 . An active member of Victoria 's wider business community in the 1940s , he was President of the Electricity and Radio Federation of Victoria ( 1947 – 1949 ) and President of the Institute of Sales and Business Management ( 1946 – 1949 ) .
Gibson 's business interests were complemented by other activities , including farming land at Berwick , Victoria .
Gibson was active in what is now the army reserve . He was made a lieutenant in the Melbourne University Rifles in 1922 , and by the time of World War II had risen to the rank of major in the reserves . Seconded to the Second Australian Imperial Force on 13 May 1940 , Gibson served in Australia and in the middle east ( 1940 – 1942 ) , where he performed adjutant and quartermaster @-@ general duties . He was made a lieutenant @-@ colonel in the Reserve of Officers on 13 May 1945 , and was made honorary colonel when placed on the retired list in 1951 .
= = Collecting and commissioning works of art = =
Although his career as an artist was fleeting , Gibson 's career as a patron and lover of art was lifelong . In the 1950s and 1960s Gibson made major contributions to the arts in Australia , both as a collector and a patron of arts organisations . He acquired the works of some of Australia 's most highly regarded artists , such as Russell Drysdale , Albert Tucker and John Brack . Other artists well represented in his collection included Noel Counihan , John Passmore , Clifton Pugh and Clive Stephen .
As a collector , Gibson 's tastes were eclectic . At the same time as acquiring paintings by " the younger Australian painters " of his time , he was also collecting antique English silver . This led one writer to exclaim of his collection that " it must surely cover more ground than almost any other private one in this country " . Toward the end of his life the collection included over 560 items from artists of over 30 countries . His fascination with silver also led him to spend time during a visit to Europe in 1952 , learning from the British silversmith Robert Stone how silverware was made . This was an experience recounted in Gibson 's only book The Rosebowl , so named because of a commission Gibson sought of Stone .
The Rosebowl was an account of a trip around the world taken by Gibson and his wife in 1951 . It described his visits to cultural institutions and contained ruminations on cultural collections policy . Reflecting on the damage caused by World War II to cultural artifacts , art and architecture , he advocated a wide distribution of works of art around the world , to afford them greater protection . He was to have an opportunity to pursue these views in later roles with the National Gallery of Victoria .
The silver rosebowl was one of a range of works commissioned by Gibson . Others included three portraits of himself : one by Manx artist Bryan Kneale , one by Australian artist Noel Counihan , and a sketch by Archibald Prize @-@ winning artist Louis Kahan , this last being in the University of Melbourne 's Clem Christesen collection .
= = Gibson and the arts in Australia = =
Gibson actively supported many Australian arts organisations . He was director of the Australian Elizabethan Theatre Trust at its foundation in 1954 , as well as being its Victorian chairman from 1955 to 1967 , and president from 1968 to 1971 . The Trust was instrumental in the foundation of major Australian arts institutions including Opera Australia , orchestras in Sydney and Melbourne , and the National Institute of Dramatic Arts .
Gibson was variously trustee , treasurer and deputy chairman of the National Gallery of Victoria ( NGV ) in the period 1956 to 1964 . The NGV was Australia 's oldest public gallery , its acquisitions largely funded by the massive but dwindling Felton Bequest . Gibson was one of several new faces brought to the Gallery 's board at a critical time : the Victorian government had announced a decision to build a new National Gallery in Melbourne , and governance of the existing institution was undergoing significant upheaval . Gibson was reported to be " always a man of strong opinions " , bringing a robust and blunt character to some of the meetings of the Gallery 's trustees . The trustees were concerned that the substantial resources of the institution 's rich Felton Bequest were not being applied effectively to ensure the representation of contemporary schools of art in the Gallery 's collection .
Seeking to directly support the NGV , Gibson financed the purchase of works by and for the Gallery , as well as making his personal collection available for exhibition . He provided a donation in 1962 allowing the NGV to purchase the Clement Meadmore sculpture Duolith III . Gibson purchased Tom Roberts ' major painting Coming South , for $ 20000 , presenting it to the NGV in 1967 . A selection from Gibson 's extensive personal collection was presented as an NGV exhibition in 1969 .
Gibson played many other roles in the arts , through societies of artists , of collectors , and through boards of which he was a member as a result of his involvement with the Australian Elizabethan Theatre Trust . These included Deputy Chairman of the Melbourne Theatre Company from 1960 to 1968 .
He was a foundation member of the National Trust of Australia ( Victoria ) in 1955 , and co @-@ founded the Society of Collectors of Fine Arts .
= Leningrad première of Shostakovich 's Symphony No. 7 =
The Leningrad première of Shostakovich 's Symphony No. 7 occurred on 9 August 1942 during the Second World War , while the city of Leningrad ( now St. Petersburg ) was under siege by Nazi German forces .
Dmitri Shostakovich had intended for the piece to be premièred by the Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra , but because of the siege that group was evacuated from the city , as was the composer himself . The world première of the symphony was held in Kuybyshev with the Bolshoi Theatre Orchestra . The Leningrad première was performed by the surviving musicians of the Leningrad Radio Orchestra , supplemented with military performers . Most of the musicians were starving , which made rehearsing difficult : musicians frequently collapsed during rehearsals , and three died . The orchestra was able to play the symphony all the way through only once before the concert .
Despite the poor condition of the performers and many of the audience members , the concert was highly successful , prompting an hour @-@ long ovation . The concert was supported by a Soviet military offensive , code @-@ named Squall , intended to silence German forces during the performance . The symphony was broadcast to the German lines by loudspeaker as a form of psychological warfare . The Leningrad première was considered by music critics to be one of the most important artistic performances of the war because of its psychological and political effects . The conductor concluded that " in that moment , we triumphed over the soulless Nazi war machine " . Reunion concerts featuring surviving musicians were convened in 1964 and 1992 to commemorate the event .
= = Background = =
Soviet composer Dmitri Shostakovich ( 1906 – 75 ) completed his Symphony No. 7 on 27 December 1941 and dedicated it to his native Leningrad . At the time Leningrad was under a 900 @-@ day siege by Nazi German forces , which would kill about a third of the city 's pre @-@ war population .
Shostakovich wanted the Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra to première the symphony , but that group had been evacuated to Novosibirsk as part of the government @-@ led cultural exodus . Instead , the world première was held in Kuybyshev on 5 March 1942 , performed by the Bolshoi Theatre Orchestra under conductor Samuil Samosud . The Moscow première was given by a combination of the Bolshoi and the All @-@ Union Radio orchestras on 29 March in the Columned Hall of the House of Unions .
The microfilmed score of the symphony was flown to Tehran in April to allow its promulgation to the West . It received its radio première in Western Europe on 22 June , in a performance broadcast by Henry Wood and the London Philharmonic Orchestra , and its concert première at a Promenade concert at London 's Royal Albert Hall on 29 June . The North American première was broadcast from New York City on 19 July 1942 by the NBC Symphony Orchestra under Arturo Toscanini .
= = Preparation = =
The Leningrad Radio Orchestra under Karl Eliasberg was the only remaining symphonic ensemble in Leningrad after the Philharmonic was evacuated . The Radio Orchestra 's last performance had taken place on 14 December 1941 and its final broadcast on 1 January 1942 . A log note from the next scheduled rehearsal reads " Rehearsal did not take place . Srabian is dead . Petrov is sick . Borishev is dead . Orchestra not working " .
On 2 April 1942 , Boris Zagorsky and Yasha Babushkin of the Leningrad city arts department announced preparations for the symphony 's performance . The hiatus in musical broadcasts was quickly ended by Andrei Zhdanov , a Soviet politician involved in the defence of Leningrad , to allow for rehearsals and provide a morale boost for the city . Performing the symphony " became a matter of civic , even military , pride " . According to an orchestra member , " the Leningrad authorities wanted to give the people some emotional stimulation so that they could feel cared for " . It was considered an important political act because of its potential value as propaganda .
Of the original 40 @-@ member Leningrad Radio Orchestra , only 14 or 15 still lived in the city ; the others had either starved to death or left to fight the enemy . Shostakovich 's symphony required an expanded orchestra of 100 players , meaning the remaining personnel were grossly insufficient . Eliasberg , at the time being treated for " dystrophy " , went door to door to seek out those musicians who had not responded to the orchestra 's reassembly due to starvation or weakness . " My God , how thin many of them were , " one of the organizers remembered . " How those people livened up when we started to ferret them out of their dark apartments . We were moved to tears when they brought out their concert clothes , their violins and cellos and flutes , and rehearsals began under the icy canopy of the studio . " A plane carrying supplies from Kuybyshev airlifted the symphony 's 252 @-@ page conductor 's score into Leningrad .
The first rehearsal in March 1942 was intended to be three hours long , but had to be stopped after 15 minutes because the 30 musicians present were too weak to play their instruments . They frequently collapsed during rehearsals , especially those playing brass instruments . Eliasberg himself had to be dragged to rehearsals on a sledge , and was eventually moved by Communist officials to an apartment nearby and given a bicycle for transport . His first attempts at conducting were like a " wounded bird with wings that are going to drop at any moment " . A report by Babushkin noted that " the first violin is dying , the drum died on his way to work , the French horn is at death 's door ... " . Orchestral players were given additional rations ( donated by civilian music enthusiasts ) in an effort to combat starvation , and hot bricks were used to radiate heat ; nevertheless , three performers died during rehearsals . Posters went up around the city requesting all musicians to report to the Radio Committee for incorporation into the orchestra . Performers were also recalled from the front or reassigned from Soviet military bands with the support of the Soviet commander of the Leningrad front , Leonid Govorov .
In addition to the Seventh Symphony , the makeshift orchestra also rehearsed traditional symphonic works by Beethoven , Tchaikovsky and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . A concert of Tchaikovsky excerpts was held on 5 April . Some players protested the decision to perform Shostakovich 's symphony , not wanting to expend their little strength on an " intricate and not very accessible " work . Eliasberg threatened to rescind the additional rations , quelling any dissent . During the rehearsals , Eliasberg was criticized for his harsh demeanour : musicians who missed rehearsals , were late , or did not perform to expectations lost their rations . One performer lost rations because he had attended his wife 's burial and was late for rehearsal . Although some sources suggest a team of copyists was employed , according to other sources musicians were made to copy out their individual parts by hand from the score .
Rehearsals were held six days a week at the Pushkin Theatre , usually from 10 am to 1 pm . However , they were frequently interrupted by air @-@ raid sirens , and some musicians were required to undertake anti @-@ aircraft or firefighting duties . To enable them to attend rehearsals , performers were granted orchestral ID cards to show at checkpoints . Members of the military orchestra ( and some ordinary troops ) were dispatched to the rehearsals to supplement the performers . Rehearsals were moved to the Philharmonia Hall in June , and in late July were increased to 5 – 6 hours a day . Instruments were in poor condition and few repairmen were available ; one oboist was asked for a cat in exchange for a repair , as the starving repairman had already eaten several .
The orchestra played the entire symphony all the way through only once before the première , at a dress rehearsal on 6 August .
= = Performance = =
The concert was given in the Grand Philharmonia Hall on 9 August 1942 . This was the day Hitler had previously designated to celebrate the fall of the city with a lavish banquet at Leningrad 's Astoria Hotel . The performance was preceded by a pre @-@ recorded radio address by Eliasberg , aired at 6 pm :
Comrades – a great occurrence in the cultural history of our city is about to take place . In a few minutes , you will hear for the first time the Seventh Symphony of Dmitri Shostakovich , our outstanding fellow citizen . He wrote this great composition in the city during the days when the enemy was , insanely , trying to enter Leningrad . When the fascist swine were bombing and shelling all Europe , and Europe believed the days of Leningrad were over . But this performance is witness to our spirit , courage and readiness to fight . Listen , Comrades !
Lieutenant @-@ General Govorov ordered a bombardment of German artillery positions in advance of the concert in a special operation , code @-@ named " Squall " . Soviet intelligence personnel had located the German batteries and observation posts a few weeks before , in preparation for the attack . Three thousand high @-@ caliber shells were lobbed onto the enemy . The purpose of the operation was to prevent the Germans from targeting the concert hall and to ensure that it would be quiet enough to hear the music over speakers he ordered to be set up . He also encouraged Soviet soldiers to listen to the concert via radio . Musicologist Andrei Krukov later praised Govorov 's actions as providing the " incentive " for the concert , adding that his choice to allow soldiers to participate was " a quite exceptional decision " . Govorov himself later remarked to Eliasberg that " we played our instrument in the symphony , too , you know , " in reference to the artillery fire . The military contribution to the affair was not widely known until well after the war ended .
There was a large audience for the concert , comprising party leaders , military personnel , and civilians . Leningrad citizens who could not fit into the hall gathered around open windows and loudspeakers . The musicians onstage were " dressed like cabbages " in multiple layers to prevent starvation @-@ induced shivering . Shortly before the concert started , the electric lights above the stage were turned on for the first time since rehearsals had commenced . As the hall fell silent , Eliasberg began conducting . The performance was of poor artistic quality , but was notable for the emotions raised in the audience and for its finale : when some musicians " faltered " due to exhaustion , the audience stood up " in a remarkable , spontaneous gesture ... willing them to keep going " .
The performance received an hour @-@ long standing ovation , with Eliasberg being given a symbolic bouquet of Leningrad @-@ grown flowers by a young girl . Many in the audience were in tears due to the emotional impact of the concert , which was seen as a " musical biography of suffering Leningrad " . The musicians were invited to a banquet with Party officials to celebrate .
Loudspeakers broadcast the performance throughout the city as well as to the German forces in a move of psychological warfare , a " tactical strike against German morale " . One German soldier recalled how his squadron " listened to the symphony of heroes " . Eliasberg later met with some of the Germans who camped outside Leningrad during the performance , who told him that it had made them believe they would never capture the city : " Who are we bombing ? We will never be able to take Leningrad because the people here are selfless " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Shostakovich scholar Laurel Fay suggests that this concert was " an event of legendary import all by itself " . Journalist Michael Tumely calls it " a legendary moment in Soviet political and military history " . Critic U.S. Dhuga suggests that this performance " was popularly – and , of course , officially – recognized as the prelude to actual victory over the Germans " . The blockade was breached in early 1943 and ended in 1944 . Eliasberg concurred with Dhuga 's assessment , saying that " the whole city had found its humanity ... in that moment , we triumphed over the soulless Nazi war machine " . There was no official recognition of the significance of the concert : one musician noted that afterwards " there was no feedback , nothing until 1945 " .
Shostakovich 's Symphony No. 7 enjoyed a measure of popularity throughout the Western world during the war , but from 1945 it largely stopped being performed outside the Soviet Union . It became a point of controversy in the 1980s after Solomon Volkov 's Testimony suggested it was a critique not of the Nazis , but of the Soviet government . The veracity of Volkov 's account , which he claims is rooted in interviews with Shostakovich , has been debated . Other issues of contention about the symphony include whether it was inspired by the attack on Leningrad ( as Soviet authorities and official accounts had asserted ) or planned earlier and repurposed for propaganda , as well as its artistic merit in reference to Shostakovich 's other works .
The première made Eliasberg a " hero of the city " . Shortly after the concert , he married Nina Bronnikova , who had played the piano part . But once the siege ended and the Philharmonic returned to Leningrad , he fell from favour . The conductor of the Philharmonic , Yevgeny Mravinsky , had him fired in 1950 because he envied Eliasberg 's popular acclaim . Eliasberg was a " poor and largely forgotten " travelling conductor when he died in 1978 . However , at the fifty @-@ year anniversary of the première his remains were moved to the prestigious Volkovskoye or Alexander Nevsky Cemetery , the result of a campaign by orchestra archivist Galina Retrovskaya , conductor Yuri Temirkanov , and St. Petersburg mayor Anatoly Sobchak . Sarah Quigley fictionalized Eliasberg 's wartime career in her historical novel The Conductor .
Surviving performers participated in reunion concerts in 1964 and 1992 , playing " from the same seats in the same hall " . Shostakovich attended the first reunion concert on 27 January 1964 . Twenty @-@ two musicians and Eliasberg performed the symphony , and instruments were placed on the other chairs to represent those participants who had died since the première . The 1992 performance featured the 14 remaining survivors . The 1942 concert was also commemorated in the 1997 film The War Symphonies : Shostakovich Against Stalin . There is a small museum dedicated to the event at School No. 235 in St. Petersburg , which includes a statue of Shostakovich and artifacts from the performance .
= 30 Minutes After Noon =
" 30 Minutes After Noon " is the seventh episode of the 1960s Supermarionation television series Thunderbirds . Written by Alan Fennell and directed by David Elliott , it first aired in the United Kingdom on ATV Midlands on 11 November 1965 . In a plot incorporating visual allusions to 1960s spy thriller films , in particular the James Bond film franchise , " 30 Minutes After Noon " sees the Tracy family attempt to rescue a British secret agent embroiled in the latest scheme of the Erdman Gang , a powerful crime syndicate .
Drawing inspiration from the 1965 spy thriller film The Ipcress File , a recent release at the time of shooting , Elliott decided to bring Fennell 's script to life with the use of " quirky visuals " . As such , Elliott and his camera operator , Alan Perry , experimented with original angles and techniques , electing to introduce one scene with a long tracking shot and filming the characters using a mixture of live @-@ action close @-@ up shots and forced perspective . The music , on the other hand , is recycled from earlier Thunderbirds episodes .
Commentators such as media historian Nicholas J. Cull have praised Elliott and Perry 's cinematographic innovations for imitating the visual style of older espionage films . However , Stephen La Rivière , writer of Filmed in Supermarionation : A History of the Future , argues that the pastiche is not evident throughout : asserting that the switch in narrative focus from the Hudson Building fire to the infiltration of the Erdman Gang essentially divides the episode into loosely connected halves , La Rivière suggests that the visual style of the first owes more to conventional filming techniques . " 30 Minutes After Noon " was adapted for audio in the 1960s and serialised as a comic strip in the 1990s .
= = Plot = =
In Spoke City , Thomas Prescott accepts an apparently innocent hitch @-@ hiker into his car . The stranger 's true intentions are revealed when he attaches a metal bracelet to Prescott 's wrist , warning him that it contains a powerful explosive charge that is due to detonate in 30 minutes ; the key to unlock it will be found in his office at the Hudson Building . Speeding to his workplace with the police in pursuit , Prescott removes the bracelet and leaves it in a filing cabinet . The device explodes as he is returning to the ground floor in a lift : the top levels of the Hudson Building are incinerated , and Prescott is plunged to the bottom of the lift shaft , ten storeys underground .
Although the fire is quickly brought under control , Prescott is completely cut off . News of the events in Spoke City soon arrives on Tracy Island . Jeff dispatches Scott in Thunderbird 1 , while Virgil and Alan take off in Thunderbird 2 equipped with newly commissioned fire @-@ fighting apparatus . Lowered into the shaft in a protective cage fitted with diacetylene sprinklers , Virgil and Alan clamp the stricken lift and return to ground level , whereupon Prescott is arrested . Police Commissioner Garfield notes that classified documentation regarding criminal organisations , including the Erdman Gang , has been destroyed in the fire . Prescott 's claims about the hitch @-@ hiker are validated when the charred remnants of the bracelet are discovered .
An operation to expose the Erdman Gang leads to the recruitment of Southern , a British Secret Service agent , who is assigned to infiltrate the organisation and leak intelligence on its latest scheme . The gang leader contacts the undercover Southern and Erdman operatives Dempsey and Kenyon at Glen Carrick Castle in the Scottish Highlands , and briefs them on their mission . The trio are to drive to the Nuclear Plutonium Store , where isotopes for all Britain 's power stations are housed , and plant explosives to detonate at 12 : 30 p.m. ; this will cause a nuclear explosion of unprecedented scale and devastate half of England . To ensure compliance , the charges , which have already been armed , are contained in wrist bracelets identical to Prescott 's and are to be unlocked on retrieval of the key at the Plutonium Store .
On their arrival , Southern , Dempsey and Kenyon use a ray gun to neutralise the store 's robot guards and bypass the security doors one after the other , ultimately arriving in the plutonium vault . Southern reveals his true identity and holds the others at gunpoint , commanding them to proceed to the Leader 's proposed rendezvous point and capture him . The tables are turned , however , when a robot traps Southern in a crushing grip . Dempsey and Kenyon unlock the bracelets and make a getaway , jamming the security doors and leaving Southern to die in the nuclear explosion .
Southern 's emergency call is transferred from his superior , Sir William Frazer , to International Rescue . Landing outside the Plutonium Store in Thunderbirds 1 and 2 , Scott and Virgil use the Laser Cutter Vehicle to burn through the doors . Inside the vault , Virgil releases Southern from the robot . As the time nears 30 minutes past noon , Scott , in possession of the three bracelets , takes off in Thunderbird 1 ; he jettisons them over the sea , where they explode harmlessly . On Jeff 's orders , Lady Penelope and Parker intercept the Erdman Gang at their rendezvous and use FAB
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