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verse , the character that the singer portrays in the song it 's scared that the man talking to her will always have a power over , " Say a prayer to yourself / He says close your eyes / Sometimes it helps / And then I get a scary thought / That he 's here means he 's never lost . " " Russian Roulette " ends with a sound of a gun shot , which according to Michaelangelo Matos of The A.V. Club extends the drama accompanied by " harrowing scenarios and tremulous vocals " .
= = Critical response = =
Nick Levine of Digital Spy praised " Russian Roulette " and called it a " masterful return effort " . He additionally wrote that the single is " brave , brilliantly @-@ realized and bizarre enough to distance " the singer from the other pop or R & B performers like Lady Gaga . According to Levine , the song is her best vocal performances and shows Rihanna growing in front of the audience 's eyes . Will Hines of Consequence of Sound called the song a worth centerpiece and further wrote that it stands out from other tracks on the album which proves that Rated R " was a cathartic process for the singer " . Todd Martens of Los Angeles Times wrote that although is hard to imagine the song to be played in a car or a club , it 's " attention @-@ grabbing stuff , standing in stark — emphasis on stark — contrast to much of the current pop landscape . " Alibhe Malone of NME wrote that Rated R is an album about power and control in which " Russian Roulette " sets the agenda .
The Boston Globe 's Sarah Rodman wrote that the song is moody but far too deliberate and " has a grab bag of evocative images but never quite jells " . A reviewer of OK ! magazine wrote that the single represents a downbeat way for return to the charts for Rihanna , but can grow on you . Andy Jill of The Independent stated that " Russian Roulette " and " Fire Bomb " have " inflammatory " titles . Entertainment Weekly 's Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson wrote that although Rihanna took risk with releasing the song , it pays off , " Rihanna is in fine vocal form throughout , and Ne @-@ Yo 's songwriting is economical and evocative per usual . " A staff from MTV Newsroom thought that the single retains some sort of attitude and atmosphere that made Rihanna " such a definitive artist " . Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone concluded that works like " Russian Roulette " , " a domestic @-@ violence victim 's confession whipped into soaring melodrama — tell us why : She was busy saying her piece in the studio . "
Andy Kellman of AllMusic stated that in the song Rihanna had a sudden desire to provoke even if that is in metaphorical context . Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal concluded that the single is a bad Céline Dion song with " barrel @-@ turning revolver noises that actually sound like a can of spray paint being shook up " . Rob Harvilla of The Village Voice stated that " Russian Roulette " ' s composition , makes the song unpleasant for listening . Chris Richards of The Washington Post wrote that the song has " plodding beat " and " forgettable hook " and additionally criticized the ending of the song with a sound of gunshot ; according to him that 's an attempt to " salvage its wasted potential " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Russian Roulette " debuted at number 100 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in the issue dated November 7 , 2009 . The next week the song reached a new peak of 75 . In its first week of digital release , " Russian Roulette " sold 132 @,@ 000 copies and moved from 75 to number nine ; it became Rihanna 's twelfth top @-@ ten single on the chart and made her the second female artist of the 2000s decade with most top @-@ ten songs only behind Beyoncé . Also , subsequently debuted at number nine on the US Digital Songs chart . On the Pop Songs chart , the single debuted at number 36 and moved to 35 the next week with audience over 29 million audience impressions on the radio . In its third week , the song reached its peak of 21 on the chart . Additionally , it peaked at number 49 on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart . In the US , " Russian Roulette " was most successful on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart where it peaked at number one in its seventh week for the issue dated February 20 , 2010 . It was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) denoting sales of over two million digital copies in the US alone . " Russian Roulette " also peaked at number nine on the Canadian Hot 100 .
" Russian Roulette " entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 19 on November 9 , 2009 , climbing into the top ten the following week at number nine . After fluctuating around the top ten mark over the following three weeks , it regained its peak position on December 14 , 2009 . It remained on the chart for 12 weeks , earning a Gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand . " Russian Roulette " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart , at number 11 on November 16 , 2009 . The following week it climbed to its peak of number seven . It remained in the top ten for three consecutive weeks , and for 12 weeks on the chart in total . It has been certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association denoting sales of 35 @,@ 000 copies .
" Russian Roulette " entered the UK Singles Chart at number six on November 29 , 2009 . The following week , it rose to its peak of number two , giving Rihanna her eleventh top five single in the country . Simultaneously , it peaked at number one on the UK R & B Chart and remained at the top for three consecutive weeks . It was certified Silver in the United Kingdom on February 12 , 2010 , after selling 200 @,@ 000 copies . As of August 2011 , the single has sold over 360 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom . Elsewhere in Europe , the song managed to top the charts in Norway , Slovakia , and Switzerland , and attained top five positions in Austria , Belgium , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Ireland , Scotland and Sweden . It also reached the top ten in Denmark , Italy and Spain .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video for " Russian Roulette " was directed by Rihanna 's frequent collaborator Anthony Mandler , who directed Rihanna 's previous videos for " Take a Bow " , " Disturbia " , " Rehab " and " Wait Your Turn " . In November 2009 , Rihanna appeared on " TV total " in Germany to talk about her new album and preview 30 seconds of the video for the song . Mandler spoke to MTV News , stating " I think that with this song and the meaning of this song and how loaded it all is , no pun intended , how much imagery and perhaps symbolism that is loaded in this song , the only way to do it was to do something that was visually challenging " . The music video for the song premiered on ABC 's 20 / 20 on November 13 , 2009 .
The music video opens with shots of Rihanna hooded , lying on the floor of a gas chamber . Three men , dressed in black uniforms and wearing dark round glasses circulate around the singer , attempting to extort information from her . The scene then moves to a dimly lit room in which Rihanna sits at a table with her love interest ( played by American actor Jesse Williams ) opposite . On the table between them lies a silver revolver in which , throughout the video , they take it turns holding to their heads . Other scenes include Rihanna in a woodland at night standing in the middle of a highway before a car speeds towards her , quickly cutting to another scene , giving the impression she is run over . Elements of blood and tears and vehicular assault dominate the video . In the final scenes , Rihanna is shown underwater , floating whilst being fired at ; one bullet is visually seen cutting her throat . The video ends with her lover apparently committing suicide with the revolver placed between them .
= = = Reception = = =
The reception of the music video was mixed , with many critics noting its dark theme . James Montgomery of MTV reviewed the video stating : , " There 's seemingly no bottom to the inky depths Rihanna plumbs in her brand @-@ new ' Russian Roulette ' video , a dark , claustrophobic descent that 's creepier than anything she 's ever done before ( including the ' Disturbia ' video ) " . Katy Hall from The Huffington Post commented that the video comes from a pretty dark place and tells more depressing story than Lady Gaga 's " Bad Romance " . According to Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone , there is a lot of imagery that is influenced by the altercation of Rihanna and Chris Brown from February 2009 , including a speeding car that approaches Rihanna while she stands alone at night – " a moment that seems to mirror the events immediately following the assault " . Megan Masters from E ! Online commented that the video " portrays " some seemingly real emotion with her bouncing back @-@ and @-@ forth between writhing around a padded cell . " Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson from Entertainment Weekly supported the dark imagery used in the video , explaining , " What , you thought Rihanna was going to give ' Russian Roulette ' a video full of sunshine and rainbows and peppy choreography ? Her first single from Rated R is a song about violence " .
= = Live performances and cover = =
Following the release of Rated R in the United Kingdom , Rihanna performed the song for the first time at the Nokia promotional concert at Brixton Academy in London . Rihanna performed the song as part of a set list , which included " Wait Your Turn " and " Hard " , the latter of which Rihanna was joined on stage by Young Jeezy , to perform the song together . During the set , Rihanna also performed songs from her third studio album Good Girl Gone Bad , including " Disturbia " , " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Take a Bow " . " Run This Town " and " Umbrella " were performed with assistance of Jay @-@ Z , whose vocals are featured on the songs She performed " Russian Roulette " while particularly sitting on a throne chair . A reviewer from MTV UK stated that " The Barbadian beauty then sat seductively on stage in a throne that even the Beckhams would be proud of to belt out the ballad " .
After the release of the album in the United States , she embarked on some promotional performances . Rihanna performed " Russian Roulette " , together with " Wait Your Turn " , " Hard " and " Umbrella " on Good Morning America as part of the fall concert series in New York City . Just a day later , she performed the song again , this time on the Late Show with David Letterman . On November 29 , 2009 , Rihanna flew to the United Kingdom , again , to perform " Russian Roulette " on the series six of The X Factor . The performance was similar to the one from the Nokia promotional concert and featured Rihanna sitting on a throne chair . In February 2010 , Rihanna recorded on AOL Sessions , where she performed the song , together with " Hard " , " Rude Boy " , " Disturbia " and " Take a Bow " .
" Russian Roulette " was the opening song on Rihanna 's setlist for her Last Girl on Earth Tour , after the presentation " Mad House " . She performed the song on a movable platform while wearing a floor @-@ length gown covered with red LED lights . Neil McCormick of The Telegraph , in a review of one of the tour 's concerts , said : " She kicked off with the homicidal pop @-@ rock ballad Russian Roulette to screen imagery of burning naked mannequins and had shed most of her clothes by her second song ... " . Later the track was excluded from the setlist for the Australian leg of the tour , together with " Rehab " , and was replaced with " Only Girl ( In the World ) " as the tour starter . English singer George Michael covered " Russian Roulette " during his orchestral concert tour , titled the Symphonica Tour ( 2011 — 12 ) .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Locations
Recorded at Roc the Mic Studios , New York City , New York ; mixed at Chung King Studios , New York City , New York .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Rated R , Def Jam Recordings , SRP .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Frank Fetter =
Frank Albert Fetter ( / ˈfɛtər / ; March 8 , 1863 – March 21 , 1949 ) was an American economist of the Austrian School . Fetter 's treatise , The Principles of Economics , contributed to an increased American interest in the Austrian School , including the theories of Eugen von Böhm @-@ Bawerk , Friedrich von Wieser , Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek .
Fetter notably debated Alfred Marshall , presenting a theoretical reassessment of land as capital . Fetter 's arguments have been credited with prompting mainstream economists to abandon the Georgist idea " that land is a unique factor of production and hence that there is any special need for a special theory of ground rent .... " A proponent of the subjective theory of value , Fetter emphasized the importance of time preference and rebuffed Irving Fisher for abandoning the pure time preference theory of interest that Fisher had earlier espoused in his 1907 book , The Rate of Interest .
= = Early life and education = =
Frank Fetter was born in Peru , Indiana to a Quaker family during the height of the American Civil War . Fetter proved an able student as a youth , as demonstrated by his acceptance to Indiana University in 1879 when he was only sixteen years old . At Indiana , he joined the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity . Fetter was on track to graduate with the class of 1883 , but left college to run his family 's bookstore upon news of his father 's declining health . Working in the bookstore offered an opportunity for the young man to acquaint himself with some of the economic ideas that would later prove formative . Chief among the intellectual influences Fetter encountered at this time was Henry George 's Progress and Poverty ( 1879 ) .
After eight years , Fetter returned to academia and finally completed his B.A. in 1891 . In 1892 , Jeremiah W. Jenks — who had taught Fetter at Indiana University — acquired a teaching position at Cornell University at the new President White School of History and Political Science and subsequently secured a fellowship for Fetter at that institution . Fetter completed his Master of Philosophy degree the same year . Jenks then convinced Fetter to study , as Jenks himself had , under Johannes Conrad at the Sorbonne in Paris , France . Fetter earned his Ph.D. in 1894 from the University of Halle in Germany , where he wrote his doctoral dissertation , a critique of Malthusian population theory .
= = Professional life = =
After earning his doctoral degree , Fetter accepted an instructorship at Cornell , but quickly left after being offered a position as a professor at Indiana University . In 1898 , Stanford University lured him away from Indiana , but Fetter resigned from Stanford three years later over a dispute regarding academic freedom . After leaving Stanford in 1901 , Fetter went back to Cornell , where he remained for ten years . In 1911 , he again found himself in professional transition , accepting the position of chairman in an interdisciplinary department at Princeton University which incorporated history , politics , and economics . Fetter was the first chairman of Princeton University 's Department of Economics and Social institutions .
Despite his ideological proximity and personal rapport with eminent Austrian School economists such as Eugen von Böhm @-@ Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser , as well as his favorable reviews of works by Ludwig von Mises and F.A. Hayek , Fetter referred to himself , Thorstein Veblen , and Herbert J. Davenport more specifically as being members of the " American Psychological School . " The appellation " Psychological School " is now generally considered to be synonymous with " Austrian School . "
Fetter was a staunch opponent of Franklin D. Roosevelt 's plan to end the gold standard and worked with other economists in lobbying against the move to a fiat currency . As some indication of Fetter 's role in these efforts ,
In January 1933 , a letter was sent to the president @-@ elect , urging him not only to lower tariff barriers to revive international trade , but to maintain the gold standard " unflinchingly . " The letter was signed by a number of prominent " traditional " economists , headed by the American " Austrian , " Frank A. Fetter , of Princeton .
= = Theoretical contributions in economics = =
= = = Land as capital = = =
Fetter participated in a notable debate with English economist Alfred Marshall , both through his 1904 Principles of Economics and a number of journal articles in the American Economic Association 's journals and in the Quarterly Journal of Economics . He contested Marshall 's position that land is theoretically distinct from capital . Fetter argued that such a distinction was impractical , stating that ,
The notion that it is a simple matter to distinguish between the yield of natural agents and that of improvements is fanciful and confusing .... The objective classification of land and capital as natural and artificial agents is a task that always must transcend the human power of discrimination .
Fetter 's stand on this issue further led him to oppose Georgist ideas like the land value tax . Mark Blaug , a specialist in the history of economic thought , credits Fetter and John Bates Clark with influencing mainstream economists to abandon the idea " that land is a unique factor of production and hence that there is any special need for a special theory of ground rent .... This is in fact the basis of all the attacks on Henry George by contemporary economists and certainly the fundamental reason why professional economists increasingly ignored him . "
= = = Applications of subjective value theory = = =
Fetter believed in the subjective theory of value , and thus supported a pure time preference theory of interest . Richard Ebeling wrote that Fetter " constructed a consistent theory of value , price , cost , and production in the context of emphasizing the time @-@ valuational element in all consumption and production choices . " According to Jeffrey Herbener , Fetter asserted that " just as the price of each consumer good is determined solely by subjective value , the rate of interest is determined solely by time preference . "
Likewise , Herbener explains , this led Fetter to also conclude that " [ t ] he rental price of each producer good is imputed to it by entrepreneurial demand and is equal to its discounted marginal value product . The capital value of each durable good is equal to the discounted value of its future rents . " Fetter 's contribution to the Austrian subjectivist tradition , then , is that he " showed how this uniform , subjective theory of value implies the demise of socialist theories of labor exploitation , Ricardian theories of rent , and productivity theories of interest . "
= = = Criticism of Fisher 's theory of interest = = =
In " Interest Theories , Old and New " ( 1914 ) , Fetter criticized Irving Fisher for abandoning the pure time preference theory of interest that Fisher had earlier espoused in his 1907 book , The Rate of Interest , a tome which had heavily influenced Fetter . As Murray Rothbard recounts , upon further review of Fisher 's earlier work ,
... Fetter discovered that the seeds of error were in Fisher 's publication of 1907 . Fisher had stated that valuations of present and future goods imply a preexisting money rate of interest , thereby suggesting that a pure time @-@ preference explanation of interest involves circular reasoning . By way of contrast , and in the course of explaining his own pure time @-@ preference , or " capitalization , " theory of interest , Fetter showed that time valuation is prerequisite to the determination of the market rate of interest .
= = Reception in academia = =
In 1909 , at the age of forty @-@ six , Fetter was awarded an honorary LL.D. from Colgate University , and he was made president of the American Economic Association in 1913 . Additional honorary doctoral degrees were conferred on Fetter by Occidental College in 1930 and Indiana University in 1934 . He was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a member of the American Philosophical Society . In 1927 , he was awarded the Karl Menger Medal by the Austrian Economic Society .
Fetter 's treatise , Principles of Economics ( 1904 ) , has been described by Herbener as " unsurpassed until Ludwig von Mises 's treatise of 1940 , Nationaloekonomie . " In Rothbard 's preface to the 1977 edition of Fetter 's Capital , Interest , and Rent , he notes that he was first introduced to Fetter 's work via a citation in Mises ' Human Action and describes Fetter 's views on interest and rent as being " Austrian " and influential on his own views .
... while reading Fetter 's oeuvre in the course of writing my Man , Economy , and State ... I was struck by the brilliance and consistency of his integrated theory of distribution and by the neglect of Fetter in current histories of economic thought , even by those that are Austrian oriented . For Fetter 's systematic theory , while challenging and original ( particularly his theories of interest and rent ) , was emphatically in the Austrian school tradition .
Upon Fetter 's death in 1949 , J. Douglas Brown , who would later be named Provost of Princeton University , wrote a " Memorial " to Fetter for the American Economic Review . He opened the tribute with the announcement that " with the death of Frank Albert Fetter the great company of American economists has suffered an irreparable loss . "
= = Books = =
Versuch einer Bevolkerungslehre ausgehen von einer Kritic des Malthus 'schen Bevolkerungsprincips ( Translation : " An Essay on Population Doctrine based on a Critique of the Population Principles of Malthus " ) . Jena : Gustav Fischer , 1894 .
The Principles of Economics . [ 2 ] New York : The Century Co . , 1905
Source Book in Economics . New York : The Century Company . , 1912 .
Economics , Volume 1 : Economic Principles . [ 3 ] New York : The Century Co . , 1915 .
Manual of References and Exercises in Economics for Use with , Vol . 1 : Economic Principles . New York : The Century Co . , 1916 .
Economics , Vol . 2 : Modern Economic Problems . [ 4 ] New York : The Century Co . , 1916 . Revised 2nd edition , 1922 .
Manual of References and Exercises in Economics for Use with , Vol . 2 : Modern Economics . New York : The Century Co . , 1917 .
Masquerade of Monopoly . New York : Harcourt , Brace & Co . , 1931 .
Capital , Interest and Rent : Essays in the theory of distribution . [ 5 ] Institute for Humane Studies . Kansas City : Sheed Andrews and McMeel , Inc . , 1977 .
= = Articles = =
" Recent Discussion of the Capital Concept " by Frank A. Fetter , Quarterly Journal of Economics , ( 1900 )
= The Frying Game =
" The Frying Game " is the twenty @-@ first episode of The Simpsons ' thirteenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 19 , 2002 . In the episode , after accidentally injuring an endangered screamapillar , Homer is sentenced to two weeks of community service . As part of his sentence , Homer delivers Meals on Wheels to an old woman called Mrs. Bellamy , who subtly guilts him , and later Marge , into becoming her personal servant . One day , the two find Mrs. Bellamy dead in her house , having been stabbed by a man with braces who quickly escapes the murder scene . Being the only ones present when the police arrive , Homer and Marge are soon suspected for the murder . The episode also features a " Snuh cascade " , an homage to a group of Simpsons fans on Usenet .
" The Frying Game " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Michael Polcino . The screamapillar was conceived by the episode 's writer , who pitched it to the other staff writers . It has since been described as a satire on the Endangered Species Act , a United States environmental law passed during the 1970s . The idea that Homer 's execution was in fact part of a reality game show was conceived by former staff writer George Meyer . The episode features Frances Sternhagen as Mrs. Bellamy and Carmen Electra as herself . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 6 @.@ 5 million viewers , finishing in 46th place in the ratings the week it aired . Following its home video release , the episode received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Homer decides to give Marge a koi pond for their anniversary , but an endangered " Screamapillar " takes refuge in the pond . Bound by law not to disturb it , Homer accidentally injures the loud , unsettling insect larva and is sentenced to community service .
Homer begins delivering Meals on Wheels to an elderly woman , Mrs. Bellamy , who takes a liking to him . She subtly guilts Homer and later , Marge , into becoming her personal servants . When Mrs. Bellamy turns up dead , having been stabbed with a pair of scissors , Homer and Marge are the prime suspects in the murder , even though they witnessed a man with braces leaving the murder scene , with Mrs. Bellamy 's necklace . The people of Springfield are very suspicious of Homer and Marge , and Chief Wiggum does not believe their story . Finally , during an inspection of the house , Maggie is found with Mrs. Bellamy 's stolen necklace . Bart , Lisa and Maggie are adopted by Cletus Spuckler , who decides to change their " city names " to " Dingus Squatford Junior , and Pamela E. Lee " ( with Lisa apparently becoming Dingus ) .
Despite no lie detector or DNA test given , the two are sentenced to death in the electric chair . In a successful bid to spare Marge , Homer says that he acted alone . As he is sitting in the electric chair , it is suddenly revealed to Homer that he is on a new reality TV show , Frame Up that airs on Fox TV . The whole thing was just part of an elaborate hidden camera scheme , the " man with the braces " was the show 's host , and Mrs. Bellamy is guest host Carmen Electra in disguise . Homer and Marge are reunited with the kids , and Homer is furious that he had to suffer so the show could get higher ratings . Carmen Electra tries to explain , but Homer is too busy looking at her breasts . Chief Wiggum , on the other hand , initially seems furious that the police department used was wasted on what turned out to not even be a real case , but he drops his anger when he learns he will be in the show and Eddie and Lou will be given producer credits .
= = Production = =
" The Frying Game " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Michael Polcino . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on May 19 , 2002 . The screamapillar , the larva that the Simpsons find in their garden , was , according to current showrunner Al Jean , Swartzwelder 's " total conception . " He pitched the idea to the Simpsons writing staff , and because they found it " hilarious , " they decided to include it in the episode . Jean said that when people ask what sense of humor Swartzwelder has , the screamapillar is " one of the best examples . " It was voiced by main cast member Dan Castellaneta , who portrays Homer among other characters in the series . Because the screamapillar only communicates by screaming , its lines were recorded last during recording sessions , as the screaming would " burn out " Castellaneta 's voice .
In a scene in the episode , Homer is on death row and eats his last meal . The meal consists solely of junk food like hamburgers and fried chicken . The scene came from an article that the writers had read , in which it said that death sentenced prisoners often requested junk food as their last meal . On the way to the electric chair , Homer meets a man resembling Michael Clarke Duncan 's character John Coffey in The Green Mile . While recording lines for the episode , the staff were told that Duncan was visiting the Fox studios . Having not recorded the lines for the character yet , the staff asked Duncan if he wanted to voice the character , but he declined . The music that plays during the scene is also from The Green Mile . The idea that Homer 's execution was in fact a reality show on Fox was conceived by former staff writer George Meyer . According to fellow writer Matt Selman , the writing staff liked the idea since reality shows were " really big " at the time . The episode features American actress Frances Sternhagen as Mrs Bellamy , and glamour model Carmen Electra as herself . According to Jean , Electra 's character is " one of the most voluptuous figures " they have ever had on The Simpsons .
= = Themes = =
Jean has himself admitted in an interview that The Simpsons is of " liberal bent " . In the DVD commentaries , creator Matt Groening and the majority of people who work on the show state several times that they are very liberal , but some , such as John Swartzwelder ( the writer of this and many other The Simpsons episodes ) , are conservative . In his book The Really Inconvenient Truths : Seven Environmental Catastrophes Liberals Don 't Want You to Know About- Because They Helped Cause Them , Iain Murray described " The Frying Game " as " subversively conservative " , and wrote that it shows " The best popular explanation of the liberal environmentalist model for endangered species . " In the episode , Homer buys a koi pond for Marge , only to find a screamapillar has taken residence in their garden . When Homer tries to squash it , an EPA official tells him that allowing an endangered species to die is a federal offense , under the " Reversal of Freedoms Act of 1994 . " Homer is forced to coddle the screamapillar , and when he accidentally squashes it , Homer is found guilty of " attempted insecticide and aggravated buggery . " The " Reversal of Freedoms Act " is a reference to the Endangered Species Act , an environmental law that Murray opined had " indeed become the Reversal of Freedoms Act . " He continued , " Landowners who happened to
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have threatened or endangered species on their lands or who simply have habitat that might be used by endangered species are routinely prevented from using their lands or property . They are stopped from undertaking such activities as harvesting their trees , grazing their cattle , irrigating their fields , clearing brush along fence lines , disking firebreaks around their homes and barns , or building new homes .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast on May 19 , 2002 , " The Frying Game " received a 6 @.@ 2 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 6 @.@ 5 million viewers . The episode finished in 46th place in the ratings for the week of May 13 – 19 , 2002 . On August 24 , 2010 , " The Frying Game " was released as part of The Simpsons : The Complete Thirteenth Season DVD and Blu @-@ ray set . Matt Groening , Al Jean , Matt Selman , John Frink , Don Payne , Tom Gammill , Max Pross , Michael Polcino and Deb Lacusta participated in the audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " The Frying Game " received mixed reviews from critics . Giving the episode a positive review , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide described the episode as " pretty good " , writing " I like the obnoxious Screamapillar , and the way the Simpsons become seen as murderers also amuses . This allows S13 to move toward a satisfying conclusion . "
DVD Verdict 's Jennifer Malkowski gave the episode a B + , declaring the episode 's " highlight " " one of the reasons the Screamapillar is endangered , that it 's ' sexually attracted to fire . ' "
On the other hand , giving the episode a negative review , Andre Dellamorte of Collider described it as " terrible . " DVD Talk 's Ryan Keefer wrote a negative review as well , calling it " definitely forgettable " and criticizing it for " fall [ ing ] apart quickly . " Ron Martin of 411Mania criticized the Screamapillar character , describing it as " just as annoying as Homer 's constant screaming earlier in the season . " Writing for IGN , R.L. Shaffer described it as one of the worst episodes of the entire series , writing " Episodes like ' Homer the Moe , ' ' The Frying Game , ' ' The Old Man and the Key , ' and ' Sweets and Sour Marge ' represent some of the worst of The Simpsons . " James Greene of Nerve.com put the episode ninth on his list " Ten Times The Simpsons Jumped the Shark , " criticizing that the episode " eighty @-@ sixed the chance to nail a great murder mystery akin to ' Who Shot Mr. Burns ? ' in favor of topical humor " and calling the ending a " truly stupid cop @-@ out . "
= Ten Dollar Bill ( Roy Lichtenstein ) =
Ten Dollar Bill ( also referred to as The Dollar Bill ) is a 1956 proto @-@ pop art lithographic drawing by Roy Lichtenstein . Considered to be a combination of Americana art and cubism , the work is referred to as the beginning to Lichtenstein 's work on pop art . Twenty @-@ five editions of the lithograph were made by Lichtenstein , which were exhibited at several galleries . The piece is based on the design for the ten @-@ dollar bill and has influenced several of Lichtenstein 's later works . The picture has received generally favorable reception from critics , and is considered to be one of the best artistic portrayals of currency .
= = Background and history = =
Roy Lichtenstein began experimentation with printmaking in the late 1940s , well before its rise in popularity in the early 1960s . Lichtenstein created his first lithograph and woodcut artwork in 1948 while he was working on receiving his graduate degree in fine arts from Ohio State University . During the late 1940s , he created abstract paintings influenced by several artists , especially Pablo Picasso . From 1951 through early 1956 , Lichtenstein painted what were considered by Gianni Mercurio to be " jagged , post @-@ cubist " designs of famous American artworks . Many of his pieces reflected portraits of the American west , especially Native Americans and cowboys , as well as other themes , such as images of president George Washington . Lichtenstein referred to the period as his " American " series , and it was generally negatively received by critics . Lichtenstein also began experimenting in abstract expressionism , using the technique on several of his western painting designs . These were poorly received , however , being compared by one critic to " the doodling of a five @-@ year old " .
In 1956 , Lichtenstein created twenty @-@ five editions of Ten Dollar Bill and gave them to several private collectors and museums . Starting in late October 1994 , Ten Dollar Bill went on display at the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , along with 89 of Lichtenstein 's print artworks . As a part of " The Prints of Roy Lichtenstein " , the piece was displayed in Washington until January 8 , 1995 , before it was moved to the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and put on display as part of that city 's WinterFest ' 95 , starting in mid @-@ February of that year . The tour moved in May to the Dallas Museum of Art , the final place it was displayed . In December 1996 , Lichtenstein and his wife donated 154 prints of his artwork to the National Gallery of Art for permanent keeping . This donation included several famous pieces , including Crying Girl , along with one of the editions of Ten Dollar Bill .
Another edition of Ten Dollar Bill was a part of the showcase opening exhibit " $ how Me the Money : The Dollar As Art " for the American Numismatic Association Money Museum in Colorado Springs , Colorado . This exhibit ran from October 4 , 2002 , until December 1 . The lithograph was shown alongside work from Andy Warhol , Robert Dowd , and others . Later , the work was made a part of the " Roy Lichtenstein Prints 1956 @-@ 1997 " collection , created entirely from the family gallery of Jordan Schnitzer . This tour began in June 2006 at the Jordan Schnitzer Museum of Art , and traveled across the country , exhibiting in Las Vegas and Austin , Texas , among other places . The collection tour ended in 2008 .
= = Description = =
Based on the design for the United States ten @-@ dollar bill , Ten Dollar Bill measures 14 by 28 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 by 11 @.@ 3 in ) , and is drawn on sheets of paper with dimensions of 42 @.@ 8 by 57 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 16 @.@ 9 by 22 @.@ 7 in ) . Classified as a proto @-@ pop art work , the lithograph is considered by Janis Hendrickson to be " a Picasso @-@ esque vision of what currency could look like " , as well as a " humorous " combination of " established art forms and Americana " . The drawing has the dimensions and shape of the ten @-@ dollar bill , and completely covers the space needed , which has led to Lichtenstein being considered by Hendrickson as " almost seeming to be forging money " . Hendrickson also describes the picture as being a " brand @-@ new bill of tender and not a picture of one " . Mary Lee Corlett and Hendrickson noted that the " schematic head " of the medallion portrait of Alexander Hamilton , the prominent feature of the print , " shows him as a planar , anteater @-@ like being " with a " hair @-@ do of the young Picasso " and eyes similar to a " figure by Francis Picabia " . According to Hendrickson , the exterior framing for The Dollar Bill was " simplified " from the original dollar design , appearing in " an imbalanced , drunken fashion " . The lithograph has full margins surrounding the main design , as well as the signature " rf Lichtenstein " and a number between one and 25 , followed by / 25 , reflecting the print number of the specific work , as well as the years 1956 / 79 .
= = Reception = =
Stephen Goode , a critic for Insight on the News , considered the piece to be the beginning of the Pop Art movement , labeling the work " a sign of things to come as other artists tackled common yet sacrosanct items , including the American flag " . Lichtenstein , reflecting on his work , told reporters , " The idea of counterfeiting money always occurs to you when you do lithography " . Despite the assessments of critics , Lichtenstein , in an interview with Joan Marter , considered the work to be " a kind of Cubist dollar bill , not a Pop one " . He continued , " The fact it was a ten @-@ dollar @-@ bill at all [ suggests that ] there was some kind of Pop influence on me that I wasn 't aware of so much . They 're really not Pop at all . They 're more funny , or humorous , or something " .
In the book Off Limits : Rutgers University and the Avant @-@ garde , 1957 @-@ 1963 , the piece was described as a " humorous , Cubist abstraction of the currency " . Discussing the piece after edition 10 was given to the National Gallery of Australia , critic Jaklyn Babington considered Lichtenstein 's early works , including Ten Dollar Bill , to be " intriguing precursors to the artist ’ s subsequent development " . She called it a " finely hand @-@ drawn lithograph " , and considered the work to be " the only hint of Lichtenstein ’ s imminent obsession with American popular culture " . Babington finished by noting , " we see Lichtenstein first taking an everyday object , symbolic of the growing American consumer culture , as his subject matter " .
= New Worlds ( magazine ) =
New Worlds was a British science fiction magazine that began in 1936 as a fanzine called Novae Terrae . It adopted its current title in 1939 , after John Carnell became editor . First published professionally in 1946 , it became the leading publication of its type ; the period to 1960 has been described by historian Mike Ashley as the magazine 's " Golden Age " .
Carnell joined the British Army in 1940 following the outbreak of the Second World War , and did not return to civilian life until 1946 . He negotiated a publishing agreement for the magazine with Pendulum Publications , but only three issues of New Worlds were subsequently produced before Pendulum 's bankruptcy in late 1947 . A group of science fiction fans formed a company called Nova Publications to revive the magazine ; the first issue under their management appeared in mid @-@ 1949 . New Worlds continued to appear on a regular basis until issue 20 , published in early 1953 , following which a change of printers led to a hiatus in publication . It was not until early 1954 , when Maclaren & Sons acquired control of Nova Publications , that the magazine returned to a stable monthly schedule .
New Worlds was acquired by Roberts & Vinter in 1964 , when Michael Moorcock became editor . By the end of 1966 financial problems led Roberts & Vinter to abandon New Worlds , but with the aid of an Arts Council grant obtained by Brian Aldiss , Moorcock was able to publish the magazine independently . He featured a good deal of experimental and avant @-@ garde material , and New Worlds became the focus of the " New Wave " of science fiction . Reaction among the science fiction community was mixed , with partisans and opponents of the New Wave debating the merits of New Worlds in the columns of critical journals such as Speculation . Several of the regular contributors during this period , including Brian Aldiss , J. G. Ballard and Thomas M. Disch , became major names in the field . By 1970 Moorcock was too deeply in debt to be able to continue with the magazine , and it ceased publication with issue 200 . The title has been revived multiple times , with Moorcock 's direct involvement or approval ; as of 2012 , 22 additional issues have appeared in various formats , including several anthologies .
= = Publishing history = =
= = = Early years = = =
In 1926 , Hugo Gernsback launched Amazing Stories , the first science fiction ( sf ) magazine . It was soon followed by other US titles also specializing in sf , such as Astounding Stories and Wonder Stories . These were distributed in the UK , and British fan organizations began to appear . In 1936 , Maurice K. Hanson , a science fiction fan living in Nuneaton , founded a fanzine called Novae Terrae ( Latin for " new worlds " ) for the local branch of the Science Fiction League . Hanson subsequently moved to London and his fanzine became the official publication of the Science Fiction Association , founded in 1937 .
Arthur C. Clarke , John Carnell and William F. Temple became involved in Novae Terrae 's production . In 1939 Hanson gave up the editorship to Carnell , who retitled the fanzine New Worlds and restarted the numbering at volume 1 number 1 ; the first issue under Carnell 's control was dated March 1939 . Carnell wanted to turn New Worlds into a professional magazine , and through W.J. Passingham , a writer , had begun discussions with a publisher named The Worlds Says Ltd . In January 1940 Carnell was asked to put together three issues , and Carnell and Passingham each put up £ 50 towards costs . Carnell solicited material from British authors including John F. Burke , C.S. Youd , and David McIlwain , and acquired Robert A. Heinlein 's " Lost Legion " , but in March internal strife led to the collapse of The World Says . Alfred Greig , the director , returned to his native Canada without repaying Carnell and Passingham , and no issues were ever printed .
Carnell joined the army in 1940 , serving with the Royal Artillery , Combined Operations , and Naval Bombardment . After his return to civilian life in January 1946 he met writer Frank Edward Arnold , who had been working with Pendulum Publications on a new science fiction line . Arnold introduced Carnell to Stephen D. Frances , Pendulum 's director . Frances believed in the commercial possibilities of science fiction , and since Carnell still had the portfolio of stories he had put together in 1940 , Pendulum soon agreed to make New Worlds into a professional magazine . The first issue appeared in July 1946 , although there was no date on the magazine . The initial print run was 15 @,@ 000 , but only 3 @,@ 000 copies were sold — a very disappointing return . Carnell felt that the cover artwork , which he considered to be weak , was partly responsible for the poor sales . He put together a new design , based on covers from two US science fiction magazines , and gave it to artist Victor Caesari to complete . The resulting space scene was the cover for the second issue , which appeared in October 1946 ; in combination with Pendulum 's investment in promoting the magazine this led to much better sales , and the second issue sold out completely . Pendulum rebound the remaining copies of the first issue with the second cover design , and repriced them at 1 / 6 ( 7.5p ) ; the first two issues had been priced at 2 / - ( 10p ) . The new cover and price were much more popular and the repackaged first issue , like the second , soon sold out .
Pendulum Publications produced one more issue in October 1947 , shortly before going bankrupt and thus leaving New Worlds without a publisher . The magazine was saved by a group of sf fans who since 1946 had been meeting regularly on Thursday nights at the White Horse public house on New Fetter Lane , near Fleet Street . At one of those meetings it was suggested that they form a company to revive New Worlds ; one of those present , Frank Cooper , recently retired from the RAF , agreed to look into what would be necessary to start a new company .
= = = Nova Publications = = =
In May 1948 Carnell announced at a science fiction convention in London that plans were well underway to form a new company , to be called Nova Publications Ltd . Nova raised £ 600 in capital and was launched in early 1949 . There were initially six directors : the chairman was John Wyndham , and the remaining board members were G. Ken Chapman , Frank Cooper , Walter Gillings , Eric C. Williams , and John Carnell . A printer was found near Stoke Newington , where Frank Cooper was based , and the first issue ( numbered 4 , to follow on from the three Pendulum issues ) appeared in June . It was planned to move to regular quarterly publication , and subsequently to a bimonthly schedule . To keep costs down Nova decided to handle the distribution themselves ; this was not easy but Cooper and his assistant , Les Flood , were sufficiently successful that in July the decision was taken to go ahead with the planned quarterly schedule . A fifth issue duly appeared in September , and the sixth issue the following spring , dated Spring 1950 .
In 1950 , with New Worlds on a stable quarterly schedule , Nova Publications decided to launch a companion , Science Fantasy . They chose Walter Gillings as the editor ; but he was replaced by Carnell after two issues , partly because Nova could not afford to pay two editorial salaries , and partly because of " fundamental differences of opinion " . At the end of 1951 New Worlds went bimonthly , and by the middle of the year had reached a circulation of 18 @,@ 000 . The price had been reduced to 1 / 6 with the third issue , but with paper costs rising Nova looked for a cheaper printer . The new printer , The Carlton Press , was supposed to take over production with the May 1953 issue ( number 21 ) , but the issue was late , and had to be dated June 1953 instead . The issue was shoddily produced , which dismayed Nova 's board , and printers ' strikes caused further delays . Nova discovered that The Carlton Press was an agent with no printing facilities ; they farmed out work to other printers , but were only able to get their commissions executed when they paid off any prior debts to those printers . Issue 22 was repeatedly delayed ; proofs appeared in August , and the issue itself was promised for November . Even this late schedule was not adhered to , and Carnell finally received a copy of the print run in January 1954 . The copy was dated 1953 ( with no month ) , and since this made it useless for distribution in 1954 , Carnell refused to accept the print run . While the dispute with the printers was going on , Carnell and Maurice Goldsmith , a journalist acquaintance of Carnell 's , put together a small conference of well @-@ known science fiction authors , including Arthur C. Clarke and John Wyndham . Goldsmith covered the conference for Illustrated , a weekly magazine , and the article caught the attention of Maclaren & Sons Ltd , a technical trade publisher interested in launching a new sf magazine . Carnell turned down the offer because of his loyalty to Nova Publications , but subsequent discussions ultimately led to Maclaren taking control of Nova , with a commitment to produce New Worlds on a monthly basis and Science Fantasy on a bimonthly schedule . By January 1954 , when The Carlton Press delivered the incorrectly dated issue 22 , the acquisition by Maclaren was complete , and Maclaren 's legal department was helpful in resolving the dispute . The printing press who had actually printed the issue were not paid by The Carlton Press , so an injunction was obtained that sequestered the issues to avoid them being sold to recover the printing costs . Carnell retained the copy he had been sent in January , and it is thought that this is the only copy that exists of The Carlton Press 's version of this issue , as the remainder of the printing run was destroyed at the conclusion of the court case . The cover painting , by Gerard Quinn , was subsequently used on issue 13 of Science Fantasy , and all the stories and editorial material eventually appeared in later issues of New Worlds over the next year .
The financial support that Maclaren provided meant that once issue 22 finally appeared in April 1954 , it was the start of a regular monthly schedule that lasted until 1964 with just one hiccup : a printing dispute in 1959 delayed the August issue and it was combined with the September issue . Despite this stability , New Worlds 's circulation began to decline in the early 1960s . Nova Publications had launched a third magazine , Science Fiction Adventures , in 1958 , but both it and Science Fantasy were also losing readers , and in May 1963 Science Fiction Adventures was cancelled . In September of that year Nova 's board decided to close down both New Worlds and Science Fantasy , and in preparation for the change Carnell signed a contract in December 1963 to edit an original anthology series , New Writings in SF , for publisher Dennis Dobson .
= = = Roberts & Vinter = = =
The magazines were unexpectedly saved by David Warburton of Roberts & Vinter , a London publishing house . The printer who had been printing both New Worlds and Science Fantasy happened to meet Warburton in a pub , and mentioned that he was looking for additional work to fill the gaps in his schedule left by the demise of the magazines . Roberts & Vinter were having difficulty getting good distribution for their existing titles , which were violent thrillers , and were interested in acquiring more respectable titles that would help them penetrate the British distribution network , which was heavily dependent on W.H. Smith and John Menzies , the two main British newsagent chains . Warburton 's partner , Godfrey Gold , ran a company that was connected to Roberts & Vinter and published pin @-@ up magazines ; like Warburton , Gold needed to improve his ability to distribute his titles .
When Michael Moorcock , who by this time had begun selling stories to Carnell , heard of the plans to cease publication of New Worlds and Science Fantasy , he wrote a letter that appeared in issue 141 lamenting the loss to the British science fiction field of both the magazines and Carnell himself . Carnell did not want to continue to edit the magazines in addition to New Writings in SF , and recommended Moorcock to Warburton . Kyril Bonfiglioli , an Oxford art dealer who was a friend of Brian Aldiss , also expressed an interest . Warburton gave Moorcock the choice of which magazine to edit ; Moorcock chose New Worlds , and Bonfiglioli became the new editor of Science Fantasy . Moorcock wanted to switch to a large format , and showed Warburton a dummy issue he had made up , but Warburton insisted on a paperback format in order to fit in with the other titles they were producing , though he agreed to revisit the format in the future if sales improved . The first issue under Moorcock 's control was number 142 , dated May / June 1964 . The schedule was initially bimonthly , but at the start of 196
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by University of Surrey academic Tim Jackson , Professor of Sustainable Development and Director of the ESRC Research Group on Lifestyles , Values and Environment .
= = Student life = =
= = = Students ' Union = = =
The University of Surrey Students ' Union is the sole representative body of Surrey students to the university . It consists of a membership department ( representing students on academic and welfare issues , as well as administering sports clubs and societies ) as well as a commercial department . The organisation is non @-@ profit , meaning any takings from the Union 's four commercial outlets are invested in supporting the membership side of the business .
The Union was incorporated as an independent charity in July 2011 . It has a trustee board consisting of four external trustees , a member of University staff , a student trustee , and five full @-@ time student sabbatical officers ( President , VP Education , VP Welfare , VP Sports , VP Societies ) .
The Union hosts many Balls throughout the academic year . The Union ball is a formal event , where students are smartly dressed . There is a Winter Ball at the end of the Autumn term . The Ball season begins in the Summer term with the Colours Ball . Colours Ball is an event organised for all sports activities done at the university . It is done at the end of the sports season , where members of various sports ' clubs are honoured for their contribution to Sports at Surrey . There is a break in the middle of the season for students to sit their final examinations . After the examinations , the season continues with events from several Union societies . The season ends with the Graduation Ball at the end of the year for the graduating class .
= Ronald M. George =
Ronald Marc George ( born March 11 , 1940 ) is the retired 27th Chief Justice of California , where he headed the Supreme Court of California and the Judicial Council of California . Governor Pete Wilson appointed George as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court in 1991 and elevated George to Chief Justice in 1996 .
= = Education and early career = =
Ron George grew up in Beverly Hills , the son of a Hungarian immigrant mother and French immigrant father . A 1957 graduate of Beverly Hills High School , George earned his B.A. from Princeton University in 1961 and his J.D. from Stanford Law School in 1964 .
Upon graduating from Stanford , George was a Deputy California Attorney General from 1965 – 1972 . As a Deputy Attorney General , he argued unsuccessfully on behalf of the State of California before the United States Supreme Court in Chimel v. California in 1969 . The following year , he again represented California before the U.S. Supreme Court , this time successfully defending the death penalty in McGautha v. California . In 1971 , he represented California as an amicus curiae in support of the successful argument of the State of Illinois in Kirby v. Illinois .
In 1972 , his final year as a Deputy Attorney General , George unsuccessfully argued in favor of the death penalty before the California Supreme Court in California v. Anderson but was successful in defending the conviction of Sirhan Sirhan in the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy , a U.S. Senator and 1968 presidential candidate . The ruling in California v. Anderson resulted in the dismissal of Aikens v. California as moot ; George was to have represented the State of California in this case .
= = Early judicial career = =
Governor Ronald Reagan appointed George as a Judge of the Los Angeles Municipal Court on April 20 , 1972 . George was elected to a full six @-@ year term on November 2 , 1976 . Governor Jerry Brown appointed him to the Los Angeles County Superior Court on December 23 , 1977 ; George was elected to a full six @-@ year term on November 7 , 1978 , and re @-@ elected on November 6 , 1984 .
As a Superior Court judge , George presided over the trial of Hillside Strangler Angelo Buono in 1981 – 1983 . George also presided over the trial of Marvin Gay , Sr. for the slaying of Gay 's son , the singer Marvin Gaye . George was lauded for his extremely unusual decision to deny the motion by Los Angeles County District Attorney 's office to dismiss all 10 counts of murder against Buono . However , his unusual decision was speculated to be a result of his earlier decision to separate crucial counts of rape and sodomy , which in themselves would serve as evidence against the defendant , from the murder charges . The prosecutors felt the evidence against Buono was so weak that it did not justify even an attempt to win at trial . Judges rarely second @-@ guess the prosecutors ' judgment on such a matter ( and George stated that he was " loath " to do so ) . However , George 's review of the evidence in the case caused him to feel so strongly that the prosecutors were in error that he did exactly that . George reassigned the case to the California Attorney General 's office , and that office successfully convicted Buono on nine of the 10 counts . Thus , it was recognized that the judge , through his action to deny the earlier motion to dismiss , had ultimately prevented a serial killer from going free . Oddly , Los Angeles County District Attorney John Van de Kamp had been elected California Attorney General in the middle of the lengthy trial , so a Van de Kamp @-@ led District Attorney 's office attempted to dismiss the unwinnable case only to have a Van de Kamp @-@ led Attorney General 's office win nine convictions in the case .
Governor George Deukmejian appointed him to the California Second District Court of Appeal on July 23 , 1987 . George was confirmed and sworn in on August 27 , 1987 , and was elected to a full twelve @-@ year term on November 6 , 1990 .
= = Supreme Court = =
Governor Pete Wilson appointed Justice Ron George to the California Supreme Court on July 29 , 1991 . George was confirmed and sworn in as an Associate Justice on September 3 , 1991 . California voters elected him to a full twelve @-@ year term on November 8 , 1994 . Wilson appointed George as the 27th Chief Justice of California on March 28 , 1996 . George was confirmed and sworn into office on May 1 , 1996 . He was elected to a full twelve @-@ year term on November 3 , 1998 , with 75 @.@ 5 % percent of the vote .
George was occasionally floated as a candidate for justice of the United States Supreme Court as a conservative acceptable to Democrats , such as when Democratic United States Senator Barbara Boxer suggested George as a potential nominee for the seat on the Court vacated by Sandra Day O 'Connor 's retirement . Boxer described both George and his fellow California Supreme Court Justice Kathryn Werdegar , as Republicans who " reflect the spirit of Sandra Day O 'Connor 's tenure — independent and nonideological . "
In 2008 , Justice George authored the opinion in the Supreme Court 's 4 @-@ 3 ruling in In re Marriage Cases legalizing same @-@ sex marriage in California . Citing the court 's 1948 decision legalizing interracial marriages , George 's opinion found that sexual orientation is a protected class like race and gender , meaning that attempts to ban same @-@ sex marriage would be subject to strict scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause of the California Constitution . It was the first state high court in the country to do so . Voters would overturn the decision less than six months later by passing Proposition 8 in the November 2008 elections . However , Proposition 8 would itself be later overturned by a Federal Court in Perry v. Schwarzenegger and In Re Marriage Cases reinstated as valid constitutional law in California .
On July 14 , 2010 , Justice George announced he would not seek to be re @-@ elected in 2010 and would therefore retire at the end of his term : January 2 , 2011 . He was succeeded by Tani Cantil @-@ Sakauye .
= 34th Street – Hudson Yards ( IRT Flushing Line ) =
34th Street – Hudson Yards is a New York City Subway station in Manhattan 's West Side on the IRT Flushing Line , and is the western ( railroad south ) terminus for the 7 < 7 > trains . It has two tracks and one island platform , with two levels of mezzanines : one directly above the platform and the other directly below street level .
The station , originally part of the city 's bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics and the failed attempt to build the West Side Stadium , was first scheduled to open in summer 2012 . When London was chosen for the Olympics , the opening date was pushed to December 2013 . In 2011 , the opening was postponed to June 2014 , pending the completion of the escalators and elevators in the station . After a series of delays involving escalator , elevator , and fire and safety systems , the station finally opened on September 13 , 2015 . The 34th Street station is the first completely new station in the New York City Subway system since 1989 , as well as the first such station funded by the government of New York City since 1950 .
The new construction , part of the city 's and the MTA 's master plan for the Far West Side , extended the IRT Flushing Line west from Times Square to Eleventh Avenue , then south to 34th Street . Although the West Side Stadium plan was rejected by city and state planning agencies , the 7 Subway Extension plan received approval to move ahead , as New York political leaders wanted to see the warehouse district west of Eighth Avenue and north of 34th Street redeveloped as part of the Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project , and subway service was to be an essential part of that effort . The extension also serves the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center , which was expanded in 2008 – 14 and is located just half a block away from the station entrances .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and construction = = =
In response to the City Planning Commission 's 1993 proposal to improve access to the Manhattan Central Business District , the Metropolitan Transportation Authority ( MTA ) began exploring the possibility of an extension of the IRT Flushing Line to New Jersey . In 2001 , a business and civic group convened by Senator Charles Schumer argued that a westward extension of the Midtown office district could not be accomplished without a subway extension , saying :
The long blocks along the avenues make the walk as long as 20 minutes to the westernmost parts of the area . In addition , there is no convenient link from Grand Central Station or elsewhere on the east side of Manhattan , making the Far West Side a difficult commute for workers from parts of Manhattan , Queens , Westchester and Connecticut .
It was again proposed as part of the New York City bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics . The City wanted to get funding before July 2005 , at which time the International Olympic Committee would vote on funding . However , due to shortfalls in the MTA 's Capital Program , as well as preexisting funding for the Second Avenue Subway and East Side Access , the MTA could not pay to fund the extension . After a proposal for the West Side Stadium , an Olympic stadium to be located above the nearby West Side Yard , was rejected in 2005 , New York City quickly lost their Olympic bid .
For then @-@ Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the extension was still a priority . His December 12 , 2006 , address to the New York League of Conservation Voters noted that in November 2006 , the government began issuing bonds to fund the extension of the 7 subway to Eleventh Avenue and 34th Street . The extension was funded with New York City funds from municipal tax increment financing ( TIF ) bond sales that are expected to be repaid with property tax revenues from future developments in areas served by the extension . The one @-@ station extension to the burgeoning Hudson Yards was originally to cost US $ 2 @.@ 1 billion , but eventually grew to US $ 2 @.@ 4 billion , excluding a US $ 500 million intermediate station at 10th Avenue that was canceled due to costs .
In October 2007 , the MTA awarded a $ 1 @.@ 145 billion contract to build 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) of twin @-@ tube tunnel to S3 , a joint venture of J.F. Shea , Skanska USA Civil , and Schiavone . The contract was to build tunnel from the then @-@ current 7 train terminus at Times Square westward underneath 41st Street to Eleventh Avenue , then down to 26th Street . Richard Dattner and Partners , Architects , designed the 34th Street station . After excavating the new terminal 's shell and creating the first 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of tunnel using the drill @-@ and @-@ blast method , S3 placed two tunnel @-@ boring machines ( TBMs ) in the ground to dig the remaining 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) ; as it dug , each TBM placed precast concrete liner segments to create the tunnel interior .
On December 21 , 2009 , the MTA said that a tunnel @-@ boring machine broke through the 34th Street station cavern wall . Both tunnel @-@ boring machines were scheduled to finish the required tunneling in the spring of 2010 .
In April 2011 , the MTA announced that the contract covering the tunnels , the station mezzanine and passenger platform was 85 % complete , and that the systems contract , covering mechanical and electrical systems , electric power , lighting and train tracks would be awarded by July 2011 . The systems contract was awarded in September 2011 . In May 2012 , the MTA announced that the extension , now 65 % complete , had received the installation of the first set of rails . By August 2013 , the extension was 90 % complete .
On December 20 , 2013 , Bloomberg took a ceremonial ride on a train to the nearly @-@ complete station , celebrating a part of his legacy as mayor , during a press tour of the extension . Train testing did not commence until June 2015 .
= = = Delays = = =
In January 2012 , the station was touted as under @-@ budget and on schedule to open in 2013 , before a series of delays plagued the project . The station , originally part of the city 's bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics , was supposed to first open as part of a two @-@ station subway extension , including Tenth Avenue station , in summer 2012 . When London was chosen for the Olympics , the opening date was pushed to December 2013 ; the Tenth Avenue station was dropped from construction plans soon after . By June 2012 , trains were still expected to run " for test purposes " by the end of 2013 . That same month , the station 's opening was delayed to June 2014 for completion of the station 's fitting @-@ out .
Michael Horodniceanu , chief of MTA Construction Company , told the New York Times in January 2014 that complications in the installation of the inclined elevator would likely cause a further delay of about three months , bringing the opening date to very late summer or early fall of 2014 , or to November 2014 . By March 2014 , the station 's tentative opening date was still to be in November 2014 .
Then , in May 2014 , the opening was delayed again to install the inclined elevators , as they had originally failed a factory test in Como Province , Italy . Officials had insisted that the Italian @-@ manufactured elevators had software and parts made from a variety of different companies in America , rather than from a single foreign company . However , the station was not delayed solely because of the elevators . The station 's opening was also pushed to later dates due to " integrated testing for fire protection " , which required the completion of all station infrastructure , including escalators , stairs , and elevators . Escalators and tunnel ventilation systems also caused the station to be delayed . At this point , the station was expected to open for service in late 2014 , but due to further elevator delays as well as problems with the extension 's ventilation systems , it was delayed in October 2014 by a further few months , to February 2015 . The opening date was originally supposed to be before 10 Hudson Yards , the first Hudson Yards building , opened in July 2015 .
At this point , the project was so far delayed that the MTA was offered US $ 4 @.@ 75 million in " incentive " money if the station opened by February 24 , 2015 . Software changes were made to solve the elevators ' problems , and the elevators were installed . Testing would be complete by November . Three ventilation systems were already installed by October 1 , 2014 , with two more systems to be installed by the end of the month . On November 17 , it was confirmed that February 24 would be the opening date for the station ; new signs and the southern entrance 's canopy started to be erected . However , just a month later , the MTA stated that it was unable to open the subway extension for service until April to July 2015 , due to the failure to get the inclined elevators to work properly . The MTA also cited problems with the fire alarm and security systems as another reason for the delay . In addition , Hudson Yards ' developer , The Related Companies , also needed to dig caissons for the foundations of 55 Hudson Yards , just above the subway station , and the foundation work needed to be complete before the MTA could proceed with opening the station .
The MTA made another announcement , on March 24 , 2015 , saying that the station 's opening would be delayed again to summer 2015 , due to more problems with the fire and security systems . In addition , third rails , public service announcement systems , ventilation fans , escalators , and elevators would need to be tested . By April 2015 , the station was complete , but unopened . On June 15 , 2015 , though , the extension was pushed back again to " before the end of the third quarter " of 2015 . A month later , the MTA confirmed that the station would be opened on or before September 13 , 2015 . The opening date was confirmed on August 28 , 2015 . By this point , MTA chairman Thomas Prendergast had stated that the myriad delays in both the new station and in the other MTA Capital Construction projects were humiliating .
= = = Operation = = =
The station opened on September 13 , 2015 , in a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony attended by New York City mayor Bill de Blasio , U.S. Senator Chuck Schumer , and former deputy mayor Dan Doctoroff . The secondary station entrance at 35th Street , as well as finishing touches within the station itself , was not expected to be completed until 2016 .
Just a couple of days after the station opened , though , there were some problems in and around the station , which multiple news outlets criticized . An escalator broke down on September 14 , just a day after the station 's opening . In an unrelated September 16 incident , a straphanger got injured while walking up another escalator at the 34th Street station . Earlier that day , the New York Post reported on signal problems in the brand @-@ new tunnels around the station , while riders complained about the delays on Twitter and Reddit . A Wall Street Journal commentator remarked that " it
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's only a matter of months ( make that weeks ) before the gleaming station ... is pockmarked with chewing @-@ gum spots , urban scrawl and litter . " Overall , however , the station received positive acclaim during its first few days of service . In an article in several newspapers distributed by NYC Community Media , Lenore Skenazy writes that many riders have praised the station 's design , its cleanliness , and its climate @-@ controlled platforms , and noted herself that the station looked and felt " as uplifting as a cathedral " .
In March 2016 , news sources reported that despite the station 's high cost , the station had maintenance problems : there were leaks in the ceiling of the corridors holding the escalators , the station 's bathrooms were closed because of flooding from the street , and icicles had formed on the ceiling of the station . The MTA supposedly knew about the issues for several years , even during construction . The MTA board called these issues " unacceptable " and the contractor responsible for waterproofing the station spent $ 3 million to fix them . The leaky ceiling was reportedly fixed by May 2016 .
= = Station layout = =
The approximately 1 @,@ 200 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 370 m ) station , designed by Dattner Architects , has a single wide island platform serving two tracks , as well as eight staircases between the lower mezzanine and the platform . The platform itself is 35 feet ( 11 m ) wide , which makes it much wider than many other island platforms in the subway system ; by comparison , the Chambers Street station in Lower Manhattan has platforms that are 18 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) wide , and the Second Avenue Subway stations are 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) wide . The platform , at 585 feet ( 178 m ) long , is among the longest in the IRT system , as well as the longest " column @-@ free " platform of any station in the system . In addition , there is a large 3 @-@ block @-@ long mezzanine , stretching between 33rd and 36th Streets , overhead .
The station 's extreme depth necessitates an upper ( fare ) mezzanine and a lower ( passenger ) mezzanine . A 27 @.@ 6 @-@ foot @-@ deep ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) fare mezzanine is located under the basements of 55 Hudson Yards , and escalators and an incline elevator lead to a lower mezzanine , which is 109 feet ( 33 m ) deep . The Empire Connection and North River Tunnels are both above the station . Above the lower mezzanine is a curved , oval @-@ shaped ceiling indentation that helps to cover the ventilation tubes in the station ceiling , and also acts as a skylight . The curved , cavernous ceiling of the lower mezzanine helps the station be energy @-@ efficient via the use of indirect lighting . The station has a total of five escalators from the lower mezzanine to the upper mezzanine , and four escalators from the upper mezzanine to the main entrance . There are also four elevators ; of these , two are vertical elevators — one from street level to the upper mezzanine , and one from the lower mezzanine to platform level — while the other two are incline elevators .
There are four escalators and two stairs from the main entrance to the upper mezzanine . Past the main entrance 's fare control , which is split into two banks , there are two parallel shafts down to the lower mezzanine ; the northern shaft carries four escalators , while the southern shaft carries one escalator and the two incline elevators . The lowermost five escalators are the system 's longest and take about one minute and thirty seconds to traverse .
The walls adjacent to the tracks have white tiles arranged in sets of three 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) columns of 3 tiles each . There are two @-@ tile @-@ high gray squares containing white " 34 " s in the middle of each set of columns . They are pre @-@ fabricated porcelain panels , in three @-@ by @-@ five slabs , to allow easy replacement . On the lower mezzanine , the architects used high ceilings and convex railings to make the station seem bigger , thus improving passenger flow . A tiling pattern , similar to that used on platform level , is also used on the lower mezzanine , though electronic advertisement panels are mounted on the walls at certain areas along the lower mezzanine . The cavernous station 's design has been compared to that of Washington Metro stations , although early plans for narrow , Washington Metro @-@ like platforms were scrapped . The station has also been compared to stations along London 's Jubilee Line Extension , and in fact , the station 's architecture was inspired by that of the Canary Wharf tube station on that extension .
The station , which is paid for with tax increment financing property taxes , is the first to be funded by the city since the Jamaica – 179th Street station on the IND Queens Boulevard Line opened in 1950 , as well as the first new unique station in the New York City Subway since the three stations on the IND 63rd Street Line opened in October 1989 .
= = = Entrances and exits = = =
The station has two entrances and exits :
Main Station Entrance / Ventilation Building – escalators and elevator on the west side of Hudson Boulevard between 33rd and 34th Streets
Secondary Station Entrance – escalators on the SW corner of Hudson Boulevard and 35th Street ; under construction as of May 2016
The main entrance , located at the southeast corner of the intersection of 34th Street and Hudson Boulevard , has a turtle shell @-@ shaped glass canopy above it that allows light to shine on the upper mezzanine . The elevator is located south of 34th Street in Hudson Park , while the escalator entrance is located further east , closer to the boulevard . The ventilation building will be built over by developers at a future date . The second entrance , which will contain escalator entrances is at the southwest corner of 35th Street and Hudson Boulevard East . At both of the exits , the staircases and four escalators each go down 40 feet ( 12 m ) to a fare control area , then another 80 feet ( 24 m ) to the common lower mezzanine ; the main entrance was completed by summer 2014 , while the secondary entrance is still under construction and will be completed by 2016 .
Both entrances will feature the glass canopy design , the first of their kind in the subway system . They are intended to stand out aesthetically . The entrances are interweaved with the Hudson Yards developments , with the main entrance wedged between 50 Hudson Yards to the east and 55 Hudson Yards to the west . The rest of the Hudson Yards development is located very close to the south of the station . Both entrances are based on a design by architect Toshiko Mori , which itself is based on the design of smaller station entrances in the Paris Métro .
There was provisionally an entrance inside the 3 Hudson Boulevard building , near where the secondary station building will be . However , as both entrances will use a glass canopy cover independent of any Hudson Yards structures , the 3 Hudson Boulevard entrance was shelved in lieu of a subway entrance directly to the east of 3 Hudson Boulevard .
In the preliminary plans , there was also going to be an entrance at the southwest corner of Eleventh Avenue and 36th Street to serve the Javits Center directly . The secondary exit would have been relocated to the north side of 34th Street west of Hudson Boulevard .
= = = Features = = =
In September 2007 , it was announced that the new station would feature platform screen doors . However , plans for screen doors in New York City Subway stations were dropped in 2012 , because of their high cost of $ 1 million per platform edge . However , even without the inclusion of platform screen doors for ventilation and safety purposes , the station — along with the new South Ferry station on the IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line and the three Phase 1 Second Avenue Subway stations on the Upper East Side — includes special air @-@ cooling systems that keep the temperature at 72 to 78 ° F ( 22 to 26 ° C ) year @-@ round . These systems , which already existed at Grand Central – 42nd Street station , help reduce the temperature along platforms . The station also has ventilation towers that are the largest in the New York City Subway system .
Unlike most stations in the system , which do not have open public restrooms , there are public restrooms in the station . The station also has a stainless steel oval @-@ shaped station agent booth .
Materials used in the station are expected to last at least 100 years ; include granite tile , ceramic tile , stainless steel panels on the walls , painted steel panels on the ceilings , energy @-@ efficient fluorescent lamps and LEDs , and mesh ; and are supposed to conform to New York City Transit criteria , including slip @-@ resistance . The station also uses acoustic ceiling tiles to reduce noise , in addition to using indirect lighting . The station is also compliant with National Fire Protection Association standards , despite its extreme depth , as it can be evacuated in six minutes in case of fire , and the platform can be cleared within four minutes .
While the station was not equipped with Wi @-@ Fi or 3G at the time of opening , it was to be installed " in the near future " . However , the station does include " countdown clocks " indicating the time until the next train , as well as Help Point emergency intercoms and in @-@ station travel planners .
As part of the MTA 's " Arts for Transit " program , three mosaics by Xenobia Bailey , which total approximately 2 @,@ 788 square feet ( 259 @.@ 0 m2 ) , were installed in three locations within the station . The artworks , titled Funktional Vibrations , are based on some of Bailey 's crocheting patterns , and is located in an oval @-@ shaped recession in the ceiling at the 34th Street entrance . The other two mosaics are located in the station entrances . The Hudson Park and Boulevard project is also included with the construction of the station . However , there is no artwork in the rest of the station ; one Newsweek writer observed that while the station was " very clean but also a little antiseptic " , " cool " , and " efficient " , it was also " lacking all character " with its austere design .
= = = = Incline elevators = = = =
The station is more than 10 stories deep , placing it among the system 's deepest — so deep , in fact , that the North River Tunnels and the planned Gateway Project tunnels pass over it by approximately 35 feet ( 11 m ) . The station , which is 125 feet ( 38 m ) below street level , and 108 feet ( 33 m ) below sea level in total , is the third deepest subway station in the entire system , behind 190th Street and 191st Street stations ; as a result , nine escalators were installed at the station . In addition , passenger access to the station includes a pair of custom @-@ made incline elevators , which are installed in the southernmost of the two shafts between the upper and lower mezzanines , at the 34th Street end of the station . In April 2014 , the first of two 172 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 52 m ) incline elevators was installed in the station . The elevators are relatively slow in order to encourage non @-@ disabled riders to use the escalators . These incline elevators make the station the first to be built to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 ( ADA ) .
The 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) high incline elevators , which move at 100 feet ( 30 m ) per minute ( making an entire trip between the mezzanine levels in less than two minutes ) and are sloped at a 27 @-@ degree angle , are the first of their kind in the system . Each elevator can hold up to 15 standing passengers or five wheelchair passengers . The inclined elevators were less expensive than vertically @-@ traveling elevators , and were installed within the large escalator shaft at 34th Street . However , as the incline elevators had originally failed a factory test by its manufacturer Maspero Elevatori , there were multiple delays in opening the station , and the opening date was eventually delayed from December 2013 to late 2014 , then to mid @-@ 2015 .
The use of inclined elevators was intended to provide wheelchair @-@ bound patrons with a shorter , easier path to the train platform as well as to reduce tunneling costs . The two elevators were manufactured by Maspero Elevatori , in Appiano Gentile , Italy , using a controller made on Long Island , speed governors made in Ohio , and buttons and other parts in Queens . The software for the elevator was written in the United States . Maspero Elevatori assembled the elevators in Italy , and they failed an operational test there , prior to being shipped to the United States . The MTA said the manufacturer chose to use American subcontractors in place of local Italian suppliers after reading the specifications the transit agency submitted . The MTA worked with the manufacturer to try to resolve the problems caused by a very high level of customization .
= = = Track layout = = =
The tracks of this station continue south of the station , down to 25th Street , to allow trains to be stored south of the station during off @-@ peak hours ; the tail tracks are seven blocks long , enough to store two 11 @-@ car trains each , since the delivery of the R188 train cars was to add 66 more cars to the fleet of the 7 service . There are also two diamond crossovers , one north and one south of the station . The storage tracks at this location were constructed due to the Corona Yard in Queens lacking any space to hold any more trains , and expanding the yard is very difficult due to its location next to the Flushing River . A new storage yard elsewhere would be prohibitively expensive , as it would cost hundreds of millions of dollars .
= = Projected ridership = =
The station was originally expected to be very heavily used , due to its location as " the only subway line serving the area west of Ninth Avenue below 59th Street " , as well as its status as the main subway station for the Hudson Yards area and the closest station to the busy Javits Center . Originally , the station was projected to serve 27 @,@ 000 passengers per day , or about 9 @.@ 855 million passengers per year , when it first opened . After the Hudson Yards is complete , ridership was to grow very heavily , with an average of 35 @,@ 000 people per hour using the station at its peak by 2020 . By September 2015 , though , projections had increased to a proposed ridership of 32 @,@ 000 people per hour . The projected 2025 ridership of 200 @,@ 000 daily riders is more than at Times Square station , the station with the most ridership as of 2013 with 197 @,@ 696 riders a day .
Projections predict that during the morning rush hour alone , 26 @,@ 000 passengers will be leaving the station , while 15 @,@ 000 will be simultaneously entering the station . This will make it the busiest subway station in New York City that is not a transfer station . The station is built to handle an even higher capacity of 40 @,@ 000 passengers per hour during peak times and events at the Javits Center . The high projected ridership is despite the fact that it was once described as a station on an " extension to nowhere " , given the relative sparseness of the area in 2007 . As late as 2011 , it was thought that the city was wasting money on the station because , at the time , Hudson Yards had not yet been finalized .
It was reported that only 7 @,@ 000 daily riders entered the station between September 13 – 22 , 2015 , drastically below the MTA 's projected ridership of 32 @,@ 000 passengers upon the station 's opening . This was attributed to incompleteness of developments in the area , as well as an unopened entrance to the High Line Park , which is nearby . In late October 2015 , AM New York found that the average daily ridership was even lower , at only 5 @,@ 900 passengers per day , except for during the 2015 New York Comic Con on October 8 – 11 , when average daily ridership reached 18 @,@ 300 daily riders . The station 's official ridership for 2015 was 692 @,@
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Uist and Lewis in particular have landscapes with a high percentage of freshwater and a maze and complexity of loch shapes . Harris has fewer large bodies of water but innumerable small lochans . Loch Langavat on Lewis is 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) long , and has several large islands in its midst , including Eilean Mòr . Although Loch Suaineabhal has only 25 % of the Langavat 's surface area it has a mean depth of 33 metres ( 108 ft ) and is the most voluminous on the island . Of Loch Sgadabhagh on North Uist it has been said that " there is probably no other loch in Britain which approaches Loch Scadavay in irregularity and complexity of outline . " Loch Bì is South Uist 's largest loch and at 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) long it all but cuts the island in two .
Much of the western coastline of the islands is machair , a fertile low @-@ lying dune pastureland . Lewis is comparatively flat , and largely consists of treeless moors of blanket peat . The highest eminence is Mealisval at 574 m ( 1 @,@ 883 ft ) in the south west . Most of Harris is mountainous , with large areas of exposed rock and Clisham , the archipelago 's only Corbett , reaches 799 m ( 2 @,@ 621 ft ) in height . North and South Uist and Benbecula , ( sometimes collectively referred to as The Uists ) have sandy beaches and wide cultivated areas of machair to the west and virtually uninhabited mountainous areas to the east . The highest peak here is Beinn Mhòr at 620 metres ( 2 @,@ 034 ft ) . The Uists and their immediate outliers have a combined area of 74 @,@ 540 hectares ( 288 sq mi ) . This includes the Uists themselves and the islands that link to them by causeways and bridges . Barra is 5 @,@ 875 hectares ( 23 sq mi ) in extent and has a rugged interior , surrounded by machair and extensive beaches .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
Much of the archipelago is a protected habitat including both the islands and the surrounding waters . There are 53 Sites of Special Scientific Interest of which the largest are Loch an Duin , North Uist at 15 @,@ 100 hectares ( 37 @,@ 000 acres ) and North Harris , which is 12 @,@ 700 hectares ( 31 @,@ 000 acres ) in extent .
Loch Druidibeg on South Uist is a national nature reserve owned and managed by Scottish Natural Heritage . The reserve covers 1 @,@ 677 hectares across the whole range of local habitats . Over 200 species of flowering plants have been recorded on the reserve , some of which are nationally scarce . South Uist is considered the best place in the UK for the aquatic plant Slender Naiad , which is a European Protected Species .
There has been considerable controversy over hedgehogs on the Uists . The animals are not native to the islands , having been introduced in the 1970s to reduce garden pests and their spread posed a threat to the eggs of ground nesting wading birds . In 2003 Scottish Natural Heritage undertook culls of hedgehogs in the area although they were halted in 2007 , with trapped animals now being relocated to the mainland .
Nationally important populations of breeding waders are present in the Outer Hebrides including common redshank , dunlin , lapwing and ringed plover . The islands also provide a habitat for other important species such as corncrake , hen harrier , golden eagle and otter . Offshore , basking shark and various species of whale and dolphin can be seen regularly , and the remoter islands ' seabird populations are of international significance . St Kilda has 60 @,@ 000 northern gannets , amounting to 24 % of the world population , 49 @,@ 000 breeding pairs of Leach 's petrel , up to 90 % of the European population and 136 @,@ 000 pairs of puffin and 67 @,@ 000 northern fulmar pairs , about 30 % and 13 % of the respective UK totals . Mingulay is an important breeding ground for razorbills , with 9 @,@ 514 pairs , 6 @.@ 3 % of the European population .
The bumblebee Bombus jonellus var. hebridensis is endemic to the Hebrides and there are local variants of the dark green fritillary and green @-@ veined white butterflies . The St Kilda wren is a subspecies of wren whose range is confined to the islands whose name it bears .
= = Population = =
The inhabited islands had a total population of 26 @,@ 502 at the time of the 2001 census and the 2011 figure was 27 @,@ 684 . During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 . The largest settlement in the Outer Hebrides is Stornoway on Lewis , which has a population of about 8 @,@ 100 .
In addition to the major North Ford ( Oitir Mhòr ) and South Ford causeways that connect North Uist to Benbecula via the northern of the Grimsay 's , and Benbecula to South Uist , several other islands are linked by smaller causeways or bridges . Great Bernera and Scalpay have bridge connections to Lewis and Harris respectively , with causeways linking Baleshare and Berneray to North Uist , Eriskay to South Uist , Flodaigh , Fraoch @-@ eilean and the southern Grimsay to Benbecula , and Vatersay to Barra . This means that all the inhabited islands are now connected to at least one other island by a land transport route .
= = = Uninhabited islands = = =
There are more than fifty uninhabited islands greater in size than 40 hectares ( 99 acres ) in the Outer Hebrides , including the Barra Isles , Flannan Isles , Monach Islands , the Shiant Isles and the islands of Loch Ròg . In common with the other main island chains of Scotland , many of the more remote islands were abandoned during the 19th and 20th centuries , in some cases after continuous habitation since the prehistoric period . More than 35 such islands have been identified in the Outer Hebrides alone . On Barra Head , for example , Historic Scotland have identified eighty @-@ three archaeological sites on the island , the majority being of a pre @-@ medieval date . In the 18th century the population was over fifty , but the last native islanders had left by 1931 . The island became completely uninhabited by 1980 with the automation of the lighthouse .
Some of the smaller islands continue to contribute to modern culture . The " Mingulay Boat Song " , although evocative of island life , was written after the abandonment of the island in 1938 and Taransay hosted the BBC television series Castaway 2000 . Others have played a part in Scottish history . On 4 May 1746 , the " Young Pretender " Charles Edward Stuart hid on Eilean Liubhaird with some of his men for four days whilst Royal Navy vessels patrolled the Minch .
Smaller isles and skerries and other island groups pepper the North Atlantic surrounding the main islands . Some are not geologically part of the Outer Hebrides , but are administratively and in most cases culturally , part of Comhairle nan Eilean Siar . 73 kilometres ( 45 mi ) to the west of Lewis lies St Kilda , now uninhabited except for a small military base . A similar distance to the north of Lewis are North Rona and Sula Sgeir , two small and remote islands . While Rona used to support a small population who grew grain and raised cattle , Sula Sgeir is an inhospitable rock . Thousands of northern gannets nest here , and by special arrangement some of their young , known as gugas are harvested annually by the men of Ness . The status of Rockall , which is 367 kilometres ( 228 mi ) to the west of North Uist and which the Island of Rockall Act 1972 decreed to be a part of the Western Isles , remains a matter of international dispute .
= = Geology = =
Most of the islands have a bedrock formed from Lewisian gneiss . These are amongst the oldest rocks in Europe , having been formed in the Precambrian period up to three billion years ago . In addition to the Outer Hebrides , they form basement deposits on the Scottish mainland west of the Moine Thrust and on the islands of Coll and Tiree . These rocks are largely igneous in origin , mixed with metamorphosed marble , quartzite and mica schist and intruded by later basaltic dykes and granite magma . The gneiss 's delicate pink colours are exposed throughout the islands and it is sometimes referred to by geologists as " The Old Boy " .
Granite intrusions are found in the parish of Barvas in west Lewis , and another forms the summit plateau of the mountain Roineabhal in Harris . The granite here is anorthosite , and is similar in composition to rocks found in the mountains of the Moon . There are relatively small outcrops of Triassic sandstone at Broad Bay near Stornoway . The Shiant Isles and St Kilda are formed from much later tertiary basalt and basalt and gabbros respectively . The sandstone at Broad Bay was once thought to be Torridonian or Old Red Sandstone .
= = Climate = =
The Outer Hebrides have a cool temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude , due to the influence of the North Atlantic Current . The average temperature for the year is 6 ° C ( 44 ° F ) in January and 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) in summer . The average annual rainfall in Lewis is 1 @,@ 100 millimetres ( 43 in ) and sunshine hours range from 1 @,@ 100 to 1 @,@ 200 per year . The summer days are relatively long and May to August is the driest period . Winds are a key feature of the climate and even in summer there are almost constant breezes . According to the writer W. H. Murray if a visitor asks an islander for a weather forecast " he will not , like a mainlander answer dry , wet or sunny , but quote you a figure from the Beaufort Scale . " There are gales one day in six at the Butt of Lewis and small fish are blown onto the grass on top of 190 metre ( 620 ft ) high cliffs at Barra Head during winter storms .
= = Prehistory = =
The Hebrides were originally settled in the Mesolithic era and have a diversity of important prehistoric sites . Eilean Dòmhnuill in Loch Olabhat on North Uist was constructed circa 3200 – 2800 BC and may be Scotland 's earliest crannog ( a type of artificial island ) . The Callanish Stones dating from about 2900 BC are the finest example of a stone circle in Scotland , the 13 primary monoliths of between one and five metres high creating a circumference about 13 metres ( 43 ft ) in diameter . Cladh Hallan on South Uist , the only site in the UK where prehistoric mummies have been found and the impressive ruins of Dun Carloway broch on Lewis both date from the Iron Age .
= = Etymology = =
The earliest written references that have survived relating to the islands were made by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History , where he states that there are 30 " Hebudes " , and makes a separate reference to " Dumna " , which Watson ( 1926 ) concludes is unequivocally the Outer Hebrides . Writing about 80 years later , in 140 @-@ 150 AD , Ptolemy , drawing on the earlier naval expeditions of Agricola , also distinguished between the Ebudes , of which he writes there were only five ( and thus possibly meaning the Inner Hebrides ) and Dumna . Dumna is cognate with the Early Celtic dumnos and means the " deep @-@ sea isle " . Pliny probably took his information from Pytheas of Massilia who visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC . It is possible that Ptolemy did as well , as Agricola 's information about the west coast of Scotland was of poor quality . Breeze also suggests that Dumna might be Lewis and Harris , the largest island of the Outer Hebrides although he conflates this single island with the name " Long Island " . Watson ( 1926 ) states that the meaning of Ptolemy 's " Eboudai " is unknown and that the root may be pre @-@ Celtic . Murray ( 1966 ) claims that Ptolemy 's " Ebudae " was originally derived from the Old Norse Havbredey , meaning " isles on the edge of the sea " . This idea is often repeated but no firm evidence of this derivation has emerged .
Other early written references include the flight of the Nemed people from Ireland to " Domon " , which is mentioned in the 12th @-@ century Lebor Gabála Érenn and a 13th @-@ century poem concerning Raghnall mac Gofraidh , then the heir to the throne of Mann and the Isles , who is said to have " broken the gate of Magh Domhna " . Magh Domhna means " the plain of Domhna ( or Domon ) " , but the precise meaning of the text is not clear .
In Irish mythology the islands were the home of the Fomorians , described as " huge and ugly " and " ship men of the sea " . They were pirates , extracting tribute from the coasts of Ireland and one of their kings was Indech mac Dé Domnand ( i.e. Indech , son of the goddess Domnu , who ruled over the deep seas ) .
In modern Gaelic the islands are sometimes referred to collectively as An t @-@ Eilean Fada ( the Long Island ) or Na h @-@ Eileanan a @-@ Muigh ( the Outer Isles ) . Innse Gall ( islands of the foreigners or strangers ) is also heard occasionally , a name that was originally used by mainland Highlanders when the islands were ruled by the Norse .
The individual island and place names in the Outer Hebrides have mixed Gaelic and Norse origins . Various Gaelic terms are used repeatedly :
There are also several islands called Orasaigh from the Norse Örfirirsey meaning " tidal " or " ebb island " .
= = History = =
In Scotland , the Celtic Iron Age way of life , often troubled but never extinguished by Rome , re @-@ asserted itself when the legions abandoned any permanent occupation in 211 AD . Hanson ( 2003 ) writes : " For many years it has been almost axiomatic in studies of the period that the Roman conquest must have had some major medium or long @-@ term impact on Scotland . On present evidence that cannot be substantiated either in terms of environment , economy , or , indeed , society . The impact appears to have been very limited . The general picture remains one of broad continuity , not of disruption ... The Roman presence in Scotland was little more than a series of brief interludes within a longer continuum of indigenous development . " The Romans ' direct impact on the Highlands and Islands was scant and there is no evidence that they ever actually landed in the Outer Hebrides .
The later Iron Age inhabitants of the northern and western Hebrides were probably Pictish , although the historical record is sparse . Hunter ( 2000 ) states that in relation to King Bridei I of the Picts in the sixth century AD : " As for Shetland , Orkney , Skye and the Western Isles , their inhabitants , most of whom appear to have been Pictish in culture and speech at this time , are likely to have regarded Bridei as a fairly distant presence . " The island of Pabbay is the site of the Pabbay Stone , the only extant Pictish symbol stone in the Outer Hebrides . This 6th century stele shows a flower , V @-@ rod and lunar crescent to which has been added a later and somewhat crude cross .
= = = Norse control = = =
Viking raids began on Scottish shores towards the end of the 8th century AD and the Hebrides came under Norse control and settlement during the ensuing decades , especially following the success of Harald Fairhair at the Battle of Hafrsfjord in 872 . In the Western Isles Ketill Flatnose was the dominant figure of the mid 9th century , by which time he had amassed a substantial island realm and made a variety of alliances with other Norse leaders . These princelings nominally owed allegiance to the Norwegian crown , although in practice the latter 's control was fairly limited . Norse control of the Hebrides was formalised in 1098 when Edgar of Scotland formally signed the islands over to Magnus III of Norway . The Scottish acceptance of Magnus III as King of the Isles came after the Norwegian king had conquered Orkney , the Hebrides and the Isle of Man in a swift campaign earlier the same year , directed against the local Norwegian leaders of the various islands petty kingdoms . By capturing the islands Magnus imposed a more direct royal control , although at a price . His skald Bjorn Cripplehand recorded that in Lewis " fire played high in the heaven " as " flame spouted from the houses " and that in the Uists " the king dyed his sword red in blood " . Thompson ( 1968 ) provides a more literal translation : " Fire played in the fig @-@ trees of Liodhus ; it mounted up to heaven . Far and wide the people were driven to flight . The fire gushed out of the houses " .
The Hebrides were now part of Kingdom of the Isles , whose rulers were themselves vassals of the Kings of Norway . The Kingdom had two parts : the Suðr @-@ eyjar or South Isles encompassing the Hebrides and the Isle of Man ; and the Norðr @-@ eyjar or North Isles of Orkney and Shetland . This situation lasted until the partitioning of the Western Isles in 1156 , at which time the Outer Hebrides remained under Norwegian control while the Inner Hebrides broke out under Somerled , the Norse @-@ Celtic kinsman of the Manx royal house .
Following the ill @-@ fated 1263 expedition of Haakon IV of Norway , the Outer Hebrides along with the Isle of Man , were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth . Although their contribution to the islands can still be found in personal and placenames , the archaeological record of the Norse period is very limited . The best known find from this time is the Lewis chessmen , which date from the mid 12th century .
= = = Scots rule = = =
As the Norse era drew to a close the Norse @-@ speaking princes were gradually replaced by Gaelic @-@ speaking clan chiefs including the MacLeods of Lewis and Harris , the MacDonalds of the Uists and MacNeil of Barra . This transition did little to relieve the islands of internecine strife although by the early 14th century the MacDonald Lords of the Isles , based on Islay , were in theory these chiefs ' feudal superiors and managed to exert some control .
The growing threat that Clan Donald posed to the Scottish crown led to the forcible dissolution of the Lordship of the Isles by James IV in 1493 , but although the king had the power to subdue the organised military might of the Hebrides , he and his immediate successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form of governance . The House of Stuart 's attempts to control the Outer Hebrides were then at first desultory and little more than punitive expeditions . In 1506 the Earl of Huntly besieged and captured Stornoway Castle using cannon . In 1540 James V himself conducted a royal tour , forcing the clan chiefs to accompany him . There followed a period of peace , but all too soon the clans were at loggerheads again .
In 1598 King James VI authorised some " Gentleman Adventurers " from Fife to civilise the " most barbarous Isle of Lewis " . Initially successful , the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod , who based their forces on Bearasaigh in Loch Ròg . The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result but a third attempt in 1607 was more successful , and in due course Stornoway became a Burgh of Barony . By this time Lewis was held by the Mackenzies of Kintail , ( later the Earls of Seaforth ) , who pursued a more enlightened approach , investing in fishing in particular . The historian W. C. MacKenzie was moved to write :
At the end of the seventeenth century , the picture we have of Lewis that of a people pursuing their avocation in peace , but not in plenty . The Seaforths ... , besides establishing orderly Government in the island .. had done a great deal to rescue the people from the slough of ignorance and incivility in which they found themselves immersed . But in the sphere of economics their policy apparently was of little service to the community .
The Seaforth 's royalist inclinations led to Lewis becoming garrisoned during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms by Cromwell 's troops , who destroyed the old castle in Stornoway and in 1645 Lewismen fought on the royalist side at the Battle of Auldearn . A new era of Hebridean involvement in the affairs of the wider world was about to commence .
= = = British era = = =
With the implementation of the Treaty of Union in 1707 the Hebrides became part of the new Kingdom of Great Britain , but the clan 's loyalties to a distant monarch were not strong . A considerable number of islandmen " came out " in support of the Jacobite Earl of Mar in the " 15 " although the response to the 1745 rising was muted . Nonetheless the aftermath of the decisive Battle of Culloden , which effectively ended Jacobite hopes of a Stuart restoration , was widely felt . The British government 's strategy was to estrange the clan chiefs from their kinsmen and turn their descendants into English @-@ speaking landlords whose main concern was the revenues their estates brought rather than the welfare of those who lived on them . This may have brought peace to the islands , but in the following century it came at a terrible price .
The Highland Clearances of the 19th century destroyed communities throughout the Highlands and Islands as the human populations were evicted and replaced with sheep farms . For example , Colonel Gordon of Cluny , owner of Barra , South Uist and Benbecula evicted thousands of islanders using trickery and cruelty and even offered to sell Barra to the government as a penal colony . Islands such as Fuaigh Mòr were completely cleared of their populations and even today the subject is recalled with bitterness and resentment in some areas . The position was exacerbated by the failure of the islands ' kelp industry , which thrived from the 18th century until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and large scale emigration became endemic . For example , hundreds left North Uist for Cape Breton , Nova Scotia . The pre @-@ clearance population of the island had been almost 5 @,@ 000 , although by 1841 it had fallen to 3 @,@ 870 and was only 2 @,@ 349 by 1931 .
For those who remained new economic opportunities emerged through the export of cattle , commercial fishing and tourism . During the summer season in the 1860s and 1870s five thousand inhabitants of Lewis could be found in Wick on the mainland of Scotland , employed on the fishing boats and at the quaysides . Nonetheless emigration and military service became the choice of many and the archipelago 's populations continued to dwindle throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries . By 2001 the population of North Uist was only 1 @,@ 271 .
The work of the Napier Commission and the Congested Districts Board , and the passing of the Crofting Act of 1886 helped , but social unrest continued . In July 1906 grazing land on Vatersay was raided by landless men from Barra and its isles . Lady Gordon Cathcart took legal action against the " raiders " but the visiting judge took the view that she had neglected her duties as a landowner and that " long indifference to the necessities of the cottars had gone far to drive them to exasperation " . Millennia of continuous occupation notwithstanding , many of the remoter islands were abandoned - Mingulay in 1912 , Hirta in 1930 , and Ceann Iar in 1942 among them . This process involved a transition from these places being perceived as relatively self @-@ sufficient agricultural economies to a view becoming held by both island residents and outsiders alike that they lacked the essential services of a modern industrial economy .
There were gradual economic improvements , among the most visible of which was the replacement of the traditional thatched blackhouse with accommodation of a more modern design . The creation of the Highlands and Islands Development Board and the discovery of substantial deposits of North Sea oil in 1965 , the establishment of a unitary local authority for the islands in 1975 and more recently the renewables sector have all contributed to a degree of economic stability in recent decades . The Arnish yard has had a chequered history but has been a significant employer in both the oil and renewables industries . Comhairle nan Eilean Siar , the local authority , employs 2 @,@ 000 people , making it the largest employer in the Outer Hebrides . See also the " Innse Gall area plan 2010 " and the Comhairle 's " Factfile - Economy " .
= = Economy = =
Modern commercial activities centre on tourism , crofting , fishing , and weaving including the manufacture of Harris tweed . Some of the larger islands have development trusts that support the local economy and , in striking contrast to the 19th and 20th century domination by absentee landlords , more than two thirds of the Western Isles population now lives on community @-@ owned estates . However the economic position of the islands remains relatively precarious . The Western Isles , including Stornoway , are defined by Highlands and Islands Enterprise as an economically " Fragile Area " and they have an estimated trade deficit of some £ 163 @.@ 4 million . Overall , the area is relatively reliant on primary industries and the public sector , and fishing and fish farming in particular are vulnerable to environmental impacts , changing market pressures and European legislation .
There is some optimism about the possibility of future developments in for example , renewable energy generation , tourism , and education , and after declines in the 20th century the population has stabilised since 2003 , although it is ageing .
= = Politics and local government = =
From the passing of the Local Government ( Scotland ) Act 1889 to 1975 Lewis formed part of the county of Ross and Cromarty and the rest of the archipelago , including Harris , was part of Inverness @-@ shire .
The Outer Hebrides became a unitary council area in 1975 , although in most of the rest of Scotland similar unitary councils were not established until 1996 . Since then , the islands have formed one of the 32 unitary council areas that now cover the whole country , with the council officially known by its Gaelic name , Comhairle nan Eilean Siar under the terms of the Local Government ( Gaelic Names ) ( Scotland ) Act 1997 . The council has its base in Stornoway on Lewis and is often known locally simply as " the Comhairle " or a ' Chomhairle . The Comhairle is one of only three Councils in Scotland with a majority of elected members who are independents . The other independent run Councils are Shetland and Orkney . Moray is run by a Conservative / Independent coalition .
The name for the British Parliament constituency covering this area is Na h @-@ Eileanan an Iar , the seat being held by Angus MacNeil MP since 2005 , while the Scottish Parliament constituency for the area is Na h @-@ Eileanan an Iar , the incumbent being Alasdair Allan MSP .
The Scottish independence referendum has led some islanders to call for a debate on the constitutional position of the Western Isles , linked with similar initiatives in Orkney and Shetland .
= = Gaelic language = =
The Outer Hebrides have historically been a very strong Scottish Gaelic ( Gàidhlig ) speaking area . Both the 1901 and 1921 census reported that all parishes were over 75 % Gaelic speaking , including areas of high population density such as Stornoway . However , the Education ( Scotland ) Act 1872 led to generations of Gaels being forbidden to speak their native language in the classroom , and is now recognised as having dealt a major blow to the language . People still living can recall being beaten for speaking Gaelic in school . Nonetheless , by 1971 most areas were still more than 75 % Gaelic speaking – with the exception of Stornoway , Benbecula and South Uist at 50 @-@ 74 % .
In the 2001 census , each island overall was over 50 % Gaelic speaking – South Uist ( 71 % ) , Harris ( 69 % ) , Barra ( 68 % ) , North Uist ( 67 % ) , Lewis ( 56 % ) and Benbecula ( 56 % ) . With 59 @.@ 3 % of Gaelic speakers or a total of 15 @,@ 723 speakers , this made the Outer Hebrides the most strongly coherent Gaelic speaking area in Scotland .
Most areas were between 60 @-@ 74 % Gaelic speaking and the areas with the highest density of over 80 % are Scalpay near Harris , Newtonferry and Kildonan , whilst Daliburgh , Linshader , Eriskay , Brue , Boisdale , West Harris , Ardveenish , Soval , Ness , and Bragar all have more than 75 % . The areas with the lowest density of speakers are Stornoway ( 44 % ) , Braigh ( 41 % ) , Melbost ( 41 % ) , and Balivanich ( 37 % ) .
The Gaelic Language ( Scotland ) Act was enacted by the Scottish Parliament in 2005 to provide continuing support for the language . However , by 2011 the overall percentage of Gaelic speakers in the Outer Hebrides had fallen to 52 % .
= = Transport = =
Scheduled ferry services between the Outer Hebrides and the Scottish Mainland and Inner Hebrides operate on the following routes :
Oban to Castlebay on Barra and Lochboisdale on South Uist
Uig on Skye to Tarbert on Harris
Uig on Skye to Lochmaddy on North Uist
Ullapool to Stornoway on Lewis
Tiree to Castlebay , Barra ( summer only ) .
Other ferries operate between some of the islands .
National Rail services are available for onward journeys , from stations at Oban , which has direct services to Glasgow . However , parliamentary approval notwithstanding , plans in the 1890s to lay a railway connection to Ullapool were unable to obtain sufficient funding .
There are scheduled flights from Stornoway , Benbecula and Barra airports both inter @-@ island and to the mainland . Barra 's airport is the only one in the world to have scheduled flights landing on a beach . At high water the runways are under the sea so flight times vary with the tide .
Bus services are operated by Bus na Comhairle , based in Stornoway , and by numerous other operators , which run the bulk of services .
= = = Shipwrecks = = =
The archipelago is exposed to wind and tide , and lighthouses are sited as an aid to navigation at locations from Barra Head in the south to the Butt of Lewis in the north . There are numerous sites of wrecked ships , and the Flannan Isles are the location of an enduring mystery that occurred in December 1900 , when all three lighthouse keepers vanished without trace .
Annie Jane , a three @-@ masted immigrant ship out of Liverpool bound for Montreal , Canada , struck rocks off the West Beach of Vatersay during a storm on Tuesday 28 September 1853 . Within ten minutes the ship began to founder and break up casting 450 people into the raging sea . In spite of the conditions , islanders tried to rescue the passengers and crew . The remains of 350 men , women and children were buried in the dunes behind the beach and a small cairn and monument marks the site .
The tiny Beasts of Holm of the east coast of Lewis were the site of the sinking of HMS Iolaire during the first few hours of 1919 , one of the worst maritime disasters in United Kingdom waters during the 20th century . Calvay in the Sound of Barra provided the inspiration for Compton MacKenzie 's novel Whisky Galore after the SS Politician ran aground there with a cargo of single malt in 1941 .
= = Religion , culture and sport = =
Christianity has deep roots in the Western Isles , but owing mainly to the different allegiances of the clans in the past , the people in the northern islands ( Lewis , Harris , North Uist ) have historically been predominantly Presbyterian , and those of the southern islands ( Benbecula , South Uist , Barra ) predominantly Roman Catholic .
At the time of the 2001 Census , 42 % of the population identified themselves as being affiliated with the Church of Scotland , with 13 % Roman Catholic and 28 % with other Christian churches . Many of this last group belong to the Free Church of Scotland , known for its strict observance of the Sabbath . 11 % stated that they had no religion . This made the Western Isles the Scottish council area with the smallest percentage of atheists in the population . There are also small Episcopalian congregations in Lewis and Harris and the Outer Hebrides are part of the Diocese of Argyll and The Isles in both the Episcopalian and Catholic traditions .
Gaelic music is popular in the islands and the Lewis and Harris Traditional Music Society plays an active role in promoting the genre . Fèis Bharraigh began in 1981 with the aim of developing the practice and study of the Gaelic language , literature , music , drama and culture on the islands of Barra and Vatersay . A two @-@ week festival , it has inspired 43 other feisean throughout Scotland . The Lewis Pipe Band was founded in 1904 and the Lewis and Harris Piping Society in 1977 .
Outdoor activities including rugby , football , golf , shinty , fishing , riding , canoeing , athletics , and
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fields , New South Wales , in July 1946 , No. 86 ( Transport ) Wing was assigned control of Nos. 36 , 37 , and 38 Squadrons , flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . The wing was augmented by No. 386 ( Base ) Squadron and No. 486 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , formed in August . The Dakotas initially flew supply missions to the Australian @-@ administered Territory of Papua and New Guinea , as well as three @-@ times weekly courier flights to Japan in support of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . The latter schedule continued until December 1947 , when the service was taken over by Qantas Avro Lancastrians . No. 37 Squadron disbanded in February 1948 . In August that year , crews from Nos. 36 and 38 Squadrons departed for Europe to take part in the Berlin Airlift , a commitment that lasted almost a year . The Australians were responsible for delivering over 16 million tons of supplies , and almost 8 @,@ 000 passengers . No. 386 Squadron disbanded in March 1949 and re @-@ formed as Station Headquarters at Schofields . On 22 June , No. 86 Wing , comprising Nos. 36 , 38 and 486 Squadrons , relocated to the nearby RAAF Station Richmond . Following the return of crews from Berlin , the wing was able to release No. 38 Squadron and its Dakotas to participate in the Malayan Emergency , under the control of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing , commencing in June 1950 . Having airlifted more than 17 @,@ 000 passengers and evacuated over 300 injured troops , the squadron left Malaya in November 1952 and returned to No. 86 Wing at Richmond . A month earlier , the wing 's Dakotas had flown supply and observation flights in connection with the British atomic test on Montebello in Western Australia . No. 36 Squadron disbanded at Richmond on 9 March 1953 , re @-@ forming the next day from No. 30 Transport Unit at Iwakuni , Japan . Here it was part of No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing , which controlled the RAAF 's units during the Korean War and its immediate aftermath . The squadron returned to Australia and the aegis of No. 86 Wing two years later , following the disbandment of No. 91 Wing .
In 1954 , No. 86 Wing relocated to Canberra to help satisfy the Federal government 's VIP transport needs . It returned to Richmond four years later , leaving behind its VIP contingent , No. 34 Flight , which in July 1959 was re @-@ formed as No. 34 Squadron and left the control of No. 86 Wing to become an independent unit directly administered by Home Command and tasked by RAAF Canberra . Having earlier augmented its complement of Dakotas with Convair 440 Metropolitans , in December 1958 the wing began operating Lockheed Hercules medium transports , when No. 36 Squadron took delivery of the first of twelve C @-@ 130As . They remained in service for twenty years , clocking up 147 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours . The official history of the post @-@ war Air Force described the Hercules as " probably the biggest step @-@ up in aircraft capabilities " the RAAF had ever received , considering it roughly four times as effective as the Dakota , taking into account the improvements in payload , range , and speed . When No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing and its two squadrons of CAC Sabres deployed to RAAF Base Butterworth between October 1958 and February 1959 , seven Dakotas were required to ferry the staff and equipment of No. 3 Squadron from Australia to Malaya , compared to two Hercules for No. 77 Squadron . In 1962 , Air Movements and Training Flight ( AMTF ) , previously under No. 38 Squadron and responsible for developing and imparting new techniques in aerial transport , came directly under the control of No. 86 Wing headquarters . That December , the Hercules made their first troop @-@ carrying flights into a combat zone , when one of No. 36 Squadron 's C @-@ 130s joined a Commonwealth airlift from Singapore to Borneo at the commencement of the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia ; similar missions would be undertaken for a further five years .
No. 38 Squadron received the RAAF 's first de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribou tactical transports in April 1964 , replacing its Dakotas . The first six Caribous were despatched that August to South East Asia for service in the Vietnam War as RAAF Transport Flight Vietnam ( RTFV ) . The same month , No. 86 Wing was disbanded . Because the Caribous were primarily for support of the Australian Army , an overarching wing headquarters for the Caribous and Hercules was now considered inappropriate . No. 486 Squadron was also disbanded and its equipment and staff divided between Nos. 36 and 38 Squadrons , which along with AMTF became independently operating units under the command of Headquarters RAAF Base Richmond . Following the re @-@ establishment at Richmond of No. 37 Squadron in February 1966 , flying C @-@ 130E Hercules , No. 486 Squadron was re @-@ formed to provide maintenance for both Hercules squadrons . As No. 36 Squadron 's tasking was mainly tactical and No. 37 Squadron 's strategic ( owing to the longer range of its C @-@ 130Es ) , forming the Hercules units into a new wing was not deemed necessary . Continuing to be based at Richmond , the Hercules provided long @-@ range transport and medical evacuation services to and from South East Asia during the Vietnam War . No. 36 Squadron 's C @-@ 130As were replaced by C @-@ 130H models in 1978 . RTFV was re @-@ formed as No. 35 Squadron in June 1966 , and continued to serve in Vietnam until Australian forces were withdrawn in 1972 ; it was then based in Richmond until 1976 , when it relocated to RAAF Base Townsville , Queensland . No. 38 Squadron meanwhile continued to operate Caribous out of Richmond until 1992 , when it transferred to RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . In the Vietnam and post @-@ Vietnam eras , along with their military transport duties , the Hercules and Caribou undertook disaster relief operations throughout Australia and the Pacific .
= = = Current transport formation ( 1987 – ) = = =
No. 86 Wing re @-@ formed at Richmond on 2 February 1987 , under the newly established Air Lift Group ( ALG ) , which replaced Headquarters RAAF Base Richmond . Commanded by Group Captain G.I. Lumsden , the wing 's flying units consisted of No. 33 Squadron , operating Boeing 707 tanker @-@ transports , and Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons , operating C @-@ 130H and C @-@ 130E Hercules , respectively ; No. 486 Maintenance Squadron and Air Movements Training and Development Unit ( AMTDU ) , which had evolved from AMTF in 1965 , were also under its control . No. 486 Squadron was responsible for day @-@ to @-@ day maintenance of the 707s as well as the Hercules . No. 34 Squadron , the VIP transport unit based at RAAF Base Fairbairn in Canberra , and No. 32 Squadron , flying Hawker Siddeley HS 748 air navigation trainers at RAAF Base East Sale in Victoria , became part of No. 86 Wing in June 1988 and July 1989 , respectively . In 1992 , the Hercules of Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons clocked up a grand total of 500 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours ; Lockheed presented No. 86 Wing with a trophy to commemorate the milestone . During 1994 – 95 , the wing was commanded by Group Captain ( later Air Chief Marshal ) Angus Houston , who in 2005 was appointed Chief of the Defence Force , only the third RAAF officer to be raised to the top position in the Australian armed services . By mid @-@ 1996 , No. 32 Squadron had been transferred to No. 84 Wing , which was also controlled by ALG . In 1998 , No. 86 Wing received the Duke of Gloucester Cup as the most proficient wing in RAAF Air Command . No. 486 Squadron was disbanded in October that year , after transferring its functions to Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons . By then , Nos. 35 and 38 Squadrons , flying Caribous out of RAAF Bases Townsville and Amberley , respectively , had joined the Hercules squadrons and AMTDU under the aegis of No. 86 Wing , while Nos. 33 and 34 Squadrons had been transferred to No. 84 Wing , now also headquartered at Richmond . Later , AMTDU became part of No. 85 Wing at Richmond . No. 37 Squadron 's C @-@ 130Es were replaced by C @-@ 130J models in 1999 . No. 35 Squadron transferred its Caribous to No. 38 Squadron in 2000 , and was " formally deactivated " in March 2002 . RAAF C @-@ 130 operations were concentrated in No. 37 Squadron in November 2006 , when No. 36 Squadron transferred its C @-@ 130Hs prior to re @-@ equipping with the Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy transports and relocating to Amberley . No. 38 Squadron 's Caribous were retired at the end of 2009 , and replaced by Beech King Air 350 light transports . No. 37 Squadron was transferred to No. 84 Wing in October 2010 .
The aircraft operated by No. 86 Wing became well known to the general public through their involvement in disaster relief and emergency transport in Australia and the region , along with their participation in overseas peacekeeping efforts . Hercules and 707s were employed by the Federal government to provide air transport during the pilots ' dispute that curtailed operations by the two domestic airlines in 1989 , evacuated Australian nationals from the Middle East during the first Gulf War in 1990 – 91 , and transported Australian troops to and from Somalia as part of Operation Solace in 1993 . Since the end of the Vietnam War , much of the RAAF 's transport tasking had been relatively routine in nature , or involved humanitarian relief ; the Somalia operation marked the beginning of a shift for No. 86 Wing towards a more combat @-@ ready or " operational " focus . Six Hercules evacuated over 450 civilians from Cambodia following the coup in July 1997 . Two detachments from the wing , one of Hercules and one of Caribous , supported INTERFET operations in East Timor between September 1999 and February 2001 . Wing operations staff accompanied Hercules of Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons on relief efforts following the Bali Bombings in October 2002 . In February 2003 , a rotating detachment of three Hercules deployed to the Persian Gulf to support the Australian contribution to the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq , amassing 20 @,@ 000 operational flying hours by March 2010 . From July 2003 to July 2004 , Caribous undertook reconnaissance and transport missions during the Solomon Islands intervention . No. 36 Squadron Hercules took part in Operation Sumatra Assist in the wake of the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami . The RAAF 's contribution to Operation Papua New Guinea Assist , following Cyclone Guba in November 2007 , included a Globemaster , two Hercules , and three Caribous . In September 2008 , a Globemaster undertook the type 's first aeromedical evacuation in RAAF service , transporting five injured Australian troops to Amberley from Tarin Kowt in Afghanistan . Globemasters , Hercules and King Airs were all employed for flood relief in Queensland and Victoria early in 2011 . In February that year , Globemasters and Hercules transported medical staff and equipment to aid victims of the Christchurch earthquake . The following month , a Globemaster flew 23 sorties in Japan supporting relief efforts after the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , while two other Globemasters delivered a water cannon to help contain damage at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant .
On 1 January 2012 , No. 86 Wing headquarters relocated from Richmond to Amberley . ALG was renamed Air Mobility Group on 1 April 2014 . No. 86 Wing 's current complement is : No. 33 Squadron , which became operational with the Airbus KC @-@ 30 tanker @-@ transport after receiving the fourth of its aircraft in March 2013 ; No. 36 Squadron , which took delivery of its eight and last Globemaster in November 2015 ; No. 38 Squadron , operating King Airs ; and the Australian Army 's 68 Ground Liaison Section . All units are based at Amberley , with the exception of No. 38 Squadron , located at Townsville .
= John von Neumann =
John von Neumann ( / vɒn ˈnɔɪmən / ; Hungarian : Neumann János Lajos , pronounced [ ˈnɒjmɒn ˈjaːnoʃ ˈlɒjoʃ ] ; December 28 , 1903 – February 8 , 1957 ) was a Hungarian @-@ American pure and applied mathematician , physicist , inventor , computer scientist , and polymath . He made major contributions to a number of fields , including mathematics ( foundations of mathematics , functional analysis , ergodic theory , geometry , topology , and numerical analysis ) , physics ( quantum mechanics , hydrodynamics and quantum statistical mechanics ) , economics ( game theory ) , computing ( Von Neumann architecture , linear programming , self @-@ replicating machines , stochastic computing ) , and statistics .
He was a pioneer of the application of operator theory to quantum mechanics , in the development of functional analysis , and a key figure in the development of game theory and the concepts of cellular automata , the universal constructor and the digital computer . He published 150 papers in his life : 60 in pure mathematics , 20 in physics , and 60 in applied mathematics . His last work , an unfinished manuscript written while in the hospital , was later published in book form as The Computer and the Brain .
His mathematical analysis of the structure of self @-@ replication preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA . In a short list of facts about his life he submitted to the National Academy of Sciences , he stated " The part of my work I consider most essential is that on quantum mechanics , which developed in Göttingen in 1926 , and subsequently in Berlin in 1927 – 1929 . Also , my work on various forms of operator theory , Berlin 1930 and Princeton 1935 – 1939 ; on the ergodic theorem , Princeton , 1931 – 1932 . "
During World War II he worked on the Manhattan Project , developing the mathematical models behind the explosive lenses used in the implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . After the war , he served on the General Advisory Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission , and later as one of its commissioners . He was a consultant to a number of organizations , including the United States Air Force , the Army 's Ballistic Research Laboratory , the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . Along with theoretical physicist Edward Teller , mathematician Stanislaw Ulam , and others , he worked out key steps in the nuclear physics involved in thermonuclear reactions and the hydrogen bomb .
= = Early life and education = =
Von Neumann was born Neumann János Lajos to wealthy Jewish parents of the Haskalah ( in Hungarian the family name comes first and his given names equate to John Lewis in English ) . His Hebrew name was Yonah . Von Neumann 's place of birth was Budapest in the Kingdom of Hungary which was then part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire . He was the eldest of three children . He had two younger brothers : Michael , born in 1907 , and Nicholas , who was born in 1911 . His father , Neumann Miksa ( English : Max Neumann ) was a banker , who held a doctorate in law . He had moved to Budapest from Pécs at the end of the 1880s . Miksa 's father and grandfather were both born in Ond ( now part of the town of Szerencs ) , Zemplén County , northern Hungary . John 's mother was Kann Margit ( English : Margaret Kann ) ; her parents were Jakab Kann and Katalin Meisels . Three generations of the Kann family lived in spacious apartments above the Kann @-@ Heller offices in Budapest ; von Neumann 's family occupied an 18 @-@ room apartment on the top floor .
In 1913 , his father was elevated to the nobility for his service to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire by Emperor Franz Joseph . The Neumann family thus acquired the hereditary appellation Margittai , meaning of Marghita . The family had no connection with the town ; the appellation was chosen in reference to Margaret , as was those chosen coat of arms depicting three marguerites . Neumann János became Margittai Neumann János ( John Neumann of Marghita ) , which he later changed to the German Johann von Neumann .
Formal schooling did not start in Hungary until the age of ten . Instead , governesses taught von Neumann , his brothers and his cousins . Max believed that knowledge of languages other than Hungarian was essential , so the children were tutored in English , French , German and Italian . By the age of 8 , von Neumann was familiar with differential and integral calculus , but he was particularly interested in history , reading his way through Wilhelm Oncken 's 46 @-@ volume Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen . A copy was contained in a private library Max purchased . One of the rooms in the apartment was converted into a library and reading room , with bookshelves from ceiling to floor .
Von Neumann entered the Lutheran Fasori Evangelikus Gimnázium in 1911 . This was one of the best schools in Budapest , part of a brilliant education system designed for the elite . Under the Hungarian system , children received all their education at the one gymnasium . Despite being run by the Lutheran Church , the majority of its pupils were Jewish . The school system produced a generation noted for intellectual achievement , that included Theodore von Kármán ( b . 1881 ) , George de Hevesy ( b . 1885 ) , Leó Szilárd ( b . 1898 ) , Eugene Wigner ( b . 1902 ) , Edward Teller ( b . 1908 ) , and Paul Erdős ( b . 1913 ) . Collectively , they were sometimes known as Martians . Wigner was a year ahead of von Neumann at the Lutheran School . When asked why the Hungary of his generation had produced so many geniuses , Wigner , who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 , replied that von Neumann was the only genius .
Although Max insisted von Neumann attend school at the grade level appropriate to his age , he agreed to hire private tutors to give him advanced instruction in those areas in which he had displayed an aptitude . At the age of 15 , he began to study advanced calculus under the renowned analyst Gábor Szegő . On their first meeting , Szegő was so astounded with the boy 's mathematical talent that he was brought to tears . Some of von Neumann 's instant solutions to the problems in calculus posed by Szegő , sketched out on his father 's stationery , are still on display at the von Neumann archive in Budapest . By the age of 19 , von Neumann had published two major mathematical papers , the second of which gave the modern definition of ordinal numbers , which superseded Georg Cantor 's definition . At the conclusion of his education at the gymnasium , von Neumann sat for and won the Eötvös Prize , a national prize for mathematics .
Since there were few posts in Hungary for mathematicians , and those were not well @-@ paid , his father wanted von Neumann to follow him into industry and therefore invest his time in a more financially useful endeavor than mathematics . Von Neumann and his father decided that the best career path was to become a chemical engineer . This was not something that von Neumann had much knowledge of , so it was arranged for him to take a two @-@ year non @-@ degree course in chemistry at the University of Berlin , after which he sat the entrance exam to the prestigious ETH Zurich , which he passed in September 1923 . At the same time , von Neumann also entered Pázmány Péter University in Budapest , as a Ph.D. candidate in mathematics . For his thesis , he chose to produce an axiomatization of Cantor 's set theory . He passed his final examinations for his Ph.D. soon after graduating from ETH Zurich in 1926 . He then went to the University of Göttingen on a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation to study mathematics under David Hilbert .
= = Early career and private life = =
Von Neumann 's habilitation was completed on December 13 , 1927 , and he started his lectures as a privatdozent at the University of Berlin in 1928 . By the end of 1927 , von Neumann had published twelve major papers in mathematics , and by the end of 1929 , thirty @-@ two papers , at a rate of nearly one major paper per month . His reputed powers of memorization and recall allowed him to quickly memorize a column from the telephone book and recite the names . In 1929 , he briefly became a privatdozent at the University of Hamburg , where the prospects of becoming a tenured professor were better , but in October of that year a better offer presented itself when he was invited to Princeton University in Princeton , New Jersey .
On New Year 's Day in 1930 , von Neumann married Mariette Kövesi , who had studied economics at the Budapest University . Before his marriage he was baptized a Catholic . Max had died in 1929 . None of the family had converted to Christianity while he was alive , but afterwards they all did . Von Neumann and Mariette had one child , a daughter , Marina , who as of 2015 is a distinguished professor of business administration and public policy at the University of Michigan . The couple divorced in 1937 . In October 1938 , von Neumann married Klara Dan , whom he had met during his last trips back to Budapest prior to the outbreak of World War II .
In 1933 , von Neumann was offered a lifetime professorship on the faculty of the Institute for Advanced Study when the institute 's plan to appoint Hermann Weyl fell through . He remained a mathematics professor there until his death , although he announced his intention to resign and become a professor at large at the University of California shortly before . His mother , brothers and in @-@ laws followed von Neumann to the United States in 1939 . Von Neumann anglicized his first name to John , keeping the German @-@ aristocratic surname of von Neumann . His brothers changed theirs to " Neumann " and " Vonneumann " . Von Neumann became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1937 , and immediately tried to become a lieutenant in the United States Army 's Officers Reserve Corps . He passed the exams easily , but was ultimately rejected because of his age . His prewar analysis of how France would stand up to Germany is often quoted . He said : " Oh , France won 't matter . "
The von Neumanns , Klara and John , were active socially within the Princeton academic community . His white clapboard house at 26 Westcott Road was one of the largest in Princeton . He took great care over his clothing , and would always wear formal suits , once riding down the Grand Canyon astride a mule in a three @-@ piece pin @-@ stripe . Hilbert is reported to have asked at von Neumann 's 1926 doctoral exam : " Pray , who is the candidate 's tailor ? " as he had never seen such beautiful evening clothes .
Von Neumann liked to eat and drink ; his wife , Klara , said that he could count everything except calories . He enjoyed Yiddish and " off @-@ color " humor ( especially limericks ) . He was a non @-@ smoker . At Princeton he received complaints for regularly playing extremely loud German march music on his gramophone , which distracted those in neighbouring offices , including Albert Einstein , from their work . Von Neumann did some of his best work in noisy , chaotic environments , and once admonished his wife for preparing a quiet study for him to work in . He never used it , preferring the couple 's living room with its television playing loudly . Despite being a notoriously bad driver , he nonetheless enjoyed driving — frequently while reading a book — occasioning numerous arrests , as well as accidents . When Cuthbert Hurd hired him as a consultant to IBM , Hurd often quietly paid the fines for his traffic tickets .
Von Neumann 's closest friend in the United States
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was mathematician Stanislaw Ulam . A later friend of Ulam 's , Gian @-@ Carlo Rota , wrote : " They would spend hours on end gossiping and giggling , swapping Jewish jokes , and drifting in and out of mathematical talk . " When von Neumann was dying in hospital , every time Ulam would visit he would come prepared with a new collection of jokes to cheer up his friend . He believed that much of his mathematical thought occurred intuitively , and he would often go to sleep with a problem unsolved , and know the answer immediately upon waking up .
= = Mathematics = =
= = = Set theory = = =
The axiomatization of mathematics , on the model of Euclid 's Elements , had reached new levels of rigour and breadth at the end of the 19th century , particularly in arithmetic , thanks to the axiom schema of Richard Dedekind and Charles Sanders Peirce , and geometry , thanks to Hilbert 's axioms . But at the beginning of the 20th century , efforts to base mathematics on naive set theory suffered a setback due to Russell 's paradox ( on the set of all sets that do not belong to themselves ) . The problem of an adequate axiomatization of set theory was resolved implicitly about twenty years later by Ernst Zermelo and Abraham Fraenkel . Zermelo – Fraenkel set theory provided a series of principles that allowed for the construction of the sets used in the everyday practice of mathematics , but they did not explicitly exclude the possibility of the existence of a set that belongs to itself . In his doctoral thesis of 1925 , von Neumann demonstrated two techniques to exclude such sets — the axiom of foundation and the notion of class .
The axiom of foundation proposed that every set can be constructed from the bottom up in an ordered succession of steps by way of the principles of Zermelo and Fraenkel . If one set belongs to another then the first must necessarily come before the second in the succession . This excludes the possibility of a set belonging to itself . To demonstrate that the addition of this new axiom to the others did not produce contradictions , von Neumann introduced a method of demonstration , called the method of inner models , which later became an essential instrument in set theory .
The second approach to the problem of sets belonging to themselves took as its base the notion of class , and defines a set as a class which belongs to other classes , while a proper class is defined as a class which does not belong to other classes . Under the Zermelo – Fraenkel approach , the axioms impede the construction of a set of all sets which do not belong to themselves . In contrast , under the von Neumann approach , the class of all sets which do not belong to themselves can be constructed , but it is a proper class and not a set .
With this contribution of von Neumann , the axiomatic system of the theory of sets avoided the contradictions of earlier systems , and became usable as a foundation for mathematics , despite the lack of a proof of its consistency . The next question was whether it provided definitive answers to all mathematical questions that could be posed in it , or whether it might be improved by adding stronger axioms that could be used to prove a broader class of theorems . A strongly negative answer to whether it was definitive arrived in September 1930 at the historic mathematical Congress of Königsberg , in which Kurt Gödel announced his first theorem of incompleteness : the usual axiomatic systems are incomplete , in the sense that they cannot prove every truth which is expressible in their language . Moreover , every consistent extension of these systems would necessarily remain incomplete .
Less than a month later , von Neumann , who had participated at the Congress , communicated to Gödel an interesting consequence of his theorem : that the usual axiomatic systems are unable to demonstrate their own consistency . However , Gödel had already discovered this consequence , now known as his second incompleteness theorem , and he sent von Neumann a preprint of his article containing both incompleteness theorems . Von Neumann acknowledged Gödel 's priority in his next letter . He never thought much of " the American system of claiming personal priority for everything . "
= = = Ergodic theory = = =
Von Neumann made foundational contributions to ergodic theory , in a series of articles published in 1932 . Of the 1932 papers on ergodic theory , Paul Halmos writes that even " if von Neumann had never done anything else , they would have been sufficient to guarantee him mathematical immortality " . By then von Neumann had already written his famous articles on operator theory , and the application of this work was instrumental in the von Neumann mean ergodic theorem .
= = = Operator theory = = =
Von Neumann introduced the study of rings of operators , through the von Neumann algebras . A von Neumann algebra is a * -algebra of bounded operators on a Hilbert space that is closed in the weak operator topology and contains the identity operator . The von Neumann bicommutant theorem shows that the analytic definition is equivalent to a purely algebraic definition as an algebra of symmetries . The direct integral was introduced in 1949 by John von Neumann . One of von Neumann 's analyses was to reduce the classification of von Neumann algebras on separable Hilbert spaces to the classification of factors .
= = = Measure theory = = =
In measure theory , the " problem of measure " for an n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space Rn may be stated as : " does there exist a positive , normalized , invariant , and additive set function on the class of all subsets of Rn ? " The work of Felix Hausdorff and Stefan Banach had implied that the problem of measure has a positive solution if n
= 1 or n =
2 and a negative solution ( because of the Banach – Tarski paradox ) in all other cases . Von Neumann 's work argued that the " problem is essentially group @-@ theoretic in character " : the existence of a measure could be determined by looking at the properties of the transformation group of the given space . The positive solution for spaces of dimension at most two , and the negative solution for higher dimensions , comes from the fact that the Euclidean group is a solvable group for dimension at most two , and is not solvable for higher dimensions . " Thus , according to von Neumann , it is the change of group that makes a difference , not the change of space . "
In a number of von Neumann 's papers , the methods of argument he employed are considered even more significant than the results . In anticipation of his later study of dimension theory in algebras of operators , von Neumann used results on equivalence by finite decomposition , and reformulated the problem of measure in terms of functions . In his 1936 paper on analytic measure theory , he used the Haar theorem in the solution of Hilbert 's fifth problem in the case of compact groups . In 1938 , he was awarded the Bôcher Memorial Prize for his work in analysis .
= = = Lattice theory = = =
Between 1937 and 1939 , Von Neumann worked on lattice theory , the theory of partially ordered sets in which every two elements have a greatest lower bound and a least upper bound . Von Neumann provided an abstract exploration of dimension in completed complemented modular topological lattices ( properties that arise in the lattices of subspaces of inner product spaces ) : " Dimension is determined , up to a positive linear transformation , by the following two properties . It is conserved by perspective mappings ( " perspectivities " ) and ordered by inclusion . The deepest part of the proof concerns the equivalence of perspectivity with " projectivity by decomposition " — of which a corollary is the transitivity of perspectivity . " Garrett Birkhoff writes : " John von Neumann 's brilliant mind blazed over lattice theory like a meteor " .
Von Neumann founded the field of continuous geometry based on lattice theoretic principles . Earlier , Menger and Birkhoff had axiomatized complex projective geometry in terms of the properties of its lattice of linear subspaces . Von Neumann , following his work on rings of operators , weakened those axioms to describe a broader class of lattices , the continuous geometries . While the dimensions of the subspaces of projective geometries are a discrete set ( the non @-@ negative integers ) , the dimensions of the elements of a continuous geometry can range continuously across the unit interval [ 0 @,@ 1 ] . Von Neumann was motivated by his discovery of von Neumann algebras with a dimension function taking a continuous range of dimensions , and the first example of a continuous geometry other than projective space was the projections of the hyperfinite type II factor .
Additionally , " [ I ] n the general case , von Neumann proved the following basic representation theorem . Any complemented modular lattice L having a " basis " of n ≥ 4 pairwise perspective elements , is isomorphic with the lattice ℛ ( R ) of all principal right @-@ ideals of a suitable regular ring R. This conclusion is the culmination of 140 pages of brilliant and incisive algebra involving entirely novel axioms . Anyone wishing to get an unforgettable impression of the razor edge of von Neumann 's mind , need merely try to pursue this chain of exact reasoning for himself — realizing that often five pages of it were written down before breakfast , seated at a living room writing @-@ table in a bathrobe . "
= = = Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics = = =
Von Neumann was the first to establish a rigorous mathematical framework for quantum mechanics , known as the Dirac – von Neumann axioms , with his 1932 work Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics . After having completed the axiomatization of set theory , he began to confront the axiomatization of quantum mechanics . He realized , in 1926 , that a state of a quantum system could be represented by a point in a ( complex ) Hilbert space that , in general , could be infinite @-@ dimensional even for a single particle . In this formalism of quantum mechanics , observable quantities such as position or momentum are represented as linear operators acting on the Hilbert space associated with the quantum system .
The physics of quantum mechanics was thereby reduced to the mathematics of Hilbert spaces and linear operators acting on them . For example , the uncertainty principle , according to which the determination of the position of a particle prevents the determination of its momentum and vice versa , is translated into the non @-@ commutativity of the two corresponding operators . This new mathematical formulation included as special cases the formulations of both Heisenberg and Schrödinger . When Heisenberg was informed von Neumann had clarified the difference between an unbounded operator that was a self @-@ adjoint operator and one that was merely symmetric , Heisenberg replied " Eh ? What is the difference ? "
Von Neumann 's abstract treatment permitted him also to confront the foundational issue of determinism versus non @-@ determinism , and in the book he presented a proof that the statistical results of quantum mechanics could not possibly be averages of an underlying set of determined " hidden variables , " as in classical statistical mechanics . In 1966 , John S. Bell published a paper arguing that the proof contained a conceptual error and was therefore invalid . However , in 2010 , Jeffrey Bub argued that Bell had misconstrued von Neumann 's proof , and pointed out that the proof , though not valid for all hidden variable theories , does rule out a well @-@ defined and important subset . Bub also suggests that von Neumann was aware of this limitation , and that von Neumann did not claim that his proof completely ruled out hidden variable theories .
In any case , the proof inaugurated a line of research that ultimately led , through the work of Bell in 1964 on Bell 's theorem , and the experiments of Alain Aspect in 1982 , to the demonstration that quantum physics either requires a notion of reality substantially different from that of classical physics , or must include nonlocality in apparent violation of special relativity .
In a chapter of The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics , von Neumann deeply analyzed the so @-@ called measurement problem . He concluded that the entire physical universe could be made subject to the universal wave function . Since something " outside the calculation " was needed to collapse the wave function , von Neumann concluded that the collapse was caused by the consciousness of the experimenter ( although this view was accepted by Eugene Wigner , the Von Neumann – Wigner interpretation never gained acceptance amongst the majority of physicists ) .
Though theories of quantum mechanics continue to evolve to this day , there is a basic framework for the mathematical formalism of problems in quantum mechanics which underlies the majority of approaches and can be traced back to the mathematical formalisms and techniques first used by von Neumann . In other words , discussions about interpretation of the theory , and extensions to it , are now mostly conducted on the basis of shared assumptions about the mathematical foundations .
= = = Quantum logic = = =
In a famous paper of 1936 with Garrett Birkhoff , the first work ever to introduce quantum logics , von Neumann and Birkhoff first proved that quantum mechanics requires a propositional calculus substantially different from all classical logics and rigorously isolated a new algebraic structure for quantum logics . The concept of creating a propositional calculus for quantum logic was first outlined in a short section in von Neumann 's 1932 work , but in 1936 , the need for the new propositional calculus was demonstrated through several proofs . For example , photons cannot pass through two successive filters that are polarized perpendicularly ( e.g. , one horizontally and the other vertically ) , and therefore , a fortiori , it cannot pass if a third filter polarized diagonally is added to the other two , either before or after them in the succession , but if the third filter is added in between the other two , the photons will , indeed , pass through . This experimental fact is translatable into logic as the non @-@ commutativity of conjunction <formula> . It was also demonstrated that the laws of distribution of classical logic , <formula> and <formula> , are not valid for quantum theory .
The reason for this is that a quantum disjunction , unlike the case for classical disjunction , can be true even when both of the disjuncts are false and this is , in turn , attributable to the fact that it is frequently the case , in quantum mechanics , that a pair of alternatives are semantically determinate , while each of its members are necessarily indeterminate . This latter property can be illustrated by a simple example . Suppose we are dealing with particles ( such as electrons ) of semi @-@ integral spin ( angular momentum ) for which there are only two possible values : positive or negative . Then , a principle of indetermination establishes that the spin , relative to two different directions ( e.g. , x and y ) results in a pair of incompatible quantities . Suppose that the state ɸ of a certain electron verifies the proposition " the spin of the electron in the x direction is positive . " By the principle of indeterminacy , the value of the spin in the direction y will be completely indeterminate for ɸ . Hence , ɸ can verify neither the proposition " the spin in the direction of y is positive " nor the proposition " the spin in the direction of y is negative . " Nevertheless , the disjunction of the propositions " the spin in the direction of y is positive or the spin in the direction of y is negative " must be true for ɸ . In the case of distribution , it is therefore possible to have a situation in which <formula> , while <formula> .
Von Neumann replaced classical logic with a logic constructed in orthomodular lattices ( isomorphic to the lattice of subspaces of the Hilbert space of a given physical system ) .
= = = Game theory = = =
Von Neumann founded the field of game theory as a mathematical discipline . Von Neumann proved his minimax theorem in 1928 . This theorem establishes that in zero @-@ sum games with perfect information ( i.e. in which players know at each time all moves that have taken place so far ) , there exists a pair of strategies for both players that allows each to minimize his maximum losses , hence the name minimax . When examining every possible strategy , a player must consider all the possible responses of his adversary . The player then plays out the strategy that will result in the minimization of his maximum loss .
Such strategies , which minimize the maximum loss for each player , are called optimal . Von Neumann showed that their minimaxes are equal ( in absolute value ) and contrary ( in sign ) . Von Neumann improved and extended the minimax theorem to include games involving imperfect information and games with more than two players , publishing this result in his 1944 Theory of Games and Economic Behavior ( written with Oskar Morgenstern ) . Morgenstern wrote a paper on game theory and thought he would show it to von Neumann because of his interest in the subject . He read it and said to Morgenstern that he should put more in it . This was repeated a couple of times , and then von Neumann became a coauthor and the paper became 100 pages long . Then it became a book . The public interest in this work was such that The New York Times ran a front @-@ page story . In this book , von Neumann declared that economic theory needed to use functional analytic methods , especially convex sets and topological fixed @-@ point theorem , rather than the traditional differential calculus , because the maximum @-@ operator did not preserve differentiable functions .
Independently , Leonid Kantorovich 's functional analytic work on mathematical economics also focused attention on optimization theory , non @-@ differentiability , and vector lattices . Von Neumann 's functional @-@ analytic techniques — the use of duality pairings of real vector spaces to represent prices and quantities , the use of supporting and separating hyperplanes and convex sets , and fixed @-@ point theory — have been the primary tools of mathematical economics ever since .
= = = Mathematical economics = = =
Von Neumann raised the intellectual and mathematical level of economics in several stunning publications . For his model of an expanding economy , von Neumann proved the existence and uniqueness of an equilibrium using his generalization of the Brouwer fixed @-@ point theorem . Von Neumann 's model of an expanding economy considered the matrix pencil A − λB with nonnegative matrices A and B ; von Neumann sought probability vectors p and q and a positive number λ that would solve the complementarity equation
<formula>
along with two inequality systems expressing economic efficiency . In this model , the ( transposed ) probability vector p represents the prices of the goods while the probability vector q represents the " intensity " at which the production process would run . The unique solution λ represents the growth factor which is 1 plus the rate of growth of the economy ; the rate of growth equals the interest rate .
Von Neumann 's results have been viewed as a special case of linear programming , where von Neumann 's model uses only nonnegative matrices . The study of von Neumann 's model of an expanding economy continues to interest mathematical economists with interests in computational economics . This paper has been
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called the greatest paper in mathematical economics by several authors , who recognized its introduction of fixed @-@ point theorems , linear inequalities , complementary slackness , and saddlepoint duality . In the proceedings of a conference on von Neumann 's growth model , Paul Samuelson said that many mathematicians had developed methods useful to economists , but that von Neumann was unique in having made significant contributions to economic theory itself .
Von Neumann 's famous 9 @-@ page paper started life as a talk at Princeton and then became a paper in German , which was eventually translated into English . His interest in economics that led to that paper began as follows : When lecturing at Berlin in 1928 and 1929 he spent his summers back home in Budapest , and so did the economist Nicholas Kaldor , and they hit it off . Kaldor recommended that von Neumann read a book by the mathematical economist Léon Walras . Von Neumann found some faults in that book and corrected them , for example , replacing equations by inequalities . He noticed that Walras 's General Equilibrium Theory and Walras ' Law , which led to systems of simultaneous linear equations , could produce the absurd result that the profit could be maximized by producing and selling a negative quantity of a product . He replaced the equations by inequalities , introduced dynamic equilibria , among other things , and eventually produced the paper .
= = = Linear programming = = =
Building on his results on matrix games and on his model of an expanding economy , von Neumann invented the theory of duality in linear programming , after George Dantzig described his work in a few minutes , when an impatient von Neumann asked him to get to the point . Then , Dantzig listened dumbfounded while von Neumann provided an hour lecture on convex sets , fixed @-@ point theory , and duality , conjecturing the equivalence between matrix games and linear programming .
Later , von Neumann suggested a new method of linear programming , using the homogeneous linear system of Gordan ( 1873 ) , which was later popularized by Karmarkar 's algorithm . Von Neumann 's method used a pivoting algorithm between simplices , with the pivoting decision determined by a nonnegative least squares subproblem with a convexity constraint ( projecting the zero @-@ vector onto the convex hull of the active simplex ) . Von Neumann 's algorithm was the first interior point method of linear programming .
= = = Mathematical statistics = = =
Von Neumann made fundamental contributions to mathematical statistics . In 1941 , he derived the exact distribution of the ratio of the mean square of successive differences to the sample variance for independent and identically normally distributed variables . This ratio was applied to the residuals from regression models and is commonly known as the Durbin – Watson statistic for testing the null hypothesis that the errors are serially independent against the alternative that they follow a stationary first order autoregression .
Subsequently , Denis Sargan and Alok Bhargava extended the results for testing if the errors on a regression model follow a Gaussian random walk ( i.e. , possess a unit root ) against the alternative that they are a stationary first order autoregression .
= = = Fluid dynamics = = =
Von Neumann made fundamental contributions in exploration of problems in numerical hydrodynamics . For example , with Robert D. Richtmyer he developed an algorithm defining artificial viscosity that improved the understanding of shock waves . When computers solved hydrodynamic or aerodynamic problems , they tried to put too many computational grid points at regions of sharp discontinuity ( shock waves ) . The mathematics of artificial viscosity smoothed the shock transition without sacrificing basic physics . Other contributions to fluid dynamics included the classic flow solution to blast waves , and the co @-@ discovery of the ZND detonation model of explosives .
= = = Mastery of mathematics = = =
Stan Ulam , who knew von Neumann well , described his mastery of mathematics this way : " Most mathematicians know one method . For example , Norbert Wiener had mastered Fourier transforms . Some mathematicians have mastered two methods and might really impress someone who knows only one of them . John von Neumann had mastered three methods . " He went on to explain that the three methods were :
A facility with the symbolic manipulation of linear operators ;
An intuitive feeling for the logical structure of any new mathematical theory ;
An intuitive feeling for the combinatorial superstructure of new theories .
Edward Teller wrote that " Nobody knows all science , not even von Neumann did . But as for mathematics , he contributed to every part of it except number theory and topology . That is , I think , something unique . "
= = Nuclear weapons = =
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
Beginning in the late 1930s , von Neumann developed an expertise in explosions — phenomena that are difficult to model mathematically . During this period von Neumann was the leading authority of the mathematics of shaped charges . This led him to a large number of military consultancies , primarily for the Navy , which in turn led to his involvement in the Manhattan Project . The involvement included frequent trips by train to the project 's secret research facilities in Los Alamos , New Mexico .
Von Neumann 's principal contribution to the atomic bomb was in the concept and design of the explosive lenses needed to compress the plutonium core of the Fat Man weapon that was later dropped on Nagasaki . While von Neumann did not originate the " implosion " concept , he was one of its most persistent proponents , encouraging its continued development against the instincts of many of his colleagues , who felt such a design to be unworkable . He also eventually came up with the idea of using more powerful shaped charges and less fissionable material to greatly increase the speed of " assembly " .
When it turned out that there would not be enough uranium @-@ 235 to make more than one bomb , the implosive lens project was greatly expanded and von Neumann 's idea was implemented . Implosion was the only method that could be used with the plutonium @-@ 239 that was available from the Hanford Site . He established the design of the explosive lenses required , but there remained concerns about " edge effects " and imperfections in the explosives . His calculations showed that implosion would work if it did not depart by more than 5 % from spherical symmetry . After a series of failed attempts with models , this was achieved by George Kistiakowsky , and the construction of the Trinity bomb was completed in July 1945 .
In a visit to Los Alamos in September 1944 , von Neumann showed that the pressure increase from explosion shock wave reflection from solid objects was greater than previously believed if the angle of incidence of the shock wave was between 90 ° and some limiting angle . As a result , it was determined that the effectiveness of an atomic bomb would be enhanced with detonation some kilometers above the target , rather than at ground level .
Along with four other scientists and various military personnel , von Neumann was included in the target selection committee responsible for choosing the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as the first targets of the atomic bomb . Von Neumann oversaw computations related to the expected size of the bomb blasts , estimated death tolls , and the distance above the ground at which the bombs should be detonated for optimum shock wave propagation and thus maximum effect . The cultural capital Kyoto , which had been spared the bombing inflicted upon militarily significant cities , was von Neumann 's first choice , a selection seconded by Manhattan Project leader General Leslie Groves . However , this target was dismissed by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson .
On July 16 , 1945 , with numerous other Manhattan Project personnel , von Neumann was an eyewitness to the first atomic bomb blast , code named Trinity , conducted as a test of the implosion method device , at the bombing range near Alamogordo Army Airfield , 35 miles ( 56 km ) southeast of Socorro , New Mexico . Based on his observation alone , von Neumann estimated the test had resulted in a blast equivalent to 5 kilotons of TNT ( 21 TJ ) but Enrico Fermi produced a more accurate estimate of 10 kilotons by dropping scraps of torn @-@ up paper as the shock wave passed his location and watching how far they scattered . The actual power of the explosion had been between 20 and 22 kilotons . It was in von Neumann 's 1944 papers that the expression " kilotons " appeared for the first time . After the war , Robert Oppenheimer remarked that the physicists involved in the Manhattan project had " known sin " . Von Neumann 's response was that " sometimes someone confesses a sin in order to take credit for it . "
Von Neumann continued unperturbed in his work and became , along with Edward Teller , one of those who sustained the hydrogen bomb project . He collaborated with Klaus Fuchs on further development of the bomb , and in 1946 the two filed a secret patent on " Improvement in Methods and Means for Utilizing Nuclear Energy " , which outlined a scheme for using a fission bomb to compress fusion fuel to initiate nuclear fusion . The Fuchs – von Neumann patent used radiation implosion , but not in the same way as is used in what became the final hydrogen bomb design , the Teller – Ulam design . Their work was , however , incorporated into the " George " shot of Operation Greenhouse , which was instructive in testing out concepts that went into the final design . The Fuchs – von Neumann work was passed on to the Soviet Union by Fuchs as part of his nuclear espionage , but it was not used in the Soviets ' own , independent development of the Teller – Ulam design . The historian Jeremy Bernstein has pointed out that ironically , " John von Neumann and Klaus Fuchs , produced a brilliant invention in 1946 that could have changed the whole course of the development of the hydrogen bomb , but was not fully understood until after the bomb had been successfully made . "
For his wartime services , von Neumann was awarded the Navy Distinguished Civilian Service Award in July 1946 , and the Medal for Merit in October 1946 .
= = = Atomic Energy Commission = = =
In 1950 , von Neumann became a consultant to the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group ( WSEG ) , whose function was to advise the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the United States Secretary of Defense on the development and use of new technologies . He also became an adviser to the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) , which was responsible for the military aspects on nuclear weapons . Over the following two years , he became a consultant to the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , a member of the influential General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission , a consultant to the newly established Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , and a member of the Scientific Advisory Group of the United States Air Force .
In 1955 , von Neumann became a commissioner of the AEC . He accepted this position and used it to further the production of compact hydrogen bombs suitable for Intercontinental ballistic missile delivery . He involved himself in correcting the severe shortage of tritium and lithium 6 needed for these compact weapons , and he argued against settling for the intermediate range missiles that the Army wanted . He was adamant that H @-@ bombs delivered into the heart of enemy territory by an ICBM would be the most effective weapon possible , and that the relative inaccuracy of the missile wouldn 't be a problem with an H @-@ bomb . He said the Russians would probably be building a similar weapon system , which turned out to be the case . Despite his disagreement with Oppenheimer over the need for a crash program to develop the hydrogen bomb , he testified on the latter 's behalf at the 1954 Oppenheimer security hearing , at which he asserted that Oppenheimer was loyal , and praised him for his helpfulness once the program went ahead .
Shortly before his death , when he was already quite ill , von Neumann headed the United States government 's top secret ICBM committee , and it would sometimes meet in his home . Its purpose was to decide on the feasibility of building an ICBM large enough to carry a thermonuclear weapon . Von Neumann had long argued that while the technical obstacles were sizable , they could be overcome in time . The SM @-@ 65 Atlas passed its first fully functional test in 1959 , two years after his death . The feasibility of an ICBM owed as much to improved , smaller warheads as it did to developments in rocketry , and his understanding of the former made his advice invaluable .
= = = Mutual assured destruction = = =
Von Neumann is credited with the equilibrium strategy of mutual assured destruction , providing the deliberately humorous acronym , MAD . ( Other humorous acronyms coined by von Neumann include his computer , the Mathematical Analyzer , Numerical Integrator , and Computer — or MANIAC ) . He also " moved heaven and earth " to bring MAD about . His goal was to quickly develop ICBMs and the compact hydrogen bombs that they could deliver to the USSR , and he knew the Soviets were doing similar work because the CIA interviewed German rocket scientists who were allowed to return to Germany , and von Neumann had planted a dozen technical people in the CIA . The Russians considered that bombers would soon be vulnerable , and they shared von Neumann 's view that an H @-@ bomb in an ICBM was the ne plus ultra of weapons ; they believed that whoever had superiority in these weapons would take over the world , without necessarily using them . He was afraid of a " missile gap " and took several more steps to achieve his goal of keeping up with the Soviets :
He modified the ENIAC by making it programmable and then wrote programs for it to do the H @-@ bomb calculations verifying that the Teller @-@ Ulam design was feasible and to develop it further .
Through the Atomic Energy Commission , he promoted the development of a compact H @-@ bomb that would fit in an ICBM .
He personally interceded to speed up the production of lithium @-@ 6 and tritium needed for the compact bombs .
He caused several separate missile projects to be started , because he felt that competition combined with collaboration got the best results .
Von Neumann 's assessment that the Soviets had a lead in missile technology , considered pessimistic at the time , was soon proven correct in the Sputnik crisis .
Von Neumann entered government service ( Manhattan Project ) primarily because he felt that , if freedom and civilization were to survive , it would have to be because the US would triumph over totalitarianism from Nazism , Fascism and Soviet Communism . During a Senate committee hearing he described his political ideology as " violently anti @-@ communist , and much more militaristic than the norm " . He was quoted in 1950 remarking , " If you say why not bomb [ the Soviets ] tomorrow , I say , why not today ? If you say today at five o 'clock , I say why not one o 'clock ? "
On February 15 , 1956 , von Neumann was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Dwight D. Eisenhower . His citation read :
Dr. von Neumann , in a series of scientific study projects of major national significance , has materially increased the scientific progress of this country in the armaments field .
Through his work on various highly classified missions performed outside the continental limits of the United States in conjunction with critically important international programs , Dr. von Neumann has resolved some of the most difficult technical problems of national defense .
= = Computing = =
Von Neumann was a founding figure in computing . Donald Knuth cites von Neumann as the inventor , in 1945 , of the merge sort algorithm , in which the first and second halves of an array are each sorted recursively and then merged . Von Neumann wrote the sorting program for the EDVAC in ink , which was 23 pages long ; traces can still be seen on the first page of the phrase " TOP SECRET " , which was written in pencil and later erased . He also worked on the philosophy of artificial intelligence with Alan Turing when the latter visited Princeton in the 1930s .
Von Neumann 's hydrogen bomb work was played out in the realm of computing , where he and Stanislaw Ulam developed simulations on von Neumann 's digital computers for the hydrodynamic computations . During this time he contributed to the development of the Monte Carlo method , which allowed solutions to complicated problems to be approximated using random numbers . His algorithm for simulating a fair coin with a biased coin is used in the " software whitening " stage of some hardware random number generators . Because using lists of " truly " random numbers was extremely slow , von Neumann developed a form of making pseudorandom numbers , using the middle @-@ square method . Though this method has been criticized as crude , von Neumann was aware of this : he justified it as being faster than any other method at his disposal , writing that " Anyone who considers arithmetical methods of producing random digits is , of course , in a state of sin . " Von Neumann also noted that when this method went awry it did so obviously , unlike other methods which could be subtly incorrect .
While consulting for the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania on the EDVAC project , von Neumann wrote an incomplete First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC . The paper , whose premature distribution nullified the patent claims of EDVAC designers J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly , described a computer architecture in which the data and the program are both stored in the computer 's memory in the same address space . This architecture is to this day the basis of modern computer design , unlike the earliest computers that were " programmed " using a separate memory device such as a paper tape or plugboard . Although the single @-@ memory , stored program architecture is commonly called von Neumann architecture as a result of von Neumann 's paper , the architecture 's description was based on the work of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly , inventors of the ENIAC computer at the University of Pennsylvania .
John von Neumann consulted for the Army 's Ballistic Research Laboratory , most notably on the ENIAC project , as a member of its Scientific Advisory Committee . The electronics of the new ENIAC ran at one @-@ sixth the speed , but this in no way degraded the ENIAC 's performance , since it was still entirely I / O bound . Complicated programs could be developed and debugged in days rather than the weeks required for plugboarding the old ENIAC . Some of von Neumann 's early computer programs have been preserved . The next computer that von Neumann designed was the IAS machine at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey . He arranged its financing , and the components were designed and built at the RCA Research Laboratory nearby . John von Neumann recommended that the IBM 701 , nicknamed the defense computer include a magnetic drum . It was a faster version of the IAS machine and formed the basis for the commercially successful IBM 704 .
Stochastic computing was first introduced in a pioneering paper by von Neumann in 1953 . However , the theory could not be implemented until advances in computing of the 1960s . He also created the field of cellular automata without the aid of computers , constructing the first self @-@ replicating automata with pencil and graph paper . The concept of a universal constructor based on the von Neumann cellular automaton was fleshed out in his posthumous work Theory of Self Reproducing Automata . The von Neumann neighborhood , in which each cell in a two @-@ dimensional grid has the four orthogonally adjacent grid cells as neighbors , continues to be used for other cellular automata . Von Neumann proved that the most effective way of performing large @-@ scale mining operations such as mining an entire moon or asteroid belt would be by using self @-@ replicating spacecraft , taking advantage of their exponential growth . His rigorous mathematical analysis of the structure of self @-@ replication ( of the semiotic relationship between constructor , description and that which is constructed ) , preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA . Beginning in 1949 , von Neumann 's design for a self @-@ reproducing computer program is considered the world 's first computer virus , and he is considered to be the theoretical father of computer virology .
Von Neumann 's team performed the world 's first numerical weather forecasts on the ENIAC computer ; von Neumann published the paper Numerical Integration of the Barotropic Vorticity Equation in 1950 . Von Neumann 's interest in weather systems and meteorological prediction led him to propose manipulating the environment by spreading colorants on the polar ice caps to enhance absorption of solar radiation ( by reducing the albedo ) . thereby inducing global warming . Noting that the Earth was only 6 ° F ( 3 @.@ 3 ° C ) colder during the last glacial period , he said that the burning of coal and oil would result in " a general warming of the Earth by about one degree Fahrenheit . "
= = Cognitive abilities = =
Von Neumann 's ability to instantaneously perform complex operations in his head stunned other mathematicians . Eugene Wigner wrote that , seeing von Neumann 's mind at work , " one had the impression of a perfect instrument whose gears were machined to mesh accurately to a thousandth of an inch . " Paul Halmos states that " von Neumann 's speed was awe @-@ inspiring . " Edward Teller admitted that he " never could keep up with him " . Teller also said " von Neumann would carry on a conversation with my 3 @-@ year @-@ old son , and the two of them would talk as equals , and I sometimes wondered if he used the same principle when he talked to the rest of us . Most people avoid thinking if they can , some of us are addicted to thinking , but von Neumann actually enjoyed thinking , maybe even to the exclusion of everything else . "
Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim described von Neumann as the " fastest mind I ever met " , and Jacob Bronowski wrote " He was the cleverest man I ever knew , without exception . He was a genius . " George Pólya , whose lectures at ETH Zürich von Neumann attended as a student , said " Johnny was the only student I was ever afraid of . If in the course of a lecture I stated an unsolved problem , the chances were he 'd come to me at the end of the lecture with the complete solution scribbled on a slip of paper . " Halmos recounts a story told by Nicholas Metropolis , concerning the speed of von Neumann 's calculations , when somebody asked von Neumann to solve the famous fly puzzle :
Two bicyclists start twenty miles apart and head toward each other , each going at a steady rate of 10 mph . At the same time a fly that travels at a steady 15 mph starts from the front wheel of the southbound bicycle and flies to the front wheel of the northbound one , then turns around and flies to the front wheel of the southbound one again , and continues in this manner till he is crushed between the two front wheels . Question : what total distance did the fly cover ? The slow way to find the answer is to calculate what distance the fly covers on the first , northbound , leg of the trip , then on the second , southbound , leg , then on the third , etc . , etc . , and , finally , to sum the infinite series so obtained . The quick way is to observe that the bicycles meet exactly one hour after their start , so that the fly had just an hour for his travels ; the answer must therefore be 15 miles . When the question was put to von Neumann , he solved it in an instant , and thereby disappointed the questioner : " Oh , you must have heard the trick before ! " " What trick ? " asked von Neumann , " All I did was sum the geometric series . "
Eugene Wigner told a similar story , only with a swallow instead of a fly , and says it was Max Born who posed the question to von Neumann in the 1920s .
Herman Goldstine wrote :
One of his remarkable abilities was his power of absolute recall . As far as I could tell , von Neumann was able on once reading a book or article to quote it back verbatim ; moreover , he could do it years later without hesitation . He could also translate it at no diminution in speed from its original language into English . On one occasion I tested his ability by asking him to tell me how A Tale of Two Cities started . Whereupon , without any pause , he immediately began to recite the first chapter and continued until asked to stop after about ten or fifteen minutes .
Ulam noted that von Neumann 's way of thinking might not be visual , but more of an aural one .
" I have sometimes wondered whether a brain like von Neumann 's does not indicate a species superior to that of man " , said Nobel Laureate Hans Bethe of Cornell University . " It seems fair to say that if the influence of a scientist is interpreted broadly enough to include impact on fields beyond science proper , then John von Neumann was probably the most influential mathematician who ever lived , " wrote Miklós Rédei in " Selected Letters . " James Glimm wrote : " he is regarded as one of the giants of modern mathematics " . The mathematician Jean Dieudonné said that von Neumann " may have been the last representative of a once @-@ flourishing and numerous group , the great mathematicians who were equally at home in pure and applied mathematics and who throughout their careers maintained a steady production in both directions " , while Peter Lax described him as possessing the " most scintillating intellect of this century " .
= = Death = =
In 1955 , von Neumann was diagnosed with what was either bone or pancreatic cancer .
He invited a Roman Catholic priest , Father Anselm Strittmatter , O.S.B. , to visit him for consultation . Von Neumann reportedly said in explanation that Pascal had a point , referring to Pascal 's Wager . Father Strittmatter administered the last rites to him . Some of von Neumann 's friends ( such as Abraham Pais and Oskar Morgenstern ) said they had always believed him to be " completely agnostic . " " Of this deathbed conversion , Morgenstern told Heims , " He was of course completely agnostic all his life , and then he suddenly turned Catholic — it doesn 't agree with anything whatsoever in his attitude , outlook and thinking when he was healthy . " Father Strittmatter recalled that von Neumann did not receive much peace or comfort from it , as he still remained terrified of death .
On his deathbed , Von Neumann entertained his brother by reciting , by heart and word @-@ for @-@ word , the first few lines of each page of Goethe 's Faust . He died at age 53 on February 8 , 1957 at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington , D.C. under military security lest he reveal military secrets while heavily medicated . He was buried at Princeton Cemetery in Princeton , Mercer County , New Jersey .
= = Honors = =
The John von Neumann Theory Prize of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences ( INFORMS , previously TIMS @-@ ORSA ) is awarded annually to an individual ( or group ) who have made fundamental and sustained contributions to theory in operations research and the management sciences .
The IEEE John von Neumann Medal is awarded annually by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) " for outstanding achievements in computer @-@ related science and technology . "
The John von Neumann Lecture is given annually at the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics ( SIAM ) by a researcher who has contributed to applied mathematics , and the chosen lecturer is also awarded a monetary prize .
The crater von Neumann on the Moon is named after him .
The John von Neumann Center in Plainsboro Township , New Jersey , was named in his honour .
The professional society of Hungarian computer scientists , John von Neumann Computer Society , is named after John von Neumann . It was closed in April 1989 .
On May 4 , 2005 the United States Postal Service issued the American Scientists commemorative postage stamp series , a set of four 37 @-@ cent self @-@ adhesive stamps in several configurations designed by artist Victor Stabin . The scientists depicted were von Neumann , Barbara McClintock , Josiah Willard Gibbs , and Richard Feynman .
The John von Neumann Award of the Rajk László College for Advanced Studies was named in his honour , and has been given every year since 1995 to professors who have made an outstanding contribution to the exact social sciences and through their work have strongly influenced the professional development and thinking of the members of the college .
= = Selected works = =
1923 . On the introduction of transfinite numbers , 346 – 54 .
1925 . An axiomatization of set theory , 393 – 413 .
1932 . Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics , Beyer , R. T. , trans . , Princeton Univ . Press . 1996 edition : ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 02893 @-@ 1 .
1937 @.@ von Neumann , John ( 1981 ) . Halperin , Israel , ed . Continuous geometries with a transition probability . Memoirs of the American Mathematical Society 34 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8218 @-@ 2252 @-@ 4 . MR 634656 .
1944 . Theory of Games and Economic Behavior , with Morgenstern , O. , Princeton Univ . Press , online at archive.org. 2007 edition : ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 13061 @-@ 3 .
1945 . First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC TheFirstDraft.pdf
1948 . " The general and logical theory of automata , " in Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior : The Hixon Symposium , Jeffress , L.A. ed . , John Wiley & Sons , New York , N. Y , 1951 , pp. 1 – 31 , MR 0045446 .
1960 @.@ von Neumann , John ( 1998 ) . Continuous geometry . Princeton Landmarks in Mathematics . Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 05893 @-@ 1 . MR 0120174 .
1963 . Collected Works of John von Neumann , Taub , A. H. , ed . , Pergamon Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 08 @-@ 009566 @-@ 6
1966 . Theory of Self @-@ Reproducing Automata , Burks , A. W. , ed . , University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 598 @-@ 37798 @-@ 0
= Great spotted kiwi =
The great spotted kiwi , great gray kiwi , or roroa ( Apteryx haastii ) is a species of kiwi endemic to the South Island of New Zealand . The great spotted kiwi , as a member of the ratites , is flightless . It is the largest of the kiwi . The rugged topography and harsh climate of the high altitude , alpine , part of its habitat render it inhospitable to a number of introduced mammalian predators , which include dogs , ferrets , cats and stoats . Because of this , populations of this species have been less seriously affected by the predations of these invasive species compared to other kiwi . Nonetheless , there has been a 43 % decline in population in the past 45 years , due to these predators and habitat destruction . This has led it to be classified as vulnerable . There are less than 16 @,@ 000 great spotted kiwis in total , almost all in the more mountainous parts of northwest Nelson , the northwest coast , and the Southern Alps . A minority live on island reserves .
This kiwi is highly aggressive , and pairs will defend their large territories ( 49 acres ) against other kiwi . Great spotted kiwi are nocturnal , and will sleep during the day in burrows . At night , they feed on invertebrates and will also eat plants . Great spotted kiwi breed between June and March . The egg is the largest of all birds in proportion to the size of the bird . Chicks take 75 to 85 days to hatch , and after hatching , they are abandoned by their parents .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
This large kiwi is one of five species of kiwis residing in New Zealand . The other four are the tokoeka ( Apteryx australis ) , Okarito brown kiwi ( Apteryx rowi ) , little spotted kiwi ( Apteryx owenii ) , and North Island brown kiwi ( Apteryx mantelli ) . Great spotted kiwis are related most closely to the little spotted kiwi . The kiwi genus , Apteryx , is endemic to New Zealand , 44 % of the bird species native to New Zealand are endemic . Kiwis are placed in the ratite family , which also includes the emu , ostrich , rhea , and cassowary . All ratites are flightless . Kiwi are closely related to the extinct moa bird that once inhabited New Zealand .
Relationships in the genus Apteryx
Before the great spotted kiwi was known to science , several stories circulated about the existence of a large kiwi called the Maori roaroa . In 1871 , two specimens were brought to the Canterbury Museum , where they were identified as a new species and were named after the museum 's curator , Dr. Haast .
The great spotted kiwi was first described as Apteryx haastii by Thomas Potts , in 1
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872 , based on a specimen from Westland , New Zealand . It is a monotypic species .
The genus name , Apteryx , comes from the Ancient Greek words a " without " or " no " , and pteryx , " wing " and haasti is the Latin form of the last name of Sir Julius von Haast .
= = Description = =
Great spotted kiwis are the largest of the kiwis ; the male is 45 cm ( 18 in ) tall , while the female is 50 cm ( 20 in ) tall . Bill length ranges from 9 to 12 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) , while weight ranges between 1 @.@ 2 and 2 @.@ 6 kg ( 2 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 7 lb ) for males and 1 @.@ 5 and 3 @.@ 3 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 and 7 @.@ 3 lb ) for females . The body is pear @-@ shaped , while the head and neck is small with a long slender ivory bill . The great spotted kiwi , along with the other kiwi species , is the only bird with nostrils at the end of its bill . The eyes are small and do not see well , as it relies mostly on its sense of smell . The legs are short , with three toes per foot . It has a plumage composed of soft , hair @-@ like feathers , which have no aftershafts . The plumage can range from charcoal gray to light brown . They have large vibrissae around the gape , and they have no tail , only a small pygostyle . The common name of this bird comes from black spots on its feathers . They use their powerful legs and claws for defense against predators like stoats or ferrets . Kiwis are flightless birds , and hence lack hollow bones , lack a keel to which wing muscles anchor , and have tiny wings . This species also has a low body temperature compared to other birds . Average lifespan is 30 to 40 years .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Greater spotted kiwis once lived in numerous areas throughout the South Island , but because of predation by invasive species , the remaining kiwi are now restricted to three localities . These kiwi live in higher altitude areas . Populations are present from northwestern Nelson to the Buller River , the northwest coast ( Hurunui River to Arthur 's Pass ) , and the Paparoa Range , as well as within the Lake Rotoiti Mainland Island . The Southern Alps population is particularly isolated . Great spotted kiwis reside in complex , maze @-@ like burrows that they construct . Up to fifty burrows can exist in one bird 's territory . They will often move around , staying in a different burrow every day . Bird 's Nest Fungus sometimes grows in these burrows . Their habitat ranges in elevation from sea level to 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) , but the majority are concentrated in a range from 700 to 1 @,@ 100 m ( 2 @,@ 300 – 3 @,@ 600 ft ) in a subalpine zone . These kiwis will live in tussock grasslands , scrubland , pasture , and forests .
= = = Conservation = = =
The great spotted kiwi population started declining when European settlers first arrived in New Zealand . Before settlers arrived , about 12 million great spotted kiwis lived in New Zealand . This bird is often preyed upon by invasive pigs , dogs , ferrets and stoats , leading to a 5 % chick survival rate . It has more of an advantage than other kiwi species over these predators because it lives in high altitude areas , where the wet upland population thrives . However , there has been a decrease in population of 43 % in the past 45 years , and has declined 90 % since 1900 . Humans have also endangered the species by destroying their habitat by logging forests and building mines . Previously , humans hunted these kiwis for feathers and food . In 1988 , the species was listed as Least Concern species . It is currently classified by the IUCN as a vulnerable species . This kiwi has an occurrence range of 8 @,@ 500 km2 ( 3 @,@ 300 sq mi ) , and in 2000 an estimated 22 @,@ 000 adult birds remained . They have been trending down about 5 @.@ 8 % a year . The main threat is from invasive predators including mustelids , brush @-@ tailed possum Trichosurus vulpecula , feral cats , dogs and pigs The most threatened populations are in the southern areas of the species ' range . Less than 16 @,@ 000 great spotted kiwis remain . Movements for saving the kiwi are in place , and sanctuaries for the great spotted kiwi have been made . Thanks to intensive trapping and poisoning efforts the chick survival rate has been raised to about 60 % in areas where mammalian pest control is undertaken .
= = Behaviour = =
The great spotted kiwi is nocturnal in behavior . If the kiwis live in an area lacking predators , they will come out in the day . At night , they come out to feed . Like other species of kiwi , they have a good sense of smell , which is unusual in birds . Males are fiercely territorial . At most , four to five kiwis live in a square kilometer . One pair 's territory can be 25 hectares ( 62 acres ) in size . It is not known how they defend such a large territory in proportion to their size . They will call , chase , or fight intruders out . Vocalisations of the great spotted kiwi include growls , hisses , and bill snapping . Great spotted kiwi males have a call that resembles a warbling whistle , while the female call is harsh raspy , and also warbling .
= = = Diet = = =
In the ground , they dig for earthworms and grubs , and they search for beetles , cicada , crickets , flies , weta , spiders , caterpillars , slugs and snails on the ground . They will also feed on berries and seeds . To find prey , the great spotted kiwi use their scenting skills or feel vibrations caused by the movement of their prey . To do the latter , a kiwi would stick its beak into the ground , then use its beak to dig into the ground . As they are nocturnal , they do not emerge until thirty minutes after sunset to begin the hunt . Kiwis will also swallow small stones , which aid in digestion .
= = = Predation = = =
Because adult great spotted kiwis are large and powerful , they are able to fend off most predators that attack them , such as stoats , ferrets , weasels , pigs , brush possums and cats , all of which are invasive species in New Zealand . However , dogs are able to kill even adults . Stoats , ferrets , possums , cats and dogs will feed on the eggs and chicks , meaning most chicks die within their first five months of life . Before the arrival of mammalian predators , the great spotted kiwi 's natural predators would have been birds of prey like the extinct Haast 's eagle and Eyles ' harrier and the extant Swamp harrier .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Great spotted kiwis are monogamous , with pairings sometimes lasting twenty years . Nests are made in burrows . The breeding season begins in June and ends in March , as this is when food is plentiful . Males reach sexual maturity at 18 months in captivity , while females are able to lay eggs after three years . In the wild , sexual maturity for both sexes is between ages three and five . Great spotted kiwi males chase females around until the females either run off or mate . The pair mates about two to three times during peak activity . The gestation period is about a month . Females do not eat during this period , as the eggs will take up a fourth of a kiwi 's body mass . The yolk takes up 65 % of the egg . In most bird eggs , the yolk takes up about 35 to 40 % of the egg . This makes the kiwi egg the largest in proportion to the body . Females must rely on fat stored from the previous five months to survive . Because of the large size of the egg , gestation is uncomfortable for the female , and they do not move much . To relieve the pain , females soak themselves in water when they come out of the burrows by dipping their abdomens into puddles . The egg @-@ laying season is between August and January .
After the female lays the egg , the male incubates the egg while the female guards the nest . Males only leave the nest for a few hours to hunt , and during this time , the female takes over . It takes 75 to 85 days for the egg to hatch . The kiwi chick takes 2 to 3 days simply to get out of its egg . Kiwi chicks are precocial , and are abandoned by their parents after hatching . After ten days , chicks venture out of the burrow to hunt . Most chicks are killed by predators in the first six months of their life . Great spotted kiwis reach full size at year six . Unlike most birds , female great spotted kiwis have two ovaries . Most birds have only one . Great spotted kiwis are distinguishable from other kiwi species by the fact that they can only produce one egg a year , as it takes so much energy to produce the massive egg .
= Potamon fluviatile =
Potamon fluviatile is a freshwater crab found in or near wooded streams , rivers and lakes in Southern Europe . It is an omnivore with broad ecological tolerances , and adults typically reach 50 mm ( 2 in ) in size during their 10 – 12 year lifespan . They inhabit burrows and are aggressive , apparently outcompeting native crayfish .
P. fluviatile has been harvested for food since classical antiquity , and is now threatened by overexploitation . Many of the island populations are particularly vulnerable , and the Maltese subspecies has become a conservation icon . A population in Rome may have been brought there before the founding of the Roman Empire .
= = Description = =
Adult Potamon fluviatile may reach a carapace length of 50 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) , with females being generally smaller than males . As with other crabs , the body is roughly square , with the reduced abdomen tucked beneath the thorax . The thorax bears five pairs of legs , the first of which is armed with large claws .
The life span of P. fluviatile is typically 10 – 12 years . Moulting does not occur in
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squadron , under the command of Captain Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ François Bompart , dispersed to raid British shipping along the coast , capturing or destroying more than 60 merchant vessels before retiring to American ports for repairs .
The French threat on the American Seaboard was met by Royal Navy frigates operating out of Halifax , Nova Scotia , under orders to watch and blockade French movements in American ports . One such ship was the 32 @-@ gun frigate HMS Boston , a small and old vessel under the command of Captain George Courtenay . Courtenay was under orders to watch New York City , where one of the frigates was known to be at anchor . On 28 June 1793 , Boston arrived off New York , Courtenay deliberately disguising his ship to resemble a French vessel by having the French @-@ speaking members of his crew talk loudly on the quarterdeck while an American pilot boat was within earshot . The French ship in New York was Bompart 's ship Embuscade , a large and powerful vessel that had been built less than three years before and carried a combined broadside weight of 240 pounds ( 108 @.@ 9 kg ) , 30 pounds ( 13 @.@ 6 kg ) more than that of Boston . Sighting the strange ship off the harbour , Bompart sent a boat with his lieutenant , an American from Boston named Whitynow , and twelve men to investigate . Although he was suspicious of the strange vessel , Whitynow was finally convinced that the ship was a French vessel after conferring with the pilots , and came aboard only to discover his error when Courtenay seized him and his men as prisoners of war .
Courtenay suggested to his prisoner that he would be keen to meet Bompart in battle , and he agreed to send a message into New York via the pilot boat with a challenge for Bompart to bring Embuscade out of the neutral harbour and meet Boston off Sandy Hook . The pilot was initially unable to locate the French captain , and so instead posted the challenge in a coffeehouse in the city , from where the news spread rapidly . Bompart came to learn of it , and spent the next two days preparing his warship ; historian Edward Pelham Brenton has claimed that Bompart was joined by 100 armed American volunteers , which he calls " a flagrant violation of the law of nations " . After a consultation among the French officers Embuscade sailed from New York on the night of 30 July , although Courtenay was almost forced to miss the rendezvous : on the afternoon of 30 July a large French battle squadron of the ships of the line Éole and Patriote , four frigates and six smaller vessels passed northwards along the New Jersey coast , heading for New York . In the face of such a powerful force Boston was temporarily forced to withdraw to open water , but the squadron did not deviate to investigate the frigate and had passed into New York harbour by nightfall , allowing Courtenay to return to his station .
= = Battle = =
At 03 : 00 on 31 May , lookouts on Boston reported a large ship approaching from the northeast . Courtenay readied his ship for battle and at 03 : 30 the ship passed at a distance of 3 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 6 @.@ 5 km ) and was shortly afterwards recognised as a frigate flying the French tricolour . Unsure of the newcomer 's identity , Courtenay raised the same flag and in response the strange ship raised a blue flag bearing a white cross , identifying itself as Embuscade , come to meet his challenge . At 04 : 00 both ships turned eastwards , continuing for 45 minutes until Boston slowed and raised British colours . As the British ship slowed the French vessel overtook at 1 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km ) distance and at 05 : 00 Boston tacked towards the French ship , Embuscade slowing so that Courtenay 's frigate passed along the starboard broadside . Boston fired first at 05 : 05 , followed immediately by a volley from Embuscade . Both ships then tacked again , by this time approximately 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ) southeast of Navesink , New Jersey . News of the impending battle had spread rapidly through the countryside , and thousands of spectators had gathered on the New Jersey beaches to watch the engagement .
After fifteen minutes of combat , Boston lost its cross @-@ jack yard and by 05 : 45 had suffered significant damage to its rigging and sails , rendering the ship significantly less manoeuvrable than Embuscade . At 06 : 10 the main topmast was knocked over and the mizzen mast badly damaged , and ten minutes later , as he was exhorting his men to greater efforts , a cannonball struck the rail where Captain Courtenay and Royal Marine Lieutenant James Butler were standing . Butler was killed instantly and Courtenay fell to the deck unresponsive , possibly killed . Believing his commander to be dead , Lieutenant John Edwards assumed command and had the bodies thrown overboard in an effort to prevent his sailors losing morale from the death of their captain . Boston continued to suffer under the heavier guns of the French ship and by 06 : 40 the mizzen mast was close to collapse and much of the remaining rigging had been shot away . Casualties mounted , with Lieutenant Edwards and Alexander Kerr both badly wounded , the latter blinded and the former struck on the head and briefly rendered unconscious .
With their officers gone and their ship in an increasingly battered state , panic began to spread through the British crew . In response Edwards was assisted to the deck and assumed command . While confusion overtook Boston , Bompart remained in command of his ship despite heavy casualties and manoeuvred around to the British ship 's stern , intending to finish the battle with a raking broadside . With difficulty Edwards wore away from the threat and recognised that continued resistance would be futile , turning Boston towards the open sea away from Embuscade and setting all remaining sail to escape . At 07 : 07 , Bompart began in pursuit , but his ship was also damaged and could not match the speed of the smaller British vessel . At 08 : 00 , with Boston 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) ahead and stretching the distance , the French captain abandoned the chase and turned back towards New York .
= = Aftermath = =
So badly damaged was Bompart 's ship that he was not able to dock in New York until 2 August and repairs to his vessel , including the replacement of all three masts , were not completed until 9 October . Accounts of the battle in the American media claimed that Embuscade 's losses amounted to 50 men killed or wounded during the action from a crew of 340 men . Boston limped southwards in desperate need of repairs and initially attempted to anchor in the Delaware River . On taking on a pilot , Lieutenant Edwards was informed that the French frigates Concorde and Inconstante were anchored at Mud Fort . Aware that his ship would be rapidly overwhelmed by such a force , Edwards disembarked the pilot and sailed north , eventually bringing his battered vessel into St John 's , Newfoundland . Losses aboard Boston amounted to ten killed and 24 wounded from a crew of 204 , the dead including Captain Courtenay . In recognition of his service , Courtenay 's widow was presented with a pension of £ 500 ( the equivalent of £ 52 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) and his two children with £ 50 per annum . Edwards ' subsequent career was shortened by injury , but Bompart was presented with a gold medal on his return to France , and remained a prominent figure in the French Navy , serving at the Glorious First of June in 1794 and leading the French expeditionary force that unsuccessfully attempted to invade Ireland in 1798 and was destroyed at the Battle of Tory Island .
Edwards ' report contained his account of Courtenay 's death in battle , and it was widely accepted at the time . However rumours began circulating that Courtenay had not been killed but merely stunned by the blow , and that his death may have come as a result of Edwards order for him to be thrown overboard . This second account was accepted by Courtenay 's family and shortly after Edwards ' death in January 1823 from the effects of the wound he received in the action with Embuscade , the naval officer and historian Edward Pelham Brenton published his work Naval History of Great Britain from the Year 1783 to 1822 , in which he wrote that :
" The action soon began , and continued with great bravery on both sides , until the iron hammock @-@ rail of the quarter @-@ deck being struck by a shot , a part of it took Captain Courteney [ sic ] on the back of the neck , and he fell , but no blood followed . The first lieutenant immediately caused the body to be thrown overboard , lest , as he said , it should " dishearten the people ; " and , after this prudent precaution , hauled away from the enemy , who had no inclination to follow him " .
This version of events was refuted in 1827 by historian William James , who wrote in response to Brenton that " All we [ James ] can say to this extraordinary statement is , that our [ James ' ] account was taken chiefly from Boston 's log book , and we have not the least reason , from subsequent inquiries , to believe it to be incorrect . " Subsequent histories , including William Laird Clowes ' book of 1900 and Richard Woodman 's of 2001 follow James , but in his 1837 reprint Brenton defended the account and named Alexander Robert Kerr , second lieutenant of Boston during the action , as his source . In the same year a magazine article written by a niece of Captain Courtenay continued to repeat the allegations , stating that " the treacherous or – to say the least of it – the improper and unprofessional conduct of Lieutenant Edwards " had been responsible for his commander 's death .
After the battle , the ladies of Hallifax launched a subscription to celebrate the crew of HMS Boston . On the other hand , the population of New York had a golden medal made in honour of the crew of Embuscade ; Bompart accepted the medal on the condition he would not have to wear it , as the National Convention had banned medals .
= Persistent carbene =
A persistent carbene ( also known as stable carbene ) is a type of carbene demonstrating particular stability . The best @-@ known examples and by far largest subgroup are the N @-@ heterocyclic carbenes ( NHC ) ( sometimes called Arduengo carbenes ) , for example diaminocarbenes with the general formula ( R2N ) 2C : , where the ' R 's are typically alkyl and aryl groups . The groups can be linked to give heterocyclic carbenes , such as those derived from imidazole , imidazoline , thiazole or triazole .
Traditionally carbenes are viewed as so reactive that were only studied indirectly , e.g. by trapping reactions . This situation has changed dramatically with the emergence of persistent carbenes . Although they are fairly reactive substances , i.e. , undergoing dimerization , many can be isolated as pure substances .
Persistent carbenes can exist in the singlet or the triplet states with the singlet state carbenes being more stable . The relative stability of these compounds is only partly due to steric hindrance by bulky groups . Some singlet carbenes are thermodynamically stable in the absence of moisture and ( in most cases ) oxygen , and can be isolated and indefinitely stored . Others are not thermodynamically stable and will dimerise slowly over days . The less stable triplet state carbenes have half @-@ lives measured in seconds , and therefore can be observed but not stored .
= = History = =
= = = Early evidence = = =
In 1957 , Ronald Breslow proposed that a relatively stable nucleophilic carbene , a thiazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene derivative , was involved in the catalytic cycle of vitamin B1 ( thiamine ) that yields furoin from furfural . In this cycle , the vitamin 's thiazolium ring exchanges a hydrogen atom ( attached to carbon 2 of the ring ) for a furfural residue . In deuterated water , the C2 @-@ proton was found to rapidly exchange for a deuteron in a statistical equilibrium .
This exchange was proposed to proceed via intermediacy of a thiazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene . In 2012 the isolation of the so @-@ called Breslow intermediate was reported .
In 1960 , Wanzlick and co @-@ workers conjectured that carbenes derived from dihydroimidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene were produced by vacuum pyrolysis of the corresponding 2 @-@ trichloromethyl dihydroimidazole compounds with the loss of chloroform . They conjectured that the carbene existed in equilibrium with its dimer , a tetraaminoethylene derivative , the so @-@ called Wanzlick equilibrium . This conjecture was challenged by Lemal and co @-@ workers in 1964 , who presented evidence that the dimer did not dissociate ; and by Winberg in 1965 . However , subsequent experiments by Denk , Herrmann and others have confirmed this equilibrium , albeit in specific circumstances .
= = = Isolation of persistent carbenes = = =
In 1970 , Wanzlick 's group generated imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene carbenes by the deprotonation of an imidazolium salt . Wanzlick as well as Hoffmann , proposed that these imidazole @-@ based carbenes should be more stable than their 4 @,@ 5 @-@ dihydro analogues , due to Hückel @-@ type aromaticity . Wanzlick did not however isolate any imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene , but their coordination compounds with mercury and isothiocyanate :
In 1988 , Bertrand and others isolated phosphinocarbene . These species can be represented as either a λ3 @-@ phosphinocarbene or λ5 @-@ phosphaacetylene :
These compounds were called " push @-@ pull carbenes " in reference to the contrasting electron affinities of the phosphorus and silicon atoms . They exhibit both carbenic and alkynic reactivity . An X @-@ ray structure of this molecule has not been obtained and at the time of publication some doubt remained as to their exact carbenic nature .
In 1991 , a stable , isolated , and crystalline diaminocarbene , which can be represented as a carbene or a nitrogen carbon ylide , was obtained by Arduengo and co @-@ workers , by deprotonation of an imidazolium chloride with a strong base :
This carbene , the forerunner of a large family of carbenes with the imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene core , was found to be indefinitely stable at room temperature ( in the absence of oxygen and moisture ) , and melted at 240 – 241 ° C without decomposition . Another interesting chemical property of this ylidic compound was a characteristic resonance in the 13C NMR spectrum at 211 ppm for the carbenic atom . The X @-@ ray structure revealed longer N – C bond lengths in the ring of the carbene than in the parent imidazolium compound , indicating that there was very little double bond character to these bonds .
The first air @-@ stable ylidic carbene , a chlorinated member of the imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene family , was obtained in 1997 .
In 2000 , Bertrand obtained additional carbenes of the phosphanyl type , including ( phosphanyl ) ( trifluoromethyl ) carbene , stable in solution at -30 ° C and a moderately stable ( amino ) ( aryl ) carbene with only one heteroatom adjacent to the carbenic atom .
= = = Factors affecting stability of heteroatom @-@ stabilized carbenes = = =
The stability of Arduengo carbenes was initially attributed to the bulky N @-@ adamantyl substituents , which prevents the carbene from dimerising due to steric hindrance . However , Arduengo 's group later obtained an imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene in which the N @-@ adamantyl groups were replaced with methyl groups , showing that steric hindrance was not the predominant stabilising factor . Instead imidazole @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes are thermodynamically stable .
It had been also conjectured that the double bond between carbons 4 and 5 of the imidazolium ring backbone , which gave aromatic character to that system , was important for the carbene 's stability . This conjecture was disproved in 1995 by Arduengo 's group , who obtained a derivative of dihydroimidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene , lacking the double bond . The thermodynamical stability in this compound , and the role of steric protection in preventing dimerisation , has been a topic of some dispute .
The first acyclic persistent carbene was reported in 1996 , thus showing that a cyclic backbone was not necessary for their stability . Unlike the cyclic derivatives , the acyclic carbenes are flexible with respect to rotation of the bonds to the carbenic atom . By measuring the barrier to rotation of these bonds , the extent of their double bond character could be measured , and the ylidic nature of this carbene could be determined . Like the cyclic diaminocarbenes , unhindered variants tend to dimerise .
Until 1997 , all stable carbenes were stabilized by two nitrogen centers bound to the carbenic atom . This pattern was broken in 1997 – 1998 with the synthesis of a thiazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene derivative by Arduengo 's group and an aminothiocarbene and an aminooxycarbene . In these stable compounds , the carbenic atom lies between a nitrogen atom and either a sulfur or oxygen atom :
However , these carbenes are not thermodynamically stable as decomposition and dimerisation have been observed for unhindered examples .
A more radical development was the synthesis in 2006 of bis ( diisopropylamino ) cyclopropenylidene by Bertrand 's group . In this compound , which is stable at room temperature , the carbene atom is connected to two carbon atoms , in a three @-@ member ring that retains the aromaticity and geometry of the cyclopropenylidene ring . This example demonstrated that the presence of heteroatoms next to the carbene is not necessary for stability , either .
= = Classes of stable carbenes = =
The following are examples of the classes of stable carbenes isolated to date :
= = = Imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes = = =
The first stable carbenes to be isolated were based on an imidazole ring , with the hydrogen in carbon 2 of the ring ( between the two nitrogen atoms ) removed , and other hydrogens replaced by various groups . These imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes are still the most stable and the most well studied and understood family of persistent carbenes .
A considerable range of imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes have been synthesised , including those in which the 1 @,@ 3 @-@ positions have been functionalised with alkyl , aryl , alkyloxy , alkylamino , alkylphosphino and even chiral substituents :
In particular , substitution of two chlorine atoms for the two hydrogens at ring positions 4 and 5 yielded the first air @-@ stable carbene . Its extra stability probably results from the electron @-@ withdrawing effect of the chlorine substituents , which reduce the electron density on the carbon atom bearing the lone pair , via induction through the sigma @-@ backbone .
Molecules containing two and even three imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene groups have also been synthesised .
Imidazole @-@ based carbenes are thermodynamically stable and generally have diagnostic 13C NMR chemical shift values between 210 – 230 ppm for the carbenic carbon . Typically , X @-@ ray structures of these molecules show N @-@ C @-@ N bond angles of 101 – 102 ° .
= = = Triazol @-@ 5 @-@ ylidenes = = =
Another family of persistent carbenes are based on the 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 4 @-@ triazole ring , with the unfilled orbitals in carbon 5 of this ring . The triazol @-@ 5 @-@ ylidenes pictured below were first prepared by Enders and co @-@ workers by vacuum pyrolysis through loss of methanol from 2 @-@ methoxytriazoles . Only a limited range of these molecules have been reported , with the triphenyl substituted molecule being commercially available .
Triazole @-@ based carbenes are thermodynamically stable and have diagnostic 13C NMR chemical shift values between 210 – 220 ppm for the carbenic carbon . The X @-@ ray structure of the triphenyl substituted carbene above shows an N @-@ C @-@ N bond angle of ca . 101 ° . The 5 @-@ methoxytriazole precursor to this carbene was made by the treatment of a triazolium salt with sodium methoxide , which attacks as a nucleophile . This may indicate that these carbenes are less aromatic than imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes , as the imidazolium precursors do not react with nucleophiles due to the resultant loss of aromaticity .
= = = Other diaminocarbenes = = =
Carbenes that formally derive from imidazole @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes by substitution of sulfur , oxygen , or other chalcogens for both α @-@ nitrogens are expected to be unstable , as they have the potential to dissociate into an alkyne ( R1C ≡ CR2 ) and a carbon dichalcogenide ( X1 = C = X2 ) . The two families above can be seen as special cases of a broader class of compounds which have a carbenic atom bridging two nitrogen atoms . A range of such diaminocarbenes have been prepared principally by Roger Alder 's research group . In some of these compounds , the N @-@ C @-@ N unit is a member of a 5 or 6 membered non @-@ aromatic ring , including a bicyclic example . In other examples , the adjacent nitrogens are connected only through the carbenic atom , and may or may not be part of separate rings .
Unlike the aromatic imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes or triazol @-@ 5 @-@ ylidenes , these carbenes appear not to be thermodynamically stable , as shown by the dimerisation of some unhindered cyclic and acyclic examples . Studies suggest that these carbenes dimerise via acid catalysed dimerisation ( as in the Wanzlick equilibrium ) .
Diaminocarbenes have diagnostic 13C NMR chemical shift values between 230 – 270 ppm for the carbenic atom . The X @-@ ray structure of dihydroimidazole @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene shows a N @-@ C @-@ N bond angle of ca . 106 ° , whilst the angle of the acyclic carbene is 121 ° , both greater than those seen for imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes .
= = = Heteroamino carbenes = = =
There exist several variants of the stable carbenes above where one of the nitrogen atoms adjacent to the carbene center ( the α nitrogens ) has been replaced by an alternative heteroatom , such as oxygen , sulfur , or phosphorus . :
In particular , the formal substitution of sulfur for one of the nitrogens in imidazole would yield the aromatic heterocyclic compound thiazole . A thiazole based carbene ( analogous to the carbene postulated by Breslow ) has been prepared and characterised by X @-@ ray crystallography . Other non @-@ aromatic aminocarbenes with O , S and P atoms adjacent ( i.e. alpha ) to the carbene centre have been prepared , e.g. thio- and oxy @-@ iminium based carbenes have been characterised by X @-@ ray crystallography .
Since oxygen and sulfur are divalent , steric protection of the carbenic centre is limited especially when the N @-@ C @-@ X unit is part of a ring . These acyclic carbenes have diagnostic 13C NMR chemical shift values between 250 – 300 ppm for the carbenic carbon , further downfield than any other types of stable carbene . X @-@ ray structures have shown N @-@ C @-@ X bond angles of ca . 104 ° and 109 ° respectively .
= = = Non @-@ amino carbenes = = =
The reaction of carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) with electron deficient acetylene derivatives is proposed to give transient 1 @,@ 3 @-@ dithiolium carbenes ( i.e. where X1
= X2 =
S ) , which then dimerise to give derivatives of tetrathiafulvene . Thus it is possible that the reverse of this process might be occurring in similar carbenes .
= = = Bertrand 's carbenes = = =
In Bertrand 's persistent carbenes , the unsaturated carbon is bonded to a phosphorus and a silicon . However , these compounds seem to exhibit some alkynic properties , and when published the exact carbenic nature of these red oils was in debate .
= = = Other nucleophilic carbenes = = =
One stable N @-@ heterocyclic carbene has a structure analogous to borazine with one boron atom replaced by a methylene group . This results in a planar 6 @-@ electron compound .
= = = Cyclopropenylidenes = = =
Another family of carbenes is based on a cyclopropenylidene core , a three @-@ carbon ring with a double bond between the two atoms adjacent to the carbenic one . This family is exemplified by bis ( diisopropylamino ) cyclopropenylidene .
= = = Triplet state carbenes = = =
In 2001 , Hideo Tomioka and his associates were able to produce a comparatively stable triplet carbene (
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bis ( 9 @-@ anthryl ) carbene , with a half @-@ life of 19 minutes ) , by taking advantage of resonance .
In 2006 a triplet carbene was reported with a half @-@ life of 40 minutes . This carbene is prepared by a photochemical decomposition of a diazomethane with expulsion of nitrogen gas at a wavelength of 300 nanometers in benzene .
Exposure to oxygen ( diradical ) converts this carbene to the corresponding benzophenone and the diphenylmethane compound is formed when it is trapped by 1 @,@ 4 @-@ cyclohexadiene . As with the other carbenes this species contains large bulky substituents , namely bromine and the trifluoromethyl groups , that shield the carbene and prevent or slow down the process of dimerisation to a 1 @,@ 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 2 @-@ tetra ( phenyl ) alkene .
Based on computer simulations , the distance of the divalent carbon atom to its neighbours is claimed to be 138 picometers with a bond angle of 158 @.@ 8 ° . The planes of the phenyl groups are almost at right angles to each other ( the dihedral angle being 85 @.@ 7 ° ) .
= = Mesoionic carbenes = =
Mesoionic carbenes ( MICs ) are similar to N @-@ heterocyclic carbenes ( NHCs ) except that canonical resonance structures with the carbene depicted cannot be drawn without adding additional charges . Mesoionic carbenes are also referred to as abnormal N @-@ heterocyclic carbenes ( aNHC ) or remote N @-@ heterocyclic carbenes ( rNHC ) . A variety of free carbenes can be isolated and are stable at room temperature . Other free carbenes are not stable and are susceptible to intermolecular decomposition pathways .
= = Chemical properties = =
= = = Basicity and nucleophilicity = = =
The imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes are strong bases , having a pKa of ca . 24 for the conjugate acid in dimethyl sulfoxide ( DMSO ) :
However , further work showed that diaminocarbenes will deprotonate the DMSO solvent , with the resulting anion reacting with the resulting amidinium salt .
Reaction of imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes with 1 @-@ bromohexane gave 90 % of the 2 @-@ substituted adduct , with only 10 % of the corresponding alkene , indicating that these molecules are also reasonably nucleophilic .
pKa values for the conjugate acids of several NHC families have been examined in aqueous solution. pKa values of triazolium ions lie in the range 16 @.@ 5 - 17 @.@ 8 , around 3 pKa units more acidic than related imidazolium ions .
= = = Dimerisation = = =
At one time , stable carbenes were thought to reversibly dimerise through the so @-@ called Wanzlick equilibrium . However , imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes and triazol @-@ 5 @-@ ylidenes are thermodynamically stable and do not dimerise , and have been stored in solution in the absence of water and air for years . This is presumably due to the aromatic nature of these carbenes , which is lost upon dimerisation . In fact imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes are so thermodynamically stable that only in highly constrained conditions are these carbenes forced to dimerise .
Chen and Taton made a doubly tethered diimidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene by deprotonating the respective diimidazolium salt . Only the deprotonation of the doubly tethered diimidazolium salt with the shorter methylene bridge ( -CH2- ) resulted in the dicarbene dimer :
If this dimer existed as a dicarbene , the electron lone pairs on the carbenic carbon would be forced into close proximity . Presumably the resulting repulsive electrostatic interactions would have a significant destabilising effect . To avoid this electronic interaction , the carbene units dimerise .
On the other hand , heteroamino carbenes ( e.g. R2N @-@ C : -OR or R2N @-@ C : -SR ) and non @-@ aromatic carbenes such as diaminocarbenes ( e.g. R2N @-@ C : -NR2 ) have been shown to dimerise , albeit quite slowly . This has been presumed to be due to the high barrier to singlet state dimerisation :
Diaminocarbenes do not truly dimerise , but rather form the dimer by reaction via formamidinium salts , a protonated precursor species . Accordingly , this reaction can be acid catalysed . This reaction occurs because unlike imidazolium based carbenes , there is no loss of aromaticity in protonation of the carbene .
Unlike the dimerisation of triplet state carbenes , these singlet state carbenes do not approach head to head ( " least motion " ) , but rather the carbene lone pair attacks the empty carbon p @-@ orbital ( " non @-@ least motion " ) . Carbene dimerisation can be catalyzed by both acids and metals .
= = = Reactivity = = =
The chemistry of stable carbenes has not been fully explored . However , Enders et al. have performed a range of organic reactions involving a triazol @-@ 5 @-@ ylidene . These reactions are outlined below and may be considered as a model for other carbenes .
These carbenes tend to behave in a nucleophilic fashion ( e and f ) , performing insertion reactions ( b ) , addition reactions ( c ) , [ 2 + 1 ] cycloadditions ( d , g and h ) , [ 4 + 1 ] cycloadditions ( a ) as well as simple deprotonations . The insertion reactions ( b ) probably proceed via deprotonation , resulting in the generation of a nucleophile ( − XR ) which can attack the generated salt giving the impression of a H @-@ X insertion .
The reported stable isothiazole carbene ( 2 ) derived from an isothiazolium perchlorate ( 1 ) was questioned , who were only able to isolate 2 @-@ imino @-@ 2H @-@ thiete ( 4 ) . The intermediate 3 was proposed through a rearrangement reaction . This carbene is no longer considered stable .
= = = Carbene complexation = = =
Imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes , triazol @-@ 5 @-@ ylidenes ( and less so , diaminocarbenes ) have been shown to co @-@ ordinate to a plethora of elements , from alkali metals , main group elements , transition metals and even lanthanides and actinides . A periodic table of elements gives some idea of the complexes which have been prepared , and in many cases these have been identified by single crystal X @-@ ray crystallography . Stable carbenes are believed to behave in a similar fashion to organophosphines in their co @-@ ordination properties to metals . These ligands are said to be good σ @-@ donors through the carbenic lone pair , but poor π @-@ acceptors due to internal ligand back @-@ donation from the nitrogen atoms adjacent to the carbene centre , and so are able to co @-@ ordinate to even relatively electron deficient metals . Enders and Hermann have shown that these carbenes are suitable replacements for phosphine ligands in several catalytic cycles . Whilst they have found that these ligands do not activate the metal catalyst as much as phosphine ligands they often result in more robust catalysts . Several catalytic systems have been looked into by Hermann and Enders , using catalysts containing imidazole and triazole carbene ligands , with moderate success . Grubbs has reported replacing a phosphine ligand ( PCy3 ) with an imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene in the olefin metathesis catalyst RuCl2 ( PCy3 ) 2CHPh , and noted increased ring closing metathesis as well as exhibiting " a remarkable air and water stability " . Molecules containing two and three carbene moieties have been prepared as potential bidentate and tridentate carbene ligands .
Legend
Carbene complex with element known
No carbene complex with element known
= = = Carbenes in organometallic chemistry & catalysis = = =
Carbenes can be stabilised as organometallic species . These transition metal carbene complexes fall into two categories :
Fischer carbenes in which carbenes are tethered to a metal and an electron @-@ withdrawing group ( usually a carbonyl ) ,
Schrock carbenes ; in which carbenes are tethered to a metal and an electron @-@ donating group . The reactions that such carbenes participate in are very different from those in which organic carbenes participate .
= = = Triplet state carbene chemistry = = =
Persistent triplet state carbenes are likely to have very similar reactivity as other non @-@ persistent triplet state carbenes .
= = Physical properties = =
Those carbenes that have been isolated to date tend to be colorless solids with low melting points . These carbenes tend to sublime at low temperatures under high vacuum .
One of the more useful physical properties is the diagnostic chemical shift of the carbenic carbon atom in the 13C @-@ NMR spectrum . Typically this peak is in the range between 200 and 300 ppm , where few other peaks appear in the 13C @-@ NMR spectrum . An example is shown on the left for a cyclic diaminocarbene which has a carbenic peak at 238 ppm .
Upon coordination to metal centers , the 13C carbene resonance usually shifts highfield , depending on the Lewis acidity of the complex fragment . Based on this observation , Huynh et al. developed a new methodology to determine ligand donor strengths by 13C NMR analysis of trans @-@ palladium ( II ) -carbene complexes . The use of a 13C @-@ labeled N @-@ heterocyclic carbene ligand also allows for the study of mixed carbene @-@ phosphine complexes , which undergo trans @-@ cis @-@ isomerization due to the trans effect .
= = Applications = =
NHCs are widely used as ancillary ligand in organometallic chemistry . One practical application is the ruthenium @-@ based Grubbs ' catalyst and NHC @-@ Palladium Complexes for cross @-@ coupling reactions . NHC @-@ metal complexes , specifically Ag ( I ) -NHC complexes have been widely tested for their biological applications .
= = Preparation methods = =
NHCs are often strongly basic ( the pKa value of the conjugate acid of an imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene was measured at ca . 24 ) and react with oxygen . Clearly these reactions are performed using air @-@ free techniques , avoiding compounds of even moderate acidity . Although imidazolium salts are stable to nucleophilic addition , other non @-@ aromatic salts are not ( i.e. formamidinium salts ) .
In these cases , strong unhindered nucleophiles are avoided whether they are generated in situ or are present as an impurity in other reagents ( e.g. , LiOH in BuLi ) .
Several approaches have been developed in order to prepare stable carbenes , these are outlined below .
= = = Deprotonation = = =
Deprotonation of carbene precursor salts with strong bases has proved a reliable route to almost all stable carbenes :
Imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes and dihydroimidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes , e.g. Imes , have been prepared by the deprotonation of the respective imidazolium and dihydroimidazolium salts . The acyclic carbenes and the tetrahydropyrimidinyl based carbenes were prepared by deprotonation using strong homogeneous bases .
Several bases and reaction conditions have been employed with varying success . The degree of success has been principally dependent on the nature of the precursor being deprotonated . The major drawback with this method of preparation is the problem of isolation of the free carbene from the metals ions used in their preparation .
= = = = Metal hydride bases = = = =
One might believe that sodium or potassium hydride would be the ideal base for deprotonating these precursor salts . The hydride should react irreversibly with the loss of hydrogen to give the desired carbene , with the inorganic by @-@ products and excess hydride being removed by filtration . In practice this reaction is often too slow , requiring the addition of DMSO or t @-@ BuOH . These reagents generate soluble catalysts , which increase the rate of reaction of this heterogeneous system , via the generation of tert @-@ butoxide or dimsyl anion . However , these catalysts have proved ineffective for the preparation of non @-@ imidazolium adducts as they tend to act as nucleophiles towards the precursor salts and in so doing are destroyed . The presence of hydroxide ions as an impurity in the metal hydride could also destroy non @-@ aromatic salts .
Deprotonation with sodium or potassium hydride in a mixture of liquid ammonia / THF at -40 ° C has been reported for imidazole @-@ based carbenes . Arduengo and co @-@ workers managed to prepare a dihydroimidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene using NaH . However , this method has not been applied to the preparation of diaminocarbenes . In some cases , potassium tert @-@ butoxide can be employed without the addition of a metal hydride .
= = = = Alkyllithiums = = = =
The use of alkyllithiums as strong bases has not been extensively studied , and have been unreliable for deprotonation of precursor salts . With non @-@ aromatic salts , n @-@ BuLi and PhLi can act as nucleophiles whilst t @-@ BuLi can on occasion act as a source of hydride , reducing the salt with the generation of isobutene :
= = = = Amides bases = = = =
Lithium amides like the diisopropylamide ( LDA ) and the ( tetramethylpiperidide ( LiTMP ) ) generally work well for the deprotonation of all types of salts , providing that not too much LiOH is present in the n @-@ butyllithium used to make the lithium amide . Titration of lithium amide can be used to determine the amount of hydroxide in solution . The deprotonation of precursor salts with metal hexamethyldisilazides works very cleanly for the deprotonation of all types of salts , except for unhindered formamidinium salts , where this base can act as a nucleophile to give a triaminomethane adduct .
= = = Metal @-@ free carbene preparation = = =
The preparation of stable carbenes free from metal cations has been keenly sought to allow further study of the carbene species in isolation from these metals . Separating a carbene from a carbene @-@ metal complex can be problematic due to the stability of the complex . Accordingly , it is preferable to make the carbene free from these metals in the first place . Indeed , some metal ions , rather than stabilising the carbene , have been implicated in the catalytic dimerisation of unhindered examples .
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80 , and the highest rates of death and hospitalization due to TBI are in people over age 65 . The incidence of fall @-@ related TBI in First @-@ World countries is increasing as the population ages ; thus the median age of people with head injuries has increased .
Regardless of age , TBI rates are higher in males . Men suffer twice as many TBIs as women do and have a fourfold risk of fatal head injury , and males account for two thirds of childhood and adolescent head trauma . However , when matched for severity of injury , women appear to fare more poorly than men .
Socioeconomic status also appears to affect TBI rates ; people with lower levels of education and employment and lower socioeconomic status are at greater risk .
= = History = =
Head injury is present in ancient myths that may date back before recorded history . Skulls found in battleground graves with holes drilled over fracture lines suggest that trepanation may have been used to treat TBI in ancient times . Ancient Mesopotamians knew of head injury and some of its effects , including seizures , paralysis , and loss of sight , hearing or speech . The Edwin Smith Papyrus , written around 1650 – 1550 BC , describes various head injuries and symptoms and classifies them based on their presentation and tractability . Ancient Greek physicians including Hippocrates understood the brain to be the center of thought , probably due to their experience with head trauma .
Medieval and Renaissance surgeons continued the practice of trepanation for head injury . In the Middle Ages , physicians further described head injury symptoms and the term concussion became more widespread . Concussion symptoms were first described systematically in the 16th century by Berengario da Carpi .
It was first suggested in the 18th century that intracranial pressure rather than skull damage was the cause of pathology after TBI . This hypothesis was confirmed around the end of the 19th century , and opening the skull to relieve pressure was then proposed as a treatment .
In the 19th century it was noted that TBI is related to the development of psychosis . At that time a debate arose around whether post @-@ concussion syndrome was due to a disturbance of the brain tissue or psychological factors . The debate continues today .
Perhaps the first reported case of personality change after brain injury is that of Phineas Gage , who survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven through his head , destroying one or both of his frontal lobes ; numerous cases of personality change after brain injury have been reported since .
The 20th century saw the advancement of technologies that improved treatment and diagnosis such as the development of imaging tools including CT and MRI , and , in the 21st century , diffusion tensor imaging ( DTI ) . The introduction of intracranial pressure monitoring in the 1950s has been credited with beginning the " modern era " of head injury . Until the 20th century , the mortality rate of TBI was high and rehabilitation was uncommon ; improvements in care made during World War I reduced the death rate and made rehabilitation possible . Facilities dedicated to TBI rehabilitation were probably first established during World War I. Explosives used in World War I caused many blast injuries ; the large number of TBIs that resulted allowed researchers to learn about localization of brain functions . Blast @-@ related injuries are now common problems in returning veterans from Iraq & Afghanistan ; research shows that the symptoms of such TBIs are largely the same as those of TBIs involving a physical blow to the head .
In the 1970s , awareness of TBI as a public health problem grew , and a great deal of progress has been made since then in brain trauma research , such as the discovery of primary and secondary brain injury . The 1990s saw the development and dissemination of standardized guidelines for treatment of TBI , with protocols for a range of issues such as drugs and management of intracranial pressure . Research since the early 1990s has improved TBI survival ; that decade was known as the " Decade of the Brain " for advances made in brain research .
= = Research = =
= = = Medications = = =
Topics of research for improving outcome after TBI have included investigations into mannitol , dexamethasone , progesterone , xenon , barbiturates , magnesium , calcium channel blockers , PPAR @-@ γ agonists , curcuminoids , ethanol , NMDA antagonists , caffeine , hypothermia , and hyperbaric oxygen .
Despite this volume of research , no medication is approved to halt the progression of the initial injury to secondary injury , but the variety of pathological events presents opportunities to find treatments that interfere with the damage processes . Neuroprotection , methods to halt or mitigate secondary injury , have been the subject of great interest for their ability to limit the damage that follows TBI . However , clinical trials to test agents that could halt these cellular mechanisms have met largely with failure . For example , interest existed in hypothermia , cooling the injured brain to limit TBI damage , but it has not been sufficiently studied as of 2014 to see if it is useful or not . In addition , drugs such as NMDA receptor antagonists to halt neurochemical cascades such as excitotoxicity showed promise in animal trials but failed in clinical trials . These failures could be due to factors including faults in the trials ' design or in the insufficiency of a single agent to prevent the array of injury processes involved in secondary injury .
= = = Procedures = = =
In addition to traditional imaging modalities , there are several devices that help to monitor brain injury and facilitate research . Microdialysis allows ongoing sampling of extracellular fluid for analysis of metabolites that might indicate ischemia or brain metabolism , such as glucose , glycerol , and glutamate . Intraparenchymal brain tissue oxygen monitoring systems ( either Licox or Neurovent @-@ PTO ) are used routinely in neurointensive care in the US . A non invasive model called CerOx is in development .
Research is also planned to clarify factors correlated to outcome in TBI and to determine in which cases it is best to perform CT scans and surgical procedures .
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy ( HBO ) has been evaluated as an adjunctive treatment following TBI , concluding a Cochrane review stating that its use could not be justified . HBO for TBI has remained controversial as studies have looked for improvement mechanisms , and further evidence shows that it may have potential as a treatment .
= = = Psychological = = =
As of 2010 , the use of predictive visual tracking measurement to identify mild traumatic brain injury was being studied . In visual tracking tests , a head @-@ mounted display unit with eye @-@ tracking capability shows an object moving in a regular pattern . People without brain injury are able to track the moving object with smooth pursuit eye movements and correct trajectory . The test requires both attention and working memory which are difficult functions for people with mild traumatic brain injury . The question being studied , is whether results for people with brain injury will show visual @-@ tracking gaze errors relative to the moving target .
= Typhoon Maemi =
Typhoon Maemi , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Pogi , was the most powerful typhoon to strike South Korea since record @-@ keeping began in the country in 1904 . Maemi formed on September 4 , 2003 from a disturbance in a monsoon trough in the western Pacific Ocean . It slowly intensified into Tropical Storm Maemi while moving northwestward , becoming a typhoon on September 8 . That day , favorable conditions facilitated more rapid strengthening ; the storm developed a well @-@ defined eye and reached peak maximum sustained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . While near peak intensity , Maemi decelerated and began turning to the north @-@ northeast . Soon after , the eyewall passed over the Japanese island of Miyako @-@ jima on September 10 and produced an air pressure reading of 912 mbar ( 26 @.@ 9 inHg ) , the fourth @-@ lowest recorded in the nation . Due to warm waters , Maemi was able to maintain much of its intensity before it made landfall just west of Busan , South Korea , on September 12 . The typhoon became extratropical in the Sea of Japan the next day , although its remnants persisted for several days , lashing northern Japan with strong winds .
The typhoon first affected the Ryukyu Islands of Japan . On Miyako @-@ jima , strong winds damaged 104 buildings and left 95 % of residents without power . Maemi caused heavy rainfall there , with rates of 58 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 30 in ) in an hour and 402 @.@ 5 mm ( 15 @.@ 85 in ) in 24 hours , the latter setting a record . One person died on Miyako @-@ jima after being struck by airborne debris . Elsewhere in Japan , the storm caused flights to be canceled , and rainfall @-@ induced landslides blocked roads . There were two other deaths in Japan , and damage totaled ¥ 11 @.@ 3 billion yen ( JPY , $ 96 million USD ) . Damage was heaviest in South Korea , particularly where it moved ashore . On Jeju Island , Maemi produced a peak wind gust of 216 km / h ( 134 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 inHg ) , both setting records for the country ; the pressure reading broke the longstanding lowest pressure set by Typhoon Sarah in 1959 . Winds in Busan near the landfall location reached 154 km / h ( 96 mph ) , the second @-@ highest on record . The port there sustained heavy damage , restricting exports in the months following the storm . Nationwide , the high winds destroyed about 5 @,@ 000 houses and damaged 13 @,@ 000 homes and businesses , leaving 25 @,@ 000 people homeless . About 1 @.@ 47 million households lost power , and widespread crop damage occurred , resulting in the poorest rice harvest in 23 years . Across South Korea , Maemi killed 117 people , and overall damage totaled ₩ 5 @.@ 52 trillion won ( KRW , $ 4 @.@ 8 billion USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early September 2003 , a monsoon trough spawned a tropical disturbance near Guam . The system consisted of a disorganized area of convection , or thunderstorms , in an area of moderate wind shear . By September 4 , the convection was becoming better organized around a weak low @-@ level circulation . Despite the wind shear , the system continued to develop , becoming a tropical depression north of Chuuk State . At 0200 UTC on September 5 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert , and later that day initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 15W just west of Guam . By that time , the convection had increased over the center . For the first week of its existence , the cyclone tracked generally northwestward , steered by a subtropical ridge to the north .
Early on September 6 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and named it Maemi . With more favorable conditions , including lesser wind shear and enhanced outflow , the storm continued to intensify . The JMA upgraded Maemi to a severe tropical storm on September 7 and to typhoon status – winds of over 119 km / h ( 74 mph ) – the next day . The JTWC had upgraded Maemi to typhoon status on September 7 after an eye feature appeared on satellite imagery . Also around that time , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) began issuing advisories on the storm , giving it the local name " Pogi " , although the typhoon would remain away from the country . On September 8 , Maemi began undergoing rapid deepening due to enhanced outflow , aided by the flow of an approaching shortwave trough . At 1200 UTC on September 9 , the JTWC estimated 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) and designated Maemi as a super typhoon . The next day , the same agency estimated peak winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) and gusts to 335 km / h ( 205 mph ) , the equivalent of a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . At 1200 UTC on September 10 , the JMA estimated peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 910 mbar ( 27 inHg ) while the storm was 155 km ( 100 mi ) southeast of the Japanese island of Miyako @-@ jima . At peak intensity , Maemi was a small typhoon , with gale @-@ force winds extending only 240 km ( 150 mi ) from the well @-@ defined eye .
Around the time of peak intensity , Maemi was slowing its forward motion and began turning to the north , after the eastward @-@ moving trough weakened the ridge . At 1900 UTC on September 10 , the typhoon passed within 10 km ( 7 mi ) of Miyako @-@ jima . While the eye was passing over the island , the pressure fell to 912 mbar ( 26 @.@ 9 inHg ) and winds reached 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) . Maemi weakened slightly as it continued north , passing about 220 km ( 140 mi ) west of Okinawa on September 11 while undergoing an eyewall replacement cycle . Increasingly hostile conditions from the approaching trough caused further weakening , and the JTWC estimated the typhoon passed just east of Jeju Island with 1 @-@ minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) at 0600 UTC on September 12 . Shortly after , Maemi made landfall just west of Busan , South Korea , with the JMA estimating 10 @-@ minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , and JTWC estimating 1 @-@ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Risk Management Solutions estimated landfall winds of 190 km / h ( 120 mph ) , which surpassed Typhoon Sarah in 1959 . This made Maemi the strongest typhoon to strike the country since the Korea Meteorological Administration began keeping records in 1904 . The storm was able to maintain much of its intensity due to warm sea surface temperatures and its fast forward motion . Maemi rapidly weakened to tropical storm status while moving over land , and was undergoing extratropical transition by the time it entered the Sea of Japan . Increasing wind shear removed the convection from the increasingly ill @-@ defined circulation center . The JTWC issued its final warning on Maemi early on September 13 , declaring the storm extratropical . The JMA followed suit later that day , tracking Maemi over northern Japan and declaring it extratropical over the Sea of Okhotsk . The remnants of Maemi persisted for several more days , until the JMA stopped tracking it on September 16 southwest of the Kamchatka Peninsula . According to the Mariners Weather Log , the remnants of Maemi continued to the east , eventually striking the coast of Alaska on September 21 .
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of Loathing ( abbreviated KoL ) is a browser @-@ based multiplayer role @-@ playing game designed and operated by Asymmetric Publications , including creator Zack " Jick " Johnson and writer Josh " Mr Skullhead " Nite . The game was released in 2003 . Because content is added frequently , the game is considered unfinished and officially remains in open beta .
It uses hand @-@ drawn stick figure graphics and writing characterized by surreal humor , word play , parody and references to popular culture . In KoL , a player 's character fights monsters for experience , and acquiring meat ( the game 's currency ) , and / or items , through a turn @-@ based system . Players may also interact with each other through player versus player competition , participate in the in @-@ game economy by trading goods and services , organize their characters into clans , work together to complete clan dungeons , and speak to each other in many different chat channels .
The game is also particularly notable for managing to be financially successful purely from donations and the purchase of merchandise rather than from advertising or subscription fees , which are used by many online games . In 2008 , the game had between 100 @,@ 000 and 150 @,@ 000 regular players . These players form an active community which frequently organizes fan meet @-@ ups and runs an internet radio station . The game has been generally well received by critics . In 2012 , Mr. Card Game , a tabletop game based on Kingdom of Loathing , was launched on Kickstarter .
= = Gameplay and features = =
Gameplay involves fighting monsters , completing quests , gaining skills and stats , and accumulating items and meat .
In KoL 's turn @-@ based gameplay , a player 's character is supplied with a number of adventures each day , at a base of 40 , although this can be increased . The game day resets at a time called " rollover " . Characters are allotted forty adventures every rollover , though they can increase that number with various equipment and items . Additional adventures can be acquired by consuming food and booze . However , only a limited amount of each can be consumed each day , and drinking too much booze puts the character into a drunken stupor for the remainder of the day . During rollover , drunkenness and fullness levels are reset , and minor amounts of health points and magic points are restored . Although a character can accumulate a large number of adventures , the number is reduced to 200 at rollover .
Most actions in the game use up adventures , including crafting items and exploring the game world ( adventuring ) . When exploring , players experience combat encounters , in which they fight monsters , as well as non @-@ combat encounters . Combat is turn @-@ based , meaning that the player and the monster take turns attacking one another using weapons , skills and items . Players who successfully defeat a monster receive experience points , pieces of meat ( the game 's currency ) , and various items . Non @-@ combat encounters simply present the reader with a text description of an event , occasionally allowing the player to choose how to respond to that event .
After gaining enough experience points , players will gain levels , allowing them to access new areas and quests . Characters can combine items by using " meat paste " ( a substance analogous to glue ) , and can also cook food , mix cocktails and smith weapons and armor . Characters may also earn trophies or tattoos for various in @-@ game achievements . Puzzle @-@ solving is an important part of the game , with the solutions often involving a certain item combination or the completion of tasks in different zones .
= = = Player interaction = = =
While Kingdom of Loathing 's player versus environment content is largely single @-@ player , some features allow multiplayer interaction .
Player versus player ( PvP ) combat is voluntary , features a randomized selection of non @-@ interactive minigames , and is subdivided into seasons . The winner of the PvP battle can take fame or items from the loser .
The game features an integrated chat system which is available only after completing a basic test of English grammar and spelling . There are many chat channels , including a channel in which all chat must follow the syllabic conventions of English haiku . Most of the chat channels are moderated ; those who violate the chat rules are banned . Players can also send messages and gift packages to each other in @-@ game , and the official Kingdom of Loathing forums are another active venue for discussion among players .
Upon reaching level 3 , characters may join a clan , a band of cooperating characters . A clan has a clan hall which can be furnished with beneficial equipment as well as a clan stash for sharing useful items . Clan members can chat with each other in a private chat channel . In 2008 , a multiplayer dungeon was added which allows clan members to raid cooperatively in Hobopolis , the underground city of hobos . Eurogamer likened Hobopolis to World of Warcraft instances . Additional clan dungeons have since been added , including the Slimetube , Dreadsylvania , and the limited @-@ time Haunted Sorority House .
Players can buy a store in The Mall of Loathing and sell their character 's items to other players . Direct trading between two players is also possible , and in the trade chat channel users can auction items and advertise shops . This functionality has created a complex in @-@ game economy which author Ted Friedman , in his book Electric dreams : computers in American culture , described as " vibrant " . The Kingdom of Loathing economy was the subject of an academic study , Economics in the Kingdom of Loathing : Analysis of Virtual Market Data in 2011 .
= = = Character classes = = =
Players choose from six classes when they create a character . Each class has various items that characters obtain by completing class @-@ specific quests . Characters also receive non @-@ tradable class @-@ dependent items as a reward for completing harder ascensions . The classes can be split into groups based on the primary character attribute associated with them .
Muscle classes : The two muscle classes are Seal Clubber and Turtle Tamer . Muscle classes depend on strength and fighting ability . A character 's Max HP is determined by his / her muscle , and Muscle classes gain an innate + 50 % boost to their Max HP.-
Mysticality classes : The mysticality classes are Pastamancer and Sauceror . Gameplay for mysticality classes is focused on spellcasting and the use of magic . A character 's Max MP is determined by his / her Mysticality , and Mysticality classes gain an innate + 50 % to their Max MP .
Moxie classes : The moxie classes , Disco Bandit and Accordion Thief , use charm and dexterity to achieve success .
= = = Familiars = = =
Familiars are creatures that can accompany players in combat , performing ( usually ) helpful actions . Familiars are often instrumental in the completion of quests . Familiars possess many abilities ; for example , a Sabre @-@ Toothed Lime attacks monsters , a Leprechaun grants extra meat after combat , and a Hovering Sombrero increases stat gains from combat . Some familiars , such as the Ninja Pirate Zombie Robot , are very difficult to acquire .
= = = Ascension = = =
Ascension is a feature that allows characters to start the game over and play through it again from the beginning , similar to a New Game Plus feature . This feature becomes available after the game 's final quest is completed . Players who ascend have their character 's experience levels reset to one , but they retain their currency and items . Ascending players can also choose to make their ascension more difficult by taking on various restrictions , such as not being able to eat or drink , in exchange for special rewards . In addition , the game features a leaderboard system which allows players to see one another 's ascension speeds and compete for the fastest ascensions .
= = Plot and setting = =
The player takes on the role of an adventurer who is tasked with solving problems and killing monsters in a fantasy @-@ based kingdom . The game is humorous in nature , and most quests , battles and individual item descriptions include jokes , witticisms , or references to popular culture . Many quests parody the tropes found in other role @-@ playing games .
The premise is that the Naughty Sorceress has captured and " imprismed " ( imprisoned in a prism ) the Kingdom 's ruler , King Ralph XI . The ultimate objective of the game is to defeat the Naughty Sorceress and free King Ralph . In King Ralph 's absence , most of the power in the Kingdom of Loathing is held by the Council of Loathing , which gives quests to characters as they increase in level , with the final quest given when the character has reached level 13 and finished the other quests . Players can also unlock quests from other sources , some of which are available only after ascending .
= = Development = =
Zack Johnson , the game 's creator , developed several games before Kingdom of Loathing but did not feel that they were good enough to release online . Deciding that he was taking the games he created too seriously , Johnson then set himself the challenge of creating one within a week and publishing the result online . The result was more of a joke than a game , and the initial content including classes and even the name of the game were stream of consciousness . The game was released in early 2003 , and Johnson soon invited his childhood friend Josh Nite to contribute content as a writer and designer . Within a year , 300 @,@ 000 player accounts had been created , far exceeding Johnson and Nite 's expectations ; Johnson has referred to the game 's success as " a never ending series of astonishments " . In 2008 , the game had between 100 @,@ 000 and 150 @,@ 000 regular players .
In the game 's early days , Johnson would work on the game during breaks while at work , but eighteen months or so after launch , the game was bringing in enough money for Johnson to quit his day job as a programmer and develop the game full @-@ time . He then began to pay Nite for his work and after approximately two years hired two more developers . There are currently eight full @-@ time employees working on Kingdom of Loathing , as well as three other employees who are working on a separate game . The game 's creative process is fluid and loosely structured . According to Johnson , " At this point , I provide the overall direction . I do about a quarter of the writing , a quarter of the coding , and almost all of the artwork . " The bulk of the writing is done by Nite , who also contributes design ideas , while two other developers , known in the game as Riff and HotStuff , work on writing , design , and coding .
According to Nite , the game 's writing style owes itself to a humorous email exchange between himself and Johnson that began when the two separated after high school . These emails " helped us develop the shared comedic voice that KoL 's written in " . The game 's developers cite text @-@ based games such as Zork and Legend of the Red Dragon as creative influences , and Nite has compared the game to the Choose Your Own Adventure series of children 's books .
The game has been in open beta since its initial release , and is continuously being worked on . New content is released weekly or monthly , and there is also unique holiday @-@ themed content every Christmas , known as Crimbo . Occasionally , the developers stage world events such as the Gray Plague , which was similar to the Corrupted Blood incident in World of Warcraft .
In November 2014 , Nite was laid off from Asymmetric Publications .
= = Business model = =
Kingdom of Loathing is advertising @-@ free and does not charge subscription fees .
Maintenance and development of the game is supported primarily through donations and players who donate US $ 10 to the game receive a powerful item known as a Mr. Accessory . Mr. Accessories can be equipped to give stat boosts or spent in the " Mr. Store " to buy powerful items ( including special monthly items ) . Mr. Accessories and Mr. Store items may be traded freely between players . According to an interview with Zack Johnson from 2010 , Johnson originally established the Mr. Accessory revenue model as " kind of an afterthought " , but it became lucrative enough to allow him to work on the game full @-@ time and eventually to hire several permanent employees .
= = Community = =
Kingdom of Loathing has been praised for its welcoming and active player community . One of the most unusual aspects of the community is the large number of female players : according to Johnson , approximately 40 % of players are female . Fans often gather at both official conventions , run by Asymmetric , and unofficial player @-@ organized meet @-@ ups , including the annual KoLumbus event . Players support the game by writing scripts to perform various in @-@ game functions , using Greasemonkey , Java , Perl , and Lua , and have also developed a player @-@ run wiki which offers puzzle solutions and walkthroughs . Longtime player and nerdcore rapper MC Frontalot is active in the community and included a Kingdom of Loathing @-@ themed song on his 2010 album Zero Day .
Brett Bixler , founder of the Educational Gaming Commons at Pennsylvania State University , has hypothesized that the Kingdom of Loathing community is successful because it accounts for Richard Bartle 's model of player personality types in massively multiplayer online roleplaying games , creating a balanced gameplay system that appeals to a wide variety of players . Researcher Martin Oliver addressed similar issues in a 2009 study of the Kingdom of Loathing player community , " Playing Roles in the MMORPG Kingdom of Loathing " .
A Web @-@ based SHOUTcast radio station , Radio KoL , is the " official unofficial " radio station of KoL . It is a 24 / 7 DJ @-@ hosted station , with volunteer DJs drawn from the KoL user base . Twice weekly , development team members host shows on Radio KoL in which they discuss the state of the game and answer questions from players .
= = Reception = =
Critical response for Kingdom of Loathing has been generally positive , with consistent praise for the game 's humor and surrealism . The gameplay and content have been praised as " well designed " and having a " huge amount of content " . Matt Gallant of Gizmodo said that the game is " actually very full @-@ featured " with " a lot of content " , and according to Worlds in Motion , " Kingdom of Loathing isn 't just a great game , but a really unique and interesting MMO . " Jay Is Games called it " a ' must play ' game for RPG fans who want something different " . Gamezebo criticized the interface as well , calling it " clunky " , and several reviewers expressed concern that the game might be confusing to new players .
= Aberdaron =
Aberdaron is a community and former fishing village at the western tip of the Llŷn Peninsula ( Welsh : Penrhyn Llŷn ) in the Welsh county of Gwynedd . It lies 14 @.@ 8 miles ( 23 @.@ 8 km ) west of Pwllheli and 33 @.@ 5 miles ( 53 @.@ 9 km ) south west of Caernarfon , and has a population of 965 . It is sometimes referred to as the " Land 's End of Wales " , or in Welsh Pendraw 'r Byd ( roughly " far end of the world " ) . The community includes Bardsey Island ( Welsh : Ynys Enlli ) , the coastal area around Porthor , and the villages of Anelog , Llanfaelrhys , Penycaerau , Rhoshirwaun , Rhydlios , Uwchmynydd and Y Rhiw .
Y Rhiw and Llanfaelrhys have long been linked by sharing rectors and by their close proximity , but were originally ecclesiastical parishes in themselves . The parish of Bodferin / Bodverin was assimilated in the 19th century . The village was the last rest stop for pilgrims heading to Bardsey Island ( Ynys Enlli ) , the legendary " island of 20 @,@ 000 saints " . In the 18th and 19th centuries it developed as a shipbuilding centre and port . The mining and quarrying industries became major employers , and limestone , lead , jasper and manganese ( " Mango " ) were exported . There are the ruins of an old pier running out to sea at Porth Simdde , which is the local name for the west end of Aberdaron Beach . After the Second World War the mining industry collapsed , and Aberdaron gradually developed into a holiday resort . The beach was awarded a Seaside Award in 2008 .
The coastal waters are part of Pen Llŷn a 'r Sarnau Special Area of Conservation ( Welsh : Ardal Cadwraeth Arbennig Pen Llŷn a 'r Sarnau ) , one of the largest marine designated sites in the United Kingdom . The coast itself forms part of the Aberdaron Coast and Bardsey Island Special Protection Area ( Welsh : Ardal Gwarchodaeth Arbennig Glannau Aberdaron ac Ynys Enlli ) , and was designated a Heritage Coast in 1974 . In 1956 the area was included in Llŷn Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( Welsh : Ardal o Harddwch Naturiol Eithriadol Llŷn ) . Conservation Areas have been created in Aberdaron , Bardsey Island and Y Rhiw ; and the area has been designated a Landscape of Historic Interest .
= = Etymology = =
Aberdaron means " Mouth of the Daron River " , a reference to the Afon Daron ( English : River Daron ) which flows into Bae Aberdaron ( English : Aberdaron Bay ) in the village .
= = History = =
The area around Aberdaron has been inhabited by people for millennia . Evidence from the Iron Age hillfort at Castell Odo , on Mynydd Ystum , shows that some phases of its construction began unusually early , in the late Bronze Age , between 2850 and 2650 years before present ( BP ) . The construction was wholly defensive , but in later phases defence appears to have been less important , and in the last phase the fort 's ramparts were deliberately flattened , suggesting there was no longer a need for defence . It appears that Aberdaron became a peaceful farming community . Ptolemy calls the Llŷn Peninsula " Ganganorum Promontorium " ( English : Peninsula of the Gangani ) ; the Gangani were a tribe of Irish Celts , and it is thought there may have been strong ties with Leinster .
The church at Aberdaron had the ancient privilege of sanctuary . In 1094 Gruffudd ap Cynan , the exiled King of Gwynedd , sought refuge in the church while attempting to recapture his throne ; he escaped in the monastic community 's boat to Ireland . He regained his territories in 1101 , and in 1115 Gruffydd ap Rhys , the exiled prince of Deheubarth , took refuge at Aberdaron to escape capture by Gwynedd 's ruler . Henry I of England had invaded Gwynedd the previous year , and faced by an overwhelming force , Gruffudd ap Cynan had been forced to pay homage and a substantial fine to Henry . The King of Gwynedd , seeking to give up the exiled prince to Henry , ordered that the fugitive prince be dragged from the church by force , but his soldiers were beaten back by the local clergy ; Gruffydd ap Rhys escaped under cover of night and fled south to join up with his supporters in Ystrad Tywi .
Following the conquest of Gwynedd , in 1284 , Edward I set about touring his new territories . He visited the castles at Conwy and Caernarfon . Court was held at Nefyn , at which his new subjects were expected to demonstrate their loyalty ; and he visited Aberdaron on his way to Bardsey Abbey .
The medieval townships of Aberdaron were Isseley ( Bugelis , Rhedynfra , Dwyros , Anhegraig , Cyllyfelin , Gwthrian , Deuglawdd and Bodernabdwy ) , Uwchseley ( Anelog , Pwlldefaid , Llanllawen , Ystohelig , Bodermid , Trecornen ) , Ultradaron ( Penrhyn , Cadlan , Ysgo , Llanllawen ) , and Bodrydd ( Penycaerau , Bodrydd , Bodwyddog ) . These locatives predate the idea of the modern ecclesiastical parish . Some were or became hamlets in themselves , whereas others have subsequently been divided - for example the modern Bodrydd Farm is only a part of the medieval township .
After the English Civil War , when the Parliamentarians under Oliver Cromwell introduced a strongly Protestant regime , Catholicism remained the dominant religion in the area . Catholics , who had largely supported the Royalist side , were often considered to be traitors and efforts were made to eradicate the religion . The persecution even extended to Aberdaron , and in 1657 , Gwen Griffiths of Y Rhiw was summoned to the Quarter Sessions as a " papist " .
Agricultural improvement and the Industrial Revolution came to Aberdaron in the 19th century . The Inclosure ( Consolidation ) Act 1801 was intended to make it easier for landlords to enclose and improve common land , introduce increased efficiency , bring more land under the plough , and reduce the high prices of agricultural production . Rhoshirwaun Common , following strong opposition , was enclosed in 1814 ; while the process was not completed in Aberdaron , Llanfaelrhys and Y Rhiw until 1861 . On the industrial front , mining developed as a major source of employment , especially at Y Rhiw , where manganese was discovered in 1827 .
During the Second World War , Y Rhiw played a vital role in preparations for the Normandy landings . A team of electronic engineers set up an experimental ultra high frequency radio station , from where they were able to make a direct link to stations in Fishguard ( Welsh : Abergwaun ) and Llandudno . The system employed a frequency that the German forces were unable to either monitor or jam , and was used in the 1944 landings .
= = Governance = =
Aberdaron , Bardsey Island , Bodferin , Llanfaelrhys and Y Rhiw were civil parishes in the commote of Cymydmaen within Cantref Llŷn , in Caernarfonshire . Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , parishes were grouped into " unions " : Pwllheli Poor Law Union was created in 1837 . Under the Public Health Act 1848 the area of the poor law union became Pwllheli Rural Sanitary District , which from 1889 formed a second tier of local government under Caernarfonshire County Council . Y Rhiw was absorbed into the smaller Llanfaelrhys in 1886 ; and under the Local Government Act 1894 the four remaining parishes became part of Llŷn Rural District ( Welsh : Dosbarth Gwledig Llŷn ) . Bodferin , Llanfaelrhys , and parts of Bryncroes and Llangwnnadl , were amalgamated into Aberdaron in 1934 . Llŷn Rural District was abolished in 1974 , and Bardsey Island was absorbed into Aberdaron to form a community within Dwyfor District in the new county of Gwynedd ; Dwyfor was abolished as a local authority area when Gwynedd became a unitary authority in 1996 .
The community now forms an electoral division of Gwynedd Council , electing one councillor ; William Gareth Roberts of Plaid Cymru was re @-@ elected in 2008 . Aberdaron Community Council has 12 elected members , who represent three wards : Aberdaron De ( English : Aberdaron South ) , Aberdaron Dwyrain ( English : Aberdaron East ) and Aberdaron Gogledd ( English : Aberdaron North ) . Ten Independent councillors and one from Plaid Cymru were elected unopposed in the 2008 election .
From 1950 , Aberdaron was part of Caernarfon parliamentary constituency . In 2010 , the community was transferred to Dwyfor Meirionnydd constituency , represented by Elfyn Llwyd of Plaid Cymru . In the National Assembly for Wales it has , since 2007 , formed part of Dwyfor Meirionnydd assembly constituency , represented by Dafydd Elis @-@ Thomas , also of Plaid Cymru , who until 2011 was the Presiding Officer of the assembly . The constituency forms part of the electoral region of Mid and West Wales .
= = Geography = =
Aberdaron stands on the shore of Bae Aberdaron ( English : Aberdaron Bay ) in a small valley at the confluence of the Afon Daron and Afon Cyll @-@ y @-@ Felin , between the headlands of Uwchmynydd to the west , and Trwyn y Penrhyn to the east . At the mouth of the bay stand two islands , Ynys Gwylan @-@ Fawr and Ynys Gwylan @-@ Fach , which together are known as Ynysoedd Gwylanod ( English : Seagull Islands ) . Gwylan @-@ Fawr reaches 108 feet ( 33 metres ) in height . The Llŷn Peninsula is a marine eroded platform , an extension of the Snowdonia ( Welsh : Eryri ) massif , with a complex geology including Precambrian rocks . The coastline is rocky , with crags , screes and low cliffs ; heather covered hills are separated by valleys occupied by pastures .
To the east , Mynydd Rhiw , Mynydd y Graig and Mynydd Penarfynydd form a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long series of hog @-@ back ridges of igneous rock that reaches the sea at Trwyn Talfarach . Above 800 feet ( 240 m ) the ridges are topped by hard gabbro . At its northern end Mynydd Rhiw rises to 997 feet ( 304 m ) and is a Marilyn . The outcrop of Clip y Gylfinhir ( English : Curlew 's Crag ) looming above the village of Y Rhiw . Mynydd Penarfynydd is one of the best exposures of intrusive , layered , igneous rock in the British Isles .
East of Y Rhiw is an extensive low @-@ lying plateau between 65 feet ( 20 m ) and 100 feet ( 30 m ) above sea level . The coastal rock is softer here , and the sea has been free to erode the rock and boulder clay to form sand , resulting in the spacious beach of Porth Neigwl ( or Hell 's Mouth ) .
West of Aberdaron , four peaks rise above the rocky shoreline at Uwchmynydd . Mynydd Anelog stands 627 feet ( 191 m ) high , and another Marilyn , Mynydd Mawr at 525 feet ( 160 m ) , Mynydd y Gwyddel rises to 295 feet ( 90 m ) and Mynydd Bychestyn is 330 feet ( 100 m ) above sea level .
Bardsey Island ( Welsh : Ynys Enlli ) lies 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 km ) off Pen y Cil . The island is 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 @.@ 0 km ) wide and 1 @.@ 0 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long . The north east rises steeply from the sea to a height of 548 feet ( 167 m ) . The western plain , in contrast , comprises low , and relatively flat , cultivated farmland ; in the south the island narrows to an isthmus , connecting to a peninsula .
The coast around Aberdaron has been the scene of many shipwrecks . In 1822 , the Bardsey Island lighthouse tender was wrecked , with the loss of six lives ; and in 1752 , the schooner John the Baptist , carrying a cargo of oats from Wexford to Liverpool , was wrecked on the beach at Aberdaron . The sailing ship Newry , with 400 passengers bound from Warrenpoint to Québec , was wrecked at Porth Orion in 1880 . The crew abandoned the passengers , leaving just the captain , ship 's mate and one sailor , assisted by three local men , to lead 375 men , women and children to safety . A great storm swept the country on 26 October 1859 and many ships were lost : nine were wrecked at Porthor , seven of them with complete loss of life . On the south coast , vessels were often driven ashore at Porth Neigwl by a combination of south westerly gales and treacherous offshore currents . The Transit was lost in 1839 , the Arfestone the following year , and the Henry Catherine in 1866 . The bay earned its English title , " Hell 's Mouth " , from its reputation for wrecks during the days of the sailing ship .
Aberdaron is noted for low levels of air pollution . The Gwynedd State of the Environment Report in 2004 found levels of sulfur dioxide , nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide very low , and particulates to be low . It is one of the few sites in the United Kingdom for golden hair lichen , a striking bright orange lichen that is very sensitive to air pollution . The climate is relatively mild and , because of the Gulf Stream , frosts are rare in winter .
= = Economy = =
Sheep have been raised in the Llŷn Peninsula for over a thousand years , and Aberdaron has produced and exported wool for many years . The main product locally was felt , produced by soaking the cloth in water and beating it with large wooden paddles until the wool formed a thick mat which could be flattened , dried and cut into lengths . There were two fulling mills on the Afon Daron , in addition to three corn mills , and lichen was gathered around Y Rhiw , from which a grey dye was extracted . Arable crops consisted mainly of wheat , barley , oats and potatoes . The field boundaries date back several centuries and are marked by walls , cloddiau and hedgerows ; important habitats for a variety of wildlife .
Wrecking and smuggling supplemented local incomes . In 1743 John Roberts and Huw Bedward from Y Rhiw were found guilty of the murder of two shipwrecked sailors on the beach at Porth Neigwl on 6 January 1742 , and hanged ; Jonathan Morgan had been killed by a knife thrust into the nape of his neck , and Edward Halesham , described as a boy , had been choked to death . A ship claimed to be from France unloaded illicit tea and brandy at Aberdaron in 1767 , and attempted to sell its cargo to the locals ; a Revenue cutter discovered salt being smuggled at Porth Cadlan in 1809 ; and a schooner en route from Guernsey to Scotland was reported to have offloaded lace , tea , brandy and gin at Y Rhiw in 1824 .
During the 19th century good quality limestone and a small amount of lead ore were quarried in the village . Jasper was mined at Carreg ; granite was quarried at Porth y Pistyll ; and there was a brickworks at Porth Neigwl . The main source of income , however , was herring fishing . A regular shipping service was operated to Liverpool , exporting pigs , poultry and eggs ; the vessels returned laden with coal for the neighbourhood . Limestone was also imported and offloaded into the water at high tide , then collected from the beach when the tide went out . Lime was needed to reduce the acidity of the local soil , and lime kilns were built on the beaches at Porthor , Porth Orion , Porth Meudwy , Aberdaron and Y Rhiw to convert the limestone to quicklime . There was shipbuilding at Porth Neigwl , where the last ship , a sloop named the Ebenezer , was built in 1841 ; and at Porthor , which came to an end with the building of a schooner , the Sarah , in 1842 . Aberdaron 's last ship , the sloop Victory , had been built in 1792 , and the last ship to come out of Porth Ysgo had been another sloop , the Grace , in 1778 .
The outbreak of the First World War resulted in a great demand for manganese as a strengthening agent for steel . Ore had been discovered at Y Rhiw in 1827 , and the industry became a substantial employer in the village ; over 113 @,@ 000 long tons ( 115 @,@ 000 t ) of ore were extracted between 1840 and 1945 , and in 1906 the industry employed 200 people .
Tourism began to develop after 1918 . The first tourist guide to the village was published in 1910 and extolled the virtues of " the salubrious sea and mountain breezes " ; in addition to the two hotels in the village , local farmhouses took in visitors , which provided an extra source of income .
At the 2001 census , 59 @.@ 4 per cent of the population were in employment , and 23 @.@ 5 per cent were self @-@ employed ; the unemployment rate was 2 @.@ 3 per cent ; and 16 @.@ 0 per cent were retired . Of those employed , 17 @.@ 7 per cent worked in agriculture ; 15 @.@ 8 per cent in the wholesale and retail trades ; 10 @.@ 7 per cent in construction ; and 10 @.@ 5 per cent in education . Those working from home amounted to 32 @.@ 3 per cent ; 15 @.@ 2 per cent travelled less than 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 10 km ) to their place of work ; and 23 @.@ 6 per cent travelled more than 25 miles ( 40 km ) . The community is included in Pwllheli and Llŷn Regeneration Area and was identified in the Welsh Index of Multiple Deprivation 2005 as the electoral division in Gwynedd with least access to services ; and was ranked 13th in Wales . An agricultural
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census in 2000 recorded 33 @,@ 562 sheep , 4 @,@ 380 calves , 881 beef cattle , 607 dairy cattle , and 18 pigs ; there were 310 acres ( 130 ha ) of growing crops .
= = Demography = =
Aberdaron had a population of 1 @,@ 019 in 2001 , of which 20 @.@ 6 per cent were below the age of 16 , and 18 @.@ 7 per cent were over 64 years of age . Owner occupiers inhabited 53 @.@ 7 per cent of the dwellings ; and 21 @.@ 7 per cent were rented ; 19 @.@ 6 per cent were holiday homes . Central heating was installed in 62 @.@ 8 per cent of dwellings ; but 2 @.@ 4 per cent were without sole use of a bath , shower or toilet . The proportion of households without use of a vehicle was 14 @.@ 3 per cent ; but 40 @.@ 9 per cent had two or more . The population was predominantly white British ; 97 @.@ 8 per cent identified themselves as such ; 71 @.@ 9 per cent were born in Wales ; and 26 @.@ 9 per cent in England . The 2011 census revealed that 73 @.@ 5 % of residents identify themselves as Welsh speakers .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Aberdaron = = =
Two stone bridges , Pont Fawr ( English : Large Bridge ) and Pont Fach ( English : Small Bridge ) , built in 1823 , cross the Afon Daron and Afon Cyll y Felin in the centre of Aberdaron . Beyond the bridges the road opens up to create a small market square . The Old Post Office was designed by Portmerion architect , Clough Williams @-@ Ellis .
Y Gegin Fawr ( English : The Big Kitchen ) was built in the 13th century as a communal kitchen where pilgrims could claim a meal on their way to Bardsey Island . Aberdaron was the last place on the route for rest and refreshment and pilgrims often had to wait weeks in the village for a chance to cross the treacherous waters of Bardsey Sound ( Welsh : Swnt Enlli ) .
Next to the car park is a field , Cae y Grogbren ( English : Gallows Field ) , near which is a large red rock . In the Middle Ages , the abbot from the monastery on Bardsey Island visited the rock to dispense justice to local criminals ; if they were found guilty , the wrongdoer would be hanged and thrown into Pwll Ddiwaelod ( English : The Bottomless Pool ) . The pool is a kettle lake , formed at the end of the Ice Age , when blocks of ice were trapped underground and melted to form round , deep pools .
Above the village , on the Afon Daron , stands Bodwrdda , an early @-@ 16th century stone @-@ built house , which had a fulling mill adjacent ; two large brick @-@ built wings were added later , giving an imposing three @-@ storey facade containing 17th century windows . To the south , Penrhyn Mawr is a substantial late @-@ 18th century gable @-@ fronted farmhouse .
= = = Bardsey Island = = =
Bardsey Island ( Welsh : Ynys Enlli ) , 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) off the mainland , was inhabited in Neolithic times , and traces of hut circles remain . During the 5th century the island became a refuge for persecuted Christians , and a small Celtic monastery existed . Saint Cadfan arrived from Brittany in 516 and , under his guidance St Mary 's Abbey was built . For centuries the island was important as " the holy place of burial for all the bravest and best in the land " . Bards called it " the land of indulgences , absolution and pardon , the road to Heaven , and the gate to Paradise " ; and in medieval times three pilgrimages to Bardsey Island were considered to be of equivalent benefit to the soul as one to Rome . In 1188 the abbey was still a Celtic institution , but by 1212 it belonged to the Augustinians . Many people still walk to Aberdaron and Uwchmynydd each year in the footsteps of the saints , although today only ruins of the old abbey 's 13th @-@ century bell tower remain . A Celtic cross amidst the ruins commemorates the 20 @,@ 000 saints reputed to be buried on the island .
The island was declared a national nature reserve in 1986 , and is part of Aberdaron Coast and Bardsey Island Special Protection Area ( Welsh : Ardal Gwarchodaeth Arbennig Glannau Aberdaron ac Ynys Enlli ) . It is now a favourite bird @-@ watching location , on the migration routes of thousands of birds . Bardsey Bird and Field Observatory ( Welsh : Gwylfa Maes ac Adar Ynys Enlli ) , founded in 1953 , nets and rings 8 @,@ 000 birds each year to understand their migration patterns .
Bardsey Island Trust ( Welsh : Ymddiriedolaeth Ynys Enlli ) bought the island in 1979 , after an appeal supported by the Church in Wales ( Welsh : Yr Eglwys yng Nghymru ) and many Welsh academics and public figures . The trust is financed through membership subscriptions , grants and donations , and is dedicated to protecting the wildlife , buildings and archaeological sites of the island ; promoting its artistic and cultural life ; and encouraging people to visit as a place of natural beauty and pilgrimage . When , in 2000 , the trust advertised for a tenant for the 440 acres ( 180 ha ) sheep farm on the island , they had 1 @,@ 100 applications . The tenancy is now held by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ; and the land is managed to maintain the natural habitat . Oats , turnips and swedes are grown ; goats , ducks , geese and chickens kept ; and there is a mixed flock of sheep and Welsh Black cattle .
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society has been working on cetaceans in the region . Several species , most notably bottlenose dolphins can be observed from the shores .
= = = Llanfaelrhys = = =
Porth Ysgo , owned by the National Trust , is reached by a steep slope from Llanfaelrhys , 3 @.@ 3 miles ( 5 @.@ 3 km ) east of Aberdaron , past a disused manganese mine in Nant y Gadwen . The mine employed 200 people in 1906 ; the ore was used as a strengthening agent for steel . The mine closed in 1927 , and produced 45 @,@ 644 long tons ( 46 @,@ 376 t ) in its lifetime . Where the path from Ysgo reaches the beach , a waterfall , Pistyll y Gaseg , tumbles over the cliff . At the eastern end of the bay is Porth Alwm , where the stream from Nant y Gadwen flows into the sea . The south @-@ facing beach is composed of fine , firm sand .
To the west , King Arthur 's last battle against his arch enemy , Mordred , was supposedly fought in the fields around Porth Cadlan . Offshore lies a rock , Maen Gwenonwy , named after Arthur 's sister .
Lladron Maelrhys are two large stones on the border between Llanfaelrhys and Y Rhiw . It is claimed that , years ago , thieves broke into St Maelrhys Church , intent on stealing money . Caught in the act , they fled for their lives but were caught as they approached Y Rhiw , and killed on the spot ; the stones mark their burial place . Another version claims that as they crossed the parish boundary they were turned to stone for their sacrilege .
= = = Porthor = = =
Porthor ( English : Whistling Sands ) is a cove 3 @.@ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) north of Aberdaron that has smooth white sand ; when dry , the sand whistles , or squeaks , underfoot . The crescent @-@ shaped beach is backed by steep cliffs of relatively hard rock , from which the cove has been sculpted by the rough seas . The bay is the centre of a National Trust estate which consists of 420 acres ( 170 ha ) of shoreline , headland and farmland , and includes Mynydd Carreg and Mynydd Anelog .
On the hill summits that dot the headlands are heather and gorse , shaped by the prevailing wind ; thrift and wild thyme thrive on the acidic soil . The cliffs are a stronghold of the chough , and a nesting place for razorbills and guillemots . On the lower rocks , in reach of the waves , are plentiful lichens , seaweeds , sponges , limpets and barnacles .
To the south are Dinas Bach and Dinas Mawr , twin peninsulas formed from weathered pillow lavas 600 million years old , thought to have been early fortified sites from the Iron Age . Kittiwakes , cormorants and shags can be seen on the cliffs , while farm birds such as the yellowhammer frequent the gorse . On Mynydd Anelog , experimental plots have been marked out to monitor different methods of managing heather to discover the best way the habitat can be cons
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A third account states that Kipke “ quietly sent Willis Ward off to scout another Michigan game in Wisconsin . ” The day after the Georgia Tech game was played , an editorial ran in The Michigan Daily stating " that everyone who touched ( the Ward affair ) did so only to lose in respect and esteem . "
= = = Gerald Ford ’ s role in the Georgia Tech controversy = = =
The school ’ s refusal to play Ward in the Georgia Tech game later became part of the public legacy of President Gerald R. Ford . Ward recalled that he met “ my man Jerry ” during freshman orientation in 1932 , and the two became friends and roommates when the football team traveled for road games . When Ford learned that the school had capitulated to Georgia Tech , some accounts indicate that he " quit the team " or threatened to quit in order " to make a statement and take a stand because Willis Ward was his friend . " Ford wrote about the Georgia Tech incident in his autobiography , recalling that he felt the decision to keep Willis out of the game was " morally wrong . " “ I went to Willis himself . He urged me to play . ‘ Look , ’ he said , ‘ the team ’ s having a bad year . We ’ ve lost two games already and we probably won ’ t win any more . You ’ ve got to play Saturday . You owe it to the team . ’ I decided he was right . That Saturday afternoon , we hit like never before and beat Georgia Tech 9 – 2 . ” Years later , Ford wrote that the Ward incident had influenced his thinking about race . Ford noted : “ His sacrifice led me to question how educational administrators could capitulate to raw prejudice . ” Ford used the story to voice his support for U @-@ M ’ s affirmative action admissions policy saying , “ Do we really want to risk turning back the clock to an era when the Willis Wards were isolated and penalized for the color of their skin , their economic standing or national ancestry ? ”
In 1976 , Ward , then a probate court judge in Wayne County , said that Ford never mentioned the incident to him , but that Ford 's brother later told him about it . “ Jerry was very concerned , ” Ward recalled . “ His brother told me , ‘ Jerry was so upset he wrote father asking him if he should quit the team . He was that angry . ’ ” At Ford 's funeral , President George W. Bush also spoke about the Willis Ward incident . Bush said : “ Long before he was known in Washington , Gerald Ford showed his character and his leadership . As a star football player for the University of Michigan , he came face to face with racial prejudice when Georgia Tech came to Ann Arbor for a football game . One of Michigan 's best players was an African American student named Willis Ward . Georgia Tech said they would not take the field if a black man were allowed to play . Gerald Ford was furious at Georgia Tech for making the demand , and for the University of Michigan for caving in . He agreed to play only after Willis Ward personally asked him to . The stand Gerald Ford took that day was never forgotten by his friend . ”
= = = Impact on Ward = = =
Ward proved to be one of the most successful athletes in the history of the University of Michigan . He earned six varsity letters in football and track . In track , he won Big Ten titles in the 100 @-@ yard dash in 1933 ; in the high jump in 1933 and 1935 ; in the 400 meter dash in 1933 ; and in the long jump in 1934 . On several occasions , Ward even beat Jesse Owens in the 100 @-@ yard dash . Because of his all @-@ around skills , Ward was considered a likely contender for the U.S. decathlon team in the 1936 Olympics .
However , the Georgia Tech incident left Ward angry and disillusioned . He recalled that it sapped his competitive spirit . Ward considered quitting football , even writing a letter to Coach Kipke about his intentions of leaving the team . He recalled later that the refusal to let him play against Georgia Tech destroyed his will . " It was the fact that I couldn 't play in the Georgia Tech game . That all of a sudden , the practice that you just did because it was the thing to do that was good — a tremendous amount of burnt up energy — all of a sudden becomes drudgery . " His one sports highlight in 1935 was beating Jesse Owens at Yost Fieldhouse in the 60 @-@ yard dash and 65 high hurdles . Ward 's times were neck @-@ and @-@ neck with Owens ' up until the NCAA track and field championship . He took part in the Olympic trials in 1936 , but having lost his competitive drive , Ward , in his own words , did not train to his peak and failed to make the U.S. team . " They were urging me to go out in ' 36 , " Ward recalled . " But that Georgia Tech game killed me . I frankly felt they would not let black athletes compete . Having gone through the Tech experience , it seemed an easy thing for them to say ' Well , we just won 't run ' em if Hitler insists . ' " Interviewed about the incident in 1976 , Ward said : “ It was like any bad experience — you can ’ t forget it , but you don ’ t talk about it . It hurts . ”
= = Later years = =
Willis Ward went on to earn a law degree from Detroit College of Law in 1939 and had a distinguished career as a lawyer and judge . In 1964 , Ward , described as “ a Detroit Negro attorney , ” spoke out against Barry Goldwater and in favor of Michigan Governor George Romney as a possible Presidential candidate . In 1966 , Romney appointed Willis to the Michigan Public Service Commission , the state agency responsible for regulating Michigan 's public utilities ; Willis became chairman of the PSC in 1969 , serving in that capacity until 1973 . Ward later was elected a probate judge in Wayne County , Michigan .
Ward was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1981 , as part of the fourth group inducted .
= Chocolatier ( video game ) =
Chocolatier is a casual strategy video game with action game elements , developed by Big Splash Games and published by PlayFirst . The game was released as a download on May 1 , 2007 and was followed by CD @-@ ROM release on September 27 , 2007 . Players assume the role of a young Chocolatier , who must navigate 14 cities around the globe while buying ingredients , manufacturing chocolates , and selling them to chocolate shops . Two modes of play are available : in story mode the player must rebuild an almost bankrupt chocolate empire and acquire 64 chocolate recipes from around the world ; in free mode players start out with scant resources and must become successful chocolatiers .
Chocolatier was the first game developed by Big Splash Games , a trio of experienced video game designers , who remained employees whilst developing a prototype game in their spare time . This prototype was rejected by publishers , but after coming up with the premise of Chocolatier the team was signed @-@ up by PlayFirst and completed the title . The game received a mostly positive reception : reviewers enjoyed the action mini @-@ game which is played when chocolates are manufactured , and the game 's graphics , sound , and Victorian @-@ era presentation .
= = Gameplay = =
The player assumes the role of a young chocolatier in 1880 , during the Victorian era . The game has two modes of play : story and free play . Story mode involves a number of quests , including delivering specific chocolates and restoring the fictional Baumeister chocolate empire to its former glory . The player is enlisted by Evangeline Baumeister to rebuild the Baumeister chocolate empire which has been ruined by Evangeline 's younger sister who scattered chocolate recipes around the world . The player must locate the 64 lost recipes , visit 14 different cities around the globe , purchase 6 closed Baumeister factories , establish business relationships with outlets and suppliers , and manufacture chocolates to keep in business . Free play mode allows the player to travel , manufacture , and trade without undertaking quests . This mode starts the player with a small amount of cash and all chocolate recipes unlocked for use . In story mode , players begin with a single factory and a recipe for simple chocolate bars , the player must visit the market to purchase ingredients and begin the manufacturing process .
The game is turn @-@ based . Each turn represents one week , and travelling between cities takes a number of turns depending on the proximity of the destination city . Many cities have a chocolate shop , where the player can sell his or her stock , and a market where ingredients can be purchased . Some specialty cacao beans can only be purchased from plantations in certain cities . Factories manufacturing chocolates produce a set amount of product every turn , as long as the required ingredients are in stock . During story mode , quests are given by non @-@ player characters ; these typically involve producing a particular volume and type of chocolate and delivering it to another non @-@ player character , who is either traveling or can be found at a set location . Quest rewards take the form of a high price for the chocolates or a new recipe . Some encounters with characters give the player an opportunity to gamble a large amount of money on a dice roll . Market owners can be bartered with , though this carries the risk of them becoming irritated and raising prices rather than lowering them .
When producing a particular chocolate for the first time , a mini @-@ game is played where ingredients are fired from a cannon to fill circular trays which revolve around the cannon . The ingredients and quantities needed vary , depending on the recipe . Each time a circle is filled with the correct ingredients , it is removed and an empty circle put in its place . The trays spin faster as more circles are filled . If too many ingredients are wasted by misfiring the cannon , production is brought to a halt and the mini @-@ game must be attempted again . The mini @-@ game ends when the timer runs out ; the number of completed circles is equal to the number of chocolates produced by that factory every week . The mini @-@ game cannot be played unless the player owns the correct ingredients , and it can be replayed if the player wishes to try to improve the efficiency of the factory . Playing the mini @-@ game advances in @-@ game time by one week . Different chocolate types , such as truffles and squares , require the factory to be upgraded first , costing money .
= = Development = =
Tucson , Arizona based Big Splash Games was formed in late 2005 by three veterans of the videogame industry : Jon Blossom , Stephen Lewis and Michael Wyman . They came together to produce a prototype video game for the casual market . They worked on this for a few months when they were not working ( they still held jobs within the industry to support themselves ) . This prototype was pitched to a few publishers in order to gain feedback . PlayFirst , though not interested in the prototype , issued the team a request for proposal for an economic simulation game , hoping that Big Splash could produce another proposal . The next morning , Big Splash co @-@ founder Stephen Lewis remembered that he had been told that some people , in particular women , " have an almost religious connection with chocolate " . Taking this idea he quickly wrote a proposal and forwarded it to his two partners . After brainstorming the idea the team decided that it satisfied PlayFirst 's request for proposal , forwarded a copy of the idea and received word from the publisher that they " had hit the nail on the head " .
Chocolatier was designed to appeal to women aged between 35 and 55 , a different market compared to the games previously developed by the trio . In order to immerse themselves in the subject matter during development , Big Splash 's staff tasted as many variety of chocolates as they could find and took the Scharffen Berger Chocolate Maker factory tour , where they witnessed the full " bean to bar " process . The factory mini @-@ game was developed in order to give players a break from the economic side of the game , which involves buying low and selling high . It took approximately the same time to produce the mini @-@ game as it did to create the rest of the game , which drained the developer 's resources , though Stephen Lewis believed this was " the right decision " . Journalists were sent Chocolatier @-@ branded chocolate bars and " golden tickets " which allowed them to download the game for free , in order to promote the game 's release . The game 's sequel , Chocolatier 2 : Secret Ingredients was first released on November 27 , 2007 . Chocolatier : Decadence by Design is the third installment , released in 2009 . The Great Chocolate Chase : A Chocolatier Twist was later released by PlayFirst .
= = Reception = =
Chocolatier was awarded Gamezebo 's Zeeby award for best strategy game of 2007 . The game received a positive response from critics , though GameZone 's Anise Hollingshead found the game too easy , noting " there really isn ’ t a whole lot of thinking involved . " other reviewers called it " a delightfully challenging business tycoon game " , " challenging but not frustratingly so " , and said that the game " turned out as beautifully as the chocolates . " The game 's graphics and sound received praise : Marc Saltzman noted " the game 's wonderful art style and delightful music " , but website Killer Betties ' Jason Van Horn found the graphics " alright , simply doing what it needs to do to get its gameplay across . "
Reviewers praised the amount of freedom given to players , Meryl Evans of Blogcritics stated " There was no right or wrong , or a set path you must take " , but added that the game lost pace when she had gathered a large amount of money and had to find a specific character to speak with before completing her current quest . After finding the non @-@ player character , the game " picked up again and kept me hopping for the rest of it . " Didi Cardoso of website Grrl Gamer also enjoyed the freedom , but noted that sometimes she felt lost and was unsure of how to find the location of the next recipe . The chocolate manufacturing mini @-@ game was also praised as " fun " . Peter Cohen of Macworld noted that some fans of business simulators might find the mini @-@ game " off @-@ putting " , but also suggested that it helped break up gameplay . Marc Saltzman expressed the same opinion , while Anise Hollingshead found the mini @-@ game to be too easy to play .
= Operation Charnwood =
Operation Charnwood was an Anglo @-@ Canadian offensive that took place from 8 to 9 July 1944 , during the Battle for Caen , part of the larger Battle of Normandy , in the Second World War . The operation was intended to at least partially capture the German @-@ occupied French city of Caen ( French pronunciation : [ kɑ ̃ ] ) , which was an important objective for the Allies during the opening stages of Operation Overlord , the codename for the Battle of Normandy . It was also hoped that the attack would forestall the transfer of German armoured units from the Anglo @-@ Canadian sector to the lightly screened American sector , where a major American offensive was being planned . The British and Canadians advanced on a broad front and by the evening of the second day had taken Caen up to the Orne and Odon rivers .
Preceded by a controversial bombing raid that destroyed much of Caen 's historic Old City , Operation Charnwood began at dawn on 8 July , with battalions of three infantry divisions attacking German positions north of Caen behind an artillery creeping barrage . Supported by three armoured brigades , the forces of the British I Corps made gradual progress against the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend and 16th Luftwaffe Field Division . By the end of the day the 3rd Canadian and British 3rd and British 59th infantry divisions had cleared the villages in their path and reached Caen 's outskirts . Moving into the city at dawn the following morning , the Allies encountered resistance from remnants of German units who were beginning a withdrawal across the Orne . Carpiquet airfield fell to the Canadians during the early morning and by 18 : 00 , the British and Canadians had linked up and were on the Orne 's north bank . Discovering Caen 's remaining bridges to be defended or impassable and with German reserves positioned to oppose their crossing , I Corps closed down the operation .
With the capture of northern Caen and the many casualties inflicted on the German defenders , Operation Charnwood was a mutually costly tactical success for the Allies . Operationally , the Germans retired from north of the Orne River but did not stop sending formations to the American front . The Germans established another defensive line along two ridges to the south of the city . The Allies maintained the initiative and began Operation Goodwood and Operation Atlantic a week later , in which the rest of Caen was secured .
= = Background = =
The Norman city of Caen was one of the D @-@ Day objectives for the British 3rd Infantry Division which landed on Sword Beach on 6 June 1944 . The capture of Caen , while " ambitious " , was the most important D @-@ Day objective assigned to British I Corps under Lieutenant @-@ General Sir John Crocker ,
The quick capture of that key city [ Caen ] and the neighbourhood of Carpiquet was the most ambitious , the most difficult and the most important task of Lieutenant @-@ General J. T. Crocker 's I Corps .
The initial Overlord plan called for the British Second Army to secure the city and then form a front line from Caumont @-@ l 'Éventé to the south @-@ east of Caen , to acquire space for airfields and to protect the left flank of the United States First Army while it moved on Cherbourg . Possession of Caen and its environs would give Second Army a suitable staging area for a push south to capture Falaise , which could then be used as the pivot for a swing left to advance on Argentan and then towards the Touques River . The terrain between Caen and Vimont was especially attractive to Allied planners , being open , dry and conducive to swift offensive operations . Since the Allies greatly outnumbered the Germans in tanks and mobile units , creating the conditions for a fluid , fast moving battle was to their advantage .
The British 3rd Infantry Division came ashore as planned but was hampered by congestion in its beachhead , diversions en route and the late arrival of much of its armoured support . The division was unable to assault Caen in force and its lead elements were brought to a halt short of the outskirts . Later attacks failed as the German defenders were reinforced by the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend . On 7 June the British began Operation Perch , a pincer attack by I Corps and XXX Corps , to encircle Caen from the east and west flanks . The I Corps attack south of the Orne River was halted by the 21st Panzer Division and the XXX Corps attack to the west of Caen was contained near Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles by the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division . To force the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division to withdraw the British 7th Armoured Division attacked the western flank of the division on 13 June , through a gap created by the U.S. 1st Infantry Division , to reach high ground near Villers @-@ Bocage . In the Battle of Villers @-@ Bocage the 7th Armoured Division vanguard was ordered to retire and the Panzer @-@ Lehr Division held its positions until XXX Corps captured Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles on 19 June .
The next British offensive , codenamed Operation Epsom , was launched by VIII Corps on 26 June , after Operation Martlet ( also known as Operation Dauntless ) a preliminary attack on 25 June , to secure the right flank of VIII Corps . VIII Corps advanced to the west of Caen on a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) front from Rauray to Carpiquet . Once across the Odon and Orne rivers , VIII Corps was to make for high ground near Bretteville @-@ sur @-@ Laize and encircle Caen . The Germans managed to contain the offensive by committing all their strength , including two the 9th SS @-@ Panzer Division Hohenstaufen and 10th SS @-@ Panzer Division Frundsberg of the II SS Panzer Corps , which had been sent from the Eastern Front soon after the D @-@ Day and had been intended for a counter @-@ offensive against Bayeux .
On 27 June , the 8th Infantry Brigade ( 1st Suffolk Regiment , 2nd East Yorkshire Regiment , 1st South Lancashire Regiment ) of the 3rd Infantry Division , supported by the Staffordshire Yeomanry , of 27th Armoured Brigade , and specialist armour from the 79th Armoured Division , launched Operation Mitten . The objective was to seize the German @-@ occupied Château la Londe and Château le Landel . The initial evening assault , led by the 1st Battalion , South Lancashire Regiment was repulsed but the following morning further attacks gained the objectives and destroyed several German tanks . Operation Mitten cost at least three British tanks and had it succeeded quicker , the 9th Brigade , supported by the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade , would have launched Operation Aberlour , to capture the villages of la Bijude , Épron , Galmache , St. Contest , Authie and Cussy but this follow @-@ up operation was cancelled by Lieutenant @-@ General J. T. Crocker the I Corps commander . The area of the Châteaux was later called the " bloodiest square mile in Normandy " . and 268 men .
Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt , supreme commander of the German forces in the west ( OB West ) , directed on 1 July that Caen should be gradually abandoned and the bulk of the German armoured divisions be shifted to the west end of the beachhead against the U.S. First Army but the city and its surroundings were considered by the German Armed Forces High Command ( OKW ) to be fundamental to the defence of Normandy . OKW wanted an arc of defensible terrain from the English Channel to the western banks of the Orne to be held and Adolf Hitler sacked Rundstedt and replaced him with Generalfeldmarschall Günther von Kluge . Learning of this through Ultra , the Allied ground forces commander , General Bernard Law Montgomery , planned an offensive to capture Caen and to prevent a large redeployment of German forces from the Anglo @-@ Canadian sector to the American front .
On 4 July , the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division launched Operation Windsor , to seize Carpiquet and the adjacent airfield from the 12th SS @-@ Panzer Division . Carpiquet fell on 5 July , the airfield remained in German hands .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Allies = = =
Having failed to take Caen through successive flanking manoeuvres , Montgomery decided the next attack would be a frontal assault . Although Caen 's strategic importance had vastly diminished since D @-@ Day , he sought control of Bourguébus and the commanding high ground to the south . On 5 July the orders for Operation Charnwood were issued ; it was to be launched at 04 : 20 , an hour and a half before dawn on 8 July .
The objective of Charnwood was to clear Caen of its defenders up to the Orne river and if possible to secure bridgeheads in southern Caen . To achieve the latter it was planned to send an armoured column through the city to rush the bridges ; it was hoped that I Corps could exploit the situation to sweep on through southern Caen towards the Verrières and Bourguébus ridges , paving the way for the British Second Army to advance towards Falaise . Historian Roger Cirillo however points out the operation was designed to clear the town of German forces ; due to it being cut by both a river and a canal any attempts to make rapid progress through and beyond Caen were " in all probability , impossible . "
Crocker 's 115 @,@ 000 @-@ strong I Corps was assigned the task of penetrating to the Orne and Odon rivers . The 3rd Infantry Division would attack on a one brigade front from the north @-@ east , supported by the 33rd Armoured Brigade ; the 59th ( Staffordshire ) Infantry Division would attack on a two brigade front from the north , supported by the 27th Armoured Brigade ; and the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division would attack on a one brigade front from the northwest , supported by the 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade . To maintain the maximum possible pressure on German forces in the sector , VIII Corps was placed on 24 hours notice to launch further attacks to the west of Caen .
In the light of lessons learned from the partial Canadian success during Operation Windsor , Charnwood was to be launched on a broad front to increase the pressure on the German defences and disperse their defensive fire . SHAEF planners had advised , on 10 June , that the best way to break a stalemate was to use air power to support an attack ; this method was to be used for Charnwood as Montgomery enlisted the aid of RAF Bomber Command . Heavy bombers would attack Caen on the night preceding the assault , with 15 % of the total bomb load being delayed action bombs set to explode when the ground attack was launched . A second wave of light bombers would follow the heavies and a third wave of American bombers would attack on the morning of the operation .
Additional support would be provided by rocket firing Typhoon fighter @-@ bombers , the monitor HMS Roberts , the light cruisers HMS Belfast and HMS Emerald and the 16 @-@ inch guns of the battleship Rodney . Five divisions would contribute 656 guns for bombarding German positions to the south . In all , it was planned that 2 @,@ 000 tons of bombs would be dropped on Caen before the infantry assault began . Due to the proximity of the target area to the Allied lines and the resulting risk of friendly casualties , the aiming point for the bombers was shifted 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) to the south — beyond most of the main German defences screening the city . Following a long saturation bombardment , the three infantry divisions were to push through the fortified villages in their path and advance directly into Caen 's northern suburbs .
= = = Germans = = =
Caen 's defence fell to two divisions ; the 12th SS Panzer Division of I SS Panzer Corps , and the 16th Luftwaffe Field Division of LXXXVI Corps . An assault on the city was expected , and it was assumed that further attacks in the Odon valley towards the Orne river would quickly follow suit . The 12th SS Panzer Division , commanded by Kurt Meyer , consisted of three panzergrenadier regiments including one — the 1st SS Panzergrenadier Regiment — borrowed from the 1st SS Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler ( 1st SS Panzer Division ) . With its 61 surviving tanks 12th SS Panzer was holding the northwest approaches to Caen , defending the city and Carpiquet airfield from the 3rd Canadian and 59th British Infantry Divisions .
The main German defensive line , a 9 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) arc of villages from the northeast to the west , was held by the 25th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment and elements of the 12th SS Panzer Regiment . Troops from the 26th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment were holding the western flank , concentrating their strength , which included mortar batteries and a few tanks , in the area around Carpiquet airfield . The 1st SS Panzergrenadier Regiment was occupying a line from Franqueville to the western end of Éterville ; the villages formed mutually @-@ supporting strongpoints with dug @-@ in tanks and assault guns , and the defensive line was 2 – 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 8 km ) in depth , supplemented by anti @-@ tank ditches , weapons pits , minefields and other obstacles . The rest of the division , with 35 tanks of the 12th SS Panzer Regiment , were held in reserve , with elements located north , west and south of the city . Most of the division 's artillery had been moved back across the Orne , and the divisional command centre had been relocated from the Ardenne Abbey to Abbaye @-@ aux @-@ Dames in the centre of Caen .
The 16th Luftwaffe Field Division was an inexperienced infantry division that had only recently arrived in Normandy to relieve the 21st Panzer Division of its defence of Caen and its positions east of the Caen canal . The division was under @-@ trained and lacked sufficient anti @-@ tank weapons ; to remedy the latter it was reinforced with a tank battalion from 21st Panzer . The Luftwaffe division was deployed on both sides of the Orne , with three battalions holding the villages to the immediate north of the city . The 1st SS Panzer Division was roughly 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south of Caen with a regiment of dual purpose 88 mm guns from the III Flak Corps . The II SS Panzer Corps was to the west , with the 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg around 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southwest of the city .
= = = Air attack , 7 July = = =
On the night of 7 July , 467 Lancaster and Halifax heavy bombers of the Royal Air Force — half of Bomber Command 's strength — attacked Caen , dropping over 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) of bombs on the city . Although intended mainly to facilitate the Anglo @-@ Canadian advance and to prevent German reinforcements from reaching the battle or retreating through Caen , a secondary consideration was the suppression of the German defences . In this the bombing largely failed ; the main German armour and infantry positions to the north of Caen remained intact . Several tanks were hit and temporarily disabled but only two Panzer IV of the 12th SS Panzer Division were destroyed . General Miles Dempsey , in command of the British Second Army , was more concerned with the morale @-@ boosting effect of the bombing on his troops , than any material losses it might inflict on the Germans .
The pathfinders of No. 625 Squadron RAF , dropping the target markers for the bombers , were instructed not to allow the target zone to " drift back " towards the Allied lines as had been the tendency in earlier operations . Together with the cautious shifting of the target zone during the planning stage , the effect was that in many cases the markers were dropped too far forward , pushing the bombed zone well into Caen itself and further away from the German defences . By 22 : 00 on 7 July , the bombers had departed , leaving 80 percent of the north of Caen destroyed .
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functions have periods that are multiples of π ; for example , sine and cosine have period 2π , so for any angle θ and any integer k ,
<formula>
= = = Topology = = =
The constant π appears in the Gauss – Bonnet formula which relates the differential geometry of surfaces to their topology . Specifically , if a compact surface Σ has Gauss curvature K , then
<formula>
where χ ( Σ ) is the Euler characteristic , which is an integer . An example is the surface area of a sphere S of curvature 1 ( so that its radius of curvature , which coincides with its radius , is also 1 . ) The Euler characteristic of a sphere can be computed from its homology groups , and is found to be equal to two . Thus we have
<formula>
reproducing the formula for the surface area of a sphere of radius 1 .
The constant appears in many other integral formulae in topology , in particular those involving characteristic classes via the Chern – Weil homomorphism .
= = = Vector calculus = = =
Vector calculus is a branch of calculus that is concerned with the properties of vector fields , and has many physical applications such as to electricity and magnetism . The Newtonian potential for a point source Q situated at the origin of a three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is
<formula>
which represents the potential energy of a unit mass ( or charge ) placed a distance | x | from the source , and k is a dimensional constant . The field , denoted here by E , which may be the ( Newtonian ) gravitational field or the ( Coulomb ) electric field , is the negative gradient of the potential :
<formula>
Special cases include Coulomb 's law and Newton 's law of universal gravitation . Gauss ' law states that the outward flux of the field through any smooth , simple , closed , orientable surface S containing the origin is equal to 4πkQ :
<formula> <formula> <formula>
It is standard to absorb this factor of 4π into the constant k , but this argument shows why it must appear somewhere . Furthermore , 4π is the surface area of the unit sphere , but we have not assumed that S is the sphere . However , as a consequence of the divergence theorem , because the region away from the origin is vacuum ( source @-@ free ) it is only the homology class of the surface S in R3 \ { 0 } that matters in computing the integral , so it can be replaced by any convenient surface in the same homology class , in particular a sphere , where spherical coordinates can be used to calculate the integral .
A consequence of the Gauss law is that the negative Laplacian of the potential V is equal to 4πkQ times the Dirac delta function :
<formula>
More general distributions of matter ( or charge ) are obtained from this by convolution , giving the Poisson equation
<formula>
where ρ is the distribution function .
The constant π also plays an analogous role in four @-@ dimensional potentials associated with Einstein 's equations , a fundamental formula which forms the basis of the general theory of relativity and describes the fundamental interaction of gravitation as a result of spacetime being curved by matter and energy :
<formula>
where Rμν is the Ricci curvature tensor , R is the scalar curvature , gμν is the metric tensor , Λ is the cosmological constant , G is Newton 's gravitational constant , c is the speed of light in vacuum , and Tμν is the stress – energy tensor . The left @-@ hand side of Einstein 's equation is a non @-@ linear analog of the Laplacian of the metric tensor ( and reduces to that in the weak field limit ) , and the right hand side is the analog of the distribution function , times 8π .
= = = Cauchy 's integral formula = = =
One of the key tools in complex analysis is contour integration of a function over a positively oriented ( rectifiable ) Jordan curve γ . A form of Cauchy 's integral formula states that if a point z0 is interior to γ , then
<formula>
Although the curve γ is not a circle , and hence does not have any obvious connection to the constant π , a standard proof of this result uses Morera 's theorem , which implies that the integral is invariant under homotopy of the curve , so that it can be deformed to a circle and then integrated explicitly in polar coordinates . More generally , it is true that if a rectifiable closed curve γ does not contain z0 , then the above integral is 2πi times the winding number of the curve .
The general form of Cauchy 's integral formula establishes the relationship between the values of a complex analytic function f ( z ) on the Jordan curve γ and the value of f ( z ) at any interior point z0 of γ :
<formula>
provided f ( z ) is analytic in the region enclosed by γ and extends continuously to γ . Cauchy 's integral formula is a special case of the residue theorem , that if g ( z ) is a meromorphic function the region enclosed by γ and is continuous in a neighborhood of γ , then
<formula>
where the sum is of the residues at the poles of g ( z ) .
= = = The gamma function and Stirling 's approximation = = =
The factorial function n ! is the product of all of the positive integers through n . The gamma function extends the concept of factorial ( normally defined only for non @-@ negative integers ) to all complex numbers , except the negative real integers . When the gamma function is evaluated at half @-@ integers , the result contains π ; for example <formula> and <formula> .
The gamma function is defined by its Weierstrass product development :
<formula>
where γ is the Euler – Mascheroni constant . Evaluated at z
= 1 / 2 and squared , the equation Γ ( 1 / 2 ) 2 =
π reduces to the Wallis product formula . The gamma function is also connected to the Riemann zeta function and identities for the functional determinant , in which the constant π plays an important role .
The gamma function is used to calculate the volume Vn ( r ) of the n @-@ dimensional ball of radius r in Euclidean n @-@ dimensional space , and the surface area Sn − 1 ( r ) of its boundary , the ( n − 1 ) -dimensional sphere :
<formula>
<formula>
Further , it follows from the functional equation that
<formula>
The gamma function can be used to create a simple approximation to the factorial function n ! for large n : <formula> which is known as Stirling 's approximation . Equivalently ,
<formula>
As a geometrical application of Stirling 's approximation , let Δn denote the standard simplex in n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space , and ( n + 1 ) Δn denote the simplex having all of its sides scaled up by a factor of n + 1 . Then
<formula>
Ehrhart 's volume conjecture is that this is the ( optimal ) upper bound on the volume of a convex body containing only one lattice point .
= = = Number theory and Riemann zeta function = = =
The Riemann zeta function ζ ( s ) is used in many areas of mathematics . When evaluated at s = 2 it can be written as
<formula>
Finding a simple solution for this infinite series was a famous problem in mathematics called the Basel problem . Leonhard Euler solved it in 1735 when he showed it was equal to π2 / 6 . Euler 's result leads to the number theory result that the probability of two random numbers being relatively prime ( that is , having no shared factors ) is equal to 6 / π2 . This probability is based on the observation that the probability that any number is divisible by a prime p is 1 / p ( for example , every 7th integer is divisible by 7 . ) Hence the probability that two numbers are both divisible by this prime is 1 / p2 , and the probability that at least one of them is not is 1 − 1 / p2 . For distinct primes , these divisibility events are mutually independent ; so the probability that two numbers are relatively prime is given by a product over all primes :
<formula>
This probability can be used in conjunction with a random number generator to approximate π using a Monte Carlo approach .
The solution to the Basel problem implies that the geometrically derived quantity π is connected in a deep way to the distribution of prime numbers . This is a special case of Weil 's conjecture on Tamagawa numbers , which asserts the equality of similar such infinite products of arithmetic quantities , localized at each prime p , and a geometrical quantity : the reciprocal of the volume of a certain locally symmetric space . In the case of the Basel problem , it is the hyperbolic 3 @-@ manifold SL2 ( R ) / SL2 ( Z ) .
The zeta function also satisfies Riemann 's functional equation , which involves π as well as the gamma function :
<formula>
Furthermore , the derivative of the zeta function satisfies
<formula>
A consequence is that π can be obtained from the functional determinant of the harmonic oscillator . This functional determinant can be computed via a product expansion , and is equivalent to the Wallis product formula . The calculation can be recast in quantum mechanics , specifically the variational approach to the spectrum of the hydrogen atom .
= = = Fourier series = = =
The constant π also appears naturally in Fourier series of periodic functions . Periodic functions are functions on the group T = R / Z of fractional parts of real numbers . The Fourier decomposition shows that a complex @-@ valued function f on T can be written as an infinite linear superposition of unitary characters of T. That is , continuous group homomorphisms from T to the circle group U ( 1 ) of unit modulus complex numbers . It is a theorem that every character of T is one of the complex exponentials <formula> .
There is a unique character on T , up to complex conjugation , that is a group isomorphism . Using the Haar measure on the circle group , the constant π is half the magnitude of the Radon – Nikodym derivative of this character . The other characters have derivatives whose magnitudes are positive integral multiples of 2π . As a result , the constant π is the unique number such that the group T , equipped with its Haar measure , is Pontrjagin dual to the lattice of integral multiples of 2π . This is a version of the one @-@ dimensional Poisson summation formula .
= = = Modular forms and theta functions = = =
The constant π is connected in a deep way with the theory of modular forms and theta functions . For example , the Chudnovsky algorithm involves in an essential way the j @-@ invariant of an elliptic curve .
Modular forms are holomorphic functions in the upper half plane characterized by their transformation properties under the modular group <formula> ( or its various subgroups ) , a lattice in the group <formula> . An example is the Jacobi theta function
<formula>
which is a kind of modular form called a Jacobi form . This is sometimes written in terms of the nome <formula> .
The constant π is the unique constant making the Jacobi theta function an automorphic form , which means that it transforms in a specific way . Certain identities hold for all automorphic forms . An example is
<formula>
which implies that θ transforms as a representation under the discrete Heisenberg group . General modular forms and other theta functions also involve π , once again because of the Stone – von Neumann theorem .
= = = Cauchy distribution and potential theory = = =
The Cauchy distribution
<formula>
is a probability density function . The total probability is equal to one , owing to the integral :
<formula>
The Shannon entropy of the Cauchy distribution is equal to log ( 4π ) , which also involves π .
The Cauchy distribution plays an important role in potential theory because it is the simplest Furstenberg measure , the classical Poisson kernel associated with a Brownian motion in a half @-@ plane . Conjugate harmonic functions and so also the Hilbert transform are associated with the asymptotics of the Poisson kernel . The Hilbert transform H is the integral transform given by the Cauchy principal value of the singular integral
<formula>
The constant π is the unique ( positive ) normalizing factor such that H defines a linear complex structure on the Hilbert space of square @-@ integrable real @-@ valued functions on the real line . The Hilbert transform , like the Fourier transform , can be characterized purely in terms of its transformation properties on the Hilbert space L2 ( R ) : up to a normalization factor , it is the unique bounded linear operator that commutes with positive dilations and anticommutes with all reflections of the real line . The constant π is the unique normalizing factor that makes this transformation unitary .
= = = Complex dynamics = = =
An occurrence of π in the Mandelbrot set fractal was discovered by David Boll in 1991 . He examined the behavior of the Mandelbrot set near the " neck " at ( − 0 @.@ 75 , 0 ) . If points with coordinates ( − 0 @.@ 75 , ε ) are considered , as ε tends to zero , the number of iterations until divergence for the point multiplied by ε converges to π . The point ( 0 @.@ 25 , ε ) at the cusp of the large " valley " on the right side of the Mandelbrot set behaves similarly : the number of iterations until divergence multiplied by the square root of ε tends to π .
= = Outside mathematics = =
= = = Describing physical phenomena = = =
Although not a physical constant , π appears routinely in equations describing fundamental principles of the universe , often because of π 's relationship to the circle and to spherical coordinate systems . A simple formula from the field of classical mechanics gives the approximate period T of a simple pendulum of length L , swinging with a small amplitude ( g is the earth 's gravitational acceleration ) :
<formula>
One of the key formulae of quantum mechanics is Heisenberg 's uncertainty principle , which shows that the uncertainty in the measurement of a particle 's position ( Δx ) and momentum ( Δp ) cannot both be arbitrarily small at the same time ( where h is Planck 's constant ) :
<formula>
The fact that π is approximately equal to 3 plays a role in the relatively long lifetime of orthopositronium . The inverse lifetime to lowest order in the fine @-@ structure constant α is
<formula>
where m is the mass of the electron .
π is present in some structural engineering formulae , such as the buckling formula derived by Euler , which gives the maximum axial load F that a long , slender column of length L , modulus of elasticity E , and area moment of inertia I can carry without buckling :
<formula>
The field of fluid dynamics contains π in Stokes ' law , which approximates the frictional force F exerted on small , spherical objects of radius R , moving with velocity v in a fluid with dynamic viscosity η :
<formula>
Under ideal conditions ( uniform gentle slope on an homogeneously erodible substrate ) , the sinuosity of a meandering river approaches π . The sinuosity is the ratio between the actual length and the straight @-@ line distance from source to mouth . Faster currents along the outside edges of a river 's bends cause more erosion than along the inside edges , thus pushing the bends even farther out , and increasing the overall loopiness of the river . However , that loopiness eventually causes the river to double back on itself in places and " short @-@ circuit " , creating an ox @-@ bow lake in the process . The balance between these two opposing factors leads to an average ratio of π between the actual length and the direct distance between source and mouth .
= = = Memorizing digits = = =
Piphilology is the practice of memorizing large numbers of digits of π , and world @-@ records are kept by the Guinness World Records . The record for memorizing digits of π , certified by Guinness World Records , is 70 @,@ 000 digits , recited in India by Rajveer Meena in 9 hours and 27 minutes on 21 March 2015 . In 2006 , Akira Haraguchi , a retired Japanese engineer , claimed to have recited 100 @,@ 000 decimal places , but the claim was not verified by Guinness World Records .
One common technique is to memorize a story or poem in which the word lengths represent the digits of π : The first word has three letters , the second word has one , the third has four , the fourth has one , the fifth has five , and so on . An early example of a memorization aid , originally devised by English scientist James Jeans , is " How I want a drink , alcoholic of course , after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics . " When a poem is used , it is sometimes referred to as a piem . Poems for memorizing π have been composed in several languages in addition to English . Record @-@ setting π memorizers typically do not rely on poems , but instead use methods such as remembering number patterns and the method of loci .
A few authors have used the digits of π to establish a new form of constrained writing , where the word lengths are required to represent the digits of π . The Cadaeic Cadenza contains the first 3835 digits of π in this manner , and the full @-@ length book Not a Wake contains 10 @,@ 000 words , each representing one digit of π .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Perhaps because of the simplicity of its definition and its ubiquitous presence in formulae , π has been represented in popular culture more than other mathematical constructs .
In the 2008 Open University and BBC documentary co @-@ production , The Story of Maths , aired in October 2008 on BBC Four , British mathematician Marcus du Sautoy shows a visualization of the - historically first exact - formula for calculating π when visiting India and exploring its contributions to trigonometry .
In the Palais de la Découverte ( a science museum in Paris ) there is a circular room known as the pi room . On its wall are inscribed 707 digits of π . The digits are large wooden characters attached to the dome @-@ like ceiling . The digits were based on an 1853 calculation by English mathematician William Shanks , which included an error beginning at the 528th digit . The error was detected in 1946 and corrected in 1949 .
In Carl Sagan 's novel Contact it is suggested that the creator of the universe buried a message deep within the digits of π . The digits of π have also been incorporated into the lyrics of the song " Pi " from the album Aerial by Kate Bush .
In the United States , Pi Day falls on 14 March ( written 3 / 14 in the US style ) , and is popular among students. π and its digital representation are often used by self @-@ described " math geeks " for inside jokes among mathematically and technologically minded groups . Several college cheers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology include " 3 @.@ 14159 " . Pi Day in 2015 was particularly significant because the date and time 3 / 14 / 15 9 : 26 : 53 reflected many more digits of pi .
During the 2011 auction for Nortel 's portfolio of valuable technology patents , Google made a series of unusually specific bids based on mathematical and scientific constants , including π .
In 1958 Albert Eagle proposed replacing π by τ
= π / 2 to simplify formulas . However , no other authors are known to use τ in this way . Some people use a different value , τ =
6 @.@ 283185 ... = 2π , arguing that τ , as the number of radians in one turn or as the ratio of a circle 's circumference to its radius rather than its diameter , is more natural than π and simplifies many formulas . Celebrations of this number , because it approximately equals 6 @.@ 28 , by making 28 June " Tau Day " and eating " twice the pie " , have been reported in the media . However , this use of τ has not made its way into mainstream mathematics .
In 1897 , an amateur American mathematician attempted to persuade the Indiana legislature to pass the Indiana Pi Bill , which described a method to square the circle and contained text that implied various incorrect values for π , including 3 @.@ 2 . The bill is notorious as an attempt to establish a value of scientific constant by legislative fiat . The bill was passed by the Indiana House of Representatives , but rejected by the Senate .
= HMS Ark Royal ( 1914 ) =
HMS Ark Royal was the first ship in history designed and built as a seaplane carrier . She was purchased by the Royal Navy in 1914 shortly after her keel had been laid and the ship was only in frames ; this allowed the ship 's design to be modified almost totally to accommodate seaplanes . In World War I , Ark Royal participated in the Gallipoli Campaign in early 1915 with her aircraft conducting aerial reconnaissance and observation missions . Her aircraft later supported British troops on the Macedonian Front in 1916 , before she returned to the Dardanelles to act as a depot ship for all the seaplanes operating in the area . In January 1918 , several of her aircraft unsuccessfully attacked the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben when she sortied from the Dardanelles to attack Allied ships in the area . The ship left the area later in the year to support seaplanes conducting anti @-@ submarine patrols over the southern Aegean Sea .
After the end of the war , Ark Royal mostly served as an aircraft transport and depot ship for those aircraft in support of White Russian and British operations against the Bolsheviks in the Caspian and Black Sea regions . She also supported Royal Air Force ( RAF ) aircraft in British Somaliland in the campaign against the Mad Mullah in 1920 . Later that year , the ship was placed in reserve . Ark Royal was recommissioned to ferry an RAF squadron to the Dardanelles during the Chanak crisis in 1922 . She was reduced to reserve again upon her return to the United Kingdom the following year .
Ark Royal was recommissioned in 1930 to serve as a training ship for seaplane pilots and to evaluate aircraft catapult operations and techniques . She was renamed HMS Pegasus in 1934 and continued to serve as a training ship until the beginning of World War II in September 1939 . Assigned to Home Fleet at the beginning of the war , she took on tasks as an aircraft transport , in addition to her training duties , until she was modified to serve as the prototype fighter catapult ship in late 1940 . This type of ship was intended to defend convoys against attacks by German long @-@ range maritime patrol bombers by launching fighters via their catapult to provide air cover for the convoy . Pegasus served in this role until mid @-@ 1941 when she reverted to her previous duties as a training ship . This lasted until early 1944 when she became a barracks ship . The ship was sold in late 1946 and her conversion into a merchant ship began the following year . However , the owner ran out of money during the process and Anita I , as she had been renamed , was seized by her creditors in 1949 and sold for scrap . She was not broken up until late 1950 .
= = Design and description = =
The Royal Navy had conducted trials in 1913 with a modified cruiser , Hermes , to evaluate the ability of seaplanes to work with the fleet . They were successful enough that the Admiralty allocated £ 81 @,@ 000 in the 1914 – 1915 Naval Programme to purchase a merchant ship for a more thorough modification than had been possible with Hermes to better accommodate seaplanes . A tramp steamer was
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identify his first entombment in a royal mausoleum , or as cast into the Nile . Moses is said to have gathered the bones and taken them with him during the Exodus from Egypt , using magic to raise the coffin , a tradition repeated by Josephus , who specifies that they were buried in Canaan at that time . Regarding his burial in Canaan , from Joshua it is evident that the portion Joseph received was an allotment near Shechem , not the town itself .
The majority of contemporary scholars believe the historicity of the events in the Joseph story cannot be demonstrated . In the wake of scholars like Hermann Gunkel , Hugo Gressmann and Gerhard von Rad , who identified the story of Joseph as primarily a literary composition , it is now widely considered to belong to the genre of romance , or the novella . As a novella it is read as reworking legends and myths , many of them , especially the motifs of his reburial in Canaan , associated with the Egyptian god Osiris , though some compare the burial of his bones at Shechem with the disposal of Dionysus ’ s bones at Delphi . The reworked legends and folklore were probably inserted into the developing textual tradition of the Bible between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE . Most scholars place its composition in a genre that flourished in the Persian period of the Exile .
For Schenke , the tradition of Joseph 's burial at Shechem can only be understood as a secondary , Israelitic historical interpretation woven around a more ancient Canaanite shrine in that area . Wright has indeed argued that , ' the patriarch Joseph was not an Israelite hero who became Egyptianised , but an Egyptian divinity who was Hebraised.'
= = = Schenke 's hypothesis = = =
Hans @-@ Martin Schenke , starting from an analysis of John 4 : 4 – 6 , in which Jesus encounters a Samaritan woman at the town Sychar , made an extensive analysis of the ancient sources , together with an examination of the site . The curiosity of the Gospel text for scholars lies in the mention of an otherwise unattested town in the field , and the failure of the text to refer to Joseph 's Tomb , despite mentioning the field Jacob allotted to Joseph , and Jacob 's well . In Schenke 's view , from the beginning of the Hellenistic period down to the 1st century CE , when the author of John 's gospel was presumably writing , the grave commemorating Joseph stood by Jacob 's Well . This grave was shifted , together with the sacred tree and Jacob 's field , sometime between that date and the earliest testimony we have in the Bordeaux itinerary in 333 CE . , which locates it elsewhere , by Shechem / Tel Balāṭa .
= = History of the identification and use of the site = =
= = = Pilgrim accounts = = =
The Itinerarium Burdigalense ( 333 CE ) notes : ‘ At the foot of the mountain itself , is a place called Sichem . Here is a tomb in which Joseph is laid , in the parcel of ground which Jacob his father gave to him . " Eusebius of Caesarea in the 4th @-@ century records in his Onomasticon : " Suchem , city of Jacob now deserted . The place is pointed out in the suburb of Neapolis . There the tomb of Joseph is pointed out nearby . " Jerome , writing of Saint Paula 's sojourn in Palestine writes that ' turning off the way ( from Jacob 's well ) , she saw the tombs of the twelve patriarchs ' Jerome himself , together with the Byzantine monk George Syncellus , who had lived many years in Palestine , wrote that all twelve patriarchs , Joseph included , were buried at Sychem .
Both Theodosius I and Theodosius II ordered a search for Joseph ’ s bones , much to the utter dismay of the Samaritan community . An imperial commission was dispatched to retrieve the bones of the Patriarchs around 415 CE , and on failing to obtain them at Hebron , sought to at least secure Joseph ’ s bones from Shechem . No gravestone marked the exact site , possibly because the Samaritans had removed one to avoid Christian interference . The officials had to excavate the general area where graves abound and , on finding an intact marble sepulchre beneath an empty coffin , concluded that it must contain Joseph ’ s bones , and sent the sarcophagus to Byzantium , where it was incorporated into Hagia Sophia . Jerome reports that apparently the Christians had intended to remove Joseph 's bones to their city , but a column of fire rose skyward from the tomb scaring them away . The Samaritans subsequently covered the tomb with earth rendering it inaccessible .
Christian pilgrim and archdeacon Theodosius ( 518 – 520 ) in his De situ terrae sanctae mentions that ' close to Jacob 's Well are the remains of Joseph the Holy ' . The Madaba Mosaic Map ( 6th century ) designates a site somewhat problematically with the legend – ' Joseph 's ' ( τὸ τοῦ Ὶωσήφ ) – where the usual adjective ' holy ' ( hagios ) accompanying mentions of saints and their shrines is lacking .
Crusader and medieval sources generally are , according to Hans @-@ Martin Schenke , highly misleading regarding exactly where the tomb was situated . He concluded that in the Middle Ages , as earlier , various groups ( Jews , Samaritans , Christians and Moslems ) at different periods identified different things in different places all as Joseph ’ s tomb Sometimes Balata , with its spring , seems indicated , as in the following two examples , which identify the tomb not as a structure , but as something by a spring and under a tree . It was evidently a site for Muslim pilgrimage at that time .
In 1173 the Persian traveller al @-@ Harawi paid homage at the tomb , and wrote :
There is also near Nâblus the spring of Al Khudr ( Elias ) , and the field of Yûsuf as Sadik ( Joseph ) ; further , Joseph is buried at the foot of the tree at this place . ’
Around the year 1225 , Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi wrote :
There is here a spring called ‘ Ain al Khudr . Yûsuf ( Joseph ) as Sadik – peace be on him ! - was buried here , and his tomb is well known , lying under the tree .
as did Benjamin of Tudela — who wrote that the Samaritans in Nablus were in possession of it . William of Malmesbury describes it as overlaid with white marble , next to the mausolea of his brothers . Menachem ben Peretz of Hebron ( 1215 ) writes that in Shechem he saw the tomb of Joseph son of Jacob with two marble pillars next to it — one at its head and another at its foot — and a low stone wall surrounding it . Ishtori Haparchi ( 1322 ) places the tombstone of Joseph 450 meters north of Balāta , while Alexander de Ariosti ( 1463 ) and Francesco Suriano ( 1485 ) associate it with the church over Jacob ’ s well . Samuel bar Simson ( 1210 ) , Jacob of Paris ( 1258 ) , and Johannes Poloner ( 1422 ) locate it by Nablus . Gabriel Muffel of Nuremberg discerns a tomb to Joseph in a monument to the west of Nablus , halfway between that city and Sebaste . Mandeville ( 1322 ) and Maundrell ( 1697 ) , among others , also mention its existence , although it is debatable as to whether any of these reports refer to the currently recognised location . Samuel ben Samson ( 1210 ) appears to place the tomb at Shiloh . Mandeville ( 1322 ) locates it ' nigh beside ' Nablus as does Maundrell ( 1697 ) , but the indications are vague . Maundrell describes his sepulchre as located in a small mosque just by Nablus , which does not fit the present location .
Although the Koran does not mention details of Joseph 's burial , Islamic tradition points to Nablus as being the authentic site . However , some early Islamic geographers identified the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron as housing his tomb . While Ali of Herat ( 1119 ) , Yaqut ( 1229 ) and Ibn Battuta ( 1369 ) all report the Hebron traditions , they also mention the existence of a tomb of Joseph at Nablus . Later Muslim chroniclers even mention a third site purporting to be the authentic tomb , near Beit Ijza .
= = = 19th @-@ century accounts = = =
William Cooke Taylor ( 1838 ) describes the biblical parcel of ground Jacob gave to Joseph as situated on plain of Mukhna , and identifies the tomb as an oriental weli structure at the entrance to the valley of Nablus , to the right near the base of Mt Ebal . The sarcophagus , he suggests , lies underneath or somewhere else in the vicinity of this plain , and comments :
'The present monument ... is a place of resort , not only for Jews and Christians , but Mohammedans and Samaritans ; all of whom concur in the belief that it stands on the vertiable spot where the patriarch was buried.'
In 1839 , the Jewish traveller Loewe based his identification of the tomb as near Jacob 's Well by a topographical argument . Scripture , he argued , calls the place neither an emek ( valley ) nor a shephelah ( plain ) , but a ' portion of field ' ( chelkat hasadeh ) , and concluded : ' in the whole of Palestine there is not such another plot to be found , a dead level , without the least hollow or swelling in a circuit of two hours . ' In 1839 , it was recorded that Jews frequently visited the tomb and that many inscriptions in Hebrew were visible on the walls . The site was " kept very neat and in good repair by the bounty of Jews who visited it . "
John Wilson ( 1847 ) writes that the tomb lies about two or three hundred yards to the north of Jacob 's Well , across the valley . He describes it as ' a small solid erection in the form of a wagon roof , over what is supposed to be the patriarch ’ s grave , with a small pillar or altar at each of its extremities , sometimes called the tombs of Ephraim and Manasseh , and the middle of an enclosure without a covering . Many visitors names , in the Hebrew and Samaritan characters , are written on the walls of this enclosure . ' One of the inscriptions is said to intimate the tomb 's repair by a Jew from Egypt , Elijah son of Meir , around 1749 . Wilson adds that ' The Jews of Nablus take upon themselves the duty of keeping the tomb in order . They applied to us for a subscription to aid in making some repairs and we complied with their request ' . These Hebrew and Samaritan inscriptions were still visible on the white plastered walls as late as 1980 , as were small lamps in an internal recess , probably donated by Jews during the 18th and 19th centuries .
Rabbi Joseph Schwarz ( 1850 ) who had lived in Palestine for 16 years , identified the village of Abulnita , ' about 2 English miles east of Shechem ' , as the site ' where Joseph lies buried ' . Western travellers to Palestine in the 19th century described their impressions of the site in travelogues . John Ross Browne ( 1853 ) writes : ' We also visited the reputed site of Joseph 's Tomb . A rude stone building covers the pretended sepulcher ; but the best authorities deny that there was any evidence that Joseph was buried here . ' Howard Crosby also visited the site during 1851 . He designated it , ' the so @-@ called tomb of Joseph , ' describing it as ' a plain white Santon 's tomb , or Wely , such as is everywhere seen in Mohammedan countries , excepting that this one is roofless , and consequently lacks the usual white dome . In the interior , a vine grows from a corner , and spreads upon a trellis over the tomb , forming a pleasant bower . ' Louis Félicien Joseph Caignart de Saulcy and Edouard de Warren ( 1853 ) describe it as ' a small Mussulman oualy ( weli , i.e. chapel ) [ ... ] said to be the tomb of Joseph , ' noting it was just to the east of what the Arabs called Bir @-@ Yakub , Jacob 's Well . Hackett noted in 1857 that the tomb is placed diagonally to the walls , instead of parallel , and found ' the walls of the interior covered with the names of pilgrims , representing almost every land and language ; though the Hebrew character was the most prominent one . ' Thomson noted in 1883 that ' the entire building is fast crumbling to ruin , presenting a most melancholy spectacle . ' Being exposed to the weather , ' it has no pall or votive offering of any kind , nor any marks of respect such as are seen at the sepulchres of the most insignificant Muslim saints . ' During the late 19th century , sources report the Jewish custom of burning small articles such as gold lace , shawls or handkerchiefs , in the two low pillars at either end of the tomb . This was done in " memory of the patriarch who sleeps beneath " .
= = = = Detailed survey by Conder , 1878 – 89 = = = =
Claude R. Conder provides a detailed description of the site in his works Tent Work in Palestine ( 1878 ) , Survey of Western Palestine ( 1881 ) and Palestine ( 1889 ) .
The enclosure
It is located on the road @-@ side from Balata to ‘ Askar , at the end of a row of fine fig trees . The open courtyard surrounding the tomb measures about 18 foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) square . The plastered , whitewashed walls , about 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) thick , are in good repair and stand 10 foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high . Entrance to the courtyard is from the north through the ruin of a little square domed building . There are two Hebrew inscriptions on the south wall . An additional English inscription notes that the structure was entirely rebuilt at the expense of the English consul at Damascus by early 1868 .
The tomb itself measures 6 foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) long and stands 4 foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) high . It consisted of a long narrow plastered block with an arched roof , having a pointed cross section . The tomb is not in line with the walls of the courtyard , which have a bearing of 202 ° , nor is it in the middle of the enclosure , being nearest to the west wall . Two short plastered pedestals with shallow cup @-@ shaped hollows at their tops stand at the head and foot of the tomb . The hollows are blackened by fire due to the Jewish custom of burning offerings of shawls , silks or gold lace on the pillar altars . Both Jews and Samaritans burn oil lamps and incense in the pillar cavity .
Conder also questions the fact that the tomb points north to south , inconsistent with Muslim tombs north of Mecca . This fact did not however diminish Muslim veneration of the shrine :
" The tomb points approximately north and south , thus being at right angles to the direction of Moslem tombs north of Mecca . How the Mohammedans explain this disregard of orientation in so respected a Prophet as " our Lord Joseph , " I have never heard ; perhaps the rule is held to be only established since the time of Mohammed . The veneration in which the shrine is held by the Moslem peasantry is , at all events , not diminished by this fact . "
= = = Confusion over competing shrine = = =
In the course of pin @-@ pointing the location of the tomb , the Reverend H.B. Hackett in Sir William Smith 's A dictionary of the Bible ( 1863 ) mentions the existence of two tombs bearing an association to Joseph in Nablus . In addition to the one close to the well , ( location of Conder 's survey ) , he describes another exclusively Muslim tomb in the vicinity , about a quarter of a mile up the valley on the slope of Mt . Gerizim . He is not able to conclude which of the tombs is that of the biblical Joseph , but cites Arthur Penrhyn Stanley ( 1856 ) that at the Muslim tomb " a later Joseph is also commemorated at the sanctuary . " Stanley himself writes that the little mosque on Gerizim 's north @-@ eastern slopes is known by various names including Allon Moreh ( Oak of Allon ) , Aharon Moreh ( Ark of Moreh ) and Sheykh al @-@ Amad ( Saint of the Pillar ) which he suggests commemorate biblcal traditions . Stanley also quotes Buckingham , who mentions that the Samaritans maintain that the alternative tomb belongs to a certain Rabbi Joseph of Nablus . John Mills ( 1864 ) writes that claims of the tomb belonging to Rabbi Joseph of Nablus are unfounded , the structure being called by the Samaritans " The Pillar " in commemoration of the pillar set up by Joshua . Mills rather identifies the supposed rabbi 's tomb with a mosque named after a
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metrical multiplayer game like Evolve . Rubin once hoped that Turtle Rock could develop a free @-@ to @-@ play business model for the game . This idea was later scrapped , and resulted in some significant changes in terms of the game 's gameplay and cast . On May 26 , 2011 , THQ officially announced they would be publishing Turtle Rock 's next major title . On June 10 , 2011 , THQ described Turtle Rock 's next title as " wild " .
At that time , THQ had already been in a financial crisis that had begun in 2010 , and eventually declared bankruptcy on December 19 , 2012 . Their game , Evolve , was listed , alongside other unannounced titles from : Relic Entertainment , Vigil Games , and THQ Studios Montreal in court documents filed by THQ . With THQ unable to continue its publishing and funding roles , an auction was held for other publishers to acquire these titles . Publishers interested in the game visited Turtle Rock Studio to see their " secret project " . The company 's founders felt frustrated , and Rubin later suggested that Turtle Rock bid $ 250 @,@ 000 for its own project , which Ashton described as " what [ they ] had in the bank " . However , they were outbid by Take @-@ Two Interactive , which paid $ 11 million to acquire the game and to secure the rights to the entire franchise . According to Turtle Rock , they were " super excited " to work with Take @-@ Two . The game was set to be published under Take @-@ Two 's publishing label 2K Games , and was formally introduced on January 7 , 2014 by gaming magazine Game Informer . During the game 's development , the team 's size expanded to 75 staff members . Originally the game was to be released in October 2014 , however 2K later delayed the release date to allow Turtle Rock to further polish the game . Evolve was eventually released worldwide on February 10 , 2015 , for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 , and Xbox One platforms .
= = = Future = = =
In May 2016 , Turtle Rock announced that the company was working on a new intellectual property . The studio would also consider releasing titles via Steam 's early access program , which allows players to provide feedback on unfinished games or products as they are being developed .
= = List of games = =
Turtle Rock Studios is best known for their work on Valve Corporation 's Counter @-@ Strike and Left 4 Dead franchises . Works include :
= = = Left 4 Dead = = =
Left 4 Dead is a first @-@ person shooter survival horror video game released in November 2008 for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 . Turtle Rock led the game 's development , with assistance provided by publisher Valve . It puts emphasis on co @-@ operative gameplay , in which players must fight against zombies in order to complete levels . In addition , the game features an asymmetrical multiplayer mode called Versus mode , in which players fight against a zombie which is controlled by another player . The game was built atop the most advanced version of the Source Engine available at the time and introduced version 2 of Turtle Rock 's AI technology , which had since been updated from the AI used for the bots in Condition Zero . The game was released on Microsoft Windows and the Xbox 360 in November 2008 . The game received critical acclaim . The PC version of the game received an 89 out of 100 from Metacritic , a review aggregator . The title was thought to have redefined co @-@ operative gameplay . The success of Left 4 Dead led Valve to develop Left 4 Dead 2 , the next installment in the series . Alongside its sequel , the franchise had collectively sold 12 million copies as of October 1 , 2012 .
= = = Evolve = = =
Evolve was Turtle Rock 's next major project after Left 4 Dead . Published by 2K Games and powered by CryEngine 3 , the title is an asymmetrical multiplayer game which pits four players , who play as hunters in a first @-@ person perspective , against a player who plays as a monster in a third @-@ person view . An alpha version of the game was released on January 15 , 2015 . The full version was released on February 10 , 2015 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . While the game received generally positive reviews , its extensive list of downloadable content available at launch caused controversy . Nevertheless , the game shipped 2 @.@ 5 million copies as of May 18 , 2015 , and was considered as another " permanent IP " by owner Take @-@ Two Interactive .
= = Philosophy = =
The team 's founders enjoy playing co @-@ operative multiplayer games and are passionate about them , as they allow players to play alongside each other instead of against each other . In addition , they found it more fun than the typical competitive multiplayer experience . However , they thought that this type of game was not well @-@ developed , and often encouraged players to complete objectives alone . As a result , the company decided to develop a game which tasks players to deploy strategy and work with other players , leading to the development of both Left 4 Dead and Evolve .
The company 's management and staff enjoy a close relationship . Any staff member can play a game , provide feedback , suggest improvements , and even criticize it , regardless of their position . The team thought that they were " open " with their games . As a result , instead of holding a press conference to explain the game to critics , they choose to invite people to play it in the studio . This practice allows them to see " people leaving with a smile " , enabling them to gauge the real reactions of players and to see whether the game is welcomed or not . They also hope that through early access , they can introduce their games to a wide audience , and share the experience with the community prior to the game 's official launch .
= Kill Switch ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Kill Switch " is the eleventh episode of the fifth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered in the United States on the Fox network on February 15 , 1998 . It was written by William Gibson and Tom Maddox and directed by Rob Bowman . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Kill Switch " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 1 , being watched by 18 @.@ 04 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics , with several complimenting Mulder 's virtual experience .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully become targets of a rogue AI capable of the worst kind of torture while investigating the strange circumstances of the death of a reclusive computer genius rumored to have been researching artificial intelligence .
" Kill Switch " was co @-@ written by cyberpunk pioneers William Gibson and Tom Maddox . The two eventually wrote another episode for the show : season seven 's " First Person Shooter " . " Kill Switch " was written after Gibson and Maddox approached the series , offering to write an episode . Reminiscent of the " dark visions " of filmmaker David Cronenberg , the episode contained " many obvious pokes and prods at high @-@ end academic cyberculture . " In addition , " Kill Switch " contained several scenes featuring elaborate explosives and digital effects , including one wherein a computer @-@ animated Scully fights nurses in a virtual hospital . " Kill Switch " deals with various " Gibsonian " themes , including : alienation , paranoia , artificial intelligence , and transferring one 's consciousness into cyberspace , among others .
= = Plot = =
At a diner in Washington , D.C. , a man tries to access files on a laptop computer , but is repeatedly denied . Meanwhile , several drug dealers receive anonymous phone calls about the whereabouts of their competitors ; they are told that they are at the same diner . Two U.S. Marshals receive a similar phone call about an escaped prisoner . The drug dealers arrive in pairs as the man attempts to gain access to the files . Just as he does , the two Marshals appear and order everyone onto the floor , causing a shootout .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) arrive and identify the bodies of the drug dealers . Mulder also identifies the man with the laptop as Donald Gelman , " a Silicon Valley folk hero " who aspired to create an artificial intelligence . Mulder takes Gelman 's laptop and finds a CD inside . When he puts it into the car stereo , it plays " Twilight Time " by The Platters . However , the agents take it to the Lone Gunmen , who discover that the disc contains a large quantity of encrypted data . The trio , however , are unable to decipher it . Upon Scully 's suggestion , they access Gelman 's e @-@ mail account and find a message sent by someone named Invisigoth , saying that someone named David is missing .
The message contains a BIC code for an intermodal shipping container , which Mulder and Scully locate . When they approach it , a woman attempts to flee but is captured by Scully . The container turns out to be full of state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art computer equipment . The woman , the " Invisigoth " ( Kristin Lehman ) they 've been looking for , warns the agents that a laser @-@ armed Defense Department satellite has pinpointed their location . They quickly leave the area as the container is destroyed . Invisigoth , whose real name turns out to be Esther Nairn , tells the agents that Gelman succeeded in creating an artificial intelligence . She reveals that once the AI locates an enemy , it destroys them using the satellite . According to Esther , Gelman was creating " Kill Switch " , a virus that could destroy the AI . However , the AI learned of Gelman 's plans and killed him by luring the drug dealers and the police to the diner . The only way to destroy the AI is to find the computer on which it is stored . It turns out that David is Esther 's friend , and also worked with Gelman .
Mulder uses a government source to find a secret T3 line in Fairfax County , Virginia , one that the AI uses to access the Internet . He also finds the trailer that is connected to the T3 line . Meanwhile , Esther forces Scully to drive to David 's house . However , they find that the house has been destroyed . Esther admits that she and David had been planning to transfer their consciousness into cyberspace to enter the AI . Gelman , however , thought the idea was too dangerous . Esther also admits that she and David were in love , and were having an affair behind Gelman 's back . Meanwhile , Mulder finds much computer hardware inside the trailer . He also finds David ’ s dead body , with a virtual reality helmet on his head . Suddenly , Mulder is constrained by moving cables and wires , and experiences a strange vision in which he is in a hospital where nurses threaten to amputate his limbs unless he reveals Kill Switch 's location . Meanwhile , the AI locates Scully and Esther driving near a swing bridge . They become trapped on the bridge after the AI manipulates its drawing mechanism , causing Scully to persuade Esther to throw the laptop into the water . Just as it hits the water it is destroyed by the defense satellite 's laser strike .
Scully and Esther find the trailer in which Mulder is trapped . Esther reveals that she still has the CD on which the Kill Switch is stored . Scully puts it into the drive into the AI , which then releases Mulder . She gets him out of the trailer , but Esther stays inside . She uses the satellite to locate the trailer 's position , causing the missile to destroy the trailer , killing her . Mulder tells Scully that Esther 's consciousness probably joined the AI . Later , the Lone Gunmen get a strange message on their computer reading , " Bite me " . Just before the credits , we see a trailer in North Platte , Nebraska similar to the one where the AI lived , with automatic security cameras monitoring a boy who approaches the trailer to retrieve a football .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by acclaimed cyberpunk novelist William Gibson , together with fellow science fiction author Tom Maddox . The authors and long @-@ time friends had discussed various collaborations before and approached the production company with an offer to write an episode . The result was " Kill Switch " , which first aired on February 15 , 1998 . The episode made frequent appearances in reruns and its success encouraged Gibson to continue working in television , resulting in his writing of a second episode " First Person Shooter " — again in collaboration with Maddox — which aired on FOX two years later on February 27 , 2000 . " Kill Switch " deals with recurrent Gibsonian themes : alienation , paranoia , the will to survive , emergent technology , the evolution of artificial intelligence , virtual reality , and transferring one 's consciousness into cyberspace . The Vancouver Sun author Alex Strachan later compared many of the episode 's themes to that of Gibson 's books , most notably in his novels Neuromancer , Mona Lisa Overdrive , and Virtual Light .
" Kill Switch " was written outside the mytharc of the series as a standalone story , which Gibson intended to be reminiscent of the " dark visions " of filmmaker David Cronenberg and to contain " many obvious pokes and prods at high @-@ end academic cyberculture . " Gibson 's initial idea for the episode eventually evolved into the episode 's final act . This was later combined with Maddox 's idea of a deserted house with shuttered windows , surrounded by a chain @-@ link fence . The episode involved the merging of human and artificial intelligence on the World Wide Web , a concept that had been floating around cyber @-@ futuristic circles at the time . The episode 's rewriting and revision process took a significant amount of time and it was over a year before the episode was completed due to other priorities that series creator Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz had . When they were finally available , they made some revisions to the script , including upping Esther 's attitude and Mulder and Scully 's reactions to her . A scene involving Scully trying on a fake nose ring was deleted from the script . Gibson originally started watching the series on the suggestion of his daughter , 15 years old at the time . During filming , Gibson spent a majority of his time on the set only " because [ his ] daughter insisted on being there . "
= = = Filming and effects = = =
According to executive producer Frank Spotnitz , " Kill Switch " was the single most expensive episode that was filmed in Vancouver . In addition , the episode took a total of 22 days to film . The episode 's bridge scenes were filmed at the Westham Island Bridge , which spans Canoe Pass , British Columbia . The location had been discovered by Carter during a technical survey for the prior fifth season episode " Schizogeny " . Because the bridge was the sole means to access part of the Fraser River farming community in the area , filming was heavily restricted . Logistical issues with the bridge itself , such as restrictions on how many people could stand on the bridge at a time , also posed troubles for filming . Permission to film the scene wherein Esther throws the laptop into the river and it is subsequently vaporized by a laser strike from an orbiting weapons platform satellite required thirty days to obtain . The abandoned house that Mulder discovers was filmed at a historical landmark known locally as " Read House " .
The episode contained several scenes featuring elaborate explosives . The scene featuring a missile destroying a shipping container was originally scheduled to be filmed at one of Vancouver 's waterfront facilities . After permission for detonating explosive had been cleared by the city , the port rescinded its permission , claiming that the shot was not in its " best interests " . The special effects crew for The X @-@ Files decided to ship in as many containers as they could to a recycling center in the adjacent city of Burnaby , where filming went off " without a hitch " . The destruction of the trailer was filmed adjacent to the Boundary Bay Airport . After the explosion , the series received several complaints from people living as far as ten miles away from " ground zero " , complaining about the explosion and shockwave . The robot that attacked Mulder was inspired by the NASA Mars Rover . It was battery powered and cost $ 23 @,@ 000 to create and operate . The producers contracted with SPOT , a French @-@ owned commercial satellite surveillance company to obtain the satellite photos of the Washington D.C. area used in the episode .
A freelance computer artist created a 3 @-@ D image of Scully for the scene where she is fighting the nurses in the virtual hospital . Gillian Anderson was very pleased with the scene . She later noted that " I happened to be in good shape at the time and was just raring [ sic ] to get in there and be taking those half @-@ naked nurses out with some karate chops . " David Duchovny was not as exuberant ; when showed the script and directed to " be impressed with [ Scully 's ] karate skills " , he responded that " But I have no arms . I 've lost my arms . Why would I care about Scully 's karate ? " Dean Haglund later called the sequence " one of the great fight scenes , ever " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Kill Switch " premiered on the Fox network on February 15 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 1 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 18 @.@ 04 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Kill Switch " received largely positive reviews from critics . Francis Dass of New Straits Times was positive toward the episode , calling it " excellent " . John Keegan of Critical Myth gave the episode an 8 out of 10 , and wrote " Overall , this episode puts Gibson ’ s genre credibility to good use by taking standard concepts of cyberpunk and applying them to the series . " He did note that there are " a few minor characterization issues " , and that " not all of the concepts are pulled together as tightly as they could be " , but other than those points , he concluded that it was " solid and [ ... ] enjoyable " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two wrote that its themes were " fresh and new " and that the plot had " real heart to it " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B + and wrote that , while " William Gibson ’ s cyberpunk milieu wouldn ’ t necessarily seem to be the best fit for The X @-@ Files " , the episode " weirdly benefits from the lack of staff oversight . " He noted that it featured many elements to its plot , but was " a rare example of an X @-@ Files episode that works , [ despite the fact that ] it tries to do too much . " VanDerWerff was complimentary towards the story and called it " propulsive " ; he was particularly praise @-@ worthy of the fact that Scully was featured heavily in the episode . He cited the scene wherein a virtual Scully roundhouse kicks a group of nurses as one of the best shots in the episode , and called it a " hysterical moment " . Brett Love of TV Squad stated that it is his favorite episode of The X @-@ Files , considering it a " great story " and describing it as a " tough one to beat " . Paula Vitaris of Cinefantastique gave the episode a positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . Vitaris praised the episode 's directing and noted that the entry was " a great improvement over The X @-@ Files 's earlier A.I. episode , first season 's " Ghost in the Machine " . Vitaris cited " Mulder 's virtual experience " as the " highlight of the episode " .
= = = Awards = = =
" Kill Switch " earned an Emmy Award by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for Outstanding Picture Editing - Series .
= Patrice Chéreau =
Patrice Chéreau ( French : [ pa.tʁis ʃe.ʁo ] ; 2 November 1944 – 7 October 2013 ) was a French opera and theatre director , filmmaker , actor and producer . In France he is best known for his work for the theatre , internationally for his films La Reine Margot and Intimacy , and for his staging of the Jahrhundertring , the centenary Ring Cycle at the Bayreuth Festival in 1976 . Winner of almost twenty movie awards , including the Cannes Jury Prize and the Golden Berlin Bear , Chéreau served as president of the jury at the 2003 Cannes festival .
From 1966 , he was artistic director of the Public @-@ Theatre in the Parisian suburb of Sartrouville , where in his team were stage designer Richard Peduzzi , costume designer Jacques Schmidt and lighting designer André Diot , with whom he collaborated in many later productions . From 1982 , he was director of " his own stage " at the Théâtre Nanterre @-@ Amandiers at Nanterre where he staged plays by Jean Racine , Marivaux and Shakespeare as well as works by Jean Genet , Heiner Müller and Bernard @-@ Marie Koltès .
He accepted selected opera productions , such as : the first performance of the three @-@ act version of Alban Berg 's Lulu , completed by Friedrich Cerha , at the Paris Opera in 1979 ; Berg 's Wozzeck at the Staatsoper Berlin in 1994 ; Wagner 's Tristan und Isolde at La Scala in 2007 ; Janáček 's From the House of the Dead , shown at several festivals and the Metropolitan Opera ; and , as his last staging , Elektra by Richard Strauss , first performed at the Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence Festival in July 2013 . He was awarded the Europe Theatre Prize in 2008 .
= = Career = =
Chéreau was born in Lézigné , Maine @-@ et @-@ Loire . His father Jean @-@ Baptiste Chéreau was a painter , his mother Marguerite Pelicier a graphic designer . He attended school in Paris . Early on he was taken to the Louvre and became interested in the arts , cinema , theatre and music . At age 12 , he designed stage sets for plays . He became well known to Parisian critics as director , actor , and stage manager of his high @-@ school theatre ( lycée Louis @-@ le @-@ Grand ) . At 15 , he was enthusiastically celebrated as a theatre prodigy . In 1964 , at the age of 19 , he began directing for the professional theatre . While studying at the Sorbonne , he professionally staged Victor Hugo 's L 'Intervention , and subsequently dropped out of the university .
= = = 1966 : Sartrouville = = =
In 1966 , Chéreau was appointed artistic director of the Public @-@ Theatre in the Parisian suburb of Sartrouville . With " idealism and inventiveness " , he made the theatre a " municipal commodity " , presenting not only theatre but also " cinema , concerts , poetry productions , lectures and debates about everything from politics to pot " . His theatrical team included costume designer Jacques Schmidt , stage designer Richard Peduzzi and lighting designer André Diot , with all of whom he collaborated in many later productions .
In 1968 , he directed The Soldiers by Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz at the Festival of Youth Theatre in Nancy . In 1969 , he staged his first opera production , Rossini 's L 'italiana in Algeri for the Spoleto Festival , again with his Sartrouville team . The following year he established a close artistic relationship with the leadership of the Piccolo Teatro in Milan , Paolo Grassi and Giorgio Strehler . There , he staged Pablo Neruda 's " revolutionary oratorio " The Splendour and Death of Joaquin Murieta . In 1970 , he directed Shakespeare 's Richard II at the Théâtre de France . His first staging for the Paris Opera was in 1974 Offenbach 's Les contes d 'Hoffmann . He showed Hoffmann , sung by Nicolai Gedda , as a " sensitive poet for whom love is beyond reach , ... a drunken loser " . In 1975 , he worked
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It was noted that they spoke about some countries with " outright condescension " .
The ceremony was recorded by three separate broadcasters : the BBC , the Olympic Broadcasting Services ( directed by the Finnish state broadcaster YLE on behalf of the OBS ) , and by independent production company Done and Dusted , hired by LOCOG and working under Boyle 's direction . This was the first time that an independent production company had been used for an Olympic ceremony . This situation led to some tension , as Boyle wanted more artistic control and felt he was getting no co @-@ operation from the OBS . He criticised the OBS coverage during his commentary for the BBC DVD . In addition , the BBC filmed some of the pre @-@ recorded parts of the ceremony . The filming was directed for television by Hamish Hamilton , who described it as " easily the most difficult job of my life " .
The BBC released footage of the entire ceremony on 29 October 2012 , edited by Danny Boyle and with background extras , filling more than one disc of a five DVD or Blu @-@ ray disc set , which also contained more than seven hours of sporting highlights as well as the complete closing ceremony . A ' BBC commentary @-@ free ' option for the opening ceremony is available on the DVD , as well as a commentary track by Danny Boyle and Frank Cottrell Boyce . In contrast the NBC DVD only has highlights of the opening ceremony .
= = Reviews = =
The Times described the ceremony as " a masterpiece " , with The Daily Telegraph saying it was " brilliant , breathtaking , bonkers and utterly British " . The BBC 's chief sports writer Tom Fordyce called it " eccentric " and " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " , saying " no @-@ one expected ... it would be quite so gloriously daft , so cynicism @-@ squashingly charming and , well , so much pinch @-@ yourself fun . " Two weeks after the ceremony Jonathan Freedland of The Guardian wrote that " Boyle 's spectacular , so beautifully executed and ingeniously conceived it lingers in the mind even as the closing draws near , stood apart from its predecessors thanks not only to its humour and eccentricity , but also because it had something to say . " Writing in The Observer , Jackie Kay commented that " it seemed that Boyle had invented a new kind of opening ceremony , a concept ceremony , one that embraces big ideas as passionately as it does technical flamboyancy " . The Stage said that " Danny Boyle 's spectacular and moving Olympics Opening Ceremony was undoubtedly the theatrical highlight of 2012 " .
Although praise came from across the political spectrum , a few on the British political right were unhappy . Daily Mail columnist Rick Dewsbury was critical of the Grime music and portrayal of the NHS and of mixed @-@ race families . Aidan Burley , a Conservative MP , denounced the ceremony on Twitter as " leftie multicultural crap " . Burley 's comments were dismissed by many fellow Conservatives , including David Cameron and Boris Johnson .
Foreign reaction was overwhelmingly positive . The New York Times said the ceremony was " hilariously quirky ... a wild jumble of the celebratory and the fanciful ; the conventional and the eccentric ; and the frankly off @-@ the @-@ wall . " Forbes called it Boyle 's " love song to Britain " , while Sports Illustrated noted its political aspects , calling it " a celebration of protest and dissent " . The Sydney Morning Herald said it was " an unforgettable start ... at once subversive and sublime " and The Times of India said " London presented a vibrant picture of Great Britain 's rich heritage and culture . " The Chinese news agency Xinhua described the ceremony as " dazzling " and an " eccentric and exuberant celebration of British history , art and culture " . Chinese artist Ai Weiwei praised the ceremony for its " human touch " , saying " In London , they really turned the ceremony into a party ... such a density of information about events and stories and literature and music ; about folktales and movies . "
Russian President Putin said the ceremony was " wonderful and unforgettable " . Dmitry Medvedev said " It was an exceptional spectacle , very well prepared and quite rich ... it succeeded in creating a very British atmosphere ... they managed to find the right language ... to communicate . " Panos Samaras of Greece 's NET said " it was more like a big musical , a rock opera ... than an Olympics ceremony " . French sports newspaper L 'Équipe wrote that it " took the classic from such events and had fun with them " whilst Le Parisien said it " was magnificent , inventive and offbeat drawing heavily on the roots of British identity " . Germany 's Die Welt hailed it as " spectacular , glitzy but also provoking and moving " .
Chinese news CCTV @-@ 4 said the ceremony was a " stunning feast for the eyes " . South Korea 's Yonhap said it was " by turns dramatic , imaginative , humorous and solemn " and " weaved the story of the country 's past , present and future " . Singapore 's Straits Times said it was a " grand show " noteworthy for both " scale " and " authenticity " . The Australian Daily praised a " glorious pandemonium devoted to London 's thriving , chaotic energy ... deliberately revelling in the chaos of Britain 's free society and popular culture " . France 's Le Figaro said it reflected " the best contributions that Britain has given to the world ... its sense of humour , its music , and of course sport " . The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation said it was a " rocking , rollicking , sometimes quiet and brooding ceremony . " Qatar 's The Peninsula said London did a " spectacular job " making the ceremony a " memorable event " .
In an end of the year review , British magazine Q said " It could all have been so different . As the London 2012 Summer Olympics approached , the tide of scepticism seemed almost irreversible . There was the heavy @-@ handed sponsorship , the draconian security , the ticketing problems , the ballooning budget , and the lurking fear that the Opening Ceremony might be , in director Danny Boyle 's pungent description , ' shite ' . It took less than four hours on the night of Friday 27 July to turn the whole country around . Not only was the ceremony demonstrably not shite , it was the most surprising , moving , spectacular cultural event this country had ever seen ... modern Britain , in all its berserk , multi @-@ faceted glory . "
The writer of the ceremony , Frank Cottrell Boyce , said : " People around us thought it might need defending , so I was told to do press the next morning . I was completely surprised [ by the positive response ] . A lot of people were surprised . But I don 't think Danny was surprised . Danny never blinked . At no point did he show any feeling that it was going to be anything but amazing . And he was right . "
= = Awards and accolades = =
Won the ' Beyond Theatre ' award at the Evening Standard Theatre Awards , November 2012 . A ' roar of delight ' went up from the audience when it was announced that the creative team had won the award .
Won the " Theatre Event of the Year " at the Whatsonstage.com theatre awards , February 2013 . This was decided by public vote . Boyle accepted the award along with some of the volunteer performers .
Won the " NME Award for Music Moment of the Year " at the NME Awards in February 2013 .
Won the prestigious Judges ' Award for Danny Boyle at the Royal Television Society Awards , March 2013 . The ceremony was described as " the most surprising , dazzling , original night of television of the year " .
Won the Award in Design Craft and Innovation at the Royal Television Society Awards , March 2013 , which went to the production team .
Won the Best Director ( Multi @-@ Camera ) award at the BAFTA Television Craft Awards , which went to Hamish Hamilton and Tapani Parm , April 2013 .
Nominated The ceremony was one of the nominations for the Radio Times Audience Award at the BAFTA Television Awards , held in London on 12 May 2013 . The production team was also nominated for the Television Sport and Live Events 2013 Award .
The ceremony was nominated in five categories at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards , 22 September 2013 in Los Angeles :
Won Outstanding Art Direction for Variety or Nonfiction Programming . The nominees were Mark Tildesley ( Production Designer ) , Suttirat Anne Larlarb ( Production Designer ) and Danny Boyle ( Art Director ) .
Nominated Outstanding Picture Editing for Short @-@ Form Segments and Variety Specials . Sascha Dhillon ( Editor ) was nominated for the " Happy and Glorious " segment .
Nominated Outstanding Lighting Design / Lighting Direction for a Variety Special . The nominees were Patrick Woodroffe ( Lighting Designer ) , Adam Bassett ( Lighting Director ) , Al Gurdon ( Director of Photography ) and Tim Routledge ( Moving Light Programmer ) .
Nominated Outstanding Special Class Programs - 2013 .
Nominated Outstanding Directing for a Variety Special . The nominees were Hamish Hamilton ( director of the overall televising ) and Bucky Gunts ( director of the NBC coverage ) .
In December 2012 the culture critic of The Guardian picked the ceremony as " best art event of the year " . A British public survey by Samsung voted it the second most inspiring television moment of all time , second only to the 1969 moon landing . A Digital Spy survey of more than 25 @,@ 000 overwhelmingly voted the ceremony as the entertainment highlight of 2012 .
The ceremony was the second most @-@ mentioned entertainment event on the internet in 2012 , with just over 6 million mentions , coming second to the Grammy Awards . The BBC reported that it was the most requested item from 2012 on its iPlayer on @-@ demand service , with 3 @.@ 3 million requests .
Boyle was offered a knighthood in late 2012 , but turned it down , saying " I 'm very proud to be an equal citizen and I think that 's what the Opening Ceremony was actually about . "
= = Legacy = =
The ceremony was identified by some commentators as precipitating a new mood in the United Kingdom : it " had barely finished before it had become a byword for a new approach , not only to British culture but to Britishness itself . Politicians would soon be referring to it , using it as shorthand for a new kind of patriotism that does not lament a vanished Britain but loves the country that has changed . Boyle 's ceremony was hailed from ( almost ) all sides ... for providing a nation that had grown used to mocking its myriad flaws with a new , unfamiliarly positive view of itself ... It was , perhaps , this lack of cynicism that people responded to ... So used to British irony and detachment , it felt refreshing to witness an unembarrassed , positive case for this country . Boyle himself says this was the most important thing he took away from the Olympic experience : " How important it is to believe in something . You might make a fool of yourself and people will go , ' How can you believe in that , you stupid idiot ? ' But if you believe in something , you carry people with you . "
Business leaders also took inspiration from the event , admiring its risk @-@ taking and creative freedom , as well as the trust placed in and loyalty inspired from the workers and volunteers . In February 2013 the BBC 's Head of Drama Ben Stephenson told an audience of writers , commissioners and producers that he " wanted them to seek inspiration from the opening ceremony of the London Olympics " which , he said , " had scale and brilliance and , above all , had succeeded not in spite of its Britishness but because of its Britishness , delighting viewers here and around the world by rooting itself in the authentic stories and spirit of these islands . " Steve Coogan told Frank Cottrell Boyce that he felt it was " like the emperor 's new clothes in reverse ... it made irony and postmodernism feel tired and past its sell @-@ by date " , and Russell T Davies told Boyce : " It changed my idea of the possible . "
Reviewing the 2014 Winter Olympics opening ceremony at Sochi , Russia , Owen Gibson of The Guardian observed that with his ' complex , intimate snapshot of " who we were , who we are and who we wish to be " ' , Boyle ' rewrote the rule book for opening ceremonies ' .
= Conspiracy ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" Conspiracy " is the 25th episode of the syndicated American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , originally aired on May 9 , 1988 , in the United States . The premise was conceived by the show 's creator Gene Roddenberry in a single sentence overview titled " The Assassins " , being expanded into a thirty page story by Robert Sabaroff . From this , the teleplay was produced by Tracy Tormé and the episode directed by Cliff Bole .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship USS Enterprise @-@ D. Following a meeting with a fellow Captain , the strange behavior of high @-@ ranking officers leads Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) and the crew of the Enterprise to uncover a conspiracy of senior Starfleet officers possessed by parasitical aliens who are preparing to invade the United Federation of Planets .
Numerous make @-@ up effects were created by make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore , including an exploding head using raw meat . There were concerns by producers that some of the effects were too graphic , but after a viewing by a staff member 's son , they decided to broadcast it uncut . The episode has subsequently been included in some best episode lists of the series , and won one of three Primetime Emmy Awards for The Next Generation 's first season . Controversial when originally broadcast , it was initially banned from broadcast in the United Kingdom , and required a warning before airing in Canada .
= = Plot = =
While the Enterprise is en route to Pacifica on a scientific mission , Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) receives a highly confidential message from an old friend , Captain Walker Keel ( Jonathan Farwell ) of the USS Horatio . Keel refuses to discuss his concerns , even though the frequency he is using is supposed to be a secure channel , and insists on a face @-@ to @-@ face meeting . Once they arrive at Dytallix B for this secret meeting , the crew discover the Horatio and two other Federation ships already present . Picard beams alone to the surface and is met by Captain Keel and the other captains . Keel reports strange orders from Starfleet headquarters and what he implies are suspicious deaths of Starfleet officers , and expresses concern of a conspiracy . Picard refuses to accept this without proof , but Keel warns him to remain wary . When the captain returns to the Enterprise , he is challenged by Counselor Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) about keeping his contact with Keel secret . Picard is skeptical about the conspiracy , but says that he trusts his old friend completely . The Enterprise resumes its previous journey . Picard has Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) review all orders issued by Starfleet Command in the past six months . While the ship is still on its way to Pacifica , a disturbance is detected in nearby space . Upon investigating this , the Enterprise discovers a mass of debris that surely must be the shattered remains of the Horatio . Data completes his study and finds several strange orders from the senior levels of Starfleet . Picard informs his senior staff of the conspiracy theory , and orders the Enterprise to Earth .
As it approaches Earth , the Enterprise receives no response from Starfleet Command . Eventually , a transmission is received from a trio of Starfleet admirals : Savar ( Henry Darrow ) , Arron ( Ray Reinhardt ) and Admiral Quinn ( Ward Costello ) , who recently made an inspection of the Enterprise ( in " Coming Of Age " ) . They are surprised by the Enterprise 's presence , but invite Captain Picard and Commander Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) to dinner . Quinn requests to beam aboard the Enterprise for a tour . Captain Picard recalls being warned by Quinn about some kind of threat to Starfleet when he was last aboard . Upon the admiral 's arrival , Picard discusses matters with him and comes to believe that he is an impostor , or under some sort of alien influence . After warning Riker of his concerns and asking him to watch Quinn , the captain beams down to Starfleet headquarters to attend the dinner . On arrival , Picard is greeted by the other two Admirals who are accompanied by Quinn 's assistant , Lt. Commander Remmick ( Robert Schenkkan ) . Meanwhile , Riker visits Quinn 's quarters on the Enterprise and questions him about what he has in the small box he brought with him . Quinn tells Riker of a superior life form within the box . Riker attempts to leave but Quinn throws Riker across the room . A security team arrives to subdue Quinn , who is able to withstand a great amount of phaser @-@ fire before he collapses . The ship 's chief medical officer , Dr. Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) , finds a small protrusion on the back of his neck . She discovers that a bug @-@ like parasite has latched itself onto Quinn 's brain and is controlling him . Dr. Crusher warns Picard of this incident when he contacts the ship in private . He is advised that the infected person can only be stopped by a phaser set to ' kill ' : the captain points out that he is unarmed . He then has no choice but to go in to dinner with his three superiors .
A bowl of living larvae is served at the meal , to Picard 's disgust . He attempts to leave , only to find Riker blocking his way . The commander appears to be controlled by the parasite Quinn brought to the Enterprise . When the others see a prosthetic protrusion on the back of Riker 's neck , he is accepted as one of them and allowed to dine . They reveal that the parasites are seeking to take over Starfleet , using humanoids as hosts . When he is about to put a handful of the larvae in his mouth , Riker suddenly produces a phaser and fires on one of the Admirals . Picard picks up a fallen weapon and the two Enterprise officers subdue the infected , causing parasites to leave the hosts and flee . One of the parasites scurries under a closed door and Picard and Riker follow it . They find Remmick ingesting the parasite to join several others inside him . Picard and Riker fire upon Remmick , destroying his body but freeing a giant parasite ; the two continue to fire until it is destroyed .
Later , Dr. Crusher reports that the other parasites , including the one in Quinn , have shriveled up as they are unable to survive without the creature that was inside Remmick . As they help to settle matters with Starfleet headquarters , they find that before Remmick was killed , he had sent a signal to a distant quadrant of the galaxy . The signal is thought to be a homing beacon .
= = Production = =
Gene Roddenberry originated the idea for the episode in a single @-@ sentence proposal entitled " The Assassins " . Robert Sabaroff expanded this idea to thirty pages , but his version was seen as too expensive . Tracy Tormé was then given the job of rewriting it , but some producers thought the new version was too dark until Roddenberry saw it and endorsed the new version . In one of the original versions , it was a faction within Starfleet who were conspirators rather than alien parasites , but Roddenberry did not like showing Starfleet itself in such a dark manner . The premise was based on the Iran – Contra affair .
The director of the episode , Cliff Bole , was a school friend of makeup supervisor Michael Westmore . The scene with Remmick at the end of the episode was added in post @-@ production , as it was originally scripted to have Riker and Picard come face to face with a full @-@ sized mother creature . The part where the parasite enters Remmick 's throat reportedly took many takes because the bulging effect was made by Westmore blowing into air bladders under a false neck , and Bole kept trying to make Westmore hyperventilate from the exertion . The parasites themselves were created by Makeup & Effects Laboratories from a design by Rick Sternbach . A mold of Paul Newman 's face was filled with raw meat and then blown up to create the effect used when Picard and Riker fire on Remmick , but both Rick Berman and Peter Lauritson were concerned that it was too graphic . Dan Curry invited his six @-@ year @-@ old son to watch the episode in order to test how children would react to it ; the boy reportedly liked it so much that he suggested the creation of a Remmick action figure whose head would blow up by pressing a button . This resulted in Berman deciding to air the episode uncut with the full sequence included
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Several props and effects seen in the episode were reproduced from the Star Trek movies , including the shots of Earth and Spacedock One and the painting used of Starfleet Command . The doors to the room where dinner is served were later reused from season 2 onwards on the set for Ten @-@ Forward . The episode also features two first appearances ; the Ambassador class starship was mentioned for the first time ( the Horatio was a member of this class , as was the Enterprise @-@ C ) and it also marks the first time that a Bolian had been seen on Star Trek , the species having been named after the episode 's director . Although the parasites never appeared again on screen in any Star Trek series , they reappear in the Deep Space Nine relaunch novels , where they are revealed to be mutated Trill symbiotes .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Conspiracy " aired in broadcast syndication within the United States during the week commencing May 13 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 9 @.@ 4 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was a decrease of 0 @.@ 3 ratings points from the previous episode , " We 'll Always Have Paris " and was less than the 10 @.@ 2 rating received by the following episode , " The Neutral Zone " . Due to the nature of the content , a warning was aired before " Conspiracy " was screened in Canada . It was initially banned by the BBC in the United Kingdom , but was later aired on BBC Two in an edited form . The episode was nominated alongside " Coming of Age " for Best Makeup at the 40th Primetime Emmy Awards , winning the award , one of three Emmys won by the show that year .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched Star Trek : The Next Generation after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido for Tor.com described the episode as " a nasty episode that doesn 't quite cohere into the level of nasty it could " , but that the series " doesn ’ t do horror / action all that often , and it serves as a good change of pace if nothing else " . He gave " Conspiracy " a score of four out of ten . Zack Handlen , who reviewed the episode for the A.V. Club , thought that while " Conspiracy " was a " hard episode to forget " , it was not quite as good as he remembered and did not quite " fit " with the rest of the season . He thought that certain parts of the plot were " idiotic " , and the Admirals reminded him of a " Bond villain convention " . He gave the episode an overall grade of B , writing , " fingers crossed that next time we encounter a danger this sinister , the writers know how to handle it " .
" Conspiracy " was included as an honorable mention in a list of the best episodes of Star Trek : The Next Generation by Mike Antonucci of the San Jose Mercury News . It was also included in a list of the best and worst episodes by Scott Thill at Wired magazine as one of the best , describing the reactions to the episode as " polarizing " , and suggesting that " Conspiracy " might be worthy of becoming a plot in a future film by J. J. Abrams . Total Film also suggested the episode as a potential plot for the film that would become Star Trek Into Darkness , and described it as " easily one of the greatest episodes of Star Trek : The Next Generation " . In 2012 , David Brown of Radio Times called " Conspiracy " " a definite high point " in the first season and included it on a list of The Next Generation 's greatest moments .
The episode was released on VHS cassette in the U.S. on May 26 , 1993 . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 . " Conspiracy " was released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= Wipeout 3 =
Wipeout 3 ( stylised as wip3out in Europe and Japan , and as wipEout 3 in North America ) is a futuristic racing video game developed by Psygnosis and published by Sony Computer Entertainment exclusively for the PlayStation . The title is the fourth game in the Wipeout series , and was released in Europe and North America in September 1999 . Players control extremely fast anti @-@ gravity ships and use weapons to force other contenders out of the race . The game was re @-@ released in Europe as Wipeout 3 : Special Edition in August 2000 , which contained additional tracks and content .
Psygnosis hired design studio The Designers Republic to create a simple colour scheme and design for in @-@ game menus and race courses , to create what a Psygnosis staff member called " a believable future " . The game is one of the few PlayStation titles to run in high @-@ resolution mode , offering crisper graphics and visuals . Wipeout 3 's soundtrack is composed of electronica tracks selected by DJ Sasha and features contributions by Orbital and The Chemical Brothers .
The game was positively received on release ; critics lauded the graphics , music , and minimalist design elements . The high level of Class , perceived lack of new content and courses , and lack of new game features were seen as the game 's primary faults . Despite generally good press , the game was a financial disappointment . Wipeout 3 was the last title in the series to appear on the PlayStation ; the next entry , Wipeout Fusion , was released exclusively for the PlayStation 2 platform in 2002 .
= = Gameplay = =
Wipeout 3 is a racing game that retains the same basic elements of its predecessors , and introduces players to the F7200 Anti @-@ Gravity Race League . Set in 2116 , Players control futuristic anti @-@ gravity ships owned by racing corporations and pilot them on eight circuits ( plus four hidden prototype tracks ) . Each craft is equipped with an energy shield that absorbs damage sustained on the track ; if the shield is disabled , the player 's craft can be knocked out of the race . Shields are regenerated in a pit lane that is set apart from the main course . The less time spent in the pit lane , the less the shield will regenerate .
In addition to shields , each racing craft contains air brakes for navigating tight corners , as well as " Hyperthrust " option . Players can activate Hyperthrust to increase their speed , but Using Hyperthrust drains energy from the shields , making the craft more vulnerable .
Scattered across each raceway are weapon grids that bestow random power @-@ ups or items . Wipeout 3 adds new weapons in addition to the five retained from previous games . Several weapons are defensive ; for example , the gravity shield protects the craft from attacks and collisions for a time period . Offensive weapons are also available ; craft can use rockets , Multi @-@ Missiles and mines to disable competitors . Players can use an auto @-@ pilot power @-@ up to safely coast through difficult turns .
The default game mode awards medals to the top three finishing hovercraft . Each contestant must reach checkpoints on the course within a certain amount of time , or be ejected from the race . Winning consecutive gold medals unlocks New Tracks and Team . Wipeout 3 features several other game modes , including challenges to complete courses in a set time . In the " Eliminator " mode , players gain points for destroying competitors and finishing laps . The " Tournament " mode has players compete on several tracks , with points being awarded on race placement . Players can engage in two @-@ player racing via a split @-@ screen option .
= = Development = =
In developing the next entry in the Wipeout series , developer Psygnosis retained many of the developers of the original game to preserve the distinctive racing experience of earlier games . At the same time , Psygnosis sought to make the game more accessible to new players of the fast @-@ paced racer , and kept early courses easier for these players ; the difficulty was adjusted for later courses so that experts still experienced a challenge . Wipeout 3 was the first Wipeout game to take advantage of PlayStation controllers with analogue sticks , used to offer smoother control of the player 's craft .
Psygnosis turned to the graphic design studio The Designers Republic to assist in development . The Designers Republic , known for its underground techno album covers , provided " visual candy " to Wipeout 3 's graphics , designing the game 's icons , billboards , color schemes , and custom typefaces . The look and feel of the futuristic courses was bounded by a desire to retain a believable sensibility ; Wipeout 3 lead artist Nicky Westcott said that " [ Psygnosis ] tried to make it look like a believable future , instead of making the sky toxic orange with 10 moons flying around and the world gone mad . It 's very low @-@ key [ and ] a lot more refined . "
= = = Music = = =
Wipeout 3 , continuing the tradition set by the first game , contains electronica offerings from various artists , including The Chemical Brothers , Orbital , and the Propellerheads . Psygnosis ' development manager , Enda Carey , focused on bringing together music early in the game 's development cycle , instead of as an afterthought or last @-@ minute addition to the game . Unlike previous soundtracks , Psygnosis selected a single music director , DJ Sasha , who worked with artists to create a cohesive soundtrack . Sasha included several of his own tracks made specifically for the game . The game disc is a Mixed Mode CD that allows Wipeout 3 's soundtrack to be played in a standard compact disc player . To promote Wipeout 3 and its game music , Psygnosis sponsored a Global Underground tour for Sasha . Game pods featuring Wipeout 3 were placed at parties and venues , accompanied by a tie @-@ in marketing campaign .
= = Reception = =
Overall , critical reception of Wipeout 3 was positive ; the game has an aggregate average of 87 % based on 29 reviews at Game Rankings , and a metascore of 89 at Metacritic . IGN named Wipeout 3 the most accessible game of the series , and in 2007 the title was named the 92nd best game by the site . Despite generally positive reviews of the game , Wipeout 3 was not a commercial success .
The fast @-@ paced gameplay and graphics were singled out as strong features of the game . Jack Schofield of The Guardian was surprised by the level of detail , stating that the " graphics are better than you 'd expect the [ PlayStation ] to deliver " . Both GamePro and Game Revolution reviewers praised the new game features , specifically the new weapons and ability to challenge friends via splitscreen . The Designer Republic 's style was consistently praised as helping to make the racing locales seem real , though David Goldfarb of the magazine International Design stated that the " techno @-@ meets @-@ Nihonpop @-@ art visuals " had been executed better in previous entries of the series . Wipeout 3 's soundtrack and sound effects were also lauded .
A major fault reviewers found with Wipeout 3 was the steep learning curve of the game . David Canter of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune described the difficulty progression as " ludicrous " , with the tournament game mode going from " easy as pie to tough as nails " . Though the use of the analogue stick was positively noted as helping to increase control over the onscreen craft , GamePro found that proper handling required large amounts of patience and practice .
Reviewers who gave Wipeout 3 lower marks noted a sense of disappointment that the series broke little new ground . Stuart Miles of The Times admitted Wipeout 3 was a good game , but felt that he had been expecting much more from the sequel : " It 's as if the programmers have concerned themselves more with the overall look and feel , rather than further developing the existing gameplay . " Alistair Wallace of Gamasutra , in a retrospective on Wipeout 2097 , remembered that " I enjoyed [ Wipeout 3 ] because it was more of the same and I loved it , but I think the series ran out of its innovation . Doing loop the loops isn 't a big deal really . " GameSpot summed up its review of the game by judging Wipeout 3 an excellent racer , but not able to beat Wipeout 2097 as the best futuristic racing game of all time .
= = Re @-@ release and sequel = =
A special edition of Wipeout 3 was released exclusively in Europe on 14 July 2000 . Wipeout 3 Special Edition featured many minor changes to gameplay , such as different craft physics , auto @-@ loading of saves and AI bugfixes . In addition , eight courses from previous Wipeout titles ( three from Wipeout and five from Wipeout 2097 ) plus two hidden prototype circuits previously only available in the Japanese version of Wipeout 3 , were added giving total of 22 tracks . Special Edition also allowed for four @-@ person multiplayer , using two televisions and two PlayStation consoles . Wipeout 3 was the last game in the series made for the PlayStation . The next entry in the Wipeout series , entitled Wipeout Fusion , was released in 2002 exclusively for the PlayStation 2 . The game introduced new tracks , ships , and weaponry , as well as enhanced artificial intelligence .
= Dan McGann =
Dennis Lawrence " Dan " McGann ( July 15 , 1871 – December 13 , 1910 ) , also known as Cap McGann , was a professional baseball player who played first base in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) from 1896 to 1908 . He was a member of the NL pennant @-@ winning Brooklyn Superbas in 1899 and New York Giants in 1904 and 1905 . He was also a member of the 1905 World Series champions .
After beginning his professional career in minor league baseball in 1895 , McGann played in MLB for the Boston Beaneaters ( 1896 ) , Baltimore Orioles ( 1898 ) , Brooklyn Superbas ( 1899 ) , Washington Senators ( 1899 ) , and St. Louis Cardinals ( 1900 – 1901 ) of the National League ( NL ) before jumping to the rival American League to play for the Baltimore Orioles in 1902 . He returned to the NL , playing for the New York Giants ( 1902 – 1907 ) and Boston Doves ( 1908 ) . In 1909 – 10 , he played for the Milwaukee Brewers in the American Association .
McGann had a troubled personal life . He suffered from depression , and several members of his family committed suicide . After the 1910 season , with rumors of McGann signing with another minor league team , McGann committed suicide with a firearm .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career ( 1891 – 1897 ) = = =
McGann began his professional baseball career in minor league baseball with a team representing his hometown , Shelbyville , Kentucky , in 1891 . He also played for Kentucky teams representing Harrodsburg in 1892 , Lexington in 1893 , and Maysville in 1894 . McGann played for the Norfolk Clams / Crows of the Class @-@ B Virginia State League in 1895 and the Lynchburg Hill Climbers of the Class @-@ B Virginia League in 1896 . He initially played all positions except for pitcher , catcher , and first baseman .
In August 1896 , the Boston Beaneaters of the National League ( NL ) purchased McGann from Lynchburg to fill in for injured second baseman Bobby Lowe . McGann batted .322 with the Beaneaters , hitting for power , but he committed 21 errors in 43 games . The Beaneaters released him following the completion of the season . McGann played the 1897 season with the Toronto Canucks of the Class @-@ A Eastern League . He moved to first base and batted .354 , leading the Eastern League with 20 triples .
= = = Major League Baseball ( 1898 – 1908 ) = = =
The Washington Senators of the NL purchased McGann , Butts Wagner , Bob McHale and Cooney Snyder from Toronto for $ 8 @,@ 500 ( $ 241 @,@ 774 in current dollar terms ) on September 22 , 1897 . The Senators traded McGann with Gene DeMontreville and Doc McJames to the Baltimore Orioles of the NL for Doc Amole , Jack Doyle and Heinie Reitz that December . He played one season with the Orioles , in which he batted .301 with 106 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 1898 , good for fifth place in the NL .
When Orioles manager Ned Hanlon was hired to manage the Brooklyn Superbas during the 1899 season , receiving an ownership stake in the team to do so , he assigned several of his star players , including McGann , Joe McGinnity , Joe Kelley , Hughie Jennings and Willie Keeler to the Superbas . McGann finished second on the team in RBIs with 106 , behind Kelley .
McGann batted .243 for the Superbas through July 14 , 1899 , when they traded him with Aleck Smith to the Senators for Deacon McGuire . For the Senators , McGann batted .343 during the rest of the 1899 season . Short on money , the Senators sold McGann and Gus Weyhing to the St. Louis Cardinals for $ 5 @,@ 000 ( $ 142 @,@ 220 in current dollar terms ) on March 9 , 1900 . McGann left the Cardinals before the end of 1901 season , for unknown reasons . The Cardinals replaced McGann with Bill Richardson .
With the formation of the American League ( AL ) as a competitor to the NL , McGann joined many fellow NL players who jumped to the AL . Following Cardinals teammate John McGraw , who became player @-@ manager of the Baltimore Orioles of the AL before the 1901 season , McGann signed with the Orioles .
However , the Orioles struggled with debt . Joe Kelley , star player for the Orioles and son @-@ in @-@ law of part @-@ owner John Mahon , reported that the team owed as much as $ 12 @,@ 000 ( $ 328 @,@ 200 in current dollar terms ) . Unable to afford that debt , Mahon purchased shares of the team from Kelley and John McGraw . With this , Mahon became the majority shareholder , owning 201 of the team 's 400 shares . On July 17 , 1902 , Mahon sold his interest in the Orioles to Andrew Freedman , principal owner of the Giants , and John T. Brush , principal owner of the Cincinnati Reds , also of the NL . That day , Freedman released McGann , McGraw , Cy Seymour , Roger Bresnahan , Joe Kelley , Joe McGinnity , and Jack Cronin from their contracts with Orioles . Freedman signed McGann , Bresnahan , McGinnity and Cronin to the Giants , joining McGraw , who had signed with the Giants ten days earlier . Brush signed Seymour and Kelley to the Reds .
With the Giants , McGraw installed McGann at first base , moving Christy Mathewson to pitcher . McGann stole 36 bases in the 1903 season . After the season , McGann and some of his Giants teammates threatened to quit the team due to the treatment of Brush , now the Giants owner , for allegedly going back on a promise to provide the Giants with a monetary bonus for having the Giants finish in the top three of the NL and a share of the gate receipts from exhibition games , in which they were paid $ 56 @.@ 35 ( $ 1 @,@ 484 in current dollar terms ) , though Brush allegedly had made over $ 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 5 @,@ 267 @,@ 407 in current dollar terms ) . McGann and Jack Warner were rumored to join McGinnity in an outlaw league in California .
McGann stole 42 bases in 1904 , finishing fourth in the NL . He stole five bases on May 27 , 1904 , setting an NL record . McGann 's record stood until Davey Lopes stole five bases in a game in 1974 , and Otis Nixon stole six in a game in 1991 . McGann led the team with a .286 batting average and six home runs that season . Though the Giants won the NL pennant in 1904 , they refused to compete in the 1904 World Series . Brush and McGraw refused to face the AL champion Boston Pilgrims , following their altercations with Johnson .
McGann developed a reputation as a fighter in 1905 . On April 21 , 1905 , in a game against the Philadelphia Phillies , McGann punched catcher Fred Abbott after McGann was thrown out at home plate . Abbott hit McGann in the back with the ball , resulting in both players being ejected from the game . McGann batted .299 with 14 triples in 1905 as the Giants won NL pennant for the second consecutive year . Competing in the 1905 World Series , a series the Giants won over the Philadelphia Athletics in five games , McGann contributed with his bat and glove . Although McGann batted .235 in the series , he recorded four RBIs on three hits in a Game Three victory .
McGann was briefly suspended by NL president Harry Pulliam for fighting on May 16 , 1906 . McGann finished first in the NL fielding percentage at first base from 1903 through 1906 . He also served as Giants ' team captain . Despite this , rumors began to circulate that the Giants were looking to trade McGann , which the team denied .
Before the 1907 season , a report surfaced that the Giants would shift Mike Donlin from the outfield to first base , in order to replace McGann . Donlin denied the claim . McGann suffered a broken wrist when he was hit by a pitch thrown by Andy Coakley of the Cincinnati Reds during spring training in 1907 .
McGann returned to the Giants out of shape midway through the 1907 season , although he did bat .298 that season . That winter , trade rumours began to swirl that the Giants would trade him to the Reds . Instead , the Giants traded McGann to the Boston Doves with Frank Bowerman , George Browne , Bill Dahlen and Cecil Ferguson for Al Bridwell , Tom Needham and Fred Tenney on December 13 , 1907 . Tenney , also a first baseman , was designated as McGann 's replacement at first . When a reporter asked McGraw about McGann and Tenney , pointing out that both first basemen were 36 years old , McGraw replied that Tenney had taken better care of himself .
Despite discussion of appointing McGann player @-@ manager of the Doves , the role was assigned to Kelley . Agreeing to terms with George Dovey , president of the Doves , McGann played 135 games during the 1908 season , but batted only .240 . During an April 1908 game between the Doves and the Giants , McGraw insulted McGann as slow , referring to him as a " damned ice wagon " , noting " that 's how the Giants lost a lot of games last season " . After the game , McGann went to the Giants ' hotel , waited for McGraw to return from the theatre , and fought him in a billiard room . Dovey released McGann from the Doves after the 1908 season .
= = = Later career ( 1909 – 1910 ) = = =
McGann signed with the Milwaukee Brewers of the Class @-@ A American Association for the 1909 season . He played for Milwaukee in 1909 and 1910 , batting only .225 in 1910 , his career low . There were reports McGann might sign with the Oakland Oaks of the Pacific Coast League or a team in Louisville , Kentucky , near his Shelbyville home in 1911 . McGann 's career was ended , however , by his death in December 1910 .
= = Personal life = =
McGann invested in real estate and financial holdings near his Shelbyville home during his career . At the time of his death , his property was assessed to be worth approximately $ 40 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 015 @,@ 857 in current dollar terms ) .
= = Family = =
McGann suffered from severe clinical depression , a condition which ran throughout his family . One of McGann 's sisters committed suicide in 1890 after their mother died . On New Year 's Eve in 1907 , one of McGann 's brothers died as a result of an accidental shooting . In 1909 , another of McGann 's brothers committed suicide .
= = Death = =
On December 13 , 1910 , McGann committed suicide by shooting himself in the heart at a Louisville hotel . At the time of his death , he was 39 years old , and reportedly had been " in the best of health and humor " when last seen . McGann was survived by two sisters , who , despite the family history of suicide , believed their brother had been murdered , as a diamond ring valued at $ 800 ( $ 20 @,@ 317 in current dollar terms ) McGann had been seen wearing was missing .
= Planet of the Dead =
" Planet of the Dead " is the second of five special episodes of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who broadcast between Christmas 2008 and New Years Day 2010 . It was simultaneously broadcast on BBC One and BBC HD on 11 April 2009 . The specials served as lead actor David Tennant 's denouement as the Tenth Doctor . He is joined in the episode by actress Michelle Ryan , who plays Lady Christina de Souza , a one @-@ off companion to the Doctor . The episode was co @-@ written by Russell T Davies and Gareth Roberts , the first writing partnership since the show 's revival in 2005 .
The episode depicts Christina fleeing the police from a museum robbery by boarding a bus that accidentally travels from London to the desert planet of San Helios , trapping her , the Doctor , and several passengers on board the damaged vehicle . After the bus driver dies trying to return to Earth , the Unified Intelligence Taskforce , headed by Captain Erisa Magambo ( Noma Dumezweni ) and scientific advisor Malcolm Taylor ( Lee Evans ) , attempt to return the bus while preventing a race of metallic stingray aliens from posing a threat to Earth . At the end of the episode , one of the passengers delivers a warning to the Doctor which foreshadows the remaining three specials .
" Planet of the Dead " was the first Doctor Who episode to be filmed in high definition , after a positive reaction to the visual quality of spin @-@ off series Torchwood and the financial viability of HDTV convinced the production team to switch formats . To ensure that the desert scenes looked as realistic as possible , the production team filmed in Dubai for three days , sending several props , including a 1980 double @-@ decker Bristol VR bus , to the United Arab Emirates for filming . After the bus was unintentionally damaged in Dubai by a shipping container , Davies rewrote the script to explain the damage in the narrative .
The audience gave the episode an Appreciation Index of 88 — considered excellent .
= = Plot = =
A young , beautiful , thrill @-@ seeking burglar , Lady Christina de Souza , steals a gold chalice once belonging to King Æthelstan from a London museum and narrowly evades the police by hopping on a 200 bus . The Doctor , who is tracking down a wormhole , joins her shortly before the bus suddenly passes through the wormhole and arrives on the desert planet of San Helios . The Doctor shows the passengers the wormhole and deduces the bus protected them like a Faraday cage . The bus driver tries to go through despite the Doctor 's warnings . Seeing the driver 's skeleton coming out on the other side of the wormhole , the police call in UNIT , commanded by Captain Erisa Magambo and aided by scientific adviser Malcolm Taylor . The Doctor manages to contact UNIT on a passenger 's mobile phone and talks to Malcolm , who impresses him with his understanding of the wormhole .
The Doctor and Christina quickly get to know the handful of other passengers on the bus : Angela , Barclay , Nathan , Lou and Carmen , who has low @-@ level psychic abilities . The Doctor and Christina decide to scout the planet , spotting an approaching storm , while Nathan and Barclay try to fix the bus . The Doctor and Christina encounter a couple of Tritovores , a species resembling anthropomorphic flies , who take them to their wrecked spaceship .
The Tritovores explain that they were making a routine goods collection with San Helios when they crashed , and that the planet very recently housed a hundred billion inhabitants and a thriving ecosystem . At the request of the Doctor , the Tritovores send a probe to investigate approaching cloud and discover a large swarm of stingray @-@ like aliens who create wormholes by flying at terrific speed around planets , and are protected by their metal exoskeletons . They destroy the ecosystems of all the planets they visit as their biological imperative . The Doctor suspects that Earth may be the stingrays ' next target due to the wormhole they passed through before , and makes to hasten their return to Earth .
Christina uses her burglary skills to retrieve a crystal that powers the spaceship , together with the clamps attached to it . During this the Doctor discovers and recognizes the stolen gold chalice in her backpack , telling her that he knows she must have stolen it , but while he disapproves of the theft , he admits to her that it would be hypocritical to be too harsh on her about it , because , after all ,
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Stout 's entrance as a " desperate stunt " to attract viewers . Despite returning to the House to participate in a task , former housemate Dean O 'Loughlin has also been critical of this series , describing it as " way too superficial " .
However , the series has also received praise from various parties . For example , Gerard Gilbert of The Independent argued that in comparison to contemporary TV dramas , Big Brother provides much more entertainment , psychological depth and social impact . Gilbert also commented that the storylines of the programme were equal to that of the works of Samuel Beckett . Craig Phillips , the winner of the first series of Big Brother , and the programme 's presenter Davina McCall have responded to the criticisms of the programme 's decreasing viewing figures , respectively arguing that the programme achieves low numbers due to the different way in which viewers can watch the programme and that the programme is achieving well considering its timeslot and broadcaster . Brian Dowling , who won the second edition of Big Brother in 2001 , defended both the programme and the reality genre as a whole , telling BBC Breakfast that producers were simply providing viewers what they want , such as extreme participants . The Guardian 's Heidi Stephens also complimented the series by claiming that it has " seen the emergence of some truly fascinating personalities " and welcomed the return to the basic format of the programme . Stephens went on to compare the storylines and characters of the programme with that of a John Hughes film . Aisleyne Horgan @-@ Wallace , who came third in the seventh series , and Big Brother 2003 winner Cameron Stout praised the selection of housemates , both claiming that the quality of the programme had improved on previous years . Entertainment website Digital Spy was also complimentary of the series , naming Sophie " Dogface " Reade and Kris Donnelly as two of the sexiest housemates of the past ten years and Angel McKenzie as one of the most outrageous . Towards the end of the programme 's airing , Neil Boom of The Independent argued that the series is " one of the best ever " despite a decline in the number of viewers . He claimed that there was still high interest on internet forums and that the lower television ratings might be due to the removal of the 24 @-@ hour live feed . He praised the selection of housemates and highlighted Siavash , Freddie and Marcus as particular examples . Following the end of the series , Davina McCall also considered Big Brother 10 to be " Big Brother at its best . "
= = = Viewing figures = = =
These viewing figures are taken from BARB .
= 1949 Ambato earthquake =
The 1949 Ambato earthquake was the largest earthquake in the Western Hemisphere in more than five years . On August 5 , 1949 , it struck Ecuador 's Tungurahua Province southeast of its capital Ambato and killed 5 @,@ 050 people . Measuring 6 @.@ 8 on the Richter scale it originated from a hypocenter 40 km ( 25 mi ) beneath the surface . The nearby villages of Guano , Patate , Pelileo , and Pillaro were destroyed , and the city of Ambato suffered heavy damage . The earthquake flattened entire buildings , and subsequent landslides caused damage throughout the Tungurahua , Chimborazo , and Cotopaxi Provinces . It disrupted water mains and communication lines and opened a fissure into which the small town of Libertad sank . Moderate shaking from the event extended as far away as Quito and Guayaquil .
Earthquakes in Ecuador stem from two major interrelated tectonic areas : the subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate and the Andean Volcanic Belt . The 1949 Ambato earthquake initially followed an intersection of several northwest @-@ southeast @-@ trending faults in the Inter @-@ Andean Valley which were created by the subduction of the Carnegie Ridge . Strata of rock cracked as the earthquake ruptured the faults , sending out powerful shockwaves . Today threats exist throughout the country from both interplate and intraplate seismicity .
= = Background = =
Earthquakes are common in Ecuador . Near the Nazca subduction zone the recorded history of interplate earthquakes spans 80 years . At the time it struck the 1949 Ambato earthquake was the second @-@ worst earthquake in Ecuador 's modern history topped only by the 1797 Riobamba earthquake , and the most devastating earthquake in the Western Hemisphere since the 1944 San Juan earthquake . Several major earthquakes have occurred throughout the country since 1949 , including the 1987 Ecuador earthquakes and the 1997 Ecuador earthquake . The 2007 Peru earthquake also affected the country .
= = Geology = =
Much of South American seismic activity and volcanism originates from subduction of the oceanic Nazca Plate under the continental South American Plate and subduction of the Pacific 's lithosphere under the South American continent . This seismicity extends for 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 728 mi ) along the continent 's western edge and probably stems from a region of northeast @-@ trending faulting near the Ecuadorian Trench . The region of faulting may actually function as its own microplate .
The Carnegie Ridge is sliding under Ecuadorian land , causing coastal uplift and volcanism . The ridge 's movement may also have changed the type of faulting along the coast , causing strike @-@ slip faults ( faults that move horizontally past each other ) . Evidence of this subduction altering the course of faulting is found at the Yaquina fault , which , unlike the rest of the Panama Basin faults , trends to the west instead of north @-@ south , indicating that the Carnegie Ridge may be colliding with the continental mass of Ecuador . This collision created northwest @-@ southeast and northeast @-@ southwest @-@ trending faults in the region , and with that , caused strong earthquakes in Riobamba in 1797 and Alausi in 1961 . Several of the northwest @-@ southeast @-@ trending faults converge in the Inter @-@ Andean Valley where the 1949 Ambato earthquake took place .
The hypocenter of the earthquake occurred 40 km ( 25 mi ) beneath the surface , under a mountain 72 km ( 45 mi ) from Ambato . Nearby fault lines ruptured , breaking rock strata and sending shock waves to the surface capable of bringing down entire buildings . Life reported that local seismologists first placed the earthquake 's magnitude at 7 @.@ 5 , but the official measurement was later revised to 6 @.@ 8 .
= = Damage and casualties = =
The earthquake was preceded by a foreshock which although modest was strong enough to cause chaos and force people to flee from their homes into the streets . The main shock originated southeast of Ambato . When the primary shock hit Ambato 's main cathedral and military barracks collapsed , as did most of the city 's buildings , scores of young girls preparing for their first communions perished in the cathedral . The shaking ruptured water mains , disabled communication lines , opened cracks in the earth , reduced bridges to rubble , and derailed a train . The earthquake demolished buildings in rural hamlets ; closer to the nearest mountains of the Andes , landslides destroyed roads and blocked rivers . The village of Libertad near Pelileo sank 460 m ( 1 @,@ 509 ft ) into a huge hole about 800 m ( 2 @,@ 625 ft ) in diameter with all of its 100 inhabitants . Shaking up to intensity IV extended as far away as Quito and Guayaquil .
Initial reports ( around August 7 ) estimated the death toll at 2 @,@ 700 people . The cities of Patate and Pelileo suffered the most with 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 300 dead respectively . In Ambato reports of the death toll ranged from 400 to 500 , and the Ecuadorean Embassy in Washington , D.C. , estimated that 1 @,@ 000 to more than 2 @,@ 000 people were injured . The town of Pillaro , destroyed by the quake , had more than 20 dead , and in Latacunga , 11 were killed and 30 injured ; 50 homes , two churches , and the local government building were also ruined . Fifteen other towns and cities were also badly affected , including Guano which was devastated .
Later counts assumed around 3 @,@ 200 casualties in Pelileo ; the total death toll estimates were adjusted to around 4 @,@ 000 people . Officials reported that many of the dead had been inside buildings as they buckled or were killed by flooding brought about by the blockage of a drainage canal . Others were crushed by landslides from nearby mountains . No homes in the city of Pelileo were left standing , many buildings were flattened , and large cracks formed in the ground . In Ambato alone 75 percent of the homes still standing had to be demolished . On August 8 , an aftershock with " considerable strength " struck near Ambato .
The final death toll according to the United States Geological Survey was 5 @,@ 050 . The earthquake severely affected some 30 communities and left approximately 100 @,@ 000 people homeless .
= = Relief efforts = =
Ecuador 's President Galo Plaza Lasso flew to Ambato to take personal charge of the primary relief efforts . Plaza directed rescue efforts for two days as airlifts from Quito dropped supplies . A group of Red Cross volunteers and medical supplies were sent on American aircraft . The United States Army sent two relief teams equipped with serum and blood plasma . The mayor of Miami along with seven other politicians began a fund @-@ raising campaign for medical needs and clothing and coordinated the distribution of 69 kg ( 152 lb ) of Rexall drugs . Several nearby countries sent airplanes carrying medicine and food . A local fund @-@ raising effort collected 250 @,@ 000 Ecuadorian sucres ( approximately $ 14 @,@ 815 1949 USD ) within two hours of its launch . Plaza said " We have not lost our courage . Neither Ambato nor Ecuador shall cry any more , but begin to work . "
On August 7 a plane carrying 34 rescue workers from the Shell Oil Company crashed 32 km ( 20 mi ) from Ambato leaving no survivors . Disease began to spread in Pelileo within days of the earthquake which prompted a team of American soldiers – who were acting as relief workers – to order water purification devices and DDT airdrops to cleanse the area of airborne agents . Sick victims were quarantined and prevented from leaving the city .
= = Aftermath = =
The earthquake considerably impacted a number of cities : it destroyed Guano , Patate , Pelileo , Pillaro , and one @-@ third of Ambato . The city of Ambato was a " scene of anguish and pain " described by " scores of little funerals winding their way through the debris " . The brand @-@ new hospital had been reduced to four walls , and most of the buildings in town were demolished . In Pelileo relief workers found victims feeding buried people through holes in the ground . In the days following the earthquakes aftershocks occurred and torrential rains ensued .
In an effort to help the inhabitants a festival of fruit and flowers was held on June 29 , 1950 . The festival was a success and became an annual event that is celebrated each year during Carnaval and is now an important tourist attraction . Ambato was completely rebuilt after the earthquake . The city 's main church , the Iglesia Matriz de Ambato , was replaced by a new cathedral known as Iglesia La Catedral in 1954 . Pelileo was rebuilt on a new site 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from its previous location .
= = Current situation = =
Ambato is frequently visited by tourists traveling on the Pan @-@ American Highway . The city is well known for its extensive market which sells a wide array of items including local delicacies and flowers , and for its quintas – old estates that serve as historic parks – some of which pre @-@ date the earthquake .
Ecuador is still at risk from earthquakes : both intraplate ( such as those in March 1987 ) and interplate earthquakes are possible . Intraplate seismicity poses a more formidable threat , as it can be much more powerful than interplate seismicity and is usually associated with landslides , subsidence , and even soil liquefaction .
= The 3rd Birthday =
The 3rd Birthday ( Japanese : ザ ・ サード バースデイ , Hepburn : Za Sādo Bāsudei ) is a third @-@ person role @-@ playing shooter co @-@ developed by Square Enix and HexaDrive , and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation Portable . It was released in 2010 in Japan and 2011 in North America and Europe . The game is both the third entry in the Parasite Eve video game series , based on the titular Japanese novel , and a spin @-@ off , having only a loose connection to events from past games . The game features a third @-@ person shooter @-@ based combat system with role @-@ playing mechanics . A key mechanic is the Overdive ability , which allows the player to possess pre @-@ positioned human allies and inflict damage upon enemies .
The game takes place in 2013 , a year after creatures known as the Twisted have appeared from beneath Manhattan and decimated the city . To fight back against the Twisted , an investigatory team called the Counter Twisted Investigation ( CTI ) is formed . Among their number is series protagonist Aya Brea , who was found unconscious and suffering amnesia two years before the game 's events . Using her Overdive ability , Aya travels into the past to alter the outcome of battles against the Twisted . At the same time , Aya attempts to find out the origin of the Twisted and regain her memories .
The 3rd Birthday was created as a conceptual rebirth for Aya 's character , as well as a means of re @-@ introducing her to the gaming community , with it being over a decade since the last game in the series . Among the staff were Hajime Tabata , Yoshinori Kitase , Motomu Toriyama , Isamu Kamikokuryo , and Aya 's original designer Tetsuya Nomura . Originally announced as an episodic title for mobile phones , the game was later changed into a PSP exclusive . Upon release , the game reached sixth place in Japanese sales charts , and was among the top five games in North American and UK sales charts during its opening months . Reviews have been mixed ; critics praised the presentation and several parts of the gameplay , while opinions were mixed about the story , and many cited difficulties with camera control and some of the shooter mechanics . Several reviewers have also made negative comments on Aya 's portrayal .
= = Gameplay = =
The 3rd Birthday is a third @-@ person role @-@ playing shooter . The player controls series protagonist Aya Brea through rendered @-@ to @-@ scale environments in from a third person perspective . The game plays out as a series of missions , between which Aya rests at the Counter Twisted Investigation headquarters , which acts as the game 's main hub . In the hub , Aya can receive briefings for missions , view additional documents , buy and customize new weapons . She also has the option to transport back there should she die during a mission . The game can be saved both at the hub and in safe zones within missions . At the end of each mission , Aya is given a grade based on performance , enemies killed , and the number of times she died . Depending on her score , she will earn differing amounts of Bounty Points , a currency used to customize weapons and repair protective gear in the hub area .
During missions , players navigate a series of linear linked areas fighting off multiple enemies . Items can be picked up during missions , such as grenades and medical kits . Aya has access to multiple guns for use in combat , including handguns , assault rifles and shotguns . By holding down a button on the controller , Aya automatically aims at an enemy and can fire at will . Taking cover behind objects or shields , or standing idle outside of battle , allows Aya to regenerate health . While in combat , an energy meter is charged and can be activated when full . When activated , Aya entered " Liberation Mode " , a state enabling her to move around the battlefield at high speed for a short period of time .
In most battle situations , Aya is accompanied by a group of allied NPC ( non @-@ playable character ) soldiers that the player can direct around the battle area . Available commands include offering supporting fire , directly attacking enemies , or staying behind cover . They can also all fire at the same enemy in certain situations , dealing high damage . Each NPC has a separate health meter , and is permanently removed from battle upon defeat . Central to combat is Overdive , an ability which enables Aya to transmit herself between bodies . If her health is low , Aya can transport into the body of an allied NPC , taking on their health level , position and current weapon in the process . NPCs not controlled by Aya are controlled by the game 's AI . Aya can remain in a body for the duration of a level , or until the unit has died . If Aya cannot jump to another body , she dies and the level must either be restarted or exited . Overdive can be activated at any time , enabling Aya to transport around the battlefield to avoid enemy attacks or save herself when her current unit 's health is low . Overdive can also be used to attack enemies if Aya maintains a sustained assault . After a time , a triangle icon appears on enemies , allowing her to perform an Overdive attack , dealing high damage to the targeted enemy .
During combat , Aya gains experience points and gains experience levels when a certain quantity is achieved . Gaining a level both restores her health and raises her maximum health and energy levels . Weapons also gain levels the more they are used . In addition to leveling up , Aya 's stats can be customized using Over Energy ( OE ) clips found during missions or acquired during Overdive attacks . Using a 3x3 grid accessed in the hub area , certain OE clips grand different stat boosts and abilities . Creating a new grid automatically deletes the effects of the original .
= = Plot = =
The game 's story plays out in episodes , similar to a television series , with many events told out of sequence . On Christmas Eve of 2012 , monstrous creatures dubbed as " Babels " appear in New York City . Along with lifeforms spawned by them called the Twisted , they lay wasted to the city and consume any human in their path . By the following year , an investigatory team known as the CTI ( Counter Twisted Investigation ) has been formed . One of the CTI members is Aya Brea , who was found outside St. Thomson 's Cathedral in 2010 , just before the Babels and Twisted began appearing . Dr. Hyde Bohr , Chief of the CTI , finds that Aya is suffering from amnesia , and that her personality has changed . After taking Aya in , the CTI discovered that she was capable of transferring her soul from body to body independent of time , an ability dubbed " Overdive " , which enables her to fight the Twisted .
Bohr and the others planned to use this unique ability to travel back through time and prevent the disaster , developing a machine called " Overdive System " to allow Aya to travel into the past and change events . As she embarks on each mission , she is confronted by powerful , sentient Twisted born from corrupted humans , later dubbed High Ones . One such High One is Kyle Madigan , a man she met and fell in love with during Parasite Eve II . As she defeats each High One , she regains pieces of her memory , most prominently her memories of being engaged to Kyle , and the existence of Eve Brea , her adopted sister . After an incident that saw the CTI HQ and the Overdive device destroyed by the Kyle High One , Aya reunites with Kunihiko Maeda , a man who aided her in Parasite Eve , to resolve the entire mystery behind the appearance of the Babel , Twisted and High Ones . Aya eventually discovers that Bohr is himself a High One . Bohr masterminded the death of other High Ones in order to form the Grand Babel , which functions like a giant Overdive system . Bohr seeks to dive back in the past to Time Zero , the point where events were set in motion , to fulfill his plan for the survival of his own species from a time war cycle between humans , the Twisted , and the High Ones . Aya battles Bohr and is pulled with him into Time Zero , where she discovers the truth .
In 2010 at St. Thomson 's Cathedral , Aya and Kyle were going to be married . The Cathedral was attacked by a SWAT team and Aya was killed . Eve attempted to save Aya by sending her consciousness into Aya 's body , creating the Overdive ability . The event caused Aya 's consciousness to separate from her body and fragment through time to create the Twisted , Eve 's consciousness to become trapped in Aya 's body , and parts of Eve 's body to be transplanted into people close to the pair to create the High Ones . The " Aya " of the main story is in fact Eve in Aya 's body . After these revelations , Eve returns to her body and is asked by Bohr to assimilate him and trigger the birth of a new species . Eve refuses , and when Bohr tries to force the process , a reborn Aya shoots him to death . Aya then reveals that to avert the birth of the Twisted and High Ones , the sources ( Aya and Eve ) must be removed . Expressing her regret at not being able to marry Kyle , she tells Eve to shoot her . In a fit of emotion , Eve switches bodies with Aya before shooting her , creating a new timeline where Eve 's body and Aya 's consciousness do not exist , erasing the game 's events . Though Eve offers to marry Kyle , he refuses and hints that he is going to find Aya . In a post @-@ credits sequence four years after the game 's events , Eve is walking the streets of New York and is wished a " Happy Fourth Birthday " by a woman resembling Aya .
= = Development = =
Concepts for a third installment in the Parasite Eve video game series had been around for some time . As work was being finished on Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII , Nomura voiced his wish to create a new game for the character Aya Brea , and this time it was taken up . Despite the story of Parasite Eve II not leaving many avenues for a sequel , the development team wanted to take advantage of advancing gaming technology and popularity by creating a mature gaming experience that would re @-@ introduce Aya to players around the world . The main staff consisted of director Hajime Tabata , producer Yoshinori Kitase , creative producer and character designer Tetsuya Nomura , art director Isamu Kamikokuryo , scenario director Motomu Toriyama , and main writer Toshimitsu Takeuchi . Nomura requested Tabata as the two had worked well together on previous projects , and Nomura was busy with other projects despite his strong interest . The 3rd Birthday was originally announced in May 2007 as an episodic mobile game developed by Square Enix for Japan 's FOMA mobile service . In 2008 , during a special Square Enix event , the game was announced to have changed to a game for the PlayStation Portable . Part of the reason , as stated by Nomura , was that the desired level of realism was not possible on mobile phones . The game became exclusive to PSP as Tabata wanted to make full usage of the platform 's hardware capabilities , along with it being a gaming platform available worldwide . Tabata and his team worked on the The 3rd Birthday at the same time as fellow mobile @-@ turned @-@ PSP title Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 . Square Enix requested Tabata to concentrate on finishing The 3rd Birthday , leading to Type @-@ 0 almost being cancelled .
The final version of the game was co @-@ developed by Square Enix and HexaDrive , a company created by former Capcom staff members . As the new form of The 3rd Birthday had transformed into a third @-@ person shooter , Square Enix wanted staff members with experience at developing such games , and then @-@ company CEO Yoichi Wada recommended HexaDrive to Tabata . As multiple HexaDrive staff members had also worked on fellow shooter Lost Planet : Extreme Condition , Tabata agreed to the collaboration . While aiming for a high quality product , the team designed the game as if for the PlayStation 3 home console , then worked to fit it onto the PSP . During development , the team sought creative help from the team developing Final Fantasy XIII for the visual design . The team had previous experimented with shooters with Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , but this time they wanted to create something closer to a third @-@ person shooter . While working inside the control and hardware limitations of the title , the team created firearms and the lock @-@ on mechanic as the fundamental attack action , instead of the free @-@ roaming style of a standard third @-@ person shooter . While designing levels to function with the game 's Overdive system , the team considered what the level would hold , how often players would utilize the function , the difficulty of levels , and the positioning and strength of enemies . During development , a questionnaire was circulated around company staff concerning the character Aya , to find out which of the planned features was popular . One of those that survived in the final game was Aya 's clothes being damaged when she was hit by an enemy , which was used to emphasize her sexuality . Nomura was among the first to suggest this feature originally .
Nomura worked on the character designs for the main cast . He was originally only going to work on Aya and Eve , but after seeing the settings for the other characters , he offered to design them too . The team wanted to emphasize the character 's sexuality . As part of this , the team included a scene where Aya takes a shower . This was inspired by a similar scene in Parasite Eve II . When the title was being developed for PSP , the team 's main challenge with the character was to make her look as realistic as possible while retaining her established physical traits . Using this new realism , the team wanted to portray the fear felt by humans when faced with such threats through Aya . Achieving this realism proved one of the most difficult aspects of development . Her alternate costumes were not a high priority for the team , so their artists had high creative freedom .
While many of the concepts for the final version were present in the original mobile version , such as Overdive and the Twisted , the original story was scrapped when the game changed platforms . In creating the story for The 3rd Birthday , the team took inspiration from the 10 @-@ year gap in the character 's in @-@ game and real @-@ time history . This meant that it would be difficult to create a straightforward sequel , so the team instead decided to make the game about Aya 's return . Toriyama imagined story concepts such as the snowy New York setting and the image of a bloodstained wedding dress . These two concepts survived the platform change . Over the course of the development , he adjusted the plot numerous times to be more adult @-@ oriented and to include complex narrative twists . The original concept was to make the game feel like a television drama , with multiple cliffhangers and moments of high drama . The game was designed from the outset as having no direct connection to the previous Parasite Eve games . The game 's title came from it being Aya 's third video game appearance , as well as it being a noticeable change in setting . The game 's logo was designed to both look like the letter " B " and the number " 3 " . It was originally only going to represent the number , but Nomura added the extra lines to display the game 's " multi @-@ faceted " nature .
= = = Music = = =
The music for The 3rd Birthday was composed by Mitsuto Suzuki and Tsuyoshi Sekito , with additional work by original Parasite Eve composer Yoko Shimomura . Shimomura was involved from an early stage , when The 3rd Birthday was still a mobile game . When she was originally asked to compose for the title , she was involved with a number of other projects which made handling the entire score difficult . When asked whether she wanted to work with anyone on the composition , she suggested Suzuki and Sekito . The general instruction was to follow the pattern used by the music for Parasite Eve , with Suzuki and Sekito handling the majority of tracks , going so far as referring to the songs from the original Parasite Eve when handling remixes of old themes . In keeping with the game 's other development goals , Shimomura wanted to alter some of the established music , although she asked the team to include familiar themes from earlier games for fans . Suzuki was responsible for a large amount of track mixing . Sekito was mostly involved with choosing and helping with instrumentation , in particular whether to include symphonic music . The composers had a relatively high degree of freedom , but they also had problems when composing some tracks that did not fit into selected scenes . Re @-@ orchestrations of two pieces of classical music , " Sleepers Wake " by Johann Sebastian Bach , and " Joy to the World " , a popular Christmas song , were used by Suzuki and Shimomura respectively to represent key moments and motifs within the game . The order of songs in the game was created to reflect the situation in a level . These variations were emphasized during mixing , while they also needed to adjust the mixing and track length based on the game as a whole . For the game 's theme song , the company collaborated with Japanese rock band Superfly . The game 's theme song Eyes on Me , described as a " standard love song " , was specially composed by the band for the game . It was the band 's first video game theme song . The game 's soundtrack was released as an album by Square Enix on December 22 , 2010 . The 3rd Birthday Original Soundtrack contains 66 tracks across 3 discs and has a total length of 2 : 56 : 52 .
= = Reception = =
During production , Nomura and Tabata stated that the team were aiming to sell 500 @,@ 000 copies of the game , a sales @-@ goal based strategy they had previously used for Crisis Core . During its first week , The 3rd Birthday debuted at # 6 in Japanese gaming charts , selling 140 @,@ 000 units . By the end of 2011 , the game had sold 249 @,@ 747 units in Japan . The game reached the top of the charts for PSP games in North America by the beginning of April 2011 , overtaking fellow Square Enix title Dissidia 012 : Final Fantasy and the PSP port of The Legend of Heroes : Trails in the Sky . Later that month , it had fallen to # 3 in US charts , remaining there into June of that year . In the UK during the same initial period , it reached # 3 , tailing behind Dissidia 012 and Lego Star Wars III : The Clone Wars .
Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu praised the title 's gameplay , calling Aya " deeply customizable " , finding the Overdive system and its strategic elements exhilarating and saying that those undaunted by the high difficulty would find much enjoyment in repeated playthroughs . Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com called it " an interesting blend of RPG and shooter " , praising the working of Overdive . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed was less enthusiastic , referring to the conflicts with the Twisted as " relentless and ultimately repetitive " , finding the high difficulty off @-@ putting and Aya 's movement speed unsuited for battle . Game Informer 's Annette Gonzalez enjoyed the control layout and gameplay , but cited difficulties with the camera . Carolyn Petit of GameSpot said that the game sometimes succeeded in creating tension , but that other battles were frustrating and the camera was difficult . IGN 's Patrick Kolan was pleased with the effort put into the game , and generally praised the battle and later levels , despite several cases of repetition during the main campaign . Emily Gera of VideoGamer.com found the basic shooter gameplay repetitive , but felt that the gameplay was saved by the Overdive ability and the quality of fights .
Parish said the game looked " gorgeous " and the soundtrack " exceptional " . Petit praised the CGI cutscenes and varied level environments , and said the score " shifts adeptly between haunting and thrilling to suit the action . " Kolan generally called the game one of the best @-@ looking entries on the platform , and praised the soundtrack , despite it being " a little ho @-@ hum " . Gonzalez also praised the cutscenes , while citing the environments as " [ ranging ] from detailed to drab " .
Famitsu was less positive about the story , saying that the mix of different elements made it " a bit hard to follow . " Parish positively noted connections to the second game , but finding the later story developments either confusing or weak , and disliked the way returning supporting characters had been changed . Petit said that those who wanted a straightforward story would be disappointed , and positively noted its exploration of existence , identity , and memory . Her main criticism was with the dialogue , which she referred to as " stilted " . Kolan also faulted the voice acting and localization , especially when compared to games such as Tactics Ogre : Let Us Cling Together . Gonzalez cited the story as intriguing , with " plenty of plot twists " . Parish and Petit were both highly critical of Aya 's portrayal : Parish disliked both her outfit , which seemed to conform too much female stereotypes in video games , and the clothes @-@ tearing mechanic , which seemed to be included merely to flaunt her sexuality . Petit shared many points of criticism with Parish , also noting that Aya 's portrayal of " one @-@ part action hero , one @-@ part submissive sex object " was wrong for a lead character , and that Aya 's in @-@ combat vocals were not suited to the game 's situations . Reed referred to Aya as " [ a ] sighing , whimpering lead character " .
= John Marshall Harlan II =
John Marshall Harlan ( May 20 , 1899 – December 29 , 1971 ) was an American jurist who served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court from 1955 to 1971 . His namesake was his grandfather John Marshall Harlan , another associate justice who served from 1877 to 1911 .
Harlan was a student at Upper Canada College and Appleby College and then at Princeton University . Awarded a Rhodes Scholarship , he studied law at Balliol College , Oxford . Upon his return to the U.S. in 1923 Harlan worked in the law firm of Root , Clark , Buckner & Howland while studying at New York Law School . Later he served as Assistant U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York and as Special Assistant Attorney General of New York . In 1954 Harlan was appointed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit , and a year later president Dwight Eisenhower nominated Harlan to the United States Supreme Court following the death of Justice Robert H. Jackson .
Harlan is often characterized as a member of the conservative wing of the Warren Court . He advocated a limited role for the judiciary , remarking that the Supreme Court should not be considered " a general haven for reform movements " . In general , Harlan adhered more closely to precedent , and was more reluctant to overturn legislation , than many of his colleagues on the Court . He strongly disagreed with the doctrine of incorporation , which held that the provisions of the federal Bill of Rights applied to the state governments , not merely the Federal . At the same time , he advocated a broad interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment 's Due Process Clause , arguing that it protected a wide range of rights not expressly mentioned in the United States Constitution . Harlan is sometimes called the " great dissenter " of the Warren Court , and has been described as one of the most influential Supreme Court justices in the twentieth century . Justice Harlan was gravely ill when he retired from the Supreme Court on September 23 , 1971 . He died from spinal cancer three months later , on December 29 , 1971 . After Harlan 's retirement , President Nixon appointed William Rehnquist to replace him .
= = Early life and career = =
John Marshall Harlan was born on May 20 , 1899 in Chicago , Illinois . He was the son of John Maynard Harlan , a Chicago lawyer and politician , and Elizabeth
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Flagg . He had three sisters . Historically , Harlan 's family had been politically active . His forebear , George Harlan , served as one of governors of Delaware during the seventeenth century ; his great @-@ grandfather , James Harlan , was a congressman during the 1830s ; his grandfather , also John Marshall Harlan , was an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1877 to 1911 ; and his uncle , James S. Harlan , was attorney general of Puerto Rico and then chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission .
In his younger years , Harlan attended The Latin School of Chicago . He later attended two boarding high schools in the Toronto Area , Canada : Upper Canada College and Appleby College . Upon graduation from Appleby , Harlan returned to the U.S. and in 1916 enrolled at Princeton University . There , he was a member of the Ivy Club , served as an editor of The Daily Princetonian , and was class president during his junior and senior years . After graduating from the university in 1920 , he received a Rhodes Scholarship , which he used to attend Balliol College , Oxford . He studied jurisprudence at Oxford for three years , returning from England in 1923 . Upon his return to the United States , he began work with the law firm of Root , Clark , Buckner & Howland ( now known as Dewey & LeBoeuf ) , one of the leading law firms in the country , while studying law at New York Law School . He received his law degree in 1924 and earned admission to the bar in 1925 .
Between 1925 and 1927 , Harlan served as Assistant U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York , heading the district 's Prohibition unit . He prosecuted Harry M. Daugherty , former United States Attorney General . In 1928 , he was appointed Special Assistant Attorney General of New York , in which capacity he investigated a scandal involving sewer construction in Queens . He prosecuted Maurice E. Connolly , the Queens borough president , for his involvement in the affair . In 1930 , Harlan returned to his old law firm , becoming a partner one year later . At the firm , he served as chief assistant for senior partner Emory Buckner and followed him into public service when Buckner was appointed United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York . As one of " Buckner 's Boy Scouts " , eager young Assistant United States Attorneys , Harlan worked on Prohibition cases , and swore off drinking except when the prosecutors visited the Harlan family fishing camp in Quebec , where Prohibition did not apply . Harlan remained in public service until 1930 , and then returned to his firm . Buckner had also returned to the firm , and after Buckner 's death , Harlan became the leading trial lawyer at the firm .
As a trial lawyer Harlan was involved in a number of famous cases . One such case was the conflict over the estate left after the death in 1931 of Ella Wendel , who had no heirs and left almost all her wealth estimated at 30 – 100 million to churches and charities . However a number of claimants , filed suits in state and federal courts demanding a part of her fortune . Most of the claimants were imposters ; Harlan acted as the main defender of her estate and will as well as the chief negotiator . Eventually a settlement among lawful claimants was reached in 1933 . In the following years Harlan specialized in corporate law dealing with the cases like Randall v. Bailey , concerning the interpretation of state law governing distribution of corporate dividends . In 1940 , he represented the New York Board of Higher Education unsuccessfully in The Bertrand Russell Case in its efforts to retain Bertrand Russell on the faculty of the City College of New York ; Russell was declared " morally unfit " to teach . The future justice also represented boxer Gene Tunney in a breach of contract suit brought by a would @-@ be fight manager , a matter settled out of court .
In 1937 , Harlan was one of five founders of the controversial Pioneer Fund , a group associated with eugenics advocacy , and served on its board for long time . He , however , never played any significant role in the fund .
During World War II , Harlan volunteered for military duty , serving as a colonel in the United States Army Air Force from 1943 to 1945 . He was the chief of the Operational Analysis Section of the Eighth Air Force in England . He won the Legion of Merit from the United States , and the Croix de guerre from both France and Belgium . In 1946 Harlan returned to private law practice representing Du Pont family members against a federal antitrust lawsuit . In 1951 , however , he returned to public service , serving as Chief Counsel to the New York State Crime Commission , where he investigated the relationship between organized crime and the state government as well as illegal gambling activities in New York and other areas . During this period Harlan also served as a committee chairman of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York , and to which he was later elected vice president . Harlan 's main specialization at that time was corporate and anti @-@ trust law .
= = Personal life = =
In 1928 , Harlan married Ethel Andrews , who was the daughter of Yale history professor Charles McLean Andrews . This was the second marriage for her . Ethel was originally married to a New York architect Henry K. Murphy , who was twenty years her elder . After Ethel divorced Murphy in 1927 , her brother John invited her to a Christmas party at Root , Clark , Buckner & Howland , where she was introduced to John Harlan . They saw each other regularly afterwards and married on November 10 , 1928 in Farmington , Connecticut .
Harlan , a Presbyterian , maintained a New York City apartment , a summer home in Weston , Connecticut and a fishing camp in Murray Bay , Quebec , a lifestyle he described as " awfully tame and correct " . The justice played golf , favored tweeds , and wore a gold watch which had belonged to the first Justice Harlan . In addition to carrying his grandfather 's watch , when he joined the Supreme Court he used the same furniture which had furnished his grandfather 's chambers .
John and Ethel Harlan had one daughter , Evangeline Dillingham ( born on February 2 , 1932 ) . She was married to Frank Dillingham of West Redding , Connecticut , until his death , and has five children . One of Eve 's children , Amelia Newcomb , is the international news editor at The Christian Science Monitor. and has two children : Harlan , named after John Marshall Harlan II , and Matthew Trevithick . Another daughter , Kate Dillingham , is a professional musician ( cellist ) and published author .
= = Supreme Court career = =
On January 13 , 1954 , United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower nominated Harlan to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit , to fill a vacancy created by the death of Judge Augustus Noble Hand . He was confirmed by the United States Senate on February 9 , and took office on February 10 . Harlan knew this court well , as he had often appeared before it and was friendly with many of the judges . However , his stay on the court only lasted for a year . On January 10 , 1955 , President Eisenhower nominated Harlan to the United States Supreme Court following the death of Justice Robert H. Jackson . On being nominated , the reticent Harlan called reporters into his chambers in New York , and stated , in full , " I am very deeply honored . " Despite the brevity of his stay on the Second Circuit , Harlan would serve as the Circuit Justice responsible for the Second Circuit throughout his Supreme Court capacity , and , in that capacity , would enjoyably attend the Circuit 's annual conference , bringing his wife and catching up on the latest gossip .
Harlan 's nomination came shortly after the Supreme Court handed down its landmark decision in Brown v. Board of Education , declaring segregation in public schools unconstitutional . James Eastland ( the chairman of the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary ) and several other southern senators delayed his confirmation , because they ( correctly ) believed that he would support desegregation of the schools and civil rights . Unlike almost all previous Supreme Court nominees , Harlan appeared before the Senate Judiciary Committee to answer questions relating to his judicial views . Every Supreme Court nominee since Harlan has been questioned by the Judiciary Committee before confirmation . The Senate finally confirmed him on March 17 , 1955 by a vote of 71 – 11 . He took seat on March 28 , 1955 . Of the eleven senators who voted against his appointment , nine were from the South . He was replaced on the Second Circuit by Joseph Edward Lumbard .
On the Supreme Court , Harlan often voted alongside Justice Felix Frankfurter , who was his principal mentor on the court . Some legal scholars even viewed him as " Frankfurter without mustard " , though others recognize his own important contributions to the evolution of the legal thought . Harlan was an ideological adversary — but close personal friend — of Justice Hugo Black , with whom he disagreed on a variety of issues , including the applicability of the Bill of Rights to the states , the Due Process Clause , and the Equal Protection Clause .
Justice Harlan was very close to the law clerks whom he hired , and continued to take an interest in them after they left his chambers to continue their legal careers . The justice would advise them on their careers , hold annual reunions , and place pictures of their children on his chambers ' walls . He would say to them of the Warren Court , " We must consider this only temporary , " that the Court had gone astray , but would soon right itself .
Justice Harlan is remembered by people , who worked with him , for his tolerance and civility . He treated his fellow Justices , clerks and attorneys representing parties with respect and consideration . While Justice Harlan often strongly objected to certain conclusions and arguments , he never criticized other justices or anybody else personally , and never said any disparaging words about someone 's motivations and capacity . Harlan was reluctant to show emotion , and was never heard to complain about anything . Harlan was one of the intellectual leaders of the Warren Court . Harvard Constitutional law expert Paul Freund said of him :
His thinking threw light in a very introspective way on the entire process of the judicial function . His decisions , beyond just the vote they represented , were sufficiently philosophical to be of enduring interest . He decided the case before him with that respect for its particulars , its special features , that marks alike the honest artist and the just judge .
= = Jurisprudence = =
Harlan 's jurisprudence is often characterized as conservative . He held precedent to be of great importance , adhering to the principle of stare decisis more closely than many of his Supreme Court colleagues . Unlike Justice Black , he eschewed strict textualism . While he believed that the original intention of the Framers should play an important part in constitutional adjudication , he also held that broad phrases like " liberty " in the Due Process Clause could be given an evolving interpretation .
Harlan believed that most problems should be solved by the political process , and that the judiciary should play only a limited role . In his dissent to Reynolds v. Sims , he wrote :
These decisions give support to a current mistaken view of the Constitution and the constitutional function of this court . This view , in short , is that every major social ill in this country can find its cure in some constitutional principle and that this court should take the lead in promoting reform when other branches of government fail to act . The Constitution is not a panacea for every blot upon the public welfare nor should this court , ordained as a judicial body , be thought of as a general haven of reform movements .
= = = Equal Protection Clause = = =
The Supreme Court decided several important equal protection cases during the first years of Harlan 's career . In these cases , Harlan regularly voted in favor of civil rights — similar to his grandfather , the only dissenting justice in the infamous Plessy v. Ferguson case .
He voted with the majority in Cooper v. Aaron , compelling defiant officials in Arkansas to desegregate public schools . He joined the opinion in Gomillion v. Lightfoot , which declared that states could not redraw political boundaries in order to reduce the voting power of African @-@ Americans . Moreover , he joined the unanimous decision in Loving v. Virginia , which struck down state laws that banned interracial marriage .
= = = Due Process Clause = = =
Justice Harlan advocated a broad interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment 's Due Process Clause . He subscribed to the doctrine that the clause not only provided procedural guarantees , but also protected a wide range of fundamental rights , including those that were not specifically mentioned in the text of the Constitution . ( See substantive due process . ) However , as Justice Byron White noted in his dissenting opinion in Moore v. East Cleveland , " no one was more sensitive than Mr. Justice Harlan to any suggestion that his approach to the Due Process Clause would lead to judges ' roaming at large in the constitutional field . ' " Under Harlan 's approach , judges would be limited in the Due Process area by " respect for the teachings of history , solid recognition of the basic values that underlie our society , and wise appreciation of the great roles that the doctrines of federalism and separation of powers have played in establishing and preserving American freedoms . "
Harlan set forth his interpretation in an often cited dissenting opinion to Poe v. Ullman , which involved a challenge to a Connecticut law banning the use of contraceptives . The Supreme Court dismissed the case on technical grounds , holding that the case was not ripe for adjudication . Justice Harlan dissented from the dismissal , suggesting that the Court should have considered the merits of the case . Thereafter , he indicated his support for a broad view of the due process clause 's reference to " liberty . " He wrote , " This ' liberty ' is not a series of isolated points pricked out in terms of the taking of property ; the freedom of speech , press , and religion ; the right to keep and bear arms ; the freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures ; and so on . It is a rational continuum which , broadly speaking , includes a freedom from all substantial arbitrary impositions and purposeless restraints . " He suggested that the due process clause encompassed a right to privacy , and concluded that a prohibition on contraception violated this right .
The same law was challenged again in Griswold v. Connecticut . This time , the Supreme Court agreed to consider the case , and concluded that the law violated the Constitution . However , the decision was based not on the due process clause , but on the argument that a right to privacy was found in the " penumbras " of other provisions of the Bill of Rights . Justice Harlan concurred in the result , but criticized the Court for relying on the Bill of Rights in reaching its decision . " The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment stands , " he wrote , " on its own bottom . " The Supreme Court would later adopt Harlan 's approach , relying on the due process clause rather than the penumbras of the Bill of Rights in right to privacy cases such as Roe v. Wade and Lawrence v. Texas .
Harlan 's interpretation of the Due Process Clause attracted the criticism of Justice Black , who rejected the idea that the Clause included a " substantive " component , considering this interpretation unjustifiably broad and historically unsound . The Supreme Court has agreed with Harlan , and has continued to apply the doctrine of substantive due process in a wide variety of cases .
= = = Incorporation = = =
Justice Harlan was strongly opposed to the theory that the Fourteenth Amendment " incorporated " the Bill of Rights — that is , made the provisions of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states . His opinion on the matter was opposite to that of his grandfather , who supported the full incorporation of the Bill of Rights . When it was originally ratified , the Bill of Rights was binding only upon the federal government , as the Supreme Court ruled in the 1833 case Barron v. Baltimore . Some jurists argued that the Fourteenth Amendment made the entirety of the Bill of Rights binding upon the states as well . Harlan , however , rejected this doctrine , which he called " historically unfounded " in his Griswold concurrence .
Instead , Justice Harlan believed that the Fourteenth Amendment 's due process clause only protected " fundamental " rights . Thus , if a guarantee of the Bill of Rights was " fundamental " or " implicit in the concept of ordered liberty , " Harlan agreed that it applied to the states as well as the federal government . Thus , for example , Harlan believed that the First Amendment 's free speech clause applied to the states , but that the Fifth Amendment 's self @-@ incrimination clause did not .
Harlan 's approach was largely similar to that of Justices Benjamin Cardozo and Felix Frankfurter . It drew criticism from Justice Black , a proponent of the total incorporation theory . Black claimed that the process of identifying some rights as more " fundamental " than others was largely arbitrary , and depended on each Justice 's personal opinions .
The Supreme Court has eventually adopted some elements of Harlan 's approach , holding that only some Bill of Rights guarantees were applicable against the states — the doctrine known as selective incorporation . However , under Chief Justice Earl Warren during the 1960s , an increasing number of rights were deemed sufficiently fundamental for incorporation ( Harlan regularly dissented from these rulings ) . Hence , the majority of provisions from the Bill of Rights have been extended to the states ; the exceptions are the Third Amendment , the grand jury clause of the Fifth Amendment , the Seventh Amendment , the excessive bail provision of the Eighth Amendment , the Ninth Amendment , and the Tenth Amendment . Thus , although the Supreme Court has agreed with Harlan 's general reasoning , the end result of its jurisprudence is very different from what Harlan advocated .
= = = First Amendment = = =
Justice Harlan supported many of the Warren Court 's landmark decisions relating to the separation of church and state . For instance , he voted in favor of the Court 's ruling that the states could not use religious tests as qualifications for public office in Torcaso v. Watkins . He joined in Engel v. Vitale , which declared that it was unconstitutional for states to require the recitation of official prayers in public schools . In Epperson v. Arkansas , similarly , he voted to strike down an Arkansas law banning the teaching of evolution .
In many cases , Harlan took a fairly broad view of First Amendment rights such as the freedom of speech and of the press , although he thought that the First Amendment applied directly only to the federal government . According to Harlan the freedom of speech was among the " fundamental principles of liberty and justice " and therefore applicable also to states , but less stringently than to the national government . Moreover , Justice Harlan believed that federal laws censoring " obscene " publications violated the free speech clause . Thus , he dissented from Roth v. United States , in which the Supreme Court upheld the validity of a federal obscenity law . At the same time , Harlan did not believe that the Constitution prevented the states from censoring obscenity . He explained in his Roth dissent :
The danger is perhaps not great if the people of one State , through their legislature , decide that Lady Chatterley 's Lover goes so far beyond the acceptable standards of candor that it will be deemed offensive and non @-@ sellable , for the State next door is still free to make its own choice . At least we do not have one uniform standard . But the dangers to free thought and expression are truly great if the Federal Government imposes a blanket ban over the Nation on such a book . [ ... ] The fact that the people of one State cannot read some of the works of D. H. Lawrence seems to me , if not wise or desirable , at least acceptable . But that no person in the United States should be allowed to do so seems to me to be intolerable , and violative of both the letter and spirit of the First Amendment .
Harlan concurred in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan , which required public officials suing newspapers for libel to prove that the publisher had acted with " actual malice . " This stringent standard made it much more difficult for public officials to win libel cases . He did not , however , go as far as Justices Hugo Black and William O. Douglas , who suggested that all libel laws were unconstitutional . In Street v. New York , Harlan wrote the opinion of the court , ruling that the government could not punish an individual for insulting the American flag . In 1969 he noted that the Supreme Court had consistently " rejected all manner of prior restraint on publication . "
When Harlan was a Circuit Judge in 1955 , he authorized the decision upholding the conviction of leaders of the Communist Party USA ( including Elizabeth Gurley Flynn ) under the Smith Act . The ruling was based on the previous Supreme Court 's decisions , by which the Court of Appeals was bound . Later , when he was a Supreme Court justice , Harlan , however , wrote an opinion overturning the conviction of Communist Party activists as unconstitutional in the case of Yates v. United States . Another such case was Watkins v. United States .
Harlan penned the majority opinion in Cohen v. California , holding that wearing a jacket emblazoned with the words " Fuck the Draft " was speech protected by the First Amendment . His opinion was later described by constitutional law expert Professor Yale Kamisar as one of the greatest ever written on freedom of expression . In the Cohen opinion , Harlan famously wrote " one man 's vulgarity is another 's lyric , " a quote that was later denounced by Robert Bork as " moral relativism " .
Justice Harlan is credited for the establishing that the First Amendment protects the freedom of association . In NAACP v. Alabama , Justice Harlan delivered the opinion of the court , invalidating an Alabama law that required the NAACP to disclose membership lists . However he did not believe that individuals were entitled to exercise their First Amendment rights wherever they pleased . He joined in Adderley v. Florida , which controversially upheld a trespassing conviction for protesters who demonstrated on government property . He dissented from Brown v. Louisiana , in which the Court held that protesters were entitled to engage in a sit @-@ in at a public library . Likewise , he disagreed with Tinker v. Des Moines , in which the Supreme Court ruled that students had the right to wear armbands ( as a form of protest ) in public schools .
= = = Criminal procedure = = =
During the 1960s the Warren Court made a series of rulings expanding the rights of criminal defendants . In some instances , Justice Harlan concurred in the result , while in many other cases he found himself in dissent . Harlan was usually joined by the other moderate members of the Court : Justices Potter Stewart , Tom Clark , and Byron White .
Most notably , Harlan dissented from Supreme Court rulings restricting interrogation techniques used by law enforcement officers . For example , he dissented from the Court 's holding in Escobedo v. Illinois , that the police could not refuse to honor a suspect 's request to consult with his lawyer during an interrogation . Harlan called the rule " ill @-@ conceived " and suggested that it " unjustifiably fetters perfectly legitimate methods of criminal law enforcement . " He disagreed with Miranda v. Arizona , which required law enforcement officials to warn a suspect of his rights before questioning him ( see Miranda warning ) . He closed his dissenting opinion with a quotation from his predecessor , Justice Robert H. Jackson : " This Court is forever adding new stories to the temples of constitutional law , and the temples have a way of collapsing when one story too many is added . "
In Gideon v. Wainwright , Justice Harlan agreed that the Constitution required states to provide attorneys for defendants who could not afford their own counsel . However , he believed that this requirement applied only at trial , and not on appeal ; thus , he dissented from Douglas v. California .
Harlan wrote the majority opinion Leary v. United States — a case that declared Marijuana Tax Act unconstitutional based on the Fifth Amendment protection against self @-@ incrimination .
Justice Harlan 's concurrence in Katz v. United States set forth the test for determining whether government conduct constituted a search . In this case the Supreme Court held that eavesdropping of the petitioner 's telephone conversation constituted a search in the meaning of the Fourth Amendment and thus required a warrant . According to Justice Harlan , there is a two @-@ part requirement for a search : 1 . That the individual have a subjective expectation of privacy ; and 2 . That the individual 's expectation of privacy is " one that society is prepared to recognize as ' reasonable . ' "
= = = Voting rights = = =
Justice Harlan rejected the theory that the Constitution enshrined the so @-@ called " one man , one vote " principle , or the principle that legislative districts must be roughly equal in population . In this regard , he shared the views of Justice Felix Frankfurter , who in Colegrove v. Green admonished the courts to stay out of the " political thicket " of reapportionment . The Supreme Court , however , disagreed with Harlan in a series of rulings during the 1960s . The first case in this line of rulings was Baker v. Carr . The Court ruled that the courts had jurisdiction over malapportionment issues and therefore were entitled to review the validity of district boundaries . Harlan , however , dissented , on the grounds that the plaintiffs failed to demonstrate that malapportionment violated their individual rights .
Then , in Wesberry v. Sanders , the Supreme Court , relying on the Constitution 's requirement that the United States House of Representatives be elected " by the People of the several States , " ruled that congressional districts in any particular state must be approximately equal in population . Harlan vigorously dissented , writing , " I had not expected to witness the day when the Supreme Court of the United States would render a decision which casts grave doubt on the constitutionality of the composition of the House of Representatives . It is not an exaggeration to say that such is the effect of today 's decision . " He proceeded to argue that the Court 's decision was inconsistent with both the history and text of the Constitution ; moreover , he claimed that only Congress , not the judiciary , had the power to require congressional districts with equal populations .
Harlan was the sole dissenter in Reynolds v. Sims , in which the Court relied on the Equal Protection Clause to extend the one man , one vote principle to state legislative districts . He analyzed the language and history of the Fourteenth Amendment , and concluded that the Equal Protection Clause was never intended to encompass voting rights . Because the Fifteenth Amendment would have been superfluous if the Fourteenth Amendment ( the basis of the reapportionment decisions ) had conferred a general right to vote , he claimed that the Constitution did not require states to adhere to the one man , one vote principle , and that the Court was merely imposing its own political theories on the nation . He suggested , in addition , that the problem of malapportionment was one that should be solved by the political process , and not by litigation . He wrote :
This Court , limited in function in accordance with that premise , does not serve its high purpose when it exceeds its authority , even to satisfy justified impatience with the slow workings of the political process . For when , in the name of constitutional interpretation , the Court adds something to the Constitution that was deliberately excluded from it , the Court , in reality , substitutes its view of what should be so for the amending process .
For similar reasons , Harlan dissented from Carrington v. Rash , in which the Court held that voter qualifications were subject to scrutiny under the equal protection clause . He claimed in his dissent , " the Court totally ignores , as it did in last Term 's reapportionment cases [ ... ] all the history of the Fourteenth Amendment and the course of judicial decisions which together plainly show that the Equal Protection Clause was not intended to touch state electoral matters . " Similarly , Justice Harlan disagreed with the Court 's ruling in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections , invalidating the use of the poll tax as a qualification to vote .
= = Retirement and death = =
John M. Harlan 's health began to deteriorate towards the end of his career . His eyesight began to fail during the late 1960s . To cover this , he would bring materials to within an inch of his eyes , and have clerks and his wife read to him ( once when the Court took an obscenity case , a chagrined Harlan had his wife read him Lady Chatterley 's Lover ) . Gravely ill , he retired from the Supreme Court on September 23 , 1971 .
Harlan died from spinal cancer three months later , on December 29 , 1971 . He was buried at the Emmanuel Church Cemetery in Weston , Connecticut . President Richard Nixon considered nominating Mildred Lillie , a California appeals court judge , to fill the vacant seat ; Lillie would have been the first female nominee to the Supreme Court . However , Nixon decided against Lillie 's nomination after the American Bar Association found Lillie to be unqualified . Thereafter , Nixon nominated William Rehnquist ( a future Chief Justice ) , who was confirmed by the Senate .
Despite his many dissents , Harlan has been described as one of the most influential Supreme Court justices of the twentieth century . He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1960 . Harlan 's extensive professional and Supreme Court papers ( 343 cubic feet ) were donated to Princeton University , where they are housed at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library and open to research . Other papers repose at several other libraries . Ethel Harlan , his wife , outlived him by only a few months and died on June 12 , 1972 . She suffered from Alzheimer 's disease for the last seven years of her life .
= Interstate 190 ( New York ) =
Interstate 190 ( I @-@ 190 , locally known as The One @-@ Ninety ) is a north – south auxiliary Interstate Highway that connects I @-@ 90 in Buffalo , New York with the Canada @-@ U.S. border near Niagara Falls . The freeway bisects downtown Buffalo before crossing Grand Island and travelling around the outskirts of
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the effort to forcibly move the Seminole Indians from Florida to a reservation west of the Mississippi . After a massacre of army soldiers near Tampa on 28 December 1835 , marines and sailors were added to the forces which fought the Second Seminole War from 1836 until 1842 . A " mosquito fleet " was formed in the Everglades out of various small craft to transport a mixture of army and navy personnel to pursue the Seminoles into the swamps . About 1 @,@ 500 soldiers were killed during the conflict , some Seminoles agreed to move but a small group of Seminoles remained in control of the Everglades and the area around Lake Okeechobee .
The Navy played a role in two major operations of the Mexican – American War ( 1845 – 1848 ) ; during the Battle of Veracruz , it transported the invasion force that captured Veracruz by landing 12 @,@ 000 troops and their equipment in one day , leading eventually to the capture of Mexico City , and the end of the war . Its Pacific Squadron 's ships facilitated the capture of California .
In 1853 Commodore Matthew Perry led the Perry Expedition , a squadron of four ships which sailed to Japan to establish normal relations with Japan . Perry 's two technologically advanced steam @-@ powered ships and calm , firm diplomacy convinced Japan to end three centuries of isolation and sign Treaty of Kanagawa with the U.S. in 1854 . Nominally a treaty of friendship , the agreement soon paved the way for the opening of Japan and normal trade relations with the United States and Europe .
= = = American Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) = = =
Between the beginning of the war and the end of 1861 , 373 commissioned officers , warrant officers , and midshipmen resigned or were dismissed from the United States Navy and went on to serve the Confederacy . On 20 April 1861 , the Union burned its ships that were at the Norfolk Navy Yard to prevent their capture by the Confederates , but not all of the ships were completely destroyed . The screw frigate USS Merrimack was so hastily scuttled that her hull and steam engine were basically intact , which gave the South 's Stephen Mallory the idea of raising her and then armoring the upper sides with iron plate . The resulting ship was named CSS Virginia . Meanwhile , John Ericsson had similar ideas , and received funding to build USS Monitor .
Winfield Scott , the commanding general of the U.S. Army at the beginning of the war , devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible . His idea was that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy ; then the capture of the Mississippi River would split the South . Lincoln adopted the plan in terms of a blockade to squeeze to death the Confederate economy , but overruled Scott 's warnings that his new army was not ready for an offensive operation because public opinion demanded an immediate attack .
On 8 March 1862 , the Confederate Navy initiated the first combat between ironclads when the Virginia successfully attacked the blockade . The next day , the Monitor engaged the Virginia in the Battle of Hampton Roads . Their battle ended in a draw , and the Confederacy later lost the Virginia when the ship was scuttled to prevent capture . The Monitor was the prototype for the monitor warship and many more were built by the Union Navy . While the Confederacy built more ironclad ships during the war , they lacked the ability to build or purchase ships that could effectively counter the monitors .
Along with ironclad ships , the new technologies of naval mines , which were known as torpedoes after the torpedo eel , and submarine warfare were introduced during the war by the Confederacy . During the Battle of Mobile Bay , mines were used to protect the harbor and sank the Union monitor USS Tecumseh . After Tecumseh sank , Admiral David G. Farragut famously said , " Damn the torpedoes , full speed ahead ! " . The forerunner of the modern submarine , CSS David , attacked USS New Ironsides using a spar torpedo . The Union ship was barely damaged and the resulting geyser of water put out the fires in the submarine 's boiler , rendering the submarine immobile . Another submarine , CSS H.L. Hunley , was designed to dive and surface but ultimately did not work well and sank on five occasions during trials . In action against USS Housatonic the submarine successfully sank its target but was lost by the same explosion .
The Confederate States of America operated a number of commerce raiders and blockade runners , CSS Alabama being the most famous , and British investors built small , fast blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Bermuda , Cuba , and The Bahamas in return for high @-@ priced cotton and tobacco . When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner , the ship and cargo were sold and the proceeds given to the Navy sailors ; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released .
The blockade of the South caused the Southern economy to collapse during the war . Shortages of food and supplies were caused by the blockade , the failure of Southern railroads , the loss of control of the main rivers , and foraging by Union and Confederate armies . The standard of living fell even as large @-@ scale printing of paper money caused inflation and distrust of the currency . By 1864 the internal food distribution had broken down , leaving cities without enough food and causing food riots across the Confederacy . The Union victory at the Second Battle of Fort Fisher in January 1865 closed the last useful Southern port , virtually ending blockade running and hastening the end of the war .
= = = Decline of the Navy ( 1865 – 1882 ) = = =
After the war , the Navy went into a period of decline . In 1864 , the Navy had 51 @,@ 500 men in uniform , and almost 700 ships and about 60 monitor @-@ type coastal ironclads which made the U.S. Navy the second largest in the world after the Royal Navy . By 1880 the Navy only had 48 ships in commission , 6 @,@ 000 men , and the ships and shore facilities were decrepit but Congress saw no need to spend money to improve them . The Navy was unprepared to fight a major maritime war before 1897 .
In 1871 , an expedition of five warships commanded by Rear Admiral John Rodgers was sent to Korea to obtain an apology for the murders of several shipwrecked American sailors and secure a treaty to protect shipwrecked foreigners in the future . After a small skirmish , Rodgers launched an amphibious assault of approximately 650 men on the forts protecting Seoul . Despite the capture of the forts , the Koreans refused to negotiate , and the expedition was forced to leave before the start of typhoon season . Nine sailors and six marines received Medals of Honor for their acts of heroism during the Korean campaign ; the first for actions in a foreign conflict .
By the 1870s most of the ironclads from the Civil War were laid up in reserve , leaving the United States virtually without an ironclad fleet . When the Virginius Affair first broke out in 1873 , a Spanish ironclad happened to be anchored in New York Harbor , leading to the uncomfortable realization on the part of the U.S. Navy that it had no ship capable of defeating such a vessel . The Navy hastily issued contracts for the construction of five new ironclads , and accelerated its existing repair program for several more . USS Puritan and the four Amphitrite @-@ class monitors were subsequently built as a result of the Virginius war scare . All five vessels would later take part in the Spanish – American War of 1898 .
By the time the Garfield administration assumed office in 1881 , the Navy 's condition had deteriorated still further . A review conducted on behalf of the new Secretary of the Navy , William H. Hunt , found that of 140 vessels on the Navy 's active list , only 52 were in an operational state , of which a mere 17 were iron @-@ hulled ships , including 14 aging Civil War era ironclads . Hunt recognized the necessity of modernizing the Navy , and set up an informal advisory board to make recommendations . Also to be expected , morale was considerably down ; officers and sailors in foreign ports were all too aware that their old wooden ships would not survive long in the event of war . The limitations of the monitor type effectively prevented the United States from projecting power overseas , and until the 1890s the United States would have come off badly in a conflict with even Spain or the Latin American powers .
= = " New Navy " = =
= = = Rebuilding ( 1882 – 1898 ) = = =
In 1882 , on the recommendation of an advisory panel , the Navy Secretary William H. Hunt requested funds from Congress to construct modern ships . The request was rejected initially , but in 1883 Congress authorized the construction of three protected cruisers , USS Chicago , USS Boston , and USS Atlanta , and the dispatch vessel USS Dolphin , together known as the ABCD ships . In 1885 , two more protected cruisers , USS Charleston and USS Newark which was the last American cruiser to be fitted with a sail rig , were authorized . Congress also authorized the construction of the first battleships in the Navy , USS Texas and USS Maine . The ABCD ships proved to be excellent vessels , and the three cruisers were organized into the Squadron of Evolution , popularly known as the White Squadron because of the color of the hulls , which was used to train a generation of officers and men .
Alfred Thayer Mahan 's book The Influence of Sea Power upon History , 1660 – 1783 , published in 1890 , was very influential in justifying the naval program to the civilian government and to the general public . With the closing of the frontier , some Americans began to look outwards , to the Caribbean , to Hawaii and the Pacific , and with the doctrine of Manifest Destiny as philosophical justification , many saw the Navy as an essential part of realizing that doctrine beyond the limits of the American continent .
In 1890 , Mahan 's doctrine influenced Navy Secretary Benjamin F. Tracy to propose the United States start building no less than 200 ships of all types , but Congress rejected the proposal . Instead , the Navy Act of 1890 authorized building three battleships , USS Indiana , USS Massachusetts , and USS Oregon , followed by USS Iowa . By around the start of the 20th century , two Kearsarge @-@ class battleships and three Illinois @-@ class battleships were completed or under construction , which brought the U.S. Navy from twelfth place in 1870 to fifth place among the world 's navies .
Battle tactics , especially long @-@ range gunnery , became a central concern .
= = = Spanish – American War ( 1898 ) = = =
The United States was interested in purchasing colonies from Spain , specifically Cuba , but Spain refused . Newspapers wrote stories , many which were fabricated , about atrocities committed in Spanish colonies which raised tensions between the two countries . A riot gave the United States an excuse to send USS Maine to Cuba , and the subsequent explosion of Maine in Havana Harbor increased popular support for war with Spain . The cause of the explosion was investigated by a board of inquiry , which in March 1898 came to the conclusion the explosion was caused by a sea mine , and there was pressure from the public to blame Spain for sinking the ship . However , later investigations pointed to an internal explosion in one of the magazines caused by heat from a fire in the adjacent coal bunker .
Assistant Navy secretary Theodore Roosevelt quietly positioned the Navy for attack before the Spanish – American War was declared in April 1898 . The Asiatic Squadron , under the command of George Dewey , immediately left Hong Kong for the Philippines , attacking and decisively defeating the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila Bay . A few weeks later , the North Atlantic Squadron destroyed the majority of heavy Spanish naval units in the Caribbean in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba .
The Navy 's experience in this war was both encouraging , in that it had won , and cautionary , in that the enemy had one of the weakest of the worlds ' modern fleets , and that the Manila Bay attack was extremely risky ; if the American ships had been severely damaged or had run out of supplies , they were 7 @,@ 000 miles from the nearest American harbor . This realization would have a profound effect on Navy strategy , and , indeed , American foreign policy , in the next several decades .
= = = Rise of the Modern Navy ( 1898 – 1914 ) = = =
Fortunately for the New Navy , its most ardent political supporter , Theodore Roosevelt , became President in 1901 . Under his administration , the Navy went from the sixth largest in the world to second only to the Royal Navy . Theodore Roosevelt 's administration became involved in the politics of the Caribbean and Central America , with interventions in 1901 , 1902 , 1903 , and 1906 . At a speech in 1901 , Roosevelt said , " Speak softly and carry a big stick , you will go far " , which was a cornerstone of diplomacy during his presidency .
Roosevelt believed that a U.S.-controlled canal across Central America was a vital strategic interest to the U.S. Navy , because it would significantly shorten travel times for ships between the two coasts . Roosevelt was able to reverse a decision in favor of a Nicaraguan Canal and instead moved to purchase the failed French effort across the Isthmus of Panama . The isthmus was controlled by Colombia , and in early 1903 , the Hay – Herrán Treaty was signed by both nations to give control of the canal to the United States . After the Colombian Senate failed to ratify the treaty , Roosevelt implied to Panamanian rebels that if they revolted , the US Navy would assist their cause for independence . Panama proceeded to proclaim its independence on 3 November 1903 , and USS Nashville impeded any interference from Colombia . The victorious Panamanians allowed the United States control of the Panama Canal Zone on 23 February 1904 , for US $ 10 million . The naval base at Guantanamo Bay , Cuba was built in 1905 to protect the canal .
The latest technological innovation of the time , submarines , were developed in the state of New Jersey by an Irish @-@ American inventor , John Philip Holland . His submarine , USS Holland was officially commissioned into U.S. Navy service in the fall of 1900 . The Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1905 and the launching of HMS Dreadnought in the following year lent impetus to the construction program . At the end of 1907 Roosevelt had sixteen new battleships to make up his " Great White Fleet " , which he sent on a cruise around the world . While nominally peaceful , and a valuable training exercise for the rapidly expanding Navy , it was also useful politically as a demonstration of United States power and capabilities ; at every port , the politicians and naval officers of both potential allies and enemies were welcomed on board and given tours . The cruise had the desired effect , and American power was subsequently taken more seriously .
The voyage taught the Navy more fueling stations were needed around the world , and the strategic potential of the Panama Canal , which was completed in 1914 . The Great White Fleet required almost 50 coaling ships , and during the cruise most of the fleet 's coal was purchased from the British , who could deny access to fuel during a military crisis as they did with Russia during the Russo @-@ Japanese War .
= = = World War I ( 1914 – 1918 ) = = =
= = = = Mexico = = = =
When United States agents discovered that the German merchant ship Ypiranga was carrying illegal arms to Mexico , President Wilson ordered the Navy to stop the ship from docking at the port of Veracruz . On 21 April 1914 , a naval brigade of marines and sailors occupied Veracruz . A total of 55 Medals of Honor were awarded for acts of heroism at Veracruz , the largest number ever granted for a single action .
= = = = Preparing for war 1914 @-@ 1917 = = = =
Despite U.S. declarations of neutrality and German accountability for its unrestricted submarine warfare , in 1915 the British passenger liner Lusitania was sunk , leading to calls for war . President Wilson forced the Germans to suspend unrestricted submarine warfare and after long debate Congress passes the Naval Act of 1916 that authorized a $ 500 million construction program over three years for 10 battleships , 6 battlecruisers , 10 scout cruisers , 50 destroyers and 67 submarines . The idea was a balanced fleet , but in the event destroyers were much more important , because they had to handle uboats and convoys . By the end of the war 273 destroyers had been ordered ; most were finished after World War I ended but many served in World War II . There were few war plans beyond the defense of the main American harbors .
Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels , a pacifistic journalist , had built up the educational resources of the Navy and made its Naval War College an essential experience for would @-@ be admirals . However , he alienated the officer corps with his moralistic reforms , ( no wine in the officers ' mess , no hazing at Annapolis , more chaplains and YMCAs ) . Ignoring the nation 's strategic needs , and disdaining the advice of its experts , Daniels suspended meetings of the Joint Army and Navy Board for two years because it was giving unwelcome advice . He chopped in half the General Board 's recommendations for new ships , reduced the authority of officers in the Navy yards where ships were built and repaired , and ignored the administrative chaos in his department . Bradley Fiske , one of the most innovative admirals in American naval history , in 1914 was Daniels ' top aide ; he recommended a reorganization that would prepare for war , but Daniels refused . Instead he replaced Fiske in 1915 and brought in for the new post of Chief of Naval Operations an unknown captain , William S. Benson . Chosen for his compliance , Benson proved a wily bureaucrat who was more interested in preparing for an eventual showdown with Britain than an immediate one with Germany .
In 1915 Daniels set up the Naval
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The ships were protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships and 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) thick on the bow . The stern was unarmored . The deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate forward , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick amidships , and 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick aft . Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck and belt armor . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm thick roof . A rangefinder was added with 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick steel plating . The main battery guns had 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick gun shields .
= = Service history = =
= = = Graudenz = = =
Graudenz saw extensive service during World War I , including serving as part of the reconnaissance screen for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group during the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby in December 1914 . The ship also took part in the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 , and the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 . She had been damaged by a mine and was unable to participate in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 . She was assigned to the planned final operation of the High Seas Fleet in October 1918 , weeks before the end of the war , but a major mutiny forced the cancellation of the plan . After the end of the war , the ship was ceded to Italy as a war prize and commissioned into the Italian Navy as Ancona ; she remained in service until 1937 when she was stricken and broken up for scrap .
= = = Regensburg = = =
Regensburg served in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet during World War I. She saw significant action at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , where she served as the leader of the torpedo boat flotillas that screened for the I Scouting Group battlecruisers . Like Graudenz , Regensburg was to have participated in the final sortie of the German fleet at the end of the war , and was involved in the mutiny that forced the cancellation of the plan . After the end of the war , she was ceded to France in 1920 and renamed Strasbourg . In 1928 she took part in the Arctic rescue operations searching for the Airship Italia . Removed from service in 1936 , she was used as a barracks ship in Lorient until 1944 , when she was seized by the Germans and scuttled in the harbor to protect the U @-@ boat pens there .
= Worcester city walls =
Worcester 's city walls are a sequence of defensive structures built around the city of Worcester in England between the 1st and 17th centuries . The first walls to be built around Worcester were constructed by the Romans . These early walls lasted beyond the fall of the Empire , and the defences encouraged several early Christian foundations to establish themselves in Worcester during the troubled 6th and 7th centuries . The Anglo @-@ Saxons expanded Worcester in the 890s , forming a new walled , planned city , called a burh . The burh utilised the southern stretches of the old Roman walls , but pushed further north to enclose a much larger area . The Anglo @-@ Saxon city walls were maintained by a share of taxes on a local market and streets , in an agreement reinforced by a royal charter .
After the Norman conquest of England in the 11th century a motte and bailey castle was constructed on the south side of the city , but the Norman rulers continued to use the older burh walls , despite the city having expanded beyond these defences in the north and south @-@ east . During the years of the Anarchy in the 1140s , Worcester was successfully attacked several times ; after the war a new city wall was built to improve the city 's defences . The new walls , completed by the early 13th century , were constructed of stone and had three main gates . They were maintained in good condition into the 17th century .
During the English Civil War in the 1640s the old medieval walls were reinforced with modern earthwork bastions and an outlying fort , called a sconce . Worcester changed hands several times during the conflict , and after the war ended the newer fortifications were dismantled . During the 18th century the older medieval stone walls and gatehouses were sold and mostly destroyed : by the 20th century , few parts survived . Post @-@ war archaeology in the 1950s and 1960s and construction work in the 1970s revealed previously hidden stretches of the wall , and in the 21st century plans have been drawn up to improve the conservation and maintenance of this historic monument .
= = History = =
= = = 1st – 7th centuries = = =
The first defensive walls at Worcester were built after the Roman conquest of Britain in AD 43 . Although a settlement existed on the site during the Iron Age , there is no evidence that walls were ever built around it . The Roman town was probably preceded by the construction a Roman fort , both located on the south side of the modern city and protected by the River Severn to the west . There are relatively few historical details or archaeological evidence from this period , but archaeological investigations of the Roman town walls suggest that it had wooden ramparts and was protected by an 89 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) wide ditch . As with other Roman towns , the walls would have enclosed a rectangular town , protecting a settlement with a grid @-@ like network of streets .
The decline of the Roman Empire brought an end to Roman rule in Britain by the start of the 5th century . The town within the old Roman walls at Worcester continued to be occupied however , remaining a prominent military feature . New Christian religious foundations were established at Worcester during this period , attracted there in large part by the security the Roman defences offered during a troubled period . In the 7th century , Worcester Cathedral was built , once again within the old Roman walls .
= = = 8th – 11th centuries = = =
During the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , Worcester first became the capital of the Hwicce kingdom , and later formed part of the wider kingdom of Mercia . Worcester and its defences were reorganised by Ealdorman Æthelred and Æthelflæd and bishop Werferth in the 890s . This involved creating a burh , a fortified Anglo @-@ Saxon town ; in Worcester this took the form of a planned settlement , extending out from the old Roman defences , with the Shambles forming a street running along the wall on the east . Archaeological evidence suggests that the burh had 4 @,@ 650 feet ( 1 @,@ 417 m ) of walls in total ; documentary evidence from the Burghal Hidage document , written shortly after the creation of the walls , suggests they were 4 @,@ 960 feet ( 1 @,@ 512 m ) long , a discrepancy that may be accounted for by changes in the course of the river since the 10th century . The walls incorporated the old Roman fortifications on the south and south @-@ east side of the city and appear to have included a defensive ditch , with a revetment supporting a wooden palisade .
The creation of the burh walls is recorded in a charter witnessed by King Alfred , which lays out the responsibilities of the various churchmen and nobles involved , and notes that the upkeep of the walls would be paid for out of a share of taxes on a new market and on the new streets . The local lords took responsibility for building the burh wall , which unusually for the period was not built on royal lands . During the 10th century , the documents on the burh suggest that the aristocratic thegns living around Worcester also owned and maintained buildings within the walls ; Creighton and Higham suggest that these may have been linked to their responsibilities for defending the settlement .
During the 10th and 11th centuries Worcester spread north beyond the original burh walls , and south @-@ east to form Sidbury . In 1041 Worcester was attacked by the royal army of Harthacnut over a tax @-@ dispute that had led to the death of two of the king 's men ; despite the defensive walls , the city was successfully taken and burnt .
= = = 11th – 16th centuries = = =
In 1066 William the Conqueror defeated the English army at the battle of Hastings and Norman forces advanced west into Worcestershire . To reinforce their occupation , the Normans built a motte and bailey castle on the south side of the city , taking advantage of the shape of the existing burh walls . The remaining burh walls continued to be used into the Norman period , but the city had already spread beyond them , reducing their effectiveness .
In the late 1130s a period of civil war broke out in England , called the Anarchy , in which the rival factions of King Stephen and the Empress Matilda contested the kingdom – Worcestershire proved to be a key battleground in the war . The first attack on Worcester itself occurred in late 1139 when an Angevin army from Gloucestershire assaulted the city . After an attempt to take the castle on the south side of the city , the Gloucester forces entered from the north , looting and burning . Worcester became a base for Stephen 's forces for a period , before joining the Empress 's faction . In response , Stephen first stormed and burnt the city in 1148 , and then attacked it again in 1150 , shortly before the end of the conflict . From the accounts of these sieges , it appears that Worcester still lacked substantial walls during this period .
During the second half of the 12th century a new city wall began to be built around Worcester , with work probably continuing until early the next century . Enclosing about 85 acres ( 34 @.@ 4 hectares ) , its design tracked the flow of natural streams to the north and east , and made use of the castle in the south as part of the defences . The walls were constructed of sandstone , and appear to have been surrounded by a flat bottomed , water @-@ filled ditch , more than 30 feet ( 9 m ) wide . The new walls cut across existing parts of the city and would have required the demolition of numerous existing buildings that lay in their way ; the new defences also cut off the outlying districts of Sidbury , Lowesmoore , Foregate Street and The Tything from the inside of the walled city . Three main gates were built in the walls – North Gate , St Martin 's Gate and Sidbury Gate – protected by gatehouses of paired circular towers and arrowslits for use by crossbowmen . Smaller gates were built between them , such as Friar 's Gate .
Civil war broke out again in England in 1215 between forces loyal to King John and rebel barons , supported in due course by Prince Louis of France , in what gas become known as the First Barons ' War . Worcester sided with the rebels , and in July 1216 the city was attacked by forces under the command of Ranulf , the Earl of Chester . Ranulf attempted to storm the castle , rather than the north side of the city , and after he eventually gained access a £ 100 fine was imposed on the city with the threat that their walls would be destroyed if the money was not paid . Although Worcester 's walls clearly played a military role during this period , they would also have been symbolically important to the city and have played a part in controlling civic access and enforcing the city 's laws .
One method of paying for the construction and maintenance of city walls was a tax called murage , usually levied by permission of the king on particular goods being imported into a city . In Worcester , murage was raised to support work on the walls during three main phases , 1224 to 1239 , 1252 to 1310 and 1364 to 1411 . Worcester was attacked again during the Second Barons ' War in the 1260s , and the records suggest that some of the murage payments were used to repair damage caused by that attack . In the late 14th century a watergate was built in the western walls of the city , close to a slipway for launching boats . Worcester 's last murage grant occurred in 1439 , although in 1459 Henry VI allowed the city to use stones from the castle to repair the walls to defend the city in anticipation of a Yorkist attack during the Wars of the Roses . As in many other English towns and cities , as the medieval period progressed , housing began to encroach on the city walls in Worcester .
= = = 17th – 19th centuries = = =
At the start of the 17th century , Worcester 's city walls were still intact , and were recorded in John Speed 's famous 1610 map of the city . In 1642 the English Civil War broke out between followers of King Charles I and Parliament . Worcester began the war under Royalist control , before rapidly being taken by Parliament and then changing hands again in 1643 following the battle of Edgehill . Worcester remained Royalist for the rest of the war until it was once again besieged and finally surrendered in 1646 .
The war was the first prolonged conflict in Britain to involve the use of artillery and gunpowder . Sieges became a prominent part of the war with over 300 occurring during the period . Worcester was once again a strategically important region in the war , and walled towns and cities like Worcester that could be defended against passing armies were particularly significant from a military perspective . By the 1640s the design of military fortifications had progressed significantly on the continent , owing largely to the Thirty Years War ; while older medieval stone walls still had military utility , they typically needed reinforcement with more modern earthworks to be truly effective . These new ideas were applied to city defences in England . In some cases a circuit of forts was built around a city ; in other cases , an entirely new city wall comprising modern bastions would be built . At Worcester , the unimproved walls were considered to be indefensible at the start of the war in 1642 , and the chosen solution was to directly reinforce the existing medieval wall with new earthworks .
To form these new defences , the buildings outside the old city walls were cleared and six large bastions were attached to them along the north and east sides of the city , while a sconce , Fort Royal Hill was built outside Sidbury Gate in the south , linked to the walls by
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a walkway . The ditch protecting the new earthworks was relatively shallow at about eight feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) deep , but when combined with the high ramparts of the bastions , which were probably protected by sharpened stakes and a banquette firing platform , the bastions would have been well defended . The reinforced walls were manned in 1642 by soldiers employed by the Robert Devereux , the Earl of Essex . Prince Maurice subsequently conscripted the adult men and women of Worcester to work on the walls , threatening the death penalty if they did not attend . During the 1643 and 1646 sieges the reinforced defences were able to withstand the artillery bombardments – the surrender in 1646 was mainly the result of a shortage of food and the collapse of the wider Royalist position across the south @-@ west of England .
Following further fighting between 1648 and 1649 , the Third English Civil War broke out in 1651 . Royalist forces under the command of Charles II advanced as far as Worcester , where the army paused to reinforce the walls further and await reinforcements in relative safety . The Parliamentary forces under Oliver Cromwell attacked in early September ; the ensuing battle of Worcester saw the Royalist forces pushed steadily back into the city . Fort Royal was successfully stormed and its guns turned on the city itself . Cromwell 's men began forcing their way into the city from west , south and east and by the evening the city had fallen . The collapse marked the end of the Third Civil War . In the aftermath the bastions and other fortifications were mostly destroyed by Parliament , although the medieval walls and gates were spared .
By the 18th century local residents had built summer houses on top of the walls , which were still largely intact . During the next hundred years city and town walls across England began to be demolished to make way for new developments , and Worcester proved no exception . By the end of the century the walls and gates were being sold off and destroyed ; Friar 's Gate was probably the last to be demolished , early in the 19th century . Only a few tracts of wall survived , often concealed behind other buildings and new constructions .
= = Today = =
The remains of Worcester 's city walls were largely ignored until after the Second World War ; limited archaeological excavations first began in 1957 . Work continued in the 1960s and picked up pace in the 1970s , when the creation of the City Walls Road in Worcester uncovered more parts of the wall , formerly hidden from view . The Civil War earthworks of Fort Royal Hill are still visible overlooking the city .
As a result of their mixed history , the remains of the walls are owned by various different organisations and subject to different legal protection . Some parts of the walls are protected as Grade II listed buildings and scheduled monuments , although most of the walls lack this legal recognition . The multiple ownership of the different parts of the city walls contributed to what English Heritage considered an " uncoordinated " approach to their conservation . In response , a conservation plan has been created by Worcester City Council , proposing that the walls , despite their mixed ownership , should be managed as a single historic monument , and advising that some sections be repaired urgently ; as of 2010 this plan was awaiting approval by English Heritage .
= Blink @-@ 182 ( album ) =
Blink @-@ 182 is the eponymously titled fifth studio album by American pop @-@ punk band Blink @-@ 182 . It was produced by Jerry Finn and released November 18 , 2003 , through Geffen Records . Following the band 's ascent to stardom and success of their prior two releases , the trio were compelled to take a break and subsequently participated in various side projects ( Box Car Racer and Transplants ) . When they regrouped , the band felt inspired to approach song structure and arrangements differently on their next effort together . The record was left untitled as to refrain from labeling its content , and its packaging features a " smiley face " logo inspired by pop art .
Recorded throughout 2003 , Blink @-@ 182 marks a departure from the band 's earlier work , infusing experimental elements into their usual pop punk sound , inspired by lifestyle changes ( the band members all became fathers before the album was released ) and side projects . Its songs are characterized by downcast and expansive sonic atmospheres , showcasing what critics dubbed a more elaborate , mature side of the band . Songwriting is more personal in nature and explores darker territory , touching upon the realities of adulthood and unexpected hardships . The record features a collaboration with The Cure frontman Robert Smith .
Fans were generally split regarding the band 's " new " direction , but the record proved successful , selling 2 @.@ 2 million copies in the United States . The album received positive reviews , with critics welcoming the change in tone . Lead singles " Feeling This " and " I Miss You " received the most radio airplay of the four singles released and peaked high on Billboard charts . The worldwide touring schedule , which saw the band travel to Japan and Australia , also found the three performing for troops stationed in the Middle East . Blink @-@ 182 was the band 's last recording with longtime producer Jerry Finn and their final original material before a four @-@ year @-@ long hiatus .
= = Background = =
Take Off Your Pants and Jacket became Blink @-@ 182 's first number one album in the United States upon its June 2001 release ; it also hit the top position in Canada and Germany . Hit singles " The Rock Show " and " First Date " continued the band 's mainstream success worldwide , with MTV cementing their image as video stars . However , guitarist Tom DeLonge felt as though his creativity was stifled by label limitations , and sessions became contentious among the trio . They rescheduled European tour dates in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks , and they were called off a second time after DeLonge suffered a herniated disc in his back . With time off from touring , DeLonge felt an " itch to do something where he didn 't feel locked in to what Blink was , " and channeled his chronic back pain and resulting frustration into Box Car Racer ( 2002 ) , a post @-@ hardcore disc that further explores his Fugazi and Refused inspiration . Refraining from paying for a studio drummer , he invited Blink drummer Travis Barker to record drums on the project .
Box Car Racer , intended as a one @-@ time experimental project , became a full @-@ fledged band with Barker behind the kit and Hazen Street guitarist David Kennedy on guitar . Blink bassist Mark Hoppus felt betrayed and jealous , and it would create an unresolved tension within the trio that followed the band for several years . " At the end of 2001 it felt like Blink @-@ 182 had broken up . It wasn ’ t spoken about , but it felt over , " said Hoppus later . Barker , meanwhile , joined rap rock group Transplants in 2002 , and was featured on their first album , Transplants . In addition , Blink @-@ 182 co @-@ headlined the Pop Disaster Tour with Green Day , alongside opening acts Jimmy Eat World , Saves the Day and Kut U Up in 2002 . It was an " uncomfortable " time in the band , according to Hoppus , but they had " hundreds of discussions about it " and seemingly moved on . Barker felt the dynamics of the band changed with Hoppus and DeLonge 's marriages : " Blink @-@ 182 were no longer just three inseparable guys who were touring together . " Meanwhile , he began dating model Shanna Moakler , inviting tabloid attention , adding to the " awkwardness " present in the band .
The post @-@ hardcore sound of Box Car Racer inspired the change in tone and experimental nature the band approached Blink @-@ 182 with . Hoppus described his desire for the album to experiment with different arrangements in a 2002 interview : " Before , we got one guitar sound that we changed a little bit through the record . This time we want to try a whole different setup for each song . " Hoppus recalled that Barker entered the production process by urging the band to " [ not think of the album ] as the next Blink @-@ 182 record — think of it as the first Blink @-@ 182 record . " The members were also inspired after hearing Houston : We Have a Drinking Problem by Bad Astronaut and its expansive sound . " Once the door was opened by Tom and Travis with Box Car Racer , Mark started to be more on board with that concept . He was also more flexible and the next Blink album was able to be a pretty big departure from the previous two , " said assistant engineer Sam Boukas . " Box Car Racer opened the door in that sense and I think the three of them wanted to be more creative and have more creative liberty on that next album . "
= = Recording and production = =
In January 2003 , the band rented a home in the San Diego luxury community of Rancho Santa Fe , planning to record the entire album there . In addition to being converted into a studio , pay @-@ per @-@ view pornography was on continuous play , and it included a space to " smoke hella weed " in the garage . The trio ditched their typical previous recording process ( writing and demoing several songs and recording them in a studio one instrument at a time ) , and instead approached each song together . The band " attacked " each song and worked on three @-@ four songs per day , simply moving on to the next one when feeling " burned out " on a track . The band also had fun at the home studio ; DeLonge commented , " If I wasn ’ t smoking half of Colombia I probably ran up $ 3 million in adult film charges . " The band recorded at the home until April 2003 , when the owners of the house " kicked them out . " Barker , unwilling to leave Moakler , would drive from Los Angeles to San Diego each day . He subsequently left that spring to tour with Transplants , leaving the band with a variety of drum tracks to listen to while he was gone . The band regrouped after being " kicked out " of the house they were recording in by the owners , and began recording at Rolling Thunder studios until the band left to perform a couple of summer shows in Canada and Japan , where they premiered several songs live . The in @-@ studio antics and behind the scenes moments were recorded and posted on the official Blink @-@ 182 website throughout 2003 , as well as a MTV album release segment .
The recording process of the album eventually lasted from January to August 2003 , with an additional mixing and mastering period lasting until October . Previous Blink @-@ 182 sessions were recorded in three months . The band stated that being in a studio longer than three months gave them the luxury of experimenting with different methods of writing , playing , and recording . The band built each song with a minute attention to detail . Hoppus described the studio as a " musical laboratory " : over 70 guitars , 30 amps , " 30 or 40 " different snare drums , up to six drum kits , and various keyboards , turntables , and pianos were used in the album 's production . Barker was responsible for the turntables and a copy of Pink Floyd 's The Wall . The group also enlisted the help of James Guthrie , an engineer behind The Wall . The trio also sent The Cure frontman Robert Smith the bed track of " All of This " in hopes he would contribute ; Smith makes a guest appearance and recorded his parts in England . The three initially believed their legitimacy would be in question due to the humor @-@ oriented nature of their earlier recordings , to which Smith responded , " Nobody knows what kind of songs you are going to write in the future and nobody knows the full potential of any band . I really like the music you sent me . " The band also collaborated with DJ Shadow and Dan the Automator , and Barker desired to work with The Neptunes . Jerry Finn , who had produced the previous two Blink @-@ 182 albums and the Box Car Racer album , returned to produce Blink @-@ 182 , which would be his final contribution with the band .
As the record neared completion by August , the band performed for a short time for the armed forces in the Middle East , and premiered more new songs at their Reading and Leeds sets . The trio shot small , home @-@ made videos for several songs on Blink @-@ 182 , as well as the official music video for " Feeling This " , which they picked as the first single . The band spent time to finalize the CD booklet and album artwork in September . Mark Hoppus stated that the album was so " personal to all three of us that we really wanted to be involved in every aspect of it . " The release date kept getting missed and pushed back to where Jordan Schur , then @-@ president of Geffen Records , made calls asking , " What is the absolute last possible second that we can turn this thing in and still make our release date ? " DeLonge described the final days of mixing the album as " crazy stressful " , with " literally hours to turn [ the album ] to have it come it out on time . " The album was in production so late that final mixes were still being judged by Hoppus , DeLonge , and Barker the night before the album was sent to the pressing plant . For Barker , he later considered it his favorite time in the band 's history , commenting , " That was a good time in my life . I was smoking just enough weed and taking just enough pills . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Music and style = = =
While still rooted in pop punk , Blink @-@ 182 finds the band expanding their sonic template with darker , restless songs . The compositions on the record have been described as musically diverse and " borderline experimental , " with sullen moodiness and off @-@ kilter hooks the basis for many tracks . The record pulls from a variety of styles , including electronic rock , jangle pop , and " reflective " alternative rock . Experimentation was constantly present : the band tried different mic techniques and toyed with harmonium organs , Polynesian Gamelan bells , and turntables . The band infused these experimentalist elements into their usual pop punk sound , inspired by lifestyle changes ( the band members all became fathers before the album was released ) and side @-@ projects ( Box Car Racer and Transplants . ) In a full article about the album in the November 20 , 2003 , edition of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel , Ben Wener described the music of the album as " expansive , downcast , and sometimes spectral . " The New York Times considered that the album may have been influenced by the growing popularity of emo pop , while Allmusic regarded it a delve into post @-@ punk . " Much of the punk has been dissolved , the buzzsaw guitars faded into the corners , allowing room for staggering dynamics , cathartic guitar bursts and a weightier , more experimental and ambitious sound , " wrote Tom Bryant of Kerrang ! . The goal for Blink @-
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Later work and final years ( 1981 – 99 ) = = =
Kubrick met author Michael Herr through mutual friend David Cornwell ( novelist John le Carré ) in 1980 , and became interested in his book Dispatches , about the Vietnam War . Herr had recently written Martin Sheen 's narration for Apocalypse Now ( 1979 ) . Kubrick was also intrigued by Gustav Hasford 's Vietnam War novel The Short @-@ Timers . With the vision in mind to shoot what would become Full Metal Jacket ( 1987 ) , Kubrick began working with both Herr and Hasford separately on a script . He eventually found Hasford 's novel to be " brutally honest " and decided to shoot a film which closely follows the novel . All of the film was shot at a cost of $ 17 million within a 30 @-@ mile radius of his house between August 1985 and September 1986 , later than scheduled as Kubrick shut down production for five months following a near @-@ fatal accident with a jeep involving Lee Ermey . A derelict gasworks in Beckton in the London Docklands area posed as the ruined city of Huế , which makes the film visually very different from other Vietnam War films . Around 200 palm trees were imported via 40 @-@ foot trailers by road from North Africa , at a cost of £ 1000 a tree , and thousands of plastic plants were ordered from Hong Kong to provide foliage for the film . Kubrick explained he made the film look realistic by using natural light , and achieved a " newsreel effect " by making the Steadicam shots less steady , which reviewers and commentators thought contributed to the bleakness and seriousness of the film . According to critic Michel Ciment , the film contained some of Kubrick 's trademark characteristics , such as his selection of ironic music , portrayals of men being dehumanized , and attention to extreme detail to achieve realism . In a later scene where United States Marines patrol the ruins of an abandoned and totally destroyed city , the theme song to the Mickey Mouse Club is heard as a sardonic counterpoint . The film opened strongly in June 1987 , taking over $ 30 million in the first 50 days alone , but critically it was overshadowed by the success of Oliver Stone 's Platoon , released a year earlier . According to one review , notes co @-@ star Matthew Modine , " The first half of FMJ is brilliant . Then the film degenerates into a masterpiece . " Roger Ebert was not particularly impressed with it , awarding it a mediocre 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 . He concluded : " Stanley Kubrick 's Full Metal Jacket is more like a book of short stories than a novel " , a " strangely shapeless film from the man whose work usually imposes a ferociously consistent vision on his material " . Kubrick 's final film was Eyes Wide Shut ( 1999 ) , starring Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman as a Manhattan couple on a sexual odyssey . Tom Cruise portrays a doctor who witnesses a bizarre masked quasireligious orgiastic ritual at a country mansion , a discovery which later threatens his life . The story is based on Arthur Schnitzler 's 1926 Freudian novella Traumnovelle ( Dream Story in English ) , which Kubrick relocated from turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century Vienna to New York City in the 1990s . Kubrick said of the novel : " A difficult book to describe — what good book isn 't . It explores the sexual ambivalence of a happy marriage and tries to equate the importance of sexual dreams and might @-@ have @-@ beens with reality . All of Schnitzler 's work is psychologically brilliant " . Although Kubrick was almost 70 , he worked relentlessly for 15 months to get the film out by its planned release date of July 16 , 1999 . He commenced a script with Frederic Raphael , and worked 18 hours a day , all the while maintaining complete confidentiality about the film . Principal photography began on November 7 , 1996 , and ended in February 1998 . Eyes Wide Shut , like Lolita and A Clockwork Orange before it , faced censorship before release . Kubrick sent an unfinished preview copy to the stars and producers a few months before release , but his sudden death on March 7 , 1999 , came a few days after he finished editing . He never saw the final version released to the public , but he did see the preview of the film with Warner Bros. , Cruise , and Kidman , and had reportedly told Warner executive Julian Senior that it was " my best film ever " . Today , critical opinion of the film is mixed , and it is viewed less favorably than most of Kubrick 's films . Roger Ebert awarded it 3 @.@ 5 out 4 stars , comparing the structure to a thriller and writing that it is " like an erotic daydream about chances missed and opportunities avoided " , and thought that Kubrick 's use of lighting at Christmas made the film " all a little garish , like an urban sideshow . " Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post disliked the film , writing : " Its actually sad , rather than bad . It feels creaky , ancient , hopelessly out of touch , infatuated with the hot taboos of his youth and unable to connect with that twisty thing contemporary sexuality has become . "
= = = A.I. Artificial Intelligence and unrealized projects = = =
= = = = A.I. Artificial Intelligence = = = =
Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s , Kubrick collaborated with Brian Aldiss on an expansion of his short story " Super @-@ Toys Last All Summer Long " into a three @-@ act film . It was a futuristic fairy tale about a robot that resembles and behaves as a child , and his efforts to become a ' real boy ' in a manner similar to Pinocchio . Kubrick approached Spielberg in 1995 with the AI script with the possibility of Steven Spielberg directing it and Kubrick producing it . Kubrick reportedly held long telephone discussions with Spielberg regarding the film , and , according to Spielberg , at one point stated that the subject matter was closer to Spielberg 's sensibilities than his .
Following Kubrick 's death in 1999 , Spielberg took the various drafts and notes left by Kubrick and his writers and composed a new screenplay based on an earlier 90 @-@ page story treatment by Ian Watson written under Kubrick 's supervision and according to Kubrick 's specifications . In association with what remained of Kubrick 's production unit , he directed the movie A.I. Artificial Intelligence ( 2001 ) . which was produced by Kubrick 's longtime producer ( and brother @-@ in @-@ law ) Jan Harlan . Sets , costumes , and art direction were based on the works of conceptual artist Chris Baker , who had also done much of his work under Kubrick 's supervision .
Although Spielberg was able to function autonomously in Kubrick 's absence , he said he felt " inhibited to honor him , " and followed Kubrick 's visual schema with as much fidelity as he could , according to author Joseph McBride . Spielberg , who once referred to Kubrick as " the greatest master I ever served , " now with production underway , admitted , " I felt like I was being coached by a ghost . " The film was released in June 2001 . It contains a posthumous production credit for Stanley Kubrick at the beginning and the brief dedication " For Stanley Kubrick " at the end . John Williams 's score contains many allusions to pieces heard in other Kubrick films .
= = = = Napoleon = = = =
Following 2001 : A Space Odyssey , Kubrick originally planned to make a film about the life of the French emperor Napoleon . Fascinated by his life and own " self @-@ destruction " , Kubrick spent a great deal of time planning the film 's development , and had conducted about two years of extensive research into Napoleon 's life , reading several hundred books and gaining access to Napoleon 's personal memoirs and commentaries . He also tried to see every film ever made about Napoleon and found none of them appealing , including Abel Gance 's 1927 film which is generally considered to be a masterpiece , but for Kubrick , a " really terrible " movie . Lo Brutto states that Napoleon was an ideal subject for Kubrick , embracing the director 's " passion for control , power , obsession , strategy , and the military " , while Napoleon 's psychological intensity and depth , logistical genius and war , sex , and the evil nature of man were all ingredients which deeply appealed to Kubrick .
Kubrick drafted a screenplay in 1961 , and envisaged making a " grandiose " epic , with up to 40 @,@ 000 infantry and 10 @,@ 000 cavalry . He had intended hiring the armed forces of an entire country to make the film , as he considered Napoleonic battles to be " so beautiful , like vast lethal ballets " , with an " aesthetic brilliance that doesn 't require a military mind to appreciate " . He wanted them to be replicated as authentically as possible on screen . Kubrick had sent research teams to scout for locations across Europe , and commissioned screenwriter and director Andrew Birkin , one of his young assistants on 2001 , to the Isle of Elba , Austerlitz , and Waterloo , taking thousands of pictures for his later perusal . Kubrick approached numerous stars to play leading roles , including Audrey Hepburn for Empress Josephine , a part which she could not accept due to semiretirement . British actors David Hemmings and Ian Holm were considered for the lead role of Napoleon , before Jack Nicholson was cast . The film was well into preproduction and ready to begin filming in 1969 when MGM cancelled the project . Numerous reasons have been cited for the abandonment of the project , including its projected cost , a change of ownership at MGM , and the poor reception the
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used his potent influence against every postwar effort to expand capacity for producing A @-@ bomb material ; ( d ) He has used his potent influence against every postwar effort directed at obtaining larger supplies of uranium raw material ; and ( e ) He has used his potent influence against every major postwar effort toward atomic power development , including the nuclear @-@ powered submarine and aircraft programs as well as industrial power projects .
The letter also pointed out that Oppenheimer had worked against development of the hydrogen bomb , and had worked against postwar atomic energy development , including nuclear power plants and nuclear submarines . The letter concluded :
1 . Between 1939 and mid @-@ 1942 , more probably than not , J. Robert Oppenheimer was a sufficiently hardened Communist that he either volunteered espionage information to the Soviets or complied with a request for such information . ( This includes the possibility that when he singled out the weapons aspect of atomic development as his personal speciality , he was acting under Soviet instructions . ) 2 . More probably than not , he has since been functioning as an espionage agent ; and 3 . More probably than not , he has since acted under a Soviet directive in influencing United States military , atomic energy , intelligence , and diplomatic policy .
The contents of the letter were not new , and some had been known when Oppenheimer was first cleared for atomic war work . Yet that information had not prompted anyone to seek his removal from government service . Despite the lack of new evidence , Eisenhower ordered that a " blank wall " be placed between Oppenheimer and the nation 's atomic secrets .
= = Hearing = =
= = = Board composition and procedures = = =
On December 21 , 1953 , Oppenheimer was told by Lewis Strauss that his security file had been subject to two recent re @-@ evaluations because of new screening criteria , and because a former government official had drawn attention to Oppenheimer 's record . Strauss said that his clearance had been suspended , pending resolution of a series of charges outlined in a letter , and discussed his resigning . Given only a day to decide , and after consulting with his lawyers , Oppenheimer chose not to resign , and requested a hearing instead . The charges were outlined in a letter from Kenneth D. Nichols , general manager of the AEC . Pending resolution of the charges , Oppenheimer 's security clearance was suspended . Oppenheimer told Strauss that some of what was in Nichols ' letter was correct , some incorrect .
The hearing was held at a temporary building near the Washington Monument housing offices of the AEC . It began on April 12 , 1954 , and lasted four weeks . The AEC was represented by Roger Robb , an experienced prosecutor in Washington , and Arthur Rolander , while Oppenheimer 's legal team was headed by Lloyd K. Garrison , a prominent New York attorney . The chairman of the Personnel Security Board was Gordon Gray , president of the University of North Carolina . The other members of the hearing panel were Thomas Alfred Morgan , a retired industrialist , and Ward V. Evans , chairman of the chemistry department at Northwestern University .
The hearing was not open to the public and initially was not publicized . At the commencement of the hearing , Gray stated the hearing was " strictly confidential " , and pledged that no information related to the hearing would be released . Contrary to this assurance , a few weeks after the conclusion of the hearing a verbatim transcript of the hearing was released by the AEC . Oppenheimer and Garrison also breached the confidentiality of the hearing , by communicating with New York Times journalist James Reston , who wrote an article on the hearing that appeared on the second day of the hearing .
Garrison applied for an emergency security clearance prior to the hearing , as one had been granted to Robb , but no clearance was granted during the course of the hearing , which meant that Oppenheimer 's attorneys had no access to the secrets that Robb was able to see . On at least three occasions , Garrison and his co @-@ counsel were barred from the hearing room for security reasons , leaving Oppenheimer unrepresented , in violation of AEC regulations . During the course of the hearing , Robb repeatedly cross @-@ examined Oppenheimer 's witnesses utilizing top @-@ secret documents unavailable to Oppenheimer 's lawyers . He often read aloud from those documents , despite their secret status .
The AEC 's former general counsel Joseph Volpe had urged Oppenheimer to retain a tough litigator as his attorney ; Garrison 's demeanor was gentle and cordial , but Robb was adversarial . Garrison voluntarily provided the board and Robb with a list of his witnesses , but Robb refused to extend the same courtesy . This gave Robb a clear advantage in his cross @-@ examination of Oppenheimer 's witnesses . One observer commented that Robb " did not treat Oppenheimer as a witness in his own case , but as a person charged with high treason . "
Members of the hearing panel met with Robb prior to the hearing to review the contents of Oppenheimer 's FBI file . The 1946 Administrative Procedure Act included a legal principle known as " the exclusivity of the record " or the " blank pad rule " . This meant that a hearing could only consider information that had been formally presented under the established rules of evidence . However , while the act applied to the courts and to administrative hearings held by agencies like the Federal Trade Commission and Federal Communications Commission , it did not apply to the AEC . Garrison asked for the opportunity to review the file with the panel , but this was rejected .
= = = Scope of testimony = = =
As outlined in the 3 @,@ 500 @-@ word Nichols letter , the hearing focused on 24 allegations , 23 of which dealt with Oppenheimer 's Communist and left @-@ wing affiliations between 1938 and 1946 , including his delayed and false reporting of the Chevalier incident to authorities . The twenty @-@ fourth charge related to his opposition to the hydrogen bomb . By including the hydrogen bomb , the AEC changed the character of the hearing , by opening up an inquiry into his activities as a postwar government adviser .
Oppenheimer testified for a total of 27 hours . His demeanor was far different than it had been in his previous interrogations , such as his appearance before the House Un @-@ American Activities . Under cross @-@ examination by Robb , who had access to top @-@ secret information such as surveillance recordings , Oppenheimer was " often anguished , sometimes surprisingly inarticulate , frequently apologetic about his past and even self @-@ castigating . "
One of the key elements in this hearing was Oppenheimer 's earliest testimony about Eltenton 's approach to various Los Alamos scientists , a story that Oppenheimer confessed he had fabricated to protect his friend Chevalier . Unknown to Oppenheimer , both versions were recorded during his interrogations of a decade before , and he was surprised on the witness stand with transcripts that he had no chance to review . Under questioning by Robb , he admitted that he had lied to Boris Pash , an Army counterintelligence officer , concerning the approach from Chevalier . Asked why he had fabricated a story that three people had been approached for espionage , Oppenheimer responded , " Because I was an idiot . "
Much of the questioning of Oppenheimer concerned his role in the hiring for Los Alamos of his former students Ross Lomanitz and Joseph Weinberg , both members of the Communist Party . The questions probed into Oppenheimer 's private life , including his affair with Jean Tatlock , a Communist with whom he stayed the night while he was married . Lansdale had concluded at the time that his interest in Tatlock was romantic rather than political . Nonetheless , this innocuous affair may have played more heavily in the minds of the review panel .
Groves , testifying as a witness for the AEC and against Oppenheimer , reaffirmed his decision to hire Oppenheimer . Groves said that Oppenheimer 's refusal to report Chevalier was " the typical American school boy attitude that there is something wicked about telling on a friend . " Under questioning from Robb , Groves said that under the security criteria in effect in 1954 , he " would not clear Dr. Oppenheimer today . "
The official position of the Air Force was to support the suspension of the security clearance , which was given during testimony by its chief scientist , David T. Griggs . Although his testimony was not pivotal in the decision , many physicists viewed Griggs as the " Judas who had betrayed their god " , the brilliant theoretical physicist who led the successful wartime development of the atomic bomb .
Many top scientists , as well as government and military figures , testified on Oppenheimer 's behalf . Among them were Fermi , Isidor Isaac Rabi , Hans Bethe , John J. McCloy , James B. Conant and Bush , as well as two former AEC chairmen and three former commissioners . Also testifying on behalf of Oppenheimer was Lansdale , who was involved in the Army 's surveillance and investigation of Oppenheimer during the war . Lansdale , a lawyer , was not intimidated by Robb . He testified that Oppenheimer was not a Communist , and that he was " loyal and discreet " . Ernest Lawrence said he was unable to testify at the hearing because of illness . On April 26 , Lawrence suffered his most severe colitis attack yet . The next day , Lawrence called Lewis Strauss and told him that his brother , a doctor , had ordered him to return home and that he would not be testifying . Lawrence suffered with colitis until his death during colostomy surgery , on August 27 , 1958 .
Edward Teller was opposed to the hearing , feeling it was improper to subject Oppenheimer to a security trial , but was torn by longstanding grievances against him . He was called by Robb to testify against Oppenheimer , and shortly before he appeared Robb showed Teller a dossier of items unfavorable to Oppenheimer . Teller testified that he considered Oppenheimer loyal , but that " in a great number of cases , I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act – I understand that Dr. Oppenheimer acted – in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand . I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated . To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better , and therefore trust more . " Asked whether Oppenheimer should be granted a security clearance , Teller said that " if it is a question of wisdom or judgement , as demonstrated by actions since 1945 , then I would say one would be wiser not to grant clearance . " This led to outrage by many in the scientific community and Teller 's ostracism and virtual expulsion from academic science .
= = The board 's decision = =
Oppenheimer 's clearance was revoked by a 2 – 1 vote of the panel . Gray and Morgan voted in favor , Evans against . The board rendered its decision on May 27 , 1954 , in a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ word letter to Nichols . It found that 20 of the 24 charges were either true or substantially true . The board found that while he had been opposed to the bomb and that his lack of enthusiasm for it had affected the attitude of other scientists , he had not actively discouraged scientists from working on the H @-@ bomb , as had been alleged in Nichols ' letter . It found that " there is no evidence that he was a member of the [ Communist ] party in the strict sense of the word , " and concluded that he is a " loyal citizen " . It said that he " had a high degree of discretion , reflecting an unusual ability to keep to himself vital secrets , " but that he had " a tendency to be coerced , or at least influenced in conduct , for a period of years . "
The board found that Oppenheimer 's association with Chevalier " is not the kind of thing that our security system permits on the part of one who customarily has access to information of the highest classification " , and concluded that " Oppenheimer 's continuing conduct reflects a serious disregard for the requirements of the security system , " that he was susceptible " to influence which could have serious implications for the security interests of the country , " that his attitude toward the H @-@ bomb program raised doubt about whether his future participation " would be consistent with the best interests of security , " and that Oppenheimer had been " less than candid in several instances " in his testimony . The majority therefore did not recommend that his security clearance be reinstated .
In a brief dissent , Evans argued that Oppenheimer 's security clearance should be reinstated . He pointed out that most of the AEC charges had been in the hands of the AEC when it cleared Oppenheimer in 1947 , and that " to deny him clearance now for what he was cleared for in 1947 , when we must know he is less of security risk now than he was then , seems to be hardly the procedure to be adopted in a free country . " Evans said that his association with Chevalier did not indicate disloyalty , and that he did not hinder development of the H @-@ bomb . Evans said he personally thought that " our failure to clear Dr. Oppenheimer will be black mark on the escutcheon of our country , " and expressed concern about the effect an improper decision might have on the country 's scientific development .
= = = Nichols findings and AEC decision = = =
In a harshly worded memorandum to the AEC on June 12 , 1954 , Nichols recommended that Oppenheimer 's security clearance not be reinstated . In five " security findings " , Nichols said that Oppenheimer was " a Communist in every sense except that he did not carry a party card , " and that the Chevalier incident indicated that Oppenheimer " is not reliable or trustworthy " , and that his misstatements might have represented criminal conduct . He said that Oppenheimer 's " obstruction and disregard for security " showed " a consistent disregard of a reasonable security system . " The Nichols memorandum was not made public nor provided to Oppenheimer 's lawyers , who were not allowed to appear before the AEC .
On June 29 , 1954 , the AEC upheld the findings of the Personnel Security Board , with five commissioners voting in favor and one opposed . The decision was rendered 32 hours before Oppenheimer 's consultant contract , and with it the need for a clearance , was due to expire . In his majority opinion , Strauss said that Oppenheimer had displayed " fundamental character defects " . He said that Oppenheimer " in his associations had repeatedly exhibited a willful disregard of the normal and proper obligations of security , " and that he " has defaulted not once but many times upon the obligations that should and must be willingly borne by citizens in the national service . "
Despite the promise of confidentiality , the AEC released an edited transcript of the hearing in June 1954 , after press publicity of the hearing . The unredacted transcripts were released in 2012 .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
The loss of his security clearance ended Oppenheimer 's role in government and policy . Although he was not fired from his job at the Institute for Advanced Study , as he had feared he might be , he became an academic exile , cut off from his former career and the world he had helped to create . He gave public lectures , and spent several months of each year on the small island of Saint John in the Caribbean . Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin considered the Oppenheimer case " a defeat for American liberalism " . Summing up the fallout from the case , they wrote that :
In a few years after World War II , scientists had been regarded as a new class of intellectuals , members of a public @-@ policy priesthood who might legitimately offer expertise not only as scientists but as public philosophers . With Oppenheimer 's defrocking , scientists knew that in the future they would serve the state only as experts only on narrow scientific issues . As sociologist Daniel Bell later observed , Oppenheimer 's ordeal signified that the postwar " messianic role of the scientists " was now at an end . Scientists working within the system could not dissent from government policy , as Oppenheimer had done by writing his 1953 Foreign Affairs essay , and still expect to serve on government advisory boards . The trial thus represented a watershed in the relations of the scientist to the government . The narrowest version of how American scientists should serve their country had triumphed .
Oppenheimer was seen by many in the scientific community as a martyr to McCarthyism , a modern Galileo or Socrates , an intellectual and progressive unjustly attacked by warmongering enemies , symbolic of the shift of scientific creativity from academia into the military . Patrick McGrath noted that " Scientists and administrators such as Edward Teller , Lewis Strauss and Ernest Lawrence , with their full @-@ throated militarism and anti @-@ communism pushed American scientists and their institutions toward a nearly complete and subservient devotion to American military interests . " Scientists continued to work for the AEC , but they no longer trusted it .
Loyalty and security tests spread through the federal government . At these inquiries , federal employees were asked questions such as :
Is it proper to mix white and Negro blood plasma ?
There is a suspicion in your record that you are in sympathy with the underprivileged . Is that true ?
What were your feelings at that time concerning race equality ?
Have you ever made statements about the " downtrodden masses " and " underprivileged people " ?
Strauss , Teller , Borden , and Robb would never escape the public identification of them with the case . In a 1962 television interview , Eric F. Goldman asked Teller whether he favored restoring Oppenheimer 's security clearance . Teller was struck dumb , unable to find an answer . The question was deleted from the version that was aired , but the news got out and made headlines . President John F. Kennedy decided that the time had come to rehabilitate Oppenheimer . Teller nominated Oppenheimer for the 1963 Enrico Fermi Award . The nomination was unanimously approved by the GAC and AEC , and announced on April 5 , 1963 . On November 22 , the White House confirmed that Kennedy would personally present the award , but he was assassinated later that day . The award was presented by President Lyndon B. Johnson instead . Oppenheimer died of cancer on February 18 , 1967 .
Wernher von Braun summed up his opinion about the matter with a quip to a Congressional committee : " In England , Oppenheimer would have been knighted . "
= = = Recent allegations = = =
Time magazine literary critic Richard Lacayo , in a 2005 review of two new books about Oppenheimer , said of the hearing : " As an effort to prove that he had been a party member , much less one involved in espionage , the inquest was a failure . Its real purpose was larger , however : to punish the most prominent American critic of the U.S. move from atomic weapons to the much more lethal hydrogen bomb . " After the hearing , Lacayo said , " Oppenheimer would never again feel comfortable as a public advocate for a sane nuclear policy . "
Cornell University historian Richard Polenberg noted that Oppenheimer testified about the left @-@ wing behavior of his colleagues and speculated that if his clearance had not been stripped , he would have been remembered as someone who had " named names " to save his own reputation . In a book Brotherhood of the Bomb : The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer , Ernest Lawrence , and Edward Teller ( 2002 ) , Gregg Herken , a senior historian at the Smithsonian Institution , contended , based on newly discovered documentation , that Oppenheimer was a member of the Communist Party .
In a seminar at the Woodrow Wilson Institute on May 20 , 2009 , and based on an extensive analysis of the Vassiliev notebooks taken from the KGB archives , John Earl Haynes , Harvey Klehr , and Alexander Vassiliev concluded that Oppenheimer never was involved in espionage for the Soviets . The KGB tried repeatedly to recruit him , but were never successful . Allegations that he had spied for the Soviets are unsupported , and in some instances , contradicted by voluminous KGB and Venona documentation released after the fall of the Soviet Union . In addition , he had several persons removed from the Manhattan project who had sympathies to the Soviet Union .
= = = Dramatizations = = =
Most popular depictions of Oppenheimer view his security struggles as a confrontation between right @-@ wing militarists ( symbolized by Edward Teller ) and left @-@ wing intellectuals ( symbolized by Oppenheimer ) over the moral question of weapons of mass destruction . Many historians have contested this as an oversimplification .
The hearing was dramatized in a 1964 play by German playwright Heinar Kipphardt , In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer . Oppenheimer objected to the play , threatening suit and decrying " improvisations which were contrary to history and to the nature of the people involved " , including its portrayal of him as viewing the bomb as a " work of the devil " . His letter to Kipphardt said , " You may well have forgotten Guernica , Dachau , Coventry , Belsen , Warsaw , Dresden and Tokyo . I have not . " Of his security hearing , he said , " The whole damn thing was a farce , and these people are trying to make a tragedy out of it . "
In a response , Kipphardt offered to make corrections but defended the play , which premiered on Broadway in June 1968 , with Joseph Wiseman in the Oppenheimer role . New York Times theater critic Clive Barnes called it an " angry play and a partisan play " that sided with Oppenheimer but portrayed the scientist as a " tragic fool and genius " .
The hearing also figured prominently in the 1980 BBC TV movie Oppenheimer , with Sam Waterston as the title character and David Suchet as Edward Teller .
= Winfield Scott Hancock =
Winfield Scott Hancock ( February 14 , 1824 – February 9 , 1886 ) was a career U.S. Army officer and the Democratic nominee for President of the United States in 1880 . He served with distinction in the Army for four decades , including service in the Mexican @-@ American War and as a Union general in the American Civil War . Known to his Army colleagues as " Hancock the Superb " , he was noted in particular for his personal leadership at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863 . One military historian wrote , " No other Union general at Gettysburg dominated men by the sheer force of their presence more completely than Hancock . " As another wrote , " his tactical skill had won him the quick admiration of adversaries who had come to know him as the ' Thunderbolt of the Army of the Potomac ' . " His military service continued after the Civil War , as Hancock participated in the military Reconstruction of the South and the Army 's presence at the Western frontier .
Hancock 's reputation as a war hero at Gettysburg , combined with his status as a Unionist and supporter of states ' rights , made him a potential presidential candidate . His noted integrity was a counterpoint to the corruption of the era , for as President Rutherford B. Hayes said , " ... [ i ] f , when we make up our estimate of a public man , conspicuous both as a soldier and in civil life , we are to think first and chiefly of his manhood , his integrity , his purity , his singleness of purpose , and his unselfish devotion to duty , we can truthfully say of Hancock that he was through and through pure gold . " When the Democrats nominated him for President in 1880 , he ran a strong campaign , but was narrowly defeated by Republican James A. Garfield .
= = Early life and family = =
Winfield Scott Hancock and his identical twin brother Hilary Baker Hancock were born on February 14 , 1824 , in Montgomery Square , Pennsylvania , a hamlet just northwest of Philadelphia in present @-@ day Montgomery Township . The twins were the sons of Benjamin Franklin Hancock and Elizabeth Hoxworth Hancock . Winfield was named after Winfield Scott , a prominent general in the War of 1812 .
The Hancock and Hoxworth families had lived in Montgomery County for several generations , and were of English , Scottish and Welsh descent . Benjamin Hancock was a schoolteacher when his sons were born . A few years after their birth , he moved the family to Norristown , the county seat , and began to practice law . Benjamin was also a deacon in the Baptist church and participated in municipal government ( as an avowed Democrat ) .
Hancock was at first educated at Norristown Academy , but removed to the public schools when the first one opened in Norristown in the late 1830s . In 1840 , Joseph Fornance , the local Congressman , nominated Hancock to the United States Military Academy at West Point . Hancock 's progress at West Point was average . He graduated 18th in his class of 25 in 1844 , and he was assigned to the infantry .
= = Starting a military career = =
= = = Mexican War = = =
Hancock was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 6th U.S. Infantry regiment , and initially was stationed in Indian Territory in the Red River Valley . The region was quiet at the time , and Hancock 's time there was uneventful . Upon the outbreak of war with Mexico in 1846 , Hancock worked to secure himself a place at the front . Initially assigned to recruiting duties in Kentucky , he proved so adept at signing up soldiers that his superiors were reluctant to release him from his post . By July 1847 , however , Hancock was permitted to join his regiment in Puebla , Mexico , where they made up a part of the army led by his namesake , General Winfield Scott .
Scott 's army moved farther inland from Puebla unopposed and attacked Mexico City from the south . During that campaign in 1847 , Hancock first encountered battle at Contreras and Churubusco . He was appointed a brevet first lieutenant for gallant and meritorious service in those actions . Hancock was wounded in the knee at Churubusco and developed a fever . Although he was well enough to join his regiment at Molino del Rey , fever kept Hancock from participating in the final breakthrough to Mexico City , something he would regret for the rest of his life . After the final victory , Hancock remained in Mexico with the 6th Infantry until the treaty of peace was signed in 1848 .
= = = Marriage and peacetime = = =
Hancock served in a number of assignments as an army quartermaster and adjutant , mostly in Fort Snelling , Minnesota and St. Louis , Missouri . It was in St. Louis that he met Almira ( " Allie " ) Russell and they married on January 24 , 1850 . Allie gave birth to two children , Russell in 1850 and Ada in 1857 , but both children died before their parents . Hancock was promoted to captain in 1855 and assigned to Fort Myers , Florida . Hancock 's young family accompanied him to his new posting , where Allie Hancock was the only woman on the post .
Hancock 's tour in Florida coincided with the end of the Third Seminole War . His duties were primarily those of a quartermaster , and he did not see action in that campaign . As the situation in Florida began to settle down , Hancock was reassigned to Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . He served in the West during the partisan warfare of " Bleeding Kansas " , and in the Utah Territory , where the 6th Infantry arrived after the Utah War . Following the resolution of that conflict , Hancock was stationed in southern California in November 1858 . He remained there , joined by Allie and the children , until the Civil War broke out in 1861 , serving as a captain and assistant quartermaster under future Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston . In California , Hancock became friendly with a number of southern officers , most significantly Lewis A. Armistead of Virginia . At the outbreak of the Civil War , Armistead and the other southerners left to join the Confederate States Army , while Hancock remained in the service of the United States .
= = Civil War = =
= = = Joining the Army of the Potomac = = =
Hancock returned east to assume quartermaster duties for the rapidly growing Union Army , but was quickly promoted to brigadier general on September 23 , 1861 , and given an infantry brigade to command in the division of Brig. Gen. William F. " Baldy " Smith , Army of the Potomac . He earned his " Superb " nickname in the Peninsula Campaign , in 1862 , by leading a critical counterattack in the Battle of Williamsburg ; army commander Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan telegraphed to Washington that " Hancock was superb today " and the appellation stuck . McClellan did not follow through on Hancock 's initiative , however , and Confederate forces were allowed to withdraw unmolested .
In the Battle of Antietam , Hancock assumed command of the 1st Division , II Corps , following the mortal wounding of Maj. Gen. Israel B. Richardson in the horrific fighting at " Bloody Lane . " Hancock and his staff made a dramatic entrance to the battlefield , galloping between his troops and the enemy , parallel to the Sunken Road . His men assumed that Hancock would order counterattacks against the exhausted Confederates , but he carried orders from McClellan to hold his position . He was promoted to major general of volunteers on November 29 , 1862 . He led his division in the disastrous attack on Marye 's Heights in the Battle of Fredericksburg the following month and was wounded in the abdomen . At the Battle of Chancellorsville , his division covered Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker 's withdrawal and Hancock was wounded again . His corps commander , Maj. Gen. Darius N. Couch , transferred out of the Army of the Potomac in protest of actions Hooker took in
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Election = = = =
The Whigs chose Attorney General James Harlan to oppose Breckinridge , but he withdrew in March when some party factions opposed him . Robert P. Letcher , a former governor who had not lost in 14 elections , was the Whigs ' second choice . Letcher was an able campaigner who combined oratory and anecdotes to entertain and energize an audience . Breckinridge focused on issues in their first debate , comparing the Whig Tariff of 1842 to the Democrats ' lower Walker tariff , which increased trade and yielded more tax revenue . Instead of answering Breckinridge 's points , Letcher appealed to party loyalty , claiming Breckinridge would misrepresent the district " because he is a Democrat " . Letcher appealed to Whigs " to protect the grave of Mr. [ Henry ] Clay from the impious tread of Democracy " , but Breckinridge pointed to his friendly relations with Clay , remarking that Clay 's will did not mandate that " his ashes be exhumed " and " thrown into the scale to influence the result of the present Congressional contest " .
Cassius Clay , Letcher 's political enemy , backed Breckinridge despite their differences on slavery . Citing Clay 's support and the abolitionism of Breckinridge 's uncle Robert , Letcher charged that Breckinridge was an abolitionist . In answer , Breckinridge quoted newspaper accounts and sworn testimony , provided by John L. Robinson , of a speech Letcher made in Indiana for Zachary Taylor in 1848 . In the speech , made alongside Thomas Metcalfe , another former Whig governor of Kentucky , Letcher predicted that the Kentucky Constitution then being drafted would provide for gradual emancipation , declaring , " It is only the ultra men in the extreme South who desire the extension of slavery . "
When Letcher confessed doubts about his election chances , Whigs began fundraising outside the district , using the money to buy votes or pay Breckinridge supporters not to vote . Breckinridge estimated that the donations , which came from as far away as New York and included contributions from the Collins Line , totaled $ 30 @,@ 000 ; Whig George Robertson believed it closer to $ 100 @,@ 000 . Washington , D.C. , banker William Wilson Corcoran contributed $ 1 @,@ 000 to Breckinridge , who raised a few thousand dollars . Out of 12 @,@ 538 votes cast , Breckinridge won by 526 . He received 71 % of the vote in Owen County , which recorded 123 more votes than registered voters . Grateful for the county 's support , he nicknamed his son , John Witherspoon Breckinridge , " Owen " .
= = = = Service = = = =
Of 234 representatives in the House , Breckinridge was one of 80 re @-@ elected to the Thirty @-@ third Congress . His relative seniority , and Pierce 's election , increased his influence . He was rumored to have Pierce 's backing for Speaker of the House , but he again deferred to Boyd ; Maryland 's Augustus R. Sollers spoiled Boyd 's unanimous election by voting for Breckinridge . Still not given a committee chairmanship , he was assigned to the Ways and Means Committee , where he secured passage of a bill to cover overspending in fiscal year 1853 – 1854 ; it was the only time in his career that he solely managed a bill . His attempts to increase Kentucky 's allocation in a rivers and harbors bill were unsuccessful but popular with his Whig constituents .
In January 1854 , Douglas introduced the Kansas – Nebraska Act to organize the Nebraska Territory . Southerners had thwarted his previous attempts to organize the territory because Nebraska lay north of parallel 36 ° 30 ' north , the line separating slave and free territory under the Missouri Compromise . They feared that the territory would be organized into new free states that would vote against the South on slavery issues . The Kansas – Nebraska Act allowed the territory 's settlers to decide whether or not to permit slavery , an implicit repeal of the Missouri Compromise . Kentucky Senator Archibald Dixon 's amendment to make the repeal explicit angered northern Democrats , but Breckinridge believed it would move the slavery issue from national to local politics , and he urged Pierce to support it . Breckinridge wrote to his uncle Robert that he " had more to do than any man here , in putting [ the Act ] in its present shape " , but Heck notes that few extant records support this claim . The repeal amendment made the act more palatable to the South ; only 9 of 58 Southern congressmen voted against it . No Northern Whigs voted for the measure , but 44 of 86 Northern Democrats voted in the affirmative , enough to pass it . The Senate quickly concurred , and Pierce signed the act into law on May 30 , 1854 .
During the debate on the bill , New York 's Francis B. Cutting demanded that Breckinridge retract or explain a statement he had made , which Breckinridge understood as a challenge to duel . Under the code duello , the challenged party selected the weapons and the distance between combatants ; Breckinridge chose rifles at 60 paces and suggested the duel be held in Silver Spring , Maryland , on his friend , Francis Preston Blair 's estate . Cutting had not meant his remark as a challenge , but insisted that he was now challenged and selected pistols at 10 paces . While their representatives tried to clarify matters , Breckinridge and Cutting made amends , averting the duel . Had it taken place , Breckinridge could have been removed from the House ; the 1850 Kentucky Constitution prevented duelists from holding office .
In the second session of the 33rd Congress , Breckinridge acted as spokesman for Ways and Means Committee bills , including a bill to assume and pay the debts Texas incurred prior to its annexation . Breckinridge 's friends , W. W. Corcoran and Jesse D. Bright , were two of Texas 's major creditors . The bill , which was approved , paid only those debts related to powers Texas surrendered to Congress upon annexation . Breckinridge was disappointed that the House defeated a measure to pay the Sioux $ 12 @,@ 000 owed them for the 1839 purchase of an island in the Mississippi River ; the debt was never paid . Another increase in the subsidy to the Collins Line passed over his opposition , but Pierce vetoed it .
= = = Retirement from the House = = =
In February 1854 , the General Assembly 's Whig majority gerrymandered the Eighth District , removing over 500 Democratic voters and replacing them with several hundred Whig voters by removing Owen and Jessamine counties from the district and adding Harrison and Nicholas counties to it . The cooperation of the Know Nothing Party — a relatively new nativist political entity — with the faltering Whigs further hindered Breckinridge 's re @-@ election chances . With his family again in financial straits , his wife wanted him to retire from national politics .
Pierre Soulé , the U.S. Minister to Spain , resigned in December 1854 after being unable to negotiate the annexation of Cuba and angering the Spanish by drafting the Ostend Manifesto , which called for the U.S. to take Cuba by force . Pierce nominated Breckinridge to fill the vacancy , but did not tell him until just before the Senate 's January 16 confirmation vote . After consulting Secretary of State William L. Marcy , Breckinridge concluded that the salary was insufficient and Soulé had so damaged Spanish relations that he would be unable to accomplish anything significant . In a February 8 , 1855 , letter to Pierce , he cited reasons " of a private and domestic nature " for declining the nomination . On March 17 , 1855 , he announced he would retire from the House .
Breckinridge and Minnesota Territory 's Henry Mower Rice were among the speculators who invested in land near present @-@ day Superior , Wisconsin . Rice disliked Minnesota 's territorial governor , Willis A. Gorman , and petitioned Pierce to replace him with Breckinridge . Pierce twice investigated Gorman , but found no grounds to remove him from office . Breckinridge fell ill when traveling to view his investments in mid @-@ 1855 and was unable to campaign in the state elections . Know Nothings captured every state office and six congressional districts — including the Eighth District — and Breckinridge sent regrets to friends in Washington , D.C. , promising to take a more active role in the 1856 campaigns .
= = U.S. vice president = =
Two Kentuckians — Breckinridge 's friend , Governor Lazarus W. Powell and his enemy , Linn Boyd — were potential Democratic presidential nominees in 1856 . Breckinridge — a delegate to the national convention and designated as a presidential elector — favored Pierce 's re @-@ election but convinced the state Democratic convention to leave the delegates free to support any candidate the party coalesced behind . To a New Yorker who proposed that Breckinridge 's nomination could unite the party , he replied " Humbug " .
= = = Election = = =
Pierce was unable to secure the nomination at the national convention , so Breckinridge switched his support to Stephen Douglas , but the combination of Pierce and Douglas supporters did not prevent James Buchanan 's nomination . After Douglas 's floor manager , William Richardson , suggested that nominating Breckinridge for vice president would help Buchanan secure the support of erstwhile Douglas backers in the general election , Louisiana 's J. L. Lewis nominated him . Breckinridge declined in deference to Linn Boyd but received 51 votes on the first ballot , behind Mississippi 's John A. Quitman with 59 , but ahead of third @-@ place Boyd , who garnered 33 . On the second ballot , Breckinridge received overwhelming support , and opposition delegates changed their votes to make his nomination unanimous .
The election was between Buchanan and Republican John C. Frémont in the north and between Buchanan and Millard Fillmore , nominated by a pro @-@ slavery faction of the Know Nothings , in the South . Tennessee Governor Andrew Johnson and Congressional Globe editor John C. Rives promoted the possibility that Douglas and Pierce supporters would back Fillmore in the Southern states , denying Buchanan a majority in the Electoral College and throwing the election to the House of Representatives . There , Buchanan 's opponents would prevent a vote , and the Senate 's choice for vice president — certain to be Breckinridge — would become president . There is no evidence that Breckinridge countenanced this scheme . Defying contemporary political convention , Breckinridge spoke frequently during the campaign , stressing Democratic fidelity to the constitution and charging that the Republican emancipationist agenda would tear the country apart . His appearances in the critical state of Pennsylvania helped allay Buchanan 's fears that Breckinridge desired to throw the election to the House . " Buck and Breck " won the election with 174 electoral votes to Frémont 's 114 and Fillmore 's 8 , and Democrats carried Kentucky for the first time since 1828 . Thirty @-@ six at the time of his inauguration on March 4 , 1857 , Breckinridge remains the youngest vice president in U.S. history .
= = = Service = = =
When Breckinridge asked to meet with Buchanan shortly after the inauguration , Buchanan told him to come to the White House and ask to see the hostess , Harriet Lane . Offended , Breckinridge refused to do so ; Buchanan 's friends later explained that asking to see Lane was a secret instruction to take a guest to the president . Buchanan apologized for the misunderstanding , but the event portended a poor relationship between the two men . Resentful of Breckinridge 's support for both Pierce and Douglas , Buchanan allowed him little influence in the administration . Breckinridge 's recommendation that former Whigs and Kentuckians — Powell , in particular — be included in Buchanan 's cabinet went unheeded . Kentuckians James B. Clay and Cassius M. Clay were offered diplomatic missions to Berlin and Peru , respectively , but both declined . Buchanan often asked Breckinridge to receive and entertain foreign dignitaries , but in 1858 , Breckinridge declined Buchanan 's request that he resign and take the again @-@ vacant position as U.S. Minister to Spain . The only private meeting between the two occurred near the end of Buchanan 's term , when the president summoned Breckinridge to get his advice on whether to issue a proclamation declaring a day of " Humiliation and Prayer " over the divided state of the nation ; Breckinridge affirmed that Buchanan should make the proclamation .
As vice president , Breckinridge was tasked with presiding over the debates of the Senate . In an early address to that body , he promised , " It shall be my constant aim , gentlemen of the Senate , to exhibit at all times , to every member of this body , the courtesy and impartiality which are due to the representatives of equal States . " Historian Lowell H. Harrison wrote that , while Breckinridge fulfilled his promise to the satisfaction of most , acting as moderator limited his participation in debate . Five tie @-@ breaking votes provided a means of expressing his views . Economic motivations explained two — forcing an immediate vote on a codfishing tariff and limiting military pensions to $ 50 per month ( $ 1367 @.@ 5 in present @-@ day currency ) . A third cleared the floor for a vote on Douglas 's motion to admit Oregon to the Union , and a fourth defeated Johnson 's Homestead Bill . The final vote effected a wording change in a resolution forbidding constitutional amendments that empowered Congress to interfere with property rights . The Senate 's move from the Old Senate Chamber to a more spacious one on January 4 , 1859 , provided another opportunity . Afforded the chance to make the last address in the old chamber , Breckinridge encouraged compromise and unity among the states to resolve sectional conflicts .
Despite irregularities in the approval of the Lecompton Constitution by Kansas voters , Breckinridge agreed with Buchanan that it was legitimate , but he kept his position secret , and some believed he agreed with his friend , Stephen Douglas , that Lecompton was invalid . Breckinridge 's absence from the Senate during debate on admitting Kansas to the Union under Lecompton seemed to confirm this , but his leave — to take his wife from Baton Rouge , Louisiana , where she was recovering from an illness , to Washington , D.C. — had been planned for months . The death of his grandmother , Polly Breckinridge , prompted him to leave earlier than planned . During his absence , both houses of Congress voted to re @-@ submit the Lecompton Constitution to Kansas voters for approval . On resubmission , it was overwhelmingly rejected .
By January 1859 , friends knew Breckinridge desired the U.S. Senate seat of John J. Crittenden , whose term expired on March 3 , 1861 . The General Assembly would elect Crittenden 's successor in December 1859 , so Breckinridge 's election would not affect any presidential aspirations he might harbor . Democrats chose Breckinridge 's friend Beriah Magoffin over Linn Boyd as their gubernatorial nominee , bolstering Breckinridge 's chances for the senatorship , the presidency , or both . Boyd was expected to be Breckinridge 's chief opponent for the Senate , but he withdrew on November 28 , citing ill health , and died three weeks later . The Democratic majority in the General Assembly elected Breckinridge to succeed Crittenden by a vote of 81 to 53 over Joshua Fry Bell , who Magoffin had defeated for the governorship in August .
After Minnesota 's admission to the Union in May 1858 , opponents accused Breckinridge of rigging a random draw so that his friend , Henry Rice , would get the longer of the state 's two Senate terms . Senate Secretary Asbury Dickins blunted the charges , averring that he alone handled the instruments used in the drawing . Republican Senator Solomon Foot closed a special session of the Thirty @-@ sixth Congress in March 1859 by offering a resolution praising Breckinridge for his impartiality ; after the session , the Republican @-@ leaning New York Times noted that while the star of the Buchanan administration " falls lower every hour in prestige and political consequence , the star of the Vice President rises higher " .
= = Presidential election of 1860 = =
Breckinridge 's lukewarm support for Douglas in his 1858 senatorial re @-@ election bid against Abraham Lincoln convinced Douglas that Breckinridge would seek the Democratic presidential nomination , but in a January 1860 letter to his uncle , Breckinridge averred he was " firmly resolved not to " . Douglas 's political enemies supported Breckinridge , and Buchanan reluctantly dispensed patronage to Breckinridge allies , further alienating Douglas . After Breckinridge left open the possibility of supporting a federal slave code in 1859 , Douglas wrote to Robert Toombs that he would support his enemy and fellow Georgian Alexander H. Stephens for the nomination over Breckinridge , although he would vote for Breckinridge over any Republican in the general election .
= = = Nomination = = =
Breckinridge asked James Clay to protect his interests at the 1860 Democratic National Convention in Charleston , South Carolina . Clay , Lazarus Powell , William Preston , Henry Cornelius Burnett , and James B. Beck desired to nominate Breckinridge for president , but in a compromise with Kentucky 's Douglas backers , the delegation went to Charleston committed to former Treasury Secretary James Guthrie of Louisville . Fifty Southern Democrats , upset at the convention 's refusal to include slavery protection in the party 's platform , walked out of the convention ; the remaining delegates decided that nominations required a two @-@ thirds majority of the original 303 delegates . For 35 ballots , Douglas ran well ahead of Guthrie but short of the needed majority . Arkansas 's lone remaining delegate nominated Breckinridge , but Beck asked that the nomination be withdrawn because Breckinridge refused to compete with Guthrie . Twenty @-@ one more ballots were cast , but the convention remained deadlocked . On May 3 , the convention adjourned until June 18 in Baltimore , Maryland .
Breckinridge 's communication with his supporters between the meetings indicated greater willingness to become a candidate , but he instructed Clay to nominate him only if his support exceeded Guthrie 's . Many believed that Buchanan supported Breckinridge , but Breckinridge wrote to Beck that " The President is not for me except as a last necessity , that is to say not until his help will not be worth a damn . " After a majority of the delegates , most of them Douglas supporters , voted to replace Alabama and Louisiana 's walk @-@ out delegates with new , pro @-@ Douglas men in Baltimore , Virginia 's delegation led another walk @-@ out of Southern Democrats and Buchanan @-@ controlled delegates from the northeast and Pacific coast ; 105 delegates , including 10 of Kentucky 's 24 , left , and the remainder nominated Douglas . The walk @-@ outs held a rival nominating convention , styled the National Democratic Convention , at
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the Maryland Institute in Baltimore . At that convention on June 23 , Massachusetts ' George B. Loring nominated Breckinridge for president , and he received 81 of the 105 votes cast , the remainder going to Daniel S. Dickinson of New York . Oregon 's Joseph Lane was nominated for vice @-@ president .
Breckinridge told Beck he would not accept the nomination because it would split the Democrats and ensure the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln . On June 25 , Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis proposed that Breckinridge should accept the nomination ; his strength in the South would convince Douglas that his own candidacy was futile . Breckinridge , Douglas , and Constitutional Unionist John Bell would withdraw , and Democrats could nominate a compromise candidate . Breckinridge accepted the nomination , but maintained that he had not sought it and that he had been nominated " against my expressed wishes " . Davis 's compromise plan failed when Douglas refused to withdraw , believing his supporters would vote for Lincoln rather than a compromise candidate .
= = = Election = = =
The election effectively pitted Lincoln against Douglas in the North and Breckinridge against Bell in the South . Far from expectant of victory , Breckinridge told Davis 's wife , Varina , " I trust I have the courage to lead a forlorn hope . " Caleb Cushing oversaw the publication of several Breckinridge campaign documents , including a campaign biography and copies of his speeches on the occasion of the Senate 's move to a new chamber and his election to the Senate . After making a few short speeches during stops between Washington , D.C. and Lexington , Breckinridge stated that , consistent with contemporary custom , he would make no more speeches until after the election , but the results of an August 1860 special election to replace the deceased clerk of the Kentucky Court of Appeals convinced him that his candidacy could be faltering . He had expressed confidence that the Democratic candidate for the clerkship would win , and " nothing short of a defeat by 6 @,@ 000 or 8 @,@ 000 would alarm me for November " . Constitutional Unionist Leslie Combs won by 23 @,@ 000 votes , prompting Breckinridge to make a full @-@ length campaign speech in Lexington on September 5 , 1860 .
Breckinridge 's three @-@ hour speech was primarily defensive ; his moderate tone was designed to win votes in the north but risked losing Southern support to Bell . He denied charges that he had supported Zachary Taylor over Lewis Cass in 1848 , that he had sided with abolitionists in 1849 , and that he had sought John Brown 's pardon for the Harpers Ferry raid . Reminding the audience that Douglas wanted the Supreme Court to decide the issue of slavery in the territories , he pointed out that Douglas then denounced the Dred Scott ruling and laid out a means for territorial legislatures to circumvent it . Breckinridge supported the legitimacy of secession but insisted it was not the solution to the country 's sectional disagreements . In answer to Douglas 's charge that there was not " a disunionist in America who is not a Breckinridge man " , he challenged the assembled crowd " to point out an act , to disclose an utterance , to reveal a thought of mine hostile to the constitution and union of the States " . He warned that Lincoln 's insistence on emancipation made him the real disunionist .
Breckinridge finished third in the popular vote with 849 @,@ 781 votes to Lincoln 's 1 @,@ 866 @,@ 452 , Douglas 's 1 @,@ 379 @,@ 957 , and Bell 's 588 @,@ 879 . He carried 12 of the 15 Southern states and the border states of Maryland , Delaware and North Carolina but lost his home state to Bell . His greatest support in the Deep South came from areas that opposed secession . Davis pointed out that only Breckinridge garnered nearly equal support from the Deep South , the border states , and the free states of the North . His 72 electoral votes bested Bell 's 59 and Douglas 's 12 , but Lincoln received 180 , enough to win the election .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Three weeks after the election , Breckinridge returned to Washington , D.C. , to preside over the Senate 's lame duck session . Lazarus Powell , now a senator , proposed a resolution creating a committee of thirteen members to respond to the portion of Buchanan 's address regarding the disturbed condition of the country . Breckinridge appointed the members of the committee which , in Heck 's opinion , formed " an able committee , representing every major faction " . John J. Crittenden proposed a compromise by which slavery would be forbidden in territories north of parallel 36 ° 30 ′ north — the demarcation line used in the Missouri Compromise — and permitted south of it , but the committee 's five Republicans rejected the proposal . On December 31 , the committee reported that it could come to no agreement . Writing to Magoffin on January 6 , Breckinridge complained that the Republicans were " rejecting everything , proposing nothing " and " pursuing a policy which ... threatens to plunge the country into ... civil war " .
One of Breckinridge 's final acts as vice @-@ president was announcing the vote of the Electoral College to a joint session of Congress on February 13 , 1861 . Rumors abounded that he would tamper with the vote to prevent Lincoln 's election . Knowing that some legislators planned to attend the session armed , Breckinridge asked Winfield Scott to post guards in and around the chambers . One legislator raised a point of order , requesting that the guards be ejected , but Breckinridge refused to sustain it ; the electoral vote proceeded , and Breckinridge announced Lincoln 's election as president . After Lincoln 's arrival in Washington , D.C. , on February 24 , Breckinridge visited him at the Willard Hotel . After making a valedictory address on March 4 , he swore in Hannibal Hamlin as his successor as vice president ; Hamlin then swore in Breckinridge and the other incoming senators .
= = U.S. Senate = =
Because Republicans controlled neither house of Congress , nor the Supreme Court , Breckinridge did not believe Lincoln 's election was a mandate for secession . Ignoring James Murray Mason 's contention that no Southerner should serve in Lincoln 's cabinet , Breckinridge supported the appointment of Virginian Montgomery Blair as Postmaster General . He also voted against a resolution to remove the names of the senators from seceded states from the Senate roll .
Working for a compromise that might yet save the Union , Breckinridge opposed a proposal by Ohio 's Clement Vallandigham that the border states unite to form a " middle confederacy " that would place a buffer between the U.S. and the seceded states , nor did Breckinridge desire to see Kentucky as the southernmost state in a northern confederacy ; its position south of the Ohio River left it too vulnerable to the southern confederacy should war occur . Urging that federal troops be withdrawn from the seceded states , he insisted " their presence can accomplish no good , but will certainly produce incalculable mischief " . He warned that , unless Republicans made some concessions , Kentucky and the other border states would also secede .
When the legislative session ended on March 28 , Breckinridge returned to Kentucky and addressed the state legislature on April 2 , 1861 . He urged the General Assembly to push for federal adoption of the Crittenden Compromise and advocated calling a border states convention which would draft a compromise proposal and submit it to the Northern and Southern states for adoption . Asserting that the states were coequal and free to choose their own course , he maintained that , if the border states convention failed , Kentucky should call a sovereignty convention and join the Confederacy as a last resort .
The Battle of Fort Sumter , which began the Civil War , occurred days later , before the border states convention could be held . Magoffin called a special legislative session on May 6 , and the legislature authorized creation of a six @-@ man commission to decide the state 's course in the war . Breckinridge , Magoffin , and Richard Hawes were the states ' rights delegates to the conference , while Crittenden , Archibald Dixon , and Samuel S. Nicholas represented the Unionist position . The delegates were only able to agree on a policy of armed neutrality , which Breckinridge believed impractical and ultimately untenable , but preferable to more drastic actions . In special elections held June 20 , 1861 , Unionists won 9 of Kentucky 's 10 House seats , and in the August 5 state elections , Unionists gained majorities in both houses of the state legislature .
When the Senate convened for a special session on July 4 , 1861 , Breckinridge stood almost alone in opposition to the war . Labeled a traitor , he was removed from the Committee on Military Affairs . He demanded to know what authority Lincoln had to blockade Southern ports or suspend the writ of habeas corpus . He reminded his fellow senators that Congress had not approved a declaration of war and maintained that Lincoln 's enlistment of men and expenditure of funds for the war effort were unconstitutional . If the Union could be persuaded not to attack the Confederacy , he predicted that " all those sentiments of common interest and feeling ... might lead to a political reunion founded upon consent " . On August 1 , he declared that if Kentucky supported Lincoln 's prosecution of the war , " she will be represented by some other man on the floor of this Senate . " Asked by Oregon 's Edward Dickinson Baker how he would handle the secession crisis , he responded , " I would prefer to see these States all reunited upon true constitutional principles to any other object that could be offered me in life ... But I infinitely prefer to see a peaceful separation of these States , than to see endless , aimless , devastating war , at the end of which I see the grave of public liberty and of personal freedom . "
In early September , Confederate and Union forces entered Kentucky , ending her neutrality . On September 18 , Unionists shut down the pro @-@ Southern Louisville Courier newspaper and arrested former governor Charles S. Morehead , who was suspected of having Confederate sympathies . Learning that Colonel Thomas E. Bramlette was under orders to arrest him , Breckinridge fled to Prestonsburg , Kentucky , where he was joined by Confederate sympathizers George W. Johnson , George Baird Hodge , William E. Simms , and William Preston . The group continued to Abingdon , Virginia , where they took a train to Confederate @-@ held Bowling Green , Kentucky .
On October 2 , 1861 , the Kentucky General Assembly passed a resolution declaring that neither of the state 's U.S. Senators — Breckinridge and Powell — represented the will of the state 's citizens and requesting that both resign . Governor Magoffin refused to endorse the resolution , preventing its enforcement . Writing from Bowling Green on October 8 , Breckinridge declared , " I exchange with proud satisfaction a term of six years in the Senate of the United States for the musket of a soldier . " Later that month , he was part of a convention in Confederate @-@ controlled Russellville , Kentucky , that denounced the Unionist legislature as not representing the will of most Kentuckians and called for a sovereignty convention to be held in that city on November 18 . Breckinridge , George W. Johnson , and Humphrey Marshall were named to the planning committee , but Breckinridge did not attend the convention , which created a provisional Confederate government for Kentucky . On November 6 , Breckinridge was indicted for treason in a federal court in Frankfort . The Senate passed a resolution formally expelling him on December 2 , 1861 ; Powell was the only member to vote against the resolution , claiming that Breckinridge 's statement of October 8 amounted to a resignation , rendering the resolution unnecessary .
= = Confederate Secretary of War = =
Breckinridge served in the Confederate Army from November 2 , 1861 , until early 1865 . In mid @-@ January 1865 , Confederate President Jefferson Davis summoned Breckinridge to the Confederate capital at Richmond , Virginia , and rumors followed that Davis would appoint Breckinridge Confederate States Secretary of War , replacing James A. Seddon . Breckinridge arrived in Richmond on January 17 , and some time in the next two weeks , Davis offered him the appointment . Breckinridge made his acceptance conditional upon the removal of Lucius B. Northrop from his office as Confederate Commissary General . Most Confederate officers regarded Northrop as inept , but Davis had long defended him . Davis relented on January 30 , allowing Seddon to replace Northrop with Breckinridge 's friend , Eli Metcalfe Bruce , on an interim basis ; Breckinridge accepted Davis 's appointment the next day .
Some Confederate congressmen were believed to oppose Breckinridge because he had waited so long to join the Confederacy , but his nomination was confirmed unanimously on February 6 , 1865 . At 44 years old , he was the youngest person to serve in the Confederate president 's cabinet . Klotter called Breckinridge " perhaps the most effective of those who held that office " , but Harrison wrote that " no one could have done much with the War Department at that late date " . While his predecessors had largely served Davis 's interests , Breckinridge functioned independently , assigning officers , recommending promotions , and consulting on strategy with Confederate generals .
Breckinridge 's first act as secretary was to meet with assistant secretary John Archibald Campbell , who had opposed Breckinridge 's nomination , believing he would focus on a select few of the department 's bureaus and ignore the rest . During their conference , Campbell expressed his desire to retain his post , and Breckinridge agreed , delegating many of the day @-@ to @-@ day details of the department 's operation to him . Breckinridge recommended that Davis appoint Isaac M. St. John , head of the Confederate Nitre and Mining Bureau , as permanent commissary general . Davis made the appointment on February 15 , and the flow of supplies to Confederate armies improved under St. John . With Confederate ranks plagued by desertion , Breckinridge instituted a draft ; when this proved ineffective , he negotiated the resumption of prisoner exchanges with the Union in order to replenish the Confederates ' depleted manpower .
By late February , Breckinridge had concluded that the Confederate cause was hopeless . He opposed the use of guerilla warfare by Confederate forces and urged a national surrender . Meeting with Confederate senators from Virginia , Kentucky , Missouri , and Texas , he urged , " This has been a magnificent epic . In God 's name let it not terminate in a farce . " In April , with Union forces approaching Richmond , Breckinridge organized the escape of the other cabinet officials to Danville , Virginia . Afterward , he ordered the burning of the bridges over the James River and ensured the destruction of buildings and supplies that might aid the enemy . During the surrender of the city , he helped preserve the Confederate government and military records housed there .
After a brief rendezvous with Robert E. Lee 's retreating forces at Farmville , Virginia , Breckinridge moved south to Greensboro , North Carolina , where he , Naval Secretary Stephen Mallory , and Postmaster General John Henninger Reagan joined Generals Joseph E. Johnston and P. G. T. Beauregard to urge surrender . Davis and Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin initially resisted , but eventually asked Major General William T. Sherman to parley . Johnston and Breckinridge negotiated terms with Sherman , but President Andrew Johnson ( who had assumed the presidency on Lincoln 's assassination on April 15 ) rejected them as too generous . On Davis ' orders , Breckinridge told Johnston to meet Richard Taylor in Alabama , but Johnston , believing his men would refuse to fight any longer , surrendered to Sherman on similar terms to those offered to Lee at Appomattox .
After the failed negotiations , Confederate Attorney General George Davis and Confederate Treasury Secretary George Trenholm resigned . The rest of the Confederate cabinet — escorted by over 2 @,@ 000 cavalrymen under Basil W. Duke and Breckinridge 's nephew William Campbell Preston Breckinridge — traveled southwest to meet Taylor at Mobile . Believing that the Confederate cause was not yet lost , Davis convened a council of war on May 2 in Abbeville , South Carolina , but the cavalry commanders told him that the only cause for which their men would fight was to aid Davis 's escape from the country . Informed that gold and silver coins and bullion from the Confederate treasury were at the train depot in Abbeville , Breckinridge ordered Duke to load it onto wagons and guard it as they continued southward . En route to Washington , Georgia , some members of the cabinet 's escort threatened to take their back salaries by force . Breckinridge had intended to wait until their arrival to make the payments , but to avoid mutiny , he dispersed some of the funds immediately . Two brigades deserted immediately after being paid ; the rest continued to Washington , where the remaining funds were deposited in a local bank .
Discharging most of the remaining escort , Breckinridge left Washington with a small party on May 5 , hoping to distract federal forces from the fleeing Confederate president . Between Washington and Woodstock , the party was overtaken by Union forces under Lieutenant Colonel Andrew K. Campbell ; Breckinridge ordered his nephew to surrender while he , his sons Cabell and Clifton , James B. Clay , Jr . , and a few others fled into the nearby woods . At Sandersville , he sent Clay and Clifton home , announcing that he and the rest of his companions would proceed to Madison , Florida . On May 11 , they reached Milltown , Georgia , where Breckinridge expected to rendezvous with Davis , but on May 14 , he learned of Davis 's capture days earlier .
= = Later life = =
Besides marking the end of the Confederacy and the war , Davis 's capture left Breckinridge as the highest @-@ ranking former Confederate still at large . Fearing arrest , he fled to Cuba , Great Britain , and Canada , where he lived in exile . Andrew Johnson issued a proclamation of amnesty for all former Confederates in December 1868 , and Breckinridge returned home the following March . Friends and government officials , including President Ulysses S. Grant , urged him to return to politics , but he declared himself " an extinct volcano " and never sought public office again . He died of complications from war @-@ related injuries on May 17 , 1875 .
= Mmm Papi =
" Mmm Papi " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Britney Spears . The song was written by Spears and Nicole Morier , while additional writing and song production were done by Canadian band Let 's Go to War , whose members are Henry Walter , Adrien Gough and Peter @-@ John Kerr , for Spears ' sixth studio album , Circus ( 2008 ) . " Mmm Papi " is noted for having a Latin pop influence , similar to Madonna 's " La Isla Bonita " ( 1987 ) . The lyrics of the song tell about a woman who has an attraction to a man , longing for him to come and take her away .
" Mmm Papi " received generally unfavorable reviews from contemporary critics . Many said the song represents Spears ' trouble with men , and speculated that its lyrics deal to either her father James Spears or paparazzi Adnan Ghalib . The speculations were later denied by co @-@ writer Morier . The song was also compared to Rosemary Clooney 's " Come On @-@ a My House " ( 1951 ) . Despite not being released as a single , " Mmm Papi " managed to peak at number ninety @-@ four on Billboard Pop 100 , due to moderate airplay on mainstream top 40 radio stations , singles sales , and digital downloads .
= = Background = =
It was confirmed in 2008 that Spears was in the process of recording her sixth studio album . Spears manager Larry Rudolph confirmed the singer would spend " her summer in the recording studio " to work on it . Despite no official album confirmation at the time , Rudolph revealed they were happy with her progress and that she had been working with a range of producers , such as Sean Garrett , Guy Sigsworth , Danja and Bloodshy & Avant . " Mmm Papi " was written by Spears and Nicole Morier during Summer and Spring of 2008 . Among the songs they worked on were " Mmm Papi " , " Rock Me In " and " Whiplash " . Both wanted to do something that Spears had not done before . " Mmm Papi " and " Rock Me In " were included in Spears ' sixth studio album , Circus ( 2008 ) ; however , " Whiplash " failed to make the cut . Morier explained , " There ’ s a couple songs we started that were great ideas but just incomplete . Maybe we ’ ll hear them with fresh ears someday and put them out , but I usually just like to start anew . "
Additional writing and song production were done by Canadian band Let 's Go to War , whose members are Henry Walter , Adrien Gough and Peter @-@ John Kerr . In an interview with The Canadian Press , Walter revealed they first sent several demos to Jive Records for Circus . After selecting it , Spears ' management required several changes to the song , making " Mmm Papi " " substantially different from what was submitted . " Walter revealed they had no contact with the singer for the song production , and considered " Mmm Papi " as " something different for Britney " and " a fun track and is not trying to be anything it 's not . " Spears recorded her vocals for the song in 2008 at Train Tracks Studios and Conway Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California , with Walter and Eric Eylands . Guitar was provided by Chris Worthy , and audio mixing was done by Tony Maserati .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Mmm Papi " is a latin pop song that lasts for three minutes and twenty @-@ two seconds . The song has dancehall elements and a 1960s go @-@ go vibe , and incorporates into its melody handclaps and a rock guitar . Anna Dimond of TV Guide perceived influences of Madonna 's " La Isla Bonita " ( 1987 ) in the song , and called it an " ode to the tropical life ( and perhaps its masculine fruits ) " . It has been suggested that its lyrics deal with either her father Jamie Spears or paparazzi Adnan Ghalib . However , this was denied by Morier , who said " the song is definitely not about Adnan and in the whole time I worked with [ Spears ] last spring and summer I never once saw that guy . " Morier described " Mmm Papi " as a fun upbeat song , while saying the title " came out of [ the line ] Mmm Papa Luv U. "
= = Critical reception = =
" Mmm Papi " received generally unfavorable reviews from contemporary critics . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian said the track was fun , but panned for appearing on Circus to " revisit the Lolita persona of ... Baby One More Time " . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly said the song " giddily sets [ Spears ] littlest @-@ girl voice against a guitar right out of 1960s go @-@ go rock . " John Murphy of musicOMH said that " any indication of her chat @-@ up lines [ in " Mmm Papi " ] may explain her recent trouble with men , " while Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone said the singer " shows she has psychodrama to spare on [ the song ] , " and considered it " a go @-@ go romp with daddy issues . " Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine commented , " the jaw @-@ dropping " Mmm Papi " is the nexus of cock @-@ hungriness . " Chris Richards of The Washington Post said the song " tries to replicate the strutting come @-@ ons of " Toxic " , but quickly goes rancid as Spears indulges in some of the most cloying singing of her career , " while Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times compared its style to Rosemary Clooney 's " Come On @-@ a My House " ( 1951 ) . Powers also said Spears have " a fairly horrific pan @-@ Latin accent " in the song .
Jim DeRogatis of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times criticized " Mmm Papi " as the " most disturbing [ song ] of [ Circus ] . " Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun called " Mmm Papi " " an attempt at Gwen Stefani 's new wave sound that doesn 't work . " Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star called it " awful , " along with " My Baby " , and a " baby @-@ talk horror . " Poppy Cosyns of The Sun criticized the song 's lyrics , deeming it as " bizarre lyrics which reference [ Spears ] love / hate father @-@ daughter turmoil . " Pete Paphides of The Times said " Mmm Papi " " couldn 't be less sexy if Christine Hamilton were singing them , " while a review by The Independent said the song portrays " the former Mouseketeer as some kind of robotic nymphomaniac doll – groaning and grunting " let 's make out " with the chilly distance of a future @-@ sex cyborg unit . " Darryl Sterdan of Jam ! gave " Mmm Papi " a positive review , saying , " between the hip @-@ swivelling groove , the twangy guitar , the surfy organ lines and the silly vocals , this might be the most enjoyable cut on the disc . Pure fun . " Despite not being released as a single , " Mmm Papi " did manage to peak at number ninety @-@ four on Billboard Pop 100 , on the week of December 10 , 2008 , due to moderate airplay on mainstream top 40 radio stations , singles sales , and digital downloads .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Mmm Papi " are adapted from Circus liner notes .
Technical
Recorded at Train Tracks Studios in Los Angeles , California .
Additional recording at Conway Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California .
Mixed for Two Chord Music , Inc. at Canaan Road Studios and Looking Glass Studios in New York City , New York .
Personnel
= Trondheim Airport , Værnes =
Trondheim Airport , Værnes ( Norwegian : Trondheim lufthavn , Værnes ; IATA : TRD , ICAO : ENVA ) is an international airport serving Trondheim , a city and municipality in Sør @-@ Trøndelag county , Norway . The airport is located in Værnes , a village in the municipality of Stjørdal in Nord @-@ Trøndelag county , 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) east of Trondheim . Operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor , it shares facilities with Værnes Air Station of the Royal Norwegian Air Force . In 2014 , the airport had 4 @,@ 416 @,@ 681 passengers and 60 @,@ 934 air movements , making it the fourth @-@ busiest in the country . The airport has two terminals ; A dates from 1994 and is used for domestic traffic , while B is the renovated former main terminal from 1982 , and is used for international traffic . The airport features a main east – west 2 @,@ 999 @-@ metre ( 9 @,@ 839 ft ) runway , a disused northwest – southeast 1 @,@ 472 @-@ metre ( 4 @,@ 829 ft ) runway , an integrated railway station and an airport hotel .
The main airlines at the airport are Scandinavian Airlines ( SAS ) , Norwegian Air Shuttle and Widerøe , for all of which Værnes is a focus city . The main route is the service to Oslo , operated by both SAS and Norwegian , which is the tenth @-@ busiest route in Europe . Both airlines operate services also using Boeing 737 aircraft to Bergen , Bodø and Tromsø ; SAS has some additional domestic services while Norwegian has a number of low @-@ frequency international services . Widerøe operates regional Dash 8 aircraft to six airports in Helgeland , in addition to Sandefjord . Krohn Air provides services to Molde . Daily international services to Copenhagen is provided by SAS and to Amsterdam is provided by KLM . The airport also serves charter services , mainly to the Mediterranean . In total , it connects to 17 domestic and 21 international destinations , as well as 18 charter destinations .
Værnes was taken into use by the Royal Norwegian Army in 1887 . The first flight was made in 1914 , and aerodrome facilities were gradually installed . The first main installations , including three concrete runways , were built during World War II by Luftwaffe . After the war , the Air Force Pilot School moved to Værnes , although in 1954 most of the other air force activities for Central Norway were moved to Ørland Main Air Station . Civilian aviation started in 1951 , when half a barracks was taken into use as a terminal , with the whole building being utilized from 1958 . Jet aircraft started serving Værnes from 1963 , and the second terminal opened in 1965 . The third ( the current international Terminal B ) was opened in 1982 , and the fourth , Terminal A , was opened in 1994 , along with the train station . From 1956 to 2004 , Braathens was one of the largest airlines at the airport .
= = Facilities = =
Trondheim Airport is a joint military and civilian airport located in the municipality of Stjørdal in Nord @-@ Trøndelag , with the northern part of the airport bordering the town of Stjørdalshalsen . To the west , the airport borders the Trondheimsfjord , and to the south the Stjørdal River . Combining the functions as an international , domestic and regional airport , it is located 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) east of Trondheim . Most of the airport area is owned by the Norwegian Ministry of Defence , although the civilian facilities and the air traffic control are owned and operated by Avinor , a subsidiary of the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications .
= = = Terminals = = =
The civilian sector consists of two terminals — A and B — which combined are 20 @,@ 000 square metres ( 220 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , of which 13 @,@ 500 square metres ( 145 @,@ 000 sq ft ) is passenger facilities . Terminal A is used for domestic traffic ,
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s nuclear power program , criticizing the UN 's policy of sanctions on his country ; and attacked U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East . In response to a question about Iran 's treatment of women and homosexuals , he asserted that women are respected in Iran and that " In Iran , we don 't have homosexuals like in your country ... In Iran , we do not have this phenomenon . I don 't know who told you this . " The latter statement drew laughter from the audience . The Manhattan District Attorney 's Office accused Columbia of accepting grant money from the Alavi Foundation to support faculty " sympathetic " to Iran 's Islamic republic .
= = = ROTC controversy = = =
Beginning in 1969 , during the Vietnam War , the university did not allow the U.S. military to have Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( ROTC ) programs on campus , though Columbia students could participate in ROTC programs at other local colleges and universities . At a forum at the university during the 2008 presidential election campaign , both John McCain and Barack Obama said that the university should consider reinstating ROTC on campus . After the debate , the President of the University , Lee C. Bollinger , stated that he did not favor reinstating Columbia 's ROTC program , because of the military 's anti @-@ gay policies . In November 2008 , Columbia 's undergraduate student body held a referendum on the question of whether or not to invite ROTC back to campus , and the students who voted were almost evenly divided on the issue . ROTC lost the vote ( which would not have been binding on the administration , and did not include graduate students , faculty , or alumni ) by a fraction of a percentage point . In April 2010 during Admiral Mike Mullen 's address at Columbia , President Lee C. Bollinger stated that the ROTC would be readmitted to campus if the admiral 's plans for revoking the don 't ask , don 't tell policy were successful . In February 2011 during one of three town @-@ hall meetings on the ROTC ban , former Army staff sergeant Anthony Maschek , a Purple Heart recipient for injuries sustained during his service in Iraq , was booed and hissed at by some students during his speech promoting the idea of allowing the ROTC on campus . In April 2011 the Columbia University Senate voted to welcome the ROTC program back on campus . Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus and Columbia University President Lee C. Bollinger signed an agreement to reinstate Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps ( NROTC ) program at Columbia for the first time in more than 40 years on May 26 , 2011 . The agreement was signed at a ceremony on board the USS Iwo Jima , docked in New York for the Navy 's annual Fleet Week .
= = Traditions = =
= = = Orgo Night = = =
On the day before the Organic Chemistry exam — which is often on the first day of finals — at precisely the stroke of midnight , the Columbia University Marching Band occupies Butler Library to distract diligent students from studying . After a forty @-@ five minutes or so of jokes and music , the procession then moves out to the lawn in front of Hartley , Wallach and John Jay residence halls to entertain the residents there . The band then plays at other locations around Morningside Heights , including the residential quadrangle of Barnard College , where students of the all @-@ women 's school , in mock @-@ consternation , rain trash – including notes and course packets – and water balloons upon them from their dormitories above . The band tends to close their Orgo Night performances before Furnald Hall , known among students as the more studious and reportedly " anti @-@ social " residence hall , where the underclassmen in the band serenade the graduating seniors with an entertaining , though vulgar , mock @-@ hymn to Columbia , composed of quips that poke fun at the stereotypes about the Columbia student body .
= = = Tree @-@ Lighting and Yule Log ceremonies = = =
The campus Tree @-@ Lighting Ceremony was inaugurated in 1998 . It celebrates the illumination of the medium @-@ sized trees lining College Walk in front of Kent and Hamilton Halls on the east end and Dodge and Journalism Halls on the west , just before finals week in early December . The lights remain on until February 28 . Students meet at the sun @-@ dial for free hot chocolate , performances by a cappella groups , and speeches by the university president and a guest .
Immediately following the College Walk festivities is one of Columbia 's older holiday traditions , the lighting of the Yule Log . The Christmas ceremony dates to a period prior to the American Revolutionary War , but lapsed before being revived by University President Nicholas Murray Butler in the early 20th century . A troop of students dressed as Continental Army soldiers carry the eponymous log from the sun @-@ dial to the lounge of John Jay Hall , where it is lit amid the singing of seasonal carols . The Christmas ceremony is accompanied by a reading of A Visit From St. Nicholas by Clement Clarke Moore and Yes , Virginia , There is a Santa Claus by Francis Pharcellus Church .
= = = The Varsity Show = = =
The Varsity Show is an annual musical written by and for students and was established in 1894 , making it one of Columbia 's oldest traditions . Past writers and directors have included Columbians Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein , Lorenz Hart , I.A.L. Diamond , and Herman Wouk . The show has one of the largest operating budgets of all university events .
= = Notable people = =
As of 2011 , Columbia alumni included three United States Presidents , 26 foreign Heads of State , nine Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States ( including three Chief Justices ) and 39 Nobel winners . As of 2011 , alumni also have received more than 35 National Book Awards and 123 Pulitzer Prizes . Today , two United States Senators and 16 Chief Executives of Fortune 500 companies hold Columbia degrees , as do three of the 25 richest Americans and 20 living billionaires . Attendees of King 's College , Columbia 's predecessor , included five Founding Fathers .
Former U.S. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Delano Roosevelt attended the law school . Other more recent political figures educated at Columbia include U.S President Barack Obama , Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Ruth Bader Ginsburg , former U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright , former chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank Alan Greenspan , U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder , and U.S. Solicitor General Donald Verrilli Jr . Dwight D. Eisenhower served as the thirteenth president of Columbia University from 1948 to 1953 . The university has also educated 26 foreign heads of state , including President of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili , President of East Timor Jose Ramos Horta , President of Estonia Toomas Hendrik Ilves and other historical figures such as Wellington Koo , Radovan Karadžić , Gaston Eyskens , and T. V. Soong . The author of India 's constitution and Dalit leader Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was also an alumnus of Columbia .
Alumni of Columbia have occupied top positions in Wall Street and the rest of the business world . Notable members of the Astor family attended Columbia , while some recent business graduates include investor Warren Buffett , former CEO of PBS and NBC Larry Grossman , and chairman of Wal @-@ Mart S. Robson Walton . CEO 's of top Fortune 500 companies include James P. Gorman of Morgan Stanley , Robert J. Stevens of Lockheed Martin , Philippe Dauman of Viacom , Ursula Burns of Xerox , and Vikram Pandit of Citigroup . Notable labor organizer and women 's educator Louise Leonard McLaren received her degree of Master of Arts from Columbia .
In science and technology , Columbia alumni include : founder of IBM Herman Hollerith ; inventor of FM radio Edwin Armstrong ; Francis Mechner ; integral in development of the nuclear submarine Hyman Rickover ; founder of Google China Kai @-@ Fu Lee ; scientists Stephen Jay Gould , Robert Millikan , Helium – neon laser inventor Ali Javan and Mihajlo Pupin ; chief @-@ engineer of the New York City Subway , William Barclay Parsons ; philosophers Irwin Edman and Robert Nozick ; economist Milton Friedman ; and psychologist Harriet Babcock .
Many Columbia alumni have gone on to renowned careers in the arts , such as the composers Richard Rodgers , Oscar Hammerstein II , Lorenz Hart , and Art Garfunkel . Four United States Poet Laureates received their degrees from Columbia . Columbia alumni have made an indelible mark in the field of American poetry and literature , with such people as Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg , pioneers of the Beat Generation , and Langston Hughes , a seminal figure in the Harlem Renaissance , all having attended the university . Other notable writers who attended Columbia include authors Isaac Asimov , J.D. Salinger , Upton Sinclair , and the journalist Hunter S. Thompson , primarily known for his works in the American magazine Rolling Stone .
University alumni have also been very prominent in the film industry , with 28 alumni and former students winning a combined 39 Academy Awards ( as of 2011 ) , second in the world only to New York University ( NYU ) . Some notable Columbia alumni that have gone on to work in film include directors Sidney Lumet ( 12 Angry Men ) and Kathryn Bigelow ( The Hurt Locker ) , screenwriters Howard Koch ( Casablanca ) and Joseph L. Mankiewicz ( All About Eve ) , and actors James Cagney and Ed Harris .
Notable Columbia University alumni include :
= Victoria Louise @-@ class cruiser =
The Victoria Louise class of protected cruisers was the last class of ships of that type built for the German Imperial Navy . The class design introduced the combined clipper and ram bow and the blocky sides that typified later German armoured cruisers . The class comprised five vessels , Victoria Louise , the lead ship , Hertha , Freya , Vineta , and Hansa . The ships were laid down in 1895 – 1896 , and were launched in 1897 – 1898 and commissioned into the fleet over the following year .
The first three ships were 110 @.@ 60 meters ( 362 ft 10 in ) long and displaced 6 @,@ 491 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 388 long tons ) at combat load ; Vineta and Hansa were a slightly modified design . They were 110 @.@ 50 m ( 362 ft 6 in ) long and displaced 6 @,@ 705 t ( 6 @,@ 599 long tons ) at full load . All five ships were armed with a main battery of two 21 @-@ centimeter ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns and eight 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns . The first three ships had a top speed of 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) ; the last two were slightly slower , at 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) . Problems with the Niclausse boilers installed on Freya prompted the Navy to standardize boiler types in future warships .
The ships of the class served in various units in the German fleet , including on the America Station , in the East Asia Squadron , and with the home fleet . Hertha and Hansa participated in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900 , and Vineta was involved in the Venezuela Crisis of 1902 – 1903 . All five ships were modernized between 1905 and 1911 , after which they served as training ships for naval cadets . They were mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but were quickly withdrawn from front @-@ line service . They served in various secondary roles for the rest of the war . After the end of the conflict , Victoria Louise was converted into a merchant ship , but was broken up in 1923 . The other four ships were scrapped in 1920 – 1921 .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The first three ships of the Victoria Louise class — Victoria Louise , Hertha , and Freya — were 109 @.@ 10 meters ( 357 ft 11 in ) long at the waterline and 110 @.@ 60 m ( 362 ft 10 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 17 @.@ 40 m ( 57 ft 1 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 58 m ( 21 ft 7 in ) forward and 6 @.@ 93 m ( 22 ft 9 in ) . These ships displaced 5 @,@ 660 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 570 long tons ) as designed and 6 @,@ 491 t ( 6 @,@ 388 long tons ) at full combat load . Vineta and Hansa had slightly different dimensions ; they were 109 @.@ 80 m ( 360 ft 3 in ) long at the waterline and 110 @.@ 50 m ( 362 ft 6 in ) overall . Their beam was 17 @.@ 60 m ( 57 ft 9 in ) and drew 7 @.@ 08 m ( 23 ft 3 in ) forward and 7 @.@ 34 m ( 24 ft 1 in ) aft . Their displacement was also higher than the first three ships , at 5 @,@ 885 t ( 5 @,@ 79
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Jones 's Diary and Love Actually that drew international audiences , rather than films in the historical drama genre . Its co @-@ chairman Tim Bevan explained that the studio wanted to " bring Austen 's original story , concentrating on Lizzie , back in all its glory to the big screen for audiences everywhere to enjoy " . Given a " relatively inexpensive " budget of £ 22 million ( $ 28 million ) , the film was expected to excel at the box office , particularly based on the commercial successes of Romeo + Juliet ( 1996 ) and Shakespeare in Love ( 1998 ) as well as the resurgence of interest in Austen 's works .
Given little instruction from the studio , screenwriter Deborah Moggach spent over two years adapting Pride and Prejudice for film . She had sole discretion with the early script , and eventually wrote approximately ten drafts . Realising it held " a perfect three @-@ act structure " , Moggach attempted to be as faithful to the original novel as possible , calling it " so beautifully shaped as a story – the ultimate romance about two people who think they hate each other but who are really passionately in love . I felt , ' If it 's not broken , don 't fix it . ' " While she could not reproduce the novel 's " fiercely wonderful dialogue in its entirety " , she attempted to keep much of it .
Moggach 's first script was closest to Austen 's book , but later versions trimmed extraneous storylines and characters . Moggach initially wrote all scenes from Elizabeth 's point of view in keeping with the novel ; she later set a few scenes from the male perspective , such as when Bingley practices his marriage proposal , in order to " show Darcy and Bingley being close " and to indicate Darcy was a " human being instead of being stuck up " . Small details were inserted that acknowledged wider events outside of the characters ' circle , such as those then occurring in France . While Moggach is the only screenwriter credited for the film , playwright Lee Hall also made early additions to the script .
Television director Joe Wright was hired in early 2004 , making Pride & Prejudice his directional feature film debut . He was considered a surprising choice for a film in the romance drama genre due to his past work with social realism . Wright 's body of work had impressed the producers , who were looking for a fresh perspective ; they sent him a script despite the fact that Wright had not read the novel . He commented that at the time , " I didn 't know if I was really all that interested ; I thought I was a little bit more mainstream than this , a bit more edgy . But then I read the script and I was surprised I was very moved by it " . He next read the novel , which he called " an amazing piece of character observation and it really seemed like the first piece of British Realism . It felt like it was a true story ; had a lot of truth in it about understanding how to love other people , understanding how to overcome prejudices , understanding the things that separate us from other people ... things like that . "
The only adaptation of Pride and Prejudice Wright had seen was the 1940 production , which was the last time the novel had been adapted into a feature film . The director purposely did not watch the other productions , both out of fear he would inadvertently steal ideas and because he wanted to be as original as possible . He did , however , watch other period films , including Ang Lee 's Sense and Sensibility , Roger Michell 's Persuasion , and John Schlesinger 's Far from the Madding Crowd ; Wright cited this last film as the greatest influence on his own adaptation , calling it " very real and very honest – and it is quite romantic as well " . In trying to create an atmosphere of charged flirtation , the director also gained inspiration from teen romance films such as Sixteen Candles and The Breakfast Club .
Wright 's hire occurred while Moggach was on her third draft . Despite her desire to work closely with Austen 's dialogue , Wright made an effort to not " be too reverential to [ it ] . I don 't believe people spoke like that then ; it 's not natural . " While a few scenes , such as the discussion over accomplished women , aligned closely with the author 's original dialogue , many others " substituted instead a mixture of modern idiom and archaic @-@ sounding sentence structure " . One alteration concerned politeness ; Wright noted that while Austen 's work had characters waiting before speaking , he believed that " particularly in big families of girls , everyone tends to speak over each other , finishing each other 's sentences , etc . So I felt that the Bennet family 's conversations would be overlapping like that . " Sense and Sensibility actress and screenwriter Emma Thompson aided in script development , though she opted to be uncredited . She advised the nervous director about adapting Austen for the screen and made dialogue recommendations , such as with parts of the Collins @-@ Charlotte storyline .
Citing the year Austen first wrote a draft of the novel , Wright and Moggach changed the period setting from 1813 ( the novel 's publication date ) to the late eighteenth century ; this decision was partly because Wright wanted to highlight the differences within an England influenced by the French Revolution , as he was fascinated that it had " caused an atmosphere among the British aristocracy of fear " . Additionally , Wright chose the earlier period because he hated dresses with an empire silhouette , which were popular in the later period . The decision helped make the film visually distinct from other recent Austen adaptations . In comparison to the popular 1995 BBC version , which featured Colin Firth and Jennifer Ehle , producer Paul Webster desired to make an adaptation that " doesn 't conform to the television drama stereotypes of a perfect clean Regency world " . Wright and Moggach opted for a " muddy hem version " of Longbourn , presenting a more rural setting than in previous adaptations out of a desire to depict the Bennets in " very close proximity to their rural life " and to emphasise their relative poverty . While the degree of poverty was criticised by some critics , Wright felt that the " mess adds to the drama of the predicament that the family were in " , and helps contrast the Bennets , Darcys , and Bingleys .
= = = Casting = = =
Wright found casting of the film to be difficult because he was very particular about " the types of people [ he ] wanted to work with " . While interviewing to direct , he insisted that the actors match the ages of the characters in the novel . Wright specifically cast actors that had rapport on and off screen , and insisted that they partake in three weeks of rehearsal in improvisation workshops . Wright also had to balance who he thought was best for each role with what the producers wanted – mainly a big name attraction . Though Wright had not initially pictured someone as attractive as English actress Keira Knightley for the lead role of Elizabeth Bennet , he cast her after realising that the actress " is really a tomboy [ and ] has a lively mind and a great sense of humour " . Knightley at the time was known for Bend It Like Beckham and the Pirates of the Caribbean film series . She had been an Austen fan since age 7 , but initially feared taking the role out of apprehension that she would be doing " an absolute copy of Jennifer Ehle 's performance " , which she deeply admired . Knightley believed Elizabeth is " what you aspire to be : she 's funny , she 's witty and intelligent . She 's a fully rounded and very much loved character . " For the period , the actress studied etiquette , history and dancing but ran into trouble when she acquired a short haircut while preparing for her role in the bounty hunter film Domino .
Webster found the casting of Darcy especially hard due to the character 's iconic status and because " Colin Firth cast a very long shadow " as the 1995 Darcy . Wright later commented that his choice of Knightley allowed him to cast comparative unknown Matthew Macfadyen , something that would have been impossible had he chosen a less well @-@ known actress for Elizabeth Bennet . Macfadyen at the time was known for his role in the British television spy series Spooks , but had no recognition internationally . A fan of the actor 's television work , Wright called Macfadyen " a proper manly man ... I didn 't want a pretty boy kind of actor . His properties were the ones I felt I needed [ for Darcy ] . Matthew 's a great big hunk of a guy . " Macfadyen did not read the novel before filming , preferring to rely solely on the script .
According to Wright , Rosamund Pike was cast as the eldest sister " because [ he ] knew she wasn 't going to play her as a nice , simple person . Jane has a real interior world , she has her heart broken . " Despite being Pike 's ex @-@ boyfriend , Simon Woods was cast as her romantic interest Mr Bingley . The other three Bennet sisters were played by Talulah Riley , Carey Mulligan , and Jena Malone , the only American actress among them . Wright believed Malone to have a " pretty faultless English accent " . Mulligan heard about the casting call at a dinner hosted by Julian Fellowes , to whom she had written a letter after failing to get into drama school ; she won the part after three auditions . Tamzin Merchant appears as Georgiana Darcy ; she was hired despite having no previous acting experience after she wrote a letter to the casting director . In addition to Merchant , Pride & Prejudice was the feature film debut of both Mulligan and Riley .
Donald Sutherland reminded Wright of his own father and was cast as the Bennet patriarch ; Wright thought the actor possessed the " strength to handle those six women " . Brenda Blethyn was hired to play Mrs Bennet , whom Moggach believed to be the unsung heroine of the film ; Wright explained that it was " a tricky part [ to fill ] , as she can be very annoying ; you want to stop her chattering and shrieking . But Brenda has the humour and the heart to show the amount of love and care Mrs Bennet has for her daughters . " Wright convinced veteran actress Judi Dench to join the cast as Lady Catherine de Bourgh by writing her a letter that read " I love it when you play a bitch . Please come and be a bitch for me . " Dench had only one week available to shoot her scenes , forcing Wright to make them his first days of filming .
= = = Costume design = = =
Known for her BAFTA award @-@ winning work on the 2004 film Vera Drake , Jacqueline Durran was hired as the costume designer . She and Wright approached his film " as a difficult thing to tackle " because of their desire to distinguish it from the television adaptation . Due to Wright 's dislike of the high waistline , Durran focused on later eighteenth century fashions that often included a corseted , natural waistline rather than an empire silhouette ( which became popular after the 1790s ) . A generational divide was established : the older characters dress in mid @-@ eighteenth century fashions while the young wear " a sort of proto @-@ Regency style of hair and dress " . Mrs Bennet was of the older generation , and her dresses appeared to have been mended .
Durran 's costumes also helped emphasise social rank among the different characters ; Caroline Bingley for instance is introduced in an empire silhouetted dress , clothing that would have then been at the height of fashion . During her interview , Durran opined that all the women wear white at the Netherfield Ball due to its contemporary popularity , an idea that Wright credits as his reason for hiring her . All of the costumes were handmade , as clothing was at the time . However , costumes and hairstyles were adjusted to appeal to contemporary audiences , sacrificing historical accuracy .
To help differentiate the Bennet sisters , Durran viewed Elizabeth as the " tomboy " , clothing her in earthy colours because of her love of the countryside . For the other sisters , Durran remarked , " Jane was the most refined and yet it 's still all a bit slapdash and homemade , because the Bennets have no money . One of the main things Joe wanted was for the whole thing to have a provincial feel . Mary is the bluestocking : serious and practical . And then Lydia and Kitty are a bit Tweedledum and Tweedledee in a kind of teenage way . I tried to make it so that they 'd be sort of mirror images . If one 's wearing a green dress , the other will wear a green jacket ; so you always have a visual asymmetry between the two . " In contrast to the 1940 film , the 2005 production displayed the Bennet sisters in worn @-@ down but comfortable dresses that allowed the actors better moveability .
Mr Darcy 's costume went through a series of phases . Durran noted :
" The first time we see him he 's at Meriton [ sic ] , where he has a very stiffly tailored jacket on and he 's quite contained and rigid . He stays in that rigid form for the first part of the film . By the time we get to the proposal that goes wrong in the rain , we move to a similar cut , but a much softer fabric . And then later he 's got a completely different cut of coat , not interlined and he wears it undone . The nth degree is him walking through the mist in the morning , completely undressed by 18th @-@ century standards . It 's absolutely unlikely , but then Lizzie 's in her nightie , so what can you say ? "
= = = Filming = = =
Moggach believed the novel was very filmable , " despite it containing no description and being a very unvisual book " . To Wright , many other period films had relied on paintings for inspiration rather than photographs , causing them to appear unreal . He thus used " Austen 's prose [ to give him ] many visual references for the people in the story " , including using close @-@ up shots of various characters . The filmmakers also changed several scenes to more romantic locales than those in the book . For instance , in the film , Darcy first proposes outdoors in a rainstorm at a building with neoclassical architecture ; in the book , this scene takes place inside a parsonage . In the film , his second proposal occurs on the misty moors as dawn breaks ; in the book , he and Elizabeth are walking down a country lane in broad daylight . Wright has acknowledged that " there are a lot of period film clichés ; some of them are in the film and some are not , but for me it was important to question them " .
During script development , the crew spent four to five months scouting locations , creating a " constant going back and forth between script and location " . The film was shot entirely on location within England on an 11 @-@ week schedule during the 2004 summer . Co @-@ producer Paul Webster noted that " it is quite unusual for a movie this size to be shot entirely on location . Part of Joe [ Wright ] ' s idea was to try to create a reality which allows the actors to relax and feel at one with their environment . " Working under production designer Sarah Greenwood and set decorator Katie Spencer , the crew filmed on seven estates in six different counties . Because " nothing exists in the United Kingdom that is untouched by the twenty @-@ first century " , many of the sites required substantial work to make them suitable for filming . Visual effects company Double Negative digitally restored several locations to make them contemporaneous ; they eradicated weeds , enhanced gold plating on window frames , and removed anachronisms such as gravel driveways and electricity pylons . Double Negative also developed the typeface used for the film 's title sequence .
Production staff selected particularly grand @-@ looking residences to better convey the wealth and power of certain characters . Locations included Chatsworth House in Derbyshire , the largest privately held country house in England . Chatsworth and Wilton House in Salisbury stood in for Pemberley . After a search of various sites in England , the moated manor house Groombridge Place in Kent was chosen for Longbourn . Location manager Adam Richards believed Groombridge had an " immense charm " that was " untouched by post @-@ 17th Century development " . Reflecting Wright 's choice of realism , Groombridge 's interior was designed to be " shabby chic " . Representing Netherfield Park was the late @-@ 18th century site Basildon Park in Berkshire , leading it to close for seven weeks to allow time for filming . Burghley House in Cambridgeshire stood in for Rosings , while the adjacent town of Stamford served as Meryton . Other locations included Haddon Hall ( for The Inn at Lambton ) , the Temple of Apollo and Palladian Bridge of Stourhead ( for the Gardens of Rosings ) , Hunsford ( for Collins ' parsonage and church ) and Peak District ( for Elizabeth and the Gardiners ' tour ) . The first dance scenes were shot on a set in a potato warehouse in Lincolnshire with the employment of local townspeople as extras ; this was the only set the crew built that was not already in existence .
= = = Music = = =
Italian composer Dario Marianelli wrote the film score , the first of his four collaborations with Wright . Their relationship began when Paul Webster , who had worked with Marianelli on the 200
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2009 prices ) , and by 1788 the prison had 18 new cells for men and two for women , in addition to the dungeon and the sick @-@ rooms . Nevertheless it was housing 74 inmates at the time of Howard 's inspection , with two prisoners routinely sharing each cell , sleeping together on the floor . Like other prisons of the time , Worcester Castle was run as a private enterprise , in this case by a local butcher , who was paid £ 150 a year ( £ 15 @,@ 400 ) to run the facility . The prison was known to suffer from outbreaks of gaol fever , which claimed the life of a local doctor who visited the facility .
A new county gaol was built in 1814 , at a cost of £ 20 @,@ 000 ( £ 1.1m ) with a more modern system of radiating wings ; this was constructed on the north side of Worcester where the local street was named " Castle Street " as a result . The Dean and Chapter of Worcester Cathedral acquired the old gaol in 1823 . The outer bailey of the castle became known as the College Green ; the College Green was accessed through Edgar 's Tower . The motte was slowly demolished between 1823 and 1846 .
= Spider @-@ Man ( Miles Morales ) =
Miles Morales is a fictional superhero who appears in comic books published by Marvel Comics , as one of the characters who goes by the identity of Spider @-@ Man . The character was created by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Sara Pichelli , with Bendis and Marvel editor @-@ in @-@ chief Axel Alonso drawing inspiration from both U.S. President Barack Obama and American actor Donald Glover .
Miles Morales first appeared in Ultimate Fallout # 4 ( August 2011 ) , following the death of Peter Parker . A teenager of Black Hispanic descent , Miles is the second Spider @-@ Man to appear in Ultimate Marvel , an imprint with a separate continuity from the mainstream Marvel Universe . Although Morales featured in the Ultimate Comics : Spider @-@ Man comic book series , he is not the lead character in the Ultimate Spider @-@ Man animated TV series that debuted in April 2012 on Disney XD , but he was later added to the main cast in 2016 . After Marvel ended the Ultimate imprint in 2015 , Miles was made a character in the main Marvel Universe , beginning with stories under the All @-@ New , All @-@ Different Marvel brand published that same year .
Reaction to the character varied , with some , including Spider @-@ Man 's creator , Stan Lee , approving the creation of a positive role model for non @-@ white children , to displeasure at the replacement of Peter Parker , with some decrying it as a publicity stunt motivated by political correctness , a charge Alonso denied . Alexandra Petri of The Washington Post called for the character to be judged on the quality of its stories , which have garnered positive reviews .
The character possesses powers similar to those of the original Spider @-@ Man , which were derived from the bite of a spider genetically engineered by Spider @-@ Man 's nemesis Norman Osborn in an attempt to duplicate those abilities .
= = Publication history = =
The concept of a black Spider @-@ Man was first discussed a few months before the November 2008 election of Barack Obama as President of the United States . Marvel Comics editor @-@ in @-@ chief Axel Alonso describes the catalyst , " When we were planning “ Ultimatum , ” we realized that we were standing at the brink of America electing its first African @-@ American President and we acknowledged that maybe it was time to take a good look at one of our icons . " This new Spider @-@ Man was considered a possible part of the 2008 @-@ 09 " Ultimatum " story arc that restructured much of the Ultimate Marvel universe , but those early thoughts were abandoned because the story for that character had not yet been developed . Bendis said thoughts about the character were further reinforced by African American actor Donald Glover 's appearance wearing Spider @-@ Man pajamas in " Anthropology 101 " , the second season premiere of the television comedy series Community . This was a reference to an unsuccessful online campaign that attempted to secure Glover an audition for the lead role in the 2012 film The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . Bendis said of Glover , " I saw him in the costume and thought , ' I would like to read that book . ' So I was glad I was writing that book . "
When the Marvel Comics staff decided that the Ultimate universe 's Peter Parker would be killed in the 2011 storyline " Death of Spider @-@ Man " , the character Miles Morales was created . Although Morales is the first black Spider @-@ Man , he marks the second time a Latino character has taken the Spider @-@ Man identity . Miguel O 'Hara , who is of half Mexican descent , was the title character in the series Spider @-@ Man 2099 . Morales has replaced Parker as Spider @-@ Man only in Ultimate Marvel , a parallel universe that re @-@ imagines the characters .
Miles Morales was created by comic book writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Sara Pichelli . Morales was born and raised in Brooklyn , New York City , the 13 @-@ year @-@ old son of an African American father and a Puerto Rican mother . Axel Alonso has described Miles as an intelligent nerd with an aptitude for science similar to his predecessor , Peter Parker . The character made his debut in the fourth issue of the Ultimate Fallout limited series , which was released on August 3 , 2011 . He later starred in the relaunched Ultimate Comics : Spider @-@ Man series , written by Bendis and drawn by Pichelli , in September 2011 .
In contrasting Miles with Peter Parker , Bendis has depicted different conflicts and anxieties for the character . Right after acquiring his superhuman abilities from a spider bite at the home of his uncle , Aaron , whom Miles admires but he does not initially know is a career criminal , Miles ' father , Jefferson , explains to Miles that before Miles was born , Jefferson and Aaron were thieves who spent time in prison , and that while Jefferson reformed when he got older , Aaron has not . According to Bendis , this gives Miles cause to wonder if the traits that lead to criminal behavior are hardwired into his DNA , leading him to question whether he is essentially a good person or not , and what his future holds for him . These issues further haunt Miles after he becomes disillusioned with Aaron , and Aaron dies from an accidental explosion triggered during a battle between the two of them , saying , " You are just like me " to Miles before dying .
In creating the visual look for Miles , Pichelli followed her usual practice of approaching the design by giving thought to the character 's personality , including the background that influenced it , and the distinctive traits that he would exhibit , such as the clothing he wears , his body language and expressions . Pichelli also designed Spider @-@ Man 's new costume , a mostly black outfit with red webbing and a red spider logo . Pichelli had worked on four issues of Ultimate Spider @-@ Man before she was approached to work on the new title with Miles Morales . Pichelli , who works with a Cintiq 12wx graphic tablet , added more screentones to her illustrations to give what she called " a more ' pop ' feeling to the book , because I think it would fit perfectly with the new series " .
In 2012 , Morales appeared in the miniseries Spider @-@ Men , in which he encounters the Spider @-@ Man of the original Marvel universe .
In June 2013 , the character appeared in the climax of Age of Ultron # 10 ( also written by Brian Michael Bendis ) . In the storyline , which depicts major changes to the space @-@ time continuum as a result of the time travel on the part of the original Marvel versions of Susan Richards and Wolverine , Miles witnesses the coming of the mainstream Marvel Galactus to Earth .
Despite its initial press and critical reception , Ultimate Comics Spider @-@ Man was not a huge hit in the direct market . By August 2013 , sales on the title had slipped , and sales for the other two Ultimate titles , Ultimate Comics X @-@ Men and Ultimate Comics The Ultimates , had dropped to numbers at which mainstream Marvel titles are cancelled . That November , Ultimate Comics Spider @-@ Man ended its run with issue # 28 , and the other two titles ended along with it , to make way for the miniseries Cataclysm : Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , one of the books in the crossover storyline " Cataclysm " , in which the heroes of the Ultimate universe face the threat of the Marvel 616 Galactus , and Miles is transported to the mainstream Marvel universe .
In January 2014 , it was announced that following " Cataclysm " , Miles would begin starring in a new title called Miles Morales : Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , as part of Ultimate Marvel Now , an initiative with which Marvel will relaunch the Ultimate Marvel line . Miles Morales will also be a main character in the All @-@ New Ultimates , in which he will join a team of young heroes that will include Kitty Pryde , Bombshell , Cloak and Dagger , and a new Black Widow . The former title is written by Bendis , while the latter is written by Michel Fiffe and drawn by Amilcar Pinna. both series ran for 12 issues . The twelfth and final issue of Miles Morales : Ultimate Spider @-@ Man concluded with a cliffhanger that led directly into the 2015 " Secret Wars " storyline .
Marvel ended the Ultimate Marvel imprint with the " Secret Wars " storyline , in which the Marvel Universe was merged with other alternate universes , including the Ultimate Universe . Following " Secret Wars " , Miles become a character of the mainstream Marvel Universe , and a member of the titular team in All @-@ New , All @-@ Different Avengers . He also headlines a new series , titled simply Spider @-@ Man , which debuted February 3 , 2016 , with Bendis and Pichelli returning as the creative team . In the storyline , the now @-@ 16 @-@ year @-@ old Miles continues to patrol New York City , while Peter Parker will expand the scope of his activities globally . Issues that Miles deals with will include the confrontations with Parker 's rogues gallery , the public 's reaction to his ethnicity , and his love life .
= = Fictional character biography = =
= = = First appearance = = =
Miles Morales first appears in Ultimate Comics : Fallout # 4 , which was published in August 2011 , in which he foils a murder by Kangaroo , a short time after Peter Parker 's death . He wears a Spider @-@ Man costume similar to Peter Parker 's , but considers changing it when spectators tell him it is in " bad taste " .
= = = Ultimate Comics : Spider @-@ Man = = =
The opening story arc of Ultimate Comics : Spider @-@ Man , which premiered in September 2011 , is set prior to Ultimate Fallout # 4 , and details how Miles received his superhuman abilities . After Oscorp scientist Dr. Markus uses Parker 's blood to recreate the Oz formula that created Spider @-@ Man , the Prowler ( Aaron Davis ) steals the formula , and in the process , one of the spiders created by Markus crawls into the Prowler 's duffel bag . Days later , the Prowler 's nephew , grade @-@ schooler Miles Morales , is bitten by the spider during a visit to Aaron 's apartment . Morales develops superhuman abilities similar to those Peter Parker has , but does not tell his parents , Jefferson and Rio , due to his father 's distrust of superheroes , confiding only in his best friend , Ganke Lee .
Miles , who just wants a normal life , is unhappy about having these abilities , and initially nauseated at the idea of risking his life to engage in superheroics , a reaction that Bendis wrote to further contrast Miles with Parker . However , after witnessing Spider @-@ Man 's death at the hands of the Green Goblin , the guilt @-@ ridden Miles realizes he could have helped . After Ganke suggests he assume the mantle of Spider @-@ Man , and learns from Gwen Stacy why Parker did what he did , Miles is inspired to try his hand at costumed crimefighting . During his first foray into costumed superheroics , he is confronted not only by those who feel his use of the Spider @-@ Man costume is in bad taste , but also by Spider @-@ Woman , a member of the government superhuman team , the Ultimates , over his use of the Spider @-@ Man identity .
Spider @-@ Woman unmasks and arrests Miles and takes him to S.H.I.E.L.D. headquarters , where Nick Fury reveals that he knows all about Miles and his family , including his uncle 's criminal activity . After he helps S.H.I.E.L.D. subdue the escaped supervillain Electro , S.H.I.E.L.D. releases Miles and gives him a modified black and red version of the Spider @-@ Man costume , which Ganke feels makes Miles " officially " the new Spider @-@ Man . He also receives the blessing of the Earth @-@ 616 Peter Parker during the 2012 Spider @-@ Men miniseries , in which Parker briefly visits the Ultimate Marvel universe and meets Miles . After the newspapers begin reporting the emergence of a new Spider @-@ Man , Aaron deduces that it is really Miles , and offers to train Miles and work with him . After Aaron uses Miles in his ongoing conflict with the Mexican crime lord Scorpion , Miles realizes he is being exploited , and refuses to assist his uncle further , despite Aaron 's threat to inform Miles ' father of his secret . This leads to an altercation between the uncle and nephew that results in the malfunction of Aaron 's weapons , which explode , killing Aaron .
In subsequent storylines , Miles subsequently becomes acquainted with Peter Parker 's loved ones , May Parker , Gwen Stacy and Mary Jane Watson , who know of his secret identity , and give him Parker 's web shooters . He also encounters Captain America , who reluctantly agrees to train Miles .
In a 2013 storyline , investigative reporter Betty Brant incorrectly concludes that Miles ' father , Jefferson , is the new Spider @-@ Man . However , publisher J. Jonah Jameson , in light of the death of Peter Parker , refuses to publish her theory , on the grounds that it will merely ruin a family 's life and deprive the city of another hero . When Brant tries to publish her findings in a book , she is murdered by former Oscorp and then @-@ Roxxon scientist Dr. Conrad Marcus , who has become the newest host to the Venom symbiote . In the subsequent " Venom War " storyline , Venom learns of Brant 's findings , and confronts Jefferson at his home , where Spider @-@ Man repels the creature . Jefferson is critically injured and hospitalized in this battle , and Miles is confronted by former S.H.I.E.L.D. agent turned New York Police detective Maria Hill , who has also deduced his secret . When Venom later appears at the hospital , Spider @-@ Man again confronts him , during which Miles ' mother , Rio , also learns that her son is Spider @-@ Man . By the end of the brawl , Marcus is separated from the symbiote and killed by police gunfire , as is Rio , who tells Miles not to reveal his secret to his father before dying .
The storyline then jumps ahead one year . Miles has a girlfriend named Katie Bishop , and is planning on telling her about his former life as Spider @-@ Man . Though he has not engaged in heroics in a year , he is pressured to return to that life , by S.H.I.E.L.D. He reluctantly does so , after Ganke and Spider @-@ Woman convinces him that there needs to be a Spider @-@ Man . Along with Spider @-@ Woman , Bombshell and Cloak and Dagger , Miles helps arrest Donald Roxxon , the head of the Roxxon corporation , who reveals that he knows of Miles ' identity , and that he was the one who hired Aaron to break into Oscorp the night that the spider who gave Miles his powers was accidentally brought to Aaron 's home . He also reveals that he was responsible for the creation of Bombshell , Cloak and Dagger , which involved kidnapping underage people and experimenting on them using untested genetic technology . After Roxxon 's arrest , Miles thanks Ganke for his support , and affirms in earnest that he is Spider @-@ Man .
= = = " Cataclysm " = = =
In the " Cataclysm " storyline , the mainstream Marvel Galactus comes to Earth to consume it for its energy . During the course of this story , Miles comes to believe the world is coming to an end , and reveals his double life to his father , who believes he is responsible for the death of Aaron and Rio , and disowns him . Miles also journeys to the mainstream Marvel universe with Reed Richards to acquire information on how to repel Galactus .
= = = Miles Morales : Ultimate Spider @-@ Man = = =
During the course of his second solo series , Miles Morales : Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , Miles encounters a very much alive Peter Parker , who cannot explain his reappearance , and who does not intend to return to his former life . Together , the two Spider @-@ Men defeat Norman Osborn , who is also revealed to be alive , but who is killed during the course of the story . After witnessing Miles courageously battles Osborn , Peter acknowledges Miles a worthy successor , and decides to retire from superheroics for a life with his family and Mary Jane .
Miles ' father also reappears , and relates to his son that as a young man , he and Aaron went to work for a criminal named Turk after Jefferson was recruited by S.H.I.E.L.D. as a spy in order to infiltrate the organization of the then @-@ up @-@ and @-@ coming international criminal Wilson Fisk . Jefferson did this for a time , but after the Kingpin was arrested and convicted for his crimes , and Jefferson offered a chance to be a full @-@ fledged S.H.I.E.L.D. agent , he refused , not wanting any part of his brother 's world . He met Rio a week later and fell in love with her . Jefferson fled after learning that Miles was Spider @-@ Man because it brought back unresolved from that earlier time in his life , and tells Miles that he does not blame Miles for his mother 's death , and regrets abandoning him .
When Miles reveals his secret identity to his girlfriend , Katie Bishop , she and her parents are revealed to be sleeper agents for the terrorist group Hydra , who then kidnap Miles , his father and Ganke , as part of a plan involving Dr. Doom . Miles and the other prisoners are freed , however , in part with help from Miles ' dorm mate , Judge , Maria Hill , and other superhuman colleagues .
= = = " Secret Wars " and merge with Marvel @-@ 616 = = =
During the events of the 2015 " Secret Wars " storyline , both the Ultimate Marvel universe and the mainstream Earth @-@ 616 universe are destroyed . Miles manages to survive the destruction by infiltrating an escape ship designed by the Cabal . After eight years in stasis , Miles awakens on the planet Battleworld , a new planet created from the remains of the various alternate Earths that had been destroyed . Miles is reunited with Earth @-@ 616 's Peter Parker and the other surviving 616 heroes , who battle against Doctor Doom , who has used newly acquired powers appointed himself a God Emperor over the planet . At the conclusion of the storyline , the Ultimate Universe is wiped out of existence , but the Molecule Man , in gratitude for Miles ' earlier compassion to him , arranges for Earth @-@ 616 to be restored , with Miles and family among its inhabitants , including his mother , who has been indicated to have restored to life in the process . Both Miles and Peter share the mantle of Spider @-@ Man in the new universe , though the now @-@ 16 @-@ year @-@ old Miles will patrol New York City , while Peter Parker acts globally . Miles is also a member of the latest team of Avengers , which debuts in the 2016 series All @-@ New , All @-@ Different Avengers , and is being trained by Spider @-@ Man to act as New York 's resident spider @-@ themed hero while his work with Parker Industries allows the original Spider @-@ Man to act on a global scale .
= = Powers and abilities = =
Bitten by a slightly different genetically engineered spider than the one that granted Peter Parker 's powers , Miles Morales possesses abilities similar to the original Spider @-@ Man 's , including enhanced strength and agility , the ability to adhere to walls and ceilings with his hands and feet , and a " spider sense " that warns him of danger with a buzzing sensation in his head . Though his strength and agility are similar to those of the original Spider @-@ Man , his spider @-@ sense is not as strong , as it only warns him of immediate danger .
He has two abilities that the original Spider @-@ Man did not have : the ability to camouflage himself , including his clothing , to match his surroundings , and an electrical " venom strike " that can paralyze almost anyone with just a touch , including the electrically powered Electro . The venom strike can be conducted through Miles ' gloves , and can be used against an opponent at a distance by conducting it through a material in which both Miles and his opponent are in contact , such as the webbing of the Earth @-@ 616 's Spider @-@ Man . It can break chains being used to restrain Miles , and even repels non @-@ ferrous objects , such as plastic Lego bricks . The venom strike is powerful enough to render unconscious a person as large as Hank Pym 's Giant Man . It is powerful enough to drive away the villain Venom during Miles ' first encounter with the creature , but by their second encounter , Venom has developed such a tolerance to the strike that Miles has to be completely enveloped by the symbiote before the venom strike can separate the symbiote from its host . The effect of the venom strike manifests itself a few seconds after it is implemented , and is described by Bendis as being comparable to the feeling of being kicked in the testicles . Some uses of the venom strike , as when Miles freed himself from chains , require much power , and cannot be used multiple times in rapid succession without a " recharging " period for Miles , though he can still make conventional use of it against people .
Miles ' body also possesses a strong resistance to injury . During an altercation with the Roxxon mercenary Taskmaster , Miles is hurled toward a low brick wall , shattering it , without any apparent serious injury , though the experience was painful for him .
Miles wears a costume given to him by S.H.I.E.L.D. , and initially uses Peter Parker 's web shooters , which are given to him by May Parker . He is eventually given a new set of webshooters by S.H.I.E.L.D. as well .
= = Reception = =
The character Miles Morales was first reported by USA Today on August 2 , 2011 , shortly before the character officially debuted in Ultimate Fallout # 4 . The announcement received international coverage in the mainstream media and was met with mixed reactions by audiences . Chris Huntington of The New York Times lauded the creation of Morales , relating that it gave his adopted Ethiopian son Dagim a superhero who looks like him . Some fans and commentators felt the decision was an attempt by Marvel Comics to be politically correct and that the introduction of a minority Spider @-@ Man was simply a publicity stunt to attract more readers , while others felt that a person of color as Spider @-@ Man would set a positive example for minority readers , particularly children . Many Spider @-@ Man fans were disappointed that Peter Parker was killed , regardless of who replaced him . The wide @-@ ranging critical reception prompted The Washington Post to run an article called , " Sorry , Peter Parker . The response to the black Spider @-@ Man shows why we need one " , in which writer Alexandra Petri wrote that the character should be judged on the quality of its stories rather than on his appearance or ethnicity .
Similarly , conservative talkshow host Glenn Beck , claiming that Miles resembled President Barack Obama , argued that the new Spider @-@ Man was a result of a comment from Michelle Obama about changing traditions . However , Beck said he did not care about Miles ' race , and also acknowledged out that this was not the mainstream Spider @-@ Man . Axel Alonso denied the character was created out of political correctness , stating " Simple fact is Marvel comics reflect the world in all its shapes , sizes and colors . We believe there 's an audience of people out there who is thirsty for a character like Miles Morales . " Original Spider @-@ Man co @-@ creator Stan Lee approved of Miles , stating that " Doing our bit to try to make our nation , and the world , color blind is definitely the right thing . "
In a review for the first issue , David Pepose of Newsarama wrote , " The biggest victory that Bendis scores with Miles Morales is that he makes us care about him , and care about him quickly . Even though we 're still scratching the surface of what makes him tick , we 're seeing the world through his eyes , and it 's similar to Peter Parker 's but a whole lot tougher . But that kind of Parker @-@ style guilt — that neurotic , nearly masochistic tendency for self @-@ sacrifice that comes with great power and greater responsibility — is still intact . " Jesse Schedeen of IGN wrote that " Miles still feels like a bit of an outsider in his own book . Bendis never quite paints a complete picture of Miles — his thoughts , motivations , personality quirks , and so forth . Miles is largely a reactionary figure throughout the book as he confronts struggles like registering for a charter school or dealing with family squabbles . " Schedeen also opined that " Miles occupies a more urban , racially diverse , and tense landscape . All the story doesn 't pander or lean too heavily on elements like racial and economic tension to move forward . Miles is simply a character who speaks to a slightly different teen experience , and one not nearly as well represented in superhero comics as Peter 's " . James Hunt of Comic Book Resources rated the issue # 1 four and a half out of five stars , lauding Bendis for emphasizing Morales ' character and his supporting cast instead of rushing him into costume . The first issue holds a score of 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 at the review aggregator website Comic Book Roundup , based on 11 reviews , while the final issue , # 28 , holds a score of 8 @.@ 3 , based on 9 reviews , and the series overall holds an average issue rating of 8 @.@ 2 .
The second solo series , Miles Morales : Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , has an average issue rating of 8 @.@ 2 at Comic Book Roundup , while the third series , which debuted in 2016 , Spider @-@ Man , holds a rating of 7 @.@ 8 .
= = Other versions = =
At the conclusion of the 2012 miniseries Spider @-@ Men , in which the mainstream Marvel Universe Peter Parker briefly visits the Ultimate Marvel universe and meets Miles Morales , Parker returns to his home universe , and uses a Google search to see if his universe has a version of Miles Morales . He is shocked by what he finds , but the exact nature of what he finds is left unrevealed to the reader .
In Deadpool Killustrated # 1 ( 2012 ) , Miles Morales ' corpse is seen among those of various Spider @-@ Men across various dimensions of the multiverse that an alternate Deadpool has killed .
= = In other media = =
= = = Television and film = = =
Miles Morales appears in the Ultimate Spider @-@ Man TV series where he is initially voiced by Donald Glover in the Web Warriors season and by Ogie Banks starting with " Miles from Home " . Miles Morales ' name and picture appears in the episode " I Am Spider @-@ Man " on a list of understudies for the part of Spider @-@ Man in Phil Coulson 's high school play . He is the second to last choice , while Peter Parker is the last choice . In May 2014 , the Sunday badge for the 2014 New York Comic Con was revealed , featuring the third season title Ultimate Spider @-@ Man : Web @-@ Warriors , and showing various incarnations of Spider @-@ Man , including one wearing Miles Morales ' costume . Web Warriors is a third season storyline in which Peter Parker travels through various parallel universes , and encounters those dimensions ' versions of Spider @-@ Man , including Miles Morales . It was later announced that Miles would return for the show 's fourth season , Ultimate Spider @-@ Man vs The Sinister 6 , under the alias Kid Arachnid .
Writer Brian Michael Bendis has stated that he favors incorporating Miles into the Spider @-@ Man feature films in some way , as did actor Andrew Garfield , who played Spider @-@ Man in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man feature film series . Producers Avi Arad and Matt Tolmach have indicated in 2014 that they did not intend to have Miles or any other character replace Peter Parker in the role . However , after Marvel brokered a deal with Sony , which holds the feature film rights to all Spider @-@ Man characters , Kevin Feige stated that while Miles Morales will not be appearing in the Marvel Cinematic Universe for the foreseeable future , he is still interested in exploring opportunities to explore the character .
= = = Video games = = =
Miles Morales ' Spider @-@ Man suit is available as an alternate costume for Spider @-@ Man ( Peter Parker ) in Spider @-@ Man : Edge of Time .
Miles Morales appears as a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online , voiced by Alimi Ballard .
Miles Morales ' Spider @-@ Man costume appears in the 2014 video game The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 , with the in @-@ game biography stating that the costume was inspired by a comic series in the in @-@ game universe that looks at Miles Morales ' life as Spider @-@ Man .
Miles Morales is a playable character in Spider @-@ Man Unlimited , Marvel : Avengers Alliance , Marvel Puzzle Quest , Marvel Future Fight , and Marvel : Contest of Champions .
Miles Morales is a playable character in the Spider @-@ Man DLC pack for Lego Marvel 's Avengers .
Miles Morales is available as a team @-@ up character in Marvel Heroes 2016 .
= Rhodes blood libel =
The Rhodes blood libel was an 1840 event of blood libel against Jews , in which the Greek Orthodox community accused Jews on the island of Rhodes ( then part of the Ottoman Empire ) of the ritual murder of a Christian boy who disappeared in February of that year .
Initially the libel garnered support from the consuls of several European countries , including the United Kingdom , France , the Austrian Empire , Sweden , and Greece , although later several supported the Jewish community . The Ottoman governor of Rhodes broke with the long tradition of the Ottoman governments ( which had previously denied the factual basis of the blood libel accusations ) and supported the ritual murder charge . The government arrested several Jewish subjects , some of whom were tortured and confessed . It blockaded the entire Jewish quarter for twelve days .
The Jewish community of Rhodes appealed for help from the Jewish community in Constantinople , who forwarded the appeal to European governments . In the United Kingdom and Austria , Jewish communities gained support from their governments . They sent official dispatches to the ambassadors in Constantinople unequivocally condemning the blood libel . A consensus developed that the charge was false . The governor of Rhodes sent the case to the central government , which initiated a formal inquiry into the affair . In July 1840 , that investigation established the innocence of the Jewish community . Finally , in November of the same year , the Ottoman sultan issued a decree ( firman ) denouncing the blood libel as
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album , " Howling at the Moon ( Sha @-@ La @-@ La ) " ( backed with " Wart Hog " in the US and " Chasing the Night " in the UK ) peaked at number 85 on the UK Singles Chart , where it spent two weeks .
= = Track listing = =
The following track listing can be verified through the Too Tough to Die expanded edition liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
The following personnel can be verified through the Too Tough to Die expanded edition liner notes .
Ramones
Joey Ramone – Lead vocals ( all but 4 , 5 , 12 , 17 , 19 , 20 , 24 )
Johnny Ramone – Lead guitar
Dee Dee Ramone – Bass , guitar , backing and lead ( 5 , 12 , 17 , 19 , 20 , 24 ) vocals
Richie Ramone – Drums , backing vocals
Additional musicians
Walter Lure – Extra guitar ( on some tracks )
Jerry Harrison – Synthesizer ( 7 )
Ben Tench – Keyboards ( 8 )
Production
Tommy Ramone – Producer
Ed Stasium – Producer
Dave Stewart – Producer ( 8 )
Tony Wright – Cover design
George DuBose – Photography
= Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece =
" Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " is the third episode of the first season of the American comedy @-@ drama television series Psych . It was written by writer and co @-@ executive producer Steve Franks , and was directed by assistant director Michael Zinberg . The episode originally aired on USA Network in the United States on July 21 , 2006 . The installment features guest appearances by Kirsten Nelson , Sage Brocklebank , Tom Butler , and Gina Holden among others .
In the episode , a multimillion @-@ dollar engagement ring is stolen from a hotel vault , and Shawn Spencer ( James Roday ) and Burton " Gus " Guster ( Dulé Hill ) investigate , without the permission of the police department . They visit the hotel , where Shawn gets keys to every room . Shawn becomes involved with the ceremony , and finds out everything that has been happening leading up to the wedding . While investigating , they discover the dead body of a suspect . During the ceremony , Shawn realizes what happened , and interrupts to solve it .
" Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " received mixed reviews from critics . At the time of its broadcast , the installment was considered to be the worst episode of the first season . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 4 @.@ 69 million viewers during its original broadcast , and received a 1 @.@ 6 rating among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . The installment 's rebroadcast on NBC was viewed by just 4 million people .
= = Plot = =
In 1985 , Young Shawn Spencer ( Liam James ) is looking for Young Gus . Henry Spencer ( Corbin Bernsen ) shows Shawn how to sneak around , hiding within his lesson the message to " do the little things right " . In present day , Shawn ( James Roday ) sneaks into the police briefing room , where he discovers that a five @-@ million dollar engagement ring has been stolen from a hotel vault . Without permission , Shawn and Gus ( Dulé Hill ) take the case . Shawn is given an invitation to the wedding . While at the hotel , Shawn listens into Detective Lassiter 's ( Timothy Omundson ) brief about the investigation , and gains valuable information . Dietrich Manheim ( Guy Fauchon ) , a hotel staff member becomes the police 's main suspect . After tricking the hotel receptionist , Shawn gains access to the rooms of all police officers and wedding attendees . Shawn walks in on a pre @-@ wedding party , and discovers that the florist quit , and the bridesmaids and groomsmen had to make their own wedding bouquets . Shawn and Gus break into Lassiter 's room , and discover an insurance policy on the ring , with a major value .
Gus decides they need to see the safe ; however , the only way they can access it is through the ventilation shafts . When opening a panel to access the shaft system , they discover Manheim 's dead body . Shawn " psychically " reveals this to the police , using it as a way to distract them while he watches the security footage for the vault . After viewing the footage , they hold a bachelor party where Shawn questions all of the attendees . Shawn talks with Lacey Maxwell ( Christine Chatelain ) , the sister of the groom , who asks him to get her bouquet from a locked cooler , but he can 't . Before the wedding , the bouquets are passed out , and Lacey panics when hers isn 't there . Lacey reveals she is a magician when she helps to calm down the flower girl . Shawn realizes who stole the ring and killed Manheim , but his realization occurs in the middle of the ceremony . Shawn interrupts the wedding with a " psychic episode " , and exposes Lacey to everyone .
= = Production = =
" Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " was the first episode directed by assistant director Michael Zinberg . The installment was the third of the series written by writer and co @-@ executive producer Steve Franks ; he had previously written the season 's first two episodes " Pilot " and " Spellingg Bee " . Stacy Hillman was the episode 's associate producer , and Erin Smith was the production manager . Michael McMurray was the installment 's director of photography , while Gordon Rimpel and Anupam Nigam acted as the editors . The music for the episode was written by Adam Cohen and John Robert Wood . Assistant directors for the installment were Jack Hardy and Roger Russell .
In addition to the regular cast , guest stars for the episode included Kirsten Nelson , who played interim police chief Karen Vick , a major reoccurring character , and Sage Brocklebank as junior police officer Buzz McNab , also a main reoccurring character . Other guests included Tom Butler ( who played Attorney General Maxwell ) , Gina Holden ( who played Bethany ) , Diego Klattenhoff ( who played Dylan Maxwell ) , and Christine Chatelain ( who played Lacey Maxwell ) . The episode first aired in the United States on USA Network on July 21 , 2006 , with a rating of TV @-@ PG . The episode was aired in the U.S. on August 14 , 2006 , on NBC , in an 8 p.m. time slot .
" Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " , along with the fourteen other episodes from Psych 's first season were released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on June 26 , 2007 . The set included full audio commentaries for six episodes , deleted scenes , blooper reals , audition tapes , character profiles , the international version of the episode " Pilot " , an " Inside the writer 's room " featurette , and other special features . The entire first season was released on the iTunes store for digital download , as well as downloads for individual episodes .
Included on the DVD set were deleted scenes for " Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " . The feature consisted of four scenes , amassing approximately 3 minutes of video . The deleted scenes consist of Young Shawn following tracks left by Gus leading to his hiding spot , Chief Vick confronting Shawn and Gus when she meets them in the hotel , the police removing Manheim 's body from the hotel while Officer McNab presents items taken from his locker , and Detective Lassiter getting into a confrontation with an elderly lady manning the guestbook for the wedding .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " was watched by a total of 4 @.@ 69 million people in its original American broadcast . It earned a 1 @.@ 6 rating / 5 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . It was viewed by 1 @.@ 3 million people within the 18 – 49 demographic , and 1 @.@ 3 million people in 25 – 54 demographic . The installment was the seventh most watched basic cable program for its air date in the 18 – 49 demographic . This was a slight decrease from the show 's previous episode , " Spellingg Bee " , which was viewed by 4 @.@ 71 million viewers , or 3 @.@ 35 million households . After its airing on August 14 on NBC , the episode was viewed by 4 million households , and received a 1 @.@ 3 rating / 4 share in the 18 – 49 demographic .
Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews . In his review for IGN , contributor Colin Moriarty heavily criticized the episode and show , calling them , " at best , a mediocre adventure in detective comedy television " . He considered the episode " mindless " when compared to Monk , which preceded the episode . Moriarty stated that , when not comparing Psych to other shows , the episode is still " making you wonder what the hell is going on in the minds of the show 's writers and producers " . He questioned the show 's ability to last due to having to continue the fake psychic concept , and called detectives Lassiter and O 'Hara " completely unlikeable " . Moriarty stated that things in the installment " simply don 't make any sense " . He questioned whether the show would be able to last more than one season , and said that " we highly recommend you continue to take a pass on Psych and save yourself from the mindlessness of it all " . The installment was given a rating of 6 , or " okay " , tying it for the lowest rated episode of the season , with the preceding episode , " Spellingg Bee " .
However , in his review for TV Squad , writer Richard Keller praised the episode , calling it " a very good episode for both James Roday and Dule Hill " . He stated that he " really liked this week 's episode " , and that " After testing the waters in the first two programs both Shawn and Gus really did some heavy detective work this episode " . He also praised the rotating of Shawn 's abilities , saying that " it showed that Psych could be more than just a one trick pony " . He compared Roday to Ben Stiller , and called the scene involving Gus after the bachelorette party the best of the episode . Keller declared that " Psych is finally settling into its niche and , hopefully , will only get stronger from here " .
= Nibiru cataclysm =
The Nibiru cataclysm is a supposed disastrous encounter between the Earth and a large planetary object ( either a collision or a near @-@ miss ) which certain groups believe will take place in the early 21st century . Believers in this doomsday event usually refer to this object as Planet X or Nibiru . The idea that a planet @-@ sized object will collide with or closely pass by Earth in the near future is not supported by any scientific evidence and has been rejected as pseudoscience and an internet hoax by astronomers and planetary scientists .
The idea was first put forward in 1995 by Nancy Lieder , founder of the website ZetaTalk . Lieder describes herself as a contactee with the ability to receive messages from extraterrestrials from the Zeta Reticuli star system through an implant in her brain . She states that she was chosen to warn mankind that the object would sweep through the inner Solar System in May 2003 ( though that date was later postponed ) causing Earth to undergo a physical pole shift that would destroy most of humanity . The prediction has subsequently spread beyond Lieder 's website and has been embraced by numerous Internet doomsday groups , most of which linked the event to the 2012 phenomenon . Since 2012 , the Nibiru cataclysm has frequently reappeared in the popular media ; usually linked to newsmaking astronomical objects such as Comet ISON or Planet Nine . Although the name " Nibiru " is derived from the works of the ancient astronaut writer Zecharia Sitchin and his interpretations of Babylonian and Sumerian mythology , he denied any connection between his work and various claims of a coming apocalypse .
= = Origins = =
The idea of the Nibiru encounter originated with Nancy Lieder , a Wisconsin woman who claims that as a girl she was contacted by gray extraterrestrials called Zetas , who implanted a communications device in her brain . In 1995 , she founded the website ZetaTalk to disseminate her ideas . Lieder first came to public attention on Internet newsgroups during the build @-@ up to Comet Hale – Bopp 's 1997 perihelion . She stated , claiming to speak as the Zetas , that " The Hale @-@ Bopp comet does not exist . It is a fraud , perpetrated by those who would have the teeming masses quiescent until it is too late . Hale @-@ Bopp is nothing more than a distant star , and will draw no closer . " She claimed that the Hale @-@ Bopp story was manufactured to distract people from the imminent arrival of a large planetary object , " Planet X " , which would soon pass by Earth and destroy civilization . After Hale @-@ Bopp 's perihelion revealed it as one of the brightest and longest @-@ observed comets of the last century , Lieder removed the first two sentences of her initial statement from her site , though they can still be found in Google 's archives . Her claims eventually made the New York Times .
Lieder described Planet X as roughly four times the size of the Earth , and said that its closest approach would occur on May 27 , 2003 , resulting in the Earth 's rotation ceasing for exactly 5 @.@ 9 terrestrial days . This would be followed by the Earth 's pole destabilising in a pole shift ( a physical pole shift , with the Earth 's pole physically moving , rather than a geomagnetic reversal ) caused by magnetic attraction between the Earth 's core and the magnetism of the passing planet . This in turn would disrupt the Earth 's magnetic core and lead to subsequent displacement of the Earth 's crust .
After Lieder , the first person to propagate her Planet X idea was Mark Hazlewood , a former member of the ZetaTalk community , who in 2001 published a book titled Blindsided : Planet X Passes in 2003 . Lieder would later accuse him of being a confidence trickster . A Japanese cult called the Pana Wave Laboratory , which blocked off roads and rivers with white cloths to protect itself from electromagnetic attacks , also warned that the world would end in May 2003 after the approach of a tenth planet .
Roughly a week before the supposed arrival of Planet X in May 2003 , Lieder appeared on KROQ @-@ FM radio in Los Angeles , and advised listeners to euthanize their pets in anticipation of the event as she had done . This led the Fortean Times to conclude that she had put down her dog ( s ) to save them from further suffering during the Pole Shift . Later , in a 2004 interview she said that she had euthanized her dog because it was acting aggressively . After the 2003
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= First Winter = = = =
Plymouth faced many difficulties during its first winter , the most notable being the risk of starvation and the lack of suitable shelter . From the beginning , the assistance of Indians was vital . One colonist 's journal reports :
We marched to the place we called Cornhill , where we had found the corn before . At another place we had seen before , we dug and found some more corn , two or three baskets full , and a bag of beans .... In all we had about ten bushels , which will be enough for seed . It is with God 's help that we found this corn , for how else could we have done it , without meeting some Indians who might trouble us .
During their earlier exploration of the Cape , the Pilgrims had come upon an Indian burial site which contained corn , and they had taken the corn for future planting . On another occasion , they found an unoccupied house and had taken corn and beans , for which they made restitution with the occupants about six months later . Even greater assistance came from Samoset and Tisquantum ( better known as Squanto ) , an Indian sent by Wampanoag Tribe Chief Massasoit as an ambassador and technical adviser . Squanto had been kidnapped in 1614 by an English slave raider and sold in Málaga , Spain . He learned English , escaped slavery , and returned home in 1619 . He taught the colonists how to farm corn , where and how to catch fish , and other helpful skills for the New World . He also was instrumental in the survival of the settlement for the first two years .
Squanto and another guide sent by Massasoit in 1621 named Hobomok helped the colonists set up trading posts for furs . Chief Massasoit later formed a Peace Treaty with the Pilgrims . Upon growing a plentiful harvest in the fall of 1621 , the Pilgrims gathered with Squanto , Samoset , Massasoit , and ninety other Wampanoag men in a celebration of thanksgiving to God for their plentiful harvest . This celebration is known today as the First Thanksgiving , and is still commemorated annually in downtown Plymouth with a parade and a reenactment . Since 1941 , Thanksgiving has been observed as a federal holiday in the United States .
Plymouth served as the capital of Plymouth Colony ( which consisted of modern @-@ day Barnstable , Bristol , and Plymouth Counties ) from its founding in 1620 until 1691 , when the colony was merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony and other territories to form the Province of Massachusetts Bay . Plymouth holds the unique distinction of being the first permanent settlement in New England , and one of the oldest settlements in the United States .
= = = 19th century = = =
In the 1800s , Plymouth remained a relatively isolated seacoast town whose livelihood depended on fishing and shipping . The town eventually became a regional center of shipbuilding and fishing . Its principal industry was the Plymouth Cordage Company , which became the world 's largest manufacturer of rope and cordage products . The company was founded in 1824 . At one point , the longest ropewalk in the world , a quarter @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) in length , was found on the Cordage Company 's site on the North Plymouth waterfront . It thrived into the 1960s , but was forced out of business in 1964 due to competition from synthetic @-@ fiber ropes . The refurbished factory , known as Cordage Commerce Center , is home to numerous offices , restaurants and stores .
= = = Modern history = = =
In the last 30 years , Plymouth has experienced rapid growth and development . As in many South Shore towns , Plymouth became more accessible to Boston in the early 1970s with improved railroads , highways , and bus routes . Furthermore , the town 's inexpensive land costs and low tax rates were factors in the town 's significant population rise . Plymouth 's population grew from 18 @,@ 606 residents in 1970 to 45 @,@ 608 residents in 1990 , a 145 % increase in 20 years . The population has continued to expand in recent years . While Plymouth has already surpassed several Massachusetts cities in population , the town is still officially regarded as a town , as it has not been re @-@ chartered as a city and continues to be governed by a board of selectmen rather than a mayor . Plymouth has emerged as a major economic and tourist center of the South Shore .
One of the largest towns in Massachusetts , Plymouth spans several exits on its main highway , Route 3 . Plymouth boasts several larger shopping plazas and the nearby Independence Mall in Kingston , MA , much of which has been built in just the past 5 years . As it has grown , additional access is possible via a recent extension to Plymouth 's second largest highway , U.S. Route 44 .
= = Geography = =
The latitude of Plymouth is 41 @.@ 95833 and its longitude is -70.66778 . According to the United States Census Bureau , the town has a total area of 134 @.@ 0 sq mi ( 347 km2 ) , of which 96 @.@ 5 sq mi ( 250 km2 ) is land , and 37 @.@ 5 sq mi ( 97 km2 ) ( 28 % ) is water .
With the largest land area of any municipality in Massachusetts , Plymouth consists of several neighborhoods and geographical sections . Larger localities in the town include Plymouth Center , North , West and South Plymouth , Manomet , Cedarville , and Saquish Neck .
Plymouth makes up the entire western shore of Cape Cod Bay . It is bordered on land by Bourne to the southeast , Wareham to the southwest , Carver to the west , and Kingston to the north . It also shares a small border with Duxbury at the land entrance of Saquish Neck . Plymouth 's border with Bourne makes up most of the line between Plymouth and Barnstable counties . The town is located roughly 44 miles ( 71 km ) southeast of Boston ( it is almost exactly 40 miles ( 64 km ) from Plymouth Rock to the Massachusetts State House ) and equidistantly east of Providence , Rhode Island .
Located in the Plymouth Pinelands , the town of Plymouth has many distinct geographical features . The town 's Atlantic coast is characterized by low plains , while its western sections are extremely hilly and forested . Plymouth contains several small ponds scattered throughout its western quadrant , the largest being the Great Herring Pond ( which is partly in the town of Bourne ) . A major feature of the town is the Myles Standish State Forest , which is in the southwestern region . Cachalot Scout Reservation , operated by the Cachalot District of the Narragansett Council of the Boy Scouts of America , lies adjacent to the state forest lands . There is also a smaller town forest , as well as several parks , recreation areas and beaches .
Plymouth has nine public beaches , the largest being Plymouth Beach . Plymouth Beach guards Plymouth Harbor and mostly consists of a three @-@ mile ( 5 km ) long , ecologically significant barrier beach . Clark 's Island , a small island in Plymouth Bay , is the only island in Plymouth . It is off the coast of Saquish Neck and has nine summer houses but no year @-@ round inhabitants .
= = Climate = =
Plymouth 's climate is a transitional humid continental / cold humid subtropical / marine type , which is the predominant climate for Massachusetts . Due to its location on the Atlantic Ocean , humidity levels can be very high year @-@ round . Plymouth 's coastal location causes it to experience warmer temperatures than many inland locations in New England . Summers are typically hot and humid , while winters are cold , windy and often snowy .
Plymouth 's warmest month is July , with an average high temperature of 80 @.@ 6 ° F ( 27 @.@ 0 ° C ) and an average low of 61 @.@ 6 ° F ( 16 @.@ 4 ° C ) . The coldest month is January , with an average high temperature of 38 @.@ 1 ° F ( 3 @.@ 4 ° C ) and an average low of 20 @.@ 1 ° F ( − 6 @.@ 6 ° C ) .
Much like the rest of the Northeastern seaboard , Plymouth receives ample amounts of precipitation year @-@ round . On average , summer months receive slightly less precipitation than winter months . Plymouth averages about 47 @.@ 4 inches ( 120 cm ) of rainfall a year . Plymouth , like other coastal Massachusetts towns , is very vulnerable to Nor 'easter weather systems . The town is sometimes vulnerable to Atlantic hurricanes and tropical storms , which infrequently threaten the Cape Cod region during the early autumn months .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 56 @,@ 468 people , 21 @,@ 269 households , and 14 @,@ 742 families residing in the town ; by population it is the second – largest town in Massachusetts , after Framingham . It is also the 21st – largest municipality in the state . The population density was 536 @.@ 0 inhabitants per square mile ( 207 @.@ 0 / km2 ) . There are 21 @,@ 250 housing units , at an average density of 85 @.@ 1 / km2 ( 220 / sq mi ) . The racial makeup of the town was 93 @.@ 8 % White , 2 @.@ 0 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 3 % Native American , 0 @.@ 9 % Asian , < 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 9 % from other races , and 1 @.@ 48 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 @.@ 8 % of the population .
There are 21 @,@ 269 households out of which 29 @.@ 5 % have children under the age of 18 living with them , 54 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 10 @.@ 8 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 30 @.@ 7 % were non @-@ families . 23 @.@ 7 % of all households are made up of individuals , and 10 @.@ 0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size is 2 @.@ 55 and the average family size is 3 @.@ 04 .
In the town the population is spread out with 24 @.@ 3 % under the age of 20 , 10 @.@ 7 % from 20 to 29 , 28 @.@ 8 % from 30 to 49 , 22 @.@ 2 % from 50 to 64 , and 14 @.@ 1 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 41 @.@ 4 years .
The median income for a household in the town was $ 54 @,@ 677 as of the 2000 census , and the median income for a family was $ 63 @,@ 266 . Males had a median income of $ 44 @,@ 983 versus $ 31 @,@ 565 for females . The per capita income for the town was $ 23 @,@ 732 . About 4 @.@ 4 % of families and 5 @.@ 4 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 7 @.@ 1 % of those under age 18 and 6 @.@ 9 % of those age 65 or over .
= = Government = =
Plymouth is represented in the Massachusetts House of Representatives as a part of the First and Twelfth Plymouth Districts . The town is represented in the Massachusetts Senate as a part of the Plymouth and Barnstable district , which also includes Bourne , Falmouth , Kingston , Pembroke , Plympton , Sandwich , and part of Barnstable . On the state level , primary but shared patrolling responsibility of the town 's limited access highways falls upon the Seventh ( Bourne ) Barracks of Troop D of the Massachusetts State Police .
On the national level , Plymouth is a part of Massachusetts 's 9th congressional district , and is currently represented by William R. Keating . The state 's senior ( Class I ) member of the United States Senate is Elizabeth Warren . The state 's current junior ( Class II ) Senator is Edward Markey . On the local level , the town uses the representative town meeting form of government , led by a town manager and a board of selectmen . The current town manager of Plymouth is Melissa Arrighi .
Plymouth has a centralized municipal police force , the Plymouth Police Department . The town also has a professional fire department , with seven firehouses spread around the town . There are also six post offices for the town 's five ZIP codes , with one in the downtown area , one in North Plymouth , one in Manomet , one in White Horse Beach , one near the Plymouth County Jail , and one near the town forest in " The Village Green " shopping area of The Pinehills .
The town has a public library , with a branch location in Manomet . Both libraries are a part of the Old Colony Library Network , which services 28 libraries throughout the South Shore . Additionally , as a seat of Plymouth County , there are several county facilities located in Plymouth . These include a County farm , the Registry of Deeds , two jails ( the Massachusetts Correctional Institution - Plymouth and the Plymouth County Correctional Facility ) and the County Courthouse ..
= = Economy = =
Plymouth is an economic and tourism center of the South Shore . The major industry is tourism , with healthcare , technical and scientific research , real estate , and telecommunications also being primary industries . The largest employer in the town is Jordan Hospital .
Plymouth has experienced commercial and industrial success , with the downtown area and North Plymouth each becoming commercial centers and an industrial park opening outside of the town center . A large commercial project titled Colony Place located near the Industrial Park was completed in late 2007 . It consists of several large retail stores , various chain restaurants , and contains one of the largest outdoor designer outlet malls in the South Shore . Another large retail development that has recently finished construction off Route 3 's exit 5 is The Shops at 5 . The only nuclear power plant in Massachusetts , Pilgrim Nuclear Generating Station , is located in Plymouth .
Plymouth has also recently seen the development of several residential projects , among them The Pinehills , which consists of over 1 @,@ 000 residential units , two golf courses , a country club , and a shopping village . When completed in 2010 , it is expected to contain 2 @,@ 877 homes .
= = Education = =
Plymouth operates a large school system , with an enrollment over 8 @,@ 000 students . The Plymouth School District is one of the largest in the state , operating fourteen schools . This is larger than the Massachusetts average of eight schools . The school district operates 86 school buses under contract with First Student bus company .
The schools in Plymouth include the Mount Pleasant Preschool , eight elementary schools ( Cold Spring , Federal Furnace , Hedge , Indian Brook , Manomet , Nathanial Morton , South and West Elementaries ) which generally serve students from kindergarten to fifth grade , two middle schools that serve grades 5 – 8 , Plymouth Community Intermediate School ( PCIS ) and Plymouth South Middle School , and two high schools , Plymouth North and Plymouth South . Both high schools play in the Atlantic Coast League , and the two schools share a rivalry with each other . Students who decide to receive a technical education have the option of attending Plymouth South Technical School . There were also 120 home educated children in Plymouth as of 2011 .
There is also a charter school in the town , Rising Tide Charter Public School , which serves middle and high school @-@ aged students . Two special education schools , the Baird School and the Radius Pediatric School , are located in the town .
The town has two institutions of higher learning . Quincy College has a campus located in Cordage Park . The Plymouth campus opened in 1991 , and the college 's main campus is in Quincy . Curry College has a campus at the northern edge of Plymouth Center in the Citizens Bank building . The campus opened in 1994 , and the main campus is located in Milton . While the University of Massachusetts Boston does not have a campus in Plymouth , it offers some courses at another location in Cordage Park .
= = Healthcare = =
Plymouth is home to Beth Israel Deaconess - Plymouth Hospital ( Jordan Hospital ) , the largest hospital in the southern region of the South Shore . It is the only major healthcare provider in the town . The hospital is a community medical center serving twelve towns in Plymouth and Barnstable counties . It consists of more than 30 departments , with 150 patient beds . The hospital also offers a rehabilitation center in The Pinehills region .
While Beth Israel Deaconess - Plymouth Hospital ( Jordan Hospital ) is the only hospital in Plymouth . South Shore Hospital operates several offices and physician labs in South Pond . South Shore Hospital , in South Weymouth , is the largest hospital in southeastern Massachusetts .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Highways = = =
Plymouth lies along the " Pilgrims Highway " portion of Route 3 , which is the major route between Cape Cod and Boston . The town can be accessed from six exits on the highway , which is more than any other municipality along the Pilgrims Highway . Plymouth is also the eastern terminus of U.S. Route 44 . The route has changed recently , as a new divided highway section has linked it to Route 3 , before heading south and exiting at its old location before terminating at Route 3A , which more closely follows the shoreline and passes through Plymouth Center . Route 80 's western terminus is at its intersection with old Route 44 . Route 25 goes through a remote section of the town north of Buzzards Bay , but does not have an exit . Finally , the short Plimoth Plantation Highway allows easy access between Routes 3 and 3A , with an exit that allows direct entry to Plimoth Plantation 's parking area . The highway is north of Manomet and south of Plymouth Center .
= = = Rail = = =
Plymouth is one of two termini of the Kingston / Plymouth Old Colony Line of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority 's commuter rail , providing non @-@ peak service to Braintree and as far north as Boston 's South Station . The Plymouth MBTA station is near Cordage Park in North Plymouth , along Route 3A . ( The other terminus is in Kingston and has more frequent train arrivals and departures . Its station is behind the Independence Mall . ) No other railroad lines pass through the town .
= = = Ferry = = =
There is a seasonal ferry to Provincetown and several other excursion lines that offer cruises of Plymouth Bay and Cape Cod Bay . The ferry is operated by Capt. John Boats and offers one round trip daily from June to September . The ferry leaves from the State Wharf in Plymouth Center . In addition to the ferry , Plymouth Harbor offers service for harbor excursions , whale watching tours , and deep sea fishing .
= = = Bus = = =
The Plymouth & Brockton Street Railway Company offers scheduled service to Logan Airport , downtown Boston , Hyannis , and Provincetown . Buses can be boarded at the commuter parking lot at exit 5 off Route 3 , behind the McDonald 's rest stop . The Greater Attleboro Taunton Regional Transit Authority ( GATRA ) operates public transportation buses known as the Plymouth Area Link ( PAL ) throughout much of Plymouth and Kingston .
= = = Air = = =
The town is home to the Plymouth Municipal Airport , which lies on the border between Plymouth and Carver . Founded in 1931 , it offers scheduled service to Nant
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ucket , as well as private service . The airport features a local restaurant and gift shop , but does not have an on @-@ site traffic control tower .
Barnstable Municipal Airport , in Hyannis , offers additional scheduled carrier service . The airport offers scheduled flight services to Nantucket , Martha 's Vineyard , Boston and New York City . It is approximately 30 mi ( 48 km ) from Plymouth .
The nearest national and international airport is Logan International Airport in Boston , roughly 43 mi ( 69 km ) away . T.F. Green Airport , a state airport located in Warwick , Rhode Island , is about 63 mi ( 101 km ) away .
= = Sports = =
Plymouth is the home of the New England Collegiate Baseball League 's Plymouth Pilgrims , who play their home games at Forges Field .
= = Points of interest = =
Promoted as America 's Hometown , Plymouth is a tourist destination noted for its heritage . The town is home to several notable sites .
= = = Plymouth Rock = = =
Plymouth Rock is one of Plymouth 's most famous attractions . Traditionally , the rock is said to be the disembarkation site of the Pilgrims . However , there is no historical evidence to support this belief . The first identification of Plymouth Rock as the actual landing site was made in 1741 by 94 @-@ year @-@ old Thomas Faunce , whose father had arrived in Plymouth in 1623 , three years after the arrival of the Mayflower . The rock is located roughly 650 feet ( 200 m ) from where the initial settlement was thought to be built .
Plymouth Rock became very famous after its identification as the supposed landing site of the Pilgrims , and was subsequently moved to a location in Plymouth Center . During the process , the rock split in two . It was later moved to Pilgrim Hall and then to a location under a granite Victorian Canopy , where it was easily accessible and subject to souvenir hunters . The rock was finally moved back to its original location along the town 's waterfront in 1921 . " Plymouth Rock " , a large boulder , now sits under the historic Plymouth Rock Portico . The Neo @-@ Classical Revival structure was designed by the highly influential architectural firm of McKim , Mead and White , designers of the Boston Public Library , Rhode Island State House and the former Pennsylvania Station in New York City . Built in 1921 the existing granite portico replaced an earlier Gothic Revival style monument designed by Hammatt Billings ( who also designed the National Monument to the Forefathers ) . In 1970 the Plymouth Rock Portico was listed in the National Register of Historic Places . The rock and portico are the centerpiece of Pilgrim Memorial State Park . The park is the smallest park in the Massachusetts state forest and park system , but is also the most heavily visited .
= = = Plimoth Plantation = = =
Plimoth Plantation is a living history museum located south of Plymouth Center . It consists of a re @-@ creation of the Plymouth settlement in 1627 , as well as a replica of a 17th @-@ century Wampanoag homesite . The museum features role playing tour guides , as well as a large crafts center . The Nye Barn , a replica of a 1627 farming homestead in Plymouth , is also part of the museum . The farm features several animals that would have been found in Plymouth Colony , but are very rare in modern times .
The museum opened in 1947 under the guidance of Henry Hornblower II , a wealthy Boston stockbroker who grew up in Plymouth . The museum originally consisted of the Mayflower II and a " First House " exhibit in Plymouth Center , but was expanded into a large fortified town and a Native American village by 1960 .
= = = Mayflower II = = =
The Mayflower II is a full @-@ size replica of the Mayflower , the ship which brought the Pilgrims to Plymouth in 1620 . It is located at the State Pier in Plymouth Center . The ship is open as a museum about the Pilgrims ' historic voyage from Plymouth , England , and is considered a faithful replica of the original Mayflower . It is officially a part of Plimoth Plantation .
The ship was built in Brixham , England in 1956 , and sailed to Plymouth across the Atlantic Ocean in 1957 by famous mariner Alan Villiers . The ship is still seaworthy , and routinely takes voyages around Plymouth Harbor . In the year 2007 , the Mayflower II celebrated the 50th anniversary of its arrival in Plymouth .
= = = Other sites = = =
= = = = Historic interest = = = =
In addition to the Plymouth Rock Memorial , several other monuments were constructed in celebration of Plymouth 's tricentennial . These include statues of Massasoit and William Bradford , and a sarcophagus containing the bones of the 51 Pilgrims who died in the winter of 1620 , which rests atop Cole 's Hill .
Pilgrim Hall Museum , founded in 1824 , is the oldest continually operating museum in the United States . It is located in Plymouth Center . Plymouth also features the National Monument to the Forefathers , which was dedicated in 1889 . Standing at 81 feet ( 25 m ) tall , it is the tallest free @-@ standing solid granite monument in the United States . Other notable historical sites include the Jenney Grist Mill , a working replica of an original mill built in 1636 , as well as the 1640 Richard Sparrow House , the oldest house still standing in Plymouth . At the edge of the town on Route 80 is Parting Ways , a 94 @-@ acre ( 380 @,@ 000 m2 ) site that is notable for containing the remains of four former slaves who fought in the American Revolutionary War and their families . Other historic houses include the Mayflower House Museum .
There are 21 locations in Plymouth that appear on the National Register of Historic Places , including Plymouth Rock , Cole 's Hill , and Pilgrim Hall .
= = = = Parks and recreation = = = =
Myles Standish State Forest , the Commonwealth 's second largest state forest , is located in Plymouth . It is a camping and hiking destination , and contains 16 freshwater lakes and ponds . Ellisville Harbor State Park , located in the extreme southern portion of the town , contains a natural beach inside Cape Cod Bay . Plymouth is also home to 11 public and private golf courses , which include Squirrel Run , Pinehills , Plymouth Country Club , and Southers Marsh , a course that runs through a series of actively maintained cranberry bogs .
= = = = Entertainment = = = =
Plymouth is also home to a vibrant music and arts community , including the Plymouth Center for the Arts , the Driftwood Folk Cafe , and three free summer concert series : The Project Arts Wednesday night series , the L. Knife and Son Thursday night series , and the Plymouth Independent Music Festival .
= = Notable people = =
Chris Alberghini , television producer @-@ writer , born in Plymouth
Oliver Ames , Jr . , railroad official , former resident of Plymouth
John Bartlett , publisher of Bartlett 's Familiar Quotations , born in Plymouth
Amy Lynn Baxter , adult film star and nude model , born in Plymouth
Jamie P. Chandler , political commentator and author , born in Plymouth
David Chokachi , actor , born in Plymouth
Ken Coleman , sportscaster , died in Plymouth
Nancy Darsch , WNBA Coach , current resident of Plymouth
Thomas Davee , United States Representative from Maine , born in Plymouth
Gary DiSarcina , former shortstop for the California Angels and manager of the single @-@ A team Lowell Spinners , currently resides in Plymouth .
Dave Farrell , bassist with Linkin Park , born in Plymouth
Peter J. Gomes , preacher and theologian at Harvard Divinity School , resident of Plymouth
Glen Gray , saxophonist , leader of the Casa Loma Orchestra , born in Plymouth
Dick Gregory , comedian , activist and nutritionist , current resident of Plymouth
Pee Wee Hunt , trombonist and co @-@ founder of the Casa Loma Orchestra , died in Plymouth
Frederic Augustus Lucas , Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences museum director , author of many scientific papers , born in Plymouth
Aaron Matson , a United States Representative from New Hampshire , born in Plymouth
Violet Mersereau , silent film actress , died in Plymouth
Warren G. Phillips , Inducted into the National Teachers Hall of Fame in 2010 , taught in Plymouth
Henry Picard , Professional golfer , won The Masters Tournament
Chris Raab , Member of the CKY crew .
Beatrice Roberts , film actress
Michael Sweet , Stryper lead vocalist and lead and rhythm guitars , resident of Plymouth
James Warren , president of the Massachusetts provincial legislature and prominent colonial @-@ era politician .
= = Twin and sister cities = =
Since 2001 , Plymouth has shared a twin @-@ city status with : Plymouth , Devon , United Kingdom . In addition , since 1990 , Plymouth has shared a sister @-@ city status with Shichigahama , Miyagi Prefecture , Japan .
= Paul London and Brian Kendrick =
Paul London and Brian Kendrick were a professional wrestling tag team best known for their time together in World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . They are former WWE Tag Team Champions and World Tag Team Champions . Their 2006 @-@ 2007 reign as WWE Tag Team Champions was the longest in the title 's history , until their record was broken by The New Day on July 20 , 2016 .
They first began teaming together in 2003 as a part of WWE , but Kendrick left the company shortly thereafter . When he returned in mid @-@ 2005 , he and London reunited as a tag team . In May 2006 the duo won the WWE Tag Team Championship from MNM ; it was Kendrick 's first title victory with the company , and London 's third . Their reign was the longest since WWE created the title in 2002 ( until their record was beaten by The New Day in 2016 ) , and they became the fourth longest @-@ reigning tag team champions in the company 's history , finally dropping the titles to Deuce ' n Domino in April 2007 .
Later in 2007 , London and Kendrick were drafted from SmackDown to the Raw brand , where they briefly held the World Tag Team Championship . They would continue to work together until Kendrick was drafted back to SmackDown in the 2008 supplemental draft , thus disbanding the team until 2010 , when they reunited in Pro Wrestling Guerrilla following their releases from WWE . They have since competed together on the independent circuit on several occasions .
= = History = =
= = = Name = = =
The team never had an official team name , but were just referred to as " the tag team of London and Kendrick . " In 2006 London and Kendrick put the tag team name " The Hooliganz " on their wrestling attires and tried to convince the WWE management to start calling the team by that name , but were unsuccessful in their attempts .
= = = Beginnings = = =
Prior to teaming together on World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) ' s SmackDown ! brand , both Paul London and Brian " Spanky " Kendrick along with Daniel Bryan were students at Shawn Michaels ' Texas Wrestling Academy , under the tutelage of Rudy Boy Gonzalez . From there they both went on to Ring of Honor , where they occasionally competed against each other and as a team .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = SmackDown ! ( 2002 – 2007 ) = = = =
In late 2002 , Kendrick was hired by WWE , and in July 2003 London joined the company as well . Once in WWE together , and both on the SmackDown ! brand , London and Kendrick began teaming together . They became a mainstay on SmackDown ! ' s sister show Velocity until Kendrick left the company in February 2004 .
Kendrick returned in mid @-@ 2005 , using his real name , and in September 2005 London and Kendrick reformed as a tag team . Upon reuniting the team began competing in matching shorts and vests as well as wearing theatrical masks to the ring . Subsequently , they were quickly elevated into the WWE Tag Team Championship picture , receiving a non @-@ title match against WWE Tag Team Champions MNM ( Johnny Nitro and Joey Mercury ) on the February 10 , 2006 episode of SmackDown ! , which London and Kendrick lost . On the April 7 , 2006 episode of SmackDown ! London and Kendrick once again faced MNM , this time picking up a win in a non @-@ title match . London and Kendrick continued their winning streak against the champions , earning singles victories for Kendrick and London over Nitro and Mercury respectively , leading to a title match at Judgment Day , where London and Kendrick won their first WWE Tag Team Championship as a team ( London 's second WWE Tag Team Title reign and Kendrick 's first championship in WWE ) .
Their first main competition for the titles came when K. C. James and Idol Stevens defeated London and Kendrick in a non @-@ title match , in early August , igniting a storyline feud between the two teams . During the rivalry , WWE Diva Ashley Massaro began accompanying London and Kendrick to the ring , acting as a valet to the team while combating the actions of James and Stevens ' manager Michelle McCool .
On October 14 , 2006 they became the longest reigning WWE Tag Team Champions of all time , surpassing MNM 's previous record reign of 145 days . The team began a losing streak to the team of William Regal and Dave Taylor , with Regal defeating both London and Kendrick in singles matches and losing a non @-@ title tag team match to the pair on the December 8 episode of SmackDown ! .
A scheduled title match between the two teams at Armageddon was changed at the event to a four @-@ way ladder match , also involving The Hardys ( Matt and Jeff ) and MNM . In the match London and Kendrick were able to retrieve the belts to retain their championship . When a regular tag team rematch was signed with Regal and Taylor two weeks later , London and Kendrick were successful in defeating them . On the February 16 episode of SmackDown ! , General Manager Theodore Long scheduled another ladder match between the teams of London and Kendrick , Regal and Taylor , MNM , and The Hardys for the WWE Tag Team Championship at February 's pay @-@ per @-@ view event No Way Out , but WWE 's official website announced the match had changed to pit The Hardys and Chris Benoit against MNM and MVP , while London and Kendrick faced rookie team Deuce ' n Domino ( Deuce and Domino ) in a separate match ; they were booked to successfully retain the titles against Deuce ' n Domino . Their almost year @-@ long reign came to an end when they were defeated by Deuce ' n Domino for the title on the April 20 , 2007 episode of SmackDown ! in Milan , Italy . London picked up an injury , resulting in Kendrick challenging Deuce ' n Domino in singles matches , losing to Deuce , but defeating Domino . London returned on the May 11 episode of SmackDown ! , defeating Domino in a singles match . London and Kendrick then unsuccessfully attempted to regain the Tag Team Championship , losing to Deuce ' n Domino in a triple threat match also involving Regal and Taylor , and in a standard tag team match two weeks later .
= = = = Raw ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
London and Kendrick were drafted to Raw as the first picks in the WWE Supplemental Draft on June 17 , 2007 and were successful on their Raw debut , defeating The World 's Greatest Tag Team ( Shelton Benjamin and Charlie Haas ) via a Sliced Bread # 2 performed on Haas . On the September 3 episode of Raw , London and Kendrick defeated The World 's Greatest Tag Team once again to earn a World Tag Team Championship match at Unforgiven against Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch , in which they lost . Two days later , they defeated Cade and Murdoch for the title at a house show in South Africa . Three days later , at another house show , Cade and Murdoch regained the title in a rematch .
Near the end of 2007 , London suffered a foot injury and was unable to compete , and Kendrick was mainly used as a singles wrestler on Raw where he lost to the likes of Umaga and Mr. Kennedy . London made his return on February 4 in a loss to Santino Marella and Carlito . London and Kendrick returned as a tag team on the March 17 episode of Raw in a loss to Umaga when Kendrick walked out on London . The two reunited on Raw on March 31 with commentator Jim Ross explaining the two worked out their differences , and they got a win against the then @-@ World Tag Team Champions , Cody Rhodes and Hardcore Holly . On April 14 , they lost a number one contendership match to the team of Carlito and Marella . They competed sporadically on Raw in the following months , defeating Lance Cade and Trveor Murdoch , before receiving a World Tag Team title shot against Holly and Rhodes on the May 26 episode of Raw . They lost when Holly pinned London following an Alabama slam .
= = = = Split and aftermath = = = =
The team came to an end in June 2008 , when Kendrick was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2008 Supplemental Draft , while London stayed on Raw . He made his return to the brand on the July 18 , 2008 airing of SmackDown ! as a heel , with new ring attire defeating Jimmy Wang Yang with the help of his new bodyguard , Ezekiel Jackson . Kendrick was later given the name " The Brian Kendrick " .
London was utilised sparingly during the next few months , making his only television appearance in a loss to Lance Cade on the July 21 episode of Raw . London was subsequently released from his WWE contract on November 7 , 2008 . On July 31 , 2009 , Kendrick was also released .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2010 – 2014 ) = = =
Going into 2010 , the team made occasional reunions on the independent circuit . On January 30 the team completed at Pro Wrestling Guerrilla 's part of the aptly titled WrestleReunion 4 show . They defeated the PWG World Tag Team Champions Generation Me ( Jeremy and Max ) in a non @-@ title match in their first match back together .
On March 27 , London and Kendrick made an appearance in Dragon Gate USA , where Kendrick had already appeared in singles competition . However , their run as a tag team in the company was short @-@ lived due to losing a Pinfall Loser Leaves Company match to Jimmy Jacobs and Jack Evans and as a result Kendrick , who tapped out to Jacobs , was forced to leave the company for good .
They reuinited once again on October 4 , 2012 , at the first Family Wrestling Entertainment 's PPV , Back 2 Brooklyn . They , along with Jay Lethal , defeated the team of The Young Bucks and Petey Williams . Londrick and The Young Bucks wrestled again on October 6 , 2012 , at the House of Hardcore 's first show , with Londrick winning the match . On June 23 , 2013 , Londrick were defeated by The Young Buck at House of Hardcore 2 . London and Kendrick were defeated at PWG 's Ten by Chuck Taylor and Johnny Gargano .
In 2014 , London and Kendrick travelled to Scotland to compete for Insane Championship Wrestling . On October 15 , the pair won the ICW Tag Team Championship by defeating The New Age Kliq ( BT Gunn and Chris Renfrew ) at Helter Skelter . On November 2 , 2014 , they lost the title to Polo Promotions ( Mark Coffey and Jackie Polo ) In Glasgow , Scotland . In 2014 , Kendrick returned to WWE , thus seperating with London .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Dropsault ( London ) / Sunset flip ( Kendrick ) combination
Get Well Soon ( Reverse STO ( Kendrick ) / Jumping enzuigiri ( London ) combination )
Kendrick performs Sliced Bread # 2 but remains on his knees afterwards , allowing London to jump off Kendrick 's back and perform an aided shooting star press
Tower of Londrick ( Sitout powerbomb ( London ) / Sliced Bread # 2 ( Kendrick ) combination )
Signature moves
Assisted standing moonsault
Double dropkick
Double flapjack
Double hip toss
Double Japanese arm drag
Double superkick
London performs a hip toss on Kendrick , throwing him on to a prone opponent in the style of a front flip senton
London throws Kendrick overhead , allowing Kendrick to perform a double dropkick on two prone opponents
Valets
Ashley Massaro
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Insane Championship Wrestling
ICW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Tag Team of the Year ( 2007 )
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three stages : finding personal identity , recognizing oneself [ the mirror stage ) , and recognizing the other person ( the role @-@ reversal stage ) . Mirroring , role @-@ playing and other psychodramatic techniques are based on these stages . Moreno believed that psychodrama could be used to help individuals continue their emotional development through the use of these techniques .
= = Related concepts = =
Moreno 's term sociometry is often used in relation to psychodrama . By definition , sociometry is the study of social relations between individuals — interpersonal relationships . It is , more broadly , a set of ideas and practices that are focused on promoting spontaneity in human relations . Classically , sociometry involves techniques for identifying , organizing , and giving feedback on specific interpersonal preferences an individual has . For example , in a psychodrama session , allowing the group to decide whom the protagonist shall be employs sociometry .
Moreno is also credited for founding sociodrama . Though sociodrama , like psychodrama , utilizes the theatrical form as means of therapy , the terms are not synonymous . While psychodrama focuses on one patient within the group unit , Sociodrama addresses the group as a whole . The goal is to explore social events , collective ideologies , and community patterns within a group in order to bring about positive change or transformation within the group dynamic . Moreno also believed that sociodrama could be used as a form of micro @-@ sociology — that by examining the dynamic of a small group of individuals , patterns could be discovered that manifest themselves within the society as a whole , such as in Alcoholics Anonymous . Sociodrama can be divided into three main categories : crisis sociodrama , which deals with group responses after a catastrophic event , political sociodrama , which attempts to address stratification and inequality issues within a society , and diversity sociodrama , which considers conflicts based on prejudice , racism or stigmatization .
= = History = =
Dr. J. L. Moreno ( 1889 – 1974 ) is the founder of psychodrama and sociometry , and one of the forerunners of the group psychotherapy movement . Around 1910 , he developed the Theater of Spontaneity , which is based on the acting out of improvisational impulses . The focus of this exercise was not originally on the therapeutic effects of psychodrama ; these were seen by Moreno to simply be positive side @-@ effects .
A poem by Moreno reveals ideas central to the practice of psychodrama , and describes the purpose of mirroring :
" A meeting of two : eye to eye , face to face .
And when you are near I will tear your eyes out
and place them instead of mine ,
and you will tear my eyes out
and will place them instead of yours ,
then I will look at me with mine . "
In 1912 , Moreno attended one of Sigmund Freud 's lectures . In his autobiography , he recalled the experience : " As the students filed out , he singled me out from the crowd and asked me what I was doing . I responded , ' Well , Dr. Freud , I start where you leave off . You meet people in the artificial setting of your office . I meet them on the street and in their homes , in their natural surroundings . You analyze their dreams . I give them the courage to dream again . You analyze and tear them apart . I let them act out their conflicting roles and help them to put the parts back together again . ' "
While a student at the University of Vienna in 1917 , Moreno gathered a group of prostitutes as a way of discussing the social stigma and other problems they faced , starting what might be called the first " support group " . From experiences like that , and as inspired by psychoanalysts such as Wilhelm Reich and Freud , Moreno began to develop psychodrama . After moving to the United States in 1925 , Moreno introduced his work with psychodrama to American psychologists . He began this work with children , and then eventually moved on to large group psychodrama sessions that he held at Impromptu Group Theatre at Carnegie Hall . These sessions established Moreno 's name , not only in psychological circles , but also among non @-@ psychologists . Moreno continued to teach his method of psychodrama , leading sessions until his death in 1974 .
Another important practitioner in the field of psychodrama is Carl Hollander . Hollander was the 37th director certified by Moreno in psychodrama . He is known primarily for his creation of the Hollander Psychodrama Curve , which may be utilized as a way to understand how a psychodrama session is structured . Hollander uses the image of a curve to explain the three parts of a psychodrama session : the warm @-@ up , the activity , and the integration . The warm @-@ up exists to put patients into a place of spontaneity and creativity in order to be open in the act of psychodrama . The " activity " is the actual enactment of the psychodrama process . Finally , the " curve " moves to integration . It serves as closure and discussion of the session , and considers how the session can be brought into real life – a sort of debriefing .
Although psychodrama is not widely practiced , the work done by practitioners of psychodrama has opened the doors to research possibilities for other psychological concepts such as group therapy and expansion of the work of Sigmund Freud . The growing field of drama therapy utilizes psychodrama as one of its main elements . The methods of psychodrama are also used by group therapy organizations and also find a place in other types of therapy , such as post @-@ divorce counseling for children .
= = = Organizations = = =
American Society of Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama
Australian and Aotearoa New Zealand Psychodrama Association
British Psychodrama Association
International Association for Group Psychotherapy and Group Processes
= Holy Wood ( In the Shadow of the Valley of Death ) =
Holy Wood ( In the Shadow of the Valley of Death ) is the fourth studio album by American rock band Marilyn Manson , released in November 2000 by Nothing and Interscope Records . The album marked a return to the industrial and alternative metal styles of the band 's earlier efforts , after the modernized glam rock of Mechanical Animals . As their first release following the Columbine High School massacre of April 20 , 1999 , Holy Wood was Marilyn Manson 's rebuttal to accusations leveled against them in the wake of the shootings . The band 's frontman , Marilyn Manson , described the record as " a declaration of war " .
A rock opera concept album , it is the final installment in a trilogy which includes Antichrist Superstar and Mechanical Animals . After its release , Manson said that the overarching story within the trilogy is presented in reverse chronological order ; Holy Wood , therefore , begins the narrative . It was written in the singer 's former home in the Hollywood Hills and recorded in several undisclosed locations , including Death Valley and Laurel Canyon .
At its release , Holy Wood received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews ; many critics noted that while ambitious , it fell short in execution . The album was not at first as commercially successful as the group 's two previous releases , and took three years to receive a gold certification from the RIAA . Nevertheless , with worldwide sales of over nine million copies as of 2011 , it has become one of the most successful of their career . It spawned three singles and an abandoned film project which was modified into the as @-@ yet @-@ unreleased Holy Wood novel . Marilyn Manson supported the album with the controversial Guns , God and Government Tour .
On November 10 , 2010 , British rock magazine Kerrang ! published a 10th @-@ anniversary commemorative piece in which they called the album " Manson 's finest hour ... A decade on , there has still not been as eloquent and savage a musical attack on the media and mainstream culture ... [ It is ] still scathingly relevant [ and ] a credit to a man who refused to sit and take it , but instead come out swinging . "
= = Background and development = =
In the late 1990s Marilyn Manson and his eponymous band established themselves as a household name as one of the most controversial rock acts in music history through the commercial success of their albums , Antichrist Superstar ( 1996 ) and Mechanical Animals ( 1998 ) . By the time of their Rock Is Dead Tour in 1999 , the band 's outspoken frontman had become a culture war iconoclast and a rallying icon for alienated youth .
As their popularity increased the transgressive , confrontational nature of the group 's music and imagery angered social conservatives . Politicians across the political spectrum lobbied to have their performances banned , citing rumors that the shows contained animal sacrifices , bestiality and rape . Their concerts were routinely picketed by religious advocates and parent groups , who asserted that their music had a corrupting influence on youth culture by inciting " rape , murder , blasphemy and suicide " .
On April 20 , 1999 , Columbine High School students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold shot 12 students and a teacher to death , wounding 21 others before committing suicide . In the aftermath of the fourth @-@ deadliest school shooting in United States history , the band became a scapegoat . Early media reports alleged that the shooters were fans of the band and wore the group 's t @-@ shirts during the massacre . Speculation in national media and among the public blamed Manson 's music and imagery for inciting Harris and Klebold . Later reports revealed that the two considered the band " a joke " . Despite this , the group ( and other bands and popular entertainment , such as movies and video games ) were widely criticized by religious , political and entertainment @-@ industry figures .
Under mounting pressure in the days after Columbine , the group postponed their last five North American tour dates out of respect for the victims and their families . On April 29 ten US senators ( led by Sam Brownback of Kansas ) sent a letter to Edgar Bronfman Jr . , president of Seagrams ( which owned Interscope Records ) , requesting a voluntary halt to his company 's distribution to children of " music that glorifies violence " . The letter named Marilyn Manson ( and other bands ) for producing songs which " eerily reflect " the actions of Harris and Klebold . Later that day , the band canceled their remaining North American shows . On May 1 Manson published a Rolling Stone op @-@ ed response to the accusations , " Columbine : Whose Fault Is It ? " In it , he wrote :
I chose not to jump into the media frenzy and defend myself , though I was begged to be on every single TV show in existence . I didn 't want to contribute to these fame @-@ seeking journalists and opportunists looking to fill their churches or to get elected [ during the US general election of 2000 ] because of their self @-@ righteous finger @-@ pointing . They want to blame entertainment ? Isn 't religion the first real entertainment ? People dress up in costumes , sing songs and dedicate themselves to eternal fandom ... I 'd like [ the ] media commentators to ask themselves , because their coverage of [ Columbine ] was some of the most gruesome entertainment any of us have seen .
On May 4 , a hearing on the marketing and distribution of violent content to minors by the television , music , film and video @-@ game industries was held by the United States Senate Committee on Commerce , Science and Transportation . The committee heard testimony from " cultural observers " ( such as William Bennett and the Archbishop of Denver , Charles J. Chaput ) , professors and mental @-@ health professionals . Speakers criticized the band , its label @-@ mate Nine Inch Nails and the 1999 film The Matrix for their alleged contribution to a cultural environment enabling violence such as the Columbine shootings . The committee requested that the Federal Trade Commission and the United States Department of Justice investigate the entertainment industry 's marketing practices to minors .
Concluding the European and Japanese legs of their tour on August 8 , 1999 , the band withdrew from public view . The album 's early development coincided with Manson 's three @-@ month seclusion at his home in the Hollywood Hills , during which he considered how to respond to the accusations . Manson said the maelstrom made him reevaluate his career : " [ t ] here was a bit of trepidation , [ in ] deciding , ' Is it worth it ? Are people understanding what I 'm trying to say ? Am I even gonna be allowed to say it ? ' Because I definitely had every single door shut in my face ... there were not a lot of people who stood behind me . " He told Alternative Press he felt his safety was threatened to the point that he " could be shot Mark David Chapman @-@ style " . Manson concluded that it was unwise for a controversial artist to allow his detractors to scapegoat his work ( and popular entertainment in general ) , beginning work on the album as a counterattack .
= = Recording and production = =
Manson began writing for the album in 1995 , before the release of Antichrist Superstar ; the material initially consisted of scattered ideas . Isolating himself in his attic , he worked the early material into a usable shape . At the end of Manson 's three @-@ month retreat , the band embarked on a year of writing and developing the material . Band members maintained a low profile , and Manson said the band 's website would " be my only contact with humanity " .
The album is the group 's most collaborative effort to date , with all members contributing to the songwriting process ( resulting in a more @-@ unified sound ) . Most of the work was shouldered by Twiggy Ramirez , John 5 and Marilyn Manson ; keyboardist Madonna Wayne Gacy provided input on " President Dead " and " Cruci @-@ Fiction in Space " , and Ginger Fish did the drum work . Manson said that his songwriting sessions with John 5 were very focused ; most of the songs were complete before being brought to the band for consideration , and were enthusiastically received . In contrast , his sessions with Ramirez were less demanding as they experimented with absinthe . The band wrote 100 musical fragments ; between 25 and 30 became songs , and 19 were selected for the album .
The album was recorded at several locations , including Death Valley and Rick Rubin 's Mansion Studio in Laurel Canyon . Locations were chosen for the atmosphere they were intended to impart to the music . Mixing engineer Dave Sardy co @-@ produced the album with Manson ; Bon Harris , of electronic body music group Nitzer Ebb , did the programming and pre @-@ production editing . Manson announced on December 16 , 1999 that the album was progressing under a working title of " In the Shadow of the Valley of Death " , with its logo the alchemical symbol for mercury .
The band visited Death Valley a number of times to " imprint the feeling of the desert into [ their ] minds " and avoid composing artificial @-@ sounding songs . Experimental recordings and acoustic songs were recorded with live instrumentation . Manson later explained that the acoustic songs were " acoustic " in that they were not produced electrically ; the album 's sonic landscape is intrinsically electronic . Harris ' programming skills proved invaluable as the band recorded unique , natural sounds , which he molded into aural elements .
The band spent considerable time at the Mansion Studio , with its cavernous rooms suitable for recording drums . Inspired by the space , the band found they could accomplish more there than in the limited environment of Manson 's home studio . Ramirez later had a fuzzy memory of the sessions , explaining that there were " a lot of different emotions racing around [ us ] " ; the house , which once belonged to Harry Houdini , is said to be haunted . Gacy said that he spent most of his time working on a computer and synthesizer , " mess [ ing ] around with prime @-@ number loops where they only intersect every three days and I 'd check up on what kind of music they 'd be making . You never know what 's going to happen " . Fish worked constantly , and the bulk of his contributions to the recording process were made at the Mansion .
On February 23 , 2000 Manson delivered a 20 @-@ minute lecture via satellite to a current @-@ events convention , " DisinfoCon 2000 " , aimed at exposing ( and dispelling ) disinformation . Six days later , their album was entitled Holy Wood ( In the Shadow of the Valley of Death ) . By April 12 the band was in their final stages of recording , and Manson posted footage of the recording studio . In pre @-@ release interviews , he noted that the record would be " a very sharp pencil " which would appeal to Marilyn Manson fans .
= = = Novel and film = = =
Manson 's ambitions for the project initially included an eponymous film exploring the album 's backstory . In July 1999 , he had reportedly begun negotiating with New Line Cinema to produce and distribute the film and its soundtrack . At the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards in Dublin ( where the band performed on November 11 ) , he disclosed the film 's title and his production plans . Manson met Chilean avant @-@ garde filmmaker Alejandro Jodorowsky at the event to discuss work on the film , although no final decision was made . By February 29 , 2000 the deal fell through when Manson had reservations that New Line Cinema would take the film in a direction which would not have " retained his artistic vision " .
Abandoning his attempt to bring Holy Wood to the screen , Manson announced plans to publish two books accompanying the album . The first was a " graphic and phantasmagoric " novelization , intended for release shortly after the album by ReganBooks ( a division of HarperCollins ) . The novel 's style was inspired by William S. Burroughs , Kurt Vonnegut , Aldous Huxley and Philip K. Dick , and it would be followed by a coffee table book of images created for the project .
In a December 2000 interview with Manson , novelist Chuck Palahniuk mentioned the Holy Wood novel ( due for release in spring 2001 ) and complimented its style . Neither book has yet been released , reportedly due to a publishing dispute .
= = Concept = =
The album 's plot is a " parable " in a thinly @-@ veiled satire of modern America called " Holy Wood " , which Manson has described as a city @-@ sized , Disneyesque amusement park where the main attractions are violence and sex . Its literary foil is " Death Valley " , " a metaphor for the outcast and the imperfect of the world . "
The central character is the ill @-@ fated protagonist " Adam Kadmon " , a name borrowed from the Kabbalah which means " primal man " . In the similarly @-@ mystical Sufi and Alevi philosophies , he is an archetypical " perfect " or " complete man " . Adam Kadmon travels from Death Valley to Holy Wood ; idealistic and naïve , he attempts a revolution through music .
Disenchanted when his revolution is consumed by Holy Wood 's ideology of " guns , God and government " , he is absorbed by its culture of death and fame in which celebrity worship , violence and scapegoating are the moral values of a religion rooted in martyrdom . In this religion dead celebrities are revered as saints , and John F. Kennedy is idolized as a modern Christ .
Known as " celebritarianism " , Holy Wood 's religion parallels Christianity . It critiques the dead @-@ celebrity phenomenon in American culture , with the crucifixion of Jesus as its blueprint . This concept extended to the world Guns , God and Government Tour supporting the album ; the tour 's logo was a rifle , with handguns arranged to resemble the Christian cross .
Manson told Rolling Stone that the plot is semi @-@ autobiographical . While it can be viewed on several levels , he said that the simplest interpretation is to see it as a story of an angry youth whose revolution is commercialized , leading him to " destroy the thing he has created , which is himself . "
= = = Themes = = =
Violence is the central theme of the album , which takes a critical look at America 's obsession with firearms , death and fame and their ramifications in the Columbine tragedy . Manson sees the root causes of Columbine as the gun culture , conservative American Christianity and traditional family values . The album illustrates the harmful roles they play in the glorification ( and acceptance ) of violence in " mainstream " culture , illustrated by the slogan " Guns , God and Government " . Drawing similarities between the Cold War period of 1960s America and the 1990s , Manson uses allegories from the former decade and other events and figures in cultural history . Music journalist Charlotte Robinson said that it is difficult to assess the " narrative 's effectiveness " without the book and film : " the album doesn 't tell much of a story , instead presenting variations on the same themes " .
Manson was drawn to The Beatles ' White Album because of its role in the Charles Manson " Family " murders and the parallels he saw between that crime and Columbine : " [ It ] had a lot of very subversive messages on it . Ones they intended and ones that may 've [ sic ] been misinterpreted by [ convicted mass murder conspirator ] Charles Manson " . Manson believes it was the first piece of music blamed for inciting violence : " When you 've got ' Helter Skelter ' [ taken from a Beatles song of the same name ] written in blood on someone 's wall , it 's a little more damning than anything I 've been blamed for " . Manson appreciates the record 's power , which inspired his album 's concept . Holy Wood , he said , " is a tribute to what that record did in history . "
Critics also noted similarities between anti @-@ hero Adam Kadmon and Charles Manson . Manson echoed this assessment , describing Holy Wood as a declaration of war on the entertainment industry : " their self @-@ congratulatory attitude , their beliefs that they can never do wrong , ... that they 're the center of the universe ... [ i ] n one way it 's defending Hollywood , and in another way it 's attacking it for not being brave enough " .
A substantial portion of the album analyzes the cultural role of Jesus Christ and the iconography of his crucifixion as the origin of celebrity , appraising " our relationship with Christ , and how we outgrew that " . Manson says that while in the past he critiqued religion , with this album he accepts the story and looks for things to which he can relate . He discovered that Christ was a revolutionary figure — a person who was killed for having dangerous opinions , and was later exploited and merchandised by Christianity . Manson notes the irony of " religious people who indict entertainment as being violent " ; the crucifixion is an icon of violence which made Jesus " the first rock star " . He feels that the exploitation of Christ as " the first celebrity " made religion the root of all entertainment .
Christ 's death is compared to Abraham Zapruder 's film of the assassination of John F. Kennedy , which Manson called " the only thing that 's happened in modern times to equal the crucifixion " . He sarcastically described the historic home movie as a " good clip of mankind 's generosity to share his violence with the world in such a cinematic way " . Manson stresses the film 's cultural importance , noting the irony of showing such violence on the news while complaining about violence in the entertainment industry .
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cover as " stellar " and " unsurprisingly awesome " . Stereogum 's Chris DeVille hailed it as a " reverent take " noting that the band managed to " capture the grandeur " of the original by using less musical layers . Slate 's Aisha Harris commented that the vocals featured in the cover were not " quite so flawless " as in the original version but praised their version for being pleasant to listen to . Later , the song was added to the band 's set list as part of the encore during their tour in 2014 . They also performed it at the 2014 Glastonbury Festival with a writer from The Daily Telegraph describing their cover as " reflective " .
On April 8 , 2014 , remix versions of " XO " and " Blow " by French musician Monsieur Adi premiered on Out 's official website along Beyoncé 's appearance on the cover of the magazine . The remix for " XO " was influenced by electro house music and it was noted for being transformed as a " club @-@ friendly power pop ballad " by the editors of the magazine . Complex magazine writer Lauren Nostro described the version as " fantastic " . The song was covered on the seventh season of the American The Voice by contestant Elyjuh Rene during the first episode which aired on September 22 , 2014 .
= = = John Mayer version = = =
On April 15 , 2014 , John Mayer covered " XO " during a concert in Adelaide , Australia . Three days prior to the performance , he used his Twitter account to praise the song , writing , " The best thing about Beyoncé ? The break in her voice on the first ' baby , love me lights out ' in XO . Real and raw . " One month later , on May 22 , he released a studio version of the song on his SoundCloud account . It was made available for digital download by Columbia Records on May 27 , 2014 through the iTunes Store .
Mayer 's version is an acoustic stripped @-@ down rendition complete with guitar and accentuated by piano and harmonica . Kelcey Shipley from MTV News praised his version for its " simplicity " while Killian Young of Rolling Stone shortly described it as " sweet " . Spin 's Marc Hogan noted that " XO " was a " perfect song for him " and described it as " a person @-@ to @-@ person romantic exchange , transferred over to acoustic instruments but no less stadium @-@ sized – or pop – for it . " Lauren Nostro writing for Complex deemed Mayer 's live rendition of the song " impressive " before adding that the harmonica , " will tug at your heart strings almost as much as the original song " .
For the week ending June 1 , 2014 , Mayer 's version debuted at number 90 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 13 on the US Hot Rock Songs chart , selling 46 @,@ 000 copies . On the Canadian Hot 100 , " XO " peaked at a position of 76 . The single also debuted and peaked at number 81 on the Australian Singles Chart on June 7 , 2014 . On June 28 , 2014 , " XO " peaked at number 95 on the Dutch Singles Chart and it fell off the following week . In the UK , it peaked at 115 on the UK Singles Chart on June 7 , 2014 .
= Too Much ( Spice Girls song ) =
" Too Much " is a song by the British pop group Spice Girls . Written by the group members with Paul Wilson and Andy Watkins — the songwriters and production duo known as Absolute — at the same time as the group was filming scenes for their movie Spice World , it was produced by Wilson and Watkins for the group 's second album Spiceworld , released in November 1997 .
" Too Much " is a pop ballad with influences of R & B. It features instrumentation from a guitar , brass and string instruments , and is structured using doo @-@ wop records as a template . The music video , directed by Howard Greenhalgh , features each Spice Girl in their own individual scene playing different characters , inspired by their own movie fantasies . The song received mixed reviews from music critics , with many of them criticising the R & B @-@ infused production .
Released as the album 's second single in December 1997 , it topped the UK Singles Chart for two weeks , becoming the group 's second consecutive Christmas number @-@ one single , and their sixth consecutive chart @-@ topper , which made them the first act to have its first six singles reach number one in the United Kingdom . It was moderately successful internationally , peaking inside the top twenty on the majority of the charts that it entered . Although in the United States " Too Much " did better than its predecessor , " Spice Up Your Life " ; peaking nine places higher on the Billboard Hot 100 and becoming their fourth and final top ten single on the chart ; it failed to match the success of the group 's previous singles from the Spice album .
= = Background = =
In June 1997 , the group began filming scenes for their movie Spice World . At the same time , Virgin Records started the first marketing meetings for the Spiceworld album 's promotional campaign , set to be released in November . No songs had been written for the album at this point , so the group had to do all the song @-@ writing and recording at the same time as they were filming the movie . Between takes , and at the end of each filming day , the group usually went straight into a mobile recording studio set up in a Winnebago , which followed them between film sets . The schedule was physically arduous with logistical difficulties , as Melanie Brown commented in her autobiography : " doing the two full @-@ time jobs at the same time took its toll and within a couple on weeks , exhaustion set in . "
= = Writing and recording = =
The concept of " Too Much " was mainly penned by Geri Halliwell while the group was filming Spiceworld in a closed set besieged by fans and the media , in London 's Docklands . While Halliwell left the set , sitting in the backseat of a car , she started scribbling a few lines in a notebook about " love being blind and how words that appear deep may be meaningless " . The other members then helped to complete the song . Halliwell , inspired by a T @-@ shirt that said " What part of no don 't you understand ? " , wrote the song 's middle eight with Melanie Chisholm at Paul Wilson and Andy Watkins ' — the songwriters and production duo known as Absolute — studio in Richmond , London . Wilson commented about the song :
Geri came in and sang : ' Too much of something / Da @-@ da @-@ da @-@ da @-@ da ... Right . OK . You got that ? ' We started working on it and we wanted to do some sort of doo @-@ wop vocal thing . So we constructed this backing track and then more of the girls started to come in — this was quite a good day — and gradually they started to add on their little bits .
Absolute structured the song using doo @-@ wop records as a template . The format was for Emma Bunton to sing the high part , Melanie Brown , Victoria Beckham , and Halliwell singing the lower and middle parts , and Chisholm adding the ad @-@ libs . The song was recorded in a caravan in the middle of mayhem . Wilson and Watkins doggedly worked on it with whichever of the group 's members were available from the filming set at any given point . A considerable amount of production work was required afterward before the track reached its final form .
= = Composition = =
" Too Much " is a pop ballad , with influences of R & B music and doo @-@ wop sounds . It is written in the key of F ♯ minor , with a time signature set in compound quadruple meter , commonly used in doo @-@ wop , and moves at a slow tempo of 80 beats per minute .
The song is constructed in a verse @-@ chorus form , with a bridge before the third chorus , and its instrumentation comes from a guitar , brass and string instruments . It starts with an instrumental introduction , with a chord progression of A – Faug – Dmaj7 – G7 that is also used during the first part of the verses and the chorus . Brown and Bunton sing the first lines of the first verse ; the progression then changes to Bm7 – E – Dmaj7 – C ♯ 7 during the last part of the verse , which is sung by Chisholm . After the chorus , the same pattern occurs leading to the second chorus , with Halliwell , Beckham , and Chisholm singing the second verse . The progression changes to Bm7 – C ♯ m7 – Gmaj9 – F ♯ 7 ( ♯ 9 ) as Chisholm sings the bridge , while the rest of the group adds the high harmony . The group sing the chorus twice , and repeats the ad @-@ lib as the song fades out . The album version , which is forty seconds longer than the radio edit , features an instrumental section at the end of the track .
= = Release = =
" Too Much " was released in the United Kingdom on 15 December 1997 , in two single versions . The first , released on cassette and in a standard CD single format , included an exclusive PlayStation postcard from the group 's upcoming video game Spice World . The track listing contained the radio edit of the track , a Soulshock & Karlin remix , and the B @-@ side " Outer Space Girls " — written by the group with Matt Rowe and Richard Stannard . The second version , released on a standard CD single , contained the radio edit , an orchestral version , and " Walk of Life " , a different B @-@ side , written by the group with Absolute . The images on the single 's cover were taken from a photoshoot the group did for the October 1997 issue of Elle magazine .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Too Much " received mixed reviews from critics . Sylvia Patterson of the NME characterised the song as a " lavish , harmonised spree of New Orleans loveliness with strings and Spanish guitar " , adding that it is " the absolute tops ! " . Ian Hyland of The Daily Mirror enjoyed the track , but felt that Chisholm sounded " daft " , and added that she needs to " calm down on the scouse front " . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly called it a " sultry slow jam " , while The Miami Herald described it as a " silky pop ode " , and called it " irresistible " . The Virginian @-@ Pilot said that the strings on the song are " classic soul with a 90s tweak " . Larry Flick of Billboard magazine praised the song , describing it as a " swishy classic @-@ pop ballad that tickles the ear with tasty doo @-@ wop flavors " , and added that the arrangement and the group 's harmonies " work extremely well together " . Sputnikmusic 's Amanda Murray also complimented the track , calling it a " genuinely great song " . Murray also felt that the group 's voices had improved so that they could " pull off more difficult passages with at least an iota of conviction " .
Some reviewers criticised the R & B @-@ infused production . In a review of Spiceworld , the Contra Costa Times said that the album 's ballads such as " Too Much " and " Viva Forever " are " both treacly and deadly dull " . Conversely , Gina Arnold of Salon.com said that the ballads are " blander but still appealing " . South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel 's Sean Picolli said that the song is " a sincere stab at instructional R & B " . Richard Harrington of The Washington Post described it as a " lugubrious ballad " , while Scott Schinder of Newsday said that " the contempo @-@ R & B schmaltz of ' Too Much ' [ ... ] mires the group in middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road mediocrity " . J.D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun was not convinced by the song 's " attempts at deep emotional expression " , and Anthony Violenti of The Buffalo News said that it is " supposed to be a heart tugging ballad that may even make the Spice Girls fan base of 10 @-@ year olds overdose on sugar " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Too Much " was released in the UK in December 1997 . It debuted at the top of the UK Singles Chart , becoming the Spice Girls ' second consecutive Christmas number @-@ one single . It made the group the first act to reach number one with their first six singles , and the first to debut at the top of the chart five times in a row . It stayed at number one for two weeks , remaining inside the top forty for seven weeks and the top seventy @-@ five for fifteen weeks , and was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in December 1997 .
" Too Much " was moderately successful in Europe . It reached number three on the Eurochart Hot 100 , peaked inside the top ten in Denmark , Finland , Ireland , and Spain , and inside the top twenty in Austria , Belgium ( both the Flemish and French charts ) , France , Italy , the Netherlands , Sweden , and Switzerland . The song was also a moderate success in Oceania . In New Zealand , it debuted on 21 December 1997 at number twenty , peaked at number nine for two weeks , and stayed on the chart for twelve weeks . In Australia , it debuted on the ARIA Charts at number twenty @-@ nine , peaking at number nine in its sixth week . It remained on the chart for fifteen weeks , and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) .
In the US , " Too Much " did better than its predecessor , " Spice Up Your Life " , but was not as successful as Spice 's singles had been . It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 on 14 February 1998 , at number twenty @-@ two , selling 30 @,@ 000 copies . The next week , " Too Much " peaked at number nine , becoming the group 's fourth and final top ten hit . It peaked at thirty @-@ six on the Hot 100 Airplay , at eleven on the Hot 100 Singles Sales chart , and sold 600 @,@ 000 copies by January 1999 . It had moderate success in other formats , peaking at twenty @-@ one on the Mainstream Top 40 , and at twenty @-@ three on the Rhythmic Top 40 and the Adult Contemporary chart . " Too Much " peaked at nine on the Canadian Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video was filmed and directed by Howard Greenhalgh on 10 November 1997 in a studio located in London . The video features each Spice Girl in their own individual scene , inspired by their own movie fantasies . Melanie Brown is shown singing on top of a tank strapped with ammunition in an industrial post @-@ apocalyptic war scene in a segment based on the film Mad Max . Emma Bunton is shown in a bedroom dressed in white pyjamas while objects float around her on their own ; her scene is based on Poltergeist . Melanie Chisholm is shown in a Chinatown , dressed in a red cheongsam and black pants with her hair in a long ponytail with red streaks ; her scene is based upon Year of the Dragon . Geri Halliwell is featured in a black @-@ and @-@ white scene based on Rita Hayworth 's performance in Gilda . She is shown performing on a smoky stage in a long , white sequined gown with a group of sailors dancing around her . Victoria Beckham is shown in a missile silo next to a smoking rocket , clad in a black catsuit and with a long ponytail ; she is portraying Catwoman from Batman Returns .
The " Too Much " music video premiered on 2 December 1997 , on the American television network UPN , in a special titled " Too Much Is Never Enough " . Two versions of the music video exist : the original one , and a version that include scenes from the group 's 1997 film Spice World ; the latter was included on the DVD release of their greatest hits album .
= = Live performances = =
The song was performed many times on television , including An Audience with ... , Top of the Pops , and the 1997 Royal Variety Performance . The group also performed it at the 1997 Smash Hits ! Awards , and at the 25th Annual American Music Awards . The Spice Girls debut film , Spice World , features " Too Much " . During the opening credits , the group performs " Too Much " on Top of the Pops , surrounded by media and photographers from various television programmes and magazines . Also present are hundreds of fans . When the performance is complete , the audience applauds and cheers the girls , and the film progresses into the first official scene . In October 1997 , the group performed it as the tenth song of their first live concert at the Abdi Ipekçi Arena in Istanbul , Turkey . The performance was broadcast on Showtime in a pay @-@ per @-@ view event titled Spice Girls In Concert Wild ! However , the VHS and DVD release of the concert , Girl Power ! Live in Istanbul , does not include the " Too Much " performance .
The group have performed the song on their three tours , the Spiceworld Tour , the Christmas in Spiceworld Tour , and the Return of the Spice Girls . It remained in the group 's live set after Halliwell 's departure at the end of the European leg of the Spiceworld Tour ; her parts were taken by Bunton . The performance at the tour 's final concert can be found on the video : Spice Girls Live at Wembley Stadium , filmed in London , on 20 September 1998 . During the Return of the Spice Girls tour , the group dressed in tuxedos and performed an up @-@ tempo jazzy version of the song , while doing a striptease behind neon pink @-@ coloured , heart @-@ shaped doors .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Too Much " :
= = Credits and personnel = =
Published by Windswept Pacific Music Ltd / 19 Music / BMG Music Publishing Ltd .
= = Charts = =
= I 'd Have You Anytime =
" I 'd Have You Anytime " is a song written by George Harrison and Bob Dylan , released in 1970 as the opening track of Harrison 's first post @-@ Beatles solo album , All Things Must Pass . As such , it was the first solo song many people heard Harrison sing . The pair wrote the song at Dylan 's home in Bearsville , near Woodstock in upstate New York , in November 1968 . Its creation occurred during a period when Harrison had outgrown his role in the Beatles and Dylan had withdrawn from the pressures of fame to raise a family . " I 'd Have You Anytime " is recognised as a statement of friendship between the two musicians , whose meetings from 1964 onwards resulted in changes in musical direction for both Dylan and the Beatles . The song reflects the environment in which it was written , as Harrison 's verses urge the shy and elusive Dylan to let down his guard , and the Dylan @-@ composed choruses respond with a message of welcome .
As a gentle ballad , " I 'd Have You Anytime " went against pop @-@ music convention of the time for an album opener . The recording was co @-@ produced by Phil Spector in London and features a much @-@ admired lead guitar part by Eric Clapton . With the strong public association that existed between Harrison and Dylan by 1970 , some music critics remarked on the American singer 's presence on All Things Must Pass , even though he did not contribute to the album . Harrison and Dylan went on to enjoy further collaborations after writing the song , culminating in their recording together as members of the Traveling Wilburys in 1988 – 90 .
An alternate take of " I 'd Have You Anytime " , recorded during the All Things Must Pass sessions , appears on the 2012 Harrison compilation Early Takes : Volume 1 . Harrison and Dylan 's demo of the song circulates on bootleg compilations , but it has never received an official release . Ralfi Pagán and Evan Rachel Wood are among the artists who have covered " I 'd Have You Anytime " .
= = Background = =
Bob Dylan first met the Beatles in New York City in August
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of 10 @.@ 1 , with a 15 share . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the U.S. This means that roughly 10 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were watching the episode . In the U.K. , " The Unnatural " was seen by 870 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the channel 's second @-@ most watched program for that week after an episode of The Simpsons . On November 5 , 2002 , the episode was released on DVD as part of the complete sixth season .
= = = Reviews = = =
The cast and crew of the show were complimentary towards the finished episode . Carter said , " I think that David , a person who has a very intimate understanding of the show , made the best of his opportunity to tell a very different kind of X @-@ File , and expand the elastic show that it is . " Anderson was also pleased , saying , " I was proud of David for writing the script . I thought it was wonderful . He was kind and gentle and respectful and humble , and always tried to do his best . "
Initial reviews were positive . Eric Mink from the New York Daily News , in a pre @-@ premiere review , said that it " ingeniously grafts classic X @-@ Files story elements and wry , self @-@ mocking wit onto a delightfully fresh premise " . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader 's review mostly positive , complimenting the clever writing and noting that the " show was full of visual delights " . Sarah Stegall awarded the episode five points out of five , praising Duchovny 's analysis of " bigotry from two angles " and his ability to tie the " ongoing X @-@ Files conspiracy arc ... into a comic tragedy like this " . Stegall also called Duchovny 's direction " innovative and interesting " , and applauded a transition scene , in which the camera apparently moves through a television screen , as " a wonderful visual metaphor for The X @-@ Files itself " .
Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely positive review , awarding it four stars out of four . Vitaris was complimentary towards the episode 's exposition , and wrote , " above all , ' The Unnatural ' is about the power of storytelling . We don 't really know if Dales ' story is true or if it 's the liquor @-@ fueled ramblings of a broken @-@ down man , but in the end , this is irrelevant . " Melissa Runstrom from Michigan Daily called it a " charming independent story , " but that it " seems to say more about the human condition than about any extraterrestrial plot " . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files wrote , " In his entertaining debut as an X @-@ Files writer / director , Duchovny took us down a very familiar path this season : [ humor ] . But unlike some previous navigators , Duchovny stayed on course , made sure we saw all of the spectacular landmarks along the way and , when we reached our final destination , I found I thoroughly enjoyed the ride . "
Recent reviews have also applauded the episode . Shearman and Pearson rated the episode five stars out of five , describing it as " [ a ] delightful ... comic fable " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " and wrote that it " works because it takes this very silly idea and proceeds to take it seriously . " He criticized the program for its " corniness " and its reliance on the " magical black guy " stereotype , but concluded that " The Unnatural " was successful " because it embraces this side of the show ’ s profile [ that ] could do something sweet and lovely and moving " . VanDerWerff also complimented Martin 's performance , calling his acting " terrific " . Cynthia Fuchs from PopMatters wrote that Duchovny 's directing debut was excellent .
Since its debut , the episode has been ranked as one of the best episodes of The X @-@ Files . Kessenich named it one of the " Top 25 Episode of All Time " of The X @-@ Files , ranking it at number six . The Vancouver Sun listed " The Unnatural " on their list of the best standalone episodes of the show , and said that the story was heartbreaking . In addition , the scene featuring Mulder teaching Scully to play baseball was well received by critics . Shearman and Pearson wrote that it " is especially delightful , and gives this sentimental episode an extra warm glow . " Jean Helms of The Mobile Register named it one of the " Top 10 X @-@ Files Clips We 'd Like to See in the Official Video of Bree Sharp 's ' David Duchovny ' " . Vitaris called the scene " one of the most charming finales in an X @-@ Files episode " due to its " utterly endearing " qualities and its " unspoken subtext " .
= Wet Hot Demonic Summer =
" Wet Hot Demonic Summer " is the second season premiere of the American animated television series Ugly Americans , and the fifteenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on June 30 , 2011 . In the episode , Leonard Powers is about to retire as the Wizard of Social Services and give the job to his apprentice , Lionel , whom he abandoned fifty years prior . Meanwhile , Twayne Boneraper and Callie Maggotbone must infiltrate the compound where the wizards hold the initiation ritual , but their complicated strategy involves building a summer camp with Mark Lilly as the head counselor .
The episode was written by Daniel Powell and directed by Aaron Augenblick . Powell was inspired to write the episode after reading a critic 's review of the series ; the critic referred to Leonard as having " omnipotence " , which spurred an idea involving the character having to take responsibility . " Wet Hot Demonic Summer " parodies the Harry Potter series , particularly the character design of Lionel . The Harry Potter elements were planned nine months in advance to coincide with the release of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 , which premiered two weeks after the episode aired .
" Wet Hot Demonic Summer " received generally positive reviews from television critics ; several commentators praised its cultural references and claimed that it showed similar quality to that of the series ' first season . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Wet Hot Demonic Summer " was watched by 1 @.@ 14 million viewers in its original airing and attracted less viewers than the series ' pilot episode .
= = Plot = =
Leonard Powers , the Wizard of Social Services , is about to retire and takes his apprentice to Mount Magic to complete the initiation ceremony . For a wizard to retire , they must hatch their apprentice from an egg and train them for fifty years . However , Leonard abandoned his apprentice , the Harry Potter @-@ like Lionel , in Chinatown and did not contact him until the ceremony . Later , it is revealed that to become a wizard , the apprentices must be circumcised . Meanwhile , the demons — the wizard 's enemies — are ready to attack Mount Magic , but a force field is keeping them out . Since Leonard still needs to sign his retirement forms , demons Twayne Boneraper and Callie Maggotbone decide to use Mark Lilly to lead them to Leonard . To get Mark to come along , they elect him as the camp leader for a summer camp ( originally a mining camp ) that they build nearby . Mark brings his students from the Department of Integration to the camp , and the devil , Aldermach , brings several demons to act like the camp 's visitors . The department 's police officer , Frank Grimes , also comes along , but runs away to live with bears as he thinks the camp is infested by vermin . Mark 's students and his roommate , the zombie Randall , begin to mine in an old silver mine . However , they get trapped inside , but Doug the koala begins to dig them out .
At Mount Magic , Lionel is upset because Leonard abandoned him , and goes outside to the balcony , where he spots Callie swimming in the lake while wearing a bikini , and he declares that " she will be mine " . Mark arrives at the lake and sees Leonard from the balcony and tells him that he forgot to sign his retirement forms . Leonard explains how to come to the secret entrance to Mark , which the demons hear . Later , Mark meets Leonard and Lionel at the entrance , where he signs his forms and is ready to retire . Moments later , when initiation ceremony begins at Mount Magic , the demons invade the compound and a battle between wizards and demons commences , while Lionel runs away to be with Callie , who , being the camp 's " sexy counselor " , has sex with him before Mark interrupts . Grimes arrives with his army of bears and soon thereafter , Doug arrives in a hole that he dug ; the hole collapses the floor and all the demons and bears are consumed by it . As the battle ends , the sun goes down and it is too late for Lionel to be circumcised and take over as the Wizard of Social Services , so Leonard continues to work and begins to raise a new egg .
= = Production = =
" Wet Hot Demonic Summer " was written by Daniel Powell and directed by Aaron Augenblick . Series creator Devin Clark said that they planned on giving it a summer theme since they knew it would air in the summer . Clark further elaborated on the decision to incorporate summer and Harry Potter themes into the episode , stating : " We went , ' alright , those are two little nuggets of ideas we can incorporate into that . ' We can 't be as relevant to pop culture as some other shows , but it just means we have a little more of a challenge of making jokes that are a little more evergreen and poking fun of the genre in a much broader spectrum . " Screenwriter Powell explained that it is difficult for the series to do " topical stuff " as it takes up to nine months to complete an episode , but they were aware of the fact that the Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 would premiere shortly after the episode was set to air . " So it would seem like we were hyper @-@ topical , even though we had a good nine months advance notice " , he said . Powell said that they included famous wizards from many other sources , including The Lord of the Rings and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz . In an interview with Charles Webb of MTV , Clark elaborated : " We make it a hodgepodge of the wizard references and obviously the main one is , and the most prominent one and the one that 's most relevant to pop culture is the Harry Potter spoof that we 've thrown in there .
The episode explores Leonard 's background and that he is " essentially a deadbeat dad " . In an interview with Matt Barone of the magazine Complex , Powell revealed that he was inspired to write the episode after reading a critic 's review which referred to Leonard as " basically [ having ] omnipotence " as he is able to conjure any magic he wants , but is too lazy to take advantage of his powers . The review spurred an idea for an episode where Leonard would be responsible for dealing with a kid . Powell called the episode 's mythology " very bizarre and surreal " , but said that they tried to keep the core themes relatable , such as Leonard 's relationship with his estranged son . The same day as the episode 's original broadcast , a deleted scene from " Wet Hot Demonic Summer " was made available on the official Ugly Americans website . In the half @-@ minute clip , Grimes is shown settling into living his life as a bear .
= = Reception = =
The episode originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on June 30 , 2011 , following the Futurama episode " Ghost in the Machines " . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Wet Hot Demonic Summer " was watched by 1 @.@ 14 million viewers , compared to the 1 @.@ 92 million who watched Futurama . The episode also acquired a 0 @.@ 5 rating among viewers between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that 0 @.@ 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds viewed the episode . It dropped in viewership compared to the series ' pilot episode , which attracted 2 @.@ 10 million viewers and acquired a 1 @.@ 1 rating . " Wet Demonic Summer " also marked a drop in ratings compared to the first season finale , " The Manbirds " , which received a 0 @.@ 7 rating .
" Wet Hot Demonic Summer " received generally positive reviews from critics . David Hinckley of New York Daily News rated it four out of five stars and commented that although it may not make sense to some viewers , it is " equally possible they will keep watching anyway because the jokes work so well all by themselves " . Hinckley went on to remark that " Ugly Americans packs a lot into 21 or 22 minutes . Happily , its often droll and deadpan style makes it easy to watch even if some of the references are whizzing by unappreciated " . RedEye critic Curt Wagner rated it three stars out of four and wrote that that it includes " visual pizzazz " , cultural references and " so @-@ fast @-@ you 'll @-@ miss @-@ them jokes " that it might require multiple viewings . Wagner , however , meant that this was a rather positive feature , writing : " For example , you might be laughing so hard at what just happened that you miss a fun line ... " Lastly , Wagner observed that " Ugly Americans can be gross and bizarre , but everything makes sense in the world that it has created " .
Josh Harrison of Ology deemed the episode a " good sign " that the second season will be " just as good , if not better " than the first season . He said , " The way it all works together in this episode ... is subtle and surprising but nevertheless convincing evidence that there 's method to the madness . Ugly Americans knows when to play this card ; at all other junctures , it 's got the right instinct when it shows us yet more madness . " Harrison praised the battle scene between the wizards and the demons , calling it " one of the best single sequences in the series so far " . In contrast , The Standard @-@ Times critic Kevin McDonough was more critical regarding the episode , noting that it " tries a tad too hard " . McDonough commented : " The efforts to meld 1980s summer @-@ camp fantasy comedies with the Harry Potter movies are more odd than amusing . Then again , that pretty much sums up Ugly Americans itself . "
= The Invisible Hand ( The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man ) =
" The Invisible Hand " is the sixth episode of the animated television series The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , which is based on the comic book character Spider @-@ Man created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko . The episode follows Spider @-@ Man as he faces the Rhino , who has an indestructible rhino @-@ like suit and super strength . In his personal life , as his alter ego Peter Parker , Spider @-@ Man tries to ask out Daily Bugle worker Betty Brant to the upcoming fall formal at his high school .
" The Invisible Hand " was written by Matt Wayne and directed by Dave Bullock . Wayne had written one other episode for The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man before , and Bullock had directed the direct @-@ to @-@ video superhero film Justice League : The New Frontier . Clancy Brown voiced Rhino for the episode and was cast because the creators felt he could gracefully transition between the character 's personalities . It originally aired on April 12 , 2008 , on the Kids WB ! block for the CW Network and received generally positive reviews from television critics .
= = Plot summary = =
Dr. Otto Octavius is preparing to attach an exoskeleton onto Alex O 'Hirn 's body , modeled after that of a rhinoceros . Though Octavius is wary about going through with the experiment , Hammerhead forces him to activate it . O 'Hirn 's body is surgically attached to the suit and is given immeasurable strength . Meanwhile , Peter Parker is at the Daily Bugle trying to ask out Betty Brant to his school 's fall formal , despite their four @-@ year age difference ; she finally agrees to consider it and Peter hurries homeward , exhilarated , until he realizes he will need money for the date . He tells his best friend Harry about his plans at school the next day . Peter then receives a text message that his Aunt May is having lunch with Betty at the Bugle . Flash Thompson then gives Peter a noogie just before Peter runs off .
O 'Hirn dubs himself the " Rhino " and storms through the Bugle main office , where Aunt May and Betty are having lunch , and demands that J. Jonah Jameson tells him where Peter is , as he knows Peter photographs Spider @-@ Man . Jameson spots Peter hiding after just arriving and lies to Rhino about not knowing where he is . Peter sneaks off and dons his Spider @-@ Man costume , then engages Rhino in a fight . He wonders what the " Big Man " has been up to with all the supervillains , like Rhino , he has been organizing . Spider @-@ Man has a large scale brawl through the city and soon realizes that Rhino needs to be constantly hydrated in order to fight . He lures him into a steam tunnel and breaks all the pipes , dehydrating Rhino into unconsciousness . As he passes out , Rhino accidentally mentions that " Big Man " is really a man named Mr. Lincoln .
Peter goes back to the Bugle and claims to have been hiding the whole time . Betty pulls him aside and tells him that she is simply too old to date him and is sorry ; Peter , still downtrodden , remembers what the Rhino said and asks a reporter if he knows about anyone by that name . The reporter tells him about L. Thompson Lincoln , a philanthropist who is rumored to be a dangerous crime lord . That night Peter goes to Lincoln 's office as Spider @-@ Man to find out if the rumors are true . Lincoln prefers to be called " Tombstone " and wields incredible strength ; he pins him down and suggests that he work for him , fighting crime like usual but turning his head when it comes to his crimes . Spider @-@ Man refuses to do so and runs off .
When Peter gets home , he is depressed . Aunt May insists that he gets dressed for the formal and explains that she has arranged for him to go with Mary Jane Watson . Peter thinks that she will turn out to be a plain girl due to the descriptions Aunt May has given him , but when she arrives he learns that she is an attractive girl and is flabbergasted .
= = Production = =
" The Invisible Hand " was written by Matt Wayne . Wayne had previously written the episode " Natural Selection " and went on to write " Persona " . Dave Bullock , who directed the animated feature film Justice League : The New Frontier , directed the episode . The title of the episode follows the " Education of Peter Parker " scheme Greg Weisman , a developer and producer for The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , created . The naming scheme for the second story arc of season one refers to economics .
There was a scene cut from the episode after it was written , recorded , and storyboarded . The scene featured Rhino looking in a phone book for individuals named " Peter Parker " in the tri @-@ state area . He storms into a " Peter James Parker " ( Kevin Michael Richardson ) , a blind , elderly African @-@ American bassoon player , accusing him of being the Peter Parker he is looking for . The man is outraged and asks him , " Do I look like I 'm a photographer ? " Rhino himself is furious as there are several Peter Parkers in the tri @-@ state area . Weisman was upset that it was removed and called it " just hilarious " .
Weisman and casting director Jamie Thomason each easily picked out Clancy Brown for the role of Rhino . Weisman explains , " We knew Rhino would require a voice with strength and menace , but Rhino also isn 't the brightest bulb on the marquee , so we knew whoever we cast would also have to have the acting chops and comic timing to take the character beyond the usual dumb goon . " They each had worked with Brown previously and knew he would be able to " nail it " , as he is able to give a " tough , low voice " and " turn on a dime between dangerous and comedic characterizations . "
Brown sought to reflect the Rhino 's simplistic thinking style in his voice . He believes " the quintessential ' thug ' was played by William Bendix in The Glass Key . The simpler the character , the simpler the thought process . That means Rhino 's ' motivation ' is never too complicated [ ... ] he 's very elemental . He 's mad or happy or angry or sad or hungry or whatever . And it never gets beyond his appetites or ego . " Brown considers that Bendix 's performance perfectly portrayed this type of character .
= = Release and reception = =
" The Invisible Hand " was originally broadcast on April 12 , 2008 , on the Kids WB ! block for the CW Network . A two @-@ week hiatus of The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man followed the airing . It is available on the DVDs The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man : Volume I , where it is paired with " Market Forces " and " Competition " , and The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man Animated Series : The Complete First Season .
The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 , ( " Impressive " ) writing , " For an episode that began ho @-@ hum , things certainly got interesting in the last half , with two surprise introductions . " Goldman praised the fight sequences as well as the unveiling of Tombstone and Mary Jane . Goldman concluded his review by writing , " It 's a testament to this show that it has it exactly right that Peter Parker 's everyday , unmasked persona is so integral to the story , and that I actually am very curious how this dance goes . "
Sean Elliot of iF Magazine gave the episode a " B + " and wrote that it was a " well @-@ thought out premise " . Elliot was " pleased " with the portrayal of Rhino as an unintelligent brute ; he also enjoyed the change of the " Big Man 's " identity from that of the comics - where he was a Bugle reporter named Frederic Foswell - and found it humorous to have Foswell be the reporter to tell Peter who the " Big Man " is rumored to be . Ultimate Disney reviewer Luke Bonanno did not include the episode among his top five episodes of The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man 's first season , but " feel [ s ] obligated to point out that the uniform excellence of the lot [ makes ] this a challenging task . "
= Hafnium =
Hafnium is a chemical element with symbol Hf and atomic number 72 . A lustrous , silvery gray , tetravalent transition metal , hafnium chemically resembles zirconium and is found in zirconium minerals . Its existence was predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869 , though it was not identified until 1923 , making it the penultimate stable element to be discovered ( rhenium was identified two years later ) . Hafnium is named after Hafnia , the Latin name for Copenhagen , where it was discovered .
Hafnium is used in filaments and electrodes . Some semiconductor fabrication processes use its oxide for integrated circuits at 45 nm and smaller feature lengths . Some superalloys used for special applications contain hafnium in combination with niobium , titanium , or tungsten .
Hafnium 's large neutron capture cross @-@ section makes it a good material for neutron absorption in control rods in nuclear power plants , but at the same time requires that it be removed from the neutron @-@ transparent corrosion @-@ resistant zirconium alloys used in nuclear reactors .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical characteristics = = =
Hafnium is a shiny , silvery , ductile metal that is corrosion @-@ resistant and chemically similar to zirconium ( due to not only to its having the same number of valence electrons and being in the same group , but also to relativistic effects ) . The physical properties of hafnium metal samples are markedly affected by zirconium impurities , especially the nuclear properties , as these two elements are among the most difficult to separate because of their chemical similarity .
A notable physical difference between these metals is their density , with zirconium having about one @-@ half the density of hafnium . The most notable nuclear properties of hafnium are its high thermal neutron @-@ capture cross @-@ section and that the nuclei of several different hafnium isotopes readily absorb two or more neutrons apiece . In contrast with this , zirconium is practically transparent to thermal neutrons , and it is commonly used for the metal components of nuclear reactors – especially the cladding of their nuclear fuel rods .
= = = Chemical characteristics = = =
Hafnium reacts in air to form a protective film that inhibits further corrosion . The metal is not readily attacked by acids but can be oxidized with halogens or it can be burnt in air . Like its sister metal zirconium , finely divided hafnium can ignite spontaneously in air , producing an effect similar to that obtained in Dragon 's Breath . The metal is resistant to concentrated alkalis .
The chemistry of hafnium and zirconium is so similar that the two cannot be separated on the basis of differing chemical reactions . The melting points and boiling points of the compounds and the solubility in solvents are the major differences in the chemistry of these twin elements .
= = = Isotopes = = =
At least 34 isotopes of hafnium have been observed , ranging in mass number from 153 to 186 . The five stable isotopes are in the range of 176 to 180 . The radioactive isotopes ' half @-@ lives range from only 400 ms for 153Hf , to 2 @.@ 0 petayears ( 1015 years ) for the most stable one , 174Hf .
The nuclear isomer 178m2Hf was at the center of a controversy for several years regarding its potential use as a weapon .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Hafnium is estimated to make up about 5 @.@ 8 ppm of the Earth 's upper crust by mass . It does not exist as a free element in nature , but is found combined in solid solution with zirconium in natural zirconium compounds such as zircon , ZrSiO4 , which usually has about 1 – 4 % of the Zr replaced by Hf . Rarely , the Hf / Zr ratio increases during crystallization to give the isostructural mineral " hafnon " ( Hf , Zr ) SiO4 , with atomic Hf > Zr . An old ( obsolete ) name for a variety of zircon containing unusually high Hf content is alvite .
A major source of zircon ( and hence hafnium ) ores is heavy mineral sands ore deposits , pegmatites , particularly in Brazil and Malawi , and carbonatite intrusions , particularly the Crown Polymetallic Deposit at Mount Weld , Western Australia . A potential source of hafnium is trach
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4 an extensive treatise entitled An account of Switzerland , in which he described the authorities ' rule as particularly mild , mentioning explicitly the low taxation in comparison to other European states and giving as the reason for the comparatively soft @-@ gloved government the fear of rebellions .
= = Historiography = =
In the decades following the peasant war the city authorities tried to suppress the memory of this nearly successful revolt . Resistance symbols like the flags or the weapons used by the peasants , in particular their typical clubs with nails on the hitting end ( called ( Bauern- ) Knüttel ) , were outlawed , confiscated , and destroyed . Documents such as the Bundesbriefe of Huttwil were stashed away in the vaults of the city archives . Any public remembrances or pilgrimages to the places where the leaders had been executed were forbidden and carried the death penalty , as did the singing of the peasants ' war songs . Bern was particularly active in trying to censor the memories of the event and also tried to suppress images of the peasant leaders . Historic texts written during the Ancien Régime of Switzerland generally follow the official diction and mention the peasant war , if they do so at all , only briefly and in negative terms . Works with differing viewpoints were often prohibited . The censorship was not entirely successful ; in private , the rural population kept the memories of 1653 alive , and various accounts of the events were printed in Germany .
In the 19th century , the official view was increasingly questioned . The aristocratic Ancien Régime had been weakened severely during the Napoleonic Wars , when the Confederacy had been a French satellite state . The episode of the Helvetic Republic , short @-@ lived as it had been , had instilled democratic ideals in the population . The restauration of the Ancien Régime after the end of the Napoleonic era proved to be only temporary , until Switzerland became a federal state in 1848 when its first democratic constitution was passed . During the restoration , democratic publishers instrumented and interpreted the history of the peasant war as an allegory on the then current struggle for democracy , seeing the peasant war of 1653 as an early precursor of their own efforts to overcome the authoritarian regime . Well @-@ known examples are the illustrations by Martin Disteli from 1839 / 40 , who used scenes from the peasant war in such allegoric ways .
The official view remained ambivalent at best , though . A scene devoted to the peasant war of 1653 in a theatre production for the Swiss sexacentennial celebrations in 1891 , for instance , was cut on the demands of the organizers . The first statues to honor the peasants of 1653 and their leaders were erected in 1903 on the occasion of the 250th anniversary of the peasant war . A monument honoring Schybi and Emmenegger was unveiled at Escholzmatt on July 26 , 1903 , at Rüderswil , a statue in honor of Leuenberger was erected the same year , and at Liestal an obelisk honoring the peasant victims of the war was inaugurated on September 25 , 1904 . More statues and plaques were installed in various other places at the tricentennial of the war in 1953 , for instance a relief showing Schybi in a chapel at Sursee , where the peasant leader had been incarcerated .
Ideological instrumentalizations of the peasant war occurred even in the 20th century . Hans Mühlestein , a Swiss Marxist historian , interpreted the events of 1653 in the 1940s and 1950s as an early bourgeois revolution of a progressive bourgeoisie , fitting the Marxist concept of " class struggle " ; a view considered untenable by many later historians .
Modern historians generally agree that the peasant war was an important event in Swiss history , and also in comparison to other popular revolts in late medieval Europe . Such revolts were rather common at the time and often were motivated by excessive taxation . The peasant war of 1653 stands out as a culminative end point in Switzerland for three reasons :
The revolt spread quickly to cover several cantons , whereas previous uprisings in the Confederacy had invariably been local affairs .
The peasants were well organized and for the only time mobilized veritable armies against their rulers , which hadn 't happened before . The peasant leaders had clearly learned from previous unsuccessful smaller revolts they had been involved in .
The peasants ' goals for the first time went beyond a pure restoration of rights of old and tax relief : the Huttwil League radically denied the authorities ' hitherto unquestioned entitlement to rule .
In 2003 , the city of Bern celebrated the 650th anniversary of its adherence to the Old Swiss Confederacy with many events , including a dedicated exposition at the Historical Museum that ran for several months and the publication of the history schoolbook Berns mutige Zeit . The simultaneous 350 @-@ year anniversary of the peasant war was reflected in the city only in a few newspaper articles , but it was widely celebrated in the coutryside with speeches , colloquia , and an ambitious and very successful open @-@ air theatre production at Eggiwil in the Emmental .
= M2 light tank =
The Light Tank M2 was an American pre @-@ World War II light tank which saw limited use during World War II . The most common model , the M2A4 , was equipped with one 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) M5 gun , one .50 M2 Browning machine gun , and five .30 cal M1919 Browning machine guns .
It was originally developed from the prototype T2 tank built by Rock Island Arsenal , which had a Vickers @-@ type leaf spring suspension . The suspension was replaced by the superior vertical volute system in the T2E1 series of 1935 . This was put into production with minor modifications as the M2A1 in 1936 , with ten produced . The main pre @-@ war version was the M2A2 , with 239 produced , becoming the main tank in the US Army infantry units in the pre @-@ world @-@ war @-@ II period . The Spanish Civil War showed that tanks armed only with machine guns were ineffective . This led to the M2A4 with a 37 mm gun as the main armament . 375 were delivered , the last ten as late as April 1942 .
Its only combat use in American units was with the US Marine Corps 1st Tank Battalion during the Pacific War in 1942 . However , it is believed that M2A4s served in Burma and India with the British 7th Hussars and 2nd Royal Tank Regiment during their engagements with the Imperial Japanese Army 's 14th Tank Regiment . The M2A4 light tank led to the M3 Stuart light tank , the M2 Medium Tank and M4 Tractor artillery tower . The M3 Stuart saw widespread use throughout the war , the M2 Medium Tank , though another unsuccessful design , led to the M3 Lee and thence the M4 Sherman medium tanks .
= = Development history = =
US Army infantry tank design started with the Light Tank , T1 during the 1920s , which developed into a series of experimental designs which didn 't enter production . The T2 concept , starting five years later , incorporated several design lessons from the T1 , but used a new suspension system copied from the British Vickers 6 @-@ Ton tank . The first prototype was delivered in 1933 .
The Defense Act of 1920 had defined tanks to be used in support of the infantry . Through the 1920s a number of theorists outlined an independent role for the tank that required it to move at high speed into the rear areas , a modern version of the cavalry . The British referred to these designs as cruiser tanks , but similar high @-@ speed designs were developed under a variety of names . As the Defense Act limited tank development to the infantry , the United States Cavalry began tank development under the name " combat car " . In keeping with the high @-@ speed role , the new T5 Combat Car introduced the new vertical volute spring suspension ( VVSS ) system , which proved clearly superior to the Vickers leaf spring system .
This led to a second prototype of the T2 , the T2E1 in April 1934 , adopting VVSS from the T5 . The T2E1 was armed with one .30 cal ( 7 @.@ 62 mm ) and one .50 inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) Browning machine gun mounted in a fixed turret ; another .30 cal Browning was mounted on the hull front . The T2E1 was selected for production in 1935 as the M2 , which mounted only the M2 Browning in a small one @-@ man turret , and the .30 cal in the hull .
After only 10 units were delivered , the Infantry Branch decided to switch to a twin turret configuration in the M2E2 , with a .30 @-@ caliber ( 7 @.@ 62 mm ) machine gun in a second turret . These early twin @-@ turret tanks were given the nickname " Mae West " by the troops , after the popular busty movie star . The twin @-@ turret layout was inefficient , but was a common feature of 1930s light tanks derived from the Vickers , such as the Soviet T @-@ 26 and Polish 7TP . Further refinements to the M2A2 produced the A3 model , which incorporated a modified suspension system that reduced the tank 's ground pressure . The weight increased to 10 tons .
Following the Spanish Civil War , most armies , including the U.S. Army , realized that they needed tanks armed with cannon and not merely with machine guns . The Cavalry had already opted for a single , larger turret on its nearly identical M1 Combat Car . In December 1938 , OCM # 14844 directed that a single M2A3 be removed from the assembly line and modified with heavier armor and weapons , to meet the standards of the U.S. Infantry . This vehicle , after conversion , was re @-@ designated as the M2A4 . It was equipped with an M5 37 mm main gun , 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick armor , and a seven @-@ cylinder gasoline engine . Other upgrades included improved suspension , improved transmission , and better engine cooling . Production of the M2A4 began in May 1940 at the American Car and Foundry Company , and continued through March 1941 ; an additional ten M2A4s were assembled in April 1942 , for a total production run of 375 M2A4 light tanks . The US Army sent out press photos still showing the M2A4 being assembled in July 1941 after the assembly line had been changed over to the M3 .
= = = Successor vehicles = = =
The M2 Light Tank led to the US M3 @-@ series and M5 @-@ series light tanks . The Ordnance Department viewed the M2A4 as a stopgap tank ; work to improve it further began in June 1940 . The first M3 Stuart tanks began to be produced in March 1941 ; the original riveted M3s closely resembled the M2A4 , and the two types occasionally served in the same units ; the easiest recognition feature is the aft ( rear ) idler wheel . On the M2A4 , the idler is raised ; on the M3 it trails on the ground , increasing the flotation of the heavier vehicle . The M3 retained the same Continental W @-@ 670 engine , but incorporated ½ -inch thicker ( 1 ½ inch total thickness ) armor ; weight increased to 14 tons . The tank initially kept the same 37 mm gun and the forward firing hull machine guns , but the turret incorporated improvements . Eventually over 4 @,@ 500 examples of all variants were produced .
= = Operational use = =
By December 1941 , the M2A1 , M2A2 and M2A3 were used for training only . The majority of M2A4s , which went to the US Army , were also used only for training between 1940 and 1942 . The U.S. Marine Corps ordered M3 Stuart tanks to outfit its armored units in 1940 , but as the new tank was not yet in production , it received 36 M2A4s , after which point production of the M3 had come on line . Many of these tanks were deployed during the Battle of Guadalcanal while assigned to A Company , 1st Tank Battalion , where they and M3 Stuarts were typically spread out among infantry units . Their use was generally limited to providing mobile fire support to the Marines , either in disabling Japanese bunkers or using canister shot against Japanese attacks . In defensive engagements , the M2A4s and Stuarts would deploy in pairs , so they could cover each other with machine gun fire against Japanese soldiers armed with satchel charges .
Ultimately , the Marine Corps determined that the 37 mm gun of the M2s and M3s was not powerful enough to defeat Japanese bunkers , and so they would be replaced with tanks armed with 75 mm guns . Following the end of the Guadalcanal campaign , A Company returned to Australia , where the M2A4s were replaced with the new M4 Shermans in preparation for the Battle of Cape Gloucester in December 1943 . They remained in service in some areas of the Pacific Theater until 1943 . After they served in the Pacific , they were used for training .
Britain ordered 100 M2A4s in early 1941 . After 36 of them were delivered , the order was canceled in favor of an improved M3 Stuart . The fate of these vehicles is unclear . There is evidence that indicates those 36 M2A4s were shipped off from North Africa as part of the British Army 's 7th Hussars and 2nd Royal Tank Regiment , fighting in the India and Burma campaigns against the Japanese 14th Tank Regiment . However , according to historian Mike Green , the tanks were never issued to combat units .
= = Design = =
Besides the machine gun mounted coaxially to the main gun , there were three .30 cal. machine guns on the front hull of the M2 . One was mounted in a ball mount in front of the bow gunner . The other two were mounted in a fixed orientation in the upper hull near the sides of the tank . The machine guns were fired by the driver with the triggers on his steering levers . Troops could also mount another .30 cal machine gun on the top of the turret for anti @-@ aircraft defense .
The 37 mm M5 gun had a manually operated breechblock . The tank commander doubled as loader , like many other tanks of the time . There was no turret basket in the M2A4 light tank ; the commander stood on the right side , while the gunner stood on the left side . The commander turned the turret onto the general direction of target . The gunner would then bring the target into the M5 telescopic sight . The M20 combination mount had 20 ° of traverse ; this could either be by a handwheel driving the rack and pinion traverse gear mechanism or pressure on the gunners shoulder rest overcoming the friction in the mechanism . Depression and elevation of the gun was either through a geared mechanism or , with the gears disengaged , free through movement of the gunner 's shoulder rest .
= = Variants = =
M2A1 ( 1935 ) .
Initial production type with single fixed turret containing one .50 cal machine gun . 17 units were produced .
M2A2 ( 1935 ) .
Twin turrets with single .50 machine gun in each ; the turrets partly obstructed each other limiting fields of fire . Dubbed " Mae West " . 239 units produced from 1936 – 37 .
M2A3 ( 1938 ) .
Twin turrets with two machine guns , thicker armor , slightly lengthened hull , improved engine access , increased gear ratios , better engine cooling , improved suspension , and other minor detail changes . 72 units produced .
M2A4 ( 1939 ) .
Single turret with 37mm gun . Thicker armor . 375 units produced . Orders went to the American Car & Foundry in October 1939 upon request by the Ordnance Department . Used in the early Pacific campaigns and training . Only service was in Guadalcanal . Used for training after December 1941 .
= = Specifications = =
The M2A4 was 14 ft 6 in ( 4 @.@ 42 m ) long , 8 ft 1 in ( 2 @.@ 46 m ) wide , 8 ft 8 in ( 2 @.@ 64 m ) high , and weighed 11 @.@ 6 t ( 26 @,@ 000 lb ) . It had a vertical volute spring suspension and had a speed of 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) , and had a range of 200 mi ( 320 km ) . It had one M5 37 mm gun ( with 103 rounds ) , one .50 cal ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning heavy machine guns ( with 1800 rounds ) and five .30 cal M1919 Browning machine guns ( with 8 @,@ 470 rounds ) with 6 to 25 mm of armor . It had an 250 hp ( 190 kW ) Continental W @-@ 670 9A seven @-@ cylinder radial engine . The vehicle was operated by a crew of four ( commander / loader , gunner , driver , and co @-@ driver ) .
= Central American squirrel monkey =
The Central American squirrel monkey ( Saimiri oerstedii ) is a squirrel monkey species from the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama . It is restricted to the northwestern tip of Panama near the border with Costa Rica , and the central and southern Pacific coast of Costa Rica , primarily in Manuel Antonio and Corcovado National Parks .
It is a small monkey with an orange back and a distinctive white and black facial mask . It has an omnivorous diet , eating fruits , other plant materials , invertebrates and some small vertebrates . In turn , it has a number of predators , including raptors , cats and snakes . It lives in large groups that typically contain between 20 and 75 monkeys . It has one of the most egalitarian social structures of all monkeys . Females do not form dominance hierarchies , and males do so only at breeding season . Females become sexually mature at 2 ½ years , and males at 4 to 5 years . Sexually mature females leave the natal group , but males can remain with their natal group their entire life . The Central American squirrel monkey can live for more than 15 years .
The Central American squirrel monkey population declined precipitously after the 1970s . This decline is believed to be caused by deforestation , hunting , and capture to be kept as pets . Efforts are underway to preserve the species . Despite the threats to the population , in 2008 the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) upgraded its conservation status from " endangered " to " vulnerable " .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Central American squirrel monkey is a member of the family Cebidae , the family of New World monkeys containing squirrel monkeys , capuchin monkeys , tamarins and marmosets . Within the family Cebidae , it is a member of the subfamily Saimiriinae , the subfamily containing squirrel monkeys . It is one of five recognized species of squirrel monkey , and the only species occurring outside South America . The Central American Squirrel Monkey is placed in genus Saimiri ( Voigt , 1831 ) along with all the other squirrel monkey species . Among the squirrel monkeys , the Central American squirrel monkey is most closely related to the common squirrel monkey ( Saimiri sciureus ) and the bare @-@ eared squirrel monkey ( Saimiri ustus ) and these three species form the S. sciureus species group . The binomial name Saimiri oerstedii was given by Johannes Theodor Reinhardt in honor of his fellow Danish biologist Anders Sandøe Ørsted .
There are two subspecies of the Central American squirrel monkey :
Black @-@ crowned Central American squirrel monkey , Saimiri oerstedii oerstedii
Grey @-@ crowned Central American squirrel monkey , Saimiri oerstedii citrinellus
S. o
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. oerstedii lives in the western Pacific portion of Panama and the Osa Peninsula area of Costa Rica ( including Corcovado National Park ) , while S. o. citrinellus lives in the Central Pacific portion of Costa Rica . The largest estimate ( most recently in 2003 ) is that the remaining wild population of S. o. citrinellus is only 1 @,@ 300 to 1 @,@ 800 individuals .
= = Physical description = =
The Central American squirrel monkey differs in coloration from South American squirrel monkeys . While South American squirrel monkeys tend to be primarily greenish in color , the Central American species has an orange back with olive shoulders , hips and tail and white undersides . The hands and feet are also orange . There is a black cap at the top of the head , and a black tip at the end of the tail . Males generally have lighter caps than females . The face is white with black rims around the eyes and black around the nose and mouth .
The two subspecies are similar in coloration , but differ in the shade of the cap . The northern subspecies , living in Central Pacific Costa Rica , has a lighter cap than the southern subspecies , which lives in Panama and in parts of Costa Rica near Panama . The southern subspecies also has more yellowish limbs and underparts .
Adults reach a length of between 266 and 291 millimetres ( 10 @.@ 5 and 11 @.@ 5 in ) , excluding tail , and a weight between 600 and 950 grams ( 21 and 34 oz ) . The tail is longer than the body , and between 362 and 389 mm ( 14 @.@ 3 and 15 @.@ 3 in ) in length . As with other squirrel monkeys , there is considerable sexual dimorphism . On average , males weigh 16 % more than females . Males have an average body weight of 829 g ( 29 @.@ 2 oz ) and females average 695 g ( 24 @.@ 5 oz ) . Squirrel monkeys have the largest brains of all primates relative to their body size ; the Central American squirrel monkey 's brain weighs about 25 @.@ 7 g ( 0 @.@ 91 oz ) , or about 4 % of its body weight . Unlike larger relatives , such as the capuchin , spider and howler monkeys , Central American squirrel monkeys do not have a fully prehensile tail , except as newborn infants , and the tail is primarily used to help with balance .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Social structure = = =
The Central American squirrel monkey is arboreal and diurnal , and most often moves through the trees on four legs ( quadrupedal locomotion ) . It lives in groups containing several adult males , adult females and juveniles . The group size tends to be smaller than that of South American squirrel monkeys , but is still larger than for many other New World monkey species . The group generally numbers between 20 and 75 monkeys , with a mean of 41 monkeys . Groups in excess of 100 sometimes occur , but these are believed to be temporary mergers of two groups . On average , groups contain about 60 % more females than males .
The squirrel monkey groups have a home range of between 35 and 63 hectares ( 86 to 156 acres ) . Group ranges can overlap , especially in large , protected areas such as Manuel Antonio National Park . Less overlap occurs in more fragmented areas . Groups can travel between 2 @,@ 500 and 4 @,@ 200 m ( 8 @,@ 200 and 13 @,@ 800 ft ) per day . Unlike some other monkey species , the group does not split into separate foraging groups during the day . Individual monkeys may separate for the main group to engage in different activities for periods of time , and thus the group may be dispersed over an area of up to three acres ( 1 @.@ 2 hectares ) at any given time . The group tends to sleep in the same trees every night for months at a time , unlike other squirrel monkeys .
There are no dominance hierarchies among the females , and the females do not form coalitions . Males in the group are generally related to each other and thus tend to form strong affiliations , and only form dominance hierarchies during the breeding season . This is especially the case among males of the same age . Neither males nor females are dominant over each other , an egalitarian social system that is unique to Central American squirrel monkeys . In South American species , either the females ( S. boliviensis ) or males ( S. sciureus ) are dominant over the other sex , and both sexes form stable dominance hierarchies . Groups of Central American squirrel monkeys generally do not compete or fight with each other . Male Costa Rican squirrel monkeys are known to have very close bonds with each other .
Although South American species of squirrel monkeys often travel with and feed together with capuchin monkeys , the Central American squirrel monkey only rarely associates with the white @-@ headed capuchin . This appears to be related to the fact that the food the Central American squirrel monkey eats is distributed in smaller , more dispersed patches than that of South American squirrel monkeys . As a result of the different food distribution , associating with capuchin monkeys would impose higher foraging costs for the Central American squirrel monkey than for their South American counterparts . In addition , while male white @-@ headed capuchins are alert to predators , they devote more attention to detecting rival males than to detecting predators , and relatively less time to detecting predators than their South American counterparts . Therefore , associating with capuchins would provide less predator detection benefits and impose higher foraging costs on the Central American squirrel monkey than on South American squirrel monkeys .
Certain bird species associate with the Central American squirrel monkey . The birds follow the monkeys in an attempt to prey on insects and small vertebrates that the monkeys flush out . At Corcovado National Park , bird species known to regularly follow squirrel monkeys include the double @-@ toothed kite , the grey @-@ headed tanager and the tawny @-@ winged woodcreeper , but other woodcreepers and such species as motmots and trogons do so as well . This activity increases during the wet season , when arthropods are harder to find .
= = = Diet = = =
The Central American squirrel monkey is omnivorous . Its diet includes insects and insect larvae ( especially grasshoppers and caterpillars ) , spiders , fruit , leaves , bark , flowers and nectar . It also eats small vertebrates , including bats , birds , lizards and tree frogs . It finds its food foraging through the lower and middle levels of the forest , typically between fifteen and thirty feet high . Two @-@ thirds to three @-@ quarters of each day is spent foraging for food . It has difficulty finding its desired food late in the wet season , when fewer arthropods are available .
It has a unique method of capturing tent @-@ making bats . It looks for roosting bats by looking for their tents ( which are made of a folded leaf ) . When it finds a bat it climbs to a higher level and jumps onto the tent from above , attempting to dislodge the bat . If the fallen bat does not fly away in time , the monkey pounces on it on the ground and eats it .
The Central American squirrel monkey is an important seed disperser and a pollinator of certain flowers , including the passion flower . While it is not a significant agricultural pest , it does sometimes eat corn , coffee , bananas and mangos . Other fruits eaten include cecropias , legumes , figs , palms , cerillo , quiubra , yayo flaco and wild cashew fruits .
= = = Communication = = =
The Central American squirrel monkey is noisy . It makes many squeals , whistles and chirps . It also travels through the forest noisily , disturbing vegetation as it moves through . It has four main calls , which have been described as a " smooth chuck " , a " bent mask chuck " , a " peep " and a " twitter " .
= = = Predators = = =
Predators of the Central American squirrel monkey include birds of prey , cats and snakes . Constricting and venomous snakes both prey on squirrel monkeys . Raptors are particularly effective predators of Central American squirrel monkeys . The oldest males bear most of the responsibility for detecting predators . When a Central American squirrel monkey detects a raptor , it gives a high @-@ pitched alarm peep and dives for cover . All other squirrel monkeys that hear the alarm call also dive for cover . The monkeys are particularly cautious about raptors , and give alarms when they detect any raptor @-@ like object , including small airplanes and even falling branches and large leaves .
Predator detection by the males becomes particularly important during the period when the infants are born . Raptors spend significantly more time near the squirrel monkey troops during this period , and prey on a significant number of the newborn infants . Other animals that prey on Central American squirrel monkey infants include toucans , tayras , opossums , coatis , snakes , and even spider monkeys .
= = Reproduction = =
The breeding season for the Central American squirrel monkey is in September . All females come into estrus at virtually the same time . A month or two before the breeding season begins , males become larger . This is not due to extra muscle , but to altered water balance within the male 's body . This is caused by conversion of the male hormone testosterone into estrogen ; thus the more testosterone a male produces , the more he grows in advance of the breeding season . Since males within a group have not been observed fighting over access to females during breeding season , nor attempting to force females to copulate with them , it is believed that female choice determines which males get to breed with females . Females tend to prefer the males that expand the most in advance of breeding season . This may be because the most enlarged males are generally the oldest and the most effective at detecting predators , or it may be a case of runaway intersexual selection .
Males sometimes leave their group for short periods of time during the breeding season in order to try to mate with females from neighboring groups . Females are receptive to males from other groups , although resident males attempt to repel the intruders . The gestation period is six months , and the infants are born within a single week during February and March . Typically , a single infant is born .
Only 50 % of infants survive more than six months , largely due to predation by birds . The infant remains dependent on its mother for about one year . Females give birth every 12 months , so the prior infant becomes independent at about the same time the new infant is born . Females become sexually mature at 2 ½ years old , while males become sexually mature at between 4 and 5 years old . The females leave their natal group upon reaching sexual maturity , while males usually remain with their group for their entire lives . This is different from South American squirrel monkey species , where either males disperse from their natal group or both sexes disperse . Males of the same age tend to associate with each other in age cohorts . Upon reaching sexual maturity , an age cohort may choose to leave the group and attempt to oust the males from another group in order to attain increased reproductive opportunities .
The lifespan of the Central American squirrel monkey in the wild is unknown , but captive specimens have been known to live more than 15 years . Other squirrel monkey species are known to be able to live more than 20 years .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Central American squirrel monkey has a restricted distribution in Costa Rica and Panama . It lives only near the Pacific coast . Its range covers Central Pacific Costa Rica in the north through western Panama . It lives in two of Costa Rica 's national parks — Manuel Antonio National Park and Corcovado National Park — where it can be seen by visitors , but it is not as commonly seen in these parks as the white @-@ headed capuchin or the mantled howler monkeys . It lives in lowland forests and is restricted to secondary forests and primary forests which have been partially logged . It requires forests with abundant low and mid @-@ level vegetation and has difficulty surviving in tall , mature , undisturbed forests that lack such vegetation .
= = Conservation status = =
It was once believed that the Central American squirrel monkey was just a population of a South American species of squirrel monkey brought to Central America by humans . Evidence for this theory included the very small range of the Central American squirrel monkey and the large gap from the range of any other squirrel monkey species . A study of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA demonstrated that the Central American squirrel monkey is indeed a separate species that apparently diverged from the South American species long ago – at least 260 @,@ 000 years ago and possibly more than 4 million years ago .
One popular theory is that squirrel monkeys did live in Colombia during the late Miocene or Pliocene and these squirrel monkeys migrated to Central America , becoming the ancestors of the current Central American species . According to this theory , the Guatemalan black howler migrated to Central America around the same time . Passage through the isthmus of Panama later closed due to rising oceans , and eventually opened up to another wave of migration about 2 million years ago . These later migrants , ancestors to modern populations of white @-@ headed capuchins , mantled howlers and Geoffroy 's spider monkeys , out @-@ competed the earlier migrants , leading to the small range of the Central American squirrel monkey and Guatemalan black howler .
The population density has been estimated at 36 monkeys per square kilometer ( 93 per square mile ) in Costa Rica and 130 monkeys per square kilometer ( 337 per square mile ) in Panama . It has been estimated that the population of the Central American squirrel monkey has been reduced from about 200 @,@ 000 in the 1970s to less than 5 @,@ 000 . This is believed to be largely due to deforestation , hunting , and capture for the pet trade . There are significant efforts within Costa Rica to try to preserve this monkey from extinction . A reforestation project within Panama tries to preserve the vanishing population of the Chiriqui Province .
As of 2008 , the Central American squirrel monkey is listed as " vulnerable " from a conservation standpoint by the IUCN . This is due to the fact that its range encompasses just 8 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 3 @,@ 100 sq mi ) , its range is fragmented , and it suffers from ongoing habitat loss . This assessment is an improvement from the 2003 assessment , in which the Central American squirrel monkey was listed as " endangered " .
= California State Route 188 =
State Route 188 ( SR 188 ) is a two @-@ mile ( 3 km ) route that connects State Route 94 with the Mexico – United States border . Its southern terminus is at the border near Tecate , Baja California and its northern terminus is near Tecate , California with SR 94 . The route was assigned in the area in 1972 , and has remained intact since .
= = Route description = =
State Route 188 or Tecate Road begins at the U.S.-Mexico border in the community of Tecate , Baja California ; this border crossing handled roughly four percent of all traffic in between Baja California and California during 2008 . The route progresses northward , passing through a large commercial district in Tecate , California . The highway heads to an intersection with Thing Road , where it turns to the northeast and out of the commercial district . The route continues to the northeast , intersecting with Humphries Road , where the surroundings become highly undeveloped . SR 188 continues to an intersection with SR 94 a short distance out of Potrero , where the designation ends and right @-@ of @-@ way merges into SR 94 .
The entire route is in the National Highway System , a network of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In 2013 , SR 188 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 5 @,@ 600 at the northern terminus , and 5 @,@ 900 at the southern terminus , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
The original alignment of SR 188 , when routes where first assigned , was designated as Legislative Route 94 . In the 1964 state highway renumbering , SR 188 was officially defined as " the south end of Fallen Leaf Lake to Route 89 near Camp Richardson " ; this was later removed in 1965 .
A road from the town of Potrero to Tecate existed by 1917 . The Tecate border crossing originally opened in 1932 . In 1938 , the San Diego County board of supervisors proposed moving rerouting the road to be shorter and on more level ground , although there was opposition from local residents and businesses who favored the old road . However , the route of the road to Tecate has remained the same since then .
The current routing of SR 188 was assigned in 1972 . The route has remained virtually unchanged since . The Tecate border crossing expanded through the opening of the Tecate Commercial Vehicle Enforcement Facility , including truck scales ; this was completed in 2008 , with past expansions to the crossing having been completed in 2004 and 2005 .
= = Future = =
Improvements are being planned to connect the two ports of entry with a truck bypass to improve security ; these are scheduled for completion by 2015 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in San Diego County .
= Roy 's Wedding =
" Roy 's Wedding " is the second episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 178th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC on September 27 , 2012 . The episode guest stars David Denman as Roy Anderson , Michael Patrick McGill as his brother Kenny , Robert R. Shafer as Bob Vance , and Ameenah Kaplan as Val .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) are invited to the wedding of Roy Anderson ( Denman ) — Pam 's former fiancé . Roy 's wedding toast later leads to Pam and Jim searching their relationships for any secrets that the other might not know about . Jim , however , hides the fact that he has started a company with a college friend , and Pam grows more and more suspicious . Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) reacts to Nellie Bertram 's ( Catherine Tate ) mandatory charity initiative by announcing he will donate to the Taliban .
" Roy 's Wedding " saw the return of Denman as Roy , who was a regular character in the show 's first three seasons . The episode received moderately positive reviews from critics . Many applauded the emotional drama in Pam and Jim 's storyline . However , many reviews gave the episode 's two subplots mixed reviews . " Roy 's Wedding " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 13 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode ranked fourth in its timeslot and was also the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
In the cold open Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) creates a chore wheel after the office janitor is on vacation , but after everyone else in the office notes that the wheel is no fun , Pam changes the wheel so that it barely relates to chores or work at all , which goes over well .
Pam and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) are invited to Pam 's former fiancé Roy Anderson 's ( David Denman ) wedding , which takes place at 8 AM before work . They are both surprised by Roy 's beautiful home and the elegant wedding details , and Roy tells them he runs a very successful gravel company . During his wedding toast , Roy stuns his lovely bride by performing " She 's Got a Way " by Billy Joel on the piano , saying that he told her he was taking boxing lessons as a cover for learning some music for her instead . Pam and Jim , convinced they already know everything about one another but stunned by Roy 's transformation , try to find things about themselves the other does not know . This is exacerbated by Jim 's frequent calls about a new business he is starting with a friend , because Jim and Pam agreed that the venture was not right for them , but Jim then signed onto it without telling his wife he 'd done so . Pam tries unsuccessfully to bait Jim to find out what the secret is and becomes increasingly annoyed that her husband is lying to her .
Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) reacts to Nellie Bertram 's ( Catherine Tate ) mandatory charity initiative by maintaining that he will donate the money he raises to the Global Relief Foundation , a front for the Taliban . Nellie then makes Dwight sign a contract in " a ridiculous font " to live by Taliban rules in the office . Subsequently , Nellie steals Dwight 's pen and challenges him to cut her hand off for doing so , hoping he will capitulate and pick a legitimate charity . Dwight spends an inordinate amount of time preparing to do so before the two end up watching 127 Hours together upon the advice of Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) .
Clark ( Clark Duke ) hits on Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) by dangling a fake newscaster job . After receiving some not @-@ so @-@ helpful advice from her coworkers ( especially Andy and Darryl , who is now assistant regional manager ) , Clark invites Erin to his apartment for the fake audition . However , Pete ( Jake Lacy ) , who has come to dislike Clark , invites himself and Andy along under the pretense of helping with the audition , ruining Clark 's seduction plan . Andy ends up throwing himself into the fake plan and more or less dismissing Erin , who in turns goes out for dinner with Pete and appears to be enjoying time spent with him .
= = Production = =
" Roy 's Wedding " was written by co @-@ executive producer Allison Silverman , marking her second writing credit after joining the series the previous season and writing the episode , " Pam 's Replacement " . The episode was directed by series cinematographer Matt Sohn , marking his sixth director 's credit for the series . This episode sees the return of David Denman as Roy Anderson . Roy was a regular character in the show 's first three seasons . Denman 's character was written out of the show near the end of the series ' third season , although he did have small cameos in the fifth season episode " Crime Aid " and in the seventh season episode " Threat Level Midnight " . On Twitter , Denman later called the episode " Roy 's best episode ! " The episode 's subplot was announced by showrunner Greg Daniels early on via a press release ; he noted that Dwight would be trying to spite Nellie by trying to donate to the Taliban .
The official website of The Office included several cut scenes from " Roy 's Wedding " within a week of the episode 's release . In the first 57 @-@ second clip , Darryl talks about his relationship with Roy , and Pam talks to Roy 's parents , who make subtle barbs about her lack of loyalty . In the second 84 @-@ second clip , Oscar notes that he is supporting a charity that supports the " homo @-@ hispanic community " , and Toby notes that he wants to support a charity that helps " inconspicuous creatures " like moths .
= = Cultural references = =
Andy chooses Darryl to be consigliere , a reference to the 1972 crime film The Godfather ; one brief scene in the episode in which Darryl accepts the position parallels the final scene of The Godfather . Darryl later notes that he likes The Godfather because he is a " cinephile " , but that he likes the 1983 film Scarface because he is black . Clark tries to start up a conversation with Erin about Newsweek . Later , while discussing news anchors , Meredith mentions how attractive she found Walter Cronkite . Dwight and Nellie watch 127 Hours , a 2010 biographical survival drama film starring James Franco as real @-@ life canyoneer Aron Ralston , who became trapped by a boulder in an isolated slot canyon in Blue John Canyon , southeastern Utah , in April 2003 , and was eventually forced to amputate his own right arm in order to free himself .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Roy 's Wedding " originally aired on NBC on September 27 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by 4 @.@ 13 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 / 6 percent share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode stayed consistent when compared to the season opener " New Guys " . The Office finished fourth in its time slot , being beaten by an episode of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) series Grey 's Anatomy which received a 4 @.@ 4 / 12 percent rating ; an entry of the CBS drama Person of Interest , which received a 2 @.@ 9 / 8 percent rating ; and an installment Fox series Glee , which received a 2 @.@ 4 / 7 percent rating . " Roy 's Wedding " , however , finished ahead of repeats of the The CW show The Next . The Office was also the highest @-@ rated NBC television program of the night .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Roy 's Wedding " received moderately positive reviews from critics . Many applauded the emotional drama in Pam and Jim 's storyline . However , many reviews gave the episode 's two subplots mixed reviews . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt praised the Jim @-@ Pam storyline and Daniels for using the previous seasons of Jim and Pam 's " boring storylines " to create greater drama for this episode and for the season as a whole . He also complimented the change of dynamic the episode caused , saying that by " allowing Jim and Pam to serve as the point of dramatic interest , the rest of the characters are loosened up to simply riff off of one another , a dynamic that felt bogged down by Andy ’ s ascension to the leadership position last season " . He ultimately rated the episode a " B " . New York writer Michael Tedder praised the writers for going back to the show 's early style of ongoing plotlines and the suspense in the Jim @-@ Pam arc . Mark Trammell of TV Equals wrote that the episode " was not as good an episode as the premiere [ but ] the seeds were being sown for other payoffs down the line in the season . " Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste was not so positive , saying the whole episode and season storyline was " predictable " and a " wasted opportunity " , and that it ultimately didn 't live up to the producers ' promise to " shake things up in Scranton " . Stiernberg later rated the episode a 6 @.@ 8 out of 10 .
The episode 's subplots , however , received mixed reviews . McNutt wrote that , while Tate had given a " rather subtle and charming performance " , the Nellie @-@ Dwight subplot felt like " a leftover idea " from the previous season . Tedder , on the other hand , liked the Dwight @-@ Nellie subplot for its silliness , concluding that " ongoing plotlines are great , but it 's still the little things on this show " . Trammell felt that the joke involving font was " cute " , but he did not enjoy the rest , writing that " the resulting antics just weren ’ t that funny " .
McNutt was not pleased with the characterization of Andy in the episode , calling him " insufferable " and " plain unlikeable " . He also noted that Clark and Pete 's prominence in the subplot , while enjoyable , seemed " weird for one part of the show to be invested in exploring characters ’ lives when another part of the show is deploying newly introduced characters " . Tedder complimented the Erin @-@ Clark subplot , for examining and introducing Pete and Clark further , and called Clark the " New Ryan " . Mark Trammell enjoyed Duke 's acting , writing " few do nervous geek @-@ ery better than [ him ] these days . Well played , sir . " Stiernberg , on the other hand , considered the whole plot to be " too icky and unfunny " and that the aftermath of Pete and Erin 's dinner together was " predictable " .
= Julia Lennon =
Julia Lennon ( née Stanley ; 12 March 1914 – 15 July 1958 ) was the mother of English musician John Lennon , who was born during her marriage to Alfred Lennon . After complaints to Liverpool 's Social Services by her eldest sister , Mimi Smith ( née Stanley ) , she handed over the care of her son to her sister . She later had one daughter after an affair with a Welsh soldier , but the baby was given up for adoption after pressure from her family . She then had two daughters , Julia and Jackie , with John ' Bobby ' Dykins . She never divorced her husband , preferring to live as the common @-@ law wife of Dykins for the rest of her life .
She was known as being high @-@ spirited and impulsive , musical , and having a strong sense of humour . She taught her son how to play the banjo and ukulele . She kept in almost daily contact with Lennon , and when he was in his teens he often stayed overnight at her and Dykins ' house . On 15 July 1958 , she was struck down and killed by a car driven by an off @-@ duty policeman , close to her sister 's house at 251 Menlove Avenue . Lennon was traumatised by her death and wrote several songs about her , including " Julia " and " Mother " . Biographer Ian MacDonald wrote that she was , " to a great extent ... her son 's muse " .
= = Background = =
Julia Stanley , later known by the family as Judy , was born at 8 Head Street , Toxteth , South Liverpool in 1914 , and was the fourth of five sisters . Her mother , Annie Jane ( née Millward ) , gave birth to a boy and then a girl , both of whom died shortly after birth . She then had Mary , known as ' Mimi ' ( 1906 – 91 ) , Elizabeth ' Mater ' ( 1908 – 76 ) , Anne ' Nanny ' ( 1911 – 88 ) , Julia ' Judy ' ( 1914 – 58 ) , and Harriet ' Harrie ' ( 1916 – 72 ) . John Lennon would later comment that the ' Stanley girls ' were " five , fantastic , strong , beautiful , and intelligent women " . Their father , George Ernest Stanley , retired from the Merchant Navy and found a job with the Liverpool & Glasgow Salvage Association as an insurance investigator . He moved his family to the suburb of Woolton , where they lived in a small terraced house at 9 Newcastle Road near to Penny Lane . Her mother died in 1945 , and Julia had to take care of her father with help from her oldest sister .
= = Marriage to Alf Lennon = =
Alfred ' Freddie ' Lennon — always called ' Alf ' by his family — was always joking but never held a job for very long , preferring to visit Liverpool 's many vaudeville theatres and cinemas , where he knew the usherettes by name . At the Trocadero club , a converted cinema on Camden Road , Liverpool , he first saw an " auburn @-@ haired girl with a bright smile and high cheekbones " ; Julia Stanley . He saw her again in Sefton Park , where he had gone with a friend to meet girls . Lennon , who was dressed in a bowler hat and with a cigarette holder in hand , saw " this little waif " sitting on a wrought @-@ iron bench . Julia ( 14 years old ) said that his hat looked " silly " , to which the 15 @-@ year @-@ old Alf replied that she looked " lovely " , and sat down next to her . She asked him to take off his hat , so he promptly threw it straight into the Sefton Park lake .
Despite standing only five feet two inches ( 157 cm ) tall in heels , she often caught the gaze of men in the street , being attractive and full @-@ figured . She was always well @-@ dressed and even went to bed with make @-@ up on so as to " look beautiful when she woke up " . A nephew later said that she could " make a joke out of nothing " , and could have " walked out of a burning house with a smile and a joke " . She frequented Liverpool 's dance halls and clubs where she was often asked to dance in jitterbug competitions with dockers , soldiers , sailors , and waiters . It was remarked that she could be as humorous as any man and would sing the popular songs of the day at any time of day or night . Her voice sounded similar to Vera Lynn 's , whilst Lennon specialised in impersonating Louis Armstrong and Al Jolson . She played the ukulele , the piano accordion , and the banjo ( as did Lennon ) , although neither pursued music professionally . They spent their days together walking around Liverpool and talking of what they would do in the future : opening a shop , a pub , a cafe , or a club .
On 3 December 1938 , 11 years after they had first met , she married Alf Lennon after she had proposed to him . They were married in the Bolton Street Registry office , although none of her family were present as she had not informed them about the wedding . She wrote ' cinema usherette ' as her occupation on the marriage certificate , even though she had never been one . They spent their honeymoon eating at Reece 's restaurant in Clayton Square ( which is where their son would later celebrate after his marriage to Cynthia Powell ) , and then went to a cinema . She walked into 9 Newcastle Road waving the marriage licence and said to her family , " There ! — I 've married him . " It was an act of defiance against her father , who had threatened to disown her if she ever cohabitated with a lover . On their wedding night , she stayed at her parents ' house , and Lennon went back to his boarding house . The next day , he went back to sea for three months , on a ship bound for the West Indies .
The Stanley family completely ignored her husband at first , believing him to be of " no use to anyone — certainly not our Julia " . Her father demanded that
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walks off , Jim notices that Sara disappears and searches frantically for her , but the park guards knock him unconscious , electrocuting him in the testicles with a Taser . Jim awakes in a secret detention facility under Epcot 's Spaceship Earth , where the pictures of the woman he imagined on the Soarin ' ride and video screens display images of events that happened earlier . A scientist activates a Spaceship Earth resembling helmet which covers Jim 's head and scans him while images of what the scientist calls " the real Jim " appear on the screens , being himself dressed differently and apparently part of another family . The scientist discusses Jim 's flights of fantasy and imagination that he is part of the experiment by the Siemens Corporation , since he first went to the theme park as a child with his father , his boss is in on the conspiracy and his firing was all part of the plan , and the closure of the Buzz Lightyear ride just as he and Elliot approached the boarding area , much to his son 's distress . The scientists also tells Jim that he had turned in Elliot to them , like Jim 's father had done to him as a child . After damaging the instrument panel with a medical ointment and decapitating the scientist which turns out to be an android , Jim escapes from the laboratory through the sewer . While searching for Sara , Jim trips next to the wheelchair @-@ bound man , suspects and attacks him . After realizing that he caused a scene and doubts the man 's involvement , he returns to the room of the woman , where he discovers she has captured Sara , now wearing a Snow White costume . The woman rambles about her time as a character princess and tells him how bad things happen everywhere , including the decapitation at the park . She again hypnotizes Jim with the necklace , but Sara pulls it off and smashes it , freeing Jim from her spell . He returns to his hotel room and puts his family to bed . Jim suffers with digestive distress , vomits up a large amount of blood and hairballs , which he recognizes as symptoms of the cat flu . He begins to panic and bleed uncontrollably in the bathroom . Elliot enters and Jim begs him for help , but he closes the door on him .
The next morning , Emily finds Jim 's corpse , which now has cat eyes and a grinning face . Disney cleaning staff arrive to remove proof of death and fill Elliot 's head with false memories of riding the Buzz Lightyear attraction . They take Jim 's body to the unmarked white van from the opening . Meanwhile , the valet from the video screens greets the " real Jim " , accompanied by the fantasy woman and a young girl , before they check into the hotel as the valet watches the van drive away .
= = Cast = =
Roy Abramsohn as Jim White , a repressed middle @-@ aged father of two
Elena Schuber as Emily , Jim 's frustrated wife
Katelynn Rodriguez as Sara , Jim and Emily 's daughter
Jack Dalton as Elliott , Jim and Emily 's son
Danielle Safady and Annet Mahendru as Sophie and Isabelle , the two French teen girls
Alison Lees @-@ Taylor as the Other Woman
Lee Armstrong as the Man on Scooter
Amy Lucas as the Nurse
Zan Naar as the Fantasy Woman / New Wife
Stass Klassen as The Scientist
Trevor McCune as Valet
= = Background = =
Moore , a native of Lake Bluff , Illinois , frequently visited his father in Orlando following his parents ' divorce . The two often spent time together at Walt Disney World nearby . " It was a special , physical place , and it became an emotional space , " he told Filmmaker . " Obviously , I have a lot of father issues that I can 't separate from that place . " Later , their relationship deteriorated .
He decided to pursue a career in film . After attending two other film schools , he graduated from Full Sail University in another Central Florida town , Winter Park , as the class valedictorian . He moved to Southern California and began working as a story editor , primarily doing uncredited rewrites .
In Hollywood , he married and started a family . Much like his own father , he frequently took his own children to Disneyland . " It wasn 't until our first family trip together that this very visceral emotional landscape of my past , that I had by now nearly all but forgotten , hit me again like [ a ] bullet . " On the family 's first trip to Walt Disney World , the emotions grew stronger . " [ I ] t was like he was there as a ghost . We were going on the same rides I used to go on with him , but now we 're no longer talking anymore . "
His wife , a native of the former Soviet Union who had no memories or expectations like his , saw things with fresh eyes . " She 's a nurse and goes between floors at hospitals . At one point she turned to me at some princess fair or something and said , ' This is worse than working the psych [ ward ] at the hospital . ' "
He read Neal Gabler 's biography of Walt Disney and took the children to Disneyland more frequently . " I became obsessed with finding a connection , " he recalled later . He wrote the screenplay for Escape from Tomorrow in a month along with two others . An inheritance from his grandparents provided the bulk of the film 's budget , which he put at around $ 650 @,@ 000 , triple what he had originally planned .
= = Production = =
" There was nowhere else to do it , " Moore says of his decision to use Disney World as a setting and shoot at the parks . Disney , which has a reputation for aggressively protecting its intellectual property , has been tolerant of visitors uploading videos of their visits to YouTube and elsewhere since most of those user @-@ created videos project a positive image of the parks . But Moore did not expect to get permission from Disney to shoot there given his negative , surrealistic portrayal of the park .
Instead he used guerrilla filmmaking techniques , which sometimes call for using locations without getting permission . Escape from Tomorrow is not the first film made in whole , or part , this way at the Disney parks . In 2010 , the British street artist Banksy shot a scene for Exit Through the Gift Shop in one of the parks with his collaborator Mr. Brainwash . They managed to smuggle the footage out after being detained and questioned by park security . The following year , a viral found footage short , Missing in the Mansion , filmed in the Haunted Mansion , was distributed online without interference from Disney .
Extensive pre @-@ production was necessary . The unique nature of the film shoot dictated steps not normally taken in filmmaking , such as charting the position of the sun weeks in advance since they could not use lighting equipment . Scenes were rehearsed and blocked in hotel rooms , rather than the actual locations . " We must have walked through the entire movie at least eight or nine times during multiple scouting trips before we ever rolled camera , " Moore says .
Before principal photography , the cast and crew bought season passes to both the Disneyland and Walt Disney World resorts . They spent ten days in Florida , then returned to California for two weeks at Disneyland , making the parks depicted in the film a combination of both resorts . Actors and crew entered the parks in small groups to avoid attracting attention . " At one point , I even made the camera department shave off their facial hair and dress in tourist attire , which almost provoked a mutiny , " says Moore . Despite the actors wearing the same clothes for days on end , Moore told the Los Angeles Times , no one at the gates seemed to suspect anything , save for one day near the end of filming when Disneyland security thought they were paparazzi harassing a celebrity family .
The film was shot using the video mode of two Canon EOS 5D Mark II and one Canon EOS 1D Mark IV digital single @-@ lens reflex cameras , which helped the filmmakers look more like typical park visitors . To compensate for their inability to control the lighting , the film was shot in monochrome mode . " [ W ] e were shooting with really fast lenses wide open , so our depth of field was razor thin . Black and white helped us enormously with focus and composition , since we were doing almost everything in camera and didn 't use a focus puller , " Moore recalled . It was an irreversible choice . " [ B ] ecause the 5D doesn 't shoot RAW , we customized settings in its monochromatic mode and couldn 't go back to color , even if we had wanted to . " Moore was comfortable with the result because of the surrealistic , dreamlike quality it created , forcing viewers to see the familiar sights of the Disney parks in a new way .
Actors and crew used their iPhones to communicate and store information such as the script — that way , they looked like guests casually using their phones . The phones were also used to record sound , in addition to digital recorders taped to each actor 's body that were left running all day . For day scenes , Moore felt comfortable risking only three or four takes of each scene , but found he could do more at night .
Scenes involved riding on eight recognizable attractions in the parks . One required waiting in a long line for the Buzz Lightyear ride at Disneyland , and the actors rode It 's a Small World at least 12 times to get the scene right . " I was surprised the ride operators weren 't a little more savvy , " Moore told The New York Times . For a scene where two characters pass on the People Mover , Moore had the actors ride it for hours while he worked out the timing .
After the location filming , production went back to soundstages for interiors . Some scenes were shot against a green screen background for second unit footage of other locations to be substituted , allowing the use of crane shots . With the photography done , Moore took the film to South Korea to edit to prevent Disney from finding out ; he also refused to tell most of his close friends what he was doing . Visual effects were done by the same company there that had done them for the 2006 South Korean monster film , The Host .
The post @-@ production tasks were as challenging as the production itself . Sound editors had to listen to the entire uncut tracks from the recorders taped to the actors ' bodies in order to find the dialogue . Content proprietary to Disney , such as the lyrics to " It 's a Small World " and footage from Soarin ' , was removed from the film to avoid copyright infringement . Composer Abel Korzeniowski contributed a light , airy score similar to those used in Hollywood 's Golden Age .
= = Sundance = =
Moore submitted the completed film to the Sundance Film Festival , where many independent films seek distributors . He had little hope that it would be accepted due to the festival 's corporate sponsors . But Trevor Groth , the festival 's new director of programming , was " blown away " by Escape from Tomorrow , and accepted it for the festival 's non @-@ competitive " Next " category , for films that transcend the limitations of the low budgets common to most independent films .
When the 2013 festival began in Park City , Utah , the secrecy about the movie continued . The festival 's website only identified the setting as a theme park . Nan Chalat @-@ Noaker , critic for the Park Record , recalls that the festival and even the film 's publicist were unwilling to share further details about the film , but strongly urged critics to see it . In her review , she declined to identify the setting of the film by name , although she dropped broad hints , out of fear it would alert Disney 's lawyers . The premiere , on the festival 's first night , was not fully attended ; when word got out to the attendees , all the other shows were effectively sold out .
= = Reception = =
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a rating of 56 % based on 78 reviews . The site 's critical consensus reads : " Conceptually audacious but only intermittently successful in execution , Escape From Tomorrow is nonetheless visually inventive and darkly surreal . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 58 out of 100 , based on 27 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
Before the Martin Luther King Day weekend was over , Escape from Tomorrow was being widely discussed by festival attendees . The New York Times and the Los Angeles Times both ran articles about the film and Moore . Much of the attention focused on the audacity of the filmmaking . Movies.com reported that people were already calling it " the ultimate guerrilla film " . On the night of the premiere , Drew McWeeny wrote :
It is not possible that this film exists . It is not possible that they shot long scripted sequences on the actual rides . It is not possible that I just saw a film in which it is suggested and then shown that the various Disney princesses all work as high @-@ priced hookers who sell their wares to wealthy Asian businessmen . It simply cannot be true .
I grew up in Florida , and I have been going to Walt Disney World my entire life . I worked at that park . I 've been there as a child , as a teenager , as an employee , and as a parent . I 've done Disney sitting on my father 's shoulders , and I 've done the Disney parks with my kids sitting on my shoulders . It is a huge part of my DNA , and I can tell you that there is no way Randy Moore pulled off what I saw tonight . It is a film that should not exist by any rational definition .
And yet ... not only does it exist , but it 's fascinating .
He allowed that it was " undisciplined at times , rough around the edges in places , technically uneven , and there 's no sense of pacing to it at all . Even so , " he concluded , " there is a sort of naive charm that makes it impossible to look away . "
Other critics concurred that the film had artistic merit . " [ W ] atching Moore 's noir tale is like being super @-@ glued to your seat while getting poked in the eye , " Chalat @-@ Noaker wrote . " It 's both fascinating and repelling . " Stephen Zeitchik of the Los Angeles Times called it " one of the strangest and most provocative movies this reporter has seen in eight years attending the Sundance Film Festival " . At Indiewire , Eric Kohn wrote that " Moore portrays Disney World as the ultimate horror show – and gets the point across in nearly every scene " . While they conceded the film 's audacious production made it worth their time to watch , other critics found flaws . " It 's not a great film . The story has some good ideas , but the execution is uneven , " wrote Peter Sciretta at / Film , while still recommending it as " unlike anything you 've seen before [ or will ] see again " . Similarly , CraveOnline 's William Bibbiani " wouldn 't have missed it for the world " but qualified it by noting that the film often lacked " cohesion and clarity " .
Musician and comedian Tony Goldmark , on his Channel Awesome produced webseries " Some Jerk With A Camera " ( which also films on @-@ site at the Disney parks ) , criticized the film in a three part review , saying " Half of it bores me , half of it confuses me , and all of it pisses me off . It 's not even pretentious . You need ambition to be pretentious . This is just fucking inept . " Goldmark also stated in his review that he is " not the least bit surprised " that Disney didn 't push legal action against the film , claiming that " They would have Streisand Effected themselves into a laughingstock . " Despite his dissenting opinion on the film
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, Goldmark also claimed that the film 's existence shows what anybody can do with modern technology , Saying :
Drew McWeeny couldn 't have been more wrong . This film wasn 't just possible , It was inevitable . No matter what some soulless YouTube bot on the wrong side of history may tell you , no one needs anyone 's permission to make stuff anymore . We never did really , we just thought we did because they had all the resources . But now , we all have HD cameras in our pockets and worldwide distribution at our fingertips . And the very existence of Escape From Tomorrow means more symbolically than its content ever could , but its content is borderline unwatchable . Like a less racist Birth Of A Nation .
Kyle Smith of the New York Post had the most negative assessment , calling it " more fun to discuss than to sit through " . While he found the guerilla filmmaking aspect of it " intriguing " , all it amounted to for him was " a couple of amusingly surreal moments " that could have taken place at any sufficiently large amusement park : " Even Disney @-@ hating hipsters are going to be disappointed ; the film is a pure festival play that is more or less unreleasable unless theater owners start selling weed along with popcorn . "
= = Legal issues = =
Every reviewer at Sundance who saw the film speculated that it was likely that Disney would take legal action to prevent the film from being shown outside the festival , or perhaps even during it . " Disney 's lawyers are probably climbing onto helicopters and planning a raid on Park City right now , " wrote McWeeny . Reviewers urged others present to see it before it was too late , and expressed regret that their readers elsewhere would likely be denied a chance to see the film for themselves .
However , it was unclear what the basis of such a legal claim on Disney 's part could be . Moore took care to avoid direct copyright infringement of songs or films played as part of attractions , and intellectual property law is less clear on the other aspects of the film . Science fiction writer Cory Doctorow , who distributed his first novel , Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom , set in a 22nd @-@ century Disney World , under a Creative Commons license , believes there 's at most " a possible trademark claim , and I suppose that Disney could conceivabl [ y ] bring suit for violating the park 's terms of use , but these are much harder cases to make than copyright . "
Columbia Law School professor Tim Wu does not think Disney would have any defensible intellectual property claim . " Though the filmmakers may have committed trespass when they broke Disney World 's rules and if it violated the terms of entry on their tickets , the film itself is a different matter , " he wrote on The New Yorker 's blog . " As commentary on the social ideals of Disney World , it seems to clearly fall within a well @-@ recognized category of fair use , and therefore probably will not be stopped by a court using copyright or trademark laws . "
Despite the film 's repeated use of Disney 's characters and iconography , Wu explained , trademark law was not sufficient . " Disney does not have some kind of general intellectual @-@ property right in Disney World itself . " To make a trademark @-@ infringement case against Moore , he continued , Disney would have to convince a court that the use of its protected imagery in the movie could reasonably lead viewers to believe that it had a role in the film 's production , and he did not think that was a plausible argument . " The scene where a Disney Princess attempts to crush a child seems to eliminate that possibility . "
As for copyright , Wu sees Moore 's use of the Disney parks as transformative :
... [ H ] is use of Disney World is not as simple window dressing ; he transforms it into something gruesome and disturbing — a place where , for example , guests are sometimes tasered and have their imaginations purged ... It might be a violation if Moore had made a film designed for viewers who wanted to see Disney World but were too lazy to go to Florida . Escape from Tomorrow , however , is clearly no substitute for buying a ticket .
As such , he sees the film as offering artistic commentary on the cultural impact of Disney , and thus clearly falling under fair use . Wu likens it to a 1990s case brought by Mattel against artist Thomas Forsythe , after he sold some of his photographs depicting another American icon , Barbie , being eaten by vintage appliances as a way of calling attention to the toy doll 's role in promoting the objectification of women in American culture . Not only did the court dismiss Mattel 's complaint , " [ t ] he judges were so annoyed by the lawsuits that they awarded attorney 's fees of nearly two million dollars to the artist ... A judge has to think of the First Amendment when asked to ban art work . "
In his / Film review , Sciretta raised another issue :
Intellectual property and copyrights aside , many people appear in this film who have never signed a release . Real families and children are seen in the background of almost every shot . None of them gave permission or knew they were being filmed for a feature film .
At Slate , Aisha Harris allowed that this was a possibility , especially if children were filmed without their parents ' consent , but noted " the law on that issue is not black and white either . "
= = = Response by Disney = = =
Disney did not return reporters ' calls or emails for comment , nor took any legal action during the festival , although it confirmed to CNN that it was " aware " of the movie . Despite critical apprehension that the film would never be shown outside the festival , some observers saw the situation as more complex . Were Disney to attempt to forcefully suppress the film , that effort could serve to draw even more attention to it , a phenomenon known as the Streisand effect . Even if Disney were to successfully prevent official distribution , the film could easily be pirated and distributed over the Internet . In his Post review , Smith suggested that Disney prevent this by taking the opposite course , simply ignoring Escape from Tomorrow and letting the attention dissipate by itself .
Michael Ryan , director of The YoungCuts Film Festival , noted that there was a precedent for the film in the Air Pirates lawsuit , in which Disney spent eight years in court with some underground cartoonists who had published an underground comix parody in which Mickey Mouse and the other Disney characters engaged in explicit sex and used illegal drugs , among other behavior they avoided in Disney 's own narratives . He suggested that Disney buy the rights and release the film itself , which it could easily do as its announced interest would guarantee it a monopsony on the film since no other distributor would want to match Disney 's deep pockets or its feared legal response . As a Disney release , Escape from Tomorrow would have a large potential audience of both Disney enthusiasts and antagonists , Disney would be making money from property it already owns instead of someone else and the company 's apparent willingness to go in the joke would take some of the satiric edge off .
Moore expressed hope that the film could be shown and released , even if it meant a legal battle .
It depends on how good a case lawyers can make for it . If they say I have a chance , I 'll definitely fight for it . I worked on it really hard for three years and it took a lot out of me . Just to let it disappear would be a waste of time .
Since the film 's release Disney has discreetly acknowledged it in another way . The online supplement to Disney A to Z : The Official Encyclopedia includes an entry for Escape from Tomorrow , describing it as " An independent surrealistic cult film surreptitiously filmed at Walt Disney World and Disneyland . "
According to The Hollywood Reporter , Disney chose to avoid responding to the film altogether , rather than seeking legal action , in an effort to prevent increased publicity .
= Battle of Elephant Point =
The Battle of Elephant Point was an airborne operation conducted by a composite Gurkha airborne battalion that took place on 1 May 1945 . In March 1945 , plans were made for an assault on Rangoon , the capital of Burma , as a stepping @-@ stone on the way to recapturing Malaya and Singapore . Initial plans for the assault on the city had called for a purely land @-@ based approach by British Fourteenth Army , but concerns about heavy Japanese resistance led to this being modified with the addition of a joint amphibious @-@ airborne assault . This assault , led by 26th Indian Division , would sail up the Rangoon River , but before it could do so , the river would have to be cleared of Japanese and British mines . In order to achieve this , coastal defences along the river would have to be neutralized , including a battery at Elephant Point .
This task was given to 44th Indian Airborne Division , but the division was in the middle of a reorganization , and as such a composite battalion was formed from two Gurkha parachute battalions . The battalion assembled and then trained throughout April , and then early in the morning of 1 May was dropped near Elephant Point . As it advanced towards the battery one of the battalion 's companies was attacked by American bombers , causing a number of casualties . Despite this , and torrential rain , the battalion successfully assaulted Elephant Point and neutralized the battery there after a fierce firefight . It remained around Elephant Point until 2 May , when 26th Indian Division conducted its amphibious assault and secured Rangoon .
= = Background = =
On 22 March , as the joint battles of Meiktila and Mandalay were drawing to a close , a conference was held at Monywa in Burma , attended by senior Allied military figures including Admiral Lord Mountbatten , the commander in chief of the Allied South East Asia Command , and General William Slim , commander of Fourteenth Army . The object of the conference was to discuss future Allied strategy in South East Asia in the aftermath of Meiktila and Mandalay , including the reconquest of Burma and the retaking of Malaya and then Singapore . In order to secure these objectives however , Rangoon , the capital of Burma , would have to be captured before the onset of the monsoon rains , which would impede any Allied advance over land ; the Allied Chiefs of Staff worked on the assumption that this would occur before June . After Rangoon had fallen , a force of between four and five divisions would be landed in Western Malaya in an operation code @-@ named Zipper , which would itself be followed by Mailfist , the capture of Singapore .
To accommodate all of these goals , Mountbatten insisted that Rangoon be taken by May . Slim had initially planned to take the city in a pincer movement , with XXXIII Corps advancing towards the city down the east bank of the Irrawaddy river via Hlegu , and IV Corps taking a shorter route along the Sittang River valley to the east . Slim believed that the Japanese had insufficient forces to block both thrusts , and one of the corps would therefore be able to capture Rangoon . However , Mountbatten was unsure that a purely overland advance would be successful , and that a joint airborne @-@ amphibious assault would therefore be the better option . Slim and others , such as Slim 's superior , General Oliver Leese ( commander of Allied Land Forces , South East Asia ) , initially opposed such an operation , fearing that it would divert vital resources from Fourteenth Army . By the time of the meeting at Monywa , however , Slim had come around to Mountbatten 's way of thinking , fearing that a purely overland advance would meet fierce Japanese resistance , as it had at Meiktila , and be delayed at the end of an overextended supply line . As such , a combined airborne and amphibious assault would be ideal as Fourteenth Army neared Rangoon , Slim arguing that it would be " a hammering at the back door while I burst in at the front . " On 2 April orders were issued for the operation to go ahead , with the proviso that Rangoon be in Allied hands by 5 May at the latest .
= = = Planning = = =
The joint operation was christened Dracula , and its schedule was decided by the Royal Navy , under the command of Admiral Arthur Power , who was responsible for the amphibious portion of the assault on Rangoon . Several problems had to be overcome during the planning for the operation . The first , and the least likely , was that the amphibious assault would be intercepted by elements of the Imperial Japanese Navy as it neared Rangoon . To ensure that the amphibious elements would remain unmolested , 21 Carrier Squadron , commanded by Commodore G.N. Oliver was attached to provide fight cover for the landings ; the squadron consisted of four escort carriers , two cruisers and four destroyers . Operating further out would be 3rd Battle Squadron , commanded by Vice Admiral Walker , which was formed of two battleships , HMS Queen Elizabeth and the Free French battleship Richelieu , as well another two escort carriers , four cruisers and six destroyers . Two days prior to Dracula taking place , this " massive naval screen " bombed several ports and airfields , and also engaged a Japanese troop convoy transporting more than one thousand Japanese troops to nearby Moulmein , sinking all the vessels . The Royal Air Force would provide support in the form of two RAF long @-@ range fighter Wings , and the United States Army Air Forces with eight B @-@ 24 Liberator and four B @-@ 25 Mitchell bomber squadrons .
More of a concern to Dracula 's planners , however , were the land @-@ based threats to the landing craft carrying the assault troops of 26th Indian Division . Air support was deemed to be vital to the operation 's success , and a number of Japanese airfields around Toungoo were captured in the days leading up to Dracula . There was also the problem of the defences in and around the River Rangoon , up which the landing craft were to sail . The river itself was heavily mined , a result of Japanese defensive measures as well as RAF offensive operations earlier in the conflict , and it would have to be swept and cleared of mines before any amphibious assault could take place . Before this could occur , however , the coastal defences along the banks of the river would have to be neutralized ; a particular worry was the presence of an artillery battery at Elephant Point on the west bank of the river . The geography of the area ensured that the battery could not be destroyed through artillery bombardment or airstrikes , and weather conditions precluded an early amphibious assault . As such , it was decided that a day before Dracula began on 2 May , a parachute battalion would be dropped near Elephant Point with the task of assaulting and destroying the battery .
The task was given to 44th Indian Airborne Division , but this presented several problems . The division was in the middle of a reorganization , and many of its officers were on leave , as were two Gurkha airborne battalions ; another , the 3rd Gurkha Parachute Battalion , was about to transfer to 77th Indian Parachute Brigade . With no one unit available , a composite force was put together for the operation . The Headquarters Company was formed of men from 2nd and 3rd Gurkha Parachute Battalions , and each battalion provided a further two companies – A and B from 2nd Gurkha Parachute Battalion and C and D from 3rd Gurkha Parachute Battalion . A mortar platoon and machine gun platoon augmented the ad hoc formation . The battalion was formed in early April , and came under the command of Major Jack Newland . After its initial formation it transferred to Chaklala , where its strength was augmented by Field Ambulance and Indian Engineers sections and it undertook training for the operation . When was this was completed it was transported to Midnapore , where for ten days it assembled its equipment and conducted a rehearsal exercise . Finally , on 29 April it was flown to Akyab on the Burmese coast , approximately 200 miles north of Rangoon , and was soon joined by a 200 @-@ strong reserve force formed of men from both Gurkha battalions and the 152nd Indian Parachute Battalion . The battalion would be transported in 40 C @-@ 47 Skytrain transport aircraft belonging to 1st and 2nd United States Air Commando Group .
= = Battle = =
At 02 : 30 on 1 May , a C @-@ 47 of 317 Tactical Control Squadron USAAF departed for Rangoon carrying a twenty @-@ man pathfinder team , followed by a CCG plane carrying a pair of VCP , to mark and defend the landing zone at Tawhai . The rest of the composite battalion boarded thirty @-@ eight Dakotas and took off thirty minutes later , and at 05 : 45 jumped over the drop zone ; there were only a few casualties , one being a medical officer attached to the battalion . It encountered no Japanese opposition , and after it had rallied , advanced towards Elephant Point and the artillery battery . It halted 3 @,@ 000 yards in front of the battery to allow B @-@ 24 Liberators from the USAAF to carry out a preliminary bombing attack on the battery . Unfortunately , despite officers and other ranks wearing yellow recognition panels and carrying orange umbrellas to identify themselves , C Company was bombed and strafed by the bombers , causing a number of casualties . As a result , a Forward Air Controller attached to the battalion ordered a halt to all further bombing runs on the battery .
After moving through torrential rain , the battalion reached Elephant Point at 16 : 00 , and close @-@ quarters fighting then took place , with flame @-@ throwers being used against several Japanese bunkers guarding the battery . About forty Japanese soldiers and gunners were killed during the assault , and the battalion also sustained several casualties . After the battery had been secured the battalion dug in around Elephant Point and awaited the arrival of the relief force , which landed at Thaungang at 15 : 30 , with a supply drop following it several minutes later . As it neared the position of the battalion , the surgical team accompanying the relief force was accidentally fired upon by the Gurkhas , causing four members of the team to be wounded . The battalion remained where it was through the night , although high tides submerged a number of trenches and forced the battalion to higher ground . By the dawn of 2 May , after it had cleared a number of nearby bunkers , the battalion was able to watch as minesweepers cleared the Rangoon river for the columns of landing craft following behind them .
= = Aftermath = =
Operation Dracula was a complete success , as Japanese forces had actually vacated Rangoon several days prior to the amphibious landing ; 36th Indian Infantry Brigade was able to occupy the city without encountering any Japanese opposition . Shortly after Rangoon 's occupation Japanese forces called for a cease @-@ fire , and plans for the amphibious landing in Western Malaya and an advance into Singapore were cancelled . Instead , British and Commonwealth forces landed unopposed and liberated those areas , and also temporarily occupied Thailand . On 3 May the composite battalion moved to Sadainghmut , and two days later , leaving one company behind , it was transferred to Rangoon where it conducted anti @-@ looting operations and also searched for Japanese stragglers remaining in the city . It left the city on 16 May and travelled to India by ship , where it rejoined 44th Indian Airborne Division . It had been the division 's first major airborne operation . The 2nd Air Commando Group 's C @-@ 47s , which had transported the parachute battalion , returned to Kalaikunda and then moved to Comilla . The 317th Tactical Control Squadron spent the next two weeks supplying XV Corps who were engaged with Japanese forces northeast of Rangoon and returned to Kalaikunda on 19 May . The group 's fighter squadrons provided air cover for Rangoon until 9 May when they too returned to home station .
= Tooms =
" Tooms " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on April 22 , 1994 . " Tooms " was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by David Nutter . The episode featured Mitch Pileggi 's first appearance as Assistant Director Walter Skinner , and saw Doug Hutchison and William B. Davis reprise their roles as Eugene Victor Tooms and The Smoking Man , respectively . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Tooms " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 6 , being watched by 8 @.@ 1 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When mutant serial killer Eugene Tooms , last seen in " Squeeze " , is released from prison , Mulder and Scully try to stop him from resuming his killing spree . Tooms , however , sets out to frame Mulder for assault before the agent can apprehend him .
After seeing men working on an open escalator in a mall around Christmas time , Glen Morgan decided to revisit the character of Eugene Victor Tooms , from the first episode he and co @-@ writer James Wong wrote for the series , " Squeeze " . " Tooms " introduced the character of Walter Skinner , although this would be his only appearance in the first season . The character had been conceived as playing against the stereotypical bureaucratic " paper @-@ pusher " , being instead someone more " quietly dynamic " .
= = Plot = =
After the events of " Squeeze " , Eugene Victor Tooms has been placed in a sanatorium in Baltimore . He attempts to escape by squeezing his arm through the food slot of his cell door , but is forced to abort when he is visited by his psychologist , Dr. Aaron Monte .
Dana Scully is called before FBI assistant director Walter Skinner , who is accompanied by the Smoking Man . Despite the success of the X @-@ Files investigations , Skinner criticizes their unconventionalism and wants both Scully and Fox Mulder to do by @-@ the @-@ book work . The agents attend a release hearing for Tooms , where Monte claims that Tooms ' attack on Scully was due to being falsely accused of murder . Mulder tries to point out the physical evidence of Tooms ' physiology and crimes , but is ignored by the hearing 's panel . Tooms is released into the care of an elderly couple , and is ordered to continue his treatment with Dr. Monte .
Scully meets with Frank Briggs , the detective who investigated Tooms ' 1933 murders . Briggs claims that the body of one of the victims from that spree was never discovered . Scully and Briggs visit a chemical plant where a piece of the victim 's liver was found , ultimately discovering a skeleton encased in concrete . Meanwhile , Mulder harasses Tooms at work as he stalks a would @-@ be victim . Later that night , Mulder follows him when he tries to break into a man 's house . Tooms flees without attacking anyone .
A researcher examining the skeleton identifies it as the missing victim from 1933 . However , there seems to be no substantial evidence proving that Tooms was the murderer . Scully relieves Mulder , who is watching Tooms ' new residence ; they are unaware that Tooms is hiding in the trunk of Mulder 's car . He manages to break into Mulder 's apartment , where he injures himself and imprints Mulder 's shoe print on his face . Tooms ' frameup leads to Mulder being questioned by the police . Skinner forbids Mulder from contacting Tooms .
Further research on the skeleton reveals bite marks matching Tooms ' teeth . When the old couple watching Tooms depart and Tooms is visited by Monte , he kills him and consumes the final liver he needs before his thirty @-@ year hibernation . After discovering Monte 's body , Mulder and Scully head to Tooms ' former residence at 66 Exeter Street , which has been demolished and replaced with a shopping mall . Inside , Mulder crawls below an escalator and finds Tooms ' nest . Tooms bursts out , covered in bile , and pursues Mulder , who makes it to the surface and activates the escalator , trapping and killing Tooms .
Skinner reads Scully 's final report on the Tooms case and asks the Smoking Man if he believes it , to which he replies , " Of course I do . " Outside , Scully finds Mulder , who is observing a caterpillar 's cocoon . Mulder predicts that change is coming to the X @-@ Files .
= = Production = =
Devising a sequel to " Squeeze " posed a challenge for writers Glen Morgan and James Wong , who had never written a follow @-@ up to any of their work previously . Morgan felt that the primary difficulty was in moving the story forward while still leaving room to recap what had happened previously for the benefit of viewers who had not seen the first episode ; this led to the use of the courtroom scene as a means to repeat any necessary information . Morgan also felt that Harry Longstreet , the initial director for " Squeeze " , had been " a problem " , and a second episode allowed for the use of scenes which Longstreet had failed to film for the earlier episode . To this end , the episode was helmed by David Nutter , who series creator Chris Carter considered the " best " director working on the series .
Morgan was inspired to write this episode after seeing men working on an open escalator in a mall around Christmas time . He thought of the scare factor from a creature living underneath the escalator , and felt Tooms would be the perfect choice for the creature . Tooms was the first villain in the show 's history to make an appearance in a second episode . It was actor Doug Hutchison 's idea to play Tooms nude during the escalator sequence , a decision which Carter felt " caused a little discomfort " , but that " actually added to the scene " . The bile @-@ like substance coating Tooms and his nest was actually a yellow piping gel , which the cast found would stick to their skin and pull out hair upon removal . Tooms framing Mulder for assault seems to have been inspired by a similar plot point in the film Dirty Harry .
" Tooms " introduced the character of Walter Skinner , although this would be his only appearance in the first season . The character had been conceived as playing against the stereotypical bureaucratic " paper @-@ pusher " , being instead someone more " quietly dynamic " . Actor Mitch Pileggi had auditioned unsuccessfully for several other parts on the series before being cast as Skinner . At first , the fact that he was asked back to audition for the role had puzzled him , until he discovered the reason he had not cast for the previous parts — Chris Carter had been unable to imagine Pileggi as any of those characters , due to the fact that the actor had been shaving his head . When Pileggi attended the audition for Skinner , he had been in a grumpy mood and had allowed his small amount of hair to grow back . Pileggi 's attitude fit well with the character of Skinner , causing Carter to assume that the actor was only pretending to be grumpy . After successfully auditioning for the role , Pileggi thought he had been lucky that he had not been cast in one of the earlier roles , as he believed he would have appeared in only a single episode and would have missed the opportunity to play the recurring role of Skinner .
The episode 's climactic scene in the shopping mall where Tooms had made his nest was filmed in City Square Mall , Vancouver . Shooting at the location required the permission of every store owner on the premises , and care was taken to ensure that the stage blood used for the escalator scene did not seep into the escalator 's motor to avoid possible damage . " Tooms " includes The Smoking Man 's first line of dialogue in the series , and his only lines of the first season . Carter was initially unsure that the character would ever receive any dialogue , feeling that he would seem " more forbidding " if he remained silent . However , he described actor William B. Davis as " an extremely competent actor " , noting the character 's increasing popularity .
= = Reception = =
" Tooms " premiered on the Fox network on April 22 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on February 16 , 1995 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 6 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 8 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 8 @.@ 1 million households .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Tooms " was rated an A , with the Hutchison 's appearance being noted as " another sublimely slimy performance " , whilst Pileggi 's performance was said to have an " engagingly steely presence " . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , called the episode " a richly rewarding one " , finding the interaction between the characters of Mulder and Scully to have been a highlight of the episode . However , Handlen felt that some of the episode 's plot development was ultimately needless , and found the motives of several characters to have been unexplained and baffling . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , felt that the plot thread of Tooms framing Mulder for assault " never really amounts to much " , though he felt that the episode showed Tooms to be a creepier villain than his previous appearance in " Squeeze " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , finding it to be a better instalment than " Squeeze " . Shearman felt that the episode featured very little plotting , consisting simply of " a series of set pieces " , but considered its wit and character development to adequately compensate for this .
The character of Eugene Tooms has also attracted positive criticism . Author Neil Gaiman listed the character of Eugene Tooms as one of his favourite monsters in a guest column for Entertainment Weekly 's 1000th issue ; whilst UGO Networks listed the character as one of their " Best TV Serial Killers " , describing Hutchison 's acting as " uber @-@ creepy " . Writing for Den of Geek , John Moore listed Eugene Tooms as his " Top 10 X @-@ Files Baddies " ,
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noting that the popularity of both " Squeeze " and " Tooms " proved to be " largely responsible for shifting the emphasis of the show " away from dwelling solely on alien conspiracy @-@ based mythology episodes .
= SMS König Wilhelm =
SMS König Wilhelm ( King William ) was an armored frigate of the Prussian and later the German Imperial Navy . The ship was laid down in 1865 at the Thames Ironworks shipyard in London , originally under the name Fatih for the Ottoman Empire . She was purchased by Prussia in February 1867 , launched in April 1868 , and commissioned into the Prussian Navy in February 1869 . The ship was the fifth ironclad ordered by the Prussian Navy , after Arminius , Prinz Adalbert , Friedrich Carl , and Kronprinz . She was built as an armored frigate , armed with a main battery of sixteen 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) and five 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns ; several smaller guns and torpedo tubes were added later in her career .
The ship was for a time the largest and most powerful warship in the German navy ; she served as its flagship during the Franco @-@ Prussian War in 1870 – 1871 , though engine troubles prevented the ship from seeing action . In 1878 , the ship accidentally rammed and sank the ironclad Grosser Kurfürst , with great loss of life . König Wilhelm was converted into an armored cruiser in 1895 – 1896 ; by early 1904 , however , she had been superseded by newer vessels . In May of that year , she was placed out of active service and used as a floating barracks and training ship , a role she held through World War I. In 1921 , the ship was ultimately broken up for scrap , after a career spanning 52 years and three German states .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
König Wilhelm was 108 @.@ 60 meters ( 356 @.@ 3 ft ) long at the waterline and 112 @.@ 20 m ( 368 @.@ 1 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 18 @.@ 30 m ( 60 @.@ 0 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 56 m ( 28 @.@ 1 ft ) forward and 8 @.@ 12 m ( 26 @.@ 6 ft ) aft . The ship was designed to displace 9 @,@ 757 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 603 long tons ; 10 @,@ 755 short tons ) at a normal loading , and up to 10 @,@ 761 t ( 10 @,@ 591 long tons ; 11 @,@ 862 short tons ) with a combat load . The ship 's hull was constructed with transverse and longitudinal iron frames . It contained eleven watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 70 percent of the length of the vessel .
König Wilhelm was noted by the German navy as having had " satisfactory sea @-@ keeping qualities " ; the ship was responsive to commands from the helm and had a moderate turning radius . She suffered from severe roll but little pitch . The ship 's crew numbered 36 officers and 694 enlisted men , and while serving as a flagship , the crew was augmented with a command staff composed of 9 officers and 47 enlisted men . König Wilhelm carried a number of smaller boats , including two picket boats , two launches , a pinnace , two cutters , two yawls , and one dinghy .
A horizontal two @-@ cylinder single expansion steam engine , built by Maudslay , Son & Field of London , powered the ship . It drove a four @-@ bladed screw 7 m ( 23 ft ) in diameter . J Penn & Sons of Greenwich built eight trunk boilers for the ship . These were divided into two boiler rooms with twenty fireboxes in each , supplied steam to the engine at 2 standard atmospheres ( 200 kPa ) . The propulsion system was rated at 8 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 000 kW ) and a top speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , though on trials König Wilhelm managed to make 8 @,@ 440 ihp ( 6 @,@ 290 kW ) and 14 @.@ 7 knots ( 27 @.@ 2 km / h ; 16 @.@ 9 mph ) . The ship carried 750 t ( 740 long tons ; 830 short tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of 1 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ; 1 @,@ 500 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . A ship rig with a surface area of 2 @,@ 600 square meters ( 28 @,@ 000 sq ft ) supplemented the steam engine , though in service they added little to the ship 's performance . Steering was controlled with a single rudder .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
As built , König Wilhelm was equipped with thirty @-@ three rifled 72 @-@ pounder cannon . After her delivery to Germany , these guns were replaced with eighteen 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) L / 20 guns , supplied with a total of 1 @,@ 440 rounds of ammunition . These guns were mounted in a central battery , with nine on either broadside . The guns could depress to − 4 ° and elevate to 7 @.@ 5 ° ; at maximum elevation , the guns could reach targets out to 4 @,@ 500 m ( 14 @,@ 800 ft ) . The ship 's armament was rounded out by five 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns , which could depress to − 5 ° and elevate to 13 ° . Their maximum range was 5 @,@ 900 m ( 19 @,@ 400 ft ) .
König Wilhelm was reconstructed into an armored cruiser in 1895 – 1896 and rearmed with twenty @-@ two 24 cm L / 20 guns , a single 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 30 gun with 109 rounds mounted in the stern , and eighteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) quick @-@ firing guns on the upper deck , nine on each broadside . The 15 cm gun had a range of 8 @,@ 900 m ( 29 @,@ 200 ft ) . Five 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes were also installed ; two were placed in the bow , one on both broadsides , and one in the stern , all above water . The torpedo tubes were supplied with a total of 13 rounds . Following her conversion into a training ship , most of her armament was removed . The ship only carried sixteen 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 30 guns , and in 1915 , twelve of these were removed .
As built , the ship was protected by wrought iron plating mounted over teak backing . Protection at the waterline was thickest amidships , with an outer layer of iron armor 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) thick , an inner layer of 178 mm ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) thick iron , and 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of teak behind the iron . The outer layer was reduced to 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) in the stern but did not extend to the bow . The inner layer was 127 mm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) thick in both the bow and stern , and the teak backing was 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) for both ends of the ship . The main battery was protected with 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick plating and capped on either end with 150 mm thick transverse bulkheads . During her reconstruction into an armored cruiser , the iron armor was cut away and replaced with stronger steel armor . The conning tower received armor protection during the refit as well . The sides were 50 to 100 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sloped plates , with a 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick roof .
= = Service history = =
Laid down at the Thames Ironworks shipyard in London , England in 1865 , the ship was originally ordered by the Ottoman Empire as the Fatikh . The ship was built to a design created by the British naval architect Edward Reed . Before her launch , the Prussian Navy purchased the ship on 6 February 1867 and initially renamed it Wilhelm I. On 14 December 1867 , the ship was renamed again , as König Wilhelm . She was launched on 25 April 1868 and commissioned less than a year later , on 20 February 1869 . The ship 's first commander was Kapitän zur See Ludwig von Henk . The ship was the largest and most powerful vessel in the Prussian fleet , and served as its flagship . Indeed , König Wilhelm remained the largest German vessel until 1891 . This was in part due to the fact that Germany laid down only one small ironclad between 1876 and 1888 ; the four Brandenburg @-@ class battleships , launched in 1891 and 1892 , were the first ships to surpass König Wilhelm in size .
= = = Franco @-@ Prussian War = = =
At the outbreak of the Franco @-@ Prussian War in 1870 , the greatly numerically inferior Prussian Navy assumed a defensive posture against a naval blockade imposed by the French Navy . König Wilhelm and the broadside ironclads Friedrich Carl and Kronprinz , along with the small ironclad ram Prinz Adalbert , had been steaming in the English Channel before the French declared war ; they had left Plymouth on 10 July with the intention of steaming to Fayal in the Azores . On the 13th , however , they put into port and learned of the rising tension between France and Prussia . The ships therefore returned to Wilhelmshaven immediately , arriving on 16 July . France declared war on Prussia three days later on 19 July . König Wilhelm , Friedrich Carl , and Kronprinz were concentrated in the North Sea at the port of Wilhelmshaven.They were subsequently joined there by the turret ship Arminius , which had been stationed in Kiel .
Despite the great French naval superiority , the French had conducted insufficient pre @-@ war planning for an assault on the Prussian naval installations , and concluded that it would only be possible with Danish assistance , which was not forthcoming . The four ships , under the command of Vice Admiral Jachmann , made an offensive sortie in early August 1870 out to the Dogger Bank , though they encountered no French warships . König Wilhelm and the other two broadside ironclads thereafter suffered from chronic engine trouble , which left Arminius alone to conduct operations . König Wilhelm , Friedrich Carl , and Kronprinz stood off the island of Wangerooge for the majority of the conflict , while Arminius was stationed in the mouth of the Elbe river . On 11 September , the three broadside ironclads were again ready for action ; they joined Arminius for another major operation into the North Sea . It too did not encounter French opposition , as the French Navy had by this time returned to France . After the war , the Prussian Navy became the Imperial Navy , and resumed its peacetime training routines . General Albrecht von Stosch became the chief of the Imperial Navy , and organized the fleet for coastal defense .
= = = Collision with Grosser Kurfürst = = =
While steaming in the Straits of Dover on 31 May 1878 , König Wilhelm accidentally collided with the newly commissioned turret ironclad Grosser Kurfürst . The two ships , along with Preussen , had left Wilhelmshaven on the 29th . König Wilhelm and Preussen steamed in a line ,
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fly 's hearing organs will reverberate at slightly different frequencies . This difference may be as little as 50 billionths of a second , but it is enough to allow the fly to home in directly on a singing male cricket and parasitise it .
Simpler structures allow other arthropods to detect near @-@ field sounds . Spiders and cockroaches , for example , have hairs on their legs which are used for detecting sound . Caterpillars may also have hairs on their body that perceive vibrations and allow them to respond to sound .
= Battle of Constantinople ( 922 ) =
The Battle of Constantinople was fought in June 922 at the outskirts of the capital of the Byzantine Empire , Constantinople , between the forces of the First Bulgarian Empire and the Byzantines during the Byzantine – Bulgarian war of 913 – 927 . In the summer the Byzantine Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos sent troops under the commander Saktikios to repel another Bulgarian raid at the outskirts of the Byzantine capital . The Byzantines stormed the Bulgarian camp but were defeated when they confronted the main Bulgarian forces . During his flight from the battlefield Saktikios was mortally wounded and died the following night .
The Bulgarians , who by 922 were in control of most of the Balkans , continued to ravage the Byzantine countryside virtually unopposed . However , they lacked the maritime power to conduct a successful siege of Constantinople . The subsequent attempts to negotiate a Bulgarian – Arab alliance for a joint assault of Constantinople were discovered by the Byzantines and successfully countered . The strategic situation in the Balkans remained unchanged until both sides signed a peace treaty in 927 , which recognized the imperial title of the Bulgarian monarchs and the complete independence of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church as an autocephalous Patriarchate .
The primary sources for the battle are the continuation of George Hamartolos ' Chronicle and John Skylitzes ' Synopsis of Histories .
= = Background = =
During his short reign the Byzantine emperor Alexander ( r . 912 – 913 ) provoked a conflict with the Bulgarian monarch Simeon I ( r . 893 – 927 ) . Simeon I , who had long harboured ambitions to claim an imperial title for himself , took the opportunity to wage war . With the Byzantine Empire in disarray following Alexander 's death in June 913 , the Bulgarians reached Constantinople unopposed and forced the regency of the infant Constantine VII ( r . 913 – 959 ) to recognize Simeon I as emperor ( in Bulgarian , Tsar ) . Following a palace coup in 914 , the new Byzantine regency revoked the concessions to the Bulgarians and summoned the whole army , including the troops in Asia Minor , to deal with the Bulgarian threat once and all . In the decisive battle of Achelous in 917 the Byzantine forces were completely annihilated , leaving the Bulgarians in charge of the Balkans . Their annual campaigns reached the walls of Constantinople and the Isthmus of Corinth . All subsequent attempts to confront the Bulgarian army at Katasyrtai , Aquae Calidae and Pegae ended in defeat .
Despite his military supremacy over land , Simeon I was aware that he needed naval assistance in order to seize Constantinople . In 922 he clandestinely sent envoys to the Fatimid caliph Ubayd Allah al @-@ Mahdi Billah in Mahdia to negotiate the assistance of the powerful Arab navy . Simeon I proposed to divide equally all spoils ; the Bulgarians were to keep Constantinople and the Fatimids would gain the Byzantine territories in Sicily and South Italy .
= = The battle = =
To distract the Byzantine attention from the secret negotiations with the Arabs , in the summer of 922 the Bulgarians launched a campaign in Eastern Thrace . They captured and garrisoned a number of fortified towns in the region , including Bizye . In June they reached the outskirts of Constantinople and burned the Palace of Theodora , situated on the shores of the Golden Horn .
In response , emperor Romanos I Lekapenos ( r . 920 – 944 ) summoned the commanders of the tagmata on a feast and urged them to confront the Bulgarians . The following day one of them , Saktikios , led the assault against the Bulgarians . While most of the Bulgarian soldiers were dispersed to loot the countryside , the Byzantines attacked the Bulgarian camp and slaughtered the few defenders left there . When the main Bulgarian forces were informed about the attack , they headed back to the camp to engage the opponents . In the ensuing heavy struggle the Bulgarians prevailed and forced the Byzantines to flee despite the personal courage of Saktikios , who the Byzantine chroniclers claim to have " killed many " . During the flight , the horse of Saktikios got stuck in the mud of a river and the Byzantine commander was wounded in the seat and the thigh . His soldiers managed to free the horse from the mud and to bring him to the Blachernae alive . Saktikios was laid in the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae , where he died the following night .
= = Aftermath = =
After the victory Simeon I sent letters to the Ecumenical Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos and Romanos ' co @-@ emperor Constantine VII to propose peace negotiations . However , his intention was to prolong the negotiations until the return of his envoys to the Fatimids . While Simeon I and Nicholas Mystikos exchanged letters the military actions continued . In a few weeks the Bulgarian army captured Adrianople , the most important city in Byzantine Thrace . The fall of Adrianople raised fears in Constantinople that a Bulgarian assault of the city was imminent . The Byzantines tried to intimidate Simeon I by threatening to incite the Magyars , the Pechenegs and Kievan Rus ' to attack Bulgaria from the north @-@ east , as they had done in the war of 894 – 896 . Simeon I knew that these were empty words because the Byzantine Empire was in no position to carry out these threats .
In the meantime , the Bulgarian envoys received a warm welcome by al @-@ Mahdi . The Fatimid caliph accepted the Bulgarian terms and sent his own emissaries to Simeon I. However , on the way back their ship was captured by the Byzantines , who managed to outbid the Bulgarians and distract a Fatimid attack . The Bulgarians remained in control of most of the Balkans , annexing Byzantium 's ally Serbia in 924 , but without naval support were unable to launch a decisive attack on Constantinople . The war continued until the death of Simeon I in 927 , when his son Peter I ( r . 927 – 969 ) concluded a peace treaty with the Byzantines , who recognized the imperial title of the Bulgarian monarchs and the complete independence of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church as an autocephalous Patriarchate in return for most of Simeon I 's conquests in Thrace after 917 .
= Big Butte Creek =
Big Butte Creek is a 12 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 19 km ) tributary of the Rogue River in the U.S. state of Oregon . It drains approximately 245 square miles ( 635 km2 ) of Jackson County . Its two forks , the North Fork and the South Fork , both begin high in the Cascade Range near Mount McLoughlin . Flowing predominantly west , they meet near the city of Butte Falls . The main stem flows generally northwest until it empties into the Rogue Falls was incorporated in 1911 , and remains the only incorporated town within the watershed 's boundaries .
Big Butte Springs , located in the watershed , provides clean drinking water to more than 115 @,@ 000 residents of the Rogue Valley . It emits over 26 million US gallons ( 98 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) of water per day . Water from Big Butte Creek is also diverted for irrigation at several other locations .
The water quality of the Big Butte Creek watershed is generally high , and it supports several species of trout and salmon . The watershed is also home to more than 152 species of birds , 63 species of mammals , 19 species of reptiles , and numerous plants . The Poverty Flats region was designated an Area of Critical Environmental Concern by the Bureau of Land Management in 1995 to protect several rare species of plants .
= = Course = =
Big Butte Creek begins in the Cascade Range near Butte Falls . It flows generally northwest over approximately 12 miles ( 19 km ) to its confluence with the Rogue River . The two main forks of Big Butte Creek , the North Fork and the South Fork , merge at 2 @,@ 244 feet ( 684 m ) above sea level , while the creek 's mouth is located at an elevation of 1 @,@ 562 feet ( 476 @.@ 1 m ) .
The North Fork 's headwaters are located on the slopes of the 6 @,@ 207 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 1 @,@ 892 m ) Rustler Peak . It flows southwest , receiving many small tributaries such as Jackass , Eighty Acre , and Friese creeks . Turning west , it flows just north of Butte Falls before merging with the South Fork .
The South Fork begins at the confluence of two of its tributaries , Twincheria and Rancheria creeks . It flows southwest , receiving Fourbit Creek on the left . Fourbit Creek begins near Mount McLoughlin , where massive faults may allow water to seep into it from nearby Fourmile Lake in the Klamath River watershed . The South Fork turns west and receives Willow Creek on the left . Big Butte Springs are located on Willow Creek , and the Medford Aqueduct , which carries drinking water to cities in the Rogue Valley , parallels the South Fork from there all the way to Butte Falls . The South Fork flows over the 15 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) Butte Falls — the nearby city 's namesake — and merges with the North Fork about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream .
Big Butte Creek travels northwest , gathering McNeil Creek on the left and Clark Creek on the right , along with many other minor tributaries . This region contains many Class II and III rapids , as rated on the International Scale of River Difficulty . The stream is crossed by Cobleigh Road at river mile ( RM ) 9 @.@ 5 or river kilometer ( RK ) 15 , and Netherlands Road at RM 3 ( RK 4 @.@ 8 ) . About 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 km ) before its mouth , Big Butte Creek cascades over Crowfoot Falls and is crossed by Crowfoot Road . It then flows into the Rogue River 155 miles ( 249 km ) from its mouth at the Pacific Ocean . Big Butte Creek 's mouth is about one mile southwest of William L. Jess Dam , and Oregon Route 62 passes just north of it .
= = = Discharge = = =
The United States Geological Survey monitors the flow of Big Butte Creek at three different stream gauges : two on the South Fork , and one on the main stem . Both South Fork gauges were shut down in 1991 , but the gauge located near the mouth of Big Butte Creek continues to operate . The main stem often discharges less water than the South Fork alone in the summer months because of numerous diversions .
= = Watershed = =
Big Butte Creek drains approximately 245 square miles ( 635 km2 ) of southern Oregon . Elevations range from 1 @,@ 562 feet ( 476 @.@ 1 m ) at the creek 's mouth to 9 @,@ 495 feet ( 2 @,@ 894 m ) at the summit of Mount McLoughlin , with an average of 3 @,@ 528 feet ( 1 @,@ 075 m ) . About 56 percent is federally owned by the Bureau of Land Management and the United States Forest Service , 44 percent is privately owned , and a small fraction belongs to the City of Medford .
The Big Butte Creek watershed experiences a Mediterranean climate . Temperatures range from 10 ° F ( − 12 ° C ) in the winter to 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) in the summer . Precipitation averages between 35 and 80 inches ( 890 and 2 @,@ 000 mm ) annually . Most precipitation occurs between November and March . Nine percent of the watershed 's surface runoff is collected from rain , 35 percent from rain on snow , and 56 percent from snow . The watershed contains the largest groundwater source in the entire Rogue River basin ; one major outlet is at Big Butte Springs .
The watershed is split into two geographic regions : the High Cascades and the Western Cascades , both volcanic in origin . The Western Cascades compose the western two thirds of the watershed . This region is highly eroded , being between 17 and 38 million years old . Its unstable slopes are primarily made of pyroclastic rock . Due to the rock 's high ability to absorb moisture , earthflows are common . The High Cascades are much younger , around three to seven million years old . Mount McLoughlin is the most prominent High Cascade volcano in the watershed , last erupting between 20 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 years ago . Basalt and andesite are the most common rock types in this region .
Nearby watersheds include Little Butte Creek to the south , small Klamath River tributaries such as Fourmile Creek to the east , the South Fork Rogue River to the east and north , and minor tributaries of the Rogue River including Reese and Indian creeks to the west .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Some of the most common trees that grow in the Big Butte Creek watershed include four species of fir , two species of pine , incense cedar , and western hemlock . The understory contains plants such as Pacific yew , Pacific madrone , chinquapin , and vine maple . Several invasive species have been reported in the Big Butte Creek watershed , such as Kentucky bluegrass , common bent , drooping brome , and redtop . The spread of these species is most likely due to overgrazing . Sensitive species that grow in the watershed include Howell 's yampah , Egg Lake monkeyflower , clustered lady 's slipper , green @-@ flowered ginger , Mount Mazama collomia , and Detling 's microseris . Mallow and popcorn flower have also been discovered in riparian zones . The Poverty Flats Area of Critical Environmental Concern ( ACEC ) is home to several rare species of plants , including Bellinger 's meadowfoam , Howell 's yampah , and Rocky Mountain woodsia .
Over 152 species of birds are known or suspected to live in the Big Butte Creek watershed , including the northern goshawk and the northern spotted owl , a vulnerable species . Bald eagles nest around Willow Lake . Amphibians such as the vulnerable Oregon spotted frog and the near threatened Cascades frog inhabit some regions of the watershed . Black @-@ tailed deer , Roosevelt elk , cougars , and black bears are the most common of the 63 species of mammals found in the watershed . Fishers and American martens have also been spotted . The gray wolf and the vulnerable grizzly bear once lived in the watershed , but are now considered extirpated . Nineteen species of reptiles live in the area . Other sensitive species include the wolverine , the western pond turtle , the sandhill crane , and Townsend 's big @-@ eared bat .
Rainbow trout , chinook and coho salmon , and Pacific Lamprey are the most common anadromous fish that inhabit Big Butte Creek . They travel as far as Butte Falls , sometimes passing over it during high flows . Because of the cold , sterile conditions of the water and the difficulty of jumping over the waterfall , streams above Butte Falls have very low populations of anadromous fish . Native , resident fish in this area include coastal cutthroat and rainbow trout . Willow Lake contains largemouth bass and rainbow , cutthroat , and brook trout . Overall , the number of fish in the Big Butte Creek watershed has declined in recent years , possibly due to the clearing of riparian zones and rising water temperatures .
= = History = =
Humans have lived in the Big Butte Creek area for at least 8 @,@ 000 years . The Klamath , Upper Umpqua , Takelma , and Latgawa tribes of Native Americans inhabited the watershed until they were driven out in the Rogue River Wars of the 1850s . On Christmas Eve , December 24 , 1855 , Captain E. A. Rice along with 34 other men attacked a Native American encampment near the creek 's mouth . Eighteen Native American men were killed , all the women and children were captured , and the camp was burned to the ground . Most were relocated to Indian reservations . Non @-@ indigenous settlers first arrived in the early 1860s , and agriculture , ranching , and logging industries quickly developed . Big Butte Creek was named by early settlers for its close proximity to Mount McLoughlin ( also known as Snowy Butte ) , as was nearby Little Butte Creek .
In 1904 , a water @-@ powered sawmill was constructed at Butte Falls . The town of Butte Falls was established in 1906 , and incorporated in 1911 . The Pacific and Eastern Railway was constructed to Butte Falls in 1910 . Butte Falls also received water rights to Ginger Springs , providing high quality drinking water for the town .
The Cat Hill Burn destroyed 30 @,@ 000 acres ( 120 km2 ) of forest on Rustler Peak in 1910 . In 1915 , the Eagle Point Irrigation Canal was constructed , diverting approximately 100 cubic feet per second ( 2 @.@ 83 m3 / s ) of water for irrigation in the Little Butte Creek watershed . The canal begins just below Butte Falls . The Butte Falls Fish Hatchery was also constructed in 1915 . Originally , the hatchery impounded water from Ginger Creek , however in 1923 a canal was built transferring 15 @.@ 5 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 439 m3 / s ) of water from the South Fork of Big Butte Creek . The Medford Aqueduct , a 31 @-@ inch @-@ wide ( 79 cm ) pipeline , was constructed in 1927 . It delivers about 40 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 1 m3 / s ) of drinking water from Big Butte Springs south to the Bear Creek watershed . In 1951 , a second pipeline was added , and Willow Dam was constructed , creating Willow Lake . The springs serve over 115 @,@ 000 customers throughout the Rogue Valley .
Loggers felled massive amounts of forest in the 1920s and 1930s . Reforestation efforts began in the 1940s because natural regeneration could not keep pace with the rate of logging . In 1962 , the Columbus Day Storm knocked many more large trees to the ground . Today , old @-@ growth forest covers only about five percent of the watershed .
In 1995 , the Poverty Flats region was designated an Area of Critical Environmental Concern ( ACEC ) by the Bureau of Land Management . Located about 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) west of Butte Falls , the ACEC is home to several rare species of plants . It was fenced off in 1996 to protect the area from roaming cattle .
The Butte Falls Fish Hatchery was scheduled to be closed by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife in July 2009 as part of a statewide effort to decrease the department 's budget , but on July 3 it was announced that the hatchery would continue to operate with only one employee . However , the hatchery was closed permanently in October 2010 .
A 160 @-@ foot ( 49 m ) portion of the Eagle Point Irrigation Canal failed on October 2 , 2011 , sending 86 cubic feet per second ( 2 @.@ 4 m3 / s ) of muddy water down a hillside , across a road , and into lower Big Butte Creek , a vital salmon spawning area . A stream gauge on the Rogue River about 15 miles ( 24 km ) downstream reported turbidity levels twenty times higher than before the breach . The canal was repaired by October 28 .
= = Pollution = =
The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) has monitored Big Butte Creek for eight different parameters that affect water quality : temperature , oxygen saturation , pH , nutrients , bacteria , chemical contaminants such as pesticides and metals , turbidity , and alkalinity . Streams that exceed the standard level are placed on the DEQ 303d list in accordance with the Clean Water Act . About 54 @.@ 2 miles ( 87 @.@ 2 km ) of the streams in the Big Butte Creek watershed were listed on the 2004 / 2006 DEQ 303d list . The entire main stem exceeded the standard level for temperature , oxygen saturation , and E. coli , a type of bacteria . The lower 13 @.@ 9 miles ( 22 @.@ 4 km ) of the North Fork were listed for high temperature , along with many other minor tributaries . The South Fork was not listed , although some of its tributaries were .
Overall , water quality in the Big Butte Creek watershed is generally high , however road construction and logging can cause severe erosion , leading to high levels of sedimentation and turbidity . The Willow Creek region often experiences high turbidity , but Willow Lake traps the sediment before it can travel downstream . Big Butte Springs provides clean water that requires minimal treatment to meet water quality standards . Water from the springs has very little chemical pollution , low turbidity , and temperatures averaging between 44 and 46 ° F ( 6 @.@ 7 and 7 @.@ 8 ° C ) .
= = Recreation = =
Popular recreational activities in the Big Butte Creek watershed include hunting , camping , hiking , and horseback riding . Many tourists also come to sight @-@ see . The most heavily used trail in the area is the Blue Canyon Trail , leading to the Sky Lakes Wilderness , and ultimately the larger Pacific Crest Trail . The city of Butte Falls has organized the Butte Falls Discovery Loop Tour , a half @-@ day @-@ long drive through the Rogue River – Siskiyou National Forest . The loop starts in Butte Falls , and has several stops for hiking and viewing the landscape , including Mount McLoughlin .
Water recreation on Willow Lake includes boating , swimming , fishing , and waterskiing . Fishing is also popular in other streams , especially Fourbit Creek . Cross @-@ country skiing and snowmobiling are popular in the winter .
= U.S. Route 206 =
U.S. Route 206 ( US 206 ) is a 130 @.@ 23 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 209 @.@ 58 km ) north – south United States highway in New Jersey and Pennsylvania , United States . Only about a half a mile ( 800 m ) of its length is in Pennsylvania ; the Milford @-@ Montague Toll Bridge carries it over the Delaware River into New Jersey , where it is the remainder of the route . The highway 's northern terminus is near Milford , Pennsylvania at an intersection with US 209 ; some sources and signs show an overlap with US 209 to end at its parent route US 6 . Its southern terminus is in Hammonton , New Jersey at an intersection with Route 54 and US 30 . For much of its length , US 206 is a rural two @-@ lane undivided road that passes through the Pine Barrens , agricultural areas , and the Appalachian Mountains of northwestern New Jersey , with some urban and suburban areas . The route connects several cities and towns , including Bordentown , Trenton , Princeton , Somerville , Netcong , and Newton . The road is known as the Disabled American Veterans Highway for much of its length .
What is now US 206 in New Jersey was designated as part of several state routes prior to 1927 , including Pre @-@ 1927 Route 2 between Bordentown and Trenton in 1916 , pre @-@ 1927 Route 13 between Trenton and Princeton in 1917 , and pre @-@ 1927 Route 16 between Princeton and Bedminster Township in 1921 . The current routing along pre @-@ 1927 Route 2 became a part of US 130 in 1926 . In 1927 , current US 206 became Route 39 between Hammonton and White Horse , Route 37 between White Horse and Trenton , Route 27 between Trenton and Princeton , Route 31 between Princeton and Newton , and Route S31 between Newton and the Delaware River . In the later 1930s , US 206 was designated to connect US 30 in Hammonton north to US 6 and US 209 in Milford ; the northern terminus was moved to its current location in the 1940s . The state highways running concurrent with US 206 in New Jersey were removed in 1953 . In the 1960s , two separate freeways were proposed for US 206 but never built . The first freeway was to connect Hammonton south along the Route 54 corridor toward Route 55 and the planned Route 60 in Vineland and Millville . The other US 206 freeway was planned in northwestern New Jersey , connecting I @-@ 80 in Netcong north to Montague Township . Construction has begun for a bypass of US 206 around Hillsborough in 2010 after being planned since 1974 . The NJDOT is currently widening the route in Byram Township to alleviate congestion , with completion in 2013 .
= = Route description = =
= = = New Jersey = = =
= = = = Atlantic County = = = =
US 206 begins at US 30 in the town of Hammonton in Atlantic County , New Jersey , heading north @-@ northeast on the two @-@ lane , undivided Disabled American Veterans Highway . South of this intersection , the road continues as Route 54 . From its southern terminus , US 206 runs through farmland , which eventually gives way to the heavily forested Pine Barrens . Within this area , the route continues through the Wharton State Forest . Here , the road comes to the eastern terminus of CR 536 .
= = = = Burlington County = = = =
US 206 continues into Shamong Township , Burlington County , passing through more of the Pine Barrens . In Shamong Township , the road makes a turn to the north and passes by Atsion Lake . After running northwest , CR 541 splits to the left . After this intersection , US 206 heads north out of the Wharton State Forest and into more agricultural areas . At the intersection with CR 648 , the route briefly widens into a four @-@ lane undivided road before narrowing back to two lanes . Upon intersecting CR 622 , US 206 enters Tabernacle Township . Here , CR 532 crosses the route at a signalized intersection . Following CR 532 , residential development increases along the route as it continues into Southampton Township . US 206 becomes a three @-@ lane road with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes as it comes to the Red Lion Circle with Route 70 . Past the Red Lion Circle , the route becomes two lanes again and passes more rural surroundings with some development . US 206 comes to a junction with the eastern terminus of Route 38 and the western terminus of CR 530 .
A short distance after the Route 38 / CR 530 intersection , the route becomes the border between Eastampton Township to the west and Southampton Township to the east before running between Eastampton Township and Pemberton Township . Along this portion , it passes through Ewansville . Continuing entirely into Springfield Township , the route crosses CR 537 . Past this intersection , US 206 widens into a four @-@ lane undivided road . The route briefly gains a wide painted median before crossing the Assicunk Creek into Mansfield Township In Mansfield Township , US 206 becomes a divided highway as it bypasses the community of Columbus to the west , with CR 690 continuing through Columbus . On the bypass of Columbus , the route has an interchange with CR 543 .
Past Columbus , US 206 becomes undivided again , with residential development increasing . It becomes a divided highway again and merges with Route 68 , the main access road to the Fort Dix entity of Joint Base McGuire @-@ Dix @-@ Lakehurst , at a directional intersection . After this intersection , US 206 enters Bordentown Township and reaches an interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) in a commercial area . Following this interchange , the route crosses over CR 545 . A short distance later , US 206 merges into US 130 at a directional interchange to form a concurrency . The two roads continue north on a six @-@ lane divided highway , briefly entering the eastern edge of Bordentown at the intersection with CR 528 . Back in Bordentown Township , US 130 and US 206 split at another directional interchange . Past US 130 , US 206 crosses under a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line and heads through development as a four @-@ lane divided highway , making a slight northwest bend before resuming north .
= = = = Mercer County = = = =
US 206 crosses the Crosswicks Creek and enters Hamilton Township , Mercer County . Immediately after the Crosswicks Creek , there is an interchange with I @-@ 195 . Past I @-@ 195 , the route reaches the White Horse Circle , where it intersects CR 524 and CR 533 . At this point , US 206 turns west @-@ northwest to run along four @-@ lane divided locally maintained Broad Street . Passing through White Horse , the road briefly becomes five lanes with a center left @-@ turn lane before becoming a four @-@ lane divided highway again as it crosses over I @-@ 295 without an interchange . Running into more urban areas of development , the route enters Trenton at the crossing of CR 650 After entering Trenton , US 206 narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided street . As the road heads toward downtown Trenton , it crosses New Jersey Transit ’ s River Line immediately before interchanging with Route 129 . From here , the road turns more to the northwest with four lanes and passes by the Sun National Bank Center before crossing over Amtrak ’ s Northeast Corridor and the US 1 freeway simultaneously . US 206 enters the commercial downtown area , narrowing back to two lanes before
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reaching Warren Street , where US 206 splits into a one @-@ way pair following Broad Street northbound and Warren Street southbound .
This one – way pairing , which carries two lanes in each direction , curves north and continues through downtown Trenton . At the Trenton Battle Monument , the road reaches an intersection with the southern terminus of Route 31 and US 206 turns northeast onto another one @-@ way pairing that follows Brunswick Avenue northbound and Martin Luther King Jr . Boulevard southbound , with each road being two @-@ way but only carrying one direction of US 206 . The road continues through neighborhoods , with southbound US 206 forming the border between Ewing Township to the northwest and Trenton to the southeast as a county @-@ maintained road at the Calhoun Street intersection . At this point , southbound US 206 becomes concurrent with CR 583 . At the junction with Spruce Street , northbound US 206 becomes the border between Lawrence Township and Trenton , becoming state @-@ maintained , while southbound US 206 / CR 583 fully crosses into Lawrence Township . Northbound US 206 widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway as it comes to the Brunswick Circle with US 1 Business . At this point , US 1 Business continues northeast on Brunswick Pike while northbound US 206 heads north as a two @-@ lane undivided road called Lawrence Road . CR 645 links the Brunswick Circle to southbound US 206 / CR 583 .
At this point , both directions of US 206 are in Lawrence Township and rejoin , with US 206 continuing north as a two @-@ lane undivided road and CR 583 heading to the northeast . US 206 continues through suburban residential areas within Lawrence Township . The route makes a turn to the northeast before heading north again and passing to the east of Rider University . A short distance later , the road has a cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 95 prior to an intersection with CR 546 . In this area , US 206 is briefly a two @-@ lane divided highway . Past CR 546 , the route becomes two @-@ lane undivided Main Street and heads north @-@ northeast through Lawrenceville , passing development . Upon leaving Lawrenceville , US 206 turns more to the east though rural surroundings , forming a short concurrency with CR 569 . From this point , the route continues northeast and enters Princeton . 4
In Princeton , CR 533 intersects US 206 , and the two routes form a concurrency . The road becomes Stockton Street , passing by the Drumthwacket Governor 's mansion . US 206 turns north onto Bayard Lane , with Route 27 continuing northeast into downtown Princeton on Nassau Street , which provides access to Princeton University . The stretch from Lawrenceville until the intersection with Nassau Street in Princeton is part of the King 's Highway Historic District . Bayard Lane carries the route past more wooded developed areas , eventually curving northeast through a park . Here , US 206 becomes State Road and turns north again . Continuing to the north , the amount of development adjacent to the road decreases .
= = = = Somerset County = = = =
US 206 enters Montgomery Township in Somerset County , where the name of the road becomes Van Horne Memorial Highway . In Montgomery Township , the route runs to the east of Princeton Airport and crosses CR 518 . Following this intersection , CR 533 splits from US 206 by heading northeast , and US 206 continues north @-@ northwest through a mix of suburban and rural areas . The road passes through the community of Harlingen before widening to four lanes and reaching Belle Mead . In this area , US 206 passes over CSX ’ s Trenton Subdivision before making a turn to the northeast and then to the north , narrowing back to two lanes . The road enters Hillsborough Township , where the Van Horne Memorial Highway designation ends . It crosses an abandoned railroad line leading to the Belle Mead General Depot before continuing into residential and commercial areas of Hillsborough . The road comes to a junction with CR 514 in this area .
Past the CR 514 intersection , US 206 makes a curve northeast before heading north again . Leaving the center of Hillsborough , the road runs northeast past more wooded areas as it crosses under Norfolk Southern 's Lehigh Line . The route passes more development as it widens into a four lane divided highway with jughandles , turning to the north and passing Duke Gardens . US 206 briefly becomes six lanes wide at the CR 608 intersection before narrowing back to four lanes as it crosses the Raritan River into Somerville . In Somerville , the road runs northwest parallel to the Raritan River prior to turning north into commercial areas and entering Raritan . US 206 runs under New Jersey Transit ’ s Raritan Valley Line before making a turn to the north @-@ northwest .
US 206 comes to the modified Somerville Circle , where it meets US 202 and Route 28 . At this modified traffic circle , US 206 and Route 28 run through it while US 202 passes over it with ramp access . US 206 forms a concurrency with US 202 at this point and the two routes continue north into Bridgewater Township , briefly entering Somerville . The road features an interchange with US 22 and heads north with the Bridgewater Commons shopping mall on the east side of the road and the Somerset Corporate Center on the west side of the road . An interchange with Commons Way provides access to both these places . Past Commons Way , the road passes under Garrettson Road and comes to an interchange with I @-@ 287 that also provides access to I @-@ 78 . Past the I @-@ 287 interchange , US 202 / 206 continue north as a two @-@ lane undivided road past suburban areas . The road crosses Chambers Brook into Bedminster Township , where it soon passes under I @-@ 78 . Shortly after I @-@ 78 , it widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway with a Jersey barrier . US 202 / 206 come to another interchange with I @-@ 287 , pass over the North Branch Raritan River , and come to an intersection where the two routes split .
After the US 202 split , US 206 continues north as a four @-@ lane divided highway through commercial areas , with the grass median becoming replaced by a painted median as it comes to a junction with CR 523 in downtown Bedminster . Following this intersection , the route narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided road that runs through less development . US 206 enters Peapack @-@ Gladstone , where it runs a short distance to the west of New Jersey Transit ’ s Gladstone Branch . In Peapack @-@ Gladstone , the road briefly becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway as it has an interchange with Pfizer Way , a road that provides access to a Pfizer facility . Past this point , US 206 becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road that runs northwest through rural areas , with CR 512 crossing the road . Just after this intersection , the route enters Bedminster Township again , turning to the north .
= = = = Morris County = = = =
The route continues north into Chester Township , Morris County . In Chester Township , US 206 passes through forested areas , with the northbound direction briefly gaining a second lane . As the road comes into Chester Borough , it widens to four lanes and passes shopping areas including the Streets of Chester . In the center of Chester , the route crosses CR 513 . Past this intersection , US 206 continues into woodland development , with the northbound direction narrowing back into one lane as the route heads back into Chester Township . The road narrows back to two total lanes as it enters more rural surroundings , coming into Mount Olive Township . Further north , residential development near the road starts to increase . As US 206 reaches an intersection with CR 613 , the surroundings becomes commercial before the route passes under Morristown & Erie Railway 's High Bridge Branch . After this area , the road turns north @-@ northeast and runs through forested areas as a three lane road with two northbound lanes and one southbound lane , eventually entering Roxbury Township .
Business in the area of the road increase before US 206 widens to four total lanes and comes to a modified cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 80 and the southern terminus of Route 183 . At this point , the road continues north into Netcong as Route 183 while US 206 heads west along I @-@ 80 , a six @-@ lane freeway that continues into Mount Olive Township . The freeway continues northwest , running through a small corner of Netcong before coming back into Mount Olive Township and interchanging with US 46 . Immediately after US 46 , the highway passes over New Jersey Transit ’ s Morristown Line / Montclair @-@ Boonton Line before turning north and reaching a trumpet interchange where US 206 splits from I @-@ 80 . Following this split , US 206 is a four @-@ lane freeway that heads northeast , crossing under Waterloo Valley Road and an abandoned railroad line before coming to an interchange with International Drive .
= = = = Sussex County = = = =
After the International Drive interchange , US 206 crosses the Musconetcong River and enters Stanhope , Sussex County . Immediately following the river crossing , the freeway merges with the northern terminus of Route 183 at an interchange on the border between Byram Township to the west and Stanhope to the east . Past Route 183 , US 206 continues north as a four @-@ lane divided surface road past development , fully entering Stanhope again before crossing into Byram Township . Upon entering Byram Township , the route becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road . Upon turning northwest , the surroundings become more forested as US 206 crosses a mountain , with the northbound direction gaining a second lane for a distance . There are a few businesses along the road as it runs north past wooded areas near Cranberry Lake and Panther Lake . The route continues into Andover , where it becomes Main Street and passes under the abandoned Lackawanna Cut @-@ Off . US 206 forms a brief concurrency with CR 517 in the commercial downtown area . Past CR 517 , US 206 bends northwest and enters Andover Township . Here , the road runs back into forested areas , passing by Whites Pond and running near Kittatinny Valley State Park . After a curve to the north , the route enters a mix of development and rural areas , passing to the west of Newton Airport prior to entering Newton .
In Newton , the road is known as Main Street and is lined by homes as it turns north . Upon reaching the downtown area , US 206 meets Route 94 and CR 519 at the Park Place square . At this point , US 206 forms a concurrency with Route 94 / CR 519 , and all three routes run concurrent north on four @-@ lane undivided Water Street for a short distance . CR 519 splits from the road by turning north on Mill Street while US 206 and Route 94 continue north as a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane , crossing Paulins Kill before coming to a shopping district as the road leaves Newton for Hampton Township . The road narrows back to two lanes and heads into areas of farmland , becoming Hampton House Road . Route 94 splits from US 206 by making a right turn to continue east . After this intersection , US 206 turns northeast and enters Frankford Township . After crossing the Paulins Kill , Route 15 and CR 565 end at a traffic light with US 206 , with the route making a turn to the northwest on an unnamed road .
After this intersection , the route passes near Skylands Stadium before passing more farmland and reaching the community of Augusta . After Augusta , US 206 turns north @-@ northwest through more rural areas before entering Branchville . Here , the route bypasses the center of town to the south as a four @-@ lane divided highway before crossing CR 519 . Past CR 519 , the median ends and US 206 continues to the west @-@ northwest . After crossing back into Frankford Township , the route continues through forested areas . Turning more to the north , US 206 runs a short distance to the west of Culver 's Lake prior to intersecting CR 521 and forming a concurrency with that route . The concurrent US 206 and CR 521 heads into Sandyston Township , where it crosses the Appalachian Trail at Culvers Gap in Kittatinny Mountain and passes through the mountainous Stokes State Forest .
After heading north with a three @-@ lane stretch that has two southbound lanes and one northbound lane , the two @-@ lane road reaches a junction with CR 560 . After this intersection , the road leaves the state forest and continues through wooded areas with some commercial establishments . US 206 / CR 521 reaches the community of Hainesville , where it passes through more agricultural surroundings with some development . Leaving Hainesville , the road continues into Montague Township . Near the community of Montague , CR 521 splits from US 206 by heading to the northeast . Meanwhile , US 206 turns to the northwest to run through wooded areas of the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area , where it comes to the Milford @-@ Montague Toll Bridge over the Delaware River that is maintained by the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission .
= = = Pennsylvania = = =
After crossing the river on the Milford @-@ Montague Toll Bridge , US 206 continues north into Dingman Township in Pike County , Pennsylvania . A short distance after the bridge , the route comes to a northbound toll plaza , where it becomes a two @-@ lane divided highway . US 206 officially ends at an intersection with US 209 not far after the toll plaza for the bridge . Even though this intersection marks the end of US 206 , a few signs show the route heading concurrent with US 209 to continue north to US 6 in Milford .
= = History = =
Prior to 1927 , what is now US 206 in New Jersey was legislated as part of several routes . Between Bordentown and Trenton , the current alignment was designated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 2 in 1916 . Between Trenton and Princeton , present @-@ day US 206 became the southernmost part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 13 in 1917 . In 1921 , the current route from Princeton north to Bedminster Township was legislated as part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 16 .
After the U.S. Highway System was created in 1926 , the route between Bordentown and Trenton became the northernmost part of US 130 while it became a part of US 1 between Trenton and Princeton . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , several state highways were legislated along present @-@ day US 206 . Route 39 followed the route from Hammonton to White Horse , while Route 37 was designated along it between White Horse and Trenton . From Trenton north to Princeton , pre @-@ 1927 Route 13 was replaced by Route 27 . Present @-@ day US 206 between Princeton and Newton became part of Route 31 , a route that was to go past Newton to the New York border near Unionville , while the portion north of Newton to the Delaware River in Montague became Route S31 , a spur of Route 31 . Another spur of Route 31 , Route 31A , was legislated in 1941 to run from Route 31 in Princeton to Route 33 in Hightstown ; only a small portion of this was built over the Northeast Corridor railroad line and is now Route 64 .
US 206 was designated in the later 1930s , running from US 30 in Hammonton , New Jersey north to US 6 and US 209 in Milford , Pennsylvania . By this time , the US 1 and US 130 designations were removed from the route onto new alignments . In 1938 , US 206 / Route 31 was designated to bypass Somerville , the former alignment was known as Route 177 from the 1960s until 1974 . In the 1940s , US 206 / Route 39 was realigned to the south of White Horse ; the former alignment was known as Route 160 between the 1960s and the 1980s . Also in the 1940s , the northern terminus of US 206 was moved to its current location at US 209 in Dingman Township , Pennsylvania .
In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the state highways running concurrent with US 206 were removed . When US 206 's current alignment bypassing Columbus was built by the 1960s , the designation of Route 170 was given to the old alignment through Columbus ; this road was turned over to Burlington County in the 1980s and is now CR 690 . In the late 1960s , a freeway was proposed for the US 206 / Route 54 corridor , running from US 30 in Hammonton south to Route 55 and the proposed Route 60 near Vineland and Millville . Originally , a parkway had been planned in 1932 to serve the US 206 corridor between Hammonton and Trenton , but never materialized . The freeway between Vineland / Millville and Hammonton was to cost $ 47 million and was intended to provide a better route between the two areas than the existing two @-@ lane roads . However , it was never built due to environmental and financial issues .
A freeway was also proposed for US 206 in northwestern New Jersey during the 1960s . In 1964 , a Route 94 freeway was planned to follow US 206 between Netcong and Newton on its way to the proposed Route 23 freeway in Hamburg . The Tri @-@ State Transportation Commission proposed a longer US 206 freeway that was to connect I @-@ 78 and I @-@ 287 in Bedminster Township north to Newton , incorporating the southern portion of the Route 94 proposal . This freeway was intended to relieve traffic on existing roads and provide access to recreation areas . By the late 1960s , the US 206 freeway would be planned by the NJDOT to connect I @-@ 80 in Netcong north to Montague . This freeway was proposed to provide access to proposed national recreation area along the Delaware River that would have been built in conjunction with the controversial Tocks Island Dam project as well as alleviating traffic on the existing road . However , like the US 206 freeway proposal in southern New Jersey , it was not built .
Since 1974 , a bypass has been planned for the congested part of US 206 through Hillsborough . In 2002 , the NJDOT modified plans for the bypass . The bypass is to be mostly four lanes wide and run to the east of Hillsborough , with the southernmost portion only being two lanes ; one interchange was planned with CR 514 . The road is to meet a Smart Growth goal by preserving land and eliminating two planned interchanges that would have increased congestion . In July 2009 , it was announced that construction of the US 206 Hillsborough bypass , which is projected to cost $ 148 million , would start in 2010 . On June 24 , 2010 , a contract was given to Carbro Constructors Corporation to build the first phase between CR 514 and Hillsborough Road . Construction on this portion , planned to cost $ 43 million , began on August 18 , 2010 and opened on October 28 , 2013 . This section is currently designated US 206 Bypass . In spring 2015 , work on grading and utility relocation for the ends of the bypass was slated to be completed . Work on constructing the northern and southern ends of the US 206 bypass of Hillsborough is planned to begin in spring 2017 , but may be delayed as the state 's Transportation Trust Fund is anticipated to run out of money in 2016 . The Hillsborough Bypass is named for Peter J. Biondi , a former Assemblyman and Hillsborough mayor who died in 2011 .
US 206 was widened in Byram Township to six lanes . This construction follows a decade of controversy , including concerns that the widening would violate the Highlands Water Protection and Planning Act passed in 2004 ; an exemption to this act allowed the construction to proceed . The widening is being done in order to eliminate backups on the current two @-@ lane stretch during rush hours . The project was slated to be finished in November 2013 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Bannered routes = =
U.S. Route 206 Bypass ( US 206 Byp . ) is the designation for the incomplete Peter J. Biondi Bypass , a bypass of the section of US 206 through Hillsborough Township in Somerset County . The road currently begins at an at @-@ grade intersection with Hillsborough Road and heads north as a two @-@ lane divided road . The bypass passes through farmland and woodland with some nearby development , coming to bridges over Homestead Road and CSX 's Trenton Subdivision . The current northern terminus of US 206 Byp. is at an interchange with CR 514 . A stub of the roadway continues north of the interchange . The first section of US 206 Byp . , running from Hillsborough Road to CR 514 , opened on October 28 ,
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increasing valuable due to the Asian demand for shark fin soup . In addition , their skin used for leather , their liver oil for vitamins , and their carcasses for fishmeal . The great hammerhead is also taken unintentionally as bycatch and suffers very high mortality , over 90 % for fisheries in the northwest Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico . Entanglement in shark nets around Australian and South African beaches is another source of mortality .
= = = Conservation status = = =
The great hammerhead is extremely vulnerable to overfishing due to its low overall abundance and long generation time . Assessment of its conservation status is difficult as few fisheries separate the great hammerhead from other hammerheads in their reported catches . This species is listed as globally Endangered on the IUCN Red List . It is Endangered in the northwestern Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico , where though it is a non @-@ targeted species , populations have dropped 50 % since the 1990s due to bycatch . It is also Endangered in the southwestern Indian Ocean , where large numbers of longline vessels operate illegally along the coasts for hammerheads and the giant guitarfish ( Rhynchobatus djiddensis ) . The great hammerhead catch rate in Indian Ocean has declined 73 % from 1978 to 2003 , though it is yet undetermined whether these represent localized or widespread depletion . The great hammerhead is Critically Endangered along the western coast of Africa , where stocks have collapsed with an estimated 80 % decline in the past 25 years . The West African Sub @-@ Regional Fishing Commission ( SRFC ) has recognized the great hammerhead as one of the four most threatened species in the region , though fishing continues unmonitored and unregulated . Off northern Australia , this species was assessed as Data Deficient but at " high risk " . Concern has arisen there over a substantial increase in illegal , unreported , and unregulated ( IUU ) fishing , reflecting the raising value of this shark 's fins .
No conservation measures specifically protecting the great hammerhead have been enacted . It is listed on Annex I , Highly Migratory Species , of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea , though no management schemes have yet been implemented under this agreement . The banning of shark finning by countries and supranational entities such as United States , Australia , and the European Union , and international regulatory bodies such as the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas ( ICCAT ) , should reduce fishing pressure on the great hammerhead .
= New York State Route 120 =
New York State Route 120 ( NY 120 ) is a state highway in southern Westchester County , New York , in the United States . It begins in the city of Rye at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) and runs for about 18 miles ( 29 km ) north to the hamlet of Millwood , where it ends at a junction with NY 100 . The route intersects with several limited @-@ access highways , including Interstate 684 ( I @-@ 684 ) and the Saw Mill River Parkway , and serves the Westchester County Airport in North Castle . Portions of the route have been signed ceremonially in remembrance of American serviceman killed in the 2000s and 2010s during the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan .
NY 120 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , but only to the portion of its routing north of Westchester Avenue . It was extended south to Rye c . 1938 , then rerouted to follow Westchester Avenue east to Port Chester by the following year . Most of NY 120 's former routing to Rye became part of New York State Route 119A at that time . NY 120 was rerouted to serve Rye again c . 1961 , replacing NY 119A .
= = Route description = =
= = = Rye to Harrison = = =
NY 120 begins at an intersection with US 1 ( Boston Post Road ) in the city of Rye . The route proceeds northward along Purchase Street as a two @-@ lane street through the Locust Avenue Business District , intersecting a handful of local streets and serving Rye 's station on the Metro @-@ North Railroad 's New Haven Line . Past the station , the highway passes under the New Haven Line , Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor line , and I @-@ 95 in quick succession ahead of the Purchase Street Business District . The commercial surroundings give way to residential neighborhoods after three blocks as NY 120 winds northward through the northern part of Rye to the adjacent village of Harrison .
In Harrison , NY 120 passes several mansions on both sides of the highway as it gradually turns northwestward and approaches I @-@ 287 ( the Cross Westchester Expressway ) . The route parallels the western edge of the freeway for several blocks to Westchester Avenue , where NY 120 meets the southern end of NY 120A , an alternate route through the easternmost part of Westchester County . While NY 120A heads east toward Port Chester , NY 120 takes on the Westchester Avenue name as the two directions of the route split to follow collector / distributor roads running northwestward along both sides of I @-@ 287 . The route remains on the frontage roads for about a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to another section of Purchase Street , where NY 120 turns to follow a slightly more northward track through another residential section of Harrison .
Less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from I @-@ 287 , NY 120 connects to the Hutchinson River Parkway by way of exit 27 , a diamond interchange just northeast of the parkway 's interchanges with I @-@ 287 and a reference route spur leading to I @-@ 684 . Continuing northward from the parkway , the highway enters the hamlet of Purchase , where NY 120 runs along the eastern edge of Manhattanville College 's campus and passes a short distance west of the State University of New York at Purchase . Part of Purchase Street near the entrance to SUNY Purchase at Anderson Hill Road is named the Specialist Anthony N. Kalladeen Memorial Highway in memory of United States Army Specialist Anthony Kalladeen , a SUNY Purchase student who was killed in Iraq in 2004 . A dormitory at the school is also named for him .
Another stretch of homes north of Purchase leads to Westchester County Airport , situated between NY 120 and the New York – Connecticut state line about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the east . Here , I @-@ 684 begins to run alongside NY 120 as both roads pass by Rye Lake , an offshoot of the Kensico Reservoir . NY 120 widens to four lanes ahead of the airport 's main entrance in the town of North Castle , where the road connects to I @-@ 684 via Airport Road ( unsigned County Route 135 or CR 135 ) .
= = = North Castle to Millwood = = =
Continuing northward , I @-@ 684 and NY 120 head due north toward the state line , where NY 120A rejoins its parent route at a junction with King Street just north of the airport . From here , I @-@ 684 continues north into Connecticut while NY 120 takes on the King Street name and turns northwest to straddle the state line for roughly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) as a two @-@ lane road . The route passes over I @-@ 684 and the northern tip of Rye Lake and serves an industrial complex in the Connecticut town of Greenwich before the state line turns 90 degrees to the northeast . NY 120 remains on a northwesterly alignment , however , and it crosses the Delaware Aqueduct prior to meeting NY 22 ( Mount Kisco Road ) on the edge of another Kensico Reservoir inlet . The two routes briefly overlap to cross the inlet on a causeway before splitting on the water body 's north shore . From here , NY 120 heads through substantially less developed , mostly wooded areas as it traverses the northeastern edge of the reservoir .
North of the reservoir , NY 120 crosses the northernmost part of the Bronx River and traverses the northeastern corner of the town of Mount Pleasant , where the woods give way to a handful of residential neighborhoods . The transition in surroundings continues into the adjacent town of New Castle , home to housing tracts that become less isolated as the road veers westward toward the hamlet of Chappaqua . NY 120 proceeds west through residential and commercial areas to Chappaqua 's central business district , where it meets the community 's main north – south route , NY 117 ( Bedford Road ) . NY 120 heads north through the center of Chappaqua , overlapping with NY 117 to reach another section of King Street one block to the north . Past NY 117 , NY 120 continues generally westward through Chappaqua , changing names to Quaker Road a short distance east of Chappaqua 's station on the Metro @-@ North Railroad 's Harlem Line .
After crossing the Harlem Line , the route dips under the Saw Mill River Parkway and intersects two parallel local streets leading to the parkway 's exit 32 . NY 120 turns northward here , crossing over the Saw Mill River and leaving Chappaqua for less densely populated areas of the town of New Castle . At 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) north of Chappaqua early 19th @-@ century farmhouses that clustered around the Quaker meeting house that was then the center of Chappaqua , line the road . Today these are listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Old Chappaqua Historic District .
Roughly 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) past the historic district , NY 120 makes a gradual turn to the west to reach a junction with NY 133 ( Millwood Road ) . NY 120 turns onto NY 133 , following Millwood Road westward into the hamlet of Millwood and its commercial center . Here , the two routes cross the right @-@ of @-@ way of the former Putnam Division of the New York Central Railroad and pass by the site of Millwood 's station , which was demolished in May 2012 after years of neglect . Just after the railroad right @-@ of @-@ way , NY 133 turns southwestward onto Station Place while NY 120 proceeds northwest as Millwood Road for one more sparsely developed block before terminating at a junction with NY 100 ( Saw Mill River Road ) at the northern edge of the hamlet .
= = History = =
The segment of modern NY 120 between Westchester Avenue and the north end of the overlap with NY 22 was originally designated as part of Route 1 , an unsigned legislative route , by the New York State Legislature in 1908 . Route 1 approached Purchase Street from the west on Westchester Avenue and continued north from Armonk on what is now NY 22 . NY 120 , meanwhile , was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to the portion of its modern alignment north of the junction of Purchase Street and Westchester Avenue ( then NY 119 ) in Harrison . It was extended south to US 1 in Rye c . 1938 by way of Purchase Street and Highland Road .
NY 120 was altered again by the following year to follow NY 119 east along Westchester Avenue to US 1 in Port Chester . Most of NY 120 's former routing south of Westchester Avenue became part of NY 119A , a new route assigned to all of Purchase Street between NY 119 and NY 120 in Harrison and US 1 in Rye . NY 120 was realigned once more c . 1961 to follow Purchase Street south to Rye , supplanting NY 119A . At the same time , NY 119 was truncated on its east end to Purchase Street while the portion of Westchester Avenue that had carried NY 119 and NY 120 between Purchase Street and Port Chester became an extension of NY 120A .
The two @-@ lane bridge carrying NY 120 over the Metro @-@ North Railroad in Chappaqua was rebuilt as a four @-@ lane bridge in 2012 for $ 19 million . Once completed , the bridge was named the SSG Kyu Hyuk Chay Memorial Bridge in memory of Army Staff Sergeant Kyu Chay , whose family owns a dry cleaning business adjacent to the bridge . A plaque was also erected in his honor at the war memorial by the Chappaqua train station . Chay , a Special Forces linguist and Korean immigrant , was three credits shy of his law degree at Brooklyn Law School when he was killed in Afghanistan .
= = Suffixed routes = =
NY 120 once had two suffixed routes ; only one still exists .
NY 120A ( 8 @.@ 55 miles or 13 @.@ 76 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 120 between Harrison and North Castle . The northern half of the route straddles the New York – Connecticut state line , and two portions of the route are physically located in Connecticut . It was assigned c . 1931 .
NY 120B was an alternate route of NY 120 between Rye and North Castle . It was assigned by 1932 and partially replaced by NY 120A c . 1939 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Westchester County .
= Marry Me a Little , Marry Me a Little More =
" Marry Me a Little , Marry Me a Little More " is a double @-@ length episode of the American television series Will & Grace 's fifth season . It was written by Jeff Greenstein and Bill Wrubel and directed by series producer James Burrows . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on November 21 , 2002 . Guest stars in " Marry Me a Little , Marry Me a Little More " include Harry Connick , Jr . , Katie Couric , Judith Ivey , and Debbie Reynolds .
The episode focuses on Grace ( played by Debra Messing ) impulsively accepting a marriage proposal from her boyfriend Leo ( Harry Connick , Jr . ) despite that the two have only known each other for a short time . They get married and tell their friends about the news , despite Grace 's best friend Will 's ( Eric McCormack ) unease about the whole idea . Grace and Leo decide to host a wedding reception for themselves , but at the festivity , Grace learns unsettling details about Leo , which gives her reason to wonder if she has made a mistake .
Before the episode aired , some critics worried that bringing Leo into the storyline would disrupt the friendship between Will and Grace . Co @-@ creator David Kohan , however , believed the two characters had to " move on forward in their lives in some way " , and sought to assure the worrying critics that a third individual added to the mix would be unlikely to replace Will as the best friend of Grace . NBC was also in full support of creating a triangle between the three characters , stating that it was a way for the producers to find a new " spark " for the series .
Once the episode aired , it received generally mixed reviews from television critics . Despite this , " Marry Me a Little , Marry Me a Little More " was watched by 24 @.@ 3 million households in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also garnered Will & Grace 's second @-@ largest audience ever among adults aged 18 to 49 . The Nation magazine commented that this was the first time that a prime @-@ time sitcom showed a Jewish protagonist ( Grace ) marrying inside the faith .
= = Plot = =
When Grace ( Debra Messing ) and her boyfriend Leo ( Harry Connick , Jr . ) take a walk around Central Park , they notice a tent and a van parked nearby , after a bride and groom ran past them . Eager to know what is happening , Grace stops by the van , sees Katie Couric , and asks her what is going on . Katie tells Grace that The Today Show is having massive televised weddings in the park for ratings sweeps week . When Katie asks Grace and Leo if they would like to get married , Leo says yes , but Grace believes he is being sarcastic , only later realizing that he is serious . Leo explains to Grace that because they originally met in a park , they should also get married in a park . Leo proposes and Grace accepts , despite that the two have only known each other for two months .
Upon arriving at Will 's ( Eric McCormack ) apartment , Grace and Leo reveal to their friends , Will , Jack ( Sean Hayes ) , and Karen ( Megan Mullally ) , that they have gotten married . The friends ' reactions to the news are not positive ; in particular , Grace 's gay best friend Will is uneasy about the whole idea . Leo and Grace , however , assure Will that they will have a wedding reception in honor of him , which improves Will 's relationship with both Grace and Leo .
During the reception , Grace learns many things she did not know about Leo , including that his first name is Marvin ( revealed by his mother , Eleanor ( Judith Ivey ) ) . So many unsettling details about Leo come to light that Grace becomes uneasy and leaves the reception ; Leo follows her . The two run into Katie in the lobby who tells them that The Today Show has scrapped the wedding segment because the judge who performed the ceremony was not licensed in New York so their marriage is not valid . Upon learning this , Grace tells Leo that she needs time to think about their relationship . Leo returns to the reception and announces to everyone that his marriage to Grace is not legitimate . Grace returns to the reception later , and reveals that she does want to marry Leo .
At a Jewish synagogue , where Grace and Leo 's wedding is to take place , Grace learns from her mother , Bobbi ( Debbie Reynolds ) , that her father will not be able to walk her down the aisle . Grace panics , but Karen suggests that Will should walk with her instead . She agrees and calls upon him . Although Will at first declines to give her away because of the prior argument , they make up and he finally escorts her down the aisle . After the wedding reception , Will , Grace , Leo , Jack , and Karen walk through Central Park enjoying Grace and Leo 's marriage .
= = Production = =
" Marry Me a Little , Marry Me a Little More " was written by Jeff Greenstein and Bill Wrubel and was directed by series producer James Burrows . It was the one @-@ hundredth episode of Will & Grace , and the producers celebrated the milestone by planning an hour @-@ long episode followed by a clip show featuring highlights and outtakes from past seasons . In an interview with The Jewish Journal in 2001 , David Kohan , the co @-@ creator of Will & Grace , in discussing the lead characters , stated that a marriage could be a problem for the dynamic between the two characters : " I 'd love for [ Grace ] to find a Jewish love interest , but that relationship might actually work , and then there 'd be no more ' Will & Grace ' . " Kohan , however , changed his mind by the time of a follow @-@ up interview in 2002 : he noted that the characters had to " move on forward in their lives in some way " and it would be unlikely that Grace 's possible husband would displace her gay best friend , Will . In July 2002 , reports surfaced that a possible wedding involving Grace would happen , but the staff were not allowed to reveal anything .
Musician Harry Connick , Jr . , was cast in the role of Leo . He received a call from co @-@ creators Kohan and Max Mutchnick asking him to appear on Will & Grace , and agreed to do it after learning that it was his wife 's favorite show . According to Debra Messing , who plays Grace , Kohan and Mutchnick had a specific vision of Grace 's husband from the start . They thought it was important that Grace meet a " menschy , nice Jewish man who happens to be a hottie , and that 's what we got with Harry Connick Jr , " she said . According to The Nation magazine , this was the first time that a prime @-@ time sitcom showed a Jewish protagonist ( Grace ) marrying inside the faith . Connick , who is part @-@ Jewish , said he enjoyed the fact that he was not asked to sing on the show , because " it throws you out of character a little bit when that stuff happens . It 's been great just doing the acting thing . " Messing , in discussing Grace and Leo 's relationship , commented that it is " unlike anything that Grace has ever been a part of before and just the little that we 've done so far , it feels wonderful to be playing with Harry . " In another interview , also discussing the characters ' relationship , she explained , " ... bringing Leo into it and making it a viable and potent relationship for Grace , that 's never happened before . I think she 's a little less frenetic and neurotic , and I think that really being in love markedly changes Grace . That sexual energy in a great way has shaken things up , because it is the greatest threat to the friendship of Will and Grace to date . "
Before the Grace and Leo storyline was written , NBC worried that the show 's characters never seemed to move forward or mature . They wanted the show to be more like Friends , which received higher ratings because of its romantic storyline cliffhangers . Greenstein commented that " there was an interchangeability among the episodes from season to season . We wanted to create more continuing story arcs ; we wanted to deepen the predicaments the characters are in , get the audience kind of rooting for something from week to week . " In November 2002 , negotiations were made for Connick to play a series regular on Will & Grace ; he originally signed on for only 13 episodes . Jeff Zucker , who at the time served as President of NBC Entertainment , commented that creating a triangle between Will , Grace , and Leo was a " brilliant " way to give the series a new spark . He was confident that it would be well received by the audience and the fans .
The episode was filmed over three days at the end of October and beginning of November 2002 . It was supposed to take only two days , but the filming of the wedding scenes was postponed after Messing got sick on the first day . On November 3 , 2002 , the rooftop terrace scene was filmed at the New York Palace Hotel . In November 2002 , the scene in Central Park was shot in New York . The wedding ceremony was filmed , in part , at Temple Israel of Hollywood . As the actors performed their lines in front of a studio audience , the writing staff stood behind the cameras taking notes in the script and watching the audience 's reaction to jokes . The writers often stopped the cameras and added new inflections to the dialog . According to the Knoxville News Sentinel 's Terry Morrow , the cast handled the changes quickly , and scenes were routinely redone up to three times even if the actors executed their lines properly .
Debbie Reynolds and Judith Ivey guest @-@ starred in the episode as the mothers of Grace and Leo , respectively . Reynolds had played Grace 's mother in the episode " The Unsinkable Mommy Adler " in season one , while Ivey played Connick 's mother in the previous episode , " The Needle and the Omelet 's Done " . Katie Couric portrayed herself in the episode . Vera Wang designed Grace 's wedding dress , which cost approximately $ 20 @,@ 000 . The show 's costume designer , Lori Eskowitz @-@ Carter , provided Sergio Rossi boots worth $ 1 @,@ 750 for the episode , while Grace 's jewelry was supplied by Martin Katz .
= = Reception = =
" Marry Me a Little , Marry Me a Little More " brought in an average of 24 @.@ 3 million viewers during its original airing on November 21 , 2002 , the second @-@ largest audience ever for a Will & Grace episode ; as a result , CSI : Crime Scene Investigation received its smallest audience that season . The episode received an 11 @.@ 8 rating / 27 % share among viewers in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , making it Will & Grace 's second @-@ largest audience ever in that demographic . Editor Peter Chakos was nominated for an Emmy Award in the category of " Outstanding Multi @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Series " at the 55th Primetime Emmy Awards .
The episode received a mixed reception from television critics . Alan Pergament of The Buffalo News commented that " like all hourlong episodes of comedies , this one becomes a little bloated in the middle . But it holds up for the most part and has some very funny and poignant moments , including an emotional rooftop scene between Will and Grace that defines their friendship . " Whitney Matheson of USA Today said she " was bored to tears " by the episode , while Jeffrey Robinson of DVD Talk thought it was a " fun episode " . Seth Davis of Sports Illustrated was not complimentary towards Connick , " Whoever came up with the idea to cast Connick on Will & Grace should be fired . " A writer from Entertainment Weekly , however , commented that Leo " fits right in to the antic Will & Grace world of Will , Grace , Jack , and Karen . " Matt Roush of TV Guide was not thrilled of the idea of Grace getting married , writing : " Well , is the show called Will & Grace & Leo ? I don 't think so . " The Star @-@ Ledger 's Alan Sepinwall commented that Will & Grace " has already been infected with a sense of cattiness and despair , as the writers try to top each other 's nasty one @-@ liners . A happy , healthy relationship could be just the cure for what 's ailing the one @-@ time Emmy winner . "
Bill Carroll , Vice President and Director for the Katz Television Group , a consulting firm , wondered where the show would head after Grace got married : " The real question now is , where is the critical development of that show going to be ? Now that they 've married her off , where is the show 's focus ? " The Hartford Courant 's Roger Catlin did not think Grace 's and Leo 's marriage would last long . " Are we to believe Will & Grace will now be about a married woman , her husband and her gay roommate ? That they 'll all still live together ? That Connick will no longer have merely special @-@ guest status ? The inevitable breakup and annulment to come are as obvious as the sweeps @-@ timing of the ceremony . "
= Framingham Railroad Station =
Framingham Railroad Station is a historic Boston and Albany Railroad station located in downtown Framingham , Massachusetts . Designed by noted American architect H. H. Richardson , it was one of the last of the railroad stations he designed in the northeastern United States to be built . The station , built in 1884 – 85 , served as a major stop on the B & A Main Line as well as a hub for branch lines to Milford , Mansfield , Fitchburg , and Lowell . After years of deterioration , the station was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 , and restored a decade later .
In 2001 , MBTA Framingham / Worcester Line and Amtrak operations were shifted to a new set of platforms nearby , which have high @-@ level sections for handicapped @-@ accessible boarding and a footbridge for crossing the tracks . This new Framingham station is among the busiest on the MBTA system , with 41 daily MBTA and 2 Amtrak trains on weekdays . The H. H. Richardson @-@ designed station building remains largely intact and is currently used as a restaurant .
= = History = =
= = = Boston and Worcester Railroad = = =
The Boston and Worcester Railroad , which had opened from Boston to Newton in April 1834 , opened to South Framingham in August 1834 . The village 's first major station , a 2 @-@ story wooden Dutch Colonial structure , was constructed in 1848 . After being replaced , it was moved slightly west and converted to a freight house – a function it served until it was demolished in the 1960s .
Over the next several decades , South Framingham became an important regional rail hub . The Boston and Worcester built its 12 @-@ mile Milford Branch from South Framingham to Milford via Holliston in 1848 . The next year , the B & W built a short branch to Framingham Center , which the B & W mainline had bypassed . This line , later called the Agricultural Branch Railroad , was realigned near Framingham Center and extended to Pratts Junction in Sterling in 1855 . Franklin Street was built on the former branch right of way . The Agricultural Branch and the Framingham & Lowell ( which branched off it at Framingham Center ) were the northernmost section of the Old Colony Railroad , which took over the lines in 1879 .
The Old Colony 's access to South Framingham was the Mansfield & Framingham , which opened in 1870 and was also acquired in 1879 . By the time of the Old Colony takeover , South Framingham featured the 1848 @-@ built station , a freight house , a car house , and three separate engine houses serving the various branch lines . Through service on the mainline operated as far as Albany ; the B & W had joined with the Western Railroad in 1867 to become the Boston and Albany Railroad . Framingham began to be used occasionally as a short turn terminus for Boston @-@ bound commuter trains in the early 1860s and continuously as such after 1864 . As of August 2015 , a small number of Framingham / Worcester Line trains are short @-@ turned at Framingham .
= = = H. H. Richardson depot = = =
Beginning in 1881 , the Boston & Albany began a massive improvement program that included the building of over 30 new stations along its main line as well as the Highland Branch , which it bought in 1883 . Famed architect H. H. Richardson was hired to design nine of these stations , including South Framingham which was commissioned in October 1883 . The $ 62 @,@ 718 station , built in 1884 – 85 by the Norcross Brothers company , was the largest and costliest of the nine . The station is a prime example of the Richardsonian Romanesque style , built of rough @-@ hewn granite with contrasting details . The dominant roofline , dormers , arched bow window , and wooden interior are typical of the style . Like many of Richardson 's designs , the station was well @-@ praised ; Henry @-@ Russell Hitchcock called it a " better and somewhat more personal work " in The Architecture of H. H. Richardson and His Time . A small square baggage room was built in the same style just east of the station , near the Concord Street ( Route 126 ) grade crossing .
The station 's importance remained through the first half of the 20th century . After the Boston & Albany was acquired by the New York Central Railroad in 1900 , third and fourth tracks were extended in 1907 to South Framingham from Lake Crossing station in Wellesley . In 1911 , the NYC considered laying third rail on the main line as far as South Framingham , as well as on the Highland Branch , to allow more frequent electric service on the lines . This would have been the only electrified commuter service directly into Boston , as neither the later @-@ electrified Boston , Revere Beach and Lynn Railroad nor experimental electric service on the South Shore Railroad went directly to downtown . However , the plan was abandoned because the infrastructure cost would have exceeded the annual savings on fuel . ( In 1959 , the Highland Branch received catenary wire and was turned into the Green Line " D " Branch ) .
Due in no small part to the presence of the station , South Framingham eclipsed Framingham Center in size ; by the 1940s , the village and the station
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were simply known as Framingham . Traffic on the B & A and its various branch lines , though , had been decreasing since World War I. In 1919 , Agricultural Branch trains were cut to Framingham requiring a transfer to continue Boston or Mansfield . The line was cut back to Marlborough in 1931 , and passenger service ended in 1937 . Passenger service on the Mansfield & Framingham ended in 1933 . The Milford Branch lasted the longest of the Boston & Albany branch lines ; it was cut to one daily trip in 1953 and terminated in April 1959 .
= = = MBTA era = = =
In January 1960 , the New York Central planned to end all service on the line , due to the opening of the Green Line " D " Branch to Riverside in July 1959 . However , that April , following public outcry over the planned discontinuation of service , the railroad was ordered to continue limited service , leaving Framingham with 8 daily round trips . When the extension of the Massachusetts Turnpike to downtown Boston began in 1961 , the third and fourth tracks were removed . The NYC merged into Penn Central in 1968 ; by 1969 , Framingham saw just 4 daily round trips .
The MBTA began subsidizing service as far as Framingham in January 1973 ; the last Worcester round trip ended on October 27 , 1975 , leaving Framingham as the terminus of the line . The modern Amtrak Lake Shore Limited was established 4 days later , and has provided intercity service via Framingham ever since . From 1996 to until their 2004 discontinuation , Amtrak Inland Route trains also stopped at Framingham .
By the 1970s , the station had fallen into disrepair ; part of the roof collapsed in 1978 . On January 17 , 1975 , the building was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Framingham Railroad Station . The building was restored in 1985 , and has been occupied by various restaurants since . The original interior is no longer extant , but the exterior is mostly complete . The small baggage office east of the station building has been converted into a bank ATM .
When the Needham Line was closed in October 1979 for Southwest Corridor construction , service on the Framingham line was increased considerably as partial compensation . By April 1984 , the MBTA operated 12 @.@ 5 daily round trips from Framingham . Service was restored to Worcester on September 26 , 1994 as mitigation for delays in reopening the Old Colony Lines ( the first two of which finally opened in September 1997 ) – the first time in 19 years that commuter rail service extended beyond Framingham .
= = = New station = = =
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 mandated that all new construction on transit stations including making the stations handicapped accessible . Because the 1885 depot is very close to the tracks , such upgrades at the old station location would have been difficult . New platforms , with mini @-@ high platforms on their west ends for level boarding , were built just west of the former station . A footbridge with two elevators was built to allow passengers to reach the outbound platform without crossing the tracks , which carry slow @-@ moving CSX freight service as well as MBTA and Amtrak trains . The new station was built in 2000 and opened in early 2001 .
Framingham currently sees 24 weekday MBTA round trips to Boston , with 8 to 9 round trips on weekends . On weekdays , Framingham is the only station west of Yawkey at which all trains stop . Most trains run to / from Worcester , but some terminate at Framingham instead . Average weekday inbound ridership is 1 @,@ 299 passengers , making Framingham the second @-@ busiest station on the line ( after Worcester ) . Framingham also has Amtrak intercity service via the daily Lake Shore Limited , which runs to Chicago 's Union Station via Albany – Rensselaer .
= = = Grade crossings = = =
The crossings at Beaver Street and Concord Street ( Route 126 ) near the station are the first grade crossings on the line heading westbound ; there are only three others on the largely grade @-@ separated line east of Worcester . The Concord Street crossing was one of the last in the state with a crossing guard ; he was replaced by an automated system in 1986 . The crossing is problematic because passing freight trains often result in delays both on Route 126 , as well as Route 135 which crosses it just south of the tracks . The frequent blockage of the crossing by passing trains reduces capacity in the intersection by 21 % during the morning rush and 16 % in the afternoon , resulting in delays and traffic jams in the downtown area . Increased service levels planned by the MBTA would result in morning capacity reduction of 34 % and afternoon reduction of 28 % .
The first discussion of improving the intersection and grade crossing was a study in 1898 , since which there have been about three dozen more . The most recent , a 2009 study of the downtown area , examined the possibility of depressing Route 126 under the grade crossing and intersection as well as several other alternatives including bypasses . The Route 126 depression was deemed to create barriers to walkability downtown , and the recommended alternative was to depress Route 135 under the intersection to prevent it from being affected by trains passing through the grade crossing .
Funds have not yet become available for final design and construction .
= = = Other Framingham stations = = =
Besides the main depot at the South Framingham junction , Framingham has been served by a number of stations inside or just outside its borders . The Agricultural Branch included three of these stations . One , variously known as Montwait , Mt . Wayte , and Lakeview , was located just north of Mt . Wayte Avenue at the north end of Farm Pond . The station served the Montwait neighborhood as well as the Montwait Camp Ground , a worship camp used by Methodist , Chautaqua , and later Pentecostal groups from the 1870s to the 1910s . The Framingham Centre station – at times known simply as Framingham – located at Maynard Street adjacent to Route 9 . It was opened in 1849 when the branch to Framingham Center was completed . A new station was built in 1855 when the branch was realigned and extended . It also served the Framingham & Lowell after that line opened in 1871 . A freight house and coal shed were located nearby to the north . Fayville station was located just over the Southborough border in the Fayville village and also served the western reaches of Framingham . The station was placed at Central Street between Route 9 and Route 30 at or after the 1855 opening of the line . The three stations closed with the end of passenger service on the branch in 1937 ; none of the buildings remain .
The Framingham & Lowell shared the South Framingham and Framingham Centre stations after its 1871 opening . An additional station , variously known as North Framingham and Nobscot , was located between Water Street and Edgell road , near the modern Nobscot Shopping Center . The station closed with the end of passenger service in the 1930s and was later destroyed . The former Nobscot post office and library building , which also served as a railroad ticket sales office , has been restored near its original site .
The Saxonville Branch – the only line in Framingham not connected to South Framingham – opened from Natick to Saxonville in July 1846 . Two stations on the branch line were in Framingham . Cochituate station was at Commonwealth Road ( Route 30 ) on Framingham 's eastern border with Natick . The terminus station at Saxonville was a " typical B & A granite station " located off Concord Street north of School Street ( Route 126 ) . The lightly @-@ used line never saw more than three daily round trips ; in 1936 , passenger service was discontinued . A " bus " – in reality , a car driven by the Saxonville station agent – ran to Natick station until 1943 . Neither station is extant , but the Saxonville roof may have been reused on a nearby carriage house which still stands .
No stations other than the South Framingham hub were located on the Boston & Albany mainline within Framingham . The stations in Ashland ( still @-@ extant downtown station closed in 1960 ; nearby park @-@ and @-@ ride station opened in 2002 ) and West Natick ( opened 1982 ) serve some peripheral sections of Framingham .
= = Bus connections = =
Eight of the 17 bus routes operated by the MetroWest Regional Transit Authority ( MWRTA ) serve Framingham station . Five routes stop at the " banana lot " , a curved parking lot on the north side of the tracks :
Route 2
Route 3
Route 4
Route 7
Framingham Commuter Shuttle
One route stops on Concord Street at Howard Street :
Westborough Commuter Shuttle
Two routes stop on Waverly Street on the south side of the tracks :
Route 5
Route 6
The central hub for the MWRTA is the Blandin Hub in Framingham , a 3 @,@ 000 foot ( 910 m ) walk from Framingham station . Six of the MWRTA 's numbered routes plus the Boston Hospital Shuttle serve Blandin Hub . Three numbered routes , all five commuter shuttles , and the Boston Hospital Shuttle serve Waverly Hub , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the east of the station .
= = = Modern station = = =
Amtrak – Stations – Framingham , MA
MBTA – Framingham
Great American Stations – Framingham , MA ( FRA )
Framingham Amtrak @-@ MBTA Station ( USA RailGuide – TrainWeb )
Modern station on Google Maps Street View
= = = 1885 station = = =
Historic American Buildings Survey entry with pictures and data pages
Framingham Railroad Station at Northeast Architecture
1885 station on Google Maps Street View
= Siege of Tyana =
A Siege of Tyana was carried out by the Umayyad Caliphate in 707 – 708 / 708 – 709 in retaliation for a heavy defeat of an Umayyad army under Maimun the Mardaite by the Byzantine Empire in c . 706 . The Arab army invaded Byzantine territory and laid siege to the city in summer 707 or 708 . In fact virtually each of the extant Greek , Arabic and Syriac parallel sources has in this respect a different date . Tyana initially withstood the siege with success , and the Arab army faced great hardship during the ensuing winter . Emperor Justinian II sent a relief army in the next spring , but the Umayyads defeated them , whereupon the inhabitants of the city were forced to surrender . Despite the agreement of terms , the city was plundered and largely destroyed , and according to Byzantine sources its people were made captive and deported , leaving the city deserted .
= = Background = =
In 692 / 693 , the Byzantine emperor Justinian II ( reigned 685 – 695 and 705 – 711 ) and the Umayyad Caliph Abd al @-@ Malik ( r . 685 – 705 ) broke the truce that had existed between Byzantium and the Umayyad Caliphate since 679 , following the failed Muslim attack on the Byzantine capital , Constantinople . The Byzantines secured great financial and territorial advantages from the truce , which they extended further by exploiting the Umayyad government 's involvement in the Second Muslim Civil War ( 680 – 692 ) . However , by 692 the Umayyads were clearly emerging as the victors in the conflict , and Abd al @-@ Malik consciously began a series of provocations to bring about a resumption of warfare . Justinian , confident in his own strength based on his previous successes , responded in kind . Finally , the Umayyads claimed that the Byzantines had broken the treaty and invaded Byzantine territory , defeating the imperial army at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 693 . In its aftermath , the Arabs quickly regained control over Armenia and resumed their attacks into the border zone of eastern Asia Minor , that would culminate in the second attempt to conquer Constantinople in 716 – 718 . Furthermore , Justinian was deposed in 695 , beginning a twenty @-@ year period of internal instability that almost brought the Byzantine state to its knees .
= = Arab campaign against Tyana = =
As part of these Arab raids , an invasion under a certain Maimun al @-@ Gurgunami ( " Maimun the Mardaite " ) took place , which raided Cilicia and was defeated by a Byzantine army under a general named Marianus near Tyana . The dating of this expedition is unclear ; although the primary account , by al @-@ Baladhuri , places it under Abd al @-@ Malik ( who died in 705 ) , it is commonly dated to 706 by modern scholars . According to Baladhuri , this Maimun had been a slave of Caliph Muawiyah 's sister , who had fled to the Mardaites , a group of Christian rebels in northern Syria . After the Mardaites had been subdued , the general Maslama ibn Abd al @-@ Malik , who had heard of his valour , liberated him and entrusted him with a military command , and later swore to avenge his death .
As a result , Maslama launched another attack aimed at Tyana , with his nephew al @-@ Abbas ibn al @-@ Walid as co @-@ commander . The chronology of the expedition is again unclear : the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor puts it in A.M. 6201 ( 708 / 709 AD , and possibly even 709 / 710 ) , but Arab sources date it to A.H. 88 and 89 ( 706 / 707 AD and 707 / 708 AD respectively ) . As a result , the siege has been variously dated to 707 – 708 AD and 708 – 709 AD .
The Arabs laid siege to the city , employing siege engines to bombard its fortifications . They managed to destroy part of the wall , but were unable to enter the city . Despite launching several assaults , the defenders successfully drove them back . The siege continued into winter , and the Arabs began to suffer greatly from shortage of food , so that they began contemplating abandoning the siege altogether . In the spring , however , Justinian II , who had been restored to the Byzantine throne in 705 , assembled a relief army under the generals Theodore Karteroukas and Theophylact Salibas and sent it towards Tyana . The Byzantine chroniclers record that the regular troops were complemented by armed peasants , numerous but lacking in any military experience . This may point to the dire straits the regular Byzantine army was in , partly as a result of Justinian 's purge of the officer corps after his restoration and partly due to the losses suffered in the war with the Bulgars .
As the relief army approached Tyana , it was confronted by the Arabs , and in the ensuing battle , the Byzantines were routed . According to Theophanes , the two Byzantine generals quarrelled among themselves , and their attack was disorderly . The Byzantines lost many thousand dead , and the captives also numbered in the thousands . The Arabs captured the Byzantine camp and took all the provisions they had brought along for the beleaguered city , allowing them to continue the siege . The inhabitants of Tyana now despaired of any succour , and as their own supplies dwindled they began negotiations for a surrender . The Arabs promised to allow them to depart unharmed , and the city capitulated after a siege of nine months ( in March according to Michael the Syrian , in May – June according to al @-@ Tabari ) . Theophanes reports that the Arabs broke their promise and enslaved the entire population , which was deported to the Caliphate , but no other source confirms this . After looting the town , the Arabs razed it to the ground .
= = Aftermath = =
The chroniclers report that after sacking Tyana , Abbas and Maslama divided their forces and campaigned in Byzantine territory . Again the chronology , as well as the identity of the targets , is uncertain . The primary sources give 709 or 710 as the dates , which could mean that these raids happened in the immediate aftermath of Tyana or in the year after . Abbas raided Cilicia and from there turned west as far as Dorylaion , while Maslama seized the fortresses of Kamuliana and Heraclea Cybistra near Tyana , or , according to another interpretation of the Arabic sources , marched also west and took Heraclea Pontica and Nicomedia , while some of his troops raided Chrysopolis across from Constantinople itself . Arab raids continued for the next years , and were carried out even while a huge army under Maslama was besieging Constantinople in 717 – 718 . After the failure of this undertaking , Arab attacks continued , but they were now concerned with plunder and prestige , rather than outright conquest . Although the Umayyad attacks of the early 8th century were successful in gaining control of the border districts of Cilicia and the region around Melitene , and despite their destruction of Byzantine strongholds like Tyana in the following decades , the Arabs were never able to permanently establish a presence west of the Taurus Mountains , which thus came to delineate the Arab @-@ Byzantine frontier for the next two centuries .
= James T. Aubrey =
James Thomas Aubrey , Jr . ( December 14 , 1918 – September 3 , 1994 ) was a leading American television and film executive . President of the CBS television network from 1959 to 1965 , he put some of television 's most enduring series on the air , including Gilligan 's Island and The Beverly Hillbillies . Under Aubrey , CBS dominated American television the way General Motors and General Electric dominated their industries . The New York Times Magazine in 1964 called Aubrey " a master of programming whose divinations led to successes that are breathtaking " .
Aubrey replaced CBS Television president Louis Cowan , who was slowly dismissed after the quiz show scandals . Despite his successes in television , Aubrey 's abrasive personality and oversized ego – " Picture Machiavelli and Karl Rove at a University of Colorado football recruiting party " wrote Variety in 2004 – led to his firing from CBS amid charges of improprieties . " The circumstances rivaled the best of CBS adventure or mystery shows , " declared The New York Times in its front @-@ page story on his firing , which came on " the sunniest Sunday in February " 1965 . He earned the nickname " Smiling Cobra " for his brutal decision @-@ making ways . Aubrey governed CBS with a firm grip , and it did not go unnoticed . He was suddenly dismissed in February 1965 . Aubrey offered no explanation following his dismissal , nor did CBS President Frank Stanton or Board Chairman William Paley . After four years as an independent producer , Aubrey was hired by financier Kirk Kerkorian in 1969 to preside over Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer 's near @-@ total shutdown , during which he slashed the budget and alienated producers and directors but brought profits to a company that had suffered huge losses . In 1973 , Aubrey resigned from MGM , declaring his job was done , and then vanished into almost total obscurity for the last two
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and Colombian governments discussed the possible sale of around 40 AMX @-@ 30EM2s . Both trade deals fell through .
= = Background = =
In 1960 , Spain 's tank fleet was composed mainly of American M47 Patton tanks , with some newer M48 Patton tanks . The M47s had been acquired by the Spanish army in the mid @-@ 1950s , replacing the previous fleet of 1930s @-@ vintage Panzer I , T @-@ 26 and Panzer IV tank designs . During the 1957 @-@ 58 Ifni War , the United States ' ban on the usage of American ordnance supplied earlier as military aid to Spain pushed Spain to look for alternative equipment which could be freely employed in the Spanish Sahara .
In the early 1960s , Spain looked towards its European neighbors for a new tank . The Spanish government first approached Krauss @-@ Maffei , the German manufacturer of the Leopard 1 , and the company applied for an export license from the German Economics Ministry . Spain 's status as a non @-@ NATO country meant that the decision to grant the export license had to be reviewed by the Bundessicherheitsrat ( Federal Security Council ) , or the BSR , which was responsible for the coordination of the national defense policy . Ultimately , the council ruled that Krauss @-@ Maffei could sign an export contract with Spain . The deal was , however , stalled by pressure from the United Kingdom 's Labour Party on the basis that the Leopard 's 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) L7 tank gun was British technology . Meanwhile , Spain tested the French AMX @-@ 30 between 2 and 10 June 1964 .
The Leopard 1 and the AMX @-@ 30 originated from a joint tank development program known as the Europanzer . For a tank , the AMX @-@ 30 had a low silhouette ; the height of the tank was 2 @.@ 28 meters ( 7 @.@ 48 ft ) , compared to the Leopard 's 2 @.@ 6 meters ( 8 @.@ 53 ft ) . In terms of lethality , the AMX @-@ 30 's Obus G high @-@ explosive anti @-@ tank ( HEAT ) round was one of the most advanced projectiles at the time . Because HEAT warheads become less efficient during spin stabilization induced by the rifling of a tank @-@ gun barrel , the Obus G was designed so that the shaped charge warhead was mounted on ball bearings within an outer casing , allowing the round to be spin stabilized through the rifling of the gun without affecting the warhead inside . The Obus G was designed to penetrate up to 400 millimeters ( 15 @.@ 75 in ) of steel armor . On the other hand , the Leopard was armed with the L7A3 tank gun , capable of penetrating the frontal armor of most contemporary tanks . Although the Leopard boasted greater armor than the AMX @-@ 30 — partially accounting for the weight difference between the two tanks — the latter was sold at a cheaper price .
In May 1970 , the Spanish government decided to sign a contract with the French company GIAT to begin production of the AMX @-@ 30 . However , it was not the advantages of the French vehicle itself that influenced the decision . Rather , it was the UK 's unwillingness to sell their L7 tank @-@ gun , the low cost of the AMX @-@ 30 , and the French offer to allow Spain to manufacture the tank , that led the Spanish Army to favor the French armored vehicle .
= = Production = =
On 22 June 1970 , the Spanish Ministry of Defense signed an agreement of military cooperation with France , which outlined plans for the future acquisition of around 200 tanks for the Spanish Army . Of these , 180 were to be manufactured under license in Spain and 20 were to be manufactured by France . Ultimately , GIAT was contracted to manufacture 19 tanks . These were delivered to the Spanish Legion 's Bakali company , deployed in the Spanish Sahara . The first six AMX @-@ 30s were delivered by rail to the Spanish border city of Irún , in the Basque Country , and then transferred to Bilbao . Finally , they were shipped by the Spanish Navy , on the transport Almirante Lobo , to El Aaiún in the Spanish Sahara . This unit existed until 1975 , when it was disbanded and its tanks transferred to the Uad @-@ Ras Mechanized Infantry Regiment .
This agreement laid the foundations for the upcoming tank plant at the industrial polygon of Las Canteras , near the town of Alcalá de Guadaíra . Several parts of the tank were subcontracted to other Spanish companies , including Astilleros Españoles ( turret ) , Boetticher , Duro Felguera and E. N. Bazán . The grade of local production varied per batch . The first 20 tanks were to have 18 % of each vehicle manufactured in Spain ; the next 40 would have 40 % of the vehicle manufactured in Spain . The other 120 had 65 % of the tank manufactured in the country . Production began in 1974 , at a rate of five tanks per month , and ended on 25 June 1979 . The first five tanks were delivered to the Uad Ras Mechanized Infantry Regiment on 30 October 1974 . This batch also replaced the M41 Walker Bulldog light tanks and M48 Patton tanks in the Armored Cavalry Regiment Villaviciosa and the Armored Infantry Regiment Alcázar de Toledo , receiving 23 and 44 tanks , respectively .
On 27 March 1979 , prior to the end of production of the first batch , the Spanish Army and Santa Bárbara Sistemas signed a contract for the production and delivery of a second batch of 100 AMX @-@ 30Es . In 1980 , after the 200th AMX @-@ 30E was delivered to the Spanish Army , the tank 's patent was awarded to Spain . This allowed minor modifications to be done to the vehicle without having to consult GIAT . It also meant that the degree of local construction of each vehicle augmented considerably . Production of the second batch lasted between 1979 and 1983 . By the time production ended , the Spanish Army fielded 299 AMX @-@ 30Es ( 280 produced between 1974 and 1983 , and 19 delivered from France in 1970 ) and 4 training vehicles delivered in 1975 . Santa Bárbara Sistemas also manufactured 18 Roland España ( denominated AMX @-@ 30RE ) anti @-@ air vehicles and 10 AMX @-@ 30D armored recovery vehicles . The average cost per tank , in the first batch , was 45 million pesetas ( US $ 642 @,@ 800 ) . Cost per tank increased during the second batch to 62 million pesetas ( 885 @,@ 700 dollars ) .
Although brand new , the AMX @-@ 30E entered service with automotive issues , including problems with the antiquated 5SD @-@ 200D transmission . Consequently , as the first production batch began to end , the Spanish Army and Santa Bárbara Sistemas began to study possible upgrades . The main objectives were to increase the power and the reliability of the power pack , an improvement to the tank 's firepower and accuracy , as well as to increase the vehicle 's ballistic protection and overall survivability . A number of modernization packages were proposed , including a suggestion to mount the AMX @-@ 30E 's turret on a Leopard 1 's chassis . Other options included swapping the existing power pack for a new American diesel engine and transmission or exchanging the power pack for a new German diesel engine and transmission . More austere versions of these same options were offered , pairing the existing HS @-@ 110 engine with the already mentioned transmissions . Another prototype was produced using the Leopard 's more modern tracks , and another similar prototype mounted a new 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) machine gun for the loader 's position . France 's GIAT also offered to modernize Spain 's AMX @-@ 30Es to AMX @-@ 30B2 standards , a modernization being applied to French AMX @-@ 30s .
= = = Modernization = = =
Ultimately , a mixed solution named Tecnología Santa Bárbara @-@ Bazán ( Santa Bárbara @-@ Bazán Technology ) ( or TSB ) was chosen . The improvement of the tank 's mobility entailed replacing the HS @-@ 110 diesel engine with an MTU 833 Ka @-@ 501 diesel engine , producing 850 metric horsepower ( 625 kW ) , and the transmission with a German ZF LSG @-@ 3000 , compatible with engines of up to 1 @,@ 500 metric horsepower ( 1103 kW ) . The first 30 engines were to have 50 % of the engine manufactured in Spain ; the rest , 73 % were to be produced indigenously . This new engine gave the modernized tank a power ratio of 23 metric horsepower per tonne ( 21 @.@ 13 hp / S / T ) . The new engine was coupled with the AMX @-@ 30B2 's improved torsion @-@ bar suspension , which used larger diameter torsion @-@ bars and new shocks .
To improve the tank 's firepower , the gun mount around the loader 's turret hatch was modified to allow the installation of a 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) machine gun , while the main gun 's firepower was augmented through the introduction of the new CETME437A armor @-@ piercing , fin @-@ stabilized discarding sabot ( APFSDS ) . The gun 's accuracy was improved through the installation of the new Mark 9 modification A / D fire control system , designed by Hughes Aircraft Company . The new system allowed firing during the day and during night operations , and increased the likelihood of a first round impact . The fire control system was also modernized through the exchange of the old M282 gunner 's periscope with a new periscope and a new Nd : YAG laser rangefinder . A new ballistics computer , the NSC @-@ 800 , was issued , as well as a new digital panel for the gunner , designed and manufactured by the Spanish company INISEL . The tank commander also received a control unit that allowed the choice of ammunition for the gun and provided information on the ballistics of the round and the target to be engaged . As a result , the loader received a presentation unit to display information on which round to load into the gun 's breech and to communicate ballistic data received , including angular velocity , wind velocity , gun elevation and vehicle inclination . The fire control system also allowed for the future upgrade to a more sophisticated stabilization system for the tank 's main gun . Survivability improvements included the addition of new steel side @-@ skirts , a new smoke generating system linked to the engine and a new fire suppression system .
One hundred fifty AMX @-@ 30Es received this modernization package and were designated AMX @-@ 30EM2s . The program began in 1989 and ended in 1993 . Ultimately , Spain 's AMX @-@ 30EM2s were replaced by brand @-@ new Centauro anti @-@ tank vehicles , which were partially manufactured in Spain , in the early 21st century .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
The other 149 AMX @-@ 30Es were reconstructed to improve their mobility . The reconstruction consisted of the replacement of the original French transmission with the American Allison CD @-@ 850 @-@ 6A . Furthermore , several parts of the tank , such as the brakes , were renovated in order to bring them up to their original standards . The CD @-@ 850 @-@ 6A was an automatic transmission , with a triple differential providing two forward velocities and one reverse velocity . However , the new transmission resulted in a new problem . The excessive heat produced by the transmission reduced the vehicle 's range . The reconstruction of the 149 AMX @-@ 30Es began in 1988 , and these were designated AMX @-@ 30EM1s . In the early 1990s Spain received a large number of M60 Patton tanks , replacing its fleet of M47s and M48s , as well as its AMX @-@ 30EM1s .
= = Export = =
In the mid @-@ 1980s Indonesia approached Spain in an attempt to procure armaments for the modernization of its armed forces . Of the possible armaments for sale , Indonesia expressed interest in the procurement of the AMX @-@ 30 . Although this deal fell through , in 2004 the Spanish and Colombian governments agreed on the sale of between 33 and 46 second @-@ hand AMX @-@ 30EM2s , which had recently been replaced in the Spanish Army . However , the deal was canceled after José María Aznar was replaced by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero as prime minister of Spain — the new Spanish government declared that Spain didn 't even have enough AMX @-@ 30EM2s in working condition to sell to Colombia .
= Selena ( album ) =
Selena is the self @-@ titled debut studio album by American Tejano singer Selena , released on October 17 , 1989 by EMI Latin . Its music incorporates a range of contemporary genres with a mix of cumbia and regional styles of Mexican music . The album was released after EMI Latin president Jose Behar 's request for a crossover album was denied by the heads of EMI Records ' pop division . The majority of the recordings were composed by A.B. Quintanilla — Selena 's brother and principal record producer and songwriter . Aside from A.B. , Selena worked with two Mexican songwriters , Alejandro Montealegre and Reinaldo Ornelas . Selena peaked at number seven on the U.S. Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart .
The recording lead Selena to win Female Vocalist of the Year and Female Entertainer of the Year at the 1990 Tejano Music Awards . The album was more successful than her local independent label albums . It outsold other female Tejano singers albums at the time of its release , and as a result increased the singer 's popularity . Selena became a sex icon after the album 's release . Selena had a mixture of music genres , which became her trademark . The lead single " Contigo Quiero Estar " peaked at number eight on the U.S. Billboard Hot Latin Tracks . Two other singles released from the album — " Mentiras " and " Sukiyaki " — were commercially less successful .
= = Production = =
José Behar , president of EMI Latin , attended the 1989 Tejano Music Awards , and was scouring the area for new acts . After Selena performed , Behar called his boss and told him about her . Behar thought he found the next " Gloria Estefan " , to which his manager thought he was illogical . Selena later signed with EMI Latin later that year and became the first artist to sign with them . Recording began immediately after she signed with them in 1989 . Initially , EMI Latin did not want Selena 's brother A.B. Quintanilla III to write and produce any of her songs ; they felt that they were " gambling " when they opened a Latin division of EMI Records . The company allowed A.B. to write and produce Selena after the family argued that the recording label should give him a chance . A.B. said in 2002 that Selena displayed a mix of music genres that became a standard practice when he began producing Selena 's career . Their father and manager Abraham Quintanilla , Jr. gave the job to A.B , after he successfully produced several recordings in Selena 's musical career prior to their arrival at EMI Latin . Selena recorded most of the songs in San Antonio , Texas at AMEN Studios , while " Sukiyaki " and " My Love " were recorded in Houston , Texas at Sunrise Studios . The former was written by Selena , who wanted the song to be on the album . A.B. believed " My Love " echoed works by Exposé and Sweet Sensation that had a " club feel " .
The only tracks A.B. did not composed were " Sukiyaki " , " Contigo Quiero Estar " , and " No Te Vayas " . The latter was an original 1960s Japanese recording by Kyu Sakamoto . The lyrics Selena used were a Spanish version of an English version of the song by Janice Marie Johnson . Keyboardist of Los Dinos , Ricky Vela and backup dancer Pete Astudillo helped with the translation of " Sukiyaki " ; Vela confessed in 2002 that his Spanish wasn 't perfect and cited Astudillo as having done the majority of the songwriter for the track . Vela also said that he used a music sequencer and began " elaborating " Selena 's music with the start of " Sukiyaki " . Selena 's sister and drummer of the band , Suzette Quintanilla , said in 2002 that " Sukiyaki " was her favorite track off Selena . Texas Monthly called " Sukiyaki " a " sentimental " song . " Contigo Quiero Estar " was written by Mexican songwriter Alejandro Montealegre while " No Te Vayas " was written by Reinaldo Ornelas . Abraham called the recording a " Tejano ranchera " tune . The song was produced with a D50 synthesizer , handled by Joe Ojeda who joined the band a few days prior to the recording session of " Contigo Quiero Estar " . A.B. wanted " No Te Vayas " on the album because of its reggae feel ,
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, including Apeomys , Megapeomys , and Arikareeomys , and they are rectangular in shape , while other apeomyines have barrel @-@ shaped teeth . Similarly , the oldest apeomyine , Zophoapeomys , is smaller and has lower @-@ crowned cheekteeth . The known material of Apeomyoides consists of a number of fragmentary mandibles ( lower jaws ) and isolated cheekteeth . The length of the first and second lower molars ( m1 and m2 ) ranges from 1 @.@ 74 to 2 @.@ 58 mm , the width from 2 @.@ 08 to 2 @.@ 33 mm .
The fourth upper premolar ( P4 ) has not been recorded , but there is a specimen of its deciduous precursor ( DP4 ) . This tooth is characterized by four major cusps ( protocone , paracone , hypocone , and metacone ) and lophs or crests ( protoloph , mesoloph , metaloph , and posteroloph ) , separated by synclines or valleys . The first and second upper molar ( M1 and M2 ) are almost square and similar in size and structure to the DP4 . An additional loph on M1 and M2 , the entoloph , is incomplete in Apeomyoides , but more prominent in both Megapeomys bobwilsoni and Arikareeomys .
The four lower cheekteeth — the fourth lower premolar ( p4 ) and first through third lower molars ( m1 – m3 ) — are high @-@ crowned teeth . Like the upper teeth , they bear four cusps ( metaconid , protoconid , entoconid , and hypoconid ) , four lophs ( metalophid , mesolophid , hypolophid , and posterolophid ) and three valleys . Each of the lower cheekteeth lacks an additional loph , the ectolophid , which is present in Arikareeomys . The p4 is larger than any of the molars and longer than it is wide . Among the molars , m1 and m2 do not differ appreciably from each other and are a little wider than they are long , while m3 is a little smaller and its back side is more rounded and narrower . Syncline IV , which is located at the back of the tooth , between the hypolophid and posterolophid , is closed at the margins ; this valley is open in Megapeomys bobwilsoni . Syncline IV also opens into the centrally located syncline III ; this opening is absent in Arikareeomys . There are two roots under p4 and three under each of the molars , fewer than in Megapeomys bobwilsoni , which shows three under p4 and four under the molars .
On the mandible , the diastema is very large and the incisor is procumbent ( projecting forward ) , which distinguishes Apeomyoides from most eomyids apart from Megapeomys . There is a masseteric scar ( associated with the jaw muscles ) from below the m1 forward to a point in front of p4 , below the mental foramen , an opening in the jawbone . In Apeomys and Megapeomys this scar only reaches to the level of the front root of p4 . The mental foramen is very small and opens in the diastema , near the ventral shelf of the scar ; in Apeomys and Megapeomys it is located near the dorsal shelf . Further foramina are present on the lingual ( inner ) surface of the bone , below the cheekteeth .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Apeomyoides savagei is from the Eastgate local fauna in the Monarch Mill Formation of Churchill County , Nevada . This fauna dates to the early Barstovian land mammal age , around 15 – 16 mya . This makes Apeomyoides the youngest known apeomyine , and its occurrence helps close a gap in the known geographic range of North American apeomyines between Megapeomys bobwilsoni elsewhere in Nevada and Arikareeomys in Nebraska . Other eomyids found at Eastgate include species of Leptodontomys and Pseudotheridomys .
= Itchen Navigation =
The Itchen Navigation is a 10 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 16 @.@ 7 km ) disused canal system in Hampshire , England , that provided an important trading route from Winchester to the sea at Southampton for about 150 years . Improvements to the River Itchen were authorised by Act of Parliament in 1665 , but progress was slow , and the navigation was not declared complete until 1710 . It was known as a navigation because it was essentially an improved river , with the main river channel being used for some sections , and cuts with locks used to bypass the difficult sections . Its waters are fed from the River Itchen . It provided an important method of moving goods , particularly agricultural produce and coal , between the two cities and the intervening villages .
On its completion it was capable of taking shallow barges of around 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) in width and 70 feet ( 21 m ) in length , but traffic was fairly modest . 18 @,@ 310 tons of freight were carried in 1802 , one of the better years , and there were never more than six boats in use on the waterway . Following the opening of the London and Southampton Railway in 1840 , traffic declined sharply , and the navigation ceased to operate in 1869 . There were various attempts to revitalise it , but none were successful . There had also been several proposals to link it to the Basingstoke Canal to form an inland route from London to Southampton during its life , which likewise did not come to fruition .
The revival of interest in inland waterways following the end of the Second World War has resulted in the tow path alongside the canal becoming part of the Itchen Way long @-@ distance footpath , and is a popular route for walkers . The Itchen Navigation Preservation Society was formed in the 1970s , but progress was slow . A joint venture between the Environment Agency and the Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust in 2005 led to the formation of the Itchen Navigation Trust , and two years later , they obtained a grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund , funding the creation of the Itchen Navigation Heritage Trail Project , which has sought to conserve and interpret the remains . The route provides habitat for a diverse flora and fauna , which has resulted in it being designated as a European Special Area of Conservation and a Site of Special Scientific Interest .
= = History = =
The River Itchen had been commercially important since before Norman times , with a staithe for unloading boats recorded at Bishopstoke in 960 , and stone for Winchester Cathedral , built when Winchester was the capital city of England , was probably transported by water from the quarries of Caen in France . The first recorded improvements to the river were made by Godfrey de Lucy , who was Bishop of Winchester between 1189 and 1204 . He funded the works himself , and as a consequence , was granted the right to levy tolls on goods transported on the river by King John . There was considerable trade in wool and leather , but the centres for this moved to Calais and Melcombe Regis in 1353 , and as the trade declined , so did the navigable parts of the river . It was noted to be in poor condition in 1452 , and a report for the Commissioners of Sewers in 1617 suggested that much of it was obstructed by mills which had been built on the banks .
Construction of the canal was authorised by an Act of Parliament passed in 1665 . The Act allowed a number of rivers to be made navigable , and in each case , undertakers were appointed , to carry out the work , as were commissioners , chosen from the local justices , who were responsible for confirming the tolls . The undertakers made very slow progress , and it was not until 1710 that the work was completed . They had built locks and some artificial cuts to bypass difficult sections of the river , and created a towing path for horses . The route was 10 @.@ 4 miles ( 16 @.@ 7 km ) long , of which 2 @.@ 75 miles ( 4 @.@ 43 km ) were new cuts , and although some of the rest used the course of the river , much of it followed secondary streams . New undertakers were not appointed as old ones died , and by 1767 , the navigation was effectively owned by one man , a Mr Edward Pyott . Local people felt that he was exceeding his powers , and they obtained a second Act of Parliament in 1767 , which noted that Pyott had created a trading and carrying monopoly , as he would refuse to carry coal and other goods which interfered with his own activities . The preamble to the Act claimed that this was harming the poor and the inhabitants of Winchester .
The Act was unusual , as it was obtained without Pyott 's consent , and created a new group of commissioners from local justices and dignitaries . They were empowered to set the rates for tolls , and the owner was obliged to transport all goods at the established rates . If there were not sufficient boats and the owner did not provide more , they could license others to provide carriage services . They could also order that locks , wharves and warehouses should be erected . The size of boats was specified , and were to be capable of carrying between 20 and 30 tons of cargo . The tolls set were quite moderate , and a group of merchants appear to have leased the river from Pyott for a period after 1767 , but he eventually took control again .
Some additional locks were added , and by 1795 , there were fifteen , three made of masonry blocks , and twelve with turf sides . There were also two single gates or half locks . The lowest lock was at Woodmill , where the navigation joined the estuary of the River Itchen , on its way to Southampton Water . The main wharves at the Southampton end were at Northam , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) below the lock , and barges worked down to them on the tide or were punted if the tide was rising . As the river was tidal below Woodmill Lock , the structure was rebuilt in 1829 with a third set of gates facing downstream , to prevent high tides flooding the navigation .
The route map shows the navigation in deep blue , ( or green for the drained section ) , to distinguish it from the river , shown in light blue . Deep blue is normally used to represent navigable waterways , but is used here for clarity .
= = = Operation = = =
Following the death of Pyott , ownership of the navigation was bought by James D 'Arcy , by then married to the widow of one of Pyott 's sons . There were still mortgages of £ 4 @,@ 666 outstanding , all of them owned by members of Pyott 's family , on which interest had to be paid . He appears to have leased the tolls to the proprietors , according to a local newspaper report of the time , and then to Edward Knapp , before taking over again in 1794 . Around 1802 , the navigation was carrying 18 @,@ 310 long tons ( 18 @,@ 600 t ) of freight , of which 10 @,@ 300 long tons ( 10 @,@ 500 t ) were coal and culm , 350 long tons ( 360 t ) were salt , 1 @,@ 710 long tons ( 1 @,@ 740 t ) tons were chalk , and the remaining 5 @,@ 950 long tons ( 6 @,@ 050 t ) tons were made up of other goods . The average annual income was quoted as £ 3 @,@ 735 , but this probably included freight charges as well as tolls , since D 'Arcy managed both . He operated four barges .
With the prospects of a link between the navigation and the Basingstoke Canal being constructed , the undertaking was valued at £ 24 @,@ 000 , and D 'Arcy sold a half share in it to his agent , George Hollis . He then sold the other half to him , and moved to Ireland . Hollis became
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three on the Dance / Electronic Albums chart . As of April 2016 , Born This Way : The Remix has sold 62 @,@ 000 copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan . Other nations where the album attained top @-@ 100 positions included Italy , France and Spain .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted as per Born This Way : The Remix liner notes and as per Allmusic .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Franz Burgmeier =
Franz Burgmeier ( born 7 April 1982 ) is a Liechtenstein footballer , who plays as a midfielder for Vaduz in the Swiss Super League . Born in Triesen , Burgmeier was a burgeoning footballer and keen skier , until he gave up the latter sport at 16 following a serious injury . Having been a youth player for Triesen , he started his professional career with Vaduz . Burgmeier won several Liechtensteiner Cups with Vaduz , who were promoted to the Swiss Challenge League in 2001 , and played in the UEFA Cup . After two unsuccessful attempts to win promotion to the Swiss Super League , Burgmeier left for Aarau in 2005 . He spent only one season with Aarau before a move to the previous season 's runners @-@ up Basel in 2006 . His two seasons with Basel were broken up by a loan spell with Thun , before he moved to England with Darlington in August 2008 , where he played for one year .
Burgmeier has won 99 caps and scored nine goals for his country . He is a right @-@ footed player who is either a left midfielder or left back , with the ability to deliver a good cross . He made his international debut in 2001 against Spain and three years later scored one of the goals that helped secure his country 's first point in World Cup qualification matches .
= = Personal life = =
Burgmeier was born in Triesen , Liechtenstein , a small town with a population of 4 @,@ 500 , close to the border with Switzerland . He is the younger son of Heinz and Elsbeth , following Patrick Burgmeier , who played football for Vaduz and USV Eschen / Mauren . From a young age , Franz played both football and skied . He played for the Liechtenstein youth team in Swiss competitions from ages 11 to 16 , winning the championship when he was 13 . However , at 16 , a knee injury , which he suffered while skiing , nearly ended his football career and prompted him to stop the former sport .
Burgmeier has a girlfriend , Monica , who lives in Switzerland . She also plays football , as a full back , in National League B.
= = Club career = =
= = = Vaduz = = =
Burgmeier started out as a youth at Triesen before moving to Vaduz in 2000 . Although based in his home country , like all Liechtenstein clubs Vaduz played league football in Switzerland — at the time in the third tier — but also competed in the Liechtenstein Football Cup . In Burgmeier 's first season the team won promotion to the Challenge League and won the Liechtenstein Cup with a 9 – 0 defeat against Ruggell in the final . He scored his first goal at the higher level on 31 July 2001 , in a postponed game from the first round of the season , which finished in a 4 – 1 victory against Thun . However , Vaduz finished in 11th place in the Fall Season , before results improved and they finished in second place in the Final Table , avoiding being relegated . The team also successfully defended their Liechtenstein Cup defeating USV Eschen / Mauren 6 – 1 in the final .
Vaduz 's success in their nation 's cup ensured they gained access to the UEFA Cup , and in August 2002 , Burgmeier scored his first European goal during a 1 – 1 with Livingston , the Scottish side 's first game in Europe . In the second leg , Vaduz had a late goal disallowed during a 0 – 0 , and so they went out in the qualifying round for the third successive year , losing on the away goals rule . Vaduz topped the Fall Season table that season , but failed to win promotion to the Swiss Super League after finishing fourth in the Final League . Their failure was offset with another victory in the Liechtenstein Cup , this time defeating Balzers in the final .
In June 2003 , he was set to join St. Gallen ; however , the deal never went through because the Swiss side could not afford the transfer fee . Instead he started with Vaduz , who came closer to gaining promotion but were again unsuccessful , after they lost in the promotion – relegation play @-@ off match . Burgmeier scored one of the goals in the second leg against Neuchâtel Xamax , but Mobulu M 'Futi scored to ensure Neuchâtel won over the two legs , and Vaduz stayed in the Challenge League . Despite his side defending their Liechtenstein Cup , Burgmeier missed the final .
However , their cup success helped Vaduz to another UEFA Cup , which resulted in their first win in the competition with a 4 – 2 aggregate victory against FAI Cup @-@ holders Longford Town in July 2004 . Burgmeier netted his second European goal during the ties , during the 3 – 2 second @-@ leg victory , before they were defeated in the second qualifying round to Belgian @-@ side Beveren , during which Burgmeier was injured forcing him to undergo a knee operation and miss the first month of the league season . Vaduz repeated their efforts domestically , defeating USV Eschen / Mauren in the cup and reaching the promotion play @-@ off game . However , they were defeated by Schaffhausen and were left with only ten players on secure contracts for the following season . Burgmeier himself left Vaduz after five years with the club , during which he played 115 league games and scored 27 goals .
= = = Aarau = = =
Burgmeier , instead , moved to Aarau in Switzerland . His debut came in a 2 – 0 league defeat to Thun , before he was substituted near the end of the second half . Aarau were in the Super League , and finished seventh in Burgmeier 's only season with the club , in which he played 35 league games . His only league goal came in the second round of matches against St. Gallen , but he also scored in both the first two rounds of the Swiss Cup — his first games in the cup since Vaduz were not eligible for the competition — before they were eliminated in the quarter @-@ finals on penalties . His form with Aarau won Burgmeier the Liechtensteiner Footballer of the Year award , one point ahead of fellow international Mario Frick , and also earned him a move to Basel , for whom he signed a three @-@ year contract .
= = = Basel = = =
Burgmeier 's first role with Basel was to play in the Uhrencup as they defeated German @-@ side FC Köln 2 – 1 , to share the trophy with Zürich . Basel had finished the previous season as runners @-@ up in the league to Zürich on goal difference and so qualified for the following season 's UEFA Cup . Burgmeier made his Basel debut in the competition as they defeated Kazakhstan 's Tobol 3 – 1 on 13 July , before he was replaced by Scott Chipperfield . The second leg ended in a draw , sending Basel through . The second qualifying round draw gave Burgmeier a chance to return to Vaduz . He was a substitute in both games as his new team won on away goals . They went on to qualify for the group stages , in which they finished bottom of their division , with two points from four games . Burgmeier scored his first goal for his new club in a 4 – 2 away defeat against Sion , but again the side only ranked in the Championship behind Zürich , this time by one point . Their disappointment was offset by an extra time victory over Luzern in the final of the Swiss Cup .
Burgmeier injured his ankle at the start of the 2007 – 08 season , and after playing only four league games , Thun signed him on a six @-@ month loan deal in January 2008 . He played 17 times for Thun , who finished bottom of the Super League . Thun were also knocked out of the Swiss Cup by Burgmeier 's main employers in the semi @-@ finals . On 13 July 2008 , his contract with Basel was terminated early to allow him to find himself a new club after just 23 league appearances because he was seen as surplus to requirements by manager Christian Gross .
= = = Darlington = = =
While playing for Liechtenstein against England in a 2004 European Championships qualifying match at Old Trafford in 2003 , Burgmeier was spotted by Max Houghton . Although Liechtenstein lost 2 – 0 , Houghton was impressed by Burgmeier 's stamina and effort . When Burgmeier was released by Basel in 2008 , Houghton , then 12 years old , suggested to his grandfather , George Houghton , who was chairman of English side Darlington that he should be given a trial . Following a successful trial , Burgmeier , who was keen to move abroad , was signed by the League Two @-@ side on a one @-@ year contract at the end of August 2008 to become the first Liechtensteiner to play in England .
Burgmeier made his debut on 23 August , in a 2 – 1 defeat to Gillingham at The Darlington Arena . He scored his first goal for Darlington in a 2 – 1 win against Port Vale on 13 September . Manager Dave Penney praised Burgmeier for the start he made to the club , both as a goal scorer and creator , which also helped him to play his way into the affections of the club 's supporters . When Burgmeier won his 49th cap for Liechtenstein against Wales , it was his fourth in the two months since he joined Darlington . It took him past the club record three caps of Canadian Jason de Vos and New Zealander Adrian Webster , with a coach @-@ load of Darlington fans there to see him play at the Millennium Stadium . His next cap clashed with Darlington 's FA Cup first round replay with Conference North @-@ side Droylsden , in which they were defeated .
Darlington 's promotion campaign was dealt a blow in February 2009 , when club chairman George Houghton placed the club in administration . As a result , the club were deducted 10 points , a penalty from which they could not recover finally finishing 12th . Burgmeier finished with two goals during the season having played 35 games , but like the rest of the playing squad , was told he could find a new club by Darlington 's administrators .
= = = Return to Vaduz = = =
Following Darlington 's financial problems , Burgmeier returned home to Liechtenstein and signed with his former club Vaduz on a one @-@ year contract after the end of the 2008 – 09 season .
= = International career = =
Burgmeier is a Liechtenstein international who made his debut in a 2002 World Cup qualifier against Spain on 5 September 2001 . It was the penultimate game of the side 's qualifying campaign , in which they lost all eight games without scoring a goal . Despite starting the qualifying round for 2004 European Championships with a 1 – 1 draw with Macedonia , Liechtenstein lost their remaining games to finish bottom of their group . Burgmeier featured in seven of the qualification matches .
Burgmeier scored his first international goal in April 2003 in a friendly against Saudi Arabia to give Liechtenstein a 1 – 0 victory . On 10 October 2004 , he scored his first competitive international goal as he helped Liechtenstein to record their first point in World Cup qualification matches . He and Thomas Beck scored Liechtenstein 's goals in a 2 – 2 with Portugal at the Rheinpark Stadion . Burgmeier describes the draw as the " biggest moment of my career " . Three days later , Burgmeier scored two more goals as Liechtenstein earned their first World Cup win with a 4 – 0 victory against Luxembourg . They followed it up with a 0 – 0 draw against Slovakia and another victory over Luxembourg , to finish the qualifying campaign with eight points from their 12 matches . Burgmeier played in nine games .
Liechtenstein won another two games in their following qualifying campaign — for the 2008 European Championships . They had started with four defeats , in the last of which Burgmeier scored a consolation goal in a 4 – 1 win for Northern Ireland . A 1 – 0 victory against Latvia and a draw with Iceland followed , but Liechtenstein picked up only seven points to finish bottom of their group , with Burgmeier playing in all but one game .
Having earned eight points during the 2006 World Cup qualification games , Burgmeier said the target in the 2010 campaign was to pick up " as many points as possible " , adding , " For us , the target is not to qualify but to just take each game as it comes , enjoy the matches , and try and do as well as possible . " He won his 50th cap in a 4 – 0 friendly defeat to Slovakia on 19 November 2008 . Burgmeier has scored seven goals and picked up a number of opposition shirts which he plans to put in a hall of fame .
On 15 November 2014 , he scored his second Euro qualifier and winning goal over Moldova .
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list Liechtenstein 's goal tally first .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 28 September 2015 .
= = = International = = =
As of 28 September 2015 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Vaduz
Swiss Challenge League ( 1 ) : 2013 – 14
Liechtensteiner Cup ( 11 ) : 2000 – 01 , 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03 , 2003 – 04 , 2004 – 05 , 2009 – 10 , 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Basel
Uhrencup ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06 ( shared )
Swiss Cup ( 1 ) : 2006 – 07
= = = Individual = = =
Liechtensteiner Footballer of the Year ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06
= S Club 7 =
S Club 7 are an English pop group created by former Spice Girls manager Simon Fuller consisting of members Tina Barrett , Paul Cattermole , Rachel Stevens , Jo O 'Meara , Hannah Spearritt , Bradley McIntosh , and Jon Lee . The group was formed in 1998 and quickly rose to fame by starring in their own BBC television series , Miami 7 . In their five years together , S Club 7 had four UK number @-@ one singles , one UK number @-@ one album , and a string of hits throughout Europe , including a top @-@ ten single in the United States , Asia , Latin America and Africa . They recorded four studio albums , released 11 singles and went on to sell over 10 million albums worldwide . Their first album , S Club ( 1999 ) , had a strong 1990s pop sound , similar to many artists of their time . However , through the course of their career , their musical approach changed to a more dance and R & B sound which is heard mostly in their final album , Seeing Double ( 2002 ) .
The concept and brand of the group was created by Simon Fuller , also their manager through 19 Entertainment ; they were signed to Polydor Records . Their show lasted four series and saw the group travel across the United States , eventually ending up in Barcelona . It became popular in 100 different countries where the show was watched by over 90 million viewers . The show , which was a children 's sitcom , often mirrored real @-@ life events which had occurred in S Club , including the relationship of Spearritt and Cattermole , as well as Cattermole 's eventual departure from the group . As well as the popularity of their television series , S Club 7 won two BRIT Awards — in 2000 for British breakthrough act and in 2002 , for best British single . In 2001 , the group earned the Record of the Year award . Their song " Reach " was used in the arcade dance game EZ2Dancer in " EZ 2 Dancer UK Move " . Cattermole departed the group in 2002 , citing " creative differences " , and the group changed their name from S Club 7 to simply S Club . Their penultimate single reached number five in the UK charts , and their final album failed to make the top ten . Following Cattermole 's departure , the group fought many rumours presuming that they were about to split . However , on 21 April 2003 , during a live onstage performance , S Club announced that they were to disband .
After a five @-@ year split , it was announced in October 2008 that O 'Meara , Cattermole , and McIntosh were to perform a mini @-@ reunion tour . The tour consisted of a series of university and nightclub gigs , where they performed a set list consisting of a selection of songs from their greatest hits album . After O 'Meara , Cattermole and McIntosh reunited , rumours persisted that all the original members would reunite . In October 2014 , it was confirmed that the original lineup would reunite for the first time in over a decade for BBC Children in Need , later announcing a UK reunion tour for 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = 1997 – 98 : Formation = = =
Simon Fuller has commented that he came upon the concept of S Club 7 the day after he was fired by the Spice Girls in 1997 . He selected the members for the group after auditioning from over 10 @,@ 000 hopefuls ; Stevens was the only member of the group who did not audition to gain admittance into the group . Instead , two producers from 19 Management approached her and asked her to go into the studio to record a demo tape for Fuller . Both O 'Meara and Cattermole were spotted by producers from 19 and asked to audition . After the auditions had been advertised in The Stage , Lee , Spearritt , Barrett and McIntosh auditioned . After some final adjustments , including the removal of three original members , S Club 7 was formed .
Once the final line @-@ up was decided , they flew to Italy to become acquainted with each other . Speaking about this first meeting , Stevens remarked that the group " felt comfortable with each other from the beginning " . Several members of the group have since stated that the ' S ' in S Club 7 stands for Simon , after the group 's creator , although the official line has always been ambiguous . The group 's entry on the Popjustice website states that at one point they were nearly called " Sugar Club " instead of the name that stuck . Another theory is that the group is so @-@ named because " S " is the first letter of the word " seven " . McIntosh , in a December 2012 interview , said a lot of Simon Fuller 's success has been based on the number 19 ( owning 19 Entertainment ) ; therefore , as " S " is the 19th letter of the alphabet , the " S " was put into S Club 7 .
= = = 1999 – 2000 : S Club television series = = =
S Club 7 first came to public attention in 1999 , when they starred in their own television series , Miami 7 . The show first aired on CBBC on BBC One and was a children 's sitcom based on the lives of the group who had moved to Miami , Florida in search of fame in America . The show was also launched in the United States , airing on Fox Family , and later on ABC Family ; it was retitled S Club 7 in Miami for American audiences . The show eventually celebrated worldwide success and was watched by 90 million viewers in over 100 different countries . The group also filmed two specials between the first two series of their show . The first , Back to the ' 50s — which aired on CITV , instead of CBBC — told the story of how the group found themselves back in 1959 . In the second TV special , Boyfriends & Birthdays , Stevens ' boyfriend gave her an ultimatum of staying with him or remaining with S Club .
Within the television series , and the parallel branding , each member of S Club 7 had their own character , which contained exaggerated forms of their real life counterparts as well as their own identifiable " S Club colour " . Hannah Spearritt , for example , had an " S Club colour " of yellow which , as Spearritt describes , mirrors her own personality : " bright and happy " . US media characterized S Club 7 as " The Monkees for the next generation " . However , Joel Andryc — the vice president of the Fox Family Channel — stated that Miami 7 is " far more relationship driven " than The Monkees , and that " kids today are more sophisticated " .
Following on from Miami 7 , S Club 7 released the theme music to the show as their debut single on 9 June 1999 . The up @-@ tempo " Bring It All Back " reached number @-@ one in the United Kingdom singles charts , and after selling more than 600 @,@ 000 copies , was made BPI certified Platinum . Commenting on the chart position of " Bring It All Back " , the group felt " nervous and on @-@ edge " before they discovered they had reached number one . Once they had received the phone call from the record company , the group celebrated the news with " cheers , shouting and crying " . The group 's success escalated and much like Fuller 's marketing campaign for the Spice Girls , they were set to become a " marketable commodity " . As evidence for this , global toy manufacturer Hasbro agreed upon an exclusive licensing agreement with 19 Management which included worldwide rights in the fashion doll category ; singing S Club 7 dolls were later released onto the market . An official magazine , fan club , and accompanying Miami 7 scrapbook were also launched furthering 19 Management 's corporate aim .
Over the course of the year , the group enjoyed more success in the charts after their second single , " S Club Party " , entered the UK charts at number @-@ two and went straight to number @-@ one in New Zealand . Their third single was a double A @-@ side and featured the ballad , co @-@ written by Cathy Dennis , " Two in a Million " and retro @-@ styled , up @-@ tempo " You 're My Number One " . The former was the first single where O 'Meara took leads vocals , setting the standard for future S Club 7 releases ; the single also reached number @-@ two in the UK charts . Following the success of their television show and released singles , the group released their debut album S Club in October 1999 . The album quickly rose to number @-@ two in the UK charts , and then became certified Double Platinum . The album consisted of a variety of styles including motown and salsa tracks .
Due to the increasing demand for the group with gruelling schedules including spending over thirteen weeks in America filming the first series of their show and their subsequent television specials , the members often felt that the travelling back and forth from the UK and the US was " perhaps more tiring than what we were actually going out to America to do " . Paul Cattermole once commented that the speed of the schedule sometimes caused a " kind of dreamscape in your head " , as the group often felt " jetlagged and tired " . On top of the filming schedules , the group often performed at high profile pop music festivals such as Party in the Park where they performed for 100 @,@ 000 fans . The intensity of the schedule would be a constant battle for the group and was going to continue to take its toll for all the years S Club 7 were together . In spite of this , the group always
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@.@ 5 million viewers , making it the most watched entertainment telecast in six years and the sixth most watched overall television series finale in U.S. history , as well as the most watched episode from any television series throughout the decade 2000s on U.S. television . In Canada , the finale aired simultaneously on May 6 , 2004 on Global , and was viewed by 5 @.@ 16 million viewers , becoming the highest viewed episode of the series , and also becoming highest @-@ viewed and highest @-@ rated episode ever in Canada for a sitcom .
The series finale closes several long running storylines . Ross Geller ( David Schwimmer ) confesses his love for Rachel Green ( Jennifer Aniston ) , and they decide to resume their relationship ; and Monica Geller ( Courteney Cox ) and Chandler Bing ( Matthew Perry ) adopt twins and move to the suburbs . The episode 's final scene shows the group leaving their apartments for the final time and going to Central Perk for one last cup of coffee .
Prior to writing the episode , Crane , Kauffman and Bright watched finales from other sitcoms for inspiration . Kauffman found that she liked the ones that stayed true to the series . Filming took place at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , California ; part one was taped on January 16 , and part two on January 23 . The finale was well received by critics and the cast members .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part 1 = = =
Phoebe Buffay ( Lisa Kudrow ) and Joey Tribbiani ( Matt LeBlanc ) pack the belongings of Monica and Chandler , who have accompanied Erica ( Anna Faris ) to the hospital . Rachel leaves Ross ' bedroom after their apparent reunion in the previous episode . Erica gives birth to twins , much to the surprise of Monica and Chandler , who were expecting only one child . At his apartment , Joey shows Phoebe his house @-@ warming gift for Monica and Chandler : a chick and duckling to replace the ones that died . Ross arrives and confesses to the pair that he slept with Rachel . Rachel emerges from her bedroom and , to his disappointment , tells Ross that their night together was " the perfect way to say goodbye " .
Later at the Central Perk café , Phoebe convinces Ross to tell Rachel how he feels about her before she leaves for her new job in Paris . As he is about to tell her , Central Perk manager Gunther ( James Michael Tyler ) confesses his love for Rachel . Back at Monica and Chandler 's apartment , Ross decides not to tell Rachel , for fear of rejection . She prepares to leave to catch her flight , but waits long enough for Monica and Chandler to return with the twins , named Erica ( after their biological mother ) and Jack ( after Monica 's father ) . After Rachel leaves , Ross has a change of heart , and Phoebe takes him in her taxi to follow Rachel to the airport .
= = = Part 2 = = =
Joey returns to his apartment to fetch the chick and the duck he was hiding , but finds they have become trapped in the foosball table . Chandler and Joey decide to break it open when they cannot find any other way of getting the birds out . Phoebe 's reckless driving gets her and Ross to JFK Airport and , after buying a ticket to get past security , they search the information boards for Rachel 's flight number . When they cannot locate her flight on any of the information boards , Ross calls and checks the number with Monica but discovers they are at the wrong airport ; Ross and Phoebe drove to JFK , while Rachel was flying out of nearby Newark Airport . Phoebe phones Rachel , who has already boarded her flight , to stall her for time . When a passenger ( Jim Rash ) overhears Phoebe saying there is a problem with the fictitious " left phalange " of the plane , he gets off the plane , prompting everyone else to leave . Chandler and Joey , who are emotionally attached to the foosball table , find they are unable to bear breaking it open , so Monica nonchalantly offers to do it for them . After they retrieve the birds , Chandler suggests Joey keeps them .
Phoebe and Ross arrive at the airport as Rachel boards the plane again . Ross tells her he loves her , but she is unable to deal with his confession and gets on the plane anyway . Ross returns home , dejected , and finds a message from Rachel on the phone . She explains her actions and decides to get off the plane , but the message cuts off . Ross turns around to see Rachel standing in the doorway and they kiss . The following morning , the friends gather in Monica and Chandler 's empty apartment . With some time remaining before Monica and Chandler leave for their new house , the six all leave their keys to the apartment on the kitchen counter and decide to go for one last cup of coffee together , although it is only implied and never stated that this will be at Central Perk . As the last line of the series , Chandler sarcastically quips , " Sure ... where ? " . The final scene is a shot of the apartment , panning round slowly from the living space to the front door .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and music = = =
The series ' creators completed the first draft of the hour @-@ long finale in January 2004 , four months prior to its airing on May 6 . Before writing the episode , David Crane , Marta Kauffman and Kevin S. Bright decided to watch the series finales of other sitcoms , paying attention to what worked and what did not . Kauffman found that they liked the ones which stayed true to the series , and they found the finale of The Mary Tyler Moore Show to be the gold standard . The writers had difficulty writing the finale , and spent several days thinking about the final scene without being able to write a word . Crane said that they did not want to do " something high concept , or take the show out of the show " .
The music playing as the camera pans across the empty apartment at the end of the episode is " Embryonic Journey " by Jefferson Airplane . The song " Yellow Ledbetter " by the band Pearl Jam is also featured in the episode — after Rachel boards the plane for the first time — making it the first Pearl Jam song to be licensed for a television show . A spokesperson for the group said it was , " simply a matter of the show 's producers asking permission " .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was filmed in Los Angeles , California on Stage 24 at Warner Bros. Studios , where Friends had been filmed since its second season . The first part was taped on January 16 , and the second on January 23 , 2004 . After the series finale , Stage 24 was renamed " The Friends Stage " .
A month before the filming of the final episode , Aniston said that with each episode it got " harder just to read the lines . " She explained that the cast was " all just nerves and raw emotions [ ... ] No one knows how to feel . We may need to be sedated on the last night . " The producers promised a tearful ending , and the cast admitted their crying was not faked when they filmed their scenes . LeBlanc revealed it had been too much for him and the rest of the cast ; he said Kudrow started crying first , and when he looked at Aniston and Cox they also appeared emotional . Schwimmer , who LeBlanc thought was the " consummate professional " , was also upset , so LeBlanc " just lost it . " Maggie Wheeler , who was Chandler 's " on and off " girlfriend Janice , told People , " the entire cast had to go back and have their makeup redone before starting , " and that Perry broke the tension by saying , " Somebody is gonna get fired . " Perry told the New York Daily News that he did not cry , " but I felt like I was about to for like seven hours . "
Although it was planned that some key scenes of the episode would be filmed without an audience in order to avoid leaks of plot spoilers , the producers decided not to worry about the issue and filmed it all in front of the live studio audience . The producers also instigated the rumor that multiple endings would be filmed ; in fact , only one was planned and shot .
At the start of each Friends episode filming , the cast would ordinarily be introduced to the studio audience one at a time , but this time the cast headed out for their pre @-@ curtain bow together . " That made me cry , " said Diane Newman , who was the script supervisor of the show . Among the specially invited audience of the taping were Hank Azaria , who played Phoebe 's scientist boyfriend in several episodes over the years ; David Arquette , who filmed his wife Cox and the others backstage with a video camera ; and Wheeler . Missing was Brad Pitt , Aniston 's then @-@ husband ; Pitt told the producers he wanted to be surprised when the finale aired on television . Although some guests were invited , around 75 % of the studio audience were ' ordinary ' members of the public so that their reactions would be congruous with the rest of the series . However , friends , family and colleagues of the cast and crew served as extras throughout the episode .
= = Reception = =
= = = Promotion , ratings and awards = = =
NBC heavily promoted the series finale , which was preceded by weeks of hype . The top price for a 30 @-@ second commercial during the U.S. broadcast was approximately $ 1 million USD . Viewing parties were organized by local NBC affiliates around the United States , including an event at Universal CityWalk featuring a special broadcast of the finale on an outdoor Astrovision screen . It was shown in New York City , where over 3 @,@ 000 people watched it on big screens in parks . The finale was the subject of two episodes of Dateline NBC , one of which ran for two hours . Prior to the airing of the episode , a one @-@ hour retrospective of clips from previous episodes was shown . Following the finale , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno was filmed on the set of the Friends ' Central Perk cafe , which featured the series ' cast as guests . The advertising rates for the finale averaged $ 2 million for 30 seconds of commercial time . This currently remains as the largest advertising rate ever for a sitcom , breaking the previous record held by the Seinfeld finale at $ 1 @.@ 7 million .
The finale was watched by 52 @.@ 5 million American viewers , making it the most watched entertainment telecast in six years , and the most watched episode of the decade 2000s on U.S. television . " The Last One " was not the most watched Friends episode in the series ' history ; that distinction belongs to " The One After the Superbowl " which , as the title suggests , aired immediately after Super Bowl XXX on January 28 , 1996 and drew an audience of 52 @.@ 9 million viewers . The Friends finale was the sixth most watched overall series finale in U.S. television history , behind the finales of M * A * S * H , Roots , Cheers , The Fugitive and Seinfeld , which were watched by 125 , 100 , 92 @.@ 5 , 78 and 76 @.@ 3 million viewers , respectively . The retrospective episode was watched by under 36 million viewers , and the finale was the second most @-@ watched television show of the year , behind the Super Bowl .
The episode was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards at the 56th Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Multi @-@ Camera Sound Mixing for a Series or Special and Outstanding Multi @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Series , but lost to the final season of Frasier in both categories .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Reviews of the series finale were generally positive . Robert Bianco of USA Today described the finale as entertaining and satisfying , and praised it for deftly mixing emotion and humor while showcasing each of the stars . Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald praised Aniston and Schwimmer for their acting , but felt that their characters ' reunion " felt a bit too neat , even if it was what most of the show 's legions of fans wanted . " Newsday 's Noel Holston called the episode " sweet and dumb and satisfying , " while Roger Catlin of The Hartford Courant felt that newcomers to the series would be " surprised at how laughless the affair could be , and how nearly every strained gag depends on the sheer stupidity of its characters . "
An editorial in USA Today highlighted the view of many critics who found problem with the aging cast , commenting , " Friends was getting creaky even as it remained popular . " Heather Havrilesky of Salon.com said that despite the " nauseating hype and the disappointing season and the lackluster finale , it 's important to remember what a great show this was for such a very long time . " Ken Parish Perkins of the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram gave the finale a B grade , calling it " more touching than comical , more satisfying in terms of closure than knee @-@ slappingly funny . "
= = = Response from the staff = = =
The cast members reportedly got together in Los Angeles to watch the finale . It was well received by the main cast , who were confident that the fans would have the same reaction . David Schwimmer said , " It 's exactly what I had hoped . We all end up with a sense of a new beginning and the audience has a sense that it 's a new chapter in the lives of all these characters . " At the taping of the episode , the cast and crew passed around yearbooks , custom @-@ made by the production staff , and signed them for each other . The cast gave the producers inscribed Cartier SA watches , while the producers gave the cast Neil Lane jewelry . As the sets were broken down , the cast and crew each got a chunk of the street outside Central Perk in a glass box as a keepsake .
There were 3 separate wrap parties - a dinner at the Aniston @-@ Pitt residence on January 19 , 2004 , a sit down at cast hangout Il Sole in West Hollywood on January 22 , and a big party for 1 @,@ 000 guests on January 24 at Los Angeles ' Park Plaza Hotel . At the party at the Park Plaza Hotel , The Rembrandts performed the theme song of Friends , " I 'll Be There for You " , and the cast gave a re @-@ enactment of the pilot episode 's first scene .
= A Vision of the Last Judgment =
A Vision of the Last Judgment is a painting by William Blake that was designed in 1808 before becoming a lost artwork . The painting was to be shown in an 1810 exhibition with a detailed analysis added to a second edition of his Descriptive Catalogue . This plan was dropped after the exhibition was cancelled , and the painting disappeared . Blake 's notes for the Descriptive Catalogue describe various aspects of the work in a detailed manner , which allow the aspects of the painting to be known . Additionally , earlier designs that reveal similar Blake depiction of the Last Judgment have survived , and these date back to an 1805 precursor design created for Robert Blair 's The Grave . In addition to Blake 's notes on the painting , a letter written to Ozias Humphrey provides a description of the various images within an earlier design of the Last Judgment .
= = Origins = =
Blake claimed to have seen visions throughout his life , and he claimed that they were a common aspect of life . His understanding of these events was , as he explained , similar to the experiences of biblical prophets . In the commentary to A Vision of the Last Judgment , Blake claimed that the image originated in a particular vision he experienced that allowed him to see the host of Heaven praising God . The actual design of A Vision of the Last Judgment was created in 1808 as an expansion of his 1805 work The Day of Judgment . Blake created this work to be used in Blair 's The Grave , which was published 1808 .
The seven foot by five foot painting was to be shown in an 1810 exhibit of Blake 's work , but the exhibit was cancelled after problems resulting from an 1809 exhibit of his works . The actual painting was lost , but earlier versions of the work survived . These include an 1808 watercolour version made for Elizabeth Ilive , wife of George Wyndham , 3rd Earl of Egremont , that was displayed at their Petworth House . A similar illustration in pencil and ink became part of the Rosenwald Collection . Other editions included watercolours made for Thomas Butts in 1806 , 1807 , and 1809 , one for John Flaxman in 1806 ( lost ) , and an 1809 unsold version in tempera . These are in addition to The Day of Judgment made for Blair 's The Grave .
The painting was to be discussed in Blake 's Descriptive Catalogue , a work that , in 1809 , described Blake 's feelings about various painters and poets in addition to descriptions of his own works and their various meanings . Blake planned to create another edition for the 1810 collection but the plan was stopped after the exhibition was cancelled . Notes for what Blake planned to write for the works A Vision of the Last Judgment and Public Address survived . The notes were discovered by William Michael Rossetti and first mentioned in a letter to Horace Scudder on 27 November 1864 . Rossetti transcribed the notes for Alexander Gilchrist 's The Life of William Blake , an early biography on Blake . One piece of the work was missing : part of page 71 was sent by Rossetti to Scudder . Blake discussed the 1808 watercolour sold to Ilives in two works , a poem , " The Caverns of the Grave Ive Seen " , written for Ilives provided by Blake with her design. and a description of Ilives 's design for Humphry in January 1808 .
= = Painting = =
The description provided by Blake to Humphrey explains that the work depicts the resurrection . The top of the work depicts Christ on the Throne of Judgment with Heaven opened up across the painting . Behind Christ are the heads of infants which represent creation coming from Jesus . Christ is surrounded by the four Zoas and seven angels that have vials filled with God 's wrath . An image of a tabernacle with a cross inside is depicted above Christ . An image of baptism is to Christ 's right and the Last Supper is to Christ 's left with both representing eternal life . Further to Christ 's right is the resurrection of the just and to the left is the resurrection and subsequent fall of the wicked . Adam and Eve are below Christ , and Abraham and Moses are nearby . Below Moses is Satan wrapped by the Serpent and in the centre is the book of death . At the top is the book of life , and the Christian Church is the figure of a woman on top of the moon .
Blake , in his notes to A Vision of the Last Judgment , describes how his design is to work : " If the Spectator could Enter into these Images in his Imagination approaching them on the Fiery Chariot of his Contemplative Thought [ ... ] then would he arise from his Grave " . He relies on the word representation frequently in the work , and he tries to represent action in a visible manner that distances his depiction of the apocalypse from a traditional version that disguises the various components of an apocalyptic vision . To Blake , he must create an image of the Last Judgment , then represent the image , and then describe with a written gloss of the work . This creates a layer of representation that separates the audience from the apocalyptic experience , which undermines the concept of apocalypse as both mysterious and directly experienced .
In discussing the nature of time , Blake wrote in his notes : " The Greeks represented Chronos or Time as a very Aged Man ; this is Fable , but the Real Vision of Time is in Eternal Youth . I have , however , somewhat accommodated my Figure of Time to the common opinion , as I myself am also infected with it & my Visions also infected , as I see Time Aged , alas , too much so . "
= = Themes = =
Blake based his portrayal of the apocalypse on his belief that God 's love allowed for a personal apocalypse as part of the human experience . In the notes to the work , he claimed that " whenever any Individual Rejects Error & Embraces Truth a Last Judgment passes upon that Individual " . This idea is connected to views of David Hartley of the " pure disinterested love of God " , and appears in other works by Blake , including his Jerusalem . Also , Blake 's Milton describes the process that an individual goes through during an apocalypse , which includes having to confront their errors and their flaws . There is no peace during the struggle , as it involves a direct interaction between contrary views that would eventually establish the new state .
On the details in the painting , Blake claimed that each component had a specific meaning that provides an allegory @-@ like dimension to the work . Blake dismissed the idea of using allegory within his works except , as he wrote in a letter to Butts , 6 July 1803 , " Allegory Address 'd to the intellectual powers , while it is altogether hidden from the Corporeal Understanding , is My Definition of the Most Sublime Poetry " .
Blake 's philosophical interpretation of time is similar to Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's depiction of the relationship between time and the state of limbo within his poem " Limbo " . Both claim that their understanding of time is connected to the common , contemporary view , but they alter their perspective of time within their works to that of an older person . The figure of time appears in other works by Blake , including as the figure Los and in the illustration Blake made for Edward Young 's Night Thoughts .
= Romanticism in Scotland =
Romanticism in Scotland was an artistic , literary and intellectual movement that developed between the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries . It was part of the wider European Romantic movement , which was partly a reaction against the Age of Enlightenment , emphasising individual , national and emotional responses , moving beyond Renaissance and Classicist models , particularly to the Middle Ages .
In the arts , Romanticism manifested itself in literature and drama in the adoption of the mythical bard Ossian , the exploration of national poetry in the work of Robert Burns and in the historical novels of Walter Scott . Scott also had a major impact on the development of a national Scottish drama . Art was heavily influenced by Ossian and a new view of the Highlands as the location of a wild and dramatic landscape . Scott profoundly affected architecture through his re @-@ building of Abbotsford House in the early nineteenth century , which set off the boom in the Scots Baronial revival . In music , Burns was part of an attempt to produce a canon of Scottish song , which resulted in a cross fertilisation of Scottish and continental classical music , with romantic music becoming dominant in Scotland into the twentieth century .
Intellectually , Scott and figures like Thomas Carlyle played a part in the development of historiography and the idea of the historical imagination . Romanticism also influenced science , particularly the life sciences , geology , optics and astronomy , giving Scotland a prominence in these areas that continued into the late nineteenth century . Scottish philosophy was dominated by Scottish Common Sense Realism , which shared some characteristics with Romanticism and was a major influence on the development of Transcendentalism . Scott also played a major part in defining Scottish and British politics , helping to create a romanticised view of Scotland and the Highlands that fundamentally changed Scottish national identity .
Romanticism began to subside as a movement in the 1830s , but it continued to significantly affect areas such as music until the early twentieth century . It also had a lasting impact on the nature of Scottish identity and outside perceptions of Scotland .
= = Definitions = =
See also : Romantic literature in English
Romanticism was a complex artistic , literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the eighteenth century in western Europe , and gained strength during and after the Industrial and French Revolutions . It was partly a revolt against the political norms of the Age of Enlightenment which rationalised nature , and was embodied most strongly in the visual arts , music , and literature , but significantly influenced historiography , philosophy and the natural sciences .
Romanticism has been seen as " the revival of the life and thought of the Middle Ages " , reaching beyond Rationalist and Classicist models to elevate medievalism and elements of art and narrative perceived to be authentically medieval , in an attempt to escape the confines of population growth , urban sprawl and industrialism , embracing the exotic , unfamiliar and distant . It is also associated with political revolutions , beginning with those in Americana and France and movements for independence , particularly in Poland , Spain and Greece . It is often thought to incorporate an emotional assertion of the self and of individual experience along with a sense of the infinite , transcendental and sublime . In art there was a stress on imagination , landscape and a spiritual correspondence with nature . It has been described by Margaret Drabble as " an unending revolt against classical form , conservative morality , authoritarian government , personal insincerity , and human moderation " .
= = Literature and drama = =
Although after union with England in 1707 Scotland increasingly adopted English language and wider cultural norms , its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation . Allan Ramsay ( 1686 – 1758 ) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish
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two incisors , one canine , two premolars , and three molars in the upper jaw , and three incisors , one canine , two premolars , and three molars in the lower jaw ) . Because the ancestors of P. raceyi lost the first upper incisor and first and third upper and lower premolars , the upper incisors are designated I2 and I3 and the premolars are designated P2 and P4 ( uppers ) and p2 and p4 ( lowers ) . I2 has a well @-@ developed second cusp in addition to the main cusp and I3 about reaches the height of the second cusp of I2 . The stout upper canine bears a single cusp . P2 is prominent and is displaced slightly towards the inner side of the toothrow . P4 does not contact the canine . The first and second upper molar ( M1 and M2 ) are about equally large , but M3 is smaller . Each of the lower incisors bears three cusps and the third ( i3 ) may touch the lower canine ( c1 ) . The latter tooth has a second cusp , which reaches higher than i3 . The p2 touches the back of c1 and attains between 59 @-@ 100 % the crown area of p4 . The first two lower molars ( m1 and m2 ) have the back group of cusps ( talonid ) larger than the front one ( trigonid ) , and m3 is again smaller .
= = Distribution , ecology , and behavior = =
Pipistrellus raceyi is known from four places on Madagascar , all below 80 m ( 260 ft ) altitude , of which two are on the west and two on the east side of the island . Among the eastern collection sites , Kianjavato is a rural town surrounded by farmland and secondary forests , where P. raceyi were collected while leaving a hollow in the concrete wall of a house and in a mistnet over a river , and Tampolo is in a heavily disturbed agriculturally used area . Both western localities , Kirindy and Mikea , are in dry forest . In Kirindy , the pipistrelle Hypsugo anchietae has also been recorded . The true distribution of P. raceyi is probably larger than that currently known . Nothing is known about the diet , but vespertilionid bats generally eat insects .
There is very limited data on reproduction . Young are probably born near the start of the rainy season , in November – December , when food is plentiful . Six bats were caught at the roost site in Kianjavato , of which only one was a male ; this led Bates and colleagues to suggest that the species may be polygynous , with groups consisting of a male and multiple females .
= = Conservation status = =
The IUCN Red List has assessed Pipistrellus raceyi as " Data Deficient " because of insufficient knowledge about its abundance and habitat requirements . All four known sites are near forest , but that may be a sampling artifact . Although deforestation may pose a threat , each of the collection sites has some sort of forest protection measures in place .
= 58th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game =
The 58th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game , also known as the 2011 National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game presented by Discover , was the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) annual All @-@ Star Game played on January 30 , 2011 . The game took place during the 2010 – 11 NHL season at the RBC Center in Raleigh , North Carolina , home of the Carolina Hurricanes . Originally , the Game was supposed to be hosted by the Phoenix Coyotes , but due to ownership issues , the NHL decided to move the game . After bidding for the game reopened , it was awarded to Carolina and fulfilled a nine @-@ year @-@ old promise made to the franchise by NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman .
The 2011 version of the All @-@ Star Game featured a break from the traditional way in which teams were organized . Instead of using conferences or player nationalities as in the past , teams were selected by captains in a fantasy draft days prior to the game . Fans still elected players to the All @-@ Star Game , but instead of the traditional 12 starters ( six for each team ) , they elected only six players , with the remaining 36 players involved in the game selected by the NHL . Sidney Crosby received the most votes of any player , but due to a concussion he was unable to participate in the game . The participating players voted for team captains , selecting Nicklas Lidstrom of the Detroit Red Wings and Eric Staal of the Hurricanes .
Staal won the first pick in the draft and selected longtime teammate Cam Ward , while the Toronto Maple Leafs ' Phil Kessel was the last player chosen . The annual SuperSkills Competition was held the night before the Game and featured Alexander Ovechkin winning his third consecutive Breakaway Challenge . In addition , Zdeno Chara broke his own SuperSkills Competition record for hardest shot at 105 @.@ 9 mph ( 170 @.@ 4 km / hr ) . Team Staal won the contest 33 – 22 .
Team Lidstrom won the game 11 – 10 , the 21 combined goals was the fourth highest total scored in an NHL All @-@ Star Game . The first Penalty shot in All @-@ Star Game history was called after Ovechkin threw his stick to break @-@ up a Matt Duchene breakaway . Registering one goal and two assists , Patrick Sharp of the losing Team Staal won the Most Valuable Player Award . Jeff Skinner was the youngest player to ever play in an NHL All @-@ Star Game . Shea Weber recorded four assists , making him only the second defenceman to accomplish the feat in one All @-@ Star Game . Fellow defenceman Lidstrom registered a + 7 rating , the highest in an All @-@ Star Game since 1991 . Winning goaltender Tim Thomas became the first goaltender in NHL history to win three consecutive All @-@ Star Games .
= = Background = =
The 58th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game was originally scheduled to be hosted by the Phoenix Coyotes at Jobing.com Arena in Glendale , Arizona . However , due to the ongoing bankruptcy case , potential ownership changes in the Coyotes organization , and the possibility of relocation , the NHL decided to reopen bidding to host the game . In the bidding process , 14 teams made bids for All @-@ Star Games or NHL Drafts for the next three years . Out of all the bids , the NHL chose the Carolina Hurricanes to be the new host team and on April 7 , 2010 , the announcement was made by NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman and Hurricanes President and General Manager Jim Rutherford .
The awarding of the All @-@ Star Game fulfilled a nine @-@ year @-@ old promise Bettman made to the city of Raleigh . In 2001 , he promised the organization that they would host an All @-@ Star Game if the season ticket base reached 12 @,@ 000 . After reaching that plateau , Bettman indicated that other community assets were still required to secure a bid . Most notably , a proper convention center for ancillary events was needed , along with a four @-@ star hotel , which was completed in 2009 with the new Raleigh Convention Center and adjoining Raleigh Marriott City Center in downtown Raleigh .
Three months after receiving the All @-@ Star Game , the Hurricanes unveiled the logo for the 2011 game . The logo was designed with some homage to the host team and city hidden within it . The shape of the logo is similar to the Hurricanes primary logo , along with the team colors of red , black and silver . The banners at the top and bottom of the logo are inspired by the state flag of North Carolina .
The NHL and the city of Raleigh also presented a three @-@ day festival to coincide with All @-@ Star weekend called NHL All @-@ Star Wide Open . The festivities include a series of free concerts , headlined by the band 3 Doors Down , interactive games and attractions , special appearances , Hockey Hall of Fame trophy and memorabilia displays , pin trading and trading card zones and a street party similar to the city 's own annual festival , Raleigh Wide Open . There was also a charity 5K fun run , starting and ending at RBC Center with the Carolina Hurricanes " Kids ' N Community Foundation " being the beneficiary of the raised funds .
= = New format = =
On November 10 , 2010 , the National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) unveiled a new format for selecting the NHL All @-@ Star teams : the traditional conference format was replaced by a " fantasy draft . " Fans voted for six players , from either conference ( three forwards , two defencemen and one goaltender ) , and the NHL selected another 36 players , for a total of 42 players . The chosen players then appointed two captains ; the NHL and NHLPA , with input from the players , named two alternate captains for each team . Each team had two forwards and one defenceman as its captain and alternates . The captains and alternates selected their team members in a fantasy @-@ style draft held on January 28 , 2011 . The first pick was determined by a coin toss , with alternating picks after the first . Teams consisted of three goaltenders , six defencemen and 12 forwards . Although the draft rules did not dictate a strict order in which positions had to be filled , to guarantee the final picks were not constrained by having to satisfy roster composition rules , the teams ' three goaltenders had to be chosen by the end of round ten , and all defencemen had to be chosen by the end of round 15 . According to NHL Vice President of Hockey and Business Development Brendan Shanahan , the new format was introduced to add excitement and intrigue into all the events , while make it more fun for everyone involved .
For 2011 , the NHL eliminated the YoungStars Game which had been played in the previous five All @-@ Star weekends . However , rookies were still featured at the Super Skills Competition . A group of 12 Calder Trophy @-@ eligible players were split into two groups of six . At the conclusion of the fantasy draft 's 15th round , one rookie was selected from the 12 to choose which team his group would join for the competition .
This was the first time the traditional " East vs. West " format was not used since 2002 , when the World All @-@ Star Team defeated North America 8 – 5 in Los Angeles .
= = The Guardian Project = =
During the All @-@ Star weekend , the NHL announced a new " superhero franchise " , The Guardian Project . Created by comic book writer Stan Lee , the project featured 30 new superheroes representing the 30 NHL teams , all which were unveiled at the All @-@ Star Game . The goal of the project was to appeal to pre @-@ teen and teenage boys in hopes of bringing in " new audience to the NHL , while engaging the existing , established hockey fan base through a compelling tale of good vs. evil . "
= = Voting = =
One hundred players were chosen to be on the ballot for the All @-@ Star Game ( minimum of two players from each team ) , but fans were also given the option to write in any player who was not listed . Ballots were all digital for the fourth consecutive time , giving fans the ability to cast votes online at NHL.com and Facebook . Votes could also be cast via text messages from mobile devices and Smartphone users could vote by way of a mobile ballot feature . The NHL put no limitation on the number of votes an individual could cast . When fan balloting ended , 14 @.@ 3 million votes had been cast and the top six were named to the All @-@ Star Game . The six top vote recipients were from only two teams , the Pittsburgh Penguins ( 4 ) and Chicago Blackhawks ( 2 ) . Individually , Sidney Crosby led all players with 635 @,@ 509 votes , while teammate Kris Letang was elected as a write @-@ in candidate . The six players elected by the fans are listed below with their vote totals .
= = Draft = =
After naming the remaining All @-@ Stars , each player voted for team captains . The players selected the 12 @-@ time All @-@ Star , Nicklas Lidstrom , and the captain of the host Carolina Hurricanes , Eric Staal . Lidstrom was assigned the home blue uniforms while Staal received the away whites . The NHL further named their alternate captains , placing Ryan Kesler and Mike Green with Staal while Patrick Kane and Martin St. Louis joined Team Lidstrom . Prior to the draft , the NHL determined head coaches for the teams via a coin toss . Chicago 's Joel Quenneville and his assistant , Mike Haviland , were named coaches as a result of winning the Stanley Cup last year . Philadelphia Flyers Head Coach Peter Laviolette and the Vancouver Canucks ' Alain Vigneault earned the distinction by having the highest winning percentage through January 8 , 2011 . After the coin toss , Quenneville was assigned to Team Staal , while Laviolette and Vigneault were given Team Lidstrom .
Team Staal won the first pick in the draft , and Eric Staal chose longtime teammate Cam Ward with his first pick . With the fifth pick in the draft , Team Staal selected Daniel Sedin . His twin brother Henrik was taken with the next pick by Team Lidstrom . The All @-@ Star Game marked the first time the two have ever played against each other in an organized game . Throughout the draft , Eric Staal selected players that had a personal connection with him . He selected his brother , Rangers defenceman Marc Staal , in the seventh round , fellow Thunder Bay native Patrick Sharp in the eighth round , and teammate Jeff Skinner in the 11th round . The last player selected was Toronto 's Phil Kessel . As a reward for being the last selection , he was given a new car and $ 20 @,@ 000 was given to the charity of his choice . Kessel stated he would put the money toward a cancer charity he became involved with in 2006 when he was battling testicular cancer . When the time came for the rookies to decide which team they would participate in the skills competition , Taylor Hall , who won the right via a puck flip , chose Team Lidstrom for his group . All players were allowed to wear the numbers they use in their respective teams . For Team Lidstrom , Henrik Sedin and Dustin Byfuglien both wore number 33 , while Brad Richards and Steven Stamkos wore number 91 . Team Staal had three pairs having same number : Patrick Sharp and Corey Perry with number 10 , Daniel Sedin and Dan Boyle with number 22 and Paul Stastny and Patrik Elias with number 26 . The complete team rosters are listed below with players appearing in the order in which they were chosen .
= = = Withdrawn = = =
Prior to the draft several players withdrew due to injury or , in the case of Jarome Iginla , family concerns .
= = SuperSkills Competition = =
The SuperSkills competition began with the Fastest Skater competition , where the competitors skated one lap around the rink . The winner of each round earned a point for their team . The opening round was skated backwards , followed by each team 's rookie representative . Then two goaltenders skated off before returning to the traditional form . Following preliminary rounds the two fastest competitors from each team faced off in a final round , where Michael Grabner defeated Taylor Hall earning two points for Team Staal . The Breakaway Challenge featured six players ( three from each team ) taking four shoot @-@ out attempts . Fans voted for the winner via text message . The winner earned four points for his team . Second place was awarded three points and third received one point . Alexander Ovechkin won by a wide margin defeating second place P. K. Subban by over 17 percentage points , it was the third consecutive win in the competition by Ovechkin . Loui Eriksson finished third to round out the point earners from the competition . The Shooting Accuracy featured two players shooting targets in the four corners of the net . Winners were determined by the fastest player to hit all four targets . Daniel Sedin hit all four targets on four shots in his first round setting the overall fastest time hitting them all in just 7 @.@ 3 seconds . He followed that up by hitting four in five shots during the final round to defeat the Blackhawks ' Patrick Kane .
Following Shooting Accuracy , both teams participated in the Skills Challenge Relay . Each team broke into two groups and went through a series of drills designed to showcase players ' skills . It started with one timers , then proceeded to passing , where a single player had to complete a pass into six small nets . From there it went to the Puck Control Relay , having a participant skate through a series of cones with a puck . Another player then took on the Stick Handling drill , controlling a puck through a series of stationary pucks . The relay ended when a final player completed the Shooting Accuracy , again hitting all four targets . The two groups from Team Lidstrom finished first and third in the competition , gaining their team a total of five points . During the Hardest Shot competition reigning champion Zdeno Chara was defeated in his preliminary round match up by Shea Weber . In the final round , Chara again matched up with Weber . Chara successfully defended his title by defeating Weber with a shot registering 105 @.@ 9 mph . The speed set a new SuperSkills record surpassing his own record and marking the fourth time he has won the event . Despite being down by a large margin prior to the Elimination Shootout , Team Lidstrom still had an opportunity to win the contest . Players continued to shoot provided they scored – scoring one point per goal , until only one player remained . However , the shoot @-@ out was won by Team Staal 's Corey Perry as he was the only player to score in all three of his attempts . The full results are listed below .
= = Game play = =
The scoring started early in the game as Team Staal 's Alexander Ovechkin scored the game 's first goal in just 50 seconds into the first period . When he took his first shift Jeff Skinner officially became the youngest player to play in an All @-@ Star game ( 18 years , 259 days ) surpassing the mark set in 1984 by Steve Yzerman by eight days . By the time Claude Giroux scored , less than five minutes later , Team Staal had opened up a 4 – 0 lead . Team Lidstrom 's Marc @-@ Andre Fleury allowed the four goals on only nine shots while his counterpart Cam Ward stopped the first four shots he faced . The tide turned a little over halfway through the first period when Anze Kopitar scored on a backhand shot . Team Lidstrom completed the first period comeback with under four minutes left in the period when Eriksson and Matt Duchene scored 23 seconds apart to tie the game at four . Team Lidstrom finished the period scoring on four of their final ten shots .
Team Staal recaptured the lead early in the second with goals by Patrick Sharp and Kris Letang . They were unable to hold the lead though as Team Lidstrom tied the game at six with a second goal from Kopitar and one by Steven Stamkos . They quickly took their first lead on a goal by Daniel Briere just 1 : 20 later , ending the period up 7 – 6 .
Early in the third period Eric Staal tied the game at seven with his first goal of the game . Minutes later Duchene got a breakaway , but before he could take a shot , Ovechkin threw his stick at the puck , resulting in the first penalty shot in All @-@ Star game history , and only the third penalty assessed during the past ten years of All @-@ Star competition . Duchene took the shot against Henrik Lundqvist , who stopped the attempt . Kris Letang scored shortly after the penalty shot to give back the lead to Team Staal . Briere scored a little over a minute later assisted by Weber and Henrik Sedin to re @-@ tie the game . Weber 's assist was his fourth of the game making him the second defenceman in history to record four assists in an All @-@ Star Game ( Ray Bourque , 1985 ) . Team Lidstrom added two more goals before Rick Nash scored to cut the deficit to one . With about a minute and a half left in the game , Team Staal pulled their goaltender for the extra attacker . The decision backfired as Eriksson scored on the empty net with 1 : 11 remaining . Eric Staal scored with 33 @.@ 6 seconds reaming to bring his team back within one goal , but they failed to get another shot on goal before time ran out . By coming back from a four @-@ goal deficit to win the game Team Lidstrom set the record for biggest comeback victory in All @-@ Star history . Lidstrom finished the game with a + 7 rating , the highest rating since 1991 when Adam Oates was also a + 7 for the Wales Conference . Tim Thomas earned the victory becoming the first goaltender to win three straight All @-@ Star Games . Patrick Sharp was named Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) after registering one goal and two assists in a losing cause for Team Staal . The combined 21 goals was the fourth highest total in NHL All @-@ Star Game history .
= = = Summary = = =
W – Tim Thomas L – Henrik Lundqvist
Key
Player1 ( Player2 , Player3 ) 1 : 00 denotes that Player1 scored a goal after 1 : 00 , with assists from Player2 and Player3 .
GWG denotes the game @-@ winning goal .
EN denotes an empty net goal
W denotes the goaltender awarded the win .
L denotes the goaltender assigned the loss .
Source : NHL
= Ilyushin Il @-@ 30 =
The Ilyushin Il @-@ 30 was a Soviet turbojet @-@ powered tactical bomber designed as a higher @-@ performance , swept wing version of the Ilyushin Il @-@ 28 in the late 1940s . Its thin wing and engine nacelles necessitated the use of tandem landing gear , the first Soviet aircraft to do so . It was apparently canceled before the prototype made its first flight , although sources disagree on this .
= = Development = =
The Il @-@ 30 was a follow @-@ on to the Il @-@ 28 , although design began on 21 June 1948 , before the Il @-@ 28 had flown . It was designed to meet a requirement for a jet bomber that could carry 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) to a range of 3 @,@ 500 km ( 2 @,@ 200 mi ) with a maximum speed no less than 1 @,@ 000 km / h ( 620 mph ) . The design took that of the Il @-@ 28 as a starting point , but had thin , mid @-@ mounted swept wings with a 35 ° sweep angle chosen to allow the aircraft to reach its required speed . It was intended to be powered by two new Lyulka TR @-@ 3 axial @-@ flow turbojet engines with 45 @.@ 1 kN ( 10 @,@ 140 lbf ) thrust each in wing @-@ mounted nacelles . Both the fuselage and the nacelles were area ruled .
The thin wing and the 2 ° anhedral necessary to cure the excessive lateral stability limited the amount of fuel that could be carried and tip tanks were required to meet the range requirement . The slim engine nacelles did not allow the main landing gear to be stowed there as was done in the Il @-@ 28 . The solution was to house them within the fuselage — the first bicycle landing gear on a Soviet aircraft — with small , twin @-@ wheeled , outriggers mounted underneath the nacelles to stabilize the aircraft on the ground . The aircraft had a crew of four , the pilot , a bombardier , and two gunners . The pilot , bombardier and the dorsal gunner shared one pressurized compartment that was subdivided into the cockpit and the bombardier 's position in the extensively glazed nose . The dorsal gunner was placed back @-@ to @-@ back with the pilot underneath the canopy and the tail gunner had his own separate pressurized compartment at the rear of the aircraft . Defensive armament was six 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Rikhter NR @-@ 23 cannon , two fixed forward and one pair each in the Il @-@ V @-@ 12 dorsal turret immediately behind the cockpit and the Il @-@ K6 tail turret . Maximum bomb load was 4 @,@ 000 kg ( 8 @,@ 800 lb )
The initial results were favorable , and a full @-@ scale mockup was formally reviewed in March 1949 . The prototype was completed by August 1949 , but an incident involving the rival swept @-@ wing Tupolev Tu @-@ 82 that broke an engine mount during a low @-@ altitude flight led to delays as additional tests were demanded to determine the strength of the wings before the first flight was made . By the following year , the Il @-@ 30 program had lost momentum as the Ilyushin OKB was ordered to concentrate its resources on facilitating the service introduction of the Il @-@ 28 . It was formally terminated by government order on 20 August 1950 , and the prototype was eventually scrapped at the beginning of the 1960s . Aviation historian Bill Gunston quotes a maiden flight date of 9 September 1949 , but Vaclav Nemecek says 1951 .
Although the Il @-@ 30 never actually flew , it was the subject of much ( misinformed ) speculation in the West . Some of the common misconceptions were that it had a ventral gun mount and that it was the first Soviet bomber to attain the speed of 1 @,@ 000 km / h ( 620 mph ) .
= = Specifications ( estimated ) = =
Data from OKB Ilyushin : A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft
General characteristics
Crew : 4
Length : 18 m ( 59 ft 1 in )
Wingspan : 16 @.@ 5 m ( 54 ft 2 in )
Wing area : 100 m2 ( 1 @,@ 100 sq ft )
Empty weight : 22 @,@ 967 kg ( 50 @,@ 634 lb )
Gross weight : 17 @,@ 033 kg ( 37 @,@ 552 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Lyulka TR @-@ 3 turbojet , 45 @.@ 1 kN ( 10 @,@ 100 lbf ) thrust each
Performance
Maximum speed : 1 @,@ 000 km / h ( 621 mph ; 540 kn )
Cruising speed : 850 km / h ( 528 mph ; 459 kn )
Range : 3 @,@ 500 km ( 2 @,@ 175 mi ; 1 @,@ 890 nmi )
Service ceiling : 13 @,@ 000 m ( 42 @,@ 651 ft )
Armament
Guns : 6 × 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Rikhter NR @-@ 23 autocannon
Bombs : 4 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 8 @,@ 800 lb )
= Lafayette Afro Rock Band =
Lafayette Afro Rock Band was an American funk rock band formed in Roosevelt , Long Island , New York that relocated to France in 1970 . Though almost unknown in their native United States , they are now universally celebrated as one of the standout funk bands of the 1970s and admired for their use of break beats . The band also recorded as Ice and as Krispie and Company ( or Crispy and Company ) .
Upon their relocation to Paris , the local music scene influenced the group 's work , and they adopted the name Lafayette Afro Rock Band after releasing their debut LP . The band 's next two LPs , Soul Makossa and Malik , respectively included the songs " Hihache " and " Darkest Light , " which would be sampled in numerous culturally significant hip @-@ hop compositions . Following collaborations with Mal Waldron and Sunnyland Slim , the band 's popularity waned , leading to their breakup in 1978 .
= = History = =
The Lafayette Afro Rock Band was formed as the Bobby Boyd Congress in 1970 , in homage to their original vocalist Bobby Boyd . Upon deciding that the funk scene in the United States was too saturated for them to viably compete in , they relocated to France in 1971 ; with Bobby Boyd splitting from the group to pursue a musical career in America , they renamed themselves ' Soul Congress ' , then ' Ice ' . After regular performances in Paris ' Barbès district — an area made up primarily of North African immigrants — they caught the eye of producer Pierre Jaubert and became the house session band at his Parisound studio . The influence of their surroundings led Ice to increasingly weave African rhyme schemes , textures , and beat tendencies in their original funk style , and as such they changed their name to Lafayette Afro Rock Band following the 1972 release of the poorly produced Each Man Makes His Own Destiny .
In 1974 , Lafayette Afro Rock Band replaced guitarist Larry Jones with Michael McEwan , and released Soul Makossa ( released in the U.S. as Movin ' and Groovin ' ) . The title track was a cover version of Manu Dibango 's international hit , " Soul Makossa . " LP Though it failed to chart , it made sufficient impact that its standout song , the oft @-@ covered " Hihache " , was sampled regularly for over 20 years by artists as diverse as Janet Jackson , Biz Markie , LL Cool J , De La Soul , Digital Underground , Naughty by Nature , and the Wu @-@ Tang Clan . Lafayette Afro Rock Band 's follow @-@ up effort , the 1975 LP Malik , prominently featured the Univox Super @-@ Fuzz and liberal usage of the vocoder . It met equal enduring success , with a modified horn and saxophone sample of " Darkest Light " being featured prominently in Public Enemy 's " Show ' Em Whatcha Got " . The original sax solo on " Darkest Light " from the Malik LP was played by Leroy Gomez who later became popular as the lead singer of Santa Esmeralda group with the 1977 mega @-@ hit single " Don 't Let Me Be Misunderstood " . After Public Enemy 's usage of the song was highly praised , samples of " Darkest Light " backed numerous culturally significant songs , including " Back to the Hotel " , the multi @-@ platinum 1992 single " Rump Shaker " by new jack group Wreckx @-@ n @-@ Effect and rapper Jay @-@ Z 's 2006 single " Show Me What You Got " .
Mal Waldron , an American jazz and world music composer who came to fame after performing as Billie Holiday 's accompanist until her death , collaborated with the Lafayette Afro Rock Band in 1975 , employing them to back him on his unreleased Candy Girl album . Shortly later , legendary blues pianist Sunnyland Slim sought out the band 's services , and recorded the collaboration album Depression Blues . The group subsequently reverted to the " Ice " moniker , releasing material concurrently on an " Various Artists " formatted 1975 released LP " Tonight at the Discotheque " under the art @-@ names " Captain Dax " , " Les Atlantes " and " Crispy and Co . " ( spelled in French and German speaking countries as " Krispie & Company " ) . As the latter they even scored two UK charts hits , " Brazil " in 1975 made No. 26 , while " Get it together " made No. 21 in 1976 . After success faded in Europe the band found luck in Japan .
After scoring with the mildly successful single " Dr. Beezar , Soul Frankenstein " , they released Afro Agban and Funky Flavored to little fanfare before returning to America and permanently disbanding . In 1978 , French record label Superclasse released ten uninspiring , previously unreleased recordings , followed by a 1999 Best of compilation which was more warmly received .
= = Reception = =
Lafayette Afro Rock Band toiled in obscurity during their years of activity , but have now become of interest to Western critics and music historians due to their ubiquitous break beats . As a result of their obscurity , when compared to their contemporaries like Cameo , Funkadelic or Kool & The Gang , few copies of their studio LPs have survived ; this has led to , with the exceptions of " Hihache " and " Darkest Light " , the attention of critics and historians being drawn to the band 's three greatest hits albums : Afon : Ten Unreleased Afro Funk Recordings , Darkest Light : The Best of and The Ultimate Collection . Music historian Dave Thompson unfavorably reviewed Afon , but praised Darkest Light , singling out " Soul Frankenstein , " " The Gap , " " Conga , " " Malik , " " Soul Makossa , " " Scorpion Flower , " " Nicky " and " Darkest Light " as the " high points " of the " ultimate point of entry " for the band . British music newspaper Melody Maker and Allmusic critic Jason Ankeny have also both favorably reviewed Darkest Light , with Ankeny stating that it is " one of the great documents of
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the first permanent settlement on the bay . It soon grew into a major Texas port with a population of 277 @,@ 454 at the time of the 2000 census . In 1852 , a settlement was finally established at the confluence of the Nueces River and Nueces Bay by Henry Kinney , who also founded Corpus Christi . The community was referred to as The Motts by German and English settlers for nearby tree clusters , but was officially known as Nuecestown . It was raided by Mexican bandits in 1875 , but recovered and grew to a population of 200 by 1896 . After the railroad passed on the town in 1905 , it declined , and is today included in the city limits of Corpus Christi . To the north of the bay , the Coleman @-@ Fulton Pasture Company controlled a large segment of San Patricio County for ranching during the aftermath of the Texas Revolution . David Sinton and later Charles Phelps Taft , whose names are immortalized by the nearby towns of Sinton and Taft , were involved with the company . They sold a plot of land on the northeast of Nueces Bay to George H. Paul , who hired Mexican immigrants to clear the land of mesquite trees and founded a ranching community later named West Portland . The plots of land in this community are still mostly held by the descendants of the original owners . The town of Portland — on the extreme northeast of the bay — was also established from land purchased from the Coleman @-@ Fulton Pasture Company by future State Senator John G. Willacy with help from a New England company . The town steadily grew and reached a population of 14 @,@ 827 by 2000 . To the northwest of the bay , on the Whites Point peninsula , a settlement was established around 1866 by cattledriver Darius Rachal , who had purchased land on the point from the cattle @-@ driving White family . Soon after his purchase , many of the Whites died of yellow fever as an epidemic swept the area and killed 14 people . Rachal used his land to raise cattle , grow cotton and sell real estate to new settlers . A post office was established at the site in 1892 , and was given the name Rosita or " little flower " after the names " White Point " and " Rachal " were rejected by United States Postal Service . After a 1915 gas explosion and two massive hurricanes , including a 1919 storm that killed 26 residents ( approximately 50 were killed in Portland and 47 in Corpus Christi ) , the post office was abolished in 1919 and by the next year most residents had relocated to Odem .
= = Features = =
Nueces Bay covers an area of 28 @.@ 9 square miles ( 75 km2 ) and drains the 16 @,@ 950 square miles ( 43 @,@ 900 km2 ) of the Nueces River basin . It has an average depth of 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 ft 7 in ) , and a volume of 39 @,@ 700 acre feet ( 49 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) . The bay is considered the southern extreme of the Texas Coastal Plain , which stretches northeast to Galveston Bay , and is part of the geographic transition from the grasslands of the coastal plain to the dry brush region of South Texas . It forms at the base of the Nueces River , which enters at the southwesternmost point of the bay . North of the Nueces entrance is the extension of Odem Bay , named for the nearby settlement of Odem . This extension includes shallow marsh fed by an extensive system of tidal streams including Rincon Bayou , and is headed by Whites Point to the east . Due south of Whites Point at the mouth of Odem Bay , is an oil field , situated against the backdrop of heavy industry on the shore to the southwest . The southern shore , which continues toward Rincon Point , is slender due to the industrial canal dredged to the south to the Port of Corpus Christi . The mouth of Nueces Bay on Corpus Christi Bay from Rincon Point to Indian Point , is crossed by the mile @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) Nueces Bay Causeway , which leads to Portland . West Portland is found on the shoreline of the bay as it curves north and west , which is lined with piers and residences . The bay leads back west to Whites Point on the north shore , which is largely used for agriculture .
= = Ecosystem = =
The Nueces estuary provides an ecosystem for a wide variety of wildlife . However , since the construction of Choke Canyon Reservoir in 1985 , freshwater inflows have decreased from the Nueces River , increasing the bay 's salinity , and hurting the natural oyster and shrimp habitat . In response , the City of Corpus Christi , Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and two additional state agencies have worked to restore the natural freshwater inflows into the bay . The Odem Bay extension is low in salinity and serves as a nursery for shrimp , which migrate to Nueces Bay in spring . Oyster beds are common throughout the bay and are known to be hiding spots for such fish as trout , black drum , flounder and redfish . Such finfish must be protected from excessive freshwater introduction for survival .
A diverse collection of birds sustained by the water life , such as the black skimmer , brown pelican , great blue heron , egret , laughing gull , roseate spoonbill , tern , and the white ibis , can be found in the bay , especially near the mouth of Rincon Bayou . Local efforts by the Coastal Bend Bays and Estuaries program have benefited bird populations by adding crushed oyster shells to the bay 's small islands for improved nesting conditions , and the restoration of marsh near the Nueces Bay Causeway to increase fish populations to satisfy the birds ' dietary requirements . At the nearby Nueces Delta Preserve , countless birds have been observed , as well as bobcats , coyotes , feral hogs , mountain lions , rattlesnakes , Texas spiny lizards , western diamondbacks and white @-@ tailed deer .
= = Industry = =
Oil has been pumped from the bay since 1912 , but fishing has been a mainstay since humans have inhabited the area . In the early 1970s , recreational fishing accounted for a yearly input of $ 17 million to the local economy , while commercial fishermen contributed $ 27 @.@ 3 million . Commercial oyster farming was common in the bay until 1995 , when the Texas Department of State Health Services suspended the practice , due to an unhealthy annual average zinc level of nearly 2500 mg / kg in oysters , which as filter feeders , are affected by high levels of zinc in the water . The excessive zinc is believed to have been dumped into the bay by the American Smelting and Refining Company 's Encycle Texas Incorporated subsidiary , which operated a zinc refinery at the site from 1942 to 1985 . The Nueces Bay Power Station is also believed to have discharged zinc used for coolant until December 2002 . Since that time , zinc levels in the bay have been reduced to slightly under 1000 mg / kg , which remains above the healthy levels of 700 mg / kg . The power station has since come under the control of the Topaz Power Group . The Texas Commission on Environmental Quality has established the Total Maximum Daily Load Program to measure the level of pollutants throughout the Nueces watershed , in an effort to restore the bay to safe levels of contaminants . Pesticides that seep into the bay from the heavy agricultural activity on the north shore can also spur adverse environmental effects .
Several oil spills have occurred as a result of the heavy petroleum industry on the south shore of Nueces Bay . In 1984 , approximately 20 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 76 @,@ 000 L ) of oil leaked from a busted pipeline , which blackened 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the shore . Ten years later , Koch Industries , which owns a refinery on the bay , was responsible for a major spill that resulted in the release of 100 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 380 @,@ 000 L ) of oil , leaving a 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) slick that seeped into Corpus Christi Bay . The Environmental Protection Agency fined the company $ 30 million for the spill in 2000 , and $ 2 @.@ 5 million was later given by the company to the state of Texas to improve the bay 's water quality .
= The Grinning Man =
" The Grinning Man " is a feature @-@ length episode of the BBC crime drama series Jonathan Creek , first broadcast on 1 January 2009 . The episode marked the series ' return to television following a five @-@ year hiatus , and saw the return of Alan Davies as the show 's titular sleuth . Stuart Milligan returned to the series as Jonathan 's boss , magician Adam Klaus , while the episode also introduced Sheridan Smith as Joey Ross , Jonathan 's crime @-@ solving assistant . The episode was written and directed by series creator David Renwick , who chose to revive the show as a means of delaying his retirement .
The central mysteries of the episode focused on an attic room whose occupants disappeared without trace overnight , and the kidnapped partner of a stage magician .
The episode was watched by 9 @.@ 91 million viewers and attained a 36 % audience share . Critical reaction to the episode from The Scotsman 's Paul Whitelaw and The Northern Echo 's Steve Pratt suggested that , at 120 minutes , the plot was overstretched . The Stage 's Mark Wright compared Smith favourably to her predecessor in the assistant role , Julia Sawalha as Carla Borrego , while both Scotland on Sunday 's Chitra Ramaswamy and Sian Brewis for the Leicester Mercury discussed the nostalgia invoked by the episode , as a result of the series having been off @-@ air since 2004 .
= = Plot = =
Set five years after the previous episode , " Gorgons Wood " , " The Grinning Man " begins by introducing the Gothic mansion Metropolis . Since 1938 , a number of visitors staying overnight in the mansion 's attic " Nightmare Room " have disappeared without a trace . Originally owned by a spiritualist , the mansion is now the property of his grandson , stage magician Lance Gessler ( Nicholas Boulton ) . Gessler lives with his mother , Constance ( Judy Parfitt ) , his partner Elodie ( Jenna Harrison ) , and their groundskeeper , Glenn ( Ciaran McMenamin ) . They offer shelter to paranormal investigator Joey Ross and her friend Mina ( Naomi Bentley ) when the two are caught in a storm . Mina elects to sleep in the Nightmare Room , and has vanished by morning . Constance calls in sleuth Jonathan Creek to investigate Mina 's disappearance .
Jonathan has recently begun a relationship with an old acquaintance , Nicola ( Katherine Parkinson ) , who is opposed to his investigative career , believing it to be too dangerous an occupation . Jonathan is still in the employment of the magician Adam Klaus , whose television series is receiving heavy criticism from viewers . To Jonathan 's bemusement , Klaus invests in the 3D pornography industry and begins dating the porn actress Candy Mountains ( Jemma Walker ) .
Investigating events at Metropolis , Jonathan deduces that Gessler 's grandfather was a Nazi sympathizer , who laid a trap in the attic room to kill one of his enemies without arousing suspicion . Jonathan and Joey spend the night in the room , but uncover nothing , save for a small vent in the canopy of the room 's four @-@ poster bed , which is opened when pressure is put on the mattress , releasing dead flies . The next morning , Jonathan comes to the realization that the vent above the bed was designed to leak a ectoplasmic fluid onto the room 's occupants as they slept , meaning they would need to bathe in the adjoining bathroom . Upon realizing the secret behind the disappearances , Jonathan races back up to the attic with Glenn . Unfortunately , Joey had already climbed into the bath , which has descended and released her into a water tank below the room , where the corpses of previous victims ( including her friend Mina ) remain , drowned and decomposing . The bath has not yet returned to its position so Jonathan and Glenn are able to rescue her . The mystery resembles the real @-@ life case of the Jarmans , the sixteenth @-@ century owners of the Ostrich Inn in Slough ( Berkshire ) , who killed wealthy travelers by tipping them into a barrel of boiling water via a hinged bed in one of the bedrooms .
During the investigation , Gessler 's partner , Elodie , is kidnapped . Joey follows Gessler from his stage show one night , and observes him slashing Elodie 's throat . She , Jonathan , and Nicola later discover Elodie 's dead body , but when they return with policemen , the corpse has been switched for a prop dummy . Glenn reveals that he and Elodie were in love , and had recently married in secret . He suspects that Gessler may have murdered Elodie out of jealousy after she confessed their marriage to him . The police , however , receive a video of Elodie walking through a park the morning after she was supposedly murdered , with the day 's newspaper in plain view for validation . Jonathan realizes that Gessler had manipulated Delia Gunning ( Ellen Ashley ) , the editor of the local newspaper , into printing a fake copy a week in advance . By making the video before killing Elodie , he could deflect suspicion from himself , leading the police to believe that she had faked her own death and run away . Gessler ensured the front page 's authenticity by having Delia create the day 's headline herself , releasing a briefcase full of bees in the middle of a local council meeting . Jonathan 's suspicions became aroused as the following story about the construction of a motorway through six villages would have been far more engaging as a front @-@ pager . Jonathan and Joey arrive at Delia 's home just in time to save her from being murdered by Gessler , who later commits suicide by gassing himself in his car .
The " Grinning Man " the title refers to is the subject of a Hieronymous Bosch painting , which hangs in the attic Nightmare Room . Once the episode 's mysteries are resolved , Constance confesses that she rescued the painting from a burning room decades previously , leaving an elderly uncle to die as she did so . She has Glenn assist her in burning the painting in Metropolis ' grounds . The episode ends with Jonathan , Joey , and Adam arriving at a restaurant to celebrate with their significant others . Adam discovers that he has been conned by Candy , and will not be receiving any return on his pornography investment . Joey receives a call from her partner , Alec ( Adam James ) , who reveals that he is in Miami with Nicola and the two are now seeing one another . As the maître d ' ( Graham Vanas ) arrives to lead them to their private booth , Jonathan jests ; " Three for the Nightmare Room " .
= = Production = =
David Renwick made the decision to revive Jonathan Creek for a Christmas special as a means of " deferring retirement " . He considered the alternative of developing an entirely new series to be too lengthy a process , and regarded reviving Jonathan Creek as the " safe decision " . He described the process of formulating a plot for the episode as an " agony " and a " torment " , revealing that he had stopped writing the show in 2004 partly due to a lack of ideas . Renwick explained : " Inevitably , you set up a series which is all about impossibilities that then have to have a rational explanation , by definition it ’ s going to be pretty challenging stuff for a writer . So God knows why I ever embarked on it in the first place . " As well as writing , Renwick also directed the episode , which was produced by Nerys Evans ; Jonathan Creek 's former Producer Verity Lambert died of cancer in November 2007 . Davies noted that he and Renwick met quite regularly following Lambert 's death , and when Renwick suggested to the BBC that they revive Jonathan Creek , the broadcaster " bit his hand off for it " . " The Grinning Man " was commissioned by Jane Tranter , Controller of BBC Fiction , with Lucy Lumsden , Controller of Comedy Commissioning , stating that the station was " delighted to have Jonathan Creek back on BBC One " . Renwick was prepared for a negative reaction to the show 's revival , describing how : " People say , Oh Jonathan Creek 's coming back . Fantastic . ' And then they watch it and go : ' God , what a mistake . ' Which is what happened with One Foot in the Grave . So I tend to expect the worst . "
Davies had suspected that Renwick would one day revive Jonathan Creek , explaining that Jonathan 's fate had been left open , unlike Renwick 's other famous character - One Foot In The Grave 's Victor Meldrew , who was killed in a hit and run in the show 's last episode . When the production of " The Grinning Man " was announced in June 2008 , Davies commented : " For the last five years whenever I 've passed a locked room I 've thought there might be a mystery lurking behind it , so I 'm very happy to return to Jonathan Creek and to have something to actually solve . " He stated that reprising the role after such a lengthy hiatus was initially strange , and that : " I couldn 't remember my lines on the first day . I 'd sort of forgotten how precise you have to be when you work on a Jonathan Creek episode . " He praised co @-@ star Sheridan Smith in comparison , describing how : " Sheridan is extremely good at all that stuff , which works in a similar way to the script , in that she 's a very bright , sharp character and Creek 's a bit rusty and hasn 't really been doing it for a while . So sure enough , on the first day , she knows all her lines and makes her mark . And I 'm going , ' Hang on a minute , stop showing off ' " . Upon receiving the episode 's script , Davies had gained a stone in weight since last playing Jonathan Creek , almost five years previously . Renwick suggested that they include Davies ' weight gain in the plot , presenting the character as having " gone to seed " . Davies , however , did not want to play a " fat Creek " , and lost weight before filming began , stating : " it was my choice not to let him go too much " . The actor discussed with Renwick how Jonathan may have developed in the intervening five years : " We talked about whether he ’ d have changed , whether he ’ d have done any investigating in the meantime . He probably didn ’ t . He still does the same job and is locked in the same relationship with Klaus and feeling a bit put upon – that hasn ’ t changed at all ... and he still lives in a windmill " . In a change from the original , Cobstone Windmill was used for the exterior shots , replacing Shipley Windmill , which had been used for all other episodes . Davies grew his hair out again for the role , and wore his own duffel coat throughout the episode . The coat had become the character 's trademark in the show 's first series , with Davies explaining that : " After we did the first series , I could never wear it off screen again , because people started doing the Danse Macabre [ theme ] music everywhere I went . So it 's just been in the wardrobe for 12 years . "
Previous series of Jonathan Creek had featured first Caroline Quentin , and then Julia Sawalha as Jonathan 's assistants Maddy Magellan and Carla Borrego , respectively . Quentin departed from the show at the end of its third series in 2000 in order to try for a second child , while Sawalha temporarily retired from acting in 2004 , having become so disillusioned that she was " dragging [ her ] self out of bed " by the end of the show 's fourth series in order to film episodes . Davies explained that Renwick had always believed Jonathan needed a sidekick character , and that : " You can 't really have Jonathan Creek without his sounding board when all the stuff is going on in his mind . In a novel you can have an interior monologue when a leading character is working out what 's going on , but for a film or television you have to have Dr Watson for Sherlock Holmes , it 's somebody for Holmes to explain it to . " For " The Grinning Man " , a new sidekick was created in the form of Joey Ross , played by actress Sheridan Smith . Renwick described the opportunity to work with Smith as a major catalyst in his decision to revive the show . The actress had previously appeared in his series Love Soup , and Renwick 's wife suggested pairing her with Davies in the new episode . Smith was approached about the role before the episode 's script was written , and after readily agreeing to take the part of Ross , Renwick wrote the character 's dialogue with Smith 's northern accent in mind . The actress found accustoming herself to " detective talk " the hardest part of the role , explaining : " You slow down , and then speed up at the end . I kept watching Alan and going , ' I can ’ t do this figuring out talk . ' But I learned from the master . " Smith enjoyed the challenge the role presented , stating : " He 's [ Renwick ] written this feisty little northern character , and I am really honoured because he 's such a great writer . I have always played chavs and slappers so I wasn 't used to being an intelligent young girl . "
Renwick has stated that the production of any further Jonathan Creek specials will depend on reception to " The Grinning Man " , as well as his own schedule . Davies is amenable to reprising the lead role in future , stating : " If David writes more , I 'm happy to do them . Unless they turned up and they were awful - but it hasn 't happened so far . And he wouldn 't send me an awful one anyway . But I don 't know if he will come up with another one . He always says that the writing is so difficult , I 'm not sure it gives him any pleasure . But I think the shooting gave him a lot of pleasure this time . He was directing for the first time and I think he really enjoyed it . So , we 'll see . "
= = Reception = =
" The Grinning Man " received a mixed response from critics , and was watched by 9 @.@ 91 million viewers , with a 36 % share of the total television audience . The episode beat ITV 's Marple in the same time @-@ slot , with Geraldine McEwan 's last episode as Agatha Christie 's famous sleuth receiving just 4 @.@ 48 million viewers and a 15 % audience share . The Sunday Times ' AA Gill was critical of the episode , suggesting that the series had been revived : " because of some dire piece of market research where they asked single , lonely , overweight , over @-@ 40 women who keep cats and believe in ghosts who they fancied most on television , and Alan Davies must have beaten Huw Edwards by a woolly head . " Of the episode itself , he wrote : " It skids between procedural whodunit realism and cartoonish fantasy in a way that defies belief and interest . It is a dull confusion of unknotted loose ends that breaks its own rules , suspends common sense and dumps so much unexplained plot that all suspense drains away through the holes in the story . " The Herald 's Alasdair McKay was critical of Davies ' acting in the episode , writing that : " it really is difficult to tell the difference between the comedian and the accidental detective in David Renwick 's comedy drama . Davies doesn 't act , he tries to stay awake , occasionally pausing for a cryptic insight . " While The Scotsman 's Paul Whitelaw similarly noted that Davies appeared to be playing " a slightly grumpier version " of himself , he was " quite impressed " by Davies performance , having never seen him act before . Whitelaw found that " the episode itself left a lot to be desired " , writing that its central mystery was " solid " and its solution was " satisfyingly creepy " , but that " At two hours in length it was fatally overstretched [ ... ] It was as though Renwick , who also directed , had been given 120 minutes to fill without having enough material to fill them – the narrative equivalent of an interminable jam session based around some fundamentally decent riffs . " Steve Pratt , writing for The Northern Echo , was similarly critical of the episode 's length , deeming the Adam Klaus subplot " nonsense " which " could easily be removed without loss " . Pratt suggested that " This would also help reduce the overlong two @-@ hour running time , during which my attention wandered more often than it should have done . " The Observer 's Euan Ferguson shared a similar sentiment , writing that the episode :
... was long , at two hours , but writer / director David Renwick had helped us here in our tea @-@ making and loo @-@ going by including an almost entirely unwatchable sub @-@ plot involving a sleazy magician and a porn star ; as soon as it segued back to this , it was time for the viewer to leap to race for the kettle . What was going on with this bit ? Had Renwick written it with his feet , in the bath or something ? Then gone through it removing all traces of point or humour , then dropped it actually into the bath , then torn it up , then asked for it to be quickly rewritten by , say , an ant ?
Unlike McKay and Gill , however , Ferguson praised both Davies ' acting and the episode as a whole , deeming it " the best thing on television all week " . He opined that Davies : " plays Creek to easy perfection : mumbling , lugubrious , quietly brilliant " , and called the plot " involving , intriguing , [ and ] original " , stating that it " did the thing all good thrillers , books or films , do of getting you actively , cleverly involved in thinking you can see the answer before anyone else . You couldn 't . " The List 's Brian Donaldson was also positive about the episode , calling it " surprisingly splendid festive fare " , in which " The twists and resolutions were , to this watcher at least , as well hidden as Davies ’ ears underneath that shaggy bonce . " The Times ' Tim Teeman deemed the episode " comfort television " , commenting on its " rambling pace " and writing that : " Our hero
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as the main battery . A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats . These included four 3 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 86 mm ) L / 22 guns , four 3 @-@ pounder guns , four 1 @-@ pounder guns , and six 1 @-@ pounder revolver cannons . The ship was also armed with three 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes . The ship was armored with a mix of Creusot and compound steel . The main belt was 12 in ( 300 mm ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 14 in ( 360 mm ) of armor .
= = Service history = =
Spetsai saw limited action in the Greco – Turkish War in 1897 , as the Royal Hellenic Navy was unable to make use of its superiority over the Ottoman Navy . The Ottoman Navy had remained in port during the conflict , but a major naval intervention of the Great Powers prevented the Greeks from capitalizing on their superiority . The conflict was centered on the island of Crete , which was the object of an international naval demonstration in 1897 – 1898 ; the Great Powers mediated a solution to the conflict that saw Crete returned to Ottoman control , but with a Greek prince . In 1897 – 1900 , Spetsai and her sister @-@ ships were partially rearmed ; Spetsai was modified at the La Seyne shipyard . Their small @-@ caliber guns were replaced with one 3 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 99 mm ) gun forward , eight 9 @-@ pounder guns , four 3 @-@ pounders , and ten 1 @-@ pounder revolver cannons . One of the 14 @-@ inch torpedo tubes was replaced with a 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) weapon . In 1908 – 1910 , the old 5 @.@ 9 in guns were replaced with new , longer L / 45 models .
The Balkan League , of which Greece was a member , declared war on the Ottoman Empire in October 1912 . Two months later , the Ottoman fleet attacked the Greek navy , in an attempt to disrupt the naval blockade surrounding the Dardanelles . The Ottoman fleet , which included the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships Turgut Reis , Barbaros Hayreddin , the outdated ironclad battleships Mesudiye and Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik , nine destroyers , and six torpedo boats , sortied from the Dardanelles in the morning , at 09 : 30 . The smaller ships remained at the mouth of the straits while the battleships sailed north , remaining near to the coast . The Greek flotilla , which included the armored cruiser Georgios Averof and Spetsai and her sisters , had been sailing from the island of Imbros to the patrol line outside the straits . When the Ottomans were sighted , the Greeks altered course to the northeast in order to block the advance of their opponents . In the ensuing Naval Battle of Elli , the Ottoman ships opened fire first , at 09 : 50 , from a range of about 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) ; the Greeks returned fire ten minutes later , by which time the range had decreased significantly to 8 @,@ 500 yards ( 7 @,@ 800 m ) . At 10 : 04 , the Ottoman ships completed a 16 @-@ point turn , which reversed their course , and steamed for the safety of the straits in a disorganized withdrawal . Within an hour , the routed Ottoman ships had withdrawn into the Dardanelles .
The Naval Battle of Lemnos resulted from an Ottoman plan to lure the faster Georgios Averof away from the Dardanelles . The protected cruiser Hamidiye evaded the Greek blockade and broke out into the Aegean Sea ; the assumption was that the Greeks would dispatch Georgios Averof to hunt down Hamidiye . Despite the threat to Greek lines of communication posed by the cruiser , the Greek commander refused to detach Georgios Averof from her position . Georgios Averof , Spetsai , and her two sisters appeared approximately 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Lemnos ; when the powerful Greek cruiser was spotted , the Ottomans turned to retreat with Georgios Averof in pursuit . She scored several hits on the fleeing Ottoman ships before breaking off the chase . Spetsai and her sisters were too slow to keep up with Georgios Averof , and played no active part in the engagement .
At the outbreak of World War I at the end of July 1914 , Greece 's pro @-@ German monarch , Constantine I , decided to remain neutral . The Entente powers landed troops in Salonika in 1915 , which was a source of tension between France and Greece . Ultimately , the French seized the Greek Navy on 19 October 1916 ; the heavy units of the Greek fleet were disarmed and placed in reserve for the remainder of the war . Spetsai was decommissioned in 1920 and used as a naval communications school until 1929 , when she was broken up for scrap .
= Hurricane Joyce ( 2000 ) =
Hurricane Joyce caused minor impact in the ABC and Windward islands during late September and early October 2000 . The fourteenth tropical cyclone , tenth named storm , and sixth hurricane of the season , Joyce developed from a tropical wave located southwest of Cape Verde on September 25 . Only twelve hours after becoming a cyclone , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Joyce early on September 26 . Joyce continued to strengthen and became a hurricane by September 27 . On the following day , Joyce peaked with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) on September 28 . After peak intensity on September 28 , unfavorable conditions caused Joyce to become disorganized and weaken .
Late on September 29 , Joyce was downgraded to a tropical storm while centered well east of the Lesser Antilles . In contrast with predictions , Joyce continued to weaken and became a tropical depression on October 1 while crossing through the southern Windward Islands . Early on the following day , Joyce degenerated into a tropical wave over the southeast Caribbean Sea . The remnants were monitored for regeneration , but never developed back into a tropical cyclone . Overall , impact from Joyce was minimal , limited to mainly rainfall and near @-@ tropical storm force winds in Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados . The remnants of Joyce also caused similar effects on the ABC islands and Dominican Republic , which resulted in minor damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Joyce originated from a tropical wave that emerged from the coast of Africa on September 22 . Influenced by a powerful ridge that had developed in the wake of Hurricane Isaac , the wave traveled a brisk and slightly undulating westward path at 14 to 18 mph ( 23 to 29 km / h ) . It would never change from that general path . While in the deep tropics of the open Atlantic , the wave began to show indications of a closed circulation . Satellite data was ambiguous , but the evidence favored the existence of a tropical cyclone , and the system was designated Tropical Depression Fourteen . At the next advisory , the cyclone was upgraded and named " Joyce " , although satellite data was still ambiguous about whether Joyce even had a circulation .
Joyce headed westward and steadily intensified . Deep convection and outflow improved , and Joyce gradually developed an eye . On September 27 , it was upgraded to a hurricane with cold cloud tops . Early on September 28 , Joyce peaked in intensity with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) , a central pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) , and a fleeting " pinhole " eye . At the time , it was located about midway between Africa and the Lesser Antilles .
Wind shear then increased , partially exposing Joyce 's center of circulation , although bursts of convection remained . Convection and organization slowly deteriorated , and became , early on September 29 , " pretty crummy " and without a well @-@ defined center of circulation . Joyce did manage to remain at hurricane intensity through this time . Due to the disorganization , it was downgraded to a tropical storm later that day . Despite occasional bursts of convection , Joyce weakened into a tropical depression as it crossed the Windward Islands on October 1 . The weakening was confirmed by Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance flights . After crossing the Windward Islands , and entering the southeastern Caribbean Sea , Joyce unexpectedly degenerated into an open wave . Although Joyce 's remnants were monitored for regeneration , any possible redevelopment never materialized .
Joyce dissipated in an area of low wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures . The National Hurricane Center attributed the weakening to dry air from the Sahara . The dry air may have been caused by a lack of southwesterlies bring moisture from equatorial areas , and continental influence from South America .
= = Forecasting , impact , and naming = =
Joyce 's track was well forecast , with errors ten to twenty percent smaller than the ten @-@ year average . In general , Joyce persistently stayed south of where it was forecast to be . By contrast , intensity forecasts had large errors . Indeed , at 0900 UTC on October 2 Joyce was forecast to be a 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) tropical storm three days out , when in reality the storm dissipated six hours later . These forecast errors were blamed on Joyce 's surprise dissipation . Regarding potential impacts , Joyce 's storm surge of 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) on Trinidad was accurately forecast .
On September 30 , a tropical storm watch was issued for the Windward Islands from St. Vincent and the Grenadines south to Trinidad and Tobago . One hour later , the watch was extended to Saint Lucia . Later that day , the watches were upgraded to warnings in Trinidad and Tobago and Grenada . On October 1 , Trinidad 's warning was downgraded to a watch . After that , the watches and warnings were gradually discontinued , first in Barbados and St. Vincent and the Grenadines , then Trinidad and Saint Lucia , then Tobago , and finally Grenada . In response to the approaching hurricane , emergency operations centers in Grenada and both main islands of Trinidad and Tobago were placed on alert .
While weakening , Tropical Depression Joyce passed close to Tobago , causing sustained winds of 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) . Barbados experienced the highest sustained winds Joyce brought to any land area . There , the winds were 35 mph ( 60 km / h ) , gusting to 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) . Neither Barbados , Trinidad and Tobago , nor Grenada reported serious effects from Joyce . Joyce caused storm surge of 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) on southeast Trinidadian shores . After degenerating into an open wave , Joyce 's remnants passed over the ABC Islands , where locally heavy thunderstorms and light winds were reported on October 2 . A tropical wave related to Joyce 's decay was blamed for flooding in the Dominican Republic , where rain caused the Mao , Amina , and Yaque del Norte Rivers to burst their banks , flooding thousands of hectares of banana and rice crops . Damage was reported in communities in the northeastern part of the country . No other impact was reported , and no deaths were blamed on Joyce .
Officials from Trinidad and Tobago reported that Joyce made landfall in that country . The National Hurricane Center differs , not attributing any landfall to Joyce . If Joyce really made landfall on Tobago , it would have been the first tropical storm to do so since 1990 's Arthur . In addition , Joyce moved south of west for a time at a location where it is rare for tropical cyclones to do so .
= Historic districts in the United States =
In the United States , a historic district is a group of buildings , properties , or sites that have been designated by one of several entities on different levels as historically or architecturally significant . Buildings , structures , objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories , contributing and non @-@ contributing . Districts greatly vary in size : some have hundreds of structures , while others have just a few .
The U.S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service . Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places , but listing usually imposes no restrictions on what property owners may do with a designated property . State @-@ level historic districts may follow similar criteria ( no restrictions ) or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards . Local historic district designation offers , by far , the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level . Local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government .
= = History = =
The first U.S. historic district was established in Charleston , South Carolina in 1931 , predating the U.S. federal government designation by more than three decades . Charleston city government designated an “ Old and Historic District ” by local ordinance and created a board of architectural review to oversee it . New Orleans followed in 1937 , establishing the Vieux Carré Commission and authorizing it to act to maintain the historic character of the city 's French Quarter . Other localities picked up on the concept , with the city of Philadelphia enacting its historic preservation ordinance in 1955 .
The regulatory authority of local commissions and historic districts has been consistently upheld as a legitimate use of government police power , most notably in Penn Central Transportation Co. v. City of New York ( 1978 ) . The Supreme Court case validated the protection of historic resources as “ an entirely permissible governmental goal . ” In 1966 the federal government created the National Register of Historic Places , soon after a report from the U.S. Conference of Mayors had stated Americans suffered from " rootlessness . " By the 1980s there were thousands of federally designated historic districts . Some states , such as Arizona , have passed referendums defending property rights that have stopped private property being designated historic without the property owner 's consent or compensation for the historic overlay .
= = Property types = =
Historic districts are generally two types of properties , contributing and non @-@ contributing . Broadly defined , a contributing property is any property , structure or object which adds to the historical integrity or architectural qualities that make a historic district , listed locally or federally , significant . Different entities , usually governmental , at both the state and national level in the United States , have differing definitions of contributing property but they all retain the same basic characteristics . In general , contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context and character of a historic district .
In addition to the two types of classification within historic districts , properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories . They are , building , structure , site , district and object ; each one has a specific definition in relation to the National Register . All but the eponymous district category are also applied to historic districts listed on the National Register .
= = Federal @-@ level = =
A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district . However , the Register is " an honorary status with some federal financial incentives . " The National Register of Historic Places defines a historic district per U.S. federal law , last revised in 2004 . According to the Register definition a historic district is :
a geographically definable area , urban or rural , possessing a significant concentration , linkage , or continuity of sites , buildings , structures , or objects united
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. It also peaked at number forty @-@ seven on Hot Country Songs and number fifty @-@ eight on the canceled Pop 100 chart .
= = = Duet version = = =
The duet version of " Ready , Set , Don 't Go " enjoyed much more commercial success than the original version due to Miley 's popularity . It debuted at number eighty @-@ five in the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending October 27 , 2007 . On the week ending January 26 , 2008 , the song ascended to number 40 on the Hot 100 , becoming Cyrus first top 40 hit since his debut single " Achy Breaky Heart " ( 1992 ) , which peaked at number four . The song ultimately peaked at number 37 on the Hot 100 for the week ending February 16 , 2008 . It also peaked at number four on Hot Country Songs , Cyrus ' first top ten on the chart since " Busy Man " ( 1999 ) peaked at number three , and number forty @-@ four on Pop 100 . In the Canadian Hot 100 , the song debuted at number 94 for the week ending on November 24 , 2006 . For the week ending February 2 , 2008 , the song reached its peak on the chart , at number 47 . It became Cyrus ' first international chart entry since " Could 've Been Me " ( 1992 ) .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Ready , Set , Don 't Go " was directed by Elliot Lester . The video begins with a close @-@ up of Cyrus ' hand playing an acoustic guitar . It then transitions into showing him . He is sitting on top of two black trunks in a dark , vacant room , wearing a lavender @-@ colored shirt with a gray tee underneath , jeans , and cowboy boots . As Cyrus continues playing the guitar , images of Miley appear on the background . The images range from Miley 's infant to teenage years . As Cyrus sings , nodding his head and flipping his hair intensely , a variety of home videos are played . This continues for the rest of the video . The scene ends with a video of Miley leaving in a yellow taxi cab is shown in the background . The final scene has Cyrus with Miley as she takes her first steps and he says , " alright " .
The video received a nomination for " Tearjerker Video of the Year " , but lost to Kellie Pickler 's video for " I Wonder " at the 2008 CMT Music Awards .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus premiered " Ready , Set , Don 't Go " on June 9 , 2007 at the CMA Music Festival . Cyrus introduced the song as a duet on October 9 on Dancing with the Stars . Cyrus joined Miley on The Oprah Winfrey Show on December 20 to perform the song . " Ready , Set , Don 't Go " was most notably performed on the Best of Both Worlds Tour . On selected dates , Cyrus and another one of his daughters , Brandi , joined Miley to perform the song as an encore . On April 14 , 2008 , " Ready , Set , Don 't Go " was performed as duet at the CMT Music Awards . The performance begun with Cyrus , wearing an open white shirt with a brown tee underneath and jeans , playing an acoustic guitar that was strapped to him . By the line , " wherever they are " , Miley , wearing a multicolored cocktail dress , joined him from the back of the stage .
On January 19 , 2009 , the song was performed at the Kids ' Inaugural : " We Are the Future " event in celebration of Barack Obama 's inauguration . Dressed in a graphic tee and jeans , Miley finished performing " Fly on the Wall " and asked for Cyrus to join her onstage to perform the song . Cyrus was dressed in a black tee shirt , jeans , and a black leather jacket .
= = Charts = =
= Alfred Russel Wallace =
Alfred Russel Wallace OM FRS ( 8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913 ) was a British naturalist , explorer , geographer , anthropologist , and biologist . He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural selection ; his paper on the subject was jointly published with some of Charles Darwin 's writings in 1858 . This prompted Darwin to publish his own ideas in On the Origin of Species . Wallace did extensive fieldwork , first in the Amazon River basin and then in the Malay Archipelago , where he identified the faunal divide now termed the Wallace Line , which separates the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts : a western portion in which the animals are largely of Asian origin , and an eastern portion where the fauna reflect Australasia .
He was considered the 19th century 's leading expert on the geographical distribution of animal species and is sometimes called the " father of biogeography " . Wallace was one of the leading evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century and made many other contributions to the development of evolutionary theory besides being co @-@ discoverer of natural selection . These included the concept of warning colouration in animals , and the Wallace effect , a hypothesis on how natural selection could contribute to speciation by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation .
Wallace was strongly attracted to unconventional ideas ( such as evolution ) . His advocacy of spiritualism and his belief in a non @-@ material origin for the higher mental faculties of humans strained his relationship with some members of the scientific establishment .
Aside from scientific work , he was a social activist who was critical of what he considered to be an unjust social and economic system ( capitalism ) in 19th @-@ century Britain . His interest in natural history resulted in his being one of the first prominent scientists to raise concerns over the environmental impact of human activity . He was also a prolific author who wrote on both scientific and social issues ; his account of his adventures and observations during his explorations in Singapore , Indonesia and Malaysia , The Malay Archipelago , was both popular and highly regarded . Since its publication in 1869 it has never been out of print .
Wallace had financial difficulties throughout much of his life . His Amazon and Far Eastern trips were supported by the sale of specimens he collected and , after he lost most of the considerable money he made from those sales in unsuccessful investments , he had to support himself mostly from the publications he produced . Unlike some of his contemporaries in the British scientific community , such as Darwin and Charles Lyell , he had no family wealth to fall back on , and he was unsuccessful in finding a long @-@ term salaried position , receiving no regular income until he was awarded a small government pension , through Darwin 's efforts , in 1881 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Alfred Wallace was born in the Welsh village of Llanbadoc , near Usk , Monmouthshire . He was the seventh of nine children of Thomas Vere Wallace and Mary Anne Greenell . Mary Anne was English ; Thomas Wallace was probably of Scottish ancestry . His family , like many Wallaces , claimed a connection to William Wallace , a leader of Scottish forces during the Wars of Scottish Independence in the 13th century . Thomas Wallace graduated in law , but never practised law . He inherited some income @-@ generating property , but bad investments and failed business ventures resulted in a steady deterioration of the family 's financial position . His mother was from a middle @-@ class English family from Hertford , north of London . When Wallace was five years old , his family moved to Hertford . There he attended Hertford Grammar School until financial difficulties forced his family to withdraw him in 1836 , when he was aged 14 .
Wallace then moved to London to board with his older brother John , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old apprentice builder . This was a stopgap measure until William , his oldest brother , was ready to take him on as an apprentice surveyor . While in London , Alfred attended lectures and read books at the London Mechanics Institute . Here he was exposed to the radical political ideas of the Welsh social reformer Robert Owen and of Thomas Paine . He left London in 1837 to live with William and work as his apprentice for six years .
At the end of 1839 , they moved to Kington , Hereford , near the Welsh border , before eventually settling at Neath in Glamorgan in Wales . Between 1840 and 1843 , Wallace did land surveying work in the countryside of the west of England and Wales . By the end of 1843 , William 's business had declined due to difficult economic conditions , and Wallace , at the age of 20 , left in January .
One result of Wallace 's early travels is a modern controversy about his nationality . Since Wallace was born in Monmouthshire , some sources have considered him to be Welsh . However , some historians have questioned this because neither of his parents was Welsh , his family only briefly lived in Monmouthshire , the Welsh people Wallace knew in his childhood considered him to be English , and because Wallace himself consistently referred to himself as English rather than Welsh ( even when writing about his time in Wales ) . One Wallace scholar has stated that the most reasonable interpretation is therefore that he was an Englishman born in Wales . It has also been noted that , unlike today , Monmouthshire was technically part of England rather than Wales at the time Wallace was born .
After a brief period of unemployment , he was hired as a master at the Collegiate School in Leicester to teach drawing , mapmaking , and surveying . Wallace spent many hours at the library in Leicester : he read An Essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Malthus , and one evening he met the entomologist Henry Bates . Bates was 19 years old , and in 1843 he had published a paper on beetles in the journal Zoologist . He befriended Wallace and started him collecting insects . William died in March 1845 , and Wallace left his teaching position to assume control of his brother 's firm in Neath , but his brother John and he were unable to make the business work . After a few months , Wallace found work as a civil engineer for a nearby firm that was working on a survey for a proposed railway in the Vale of Neath .
Wallace 's work on the survey involved spending a lot of time outdoors in the countryside , allowing him to indulge his new passion for collecting insects . Wallace persuaded his brother John to join him in starting another architecture and civil engineering firm , which carried out a number of projects , including the design of a building for the Neath Mechanics ' Institute , founded in 1843 . William Jevons , the founder of that institute , was impressed by Wallace and persuaded him to give lectures there on science and engineering . In the autumn of 1846 , John and he purchased a cottage near Neath , where they lived with their mother and sister Fanny ( his father had died in 1843 ) .
During this period , he read avidly , exchanging letters with Bates about Robert Chambers ' anonymously published evolutionary treatise Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , Charles Darwin 's The Voyage of the Beagle , and Charles Lyell 's Principles of Geology .
= = = Exploration and study of the natural world = = =
Inspired by the chronicles of earlier travelling naturalists , including Alexander von Humboldt , Charles Darwin and especially William Henry Edwards , Wallace decided that he too wanted to travel abroad as a naturalist . In 1848 , Wallace and Henry Bates left for Brazil aboard the Mischief . Their intention was to collect insects and other animal specimens in the Amazon rainforest for their private collections , selling the duplicates to museums and collectors back in Britain in order to fund the trip . Wallace also hoped to gather evidence of the transmutation of species .
Wallace and Bates spent most of their first year collecting near Belém do Pará , then explored inland separately , occasionally meeting to discuss their findings . In 1849 , they were briefly joined by another young explorer , botanist Richard Spruce , along with Wallace 's younger brother Herbert . Herbert left soon thereafter ( dying two years later from yellow fever ) , but Spruce , like Bates , would spend over ten years collecting in South America .
Wallace continued charting the Rio Negro for four years , collecting specimens and making notes on the peoples and languages he encountered as well as the geography , flora , and fauna . On 12 July 1852 , Wallace embarked for the UK on the brig Helen . After 26 days at sea , the ship 's cargo caught fire and the crew was forced to abandon ship . All of the specimens Wallace had on the ship , mostly collected during the last two , and most interesting , years of his trip , were lost . He managed to save a few notes and pencil sketches and little else .
Wallace and the crew spent ten days in an open boat before being picked up by the brig Jordeson , which was sailing from Cuba to London . The Jordeson 's provisions were strained by the unexpected passengers , but after a difficult passage on very short rations the ship finally reached its destination on 1 October 1852 .
After his return to the UK , Wallace spent 18 months in London living on the insurance payment for his lost collection and selling a few specimens that had been shipped back to Britain prior to his starting his exploration of the Rio Negro . During this period , despite having lost almost all of the notes from his South American expedition , he wrote six academic papers ( which included " On the Monkeys of the Amazon " ) and two books ; Palm Trees of the Amazon and Their Uses and Travels on the Amazon . He also made connections with a number of other British naturalists — most significantly , Darwin .
From 1854 to 1862 , age 31 to 39 , Wallace travelled through the Malay Archipelago or East Indies ( now Singapore , Malaysia and Indonesia ) , to collect specimens for sale and to study natural history . A set of 80 bird skeletons he collected in Indonesia and associated documentation can be found in the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology . His observations of the marked zoological differences across a narrow strait in the archipelago led to his proposing the zoogeographical boundary now known as the Wallace line .
Wallace collected more than 126 @,@ 000 specimens in the Malay Archipelago ( more than 80 @,@ 000 beetles alone ) . Several thousand of them represented species new to science . One of his better @-@ known species descriptions during this trip is that of the gliding tree frog Rhacophorus nigropalmatus , known as Wallace 's flying frog . While he was exploring the archipelago , he refined his thoughts about evolution and had his famous insight on natural selection . In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin ; it was published , along with a description of Darwin 's own theory , in the same year .
Accounts of his studies and adventures there were eventually published in 1869 as The Malay Archipelago , which became one of the most popular books of scientific exploration of the 19th century , and has never been out of print . It was praised by scientists such as Darwin ( to whom the book was dedicated ) , and Charles Lyell , and by non @-@ scientists such as the novelist Joseph Conrad , who called it his " favorite bedside companion " and used it as source of information for several of his novels , especially Lord Jim .
= = = Return to England , marriage and children = = =
In 1862 , Wallace returned to England , where he moved in with his sister Fanny Sims and her husband Thomas . While recovering from his travels , Wallace organised his collections and gave numerous lectures about his adventures and discoveries to scientific societies such as the Zoological Society of London . Later that year , he visited Darwin at Down House , and became friendly with both Charles Lyell and Herbert Spencer . During the 1860s , Wallace wrote papers and gave lectures defending natural selection . He also corresponded with Darwin about a variety of topics , including sexual selection , warning colouration , and the possible effect of natural selection on hybridisation and the divergence of species . In 1865 , he began investigating spiritualism .
After a year of courtship , Wallace became engaged in 1864 to a young woman whom , in his autobiography , he would only identify as Miss L. Miss L. was the daughter of Lewis Leslie who played chess with Wallace . However , to Wallace 's great dismay , she broke off the engagement . In 1866 , Wallace married Annie Mitten . Wallace had been introduced to Mitten through the botanist Richard Spruce , who had befriended Wallace in Brazil and who was also a good friend of Annie Mitten 's father , William Mitten , an expert on mosses . In 1872 , Wallace built the Dell , a house of concrete , on land he leased in Grays in Essex , where he lived until 1876 . The Wallaces had three children : Herbert ( 1867 – 1874 ) , Violet ( 1869 – 1945 ) , and William ( 1871 – 1951 ) .
= = = Financial struggles = = =
In the late 1860s and 1870s , Wallace was very concerned about the financial security of his family . While he was in the Malay Archipelago , the sale of specimens had brought in a considerable amount of money , which had been carefully invested by the agent who sold the specimens for Wallace . However , on his return to the UK , Wallace made a series of bad investments in railways and mines that squandered most of
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the money , and he found himself badly in need of the proceeds from the publication of The Malay Archipelago .
Despite assistance from his friends , he was never able to secure a permanent salaried position such as a curatorship in a museum . To remain financially solvent , Wallace worked grading government examinations , wrote 25 papers for publication between 1872 and 1876 for various modest sums , and was paid by Lyell and Darwin to help edit some of their own works .
In 1876 , Wallace needed a £ 500 advance from the publisher of The Geographical Distribution of Animals to avoid having to sell some of his personal property . Darwin was very aware of Wallace 's financial difficulties and lobbied long and hard to get Wallace awarded a government pension for his lifetime contributions to science . When the £ 200 annual pension was awarded in 1881 , it helped to stabilise Wallace 's financial position by supplementing the income from his writings .
= = = Social activism = = =
John Stuart Mill was impressed by remarks criticising English society that Wallace had included in The Malay Archipelago . Mill asked him to join the general committee of his Land Tenure Reform Association , but the association dissolved after Mill 's death in 1873 . Wallace had written only a handful of articles on political and social issues between 1873 and 1879 when , at the age of 56 , he entered the debates over trade policy and land reform in earnest . He believed that rural land should be owned by the state and leased to people who would make whatever use of it that would benefit the largest number of people , thus breaking the often @-@ abused power of wealthy landowners in British society . In 1881 , Wallace was elected as the first president of the newly formed Land Nationalisation Society . In the next year , he published a book , Land Nationalisation ; Its Necessity and Its Aims , on the subject . He criticised the UK 's free trade policies for the negative impact they had on working @-@ class people . In 1889 , Wallace read Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy and declared himself a socialist . After reading Progress and Poverty , the best selling book by the progressive land reformist Henry George , Wallace described it as " Undoubtedly the most remarkable and important book of the present century . "
Wallace opposed eugenics , an idea supported by other prominent 19th @-@ century evolutionary thinkers , on the grounds that contemporary society was too corrupt and unjust to allow any reasonable determination of who was fit or unfit . In the 1890 article " Human Selection " he wrote , " Those who succeed in the race for wealth are by no means the best or the most intelligent ... " . In 1898 , Wallace wrote a paper advocating a pure paper money system , not backed by silver or gold , which impressed the economist Irving Fisher so much that he dedicated his 1920 book Stabilizing the Dollar to Wallace .
Wallace wrote on other social and political topics including his support for women 's suffrage , and repeatedly on the dangers and wastefulness of militarism . In an essay published in 1899 Wallace called for popular opinion to be rallied against warfare by showing people : " ... that all modern wars are dynastic ; that they are caused by the ambition , the interests , the jealousies , and the insatiable greed of power of their rulers , or of the great mercantile and financial classes which have power and influence over their rulers ; and that the results of war are never good for the people , who yet bear all its burthens " . In a letter published by the Daily Mail in 1909 , with aviation in its infancy , he advocated an international treaty to ban the military use of aircraft , arguing against the idea " ... that this new horror is " inevitable , " and that all we can do is to be sure and be in the front rank of the aerial assassins — for surely no other term can so fitly describe the dropping of , say , ten thousand bombs at midnight into an enemy 's capital from an invisible flight of airships . "
In 1898 , Wallace published a book entitled The Wonderful Century : Its Successes and Its Failures about developments in the 19th century . The first part of the book covered the major scientific and technical advances of the century ; the second part covered what Wallace considered to be its social failures including : the destruction and waste of wars and arms races , the rise of the urban poor and the dangerous conditions in which they lived and worked , a harsh criminal justice system that failed to reform criminals , abuses in a mental health system based on privately owned sanatoriums , the environmental damage caused by capitalism , and the evils of European colonialism . Wallace continued his social activism for the rest of his life , publishing the book The Revolt of Democracy just weeks before his death .
= = = Further scientific work = = =
Wallace continued his scientific work in parallel with his social commentary . In 1880 , he published Island Life as a sequel to The Geographic Distribution of Animals . In November 1886 , Wallace began a ten @-@ month trip to the United States to give a series of popular lectures . Most of the lectures were on Darwinism ( evolution through natural selection ) , but he also gave speeches on biogeography , spiritualism , and socio @-@ economic reform . During the trip , he was reunited with his brother John who had emigrated to California years before . He also spent a week in Colorado , with the American botanist Alice Eastwood as his guide , exploring the flora of the Rocky Mountains and gathering evidence that would lead him to a theory on how glaciation might explain certain commonalities between the mountain flora of Europe , Asia and North America , which he published in 1891 in the paper " English and American Flowers " . He met many other prominent American naturalists and viewed their collections . His 1889 book Darwinism used information he collected on his American trip , and information he had compiled for the lectures .
Wallace assembled a huge collection of flora and fauna which were kept in " cabinets . " Only one of these collections remains in its original cabinet . It consists of 1 @,@ 700 @-@ items of a variety of insects , including butterflies , beetles , moths , shells , flies , bees , praying mantises , tarantulas , seedpods , a hornet 's nest , and a small bird . A collector named Robert Heggestad found this cabinet / collection in Washington DC in 1979 and purchased it for $ 600 ( not knowing who had assembled it ) . Heggestad began documenting references in Wallace 's work to specimens in the cabinet , resulting in a 62 @-@ page report to support the theory that the collection once belonged to Wallace . He also employed graphologist Beverley East to verify the handwriting on the collection . It is Wallace 's only known personal collection still in its original cabinet . Today it is believed that Wallace collected the specimens in the rosewood cabinet for instructional purposes .
= = = Death = = =
On 7 November 1913 , Wallace died at home in the country house he called Old Orchard , which he had built a decade earlier . He was 90 years old . His death was widely reported in the press . The New York Times called him " the last of the giants belonging to that wonderful group of intellectuals that included , among others , Darwin , Huxley , Spencer , Lyell , and Owen , whose daring investigations revolutionised and evolutionised the thought of the century . " Another commentator in the same edition said " No apology need be made for the few literary or scientific follies of the author of that great book on the ' Malay Archipelago ' . "
Some of Wallace 's friends suggested that he be buried in Westminster Abbey , but his wife followed his wishes and had him buried in the small cemetery at Broadstone , Dorset . Several prominent British scientists formed a committee to have a medallion of Wallace placed in Westminster Abbey near where Darwin had been buried . The medallion was unveiled on 1 November 1915 .
= = Theory of evolution = =
= = = Early evolutionary thinking = = =
Unlike Darwin , Wallace began his career as a travelling naturalist already believing in the transmutation of species . The concept had been advocated by Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck , Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire , Erasmus Darwin , and Robert Grant , among others . It was widely discussed , but not generally accepted by leading naturalists , and was considered to have radical , even revolutionary connotations .
Prominent anatomists and geologists such as Georges Cuvier , Richard Owen , Adam Sedgwick , and Charles Lyell attacked it vigorously . It has been suggested that Wallace accepted the idea of the transmutation of species in part because he was always inclined to favour radical ideas in politics , religion and science , and because he was unusually open to marginal , even fringe , ideas in science .
He was also profoundly influenced by Robert Chambers ' work , Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , a highly controversial work of popular science published anonymously in 1844 that advocated an evolutionary origin for the solar system , the earth , and living things . Wallace wrote to Henry Bates in 1845 :
I have a rather more favourable opinion of the ' Vestiges ' than you appear to have . I do not consider it a hasty generalization , but rather as an ingenious hypothesis strongly supported by some striking facts and analogies , but which remains to be proven by more facts and the additional light which more research may throw upon the problem . It furnishes a subject for every student of nature to attend to ; every fact he observes will make either for or against it , and it thus serves both as an incitement to the collection of facts , and an object to which they can be applied when collected .
In 1847 , he wrote to Bates :
I should like to take some one family [ of beetles ] to study thoroughly , principally with a view to the theory of the origin of species . By that means I am strongly of opinion that some definite results might be arrived at .
Wallace deliberately planned some of his field work to test the hypothesis that under an evolutionary scenario closely related species should inhabit neighbouring territories . During his work in the Amazon basin , he came to realise that geographical barriers — such as the Amazon and its major tributaries — often separated the ranges of closely allied species , and he included these observations in his 1853 paper " On the Monkeys of the Amazon " . Near the end of the paper he asks the question , " Are very closely allied species ever separated by a wide interval of country ? "
In February 1855 , while working in Sarawak on the island of Borneo , Wallace wrote " On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species " , a paper which was published in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History in September 1855 . In this paper , he discussed observations regarding the geographic and geologic distribution of both living and fossil species , what would become known as biogeography . His conclusion that " Every species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a closely allied species " has come to be known as the " Sarawak Law " . Wallace thus answered the question he had posed in his earlier paper on the monkeys of the Amazon river basin . Although it contained no mention of any possible mechanisms for evolution , this paper foreshadowed the momentous paper he would write three years later .
The paper shook Charles Lyell 's belief that species were immutable . Although his friend Charles Darwin had written to him in 1842 expressing support for transmutation , Lyell had continued to be strongly opposed to the idea . Around the start of 1856 , he told Darwin about Wallace 's paper , as did Edward Blyth who thought it " Good ! Upon the whole ! ... Wallace has , I think put the matter well ; and according to his theory the various domestic races of animals have been fairly developed into species . " Despite this hint , Darwin mistook Wallace 's conclusion for the progressive creationism of the time and wrote that it was " nothing very new ... Uses my simile of tree [ but ] it seems all creation with him . " Lyell was more impressed , and opened a notebook on species , in which he grappled with the consequences , particularly for human ancestry . Darwin had already shown his theory to their mutual friend Joseph Hooker and now , for the first time , he spelt out the full details of natural selection to Lyell . Although Lyell could not agree , he urged Darwin to publish to establish priority . Darwin demurred at first , then began writing up a species sketch of his continuing work in May 1856 .
= = = Natural selection and Darwin = = =
By February 1858 , Wallace had been convinced by his biogeographical research in the Malay Archipelago of the reality of evolution . As he later wrote in his autobiography :
The problem then was not only how and why do species change , but how and why do they change into new and well defined species , distinguished from each other in so many ways ; why and how they become so exactly adapted to distinct modes of life ; and why do all the intermediate grades die out ( as geology shows they have died out ) and leave only clearly defined and well marked species , genera , and higher groups of animals ?
According to his autobiography , it was while he was in bed with a fever that Wallace thought about Thomas Malthus 's idea of positive checks on human population growth and came up with the idea of natural selection . Wallace said in his autobiography that he was on the island of Ternate at the time ; but historians have questioned this , saying that on the basis of the journal he kept at the time , he was on the island of Gilolo . From 1858 to 1861 he rented a house on Ternate from the Dutchman Maarten Dirk van Renesse van Duivenbode . He used this house as a base camp for expeditions to other islands such as Gilolo .
Wallace describes how he discovered natural selection as follows :
It then occurred to me that these causes or their equivalents are continually acting in the case of animals also ; and as animals usually breed much more quickly than does mankind , the destruction every year from these causes must be enormous in order to keep down the numbers of each species , since evidently they do not increase regularly from year to year , as otherwise the world would long ago have been crowded with those that breed most quickly . Vaguely thinking over the enormous and constant destruction which this implied , it occurred to me to ask the question , why do some die and some live ? And the answer was clearly , on the whole the best fitted live ... and considering the amount of individual variation that my experience as a collector had shown me to exist , then it followed that all the changes necessary for the adaptation of the species to the changing conditions would be brought about ... In this way every part of an animals organization could be modified exactly as required , and in the very process of this modification the unmodified would die out , and thus the definite characters and the clear isolation of each new species would be explained .
Wallace had once briefly met Darwin , and was one of the correspondents whose observations Darwin used to support his own theories . Although Wallace 's first letter to Darwin has been lost , Wallace carefully kept the letters he received . In the first letter , dated 1 May 1857 , Darwin commented that Wallace 's letter of 10 October which he had recently received , as well as Wallace 's paper " On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species " of 1855 , showed that they were both thinking alike and to some extent reaching similar conclusions , and said that he was preparing his own work for publication in about two years time . The second letter , dated 22 December 1857 , said how glad he was that Wallace was theorising about distribution , adding that " without speculation there is no good and original observation " while commenting that " I believe I go much further than you " . Wallace trusted Darwin 's opinion on the matter and sent him his February 1858 essay , " On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type " , with the request that Darwin would review it and pass it on to Charles Lyell if he thought it worthwhile . Although Wallace had sent several articles for journal publication during his travels through the Malay archipelago , the Ternate essay was in a private letter . On 18 June 1858 , Darwin received the essay from Wallace . While Wallace 's essay obviously did not employ Darwin 's term " natural selection " , it did outline the mechanics of an evolutionary divergence of species from similar ones due to environmental pressures . In this sense , it was very similar to the theory that Darwin had worked on for twenty years , but had yet to publish . Darwin sent the manuscript to Charles Lyell with a letter saying " he could not have made a better short abstract ! Even his terms now stand as heads of my chapters ... he does not say he wishes me to publish , but I shall , of course , at once write and offer to send to any journal . " Distraught about the illness of his baby son , Darwin put the problem to Charles Lyell and Joseph Hooker , who decided to publish the essay in a joint presentation together with unpublished writings which highlighted Darwin 's priority . Wallace had not asked for publication of his essay , and indeed , doing so probably contravened the copyright law of the time . Wallace 's essay was presented to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858 , along with excerpts from an essay which Darwin had disclosed privately to Hooker in 1847 and a letter Darwin had written to Asa Gray in 1857 .
Communication with Wallace in the far @-@ off Malay Archipelago was impossible without months of delay , so he was not part of this rapid publication . Fortunately , Wallace accepted the arrangement after the fact , happy that he had been included at all , and never expressed public or private bitterness . Darwin 's social and scientific status was far greater than Wallace 's , and it was unlikely that , without Darwin , Wallace 's views on evolution would have been taken seriously . Lyell and Hooker 's arrangement relegated Wallace to the position of co @-@ discoverer , and he was not the social equal of Darwin or the other prominent British natural scientists . However , the joint reading of their papers on natural selection associated Wallace with the more famous Darwin . This , combined with Darwin 's ( as well as Hooker 's and Lyell 's ) advocacy on his behalf , would give Wallace greater access to the highest levels of the scientific community . The reaction to the reading was muted , with the president of the Linnean Society remarking in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any striking discoveries ; but , with Darwin 's publication of On the Origin of Species later in 1859 , its significance became apparent . When Wallace returned to the UK , he met Darwin . Although some of Wallace 's iconoclastic opinions in the ensuing years would test Darwin 's patience , they remained on friendly terms for the rest of Darwin 's life .
Over the years , a few people have questioned this version of events . In the early 1980s , two books , one written by Arnold Brackman and another by John Langdon Brooks , even suggested not only that there had been a conspiracy to rob Wallace of his proper credit , but that Darwin had actually stolen a key idea from Wallace to finish his own theory . These claims have been examined in detail by a number of scholars who have not found them to be convincing . Research into shipping schedules has shown that , contrary to these accusations , Wallace 's letter could not have been delivered earlier than the date shown in Darwin 's letter to Lyell .
= = = = Defence of Darwin and his ideas = = = =
After the publication of Darwin 's On the Origin of Species , Wallace became one of its staunchest defenders on his return to England in 1862 . In one incident in 1863 that particularly pleased Darwin , Wallace published the short paper " Remarks on the Rev. S. Haughton 's Paper on the Bee 's Cell , And on the Origin of Species " in order to rebuke a paper by a professor of geology at the University of Dublin that had sharply criticised Darwin 's comments in the Origin on how hexagonal honey bee cells could have evolved through natural selection .
An even lengthier defence of Darwin 's work was " Creation by Law " , a review Wallace wrote in 1867 for The Quarterly Journal of Science of the book The Reign of Law , which had been written by George Campbell , the 8th Duke of Argyll , as a refutation of natural selection . After an 1870 meeting of the British Association , Wallace wrote to Darwin complaining that there were " no opponents left who know anything of natural history , so that there are none of the good discussions we used to have . "
= = = = Differences between Darwin 's and Wallace 's ideas on natural selection = = = =
Historians of science have noted that , while Darwin considered the ideas in Wallace 's paper to be essentially the same as his own , there were differences . Darwin emphasised competition between individuals of the same species to survive and reproduce , whereas Wallace emphasised environmental pressures on varieties and species forcing them to become adapted to their local conditions , leading populations in different locations to diverge . Some historians , notably Peter J. Bowler , have suggested the possibility that in the paper he mailed to Darwin , Wallace was not discussing selection of individual variations at all but rather group selection . However , Malcolm Kottler has shown that this notion is incorrect and Wallace was indeed discussing individual variations .
Others have noted that another difference was that Wallace appeared to have envisioned natural selection as a kind of feedback mechanism keeping species and varieties adapted to their environment . They point to a largely overlooked passage of Wallace 's famous 1858 paper :
The action of this principle is exactly like that of the centrifugal governor of the steam engine , which checks and corrects any irregularities almost before they become evident ; and in like manner no unbalanced deficiency in the animal kingdom can ever reach any conspicuous magnitude , because it would make itself felt at the very first step , by rendering existence difficult and extinction almost sure soon to follow .
The cybernetician and anthropologist Gregory Bateson would observe in the 1970s that , though writing it only as an example , Wallace had " probably said the most powerful thing that 'd been said in the 19th Century " . Bateson revisited the topic in his 1979 book Mind and Nature : A Necessary Unity , and other scholars have continued to explore the connection between natural selection and systems theory .
= = = = Warning colouration and sexual selection = = = =
In 1867 , Darwin wrote to Wallace about a problem he was having understanding how some caterpillars could have evolved conspicuous colour schemes . Darwin had come to believe that sexual selection , an agency to which Wallace did not attribute the same importance as Darwin did , explained many conspicuous animal colour schemes . However , Darwin realised that this could not apply to caterpillars . Wallace responded that he and Henry Bates had observed that many of the most spectacular butterflies had a peculiar odour and taste , and that he had been told by John Jenner Weir that birds would not eat a certain kind of common white moth because they found it unpalatable . " Now , as the white moth is as conspicuous at dusk as a coloured caterpillar in the daylight " , Wallace wrote back to Darwin that it seemed likely that the conspicuous
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@ slash gameplay and aerial combat . In ground combat , the player controls multiple characters , switching between them via the pause menu in order to use their different weapons . The characters use physical attacks using character weapons for short @-@ range battle , while magical attacks are used for long @-@ range attacks and groups of enemies . The magical attacks vary between the playable characters . Weapons , characters and magical abilities leave up and grow stronger as the player gains experience points in combat : weapons have a four @-@ level cap .
Aerial gameplay puts the main character atop his dragon , which is guided round by the player to attack enemy formations and large structures on the ground or enemies and airships in the sky . The player can also jump between the dragon and the ground during ground @-@ based missions . The dragon has the ability to launch two types of fireballs : a homing variety that deals damage to single enemies , and a widespread attack which does higher damage to groups . Alongside this , the dragon can perform a special attack called " Dragon Overdrive " , which kills many normal enemy units outright and deals high damage to stronger units and bosses . The dragon also gains experience and levels up through combat , dealing more damage in its attacks as it grows stronger . It also evolves and grows stronger at points directly linked to the game 's narrative .
= = Story = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Drakengard 2 takes place in an unnamed land nearly two decades after the events of Drakengard . In the original game , two powers , the Empire and the Union , were engaged in a religious war over the Seals , magical bindings tied to a chosen Goddess of the Seal that kept dark entities known as the Watchers from appearing in the mortal world and destroying humanity . Caught up in the conflict were Caim and Angelus , a human and a dragon who had made a pact ( a magical ritual that linked their souls ) , and fought to try to keep both the Seals and the Goddess safe . Though they ultimately failed , Angelus became the new seal , averting the end of the world . Eighteen years later , the Seals are protected by the Knights of the Seal , who eventually grow to become a dominating force in the land .
The game 's main character is Nowe ( ノウェ , Nōe ) , a Knight of the Seal gifted with superhuman powers . Nowe 's companion is Legna ( レグナ , Reguna ) , a dragon who helped raise Nowe and was involved in the events of 18 years before . Accompanying Nowe on his journey is Manah ( マナ , Mana ) , the main antagonist of the first game who now seeks to free the people from the oppression of the Knights ; Eris ( エリス , Erisu ) , a female Knight of the Seal and Nowe 's childhood friend ; and Urick ( ユーリック , Yūrikku ) a former Knight who made a pact with the Grim Reaper in exchange for his mortality . The main villain of the game is Gismor ( ジスモア , Jisumoa ) , leader of the Knights of the Seal . Returning from the first game are Caim ( カイム , Kaimu ) , the previous game 's main protagonist ; Angelus ( アンヘル , Anheru ) , the current Goddess of the Seal ; and Seere ( セエレ , Sēre ) , once a companion to Caim and now the Hierarch of the Union . Minor characters include the guardians of the Seals , Zhangpo ( ザンポ , Zanpo ) , Hanch ( ハンチ , Hanchi ) and Yaha ( ヤハ , Yaha ) , and Oror ( オロー , Orō ) , who helped raise Nowe .
= = = Plot = = =
The game begins with Nowe becoming a fully @-@ fledged Knight of the Seal . During his first mission , Nowe begins to doubt the ethics of the Knights ' methods , as the seals require human sacrifices to remain strong . During a second mission to ensure the protection of the seal in the District of Soul Flame , Nowe encounters Manah , who kills the guardian Zhangpo and destroys the seal . Manah is sentenced to be burnt at the stake , but uses her magic to escape . After returning from the mission , Nowe is poisoned by Gismor , who reveals to have killed Nowe 's adoptive father Oror . Surviving and escaping with Legna , Nowe is pursued by the Knights , including Eris , who wishes to persuade him to return . Nowe and Legna eventually meet up with Manah and join her on her quest to destroy the seals and , in her mind , free the people from the Knights ' oppression . On their way to the second seal , Manah shows Nowe the true horror of the Knights ' oppression , fully winning him over . The two then fight and kill Lieutenant Hanch , destroying the seal in the District of Hallowed Water . After this , they are joined by Urick , a former Lieutenant of the Knights , to rout a group of bandits . Attacked by the Knights , they are unexpectedly saved by Caim , who is also working to destroy the seals and free his dragon Angelus from the pain of being the Goddess Seal . After taking down Lieutenant Yaha and destroying the seal in the District of Precious Light , Manah is captured by the Knights and sentenced to death . Nowe manages to rescue her and heads for the seal in the District of Shining Life , which was once guarded by Urick before he fled in fear when Caim attacked the district . Urick and Nowe face off against Caim , who mortally wounds Urick before being driven off . Urick dies content and the seal is destroyed .
Nowe and Manah head for the final seal in the District of Heavenly Time , guarded by Gismor himself . Nowe and Gismor battle , and Gismor is wounded again , transforming into a shadow @-@ like being and using Eris to block Nowe 's final attack . Believing Eris dead , Nowe and Manah pursue Gismore , but are met by Seere , who unsuccessfully tries to stop them . When they confront Gismor , he reveals himself to be a vindictive survivor of the Empire from eighteen years before . Defeated , Gismor destroys the final seal himself , releasing Angelus from her imprisonment . After Seere reveals the true consequences of Manah 's actions , Nowe and Legna pursue Angelus . When they find her , they find that Angelus has been driven mad by the pain of being the final seal . Caim asks them to kill her , and as she dies , he and Angelus share a final moment together before fading away . With the seals destroyed , the world begins to fall into chaos and Manah is driven mad by the memories of her actions eighteen years before . Legna then take Nowe to the fortress of the holy dragons , where they hear a prophecy concerning Nowe : according to the prophecy , Nowe is a New Breed created to aid the dragons in their war against the Watchers . Nowe then reunites with Eris , who had been healed by Seere , and frees Manah from her madness . Legna then takes the three to the Promised Land , a dragon stronghold which holds the Bone Casket , an object given to the dragons by and imbued with the power of the Watchers which can speed up Nowe 's evolution into the New Breed . It is also where Seere has gone to initiate a new Goddess of the Seal . The game has three endings , each achieved on a separate playthrough .
Ending A : The group arrive in the Promised Land and Legna prepares to enact the prophecy , but Nowe instead chooses to find a new Goddess . Legna calls the Holy Dragons to battle , but Seere leads an army of Golems against them . With everything seeming lost , Manah and Nowe share a final kiss , which triggers Nowe 's transformation into the New Breed . Nowe and Legna do battle , and Legna is killed . Eris then reveals that she is to become the new Goddess . Eris is initiated , and although the world is restored , Nowe and Manah feel sad that no other solution could be found .
Ending B : When they arrive , Legna reveals Eris ' fate to become the new Goddess and Nowe chooses to follow Legna 's plan . But upon trying to enter the Casket , it rejects him and fuses with Manah . Legna and Nowe battle Manah , who sacrifices herself to destroy the Bone Casket 's power . Nowe , Legna and Eris then lead the Holy Dragons in their war against the Watchers .
Ending C : Events proceed as in Ending B , but when the Casket attacks Manah , she manages to win the fight against it . Legna summons the Holy Dragons and events proceed as in Ending A. After Legna 's defeat and the destruction of the Bone Casket , both the Watchers and the dragons fade , leaving the world safe and humans free to create a new future for themselves .
= = Development = =
Drakengard 2 was announced in December 2004 . Producer Takamasa Shiba and character designer Kimihiko Fujisaka returned to the team , alongside actor Shinnosuke Ikehata , who voiced the dragon Angelus and its partner Caim in the previous game . The original director , Taro Yoko , originally proposed a space adventure involving dragons , but this was vetoed at an early stage . Yoko was not involved in creating the narrative as he had been in Drakengard , being mostly tied up with another project , though he was able to observe the project 's progress . He and Drakengard 2 's director Akira Yasui suffered from creative differences , with the result that Yoko termed their relationship on the project as a " love @-@ hate " story in a 2013 interview concerning the series . Their relationship inspired one of the stories created for an in @-@ game weapon . Yoko was eventually brought on fairly late in the game 's production to act as video editor for the CGI cutscenes and trailers . The game 's cast featured multiple film and television actors , including Ryo Katsuji , Saki Aibu , Koyuki and veteran actor Yoshio Harada . Shiba commented at the time that he felt they had gathered a very good voice cast for the game .
One of the decisions Yasui made was to make Drakengard 2 far more colorful than the previous game , wanting to do something that was the " opposite " of Drakengard . In contrast to the previous game , the game contained far less of the mature themes found in the original . Shiba , speaking in a 2013 interview , said that the reason for this was that Square Enix , the company 's Japanese publisher , wanted that aspect toned down to make a more mainstream game . It was designed to keep some dark aesthetics from its predecessor , with the previous game 's theme of immorality as one of the key character and narrative themes , as well as themes of war and death . Other themes explored were love and hate , and the ambivalence represented in the world 's prevalent factions ( the Knights of the Seal , and the Cult of Watchers ) . Highlighted aspects of the story were the father @-@ son relationship between Nowe and Legna , and how Manah had matured since the events of Drakengard . To promote the game in Japan , Fujisaka created a light @-@ toned joke advertisement under the name Angelegna , referring to the original names of the two dragon characters . While Square Enix published the title in Japan , they entered an agreement with developer and publishing company Ubisoft to publish the title overseas . Ubisoft also handled the game 's localization .
= = = Character design = = =
One of the main concepts for main protagonist Nowe was surpassing one 's father . For the fight between Nowe and Legna , special gameplay functions and mechanics needed to be created for Nowe . Shiba had mixed feelings about the final fight between Legna and Nowe , which he saw as a drastic change from both the first game and the series mechanic of the protagonist riding a dragon . Shiba ended up writing their dialogue to emphasize their relationship and the difficulty of them fighting each other , paralleling earlier scenes between Caim and Angelus . The deaths of Caim and Angelus was intended to be " short and ruthless " , but Yasui had it changed to the more sentimental version present in the game . Dialogue from Caim for the scene was cut from the game due to it clashing with his previous portrayal as a mute . Urick was created to be the supportive " big brother " of the party .
Although the main characters were designed by Fujisaka , the character Legna , previously known as the " Black Dragon " , was designed by Taro Hasegawa , who was also monster designer for both Drakengard and Drakengard 2 . In addition to designing the characters , Fujisaka drew the character portraits used for character dialogue boxes during in @-@ game cutscenes , a feature he initially objected to . Nowe , in contrast to the other protagonists of the Drakengard series , was designed around the concept of a stereotypical hero . Nowe was one of Fujisaka 's favorite characters to design , although Shiba was less enthusiastic . Manah 's redesign in Drakengard 2 reflected both her evolved personality and her more traditional depiction as a fantasy heroine . Elements of their designs were taken from Caim and Furiae , representing " passing the torch " between characters . Because of Legna 's different roles in Drakengard and Drakengard 2 , his design and movements were altered for his second incarnation . Eris 's design was inspired by Casca , a character from Berserk : while he tried not to copy any parts of Casca 's design , Fujisaka tried to convey it using aspects of her personality . He also tried to balance this part of her depiction with a tender and more feminine side . Another idea he had in mind was the image of an honors student . Her dance @-@ like fighting style was generally suggested by the game 's staff . Caim 's redesign was meant to represent his status as a wanderer .
= = = Music = = =
Drakengard 2 's soundtrack was composed by Ryoki Matsumoto and Aoi Yoshiki , with supervision by Nobuyoshi Sano , who worked on the music of Drakengard and acted as Sound Director for the game . Due to criticism of his work on the first game , Sano was asked by Shiba to bring in outside help for the second game 's soundtrack : Matsumoto was brought in because of his work on the songs " Yuki no Hana " and " Tsuki no Shizuku " , and , Yoshiki was brought on at Matsumoto 's request . The soundtrack was designed to be a fusion of J @-@ pop and conventional video game music , and to evoke the emotions of the various characters and the feeling of battle . The game 's theme song in Japan , " Hitori " , was sung by Mika Nakashima , who also worked as a sound producer . The theme song for the game 's English release was " Growing Wings " , a localized version of the first game 's theme song sung by Kari Wahlgren .
= = Reception = =
Drakengard 2 sold well in Japan . The game was considered a hit in Japan by Ubisoft , selling 100 @,@ 000 units in its first week , and reaching sales of 170 @,@ 000 units by the end of the month , becoming the second best @-@ selling game of June behind Sega 's GBA port of Mushiking : King of the Beetles . It eventually sold just over 206 @,@ 000 copies by the end of 2005 . The game was eventually re @-@ released as part of Square Enix 's Ultimate Hits series , re @-@ releases of high @-@ selling titles . Drakengard 2 received a score of 30 / 40 from Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu . The game received " average " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic .
The story received mixed to positive reviews . IGN 's Ed Lewis said it " admirably [ continued ] the bizarre and fantastically medieval world that was established in the original game . " , while GameSpot 's Greg Meuller called it " Interesting [ ... ] with plenty of twists and turns " . Eurogamer 's Simon Parkin cited the story as being very good , though he found Nowe " a little nauseating to watch as the weighty , dark ( and pretty good ) plot unfolds " , and VideoGamer.com 's Adam Jarvis called the story " one of the highlights of the package " . The 1UP reviewer called the " clear undercurrent of " maybe the good guys are the bad guys , " " one of the main reasons to keep playing the game . In contrast , the reviewer for GameTrailers called it " a cookie @-@ cutter RPG plot " where players could " predict nearly every plot twist the game throws at [ them ] . " ,
The graphics received mixed reviews . Lewis called them " more interesting than the first game , but marginally so " , and Meuller called them " dated " , with environments seeming " bland and drab , and the enemies [ looking ] generic " . The GameTrailers reviewer praised the character animations , but cited the environments as bland and felt that there were too few FMVs and too many game engine @-@ driven cutscenes , which he described as " awful " . Parkin criticized the game 's graphic capacities , commenting that players would " stop watching the main screen instead fixing upon the little map in the corner to guide your character towards hostile red dots that only materialize polygonal just seconds before you lock swords . " , while Jarvis said that it had not improved from the previous game and called the colors " very murky , drab and dark " . 1UP said that the graphics " [ don 't ] hold up to the visual quality of Cavia 's other titles like Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex [ or ] Naruto : Uzumaki Ninden " .
The gameplay was universally criticized . Parkin called the battle gameplay " lightweight " and the balance between ground and aerial combat poor despite a good character leveling system , while Lewis described it as being without strategy , with the game " just dumping in more boring enemies to wade through " . GameTrailers said that there was " nothing new here . " , while Meuller called it " dull at best and frustrating at worst " . 1UP said that the combat was " almost sickening to look at . " , though he cited the RPG elements as a redeeming feature . Jarvis simply called the gameplay " Same old , same old " , citing it as a major fault of the game .
= = Legacy = =
In September 2013 , the game was given an honorable mention among Kotaku 's Tim Rogers as one of the best games on the PS2 . Rogers gave praise to the game 's parry mechanic and atmosphere . In the year of its release in Japan , the game received a novelization written by Emi Nagashima under her pen name of Jun Eishima . Yoko and Shiba teamed up again to create another game in the series , but that eventually developed into Nier , a spin @-@ off from the first game 's fifth ending . After Nier 's release , Cavia was absorbed into AQ Interactive , then Yoko left to become a freelance . An attempt by Shiba to begin development of a third Drakengard game at AQ Interactive were unsuccessful . Drakengard 3 was eventually unveiled in 2013 , with Shiba , Yoko and Fujisaka returning to their former roles and the story being set before the original game . Both Shiba and Yoko have voiced their willingness to continue the series on next @-@ generation consoles if there were sufficient sales and funds , while Yoko also expressed interest in making a second spin @-@ off , although he did not specify whether it would be set in the world of Nier or not .
= Never Let You Go ( Justin Bieber song ) =
" Never Let You Go " is a song performed by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber . The track was written by Bieber and also co @-@ written and produced by production duo Johntá Austin and Bryan @-@ Michael Cox . It was originally released as a promo single from latter half of Bieber 's debut album , My World 2 @.@ 0 on March 2 , 2010 . The song charted within the top twenty in Canada and New Zealand , twenty @-@ one in the United States , and in the lower regions of the charts in Australia and the United Kingdom , respectively . The accompanying music video features Bieber and Paige Hurd at the Atlantis Resort in The Bahamas , including scenes at the resort , an aquarium , and on the coast . Bieber performed the song a number of times , including on BET 's SOS : Saving Ourselves - Help for Haiti Telethon , which benefited victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
" Never Let You Go " published in common time with moderate tempo . " Never Let You Go " written in D minor key with the chord
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while the lozenge patterns , continuous middle rail and lack of quatrefoils in the front façade are typical of 16th @-@ century early Elizabethan work . The south range containing the gatehouse , the last to be completed , has lighter timbers with a greater variety of patterns . The timber frame is completed by rendered infill and Flemish bond brick , or windows . The windows contain 30 @,@ 000 leaded panes known as quarries , set in patterns of squares , rectangles , lozenges , circles and triangles , complementing the decoration on the timber framing . Much of the original 16th @-@ century glazing has survived and shows the colour variations typical of old glass . Old scratched graffiti is visible in places . The older parts of the roof frame are decorated , and the brickwork of some of the chimneys has diapering in blue brick .
The house stands on an island surrounded by a 33 @-@ foot ( 10 m ) wide moat , which was probably dug in the 13th or 14th century to enclose an earlier building on the site . There is no evidence that the moat served any defensive purpose , and as with many other moated sites it was probably intended as a status symbol . A sandstone bridge leads to a gatehouse in the three @-@ storey south range , which has each of its two upper floors jettied out over the floor beneath . As is typical of Cheshire 's timber @-@ framed buildings the overhanging jetties are hidden by coving , which has a recurring quatrefoil decoration . The Gatehouse leads to a rectangular courtyard , with the Great Hall at the northern end . The two @-@ storey tower to the left of the Gatehouse contains garderobes , which empty directly into the moat . Architectural historian Lydia Greeves has described the interior of Little Moreton Hall as a " corridor @-@ less warren , with one room leading into another , and four staircases linking different levels " . Some of the grander rooms have fine chimneypieces and wood panelling , but others are " little more than cupboards " . The original purpose of some of the rooms in the house is unknown .
= = = Ground floor = = =
The Great Hall at the centre of the north range is entered through a porch and screens passage , a feature common in houses of the period , designed to protect the occupants from draughts . As the screens are now missing , they may have been free @-@ standing like those at Rufford Old Hall . The porch is decorated with elaborate carvings . The Great Hall 's roof is supported by arch @-@ braced trusses , which are decorated with carved motifs including dragons . The floor , now flagged , would probably originally have been rush @-@ covered earth , with a central hearth . The gabled bay window overlooking the courtyard was added in 1559 . The original service wing to the west of the Great Hall , behind the screens passage , was rebuilt in 1546 , and housed a kitchen , buttery and pantry . A hidden shaft was discovered during a 19th @-@ century investigation of two secret rooms above the kitchen , connecting them to a tunnel leading to the moat , the entrance to which has since been filled in . The west range now houses the gift shop and restaurant .
A doorway behind where the family would have sat at the far end of the hall leads to the Parlour , known as the Little Parlour in surviving 17th @-@ century documents . Together with the adjoining Withdrawing Room and the Great Hall , the Parlour is structurally part of the original building . The wooden panelling is a Georgian addition , behind which the original painted panelling was discovered in 1976 . The decoration consists of painted imitations of marble and inlay , and Biblical scenes , some of which were painted directly onto the plaster and others on paper that was then pasted to the wall . " Crudely drawn " but nevertheless " elaborate " , the paintings tell the story of Susanna and the Elders from the Apocrypha , a " favourite Protestant theme " . The Moreton family 's wolf head crest and the initials " J.M. " suggest a date before John Moreton 's death in 1598 . Similar painted decoration is found in other Cheshire houses of the late 16th and early 17th centuries .
A private staircase between the Parlour and the Withdrawing Room leads to the first floor . The Withdrawing Room has 16th @-@ century carved wooden panelling , and a wooden ceiling with moulded coffering , which probably dates from 1559 when the Great Hall ceiling was added . The bay window in this room was also added in 1559 , at the same time as the one in the Great Hall . The pair of windows bear the following inscription underneath their gables :
God is Al in Al Thing : This windous whire made by William Moreton in the yeare of Oure Lorde MDLIX . Richard Dale Carpeder made thies windous by the grac of God .
The wolf head crest also appears in the late 16th @-@ century stained glass of the Withdrawing Room . The chimneypiece in this room is decorated with female caryatids and bears the arms of Elizabeth I ; its plaster would originally have been painted and gilded , and traces of this still remain .
William Moreton III used what is today known as the Exhibition Room as a bedroom in the mid @-@ 17th century ; it is entered through a doorway from the adjoining Withdrawing Room . Following William 's death in 1654 his children Ann , Jane and Philip divided the house into three separate living areas . Ann , whose accommodation was in the Prayer Room above , then used the Exhibition Room as a kitchen . The adjoining Chapel , begun in 1508 , is accessible by a doorway from the courtyard . The Chapel contains Renaissance @-@ style tempera painting , thought to date from the late 16th century . Subjects include passages from the Bible . The chancel was probably a later addition dating from the mid @-@ 16th century . It is separated from the nave by an oak screen and projects eastwards from the main plan of the house , with a much higher ceiling . The stained glass in the east wall of the chancel is a 20th @-@ century addition installed by Charles Abraham , the last private owner of Little Moreton Hall , as a parting gift on his transfer of ownership to the National Trust .
The Corn Store adjacent to the Chapel may originally have been used as accommodation for a gatekeeper or steward . By the late 17th century it had been converted into a grain store by raising the floor to protect its contents from damp . Five oak @-@ framed bins inside may have held barley for the Brew @-@ house , which is now used as a toilet block .
= = = First floor = = =
The Guests ' Hall and its adjoining Porch Room occupy the space above the entrance to the courtyard and the Gatehouse . They can be accessed either through a doorway from the adjacent Prayer Room or via a staircase at the south end of the courtyard leading to the Long Gallery on the floor above . The first @-@ floor landing leads to a passageway between the Guests ' Hall and the Guests ' Parlour , and to the garderobe tower visible from the front of the house . A doorway near the entrance to the Guests ' Parlour allows access to the Brew @-@ house Chamber , which is above the Brew @-@ house . The Brew @-@ house Chamber was probably built as servants ' quarters , and originally accessed via a hatch in the ceiling of the Brew @-@ house below .
In the mid @-@ 17th century the Guests ' Hall was referred to as Mr Booth 's Chamber , after the genealogist Jack Booth of Tremlowe , a cousin and family friend of the Moreton 's and a regular occupant . Its substantial carved consoles , inserted not just for decorative effect but to support the weight of the Long Gallery above , have been dated to 1660 . What is today known as the Prayer Room , above the Chapel , was originally the chamber of the first William Moreton 's daughter Ann , whose maid occupied the adjoining room .
The floors of the rooms on this level are made from lime @-@ ash plaster pressed into a bedding of straw and oak laths , which would have offered some protection against the ever @-@ present risk of fire . All the first @-@ floor rooms in the east range and all except the Prayer Room in the west range are closed to the public , some having been converted into accommodation for the National Trust staff who live on site . The Education Room in the east range , above what is today the restaurant , was in the mid @-@ 16th century a solar , and is now reserved for use by school groups .
= = = Upper floor = = =
Running the entire length of the south range the Long Gallery is roofed with heavy gritstone slabs , the weight of which has caused the supporting floors below to bow and buckle . Architectural historians Peter de Figueiredo and Julian Treuherz describe it as " a gloriously long and crooked space , the wide floorboards rising up and down like waves and the walls leaning outwards at different angles . " The crossbeams between the arch @-@ braced roof trusses were probably added in the 17th century to prevent the structure from " bursting apart " under the load .
The Long Gallery has almost continuous bands of windows along its longer sides to the north and south , and a window to the west ; a corresponding window at the east end of the gallery is now blocked . The end tympana have plaster depictions of Destiny and Fortune , copied from Robert Recorde 's Castle of Knowledge of 1556 . The inscriptions read " The wheel of fortune , whose rule is ignorance " and " The speare of destiny , whose rule is knowledge " . The Long Gallery was always sparsely furnished , and would have been used for exercising when the weather was inclement and as a games room – four early 17th @-@ century tennis balls have been discovered behind the wood panelling .
The Upper Porch Room leading off the Long Gallery , perhaps originally intended as a " sanctuary from the fun and games " , was furnished as a bedroom by the mid @-@ 17th century . The fireplace incorporates figures of Justice and Mercy , and its central panel contains the Moreton coat of arms quartered with that of the Macclesfield family , celebrating the marriage of John de Moreton to Margaret de Macclesfield in 1329 .
= = = Contents = = =
Only three pieces of the house 's original furniture have survived : a large refectory table , a large cupboard described as a " cubborde of boxes " in an inventory of 1599 , possibly used for storing spices , and a " great rounde table " listed in the same inventory . The refectory table and cupboard are on display in the Great Hall , and the round table in the Parlour , where its octagonal framework suggests that it was designed to sit in the bay window . Except for those pieces , and a collection of 17th @-@ century pewter tableware in a showcase in the west wall of the Great Hall , the house is displayed with bare rooms .
= = Gardens and estate = =
By the mid @-@ 16th century the Little Moreton Hall estate was at its greatest extent , occupying an area of 1 @,@ 360 acres ( 550 ha ) and including three watermills , one of which was used to grind corn . The contours of the pool used to provide power for the cornmill are still visible , although the mill was demolished in the 19th century . The Moreton family had owned an iron bloomery in the east of the estate since the late 15th century , and the other two mills were used to drive its water @-@ powered hammers . The dam of the artificial pool that provided water for the bloomery 's mills , known as Smithy Pool , has survived , although the pool has not . The bloomery was closed in the early 18th century , and the pool and moat were subsequently used for breeding carp and tench . By the mid @-@ 18th century the estate 's main sources of income came from agriculture , timber production , fish farming , and property rentals .
The earliest reference to a garden at Little Moreton Hall comes from an early 17th @-@ century set of household accounts referring to a gardener and the purchase of some seeds . Philip Moreton , who ran the estate for his older brother Edward in the mid @-@ 17th century , left a considerable amount of information on the layout and planting of the area of garden within the moat , to the west of the house . He writes of a herb garden , vegetable garden , and a nursery for maturing fruit trees until they were ready to be transferred to the orchard at the south and east of the house , probably where the orchard is today .
During the 20th century the long @-@ abandoned gardens were replanted in a style sympathetic to the Tudor period . The knot garden was planted in 1972 , to a design taken from Leonard Meager 's Complete English Gardener , published in 1670 . The intricate design of the knot can be seen from one of the two original viewing mounds , common in 16th @-@ century formal gardening , one inside the moat and the other to the southwest .
Other features of the grounds include a yew tunnel and an orchard growing fruits that would have been familiar to the house 's Tudor occupants – apples , pears , quinces and medlars .
= = Superstition and haunting = =
During the last major restoration work , 18 " assorted boots and shoes " were found hidden in the structure of the building , all dating from the 19th century . Concealed shoes were placed either to ward off demons , ghosts or witches , or to encourage the fertility of the female occupants . Like many old buildings , Little Moreton Hall has stories of ghosts ; a grey lady is said to haunt the Long Gallery , and a child has reportedly been heard sobbing in and around the Chapel .
= = Present day = =
Little Moreton Hall is open to the public from April to December each year . The ground floor of the west range has been remodelled to include a restaurant , tearoom and a gift shop . Services are held in the Chapel every Sunday from April until October . The National Trust offers evening ghost tours around the house each Halloween . In common with many other National Trust properties , Little Moreton Hall is available for hire as a film location ; in 1996 it was one of the settings for Granada Television 's adaptation of Daniel Defoe 's Moll Flanders .
= Japan Echo =
Japan Echo was an English @-@ language periodical on Japanese issues which was initially published in print form by Japan Echo Inc. between 1974 and 2010 . Consisting mainly of translations into English of magazine and news articles originally published in Japanese , Japan Echo was launched with the support of Japan 's Foreign Affairs Ministry " to enable people abroad to learn what the Japanese themselves are thinking and writing about the issues of the day . " Though independently published , the Japanese government provided most of Japan Echo 's funding for the duration of its existence .
In 2010 budget cuts compelled the magazine to rebrand itself as Japan Echo Web , a purely online magazine published on a website operated by the Foreign Affairs Ministry . However , two years later the Japanese government shut it down and replaced it with a similar project called the Japan Foreign Policy Forum .
= = Origin and content = =
Japan Echo was the brainchild of Kazutoshi Hasegawa , an employee at the Overseas Public Relations Division of the Japanese Foreign Affairs Ministry , who was disturbed by what he perceived to be misinformation and misunderstandings about Japan printed in the foreign press . Hasegawa recruited Yoshihiko Seki , a social scientist teaching at Tokyo Metropolitan University , to be the first editor of the new journal , which was to be published independently by a new company called Japan Echo Inc. founded in June 1974 by Jiji Press reporter Takeshi Mochida .
Most of Japan Echo 's contents were translations , sometimes abridged , of Japanese language essays . For each issue the journal 's editors selected what they considered the best articles published in major Japanese magazines on topics which were of Japanese or international significance at that time . For instance the first issue of November 1974 included eighteen articles from periodicals including Chūōkōron , Shokun ! , Jiyū , Shūkan Gendai , Bungeishunjū , and Seiron grouped into topics like the oil crisis , the Solzhenitsyn case , Japanese relations with southeast Asia where Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka 's state visits had been greeted by mass protests , and the case of Lieutenant Hiroo Onoda . The editors of Japan Echo said that they desired to " faithfully reflect a spectrum of responsible and informed Japanese opinion " , though most of its editors were considered to be politically right @-@ of @-@ center .
Japan Echo was at first released on a quarterly basis , but switched to a bimonthly format from 1997 and onward . It also had a French language edition which existed from 1979 and 2009 and a Spanish language edition from 1988 to 2009 .
= = Praise and criticism = =
The reference book , Magazines for Libraries described Japan Echo as an " excellent quarterly " which was " particularly valuable because it presents the Japanese in their own terms , unmediated by foreign ' experts ' . " " Controversial topics " , the book noted , " are not avoided . "
Japan Echo was also praised by Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau for its quality and readability . Its 1987 special edition on Tokyo was described by a The Japan Times columnist as " one of the best pieces ever done " on the subject and its coverage of the controversy over the Nanking Massacre was endorsed by the newspaper Yomiuri Shimbun for its " focus on facts , rather than getting caught up in emotional bluster . "
Many scholars supported the magazine including Hugh Cortazzi , although he also condemned one issue from 2006 which reprinted an interview between Shōichi Watanabe and Tarō Asō in which Watanabe denied the Nanking Massacre and advocated Japanese exceptionalism . In the same vein The Globe and Mail was highly critical of a 1984 issue in which a series of authors seemed to be watering down Japan 's responsibility for World War II by arguing that " Japan , simply to assure its own survival , was given little choice but to wage war with the United States . "
Roy Andrew Miller 's book Japan 's Modern Myth includes an extended criticism of Japan Echo , which he accuses of being a " public @-@ relations organ " promoting the same discredited ideas of Japanese linguistic and cultural uniqueness found in the Kokutai no Hongi .
= = End of the print magazine = =
To deal with Japan 's mounting fiscal deficits , the newly elected government of Yukio Hatoyama formed the Government Revitalization Unit in 2009 to look for areas where the budget could be trimmed . The Unit recommended that the government cease purchasing and distributing foreign language periodicals like Japan Echo .
The government initially followed through with this recommendation but the move was widely disapproved of by scholars of Japanese affairs including Cortazzi and thanks in part to their protests the Foreign Affairs Ministry eventually agreed to revive Japan Echo as an online magazine , which would be produced on an annual basis by whichever company put forward the best bid .
= = Japan Echo Web = =
Japan Echo Inc. won the first competitive bid to publish Japan Echo Web in 2010 . The new online magazine would be released bimonthly in English and Chinese on a website owned by the Japanese Foreign Affairs Ministry , though as before the editors of Japan Echo Inc. had the final say over its contents " in order to keep the publication from being government propaganda . " The launch of the new magazine was praised in the journal Asian Politics & Policy for eschewing propaganda and providing " up @-@ to @-@ date , reliable information on current events " .
In 2011 Japan Echo Inc. concluded that annual bidding for its status as publisher of Japan Echo Web was " not a sustainable business model " and broke with the Japanese government after 37 years of cooperation . Japan Echo Inc. became the Nippon Communications Foundation which today has its own online magazine Nippon.com " driven by the same spirit that inspired the journal Japan Echo " .
A new group called The Japan Journal took over the magazine for the next fiscal year , after which the government terminated the Japan Echo brand for good and replaced it on November 26 , 2012 with an official successor called Japan Foreign Policy Forum .
= Oklahoma State Highway 34 =
State Highway 34 ( abbreviated SH @-@ 34 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Oklahoma . It runs for 188 @.@ 3 miles ( 303 @.@ 0 km ) south @-@ to @-@ north in the western part of the state . The highway begins northeast of Eldorado , in the southwest corner of the state , and extends north to the Kansas state line between Woodward and Coldwater , Kansas .
SH @-@ 34 has always been a lengthy highway , starting with its commissioning in June 1931 , when it was a border @-@ to @-@ border highway stretching from Texas to Kansas . Most of SH @-@ 34 has followed the same basic corridor since its inception , with the exception of the portion of highway north of Woodward . The southernmost portion of highway , connecting it to Texas , became solely SH @-@ 6 in 1987 .
There are three letter @-@ suffixed spur highways branching from SH @-@ 34 . SH @-@ 34A and SH @-@ 34B serve small towns in Greer County off the mainline of SH @-@ 34 , while SH @-@ 34C serves Boiling Springs State Park .
= = Route description = =
For much of its extent , State Highway 34 passes through rural areas , running through the plains of western Oklahoma . The highway begins at SH @-@ 6 six miles ( 10 km ) northeast of Eldorado . Heading north from there , it intersects U.S. Route 62 ( US @-@ 62 ) just east of Duke . The highway continues north into Greer County to its county seat of Mangum , where SH @-@ 34 joins US @-@ 283 . Two miles ( 3 km ) north of Mangum , SH @-@ 9 joins for a four @-@ mile ( 6 km ) concurrency with SH @-@ 34 and US @-@ 283 . Thereafter , SH @-@ 9 splits off to the east .
Nine miles ( 14 km ) north of Mangum , SH @-@ 34B branches off to the west , connecting to the town of Brinkman , and four miles ( 6 km ) later , SH @-@ 34A branches off to the west to the town of Willow . US @-@ 283 splits off to the northwest two miles ( 3 km ) after that , and SH @-@ 34 continues north , crossing into Beckham County . SH @-@ 34 then bridges over the North Fork of the Red River . In Carter , the highway serves as the western terminus of SH @-@ 55 . Five miles ( 8 km ) north of Carter , SH @-@ 34 crosses SH @-@ 152 .
SH @-@ 34 continues on to an interchange with Interstate 40 ( I @-@ 40 ) west of Elk City . Here , the highway begins a concurrency with eastbound I @-@ 40 . SH @-@ 34 accesses I @-@ 40 from exit 32 , a partial diamond interchange , with no access to or from I @-@ 40 eastbound ; the missing movements must be completed via another partial interchange further to the east , also numbered as exit 32 , which serves Business I @-@ 40 ( I @-@ 40 BUS ) . SH @-@ 34 follows I @-@ 40 to the east for 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) . While concurrent with I @-@ 40 , SH @-@ 34 has an interchange with SH @-@ 6 , its northernmost junction with the latter highway . SH @-@ 34 exits the interstate from the left at exit 41 on the east side of Elk City , turning back to the north and intersecting I @-@ 40 BUS . The highway continues north out of Elk City , exiting Beckham County .
After leaving Beckham County , SH @-@ 34 enters Roger Mills County . SH @-@ 73 's western terminus is at SH @-@ 34 at nine miles ( 14 km ) north of Elk City . North of this junction , SH @-@ 34 lies along the Roger Mills – Custer county line , which it continues to follow as it passes through the east side of Hammon , where it meets State Highway 33 . North of town , the route crosses over the Washita River , and shortly thereafter turns northeast to fully enter Custer County . Northwest of Moorewood , the highway crosses into Dewey County .
In Dewey County , SH @-@ 34 crosses SH @-@ 47 , two miles ( 3 km ) south of Leedey , and crosses the Canadian River near the unincorporated settlement of Trail . The highway then passes through Camargo . Just east of Vici , SH @-@ 34 joins US @-@ 60 and SH @-@ 51 for a one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) concurrency , then SH @-@ 34 heads north again at Vici . The highway passes through Sharon north of Vici , then joins US @-@ 183 / US @-@ 270 / SH @-@ 3 four miles ( 6 km ) southeast of Woodward . At Woodward , SH @-@ 34 again sets off to the north alone , and right after crossing the North Canadian River , SH @-@ 34C branches to the east about two miles ( 3 km ) north of Woodward , connecting to Boiling Springs State Park .
SH @-@ 34 joins US @-@ 64 in far eastern Harper County for a four @-@ mile ( 6 km ) concurrency to the east , crossing the Cimarron River 17 miles ( 27 km ) east of Buffalo . The highway then turns back to the north , where it is 10 miles ( 20 km ) to its terminus at the Kansas state line .
= = History = =
State Highway 34 was first designated on June 15 , 1931 . At that time , the highway began at the free bridge over the Red River north of Quanah , Texas , and followed what is today SH @-@ 6 to the point that is now SH @-@ 34 's southern terminus . There , it turned north , following its current alignment . Its 1931 alignment did not differ significantly from that of the present day ( although it followed US @-@ 66 through Elk City prior to the establishment of I @-@ 40 ) until it got to Woodward . Rather than continue north out of town , the SH @-@ 34 of that day instead turned west , then north , passing through Fort Supply and crossing into Harper County just north of that town . It then began a concurrency with US @-@ 60 in Buffalo , turning east and connecting with its final segment , bringing it to the Kansas state line . Thus , SH @-@ 34 started life as a border @-@ to @-@ border highway .
SH @-@ 34 was rerouted north of Buffalo on January 30 , 1934 . The new alignment continued due north out of Buffalo to the Kansas state line along a new road . The old portion of SH @-@ 34 between US @-@ 64 and the Kansas state line became part of SH @-@ 50 .
The next major change to SH @-@ 34 occurred in 1954 . On November 1 of that year , the highway was realigned to follow a new road extending north of Woodward , intersecting US @-@ 64 east of Buffalo , and following existing highways north to the state line . This would put SH @-@ 34 on its present @-@ day route north of Woodward . SH @-@ 50 would remain concurrent with SH @-@ 34 north of US @-@ 64 until November 9 , 1964 .
The next major change to SH @-@ 34 would be brought about by the establishment of the southern part of State Highway 6 . The new highway was introduced on July 7 , 1975 . SH @-@ 34 remained in place ; the two highways were concurrent from northwest of Eldorado to the Red River bridge , where they both ended . On January 5 , 1987 , the redundant section of SH @-@ 34 was removed , truncating it to its current southern terminus .
The final modification to SH @-@ 34 occurred just under a month later , on February 2 , 1987 , when SH @-@ 34 was realigned in Elk City to follow I @-@ 40 instead of the old alignment of the now @-@ dead US @-@ 66 , which had become a business loop of I @-@ 40 . No further changes have taken place since then .
= = Junction list = =
= = Spurs = =
= = = SH @-@ 34A = = =
SH @-@ 34A is a 1 @.@ 00 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 61 km ) spur connecting SH @-@ 34 with Willow , north of Mangum . The highway begins at the west edge of Willow and follows Main Street east as it bisects the town . East of the town limits , the highway intersects US @-@ 283 / SH @-@ 34 and ends .
SH @-@ 34A first appeared on the 1944 state highway map .
= = = SH @-@ 34B = = =
SH @-@ 34B is a 1 @.@ 03 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 66 km ) spur connecting SH @-@ 34 with Brinkman , north of Mangum . The highway follows Main Street from unincorporated Brinkman to US @-@ 283 / SH @-@ 34 .
SH @-@ 34B first appeared on the 1944 state highway map .
= = = SH @-@ 34C = = =
SH @-@ 34C is a 4 @.@ 52 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 27 km ) spur connecting SH @-@ 34 with Boiling Springs State Park north of Woodward . The highway heads east from SH @-@ 34 , curving northeast near the park 's golf course , before making a sharp turn toward the northeast . The highway ends on the west side of the park , with an access road continuing through it ; on the east side of the park , the access road intersects SH @-@ 50B at its western terminus .
The road that is currently SH @-@ 34C first appeared on the 1948 state highway map as SH @-@ 15A . At this time , the highway began at US @-@ 183 / US @-@ 270 / SH @-@ 15 / SH @-@ 34 in Woodward and headed north , then turned east north of the city and headed to Boiling Springs State Park . When SH @-@ 34 was realigned north of Woodward on November 1 , 1954 , it took over the portion of SH @-@ 15A in Woodward , severing the highway 's link to its parent . SH @-@ 15A had been renumbered as SH @-@ 34C by 1956 . By 1957 , the highway was extended east , passing through the park and continuing onward to SH @-@ 50 . However , by 1959 , the road through the park had been removed from the state highway system ; the segment of highway east of the park was renumbered to SH @-@ 50B .
= X ( The X @-@ Files ) =
X , sometimes referred to as Mr. X , is a fictional character on the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . He serves as an informant , leaking information to FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully to aid their investigation of paranormal cases , dubbed X @-@ Files . The character serves as a replacement for Deep Throat , who had been killed off in the first season finale , " The Erlenmeyer Flask " . X himself would be killed off after appearing in several seasons , eventually being replaced by Marita Covarrubias .
X is portrayed in the series by Steven Williams , and made his début in the second season episode " The Host " , although the character would not appear on @-@ screen until " Sleepless " , two episodes later . The role had originally been conceived as female , with Natalija Nogulich cast in the role ; however , her initial scenes were deemed unsatisfactory by the producers , leading to her replacement . Williams ' portrayal of X was intended to introduce a personality completely different to the character 's predecessor , Deep Throat , and has been positively received by critics and fans .
= = Conceptual history = =
The character of X was originally intended to be a woman , and Natalija Nogulich had been cast in the role . However , Nogulich was replaced by Steven Williams after shooting her first scene , as the writing staff felt Nogulich was not able to create the " right chemistry " with her co @-@ stars . Williams had previous experience with writers Glen Morgan and James Wong , although it was series creator Chris Carter who suggested him for the part .
Williams ' portrayal of the role was intended to act as a counterpoint to Jerry Hardin 's portrayal of X 's predecessor , Deep Throat . Whereas Deep Throat had been a selfless character , X was written and performed as a scared , selfish character . Prior to the episode " One Breath " , Glen Morgan had felt that the character of X was not " going over too well " with fans of the series , as he seemed to simply be a copy of Deep Throat . Believing Williams to be an actor worth having as a series regular , he included in the episode a scene in which X murders witnesses who have seen him speaking to Fox Mulder . Morgan felt that such a scene reflected X 's paranoia and the difference between him and his predecessor , noting that " Deep Throat was a guy willing to lose his life for letting out the secret , whereas X is a guy who 's still scared " . Williams has stated that he has never attempted to rationalize the character 's motives or imagine a backstory for him , preferring to play the role with as little background as possible ; he once stated " the less I know about him , the more interesting he becomes . "
Williams ' background in fight choreography , stemming from his role in Missing in Action 2 : The Beginning ( 1985 ) , allowed him to prepare for , and to help create , the character 's actions scenes , including choreographing the character 's brawl with Mitch Pileggi 's character Walter Skinner in the episode " End Game " . Williams has also stated that his portrayal of the role is based in part on Avery Brooks ' character Hawk on the series Spenser : For Hire .
= = Character arc = =
X was introduced on
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the series via a phone call made to Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) in the second season episode " The Host " , telling Mulder that he had " a friend in the FBI " . However , the character did not appear on @-@ screen until " Sleepless " , two episodes later , aiding Mulder in an investigation by leaking information on a secret military project from the Vietnam War . While X 's loyalties and his own agenda were often unclear , he proved more than once that he at least does not want Mulder dead . In the episode " End Game " , he is approached by Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who pleads that she needs to know where Mulder is , believing his life to be in danger . Initially X refuses , and is subsequently confronted by Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , who seemed to recognize X. He relinquishes Mulder 's location , though not until after a brief but intense scuffle with Skinner . In the episode " 731 " , X 's loyalty to Mulder is further confirmed . Trapped on a train car equipped with a time bomb , Mulder , about to escape , is attacked brutally by the Red Haired Man , a Men in Black assassin . X fatally shoots the Red Haired Man as he is about to step off the car , then boards the car with only enough time left to save either Mulder or the alien @-@ human hybrid the car was transporting . He opts to save Mulder , and carries him off to safety just as the car explodes .
In the season 4 opener " Herrenvolk " , X 's position as an informant is discovered by the Syndicate . When suspicion arises after the finding of photographs that were taken of The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) by X , false information is planted at the First Elder 's behest , in order to root out the leak . Attempting to relay the information to Mulder , X goes to his apartment and is surprised by fellow Men in Black operative , the Gray Haired Man , who fatally shoots him . With his last strength , X crawls to Mulder 's doorstep and writes in his own blood " SRSG " , meaning " Special Representative to the Secretary General " of the United Nations , and thus , this clue leads Mulder to Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) . After his death , X appears two more times — in The Lone Gunmen origin story " Unusual Suspects , " set before his death , and as a ghost in the series finale , " The Truth " .
= = Reception = =
The character of X has been well @-@ received by critics . Entertainment Weekly included the character in the list of the top 20 Black Sci @-@ Fi Icons in 2009 , at number 17 . Todd vanDerWerff , writing for The A.V. Club , has praised the " gravitas " of Williams ' acting , adding that he wished that the writers " had figured out a way to have him around more often than they did " . VanDerWerff 's fellow writer Zack Handlen felt that the character 's assassination in " Herrenvolk " was " appropriately shocking " , calling the scene " one of the most memorable death 's [ sic ] in the series " ; although he felt that the immediate introduction of the character 's successor , Marita Covarrubias , " deflates the importance of X 's loss " in the episode . Handlen has also called X " the best of Mulder 's informants " , explaining that this is " because he 's always pissed off , he 's always reluctant to provide information , and you can 't ever be sure what play he 's really running " . Series writer Frank Spotnitz has called X " the meanest , nastiest , most lethal killer on the planet " .
Steven Williams has noted that he feels the episodes " Nisei " and " 731 " were chiefly responsible for the character 's popularity with fans . In 1997 , Williams was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series for his work as X , alongside Gillian Anderson , William B. Davis , David Duchovny and Mitch Pileggi .
= John Doukas ( megas doux ) =
John Doukas ( Greek : Ἰωάννης Δούκας , ca . 1064 – before 1137 ) was a member of the Doukas family , a relative of Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 – 1118 ) and a senior military figure of his reign . As governor of Dyrrhachium , he secured the imperial possessions in the western Balkans against the Serbs . Appointed megas doux , he scoured the Aegean of the fleets of the Turkish emir Tzachas , suppressed rebellions in Crete and Cyprus , and then recovered much of the western coast of Anatolia for Byzantium .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
John Doukas was born circa 1064 , the second son of the domestikos ton scholon Andronikos Doukas , son of the Caesar John Doukas , and his wife , Maria of Bulgaria , the granddaughter of Tsar Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria ( r . 1015 – 1018 ) . John was thus the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Alexios I Komnenos , who had married his sister Irene Doukaina . In 1074 , during the rebellion of the Norman mercenary Roussel de Bailleul , John , along with his elder brother Michael , was at his grandfather the Caesar 's estates in Bithynia . Roussel demanded that the Caesar give up the two as hostages in return for releasing their wounded father , whom he held captive . The elder John Doukas agreed , and the two were imprisoned by Roussel ; Michael managed to escape , but the younger John remained with Roussel until the latter 's defeat and capture by the Turks of Artuk later in the year .
After his father died in 1077 , John remained in his grandfather 's estates in Thrace , and was raised by him . It was there that he learned of the rebellion of Alexios Komnenos against Nikephoros III Botaneiates ( r . 1078 – 1081 ) in 1081 , and it was he who informed the Caesar of it . Together , they departed and joined Alexios 's forces at Schiza , where the latter was officially proclaimed emperor .
= = = Governor of Dyrrhachium = = =
In 1085 , when Alexios recovered the strategically important Adriatic port city of Dyrrhachium from the Normans who had occupied it , John Doukas was installed as the military governor ( doux ) of the local province . John remained there until 1092 , when he was replaced by John Komnenos , the son of the emperor 's brother , the sebastokrator Isaac . His tenure was apparently very successful . John repelled the Serbian incursions from Duklja and Raška , and even , according to Anna Komnene , captured the Dukljan king Constantine Bodin ( r . 1081 – 1101 ) , before restoring him to power as a client of the Byzantine Empire . Thus John managed to restore order in the region of Albania and Dalmatia , which had suffered greatly during the Byzantine – Norman wars of the previous years . Surviving correspondence from the archbishop Theophylact of Ohrid is a testimony to his success ; after John 's departure from the post , Theophylact expressed nostalgia for the time of his governorship and asked for his advice .
= = = Appointment as megas doux and campaigns against the Turks = = =
After being recalled to Constantinople in 1092 , John was appointed to the post of megas doux , i.e. commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Byzantine navy . Although he is the first known megas doux and hence usually credited as the first to hold the post , there is evidence of its existence already in late 1085 , although its holder is not named . As megas doux , John was tasked with countering the naval threat posed by the Turkish emir Tzachas of Smyrna . Tzachas , formerly a Byzantine vassal , had built a fleet of his own and had seized several Aegean islands , raided others , and even had himself proclaimed basileus ( emperor ) . After participating in a synod that condemned Leo of Chalcedon , John set forth to take back the island of Mytilene . His troops marched along the Anatolian coast to the point opposite the island , whence they crossed over . The fleet , which under Constantine Dalassenos had already recovered Chios , was to meet him there . The combined Byzantine force laid siege to Mytilene for three months , when Tzachas offered to cede the island in exchange for safe passage back to Smyrna . John agreed , but as the Turks set sail , Dalassenos , who with his ships had just arrived , attacked them . Tzachas managed to escape , but most of his fleet was captured or sunk . After this victory , John Doukas reinforced the defences of Mytilene and then led his fleet to recover the islands Tzachas had conquered , before returning to Constantinople .
Upon his return to Constantinople , he was tasked ( late 1092 / early 1093 ) , along with Manuel Boutoumites , with the suppression of the revolts in Crete by Karykes and in Cyprus by Rhapsomates . The rebellion of Karykes was subdued easily , as the news of the imperial fleet 's approach caused a counter @-@ coup that overthrew him . At Cyprus , Rhapsomates 's initial resistance was overcome , and he himself was captured soon after . Eumathios Philokales was installed as the island 's new governor , and the fleet returned to Constantinople .
In 1097 , after the surrender of Nicaea to the Byzantines , Alexios named John as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Byzantine army in Anatolia , and tasked with recovering the Aegean littoral from the Turks . To avoid conflict and facilitate negotiations , he was given custody of the wife of the sultan of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Kilij Arslan I ( r . 1092 – 1107 ) and the daughter of Tzachas , who had been captured at Nicaea . John gave command of the fleet to Kaspax , and marched against Smyrna . After a short siege , Tzachas agreed to surrender the city in exchange for his safe departure and guarantees of the inhabitants ' safety . The megas doux readily accepted and took possession of the city , naming Kaspax as its governor . Even before Kaspax could assume his duties however , he was murdered by a Muslim , and the enraged sailors of the fleet massacred the people of the city . John Doukas was unable to restrain them , and restored order only after the massacre had run its course . He then left the experienced general Hyaleas behind as doux of the city along with the entire fleet to secure the city , and continued his campaign . From Smyrna , John marched south to Ephesus . There , he defeated the Turkish garrison after a long battle , and took 2 @,@ 000 captives , who were resettled in the Aegean islands . Petzeas was installed as doux of Ephesus , and John with his army turned inland . He took the cities of Sardeis and Philadelphia , which he entrusted to Michael Kekaumenos , and reached Laodicea , which opened its gates to him . From there , he marched to the fortresses of Choma and Lampe , installing Eustathios Kamytzes as governor , and reached Polybotos , where most of the Turks who had survived at Ephesus had fled . Having caught them by surprise , Doukas 's army defeated them and took much booty .
= = = Later life = = =
John Doukas is no longer mentioned in the Alexiad after his 1097 campaign . It is , however , known from monastic documents that at some point he retired to a monastery and assumed the monastic name Antony . The date of his death is also not known , but in a typikon dated to 1110 – 1116 he is mentioned as being alive , while in another typikon of 1136 , he is explicitly mentioned as having died .
= Bone Sharps , Cowboys , and Thunder Lizards =
Bone Sharps , Cowboys , and Thunder Lizards : A Tale of Edward Drinker Cope , Othniel Charles Marsh , and the Gilded Age of Paleontology ( 2005 ) is a graphic novel written by Jim Ottaviani and illustrated by the company Big Time Attic . The book tells a slightly fictionalized account of the Bone Wars , a period of intense excavation , speculation , and rivalry which led to a greater understanding of dinosaurs in the western United States . This novel is the first semi @-@ fictional work written by Ottaviani ; previously , he had taken no creative license with the characters he depicted , portraying them strictly according to historical sources .
Bone Sharps follows the two scientists Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Marsh as they engage in an intense rivalry for prestige . Ottaviani has Cope and Marsh interact and meet many important figures of the Gilded Age , from P. T. Barnum to U.S. Grant , as the two scientists pursue their hotheaded and sometimes illegal acquisitions of fossils . Unlike in his previous books , " the scientists are the bad guys this time " . Upon release , the novel received praise from critics for its exceptional historical content , although some reviewers wished more fiction had been woven into the story .
= = Background = =
Author Jim Ottaviani was drawn to the subject of paleontologists Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh after reading a book about the Bone Wars while working at the University of Michigan Library in Ann Arbor . Ottaviani had previously written books and comics on scientific figures , but had never written a work of historical fiction . While Ottaviani was putting his ideas together , he met Zander Cannon at the 2004 San Diego Comic Convention . Cannon and associates were forming a new production studio , " Big Time Attic " ; Ottaviani mentioned he had a proposal he wanted to show them . Referring to Big Time Attic , Ottaviani stated in an interview that " A newly formed studio taking on a 160 @-@ page graphic novel is ambitious " and that he was lucky to have had the book published . Even the format — the book is wider than it is tall — was a departure for Ottaviani , but he explained that since the story was talking about " wide expanses of territory " and the American West , the artists at Big Time Attic wanted a more non @-@ traditional landscape page design .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel is broken into three sections , with each titled after a portion of the novel 's title : " Bone Sharps " , " Cowboys " , and " Thunder Lizards . " The narrative is not continuous ; there are significant gaps of time between each section , roughly spanning the years 1869 to .
The novel begins with Othniel Charles Marsh on a steam train between New York City and New Haven , where he first meets the showman Phineas T. Barnum . While showing Marsh the Cardiff Giant ( or rather a copy of it ) , which he cheerfully admits is a fraud when Marsh points this out , he refers with irritation about a " little cuss " of a professor who outbid him for some Mexican antiquities . An angry Marsh reveals he is that " little cuss " and he fully intends to write an article exposing the Giant as a fraud before Barnum can advertise it .
In Philadelphia , Henry Fairfield Osborn is introducing artist Charles R. Knight to Edward Drinker Cope , a paleontologist whose entire house is filled with bones and specimens . Cope is commissioning a painting , something to " catch the spirit " of the sea creature Elasmosaurus ( but has unwittingly mistaken its neck for a tail ) . Cope then leaves for the West , as the official scientist for the U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) . On the way , he meets Othniel Charles Marsh , a fellow paleontologist , and shows him his dig site at a marl pit in New Jersey ; after Cope leaves , Marsh talks to the owner of the land and pays him off to gain exclusive digging rights . At Fort Bridger , Wyoming , Cope meets Sam Smith , a helper to the USGS . During excavations , Cope finds some of the richest bone veins ever . Sending back carloads of dinosaur bones east by train , Cope encounters Marsh , who is heading out west as well . Marsh travels in style , lounging in coach while the rest of his team travels third class — Marsh even berates them for playing cards , saying it is " low class " and that Yale graduates should look more presentable . At Fort McPherson , Nebraska , Marsh meets " Buffalo " Bill Cody , who serves as their guide , along with the Native American Indian tribe . Marsh discovers many new fossils , and promises to Chief Red Cloud that he will talk to the President of the United States about the situation of the Native Americans — they have been given spoiled food in exchange for their land . Back East , Knight has finished his reconstruction of Elasmosaurus . He and Knight return to the marl pits of New Jersey , but are forced away . Cope becomes furious and storms away when he learns Marsh has bought the digging rights and published a paper revealing his interpretation of Elasmosaurus flawed .
Some time later , John Bell Hatcher is backing out of paying his share of a card game by drawing his revolver . He has taken to gambling , as Marsh , who employs him as a bone hunter , is not providing him with enough funds . Marsh lobbies the Bureau of Indian Affairs on behalf of Red Cloud , but also visits with the Geological Survey , insinuating that he would be a better leader of the USGS than Cope . After learning about Sam Smith 's attempted sabotage of Cope and once again receiving no payment from Marsh , Hatcher leaves his employ . Marsh , now representing the survey , heads west with wealthy businessmen , scoffing at the financial misfortunes of Cope , whose investments have failed .
Cope travels with Knight to Europe ; Knight with the intention of visiting Paris zoos , Cope with the intent of selling off much of his bone collection . Cope has also spent much of his money buying The American Naturalist , a paper in which he plans to attack Marsh 's dealings . Hatcher arrives in New York to talk about the find Laelaps ; in his speech , he subtly hints at the folly of Marsh 's elitism and backstabbing , as well as Cope 's collecting obsession .
Later , Marsh is attending a conference on telephony hosted by Alexander Graham Bell ; it is here he learns that his USGS expense tab ( to which he had been charging drinks ) has been withdrawn , his publication has been suspended , and the fossils he found as part of the USGS are to be returned to the Survey . His colleagues now shun him , the Bone War feud having alienated them , and he is forced to go to Barnum to try to obtain a loan , with the very Mexican antiquities he 'd outbid Barnum on before as collateral .
Osborn and Knight arrive at Cope 's residence to find the paleontologist has died of illness . The funeral is markedly pitiful , with only a few Quakers and the two friends in attendance . Cope has bequeathed his remains to science , and requested to have his bones considered for the Homo sapiens lectotype . Back at Marsh 's " wigwam " , Marsh 's , Chief Red Cloud , examines Marsh 's luxuries . Red Cloud 's interest is piqued by a long tusk from a Mastodon , which the Shawnee call Yakwawi 'ak . The Shawnee have an ancient legend , which Marsh relates . At one time there were giant men proportionate to the mastodons . However , when the great men grew few , the Great Spirit decided to destroy the Yakwawi 'ak himself . All but one bull was killed ; this last mastodon fled north , where he remains to modern times . In exchange for the loss of the Mastodon , the Great Spirit created the cranberry , a bitter reminder of the blood spilled . Chief Red Cloud remarks that it is a true story , but Marsh rebukes him , saying that science tells modern man that his ancestors were smaller , not larger , than him . Red Cloud , on his way out , responds , " It is not a story about science . It is about men . "
Knight and his wife , many years later , are taking their granddaughter Rhoda to the American Museum of Natural History . Knight , well @-@ known to the staff , is visiting the closed @-@ off areas to have a look at the new mammoth specimens : the girl , however , is eager to see more of her grandfather 's paintings . During this , the staff are finally getting round to sorting out Marsh 's long @-@ neglected collection of fossils . Two of the workers discover Knight 's Leaping Laelaps has been accidentally left in the storeroom yesterday . The painting is taken back downstairs while the workmen unknowingly leave Cope 's skeleton and Marsh 's parts behind : " The rest of this stuff is stayin ' put for who knows how long , but we don 't want that to get buried . "
= = Characters = =
Edward Drinker Cope – An American paleontologist , Cope spent nearly all his money in attacking Marsh and financing further digs for bones out west ; he dies destitute .
Othniel Charles Marsh – Rival to Cope , Marsh was a Yale @-@ educated scholar who disdained what he called " the publicization of science " . His sizable fortune granted him favor and status in politics and society . By the end of Bone Sharps , Marsh is seen to have lost face with the science world at large for his excessive means to acquire fossils ; nonetheless , he " defeated " Cope by discovering more new species of dinosaur such as Apatosaurus , Stegosaurus , Allosaurus and Triceratops .
Charles R. Knight – A famous painter of the twentieth century who created numerous paleontological pieces ( the dinosaurs on the cover are based on Knight 's painting Leaping Laelaps ) . Ottaviani introduces Knight to Cope earlier than historically recorded .
P.T. Barnum – American showman , famous for his hoaxes and for founding the Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus later in life . Barnum 's Cardiff Giant is exposed as a fraud by Marsh , who later comes to the entertainer begging for money .
Henry Fairfield Osborn – paleontologist and geologist , Osborn joined the US Geological Survey in 1890 , and on one fossil @-@ hunting trip to the West met Cope . He described numerous well @-@ known dinosaur genera , including Ornitholestes , Tyrannosaurus , and Velociraptor .
Bill Cody – Commonly known as " Buffalo Bill " , this western showman makes a brief appearance in Part II .
Ulysses S Grant – 18th President of the United States , Marsh uses his connections to lobby directly to Grant .
= = Factual accuracy = =
While the majority of Bone Sharps is true and all of it is based on history , the author acknowledged several differences between real events and certain artistic license taken . One instance of Ottaviani using creative license was to transport artist Charles R. Knight into the story earlier than was originally intended in early drafts . In real life , Knight did not meet Cope until only a few years before Cope 's death ; In addition , Knight 's autobiography states that it was reporter William Hosea Ballou who introduced the two , not Osborn . There is also no evidence Marsh and Knight ever met . On Knight 's role in the story , Ottaviani wrote :
As I was reading about Cope and Marsh , I ran across Knight as something of a bit player in their lives . As I got further into the Cope and Marsh story , and I liked the two less and less as people — which is different from liking them as characters , of course — I wanted to have a character in the book for the readers to root for , and neither of the scientists could fill that role . When I found out that Knight had met Cope just before Cope died , I became convinced that he was the character I needed .
After Knight 's granddaughter forwarded him a copy of Knight 's autobiographical manuscript , Ottaviani made Knight 's role more prominent . Ottaviani 's interest in Knight eventually led to his company G.T. Labs publishing Knight 's autobiography , with notes by Ottaviani and forewords by Ray Bradbury and Ray Harryhausen . Other character relationships were fictionalized as well ; editor James Gordon Bennet , Jr. never lobbied with Cope , and never exposed Marsh 's will . Cope 's bones also never made it to New York .
Some conversations , due to their private nature , were fictionalized ; Ottaviani makes up Marsh 's lobby to Congress and what happened during his meeting with President Grant , and P.T. Barnum never told off Marsh the way he did in the novel . Ottaviani also wove the story Marsh tells about the Mastodon from several different versions of the legend .
A key plot point is fabricated for the purposes of dramatic irony : in the book , Marsh has his agent Sam Smith leave a Camarasaurus skull for Cope to find and mistakenly put on the wrong dinosaur . Instead , Hatcher finds it ; Smith tries to keep an unwitting Marsh from getting it , but due to Marsh 's obnoxious manner he lets him after all . As a result , Marsh mistakenly classifies the ( non @-@ existent ) Brontosaurus . Ottaviani admits in the book he invented this , as " the literary tradition of hoisting someone up by his own petard was too good to pass up " .
= = Reception = =
The book was generally well @-@ received upon release . Comic book letterer Todd Klein recommended the book to his readers , stating that the novel was able to convey the depths of Cope and Marsh 's rivalry and " we can only wonder how much more could have been accomplished if [ Cope and Marsh ] had only been willing to team up instead " . Klein 's complaints focused on the somewhat stiff art and the difficulty in telling some characters apart , but said these shortcomings did not affect the flow and reading . Johanna Carlson of ComicsWorthReading.com found Bone Sharps 's central message , " the question of whether promotion is a necessary evil ( to gather funds through attention ) or a base desire of those with the wrong motivations " , still relevant to today 's society ; Carlson also lauded the flow of the novel and some of the intricate details in the story and setting . Other reviewers praised Ottaviani 's inclusion of notable historical figures , and the educational yet entertaining feel of the work .
In addition to minor issues with the art , some reviewers , including Entertainment Weekly 's Tom Russo , felt that more fiction could have been used in the mostly non @-@ fiction writing . Due to the historical background of the book , Bone Sharps has been used in schools , as part of a study testing the effects of using comic books to educate young children . Since the release of the graphic novel , Ottaviani has published other slightly fictionalized historical stories , including Levitation : Physics and Psychology in the Service of Deception and Wire Mothers : Harry Harlow and the Science of Love .
= North Carolina Highway 2A =
North Carolina Highway 2A ( NC 2A ) was a state highway located in southern Moore County , in the U.S. state of North Carolina . The highway traveled from an intersection with U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) , now May Street , northward through portions of Manly and Southern Pines to an intersection with NC 22 ( now US 1 ) . The highway was first listed as part of the Moore County road system by at least 1930 . The route was improved to a paved surface by 1936 . NC 2A was numbered sometime between 1945 and 1949 . By 1952 , it was cancelled and Highway 2 was designated over the route . It has since been numbered Secondary Road 2029 ( SR 2029 ) .
= = Route description = =
In 1951 , NC 2A started at an at @-@ grade intersection with US 1 ( North May Street ) in the southern portion of the community of Manly . From there , the highway ran northwesterly across the Seaboard Air Line Railroad to an intersection with a primitive trail ( now Clark Street ) in Southern Pines . The roadway continued northwestward to a bridge over a small , unnamed creek ( now nonexistent ) . Turning slightly westward , the road proceeded to its northern terminus , an intersection with NC 2 ( now an interchange with US 1 ) .
= = History = =
By 1930 , a highway in the location of NC 2A was added to the Moore County Highway System as a class C road , a county highway of the lowest importance . The entire length of the route was graded with an earthen surface , as was much of the highway system . During the mid @-@ 1930s , the route was designated as a primary county highway . The route was shifted slightly northerly and had been extended to approximately 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) in length , as well as being improved to an asphalt surface . Between then and 1938 , the route 's southern terminus was shifted southward and the entire length of the highway was resurfaced as bituminous . Between 1945 and 1949 , NC 2A was designated along Yadkin Road as a connector route between NC 2 and US 1 . During that same period the route was also slightly straightened near its southern terminus . By 1952 , NC 2A was decommissioned and replaced by NC 2 . The road was shortened to 0 @.@ 74 miles ( 1 @.@ 19 km ) in length , and its entire length was paved . NC 2 's route was replaced by NC 22 . By the next year , Yadkin Road has been shifted to its current location . Before 1972 , NC 2 was rerouted away from Yadkin Road and the route had been designated as SR 2029 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Moore County .
= Kepler @-@ 9b =
Kepler @-@ 9b is one of the first planets discovered outside the solar system ( exoplanets ) by NASA 's Kepler Mission . It revolves around the star Kepler @-@ 9 within the constellation Lyra . Kepler @-@ 9b is the largest of three planets detected in the Kepler system by transit method ; its mass is slightly smaller than the planet Saturn , and it is the largest planet in its system . Kepler @-@ 9b and Kepler @-@ 9c display a phenomenon called orbital resonance , in which gravitational pull from each planet alters and stabilizes the orbit of the other . The planet 's discovery was announced on August 26 , 2010 .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
Kepler @-@ 9b 's name denotes that it is the first exoplanet discovered in orbit around the star Kepler @-@ 9 . The star , in turn , was named for the Kepler Mission , a NASA project designed to search for Earth @-@ like planets . Kepler @-@ 9 's planets were among 700 planetary candidates collected during Kepler 's first 43 days online . The system in particular was flagged as one of five systems that appeared to have held more than one transiting exoplanet . Kepler @-@ 9b 's discovery was announced on August 26 , 2010 . It was the part of the first confirmed star system in which multiple planets transited the same star .
The planet was confirmed by the Kepler satellite by the transit method , in which the planet passes across the face of its star in relation to Earth , dimming that star 's light by a small amount ; this light difference is then used to determine the planet and several of its characteristics , including size and distance from its home star .
Initial estimates for Kepler @-@ 9b 's mass were refined by the W. M. Keck Observatory at Mauna Kea , Hawaii . In doing so , scientists found that Kepler @-@ 9b is the larger of the two gas planets discovered in the Kepler @-@ 9 system , although in mass it is smaller than planet Saturn .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 9b is a gas planet that has an approximate mass of 0 @.@ 252 MJ ; thus , it is about one @-@ fourth the mass of planet Jupiter . It has a radius of approximately 0 @.@ 842 RJ , or about 80 % the radius of Jupiter . The planet orbits Kepler @-@ 9 every 19 @.@ 243 days , and it lies some .14 AU from the star . To compare , planet Mercury 's average distance from the Sun is .387 AU and takes 87 @.@ 969 days to complete an orbit . Kepler @-@ 9b is the second closest planet to its star in the Kepler @-@ 9 system .
The first known case of orbital resonance in exoplanets has been noted between Kepler @-@ 9b and Kepler @-@ 9c . The two planets , whose orbits correspond in a roughly 1 : 2 ratio , maintain the orbit of the other by gravitational tug . Kepler @-@ 9b 's orbit grows , on average , four minutes longer every orbital period . Eventually , this trend will reverse and increase . Over time , it can be seen that the planets ' orbits oscillate slightly above and below the 1 : 2 ratio . Alycia Weinberger of the Carnegie Institution has stated that the Kepler @-@ 9 gas giants probably formed further away from the star than they are , and the appearance of the orbital resonance phenomenon may help explain the history of their inward migration .
= Love a Woman =
" Love a Woman " is a song recorded by American R & B singer Mary J. Blige featuring Beyoncé from the former 's tenth studio album My Life II ... The Journey Continues ( Act 1 ) ( 2011 ) . It was written by Mary J. Blige , Beyoncé , Sean Garrett and Menardini Timothee while production was handled by Garrett , Team S. Dot and BridgeTown . Originally written for Beyoncé 's fourth studio album 4 ( 2011 ) , the singer felt that it did not fit with the sound she had created for her album , and she thought that it would be better if she recorded it as a duet with Blige instead .
" Love a Woman " is a down @-@ tempo R & B ballad with live @-@ instrumentation in which Beyoncé and Blige are teaching men about how to love their female partners . It received positive reviews from music critics who mostly praised the chemistry between Beyoncé and Blige on the duet as well as their vocals . Following the release of My Life II ... The Journey Continues ( Act 1 ) , the song peaked at number eighty nine on
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cellphone service failed " , according to a The New York Times article . The old Basílica del Salvador in Santiago , which was damaged during the 1985 Algarrobo earthquake and was never repaired , suffered additional damage . In Nilahue Barahona , a village near the town of Pumanque , electric cables fell to the ground during the earthquake , causing a fire that burned 65 hectares ( 160 acres ) of a pine , eucalyptus and grassland forest . The earthquake was also reported to have been felt in Mendoza , Bariloche , Córdoba , San Rafael , Buenos Aires , Montevideo , and Asunción .
One person died of a heart attack during the earthquake in Talca , Maule Region . A United States Geological Survey summary of the earthquake reported damage at Rancagua , 177 kilometers northeast of Pichilemu . Relief efforts for the 27 February earthquake stalled for about six hours because of the constant aftershocks .
According to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Geophysical Data Center , the damage provoked by the earthquake and its accompanying small tsunami was " limited " , adding that " a rough estimate of the dollar amount of damage " was " roughly corresponding to less than one million " .
= = Aftershocks = =
Following the main shock , there were two aftershocks of magnitude 6 or greater . The first of them occurred at 11 : 55 local time , fifteen minutes after the initial quake , and was centered in the commune of La Estrella , Cardenal Caro Province , at a depth of 18 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 11 @.@ 2 mi ) , reaching a magnitude of 6 @.@ 7 ; another aftershock , of magnitude 6 @.@ 0 , took place eleven minutes later , at 12 : 06 local time , this time centered in Pichilemu , at a depth of 29 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 18 @.@ 2 mi ) . In total , there were ten aftershocks within the six hours after the 6 @.@ 9 magnitude earthquake , two of magnitude 6 or greater , and seven between 5 and 6 .
Almost two months later , on 2 May 2010 , an aftershock of magnitude 5 @.@ 8 MW struck the Chilean O 'Higgins Region , at 10 : 52 local time . The aftershock was centered 44 kilometres ( 27 mi ) southwest of Navidad , and occurred at a depth of 32 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 20 mi ) , according to the University of Chile Seismological Service . The National Emergencies Office ( ONEMI ) reported that the aftershock was felt most strongly in Talca , 258 kilometres ( 160 mi ) south of Santiago , and that there were no casualties , only some telephone lines had collapsed . Six other aftershocks subsequently hit the Pichilemu area that day . The United States Geological Survey measured the aftershock with a magnitude of 5 @.@ 9 .
A further aftershock of the Pichilemu earthquake occurred on 29 September 2010 at 12 : 29 local time . It reached magnitude 5 @.@ 6 , and its epicentre was centered 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) southwest of Lolol , 43 kilometres ( 27 mi ) southwest of Santa Cruz , at a depth of 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) . Telephone lines collapsed in O 'Higgins Region . No infrastructural damage or casualties was reported . The aftershock was felt between the Valparaíso and Maule regions . The event reached Mercalli V intensity in Rancagua , Navidad , Talca , Curicó , amid other cities and towns .
As of February 2013 , there have been about 8 @,@ 500 aftershocks of the Chilean February and March 2010 earthquakes according to the University of Chile Seismological Service , with most taking place in the proximities of Pichilemu . Seismologist Sergio Ruiz said that " a significant number of aftershocks " will take place at least until 2015 .
= = Media coverage = =
The earthquake was reported by local , national and international news media . Locally , online newspaper Pichilemu News published an article named " First signs of change ? : Shaken handover ceremony in Chile because of new earthquake aftershocks " ( " ¿ Los primeros signos del cambio ? : Movido cambio de mando se vivió en el país ante nuevas réplicas del terremoto " ) on 11 March ; five days later , local newspaper El Expreso de la Costa published an interview with Mario Pardo , seismologist in charge of the geophysics department of the University of Chile , who recommended people of Pichilemu to " try to remain calm , the worst already happened " . The only local radio that continued broadcasting through the day of the earthquake was Radio Entre Olas , directed by Jorge Nasser Guerra , who along with two other radio workers , reportedly were the only not to be evacuated after the earthquake in Pichilemu . Because the earthquake provoked a power outage , the radio worked with " emergency equipment " . Previously , after the 27 February earthquake , Entre Olas did not stop broadcasting either , despite there was a power outage that lasted for several days .
Nationally @-@ distributed newspaper El Mercurio published on its 12 March 2010 main page the headline " 6 @.@ 9 [ magnitude ] aftershock marks the most seismic day after the earthquake " ( " Réplica de 6 @,@ 9 ° marca el día más sísmico post terremoto " ) , adding that " [ s ] eventeen of the twenty seisms that occurred yesterday [ 11 March ] in central @-@ southern Chile had their epicentre in Pichilemu , Region of O 'Higgins , which was declared in Disaster State yesterday . " On that same day , Santiago @-@ based newspaper La Tercera published on their headline : " Piñera faces first crisis as he takes office as new President " ( " Piñera enfrenta primera crisis al asumir como nuevo Presidente " ) ; La Tercera ellaborated : " The 6 @.@ 9 Richter magnitude earthquake , which occurred minutes before the power handover took place , added an additional quota of drama to the oath of Sebastián Piñera , whose agenda was already modified by the 27 February disaster . " Other newspapers of national distribution where the earthquake was reported on its main page included Las Últimas Noticias ( which featured a photograph of President Piñera aboarding a helicopter in military dress ) , Publimetro , and La Nación , whose main headline said " Emergency measures marked start of Piñera [ ' s presidency ] " ( " Medidas de emergencia marcan partida de Piñera " ) .
Throughout Chile , regional newspapers also reported the earthquake and tsunami warning on their edition of 12 March 2010 . Among these are La Estrella de Arica ( Arica ) , La Estrella de Iquique ( Iquique ) , El Mercurio de Antofagasta , La Estrella del Norte ( both from Antofagasta ) , El Mercurio de Calama , La Estrella del Loa ( both from Calama ) , El Diario de Atacama , Diario Chañarcillo ( both from Copiapó ) , El Día ( La Serena ) , El Mercurio de Valparaíso , La Estrella de Valparaíso ( both from Valparaíso ) , El Líder ( San Antonio ) , El Tipógrafo ( Rancagua ) , La Prensa ( Curicó ) , El Sur ( Concepción ) , El Austral de Temuco ( Temuco ) , El Diario Austral de Los Ríos ( Valdivia ) , El Austral de Osorno ( Osorno ) , El Llanquihue ( Puerto Montt ) , and La Prensa Austral ( Punta Arenas ) .
Among the international media who reported on the quake were the BBC , CNN , CBS News , The Huffington Post , and news agencies Al Jazeera , Reuters , and Associated Press . The New York Times included on their 12 March 2010 main page a photograph of Presidents Fernando Lugo of Paraguay and Rafael Correa of Ecuador " re @-@ acting to an aftershock felt Thursday [ 11 March ] in Valparaíso , Chile , the strongest since the devastating Feb. 27 earthquake " ; the photograph was followed by the headline " For Chile , More Aftershocks , and an Inauguration " . The newspaper published an extensive article titled " Aftershocks Jolt Chile as New President Is Sworn In " , which stated that the earthquake " almost overshadowed the inauguration of Chile ’ s first right @-@ wing leader in 20 years [ Piñera ] . " Other newspapers who included headlines on the earthquake on their 12 March 2010 main pages include El Mundo , El País , ABC ( the three from Madrid , Spain ) , Clarín ( Buenos Aires , Argentina ) , Bild ( Berlin , Germany ) , El Colombiano ( Medellín , Colombia ) , El Tiempo ( Bogotá , Colombia ) , The Dallas Morning News ( Dallas , Texas , United States of America ) , El Comercio ( Lima , Peru ) , and Excélsior ( Mexico City , Mexico ) .
= Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 =
Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 ( MH370 / MAS370 ) was a scheduled international passenger flight operated by Malaysia Airlines that disappeared on 8 March 2014 while flying from Kuala Lumpur International Airport , Malaysia , to Beijing Capital International Airport in China . The aircraft last made voice contact with air traffic control at 01 : 19 MYT , 8 March ( 17 : 19 UTC , 7 March ) when it was over the South China Sea , less than an hour after takeoff . It disappeared from air traffic controllers ' radar screens at 01 : 22 MYT . Malaysian military radar continued to track the aircraft as it deviated westwards from its planned flight path and crossed the Malay Peninsula . It left the range of Malaysian military radar at 02 : 22 while over the Andaman Sea , 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) north @-@ west of Penang in north @-@ western Malaysia . The aircraft , a Boeing 777 @-@ 200ER , was carrying 12 Malaysian crew members and 227 passengers from 15 nations .
A multinational search effort began in the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea , from whence the aircraft 's signal was last seen on secondary surveillance radar , and was soon extended to the Strait of Malacca and Andaman Sea . Analysis of satellite communications between the aircraft and Inmarsat 's satellite communications network concluded that the flight continued until at least 08 : 19 and flew south into the southern Indian Ocean , although the precise location cannot be determined . Australia took charge of the search on 17 March , when the search moved to the southern Indian Ocean . On 24 March , the Malaysian government noted that the final location determined by the satellite communication is far from any possible landing sites , and concluded that " Flight MH370 ended in the southern Indian Ocean . " The current phase of the search , the largest and most expensive in aviation history , is a comprehensive survey of the sea floor about 1 @,@ 800 kilometres ( 970 nmi ) south @-@ west of Perth , Western Australia , which began in October 2014 . Nothing was found of the aircraft until 29 July 2015 , when a piece of marine debris , later confirmed to be a flaperon from Flight 370 , washed ashore on Réunion Island . Although multiple additional small pieces of debris have been found , the bulk of the aircraft has still not been located , prompting many theories about its disappearance .
Malaysia established the Joint Investigation Team ( JIT ) to investigate the incident , working with foreign aviation authorities and experts . Neither the crew nor the aircraft 's communication systems relayed a distress signal , indications of bad weather , or technical problems before the aircraft vanished . Two passengers travelling on stolen passports were investigated , but eliminated as suspects . Malaysian police have identified the captain as the prime suspect if human intervention was the cause of the disappearance , after clearing all others on the flight of suspicious motives . Power was lost to the aircraft 's satellite data unit ( SDU ) at some point between 01 : 07 and 02 : 03 ; the SDU logged onto Inmarsat 's satellite communication network at 02 : 25 — three minutes after the aircraft left the range of radar . Based on analysis of the satellite communications , the aircraft turned south after passing north of Sumatra and the flight continued for five hours with little deviation in its track , ending when its fuel was exhausted .
With the presumed loss of all on board , Flight 370 is the second deadliest incident involving a Boeing 777 and the second deadliest incident in Malaysia Airlines ' history , behind Flight 17 in both categories . Malaysia Airlines was struggling financially , a problem that was exacerbated by a decline in ticket sales after Flight 370 and the crash of Flight 17 ; the airline was renationalised by the end of 2014 . The Malaysian government received significant criticism , especially from China , for failing to disclose information promptly during the early weeks of the search . Flight 370 's disappearance brought to public attention the limits of aircraft tracking and flight recorders , including several issues raised four years earlier — but never mandated — following the loss of Air France Flight 447 . In response to Flight 370 's disappearance , the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) adopted new standards for aircraft position reporting over open ocean , extended recording time for cockpit voice recorders , and , from 2020 , will require new aircraft designs to have a means to recover the flight recorders , or the information they contain , before the recorders sink below water .
= = Aircraft = =
Flight 370 was operated with a Boeing 777 @-@ 2H6ER , serial number 28420 , registration 9M @-@ MRO . It was the 404th Boeing 777 produced , first flown on 14 May 2002 , and was delivered new to Malaysia Airlines on 31 May 2002 . The aircraft was powered by two Rolls @-@ Royce Trent 892 engines and configured to carry 282 passengers . It had accumulated 53 @,@ 471 @.@ 6 hours and 7 @,@ 526 cycles in service and had not previously been involved in any major incidents , though a minor incident while taxiing at Shanghai Pudong International Airport in August 2012 resulted in a broken wing tip . Its last maintenance " A check " was carried out on 23 February 2014 . The aircraft was in compliance with all applicable Airworthiness Directives for the airframe and engines . A replenishment of the crew oxygen system was performed on 7 March 2014 , a routine maintenance task ; an examination of this procedure found nothing unusual .
The Boeing 777 was introduced in 1994 and is generally regarded as having an excellent safety record . Since its first commercial flight in June 1995 , there have been only four other serious incidents involving hull @-@ loss : British Airways Flight 38 in 2008 ; a cockpit fire in a parked EgyptAir Flight 667 at Cairo International Airport in 2011 ; the crash of Asiana Airlines Flight 214 in 2013 , in which three people died ; and Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 , which was shot down over Ukraine with 298 people aboard in July 2014 .
= = Passengers and crew = =
Malaysia Airlines released the names and nationalities of the 227 passengers and 12 crew members , based on the flight manifest , later modified to include two Iranian passengers travelling on stolen passports .
= = = Crew = = =
All 12 crew members were Malaysian citizens . Two pilots were among the crew :
The pilot in command was 53 @-@ year @-@ old Captain Zaharie Ahmad Shah from Penang . He joined Malaysia Airlines as a cadet pilot in 1981 and , after training and receiving his commercial pilot 's licence , became a Second Officer with the airline in 1983 . Zaharie was promoted to Captain of the Boeing 737 @-@ 400 in 1991 , Captain of Airbus A330 @-@ 300 in 1996 , and to Captain of Boeing 777 @-@ 200 in 1998 . He had been a Type Rating Instructor and Type Rating Examiner since 2007 and had 18 @,@ 365 hours of flying experience .
The co @-@ pilot was 27 @-@ year @-@ old First Officer Fariq Abdul Hamid . He joined Malaysia Airlines as a cadet pilot in 2007 and became a Second Officer on Boeing 737 @-@ 400 aircraft . He was promoted to First Officer of Boeing 737 @-@ 400 aircraft in 2010 and later transitioned to Airbus A330 @-@ 300 aircraft in 2012 . In November 2013 , he began training as First Officer on Boeing 777 @-@ 200 aircraft . Flight 370 was his final training flight and he was scheduled to be examined on his next flight . Fariq had 2 @,@ 763 hours of flying experience .
= = = Passengers = = =
Of the 227 passengers , 152 were Chinese citizens , including a group of 19 artists with six family members and four staff returning from a calligraphy exhibition of their work in Kuala Lumpur ; 38 passengers were Malaysian . The remaining passengers were from 13 different countries . Twenty passengers — 12 of whom were from Malaysia and eight from China — were employees of Freescale Semiconductor .
Under a 2007 agreement with Malaysia Airlines , Tzu Chi — an international Buddhist organisation — immediately sent specially trained teams to Beijing and Malaysia to give emotional support to passengers ' families . The airline also sent its own team of caregivers and volunteers and agreed to bear the expenses of bringing family members of the passengers to Kuala Lumpur and providing them with accommodation , medical care , and counselling . Altogether , 115 family members of the Chinese passengers flew to Kuala Lumpur . Some other family members chose to remain in China , fearing they would feel too isolated in Malaysia .
= = Disappearance = =
Flight 370 was a scheduled flight in the early morning hours of 8 March 2014 from Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia to Beijing , China . It was one of two daily flights operated by Malaysia Airlines from its hub at Kuala Lumpur International Airport ( KLIA ) to Beijing Capital International Airport — scheduled to depart at 00 : 35 local time ( MYT ; UTC
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24 , 2011 at the James Goldstein residence as an Oscars @-@ week party before the 83rd Academy Awards . Issue 1 of the magazine , which was without any advertisements , debuted with a cover photo of models Irene Lambers and Cassy Gerasimova photographed by Tony Duran that was described by Business Wire as " edgy , scintillating and elegant " . The issue featured the classic picture of Raquel Welch on the cross taken by Terry O 'Neill . Literary subjects in the premier include features on Jason Statham and Shepard Fairey . 5 @,@ 000 magazines were printed for issue 1 and 10 @,@ 000 for issue 2 . Its launch was awarded a " best new launch " award of 2011 by the Media Industry Newsletter ( MIN ) .
The magazine debuted with a $ 20 @.@ 00 newsstand price , a $ 65 @.@ 00 yearly subscription price and $ 15 @.@ 00 download price . With the fourth issue the newsstand price changed to $ 30 @.@ 00 . In 2012 , the magazine added an online gallery that sold prints of the magazine 's content at prices ranging from $ 395 to $ 3 @,@ 995 — depending on size and framing .
Emily Ratajkowski posed for several of the early issues . She claims that her appearance on the March 2012 issue 3 cover is what brought her two unsolicited high @-@ profile music video modeling roles ( Robin Thicke , T.I. , and Pharrell Williams ' " Blurred Lines " and Maroon 5 's " Love Somebody " ) . Thicke had seen the treats ! magazine black @-@ and @-@ white cover and convinced director Diane Martel to cast her in the " Blurred Lines " music video .
Dylan Penn , daughter of Sean Penn and Robin Wright , appeared nude on the cover of the seventh issue of treats ! , which was published in April 2014 . Penn avoided full exposure on the cover with the aid of a $ 6 @,@ 000 @-@ plus Fendi bag and in a similar manner in the photo layout feature within the magazine . Penn was photographed by Duran . According to an E ! Online report on March 5 , 2014 , Penn had declined a $ 150 @,@ 000 offer to pose for the cover of Playboy .
The eighth issue ( featuring Lydia Hearst on the cover ) was not released until February 2015 .
= = Corporate information = =
The editorial offices of the magazine are located on 1219 S. La Brea Avenue in Los Angeles . In 2011 , Shaw served as editor @-@ in @-@ chief & publisher ; Rob Hill served as editor ; Eric Roinestad served as art director and Rebecca Black served as director of photography . Founder Shaw publishes the magazine independently with a staff of three people . Hill had previously served as editor of Hollywood Life magazine . Shaw and the magazine throw an annual Halloween " Trick or Treats " party .
= Champion ( Nicki Minaj song ) =
" Champion " is a song by Trinidadian American recording artist Nicki Minaj , taken from her second studio album , Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded ( 2012 ) . The song features additional vocals from hip hop artists Drake , Nas , and Young Jeezy . " Champion " was written by Minaj , Aubrey Graham , Jay Jenkins , and Nasir Jones , while the production and additional writing was handled by Pink Friday ( 2010 ) collaborators T @-@ Minus and Nikhil Seetharam . Musically , " Champion " is a downtempo hardcore hip hop ballad that also incorporates elements of R & B , new @-@ age , and space music . The lyrics speak of each artist 's rise to fame , as well as the trials and tribulations that it carries ; it references the death of Minaj 's cousin , Nicholas Telemaque , who was murdered near his Brooklyn home on July 3 , 2011 .
" Champion " garnered praise from music critics , with the majority declaring it a stand @-@ out track . The song is notable for the return of Minaj 's original low @-@ key sound , as well as her tame " gimmick @-@ free " delivery as opposed to her eccentric " Roman " songs . Critics generally praised the song for its serious tone and introspective nature . Minaj performed the song live for the first time on 106 & Park on April 3 , 2012 , along with " Beez in the Trap " , and " Roman Reloaded " .
= = Production = =
" Champion " was written by Minaj , along with T @-@ Minus , Nikhil S. , Drake , Young Jeezy , and Nas , with production handled by T @-@ Minus and Nikhil S. , who had previously worked with Minaj on her debut studio album Pink Friday ( 2010 ) . Minaj had wanted several artists to appear on the song , including fellow New York rapper Nas . She had stated that she did not think that she could get Nas on the song , saying " He 's always been so exclusive . He doesn 't work with everybody and I respect people that are like that . They take pride in their craft . " Minaj told Vibe , " I keep saying to be from Queens and to end up having him ... We know how picky he is [ for features ] . He said ' I like the song , I 'm a do it , you can wait ' til Monday and I got you ' and he kept his word . He murked it , for me to wait for a feature and it be that and murk the song and finish the song that way ... I was amazed . " After hearing the song , Nas agreed to be on the track , and sent his verse back to Minaj the following Monday . After collaborating , Nas said that he had fallen in love with the song : " Nicki hit us up , I got love , so it was nothin ' --I did the record .... If I feel it , I can get on it . I heard the track . I felt it . I loved it . " Another artist Minaj wanted on " Champion " was long @-@ time idol and fellow female rapper Lauryn Hill . " I wanted to get her on ' Champion ' ... That would have been crazy , right ? She was my fave . [ ... ] Lauryn to me is the goddess . I 'd love to meet her . I 'm pretty sure she 's heard me talk about her a billion times . " Although Minaj vouched for Hill to appear on the track , plans were never finalized and the collaboration ultimately fell through .
Recording of " Champion " took place at Conway Studios , in Los Angeles , California , as well as Jungle City Studios in New York City , New York . Mixing was handled by Jon Sher and Noel Cadastre at Conway Studios . Minaj was unsure if he would accept her offer to be featured on " Champion " , but after sending him the song , Nas replied back with his verse via e @-@ mail . On March 28 , 2012 , " Champion " leaked onto the internet six days ahead of its official release . In the following hours after the leak of " Champion " , the contents of the entire album were leaked online . On May 24 , 2012 , a poll was posted on Minaj 's official website asking fans to choose the next single ( s ) . The poll was divided into three categories . The second category prompted fans to choose between " Champion " , " HOV Lane " , and " I Am Your Leader " . " Champion " had the most votes and won the poll . " HOV Lane " came in second place and " I Am Your Leader " came in third .
= = Composition = =
" Champion " is a relatively slow @-@ paced , retrospective downtempo ballad that draws heavily from hardcore hip hop . It is also influenced by other genres , such as R & B , new @-@ age , and space music . The " anthemic " and " inspiring " song features a low @-@ key , woozy , and snaky production , accompanied by prominent military @-@ style drums , heavy synths , and rough , hard strewn beats . " Champion " has been described as one of the few songs that Minaj 's delivery is " calm and collected " as opposed to her eccentric " Roman " tracks . The rise to fame , the trials and tribulations that ensue , and celebration are prominent themes that are discussed in the lyrics . Minaj also makes reference to her deceased cousin , Nicholas Telemaque , who was shot and killed near his Brooklyn home on July 3 , 2011 , in the line " ' Cause they killed my little cousin , Nicholas / But my memories only have happy images . " Multiple critics felt the lyrical content of " Champion " was the most sincere on the album . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy called them " genuinely heartbreaking " , and Alex Macpherson of Fact described them as " undeniably moving " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Champion " was met with critical acclaim by music critics , with many calling it an album highlight . Andrew Hampp of Billboard gave the track a positive review , stating Minaj " Sheds light in her journey from struggle to success . " While reviewing the album , Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone declared the song " beamingly triumphant " . Global Grind reviewer Brittany Lewis gave the song a very positive review , saying : " This retrospective track explores Nicki 's more serious side and details the trials and tribulations of Nicki 's now solidified success " , and later went on to say that " Champion " will make the listener evaluate their own life . Both the reviewer from The Washington Post and Mesfin Fekadu of The San Francisco Chronicle gave the song a positive review , calling it " top @-@ notch " . Adam Graham of The Detroit News said the song would please fans of early Minaj , while going on to praise her rap @-@ heavy delivery . Trent Fitzgerald of Popcrush was positive towards " Champion " , calling it the " biggest " song on the album , as well as a noting its potential commercial success . " Champion " was labeled as the most impressive hardcore hip hop song on the album , as well as being " anthemic " by Andy Gill of The Independent . In his review of Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded , ' Nathan S of DJ Booth said : " It has to be said that ' Champion ' , featuring an excellent Nas verse , is one of Nicki 's most engaging tracks in memory , precisely because she drops the posturing and fame @-@ hunting . It 's proof that behind all the acting is a legitimately talented artist . " Although , not all reviews were positive . Matthew Cole of Slant Magazine criticized the vocalist 's performance of the verses , claiming they were " incapable " . Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times gave the song a mixed review , highlighting Nas ' verse , while mildly criticizing Minaj 's . Entertainment Weekly named it one of the best songs on the album along with " I Am Your Leader " . XXL Magazine stated that " Though many of the early songs [ on the album ] lack real substance , the records remain generally exciting - ' I Am Your Leader ' , alongside Rick Ross and Cam 'ron , ' Beez in the Trap ' with 2 Chainz , and the triumphant ' Champion ' featuring Nas , Drake and Young Jeezy are all memorable moments . "
= = Live performances = =
Minaj performed " Champion " for the first time on 106 & Park on April 3 , 2012 , along with " Roman Reloaded " , " HOV Lane " , " I Am Your Leader " , " Beez in the Trap " , " Right by My Side " and " Fire Burns " . She performed " Champion " alongside " Beez in the Trap " with 2 Chainz at the 2012 BET Awards . The rapper also performed " Champion " on the Australian and Asian legs of her Pink Friday Tour .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Conway Studios , Los Angeles , California ; Jungle City Studios , New York City , New York
Personnel
Credits adapted from Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded album liner notes .
= = Chart positions = =
= Scout Moor Wind Farm =
Scout Moor Wind Farm is the second largest onshore wind farm in England . The wind farm , which was built for Peel Wind Power Ltd , produces electricity from 26 Nordex N80 wind turbines . It has a total nameplate capacity of 65 MW of electricity , providing 154 @,@ 000 MW · h per year ; enough to serve the average needs of 40 @,@ 000 homes . The site occupies 1 @,@ 347 acres (
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profits went to support social organizations. including U.N.I.T.E. , Women Alive and the Zapatista Front for National Liberation . Rage subsequently began an abortive headlining US tour with special guests Wu @-@ Tang Clan . Police in several jurisdictions unsuccessfully attempted to have the concerts cancelled , citing amongst other reasons , the bands ' " violent and anti @-@ law enforcement philosophies . " Wu @-@ Tang Clan were eventually removed from the line @-@ up and replaced with The Roots . On the Japan leg of their tour promoting Evil Empire , a compilation album composed of the band 's B @-@ side recordings titled Live & Rare was released by Sony Records . A live video , also titled Rage Against the Machine , was released later the same year .
In 1999 Rage Against the Machine played at the infamous Woodstock ' 99 concert . The following release , The Battle of Los Angeles also debuted at number one in 1999 , selling 450 @,@ 000 copies in the first week and then going double @-@ platinum . That same year the song " Wake Up " was featured on the soundtrack of the film The Matrix . The track " Calm Like a Bomb " was later featured in the film 's sequel , 2003 's The Matrix Reloaded . In 2000 , the band planned to support the Beastie Boys on the " Rhyme and Reason " tour ; however , the tour was cancelled when Beastie Boys drummer Mike D suffered a serious injury . In 2003 , The Battle of Los Angeles was ranked number 426 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = = 2000 – 06 : Break @-@ up and subsequent projects = = =
On January 26 , 2000 , an altercation during filming of the video for " Sleep Now in the Fire " , directed by Michael Moore , caused the doors of the New York Stock Exchange to be closed and the band to be escorted from the site by security after band members attempted to gain entry into the exchange . The video shoot had attracted several hundred people , according to a representative for the city ’ s Deputy Commissioner for Public Information . New York City 's film office does not allow weekday film shoots on Wall Street . Moore had permission to use the steps of Federal Hall but did not have a permit to shoot on the sidewalk or the street , nor did he have a loud @-@ noise permit or the proper parking permits . " Michael basically gave us one directorial instruction , " No matter what happens , don 't stop playing , " Tom Morello recalls . When the band left the steps , NYPD apprehended Moore and led him away . Moore yelled to the band , " Take the New York Stock Exchange ! " In an interview with the Socialist Worker , Morello said he and scores of others ran into the Stock Exchange . " About two hundred of us got through the first set of doors , but our charge was stopped when the Stock Exchange 's titanium riot doors came crashing down . " " For a few minutes , Rage Against the Machine was able to shut down American capitalism , " Moore said . " An act that I am sure tens of thousands of downsized citizens would cheer . "
On September 7 , 2000 , the band attended the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards , and performed " Testify . " However , after the Best Rock Video award was given to Limp Bizkit . Commerford climbed onto the scaffolding of the set . Commerford and his bodyguard were sentenced to a night in jail and de la Rocha reportedly left the awards after the stunt . Morello recalled that Commerford related his plan to the rest of the band before the show , and that both de la Rocha and Morello advised him against it immediately after Bizkit was presented the award .
On October 18 , 2000 , de la Rocha released a statement announcing his departure from the band . He said , " I feel that it is now necessary to leave Rage because our decision @-@ making process has completely failed . It is no longer meeting the aspirations of all four of us collectively as a band , and from my perspective , has undermined our artistic and political ideal . " " There was so much squabbling over everything , " explained Morello , " and I mean everything . We would even have fist fights over whether our T @-@ shirts should be mauve or camouflaged ! It was ridiculous . We were patently political , internally combustible . It was ugly for a long time . "
The band 's next album , Renegades , was a collection of covers of artists as diverse as Devo , EPMD , Minor Threat , Cypress Hill , The MC5 , Afrika Bambaataa , The Rolling Stones , Eric B. & Rakim , Bruce Springsteen , The Stooges , and Bob Dylan . It achieved platinum status a month later . The following year saw the release of another live video , The Battle of Mexico City , while 2003 brought the live album Live at the Grand Olympic Auditorium , an edited recording of the band 's final concerts on September 12 and 13 , 2000 at the Grand Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles . It was accompanied by an expanded DVD release of the last show , which included a previously unreleased video for " Bombtrack " .
In the wake of 9 / 11 , the controversial 2001 Clear Channel memorandum contained a long list of what the memo termed " lyrically questionable " songs for the radio , uniquely listing all of Rage Against the Machine 's songs .
After the group 's breakup , Morello , Wilk , and Commerford decided to stay together and find a new vocalist . " There was talk for a while of us becoming Ozzy Osbourne 's backing band , and even Macy Gray 's , " said Morello . " We informed them that losing our singer was actually a blessing in disguise , and that we had bigger ambitions than being somebody 's hired musicians . " They eventually teamed up with then @-@ former Soundgarden singer Chris Cornell to form Audioslave . The first Audioslave single , " Cochise " , was released in early November 2002 , and a self @-@ titled debut album followed to mainly positive reviews . Compared to Rage Against the Machine , most of Audioslave 's music was apolitical , although some songs touched on political issues . Their second album Out of Exile debuted at the number one position on the Billboard charts in 2005 . Audioslave released its third album Revelations on September 5 , 2006 , but an accompanying tour never occurred as Cornell and Morello were working on solo albums . After months of inactivity and rumors of a breakup , Audioslave disbanded on February 15 , 2007 after Cornell announced he was leaving the band .
Morello began his own solo career in 2003 , playing political acoustic folk music at open @-@ mic nights and various clubs under the alias The Nightwatchman , which he formed as an outlet for his political views while playing apolitical music with Audioslave . He first participated in Billy Bragg 's Tell Us the Truth tour with no plans to record , but later recorded a song for Songs and Artists that Inspired Fahrenheit 9 / 11 , " No One Left " . In February 2007 , he announced a solo album , entitled One Man Revolution , which was released in April 2007 . Morello followed up his first studio album with " The Fabled City " which was released on September 30 , 2008 . During the latter of his career as The Nightwatchman , Morello joined up with Boots Riley and formed the rap rock group Street Sweeper Social Club , which released its debut self @-@ titled album in June 2009 .
Meanwhile , de la Rocha had been working on a solo album collaboration with DJ Shadow , Company Flow , Roni Size and The Roots ' Questlove , but dropped the project in favor of working with Nine Inch Nails ' Trent Reznor . Recording was completed but the album has never been released . A collaboration between de la Rocha and DJ Shadow , the song " March of Death " was released for free over the World Wide Web in 2003 in protest against the imminent invasion of Iraq , and the 2004 soundtrack Songs and Artists that Inspired Fahrenheit 9 / 11 included one of the collaborations with Reznor , " We Want It All " . In late 2005 , de la Rocha was seen singing and playing the jarana huasteca with Son Jarocho band Son de Madera on multiple occasions . Rage Against the Machine was ranked 33rd on VH1 's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock list in 2005 .
Members of the band had been offered large sums of money to reunite for concerts and tours , and had turned the offers down . Rumors of tension between de la Rocha and the other former band members subsequently circulated , but Commerford said that he and de la Rocha saw each other often and went surfing together , while Morello said he and de la Rocha communicated by phone , and had met up at a September 15 , 2005 protest in support of the South Central Farm .
= = = 2007 – 08 : Reunion and tours = = =
Rumors that Rage Against the Machine could reunite at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival were circulating in mid @-@ January 2007 , and were confirmed on January 22 . The band was confirmed to be headlining the final day of Coachella 2007 . The reunion was described by Morello as primarily being a vehicle to voice the band 's opposition to the " right @-@ wing purgatory " the United States has " slid into " under the George W. Bush administration since RATM 's dissolution . Though the performance was initially thought to be a one @-@ off , this turned out not to be the case .
On April 14 , 2007 , Morello and de la Rocha reunited onstage early to perform a brief acoustic set at a Coalition of Immokalee Workers rally in downtown Chicago . Morello described the event as " very exciting for everybody in the room , myself included . " This was followed by the scheduled Coachella performance on Sunday , April 29 where the band staged a much anticipated performance in front of an EZLN backdrop to the largest crowds of the festival .
Rage Against the Machine continued to tour in the United States , New Zealand , Australia , and Japan , and also played a series of shows in Europe in Summer 2008 including Rock am Ring and Rock im Park , Pinkpop Festival , T in the Park in Scotland , the Hultsfred Festival in Sweden , the Reading and Leeds Festivals in England and the Oxegen Festival in Ireland . The band also performed on August 2 , 2008 , in Chicago as one of the headliners ( Radiohead , Kanye West and Nine Inch Nails being the other three ) for the 2008 Lollapalooza Music Festival . When asked in May 2007 if the band were planning on writing a new album , Morello replied :
There are no plans to do that ... That 's a whole other ball of wax right there . Writing and recording albums is a whole different thing than getting back on the bike ( laughs ) , you know , and playing these songs . But I think that the one thing about the Rage catalog is that to me none of it feels dated . You know , it doesn 't feel at all like a nostalgia show . It feels like these are songs that were born and bred to be played now .
Morello declined to comment about the possibility of a new album when interviewed by MTV News in April 2008 . In July 2008 , it was revealed that de la Rocha had begun a new project called One Day as a Lion with drummer Jon Theodore formerly of The Mars Volta , with an eponymous EP released on July 22 , 2008 .
In August 2008 , de la Rocha revealed his take on the possibility of new material :
We ’ re going to keep playing shows – we have a couple of big ones happening in front of both conventions . As far as us recording music in the future , I don ’ t know where we all fit with that . We ’ ve all embraced each other ’ s projects and support them , and that ’ s great .
In August 2008 , Rage headlined the free Tent State Music Festival to End the War in Denver during the Democratic National Convention . The band was supported by Flobots , State Radio , Jello Biafra , and Wayne Kramer . Following the concert , the band , following uniformed veterans from Iraq Veterans Against the War , led the 8 @,@ 000 attendees to the Denver Coliseum on a 6 @-@ mile march to Invesco Field , host of the DNC . After a 4 @-@ hour stand @-@ off with police , Obama 's campaign agreed to meet with members of Iraq Veterans Against the War and hear their demands .
In September 2008 , Rage performed at the Target Center in Minneapolis during the Republican National Convention . The previous day , they attempted to play a surprise set at a free anti @-@ RNC concert at the Minnesota Capitol in St. Paul , but were prevented from doing so by the police . Instead , de la Rocha and Morello rapped and sang through a megaphone . Later that evening , Morello and Boots Reilly joined up with Billy Bragg and Jim Walsh for a three @-@ hour jam session at Pepitos Parkway theater in south Minneapolis .
In December 2008 , Tom Morello revealed that Rage Against the Machine shows in 2009 were a possibility , although plans for the band to record a new studio album were very unlikely . When asked by Billboard.com whether they planned to head to the studio in 2009 , Morello stated that : " we 've had a wonderful year and a half of playing shows , and I don 't see any reason to not play more shows . The thing is there 's only so many hours in the musical day , and mine are very occupied right now . "
Morello elaborated that The Nightwatchman is now " my principal musical focus , as I see it , for the remainder of my life . From the earliest days of playing open mic nights at coffee houses , it was apparent to me that this music was as important to me as any music I 've ever been involved in . It really encapsulates everything I want to do as an artist . " He repeated this point in an interview with the Los Angeles Times .
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, and alpine . The subalpine ecoregion , which consists mainly of dense forest , comprises 53 percent of Banff 's area . 27 percent of the park is located above the tree line , in the alpine ecoregion . The tree line in Banff lies approximately at 2 @,@ 300 m ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) , with open meadows at alpine regions and some areas covered by glaciers . A small portion ( 3 percent ) of the park , located at lower elevations , is in the montane ecoregion . Lodgepole pine forests dominate the montane region of Banff , with Engelmann spruce , willow , aspen , occasional Douglas @-@ fir and a few Douglas maple interspersed . Engelmann spruce are more common in the subalpine regions of Banff , with some areas of lodgepole pine , and subalpine fir . The montane areas in the Bow Valley , which tend to be the preferred habitat for wildlife , have been subjected to significant human development over the years .
= = = Wildlife = = =
The park has 56 recorded mammal species . Grizzly and black bear inhabit the forested regions . Cougar , Canada lynx , wolverine , red fox , weasel , river otter , coyote , and timber wolf are the primary predatory mammals . Elk , mule deer , and white @-@ tailed deer are common in the valleys of the park , including around ( and sometimes in ) the Banff townsite , while moose tend to be more elusive , sticking primarily to wetland areas and near streams . In the alpine regions , mountain goat , bighorn sheep , marmot and pika are widespread . Other mammals such as beaver , porcupine , squirrel , chipmunk , snowshoe hare , and Columbian ground squirrel are the more commonly observed smaller mammals.Caribou were the rarest large mammals in the park , but an avalanche in 2009 may have killed the last five remaining within park boundaries .
Due to the harsh winters , the park has few reptile and amphibian species with only one species of toad , three species of frog , one salamander species and two species of snakes that have been identified . At least 280 species of birds can be found in Banff including bald and golden eagles , red @-@ tailed hawk , osprey , and merlin , all of which are predatory species . Additionally , commonly seen species such as the gray jay , American three @-@ toed woodpecker , mountain bluebird , Clark 's nutcracker , mountain chickadee and pipit are frequently found in the lower elevations . The white @-@ tailed ptarmigan is a ground bird that is often seen in the alpine zones . Rivers and lakes are frequented by over a hundred different species including loon , heron and mallard which spend their summers in the park .
Endangered species in Banff include the Banff Springs snail ( Physella johnsoni ) which is found in the hot springs of Banff . Woodland caribou , found in Banff , are listed as a threatened species .
= = = Mountain pine beetles = = =
Mountain pine beetles have caused a number of large @-@ scale infestations in Banff National Park , feeding on the phloem of mature lodgepole pines . Alberta 's first known outbreak occurred in 1940 , infecting 43 km2 ( 17 sq mi ) of forest in Banff . A second major outbreak occurred in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Banff and the surrounding Rocky Mountains region .
= = Tourism = =
Banff National Park is the most visited Alberta tourist destination and one of the most visited national parks in North America , with more than three million tourists annually . During summer , 51 percent of park visitors are from Canada ( 30 percent from Alberta ) , while 31 percent are from the United States and 14 percent from Europe . Tourism in Banff contributes an estimated C $ 6 billion annually to the economy .
A park pass is required for stopping in the park and permit checks are common during the summer months , especially at Lake Louise and the start of the Icefields Parkway . A permit is not required if travelling straight through the park without stopping . Approximately 5 million people pass through Banff annually on the Trans @-@ Canada Highway without stopping .
Attractions in Banff include Upper Hot Springs , and a 27 @-@ hole golf course at Fairmont Banff Springs Hotel , and three ski resorts including Sunshine Village , Lake Louise Mountain Resort , and Mount Norquay ski resort . The Banff Lodging Co is a hospitality company in the park . Day hikes , such as the Cory Pass Loop , are popular with visitors . Other activities include alpine and Nordic skiing , and horseback riding .
Backcountry activities in Banff include hiking , camping , climbing , and skiing . Parks Canada requires those using backcountry campgrounds , Alpine Club of Canada huts , or other backcountry facilities to purchase a wilderness pass . Reservations for using the campgrounds are also required .
In 2009 , Banff Lake Louise Tourism hoped the appearance of the " Crasher Squirrel " internet meme would stimulate interest in the park . The meme is based a photograph of a Minnesotan couple visiting the park on the shore of Lake Minnewanka that was " crashed " by a Columbian ground squirrel ; the photograph was published in major news sources around the world and the image of the squirrel was digitally manipulated into humorous photos .
= = General management = =
Banff National Park is managed by Parks Canada , under the National Parks Act which was passed in 1930 . Over time , park management policies have increasingly emphasized environmental protection over development . In 1964 , a policy statement was issued that reiterated ideals of conservation laid out in the 1930 act . With the controversial bid for the 1972 Winter Olympics , environmental groups became more influential , leading Parks Canada to withdraw its support for the bid . The 1979 Beaver Book was a major new policy , which emphasized conservation . In 1988 , the National Parks Act was amended , making the maintenance of ecological integrity the top priority . The amendment also paved the way for non @-@ governmental organizations to challenge Parks Canada in court , for breaches in adhering to the act . In 1994 , Parks Canada established revised " Guiding Principles and Operating Policies " , which included a mandate for the Banff @-@ Bow Valley Study to draft management recommendations . As with other national parks , Banff is required to have a Park Management Plan . On a provincial level , the park area and the included communities ( other than the town of Banff which is an incorporated municipality ) are administered by Alberta Municipal Affairs as Improvement District No. 9 ( Banff ) .
= = Wildlife management = =
= = = Previous management = = =
The park was originally considered as a recreational area for visitors offering multiple leisure activities – the original wildlife policy viewed wildlife in Banff only as game or pests up until the 1960s and 1970s . As ecological awareness increased , management procedures expanded with the inclusion of public participation in many management decisions . Simultaneously , the increase in human construction ( such as new highways ) on the natural landscape increased the frequency of human – animal conflicts . In 1988 wildlife began to be considered an integral part of the ecosystem .
The park now has a number of wildlife management strategies that aim to conserve certain species . Parks Canada uses an ecosystem based management approach that aims to preserve the ecology of the park while still providing for visitors . Management decisions are based on modern scientific ecological information as well as traditional knowledge .
= = = Large species management = = =
Elk are a very important species in Banff National Park , partly because they represent a source of food for declining wolves . However they also have harsh impacts on the environment . Large elk populations cause vegetation degradation , human – animal conflicts and destabilization of biological interactions . In 1999 , the implementation of the Banff National Park Elk Management Strategy by Parks Canada and the Elk Advisory Committee aimed to monitor and control the population to decrease conflicts and aid ecological process recovery .
Elk handling facilities are areas of pens with loading and unloading ramps where water and food are provided to the elk . They were created to help reduce herd numbers by increasing wariness and encouraging migratory behaviour , deterring the elk from the town of Banff . These measures allowed more predator – prey interactions thanks to the creation of corridors . It also increased elk migration , restored the willow and aspen communities and highlighted the primary role of wolves in elk population management .
The state of grizzly bear populations in Banff is seen as a proxy for ecological integrity . To keep bears away from humans , an electric fence was put up around the summer gondola and parking lot at Lake Louise in 2001 . Bear @-@ proof garbage cans , which do not allow bears to access their contents , help to deter them from human sites . The fruit of Buffaloberry bushes is eaten by bears , so the bushes have been removed in some areas where the risk of a bear – human encounter is high .
Aversive conditioning deters bears by modifying their behaviour . Deterrents such as noise makers and rubber bullets are used each time the bear performs an undesirable action . Advice is also given to people to avoid an eventual habituation of bears to human presence . If this conditioning is continual the bear will be less likely to continue the undesirable behaviour ( crossing into campsites and roads etc . ) .
Southern mountain caribou management previously aimed to identify what was threatening caribou populations and find solutions to mitigate the threats , but the last caribou in the park was found dead in an avalanche in 2009 . There was concern over why more had not been done to save the caribou population . The primary reason for their decline is thought to have been habitat loss and altered predator – prey dynamics . Park management began monitoring the last five caribou in the park in 2002 and taking actions such as reducing impacts of humans , conducting studies of the population , and investigating the possibility of translocating caribou to increase the Banff population .
In the mid @-@ 1980s gray wolves recolonized the Bow Valley in Banff National Park . They had been absent for 30 years due to systematic predator control hunting which began in 1850 . Wolves filtered back to Banff and recolonized one zone of the Bow Valley in 1985 and another in 1991 . A high level of human use surrounding a third zone at Banff townsite has deterred the wolves from that area . The wolves are important in controlling elk populations and improve the balance of the ecosystem . A routine park study to monitor the wolves in Banff has now grown into the Southern Rockies Canine Project – the largest wolf research project in North America . The estimated wolf population in Banff National Park and the surrounding areas is now 60 – 70 animals .
= = = Strategies = = =
Wildlife crossings have been successful in Banff National Park at reducing the number of animals killed on the roads . There is also 82 km of fencing at the edge of the highway in the park to prevent animals from getting onto the roads . Since it was put up , this has reduced collisions between wildlife and vehicles by over 80 per cent .
Train tracks still pose challenges to conservationists . Many bears have been killed by trains , often because they are attracted to grain spills along the tracks . Transportation corridors provide openings for plants which are also utilised by bears . A partnership between Parks Canada and Canadian Pacific Railway allowed the creation of the first Railway @-@ Bear Conflict Mitigation Symposium in 2010 . Initiatives included building wooden pegboards to fence off the sides of tracks and chemically treating grains to deter the bears . After a complete review of the research projects , the development of some of them has been authorized , including grain alteration and the use of cameras to study the behavioural response of bears to trains .
Electromats , that give a small electric shock to animals that step on them , are also being used and one has been put near the Trans @-@ Canada Highway on a section of Highway 93 North . ( They have no effect on vehicles . ) Their purpose is to deter animals from roads to prevent them being hit by vehicles . A trial installment of electromats in Banff is designed to see how effective they are at keeping animals like bears from gaining access to the fenced Trans @-@ Canada Highway from human overpasses and road junctions .
General prohibitions implemented to ensure wildlife respect include the prohibition of feeding , touching , or holding animals in captivity , and the disturbance or destruction of bird nests .
= = Human impact = =
= = = Environment = = =
Since the 19th century , humans have impacted Banff 's environment through introduction of non @-@ native species , controls on other species , and development in the Bow Valley , among other human activities . Bison once lived in the valleys of Banff , but were hunted by indigenous people and the last bison was killed off in 1858 . Elk are not indigenous to Banff , and were introduced in 1917 with 57 elk brought in from Yellowstone National Park . The introduction of elk to Banff , combined with controls on coyote and wolves by Parks Canada beginning in the 1930s , has caused imbalance of the ecosystem . Other species that have been displaced from the Bow Valley include grizzly bears , cougars , lynx , wolverine , otter , and moose . Beginning in 1985 , gray wolves were recolonizing areas in the Bow Valley . However , the wolf population has struggled , with 32 wolf deaths along the Trans @-@ Canada Highway between 1987 and 2000 , leaving only 31 wolves in the area .
The population of bull trout and other native species of fish in Banff 's lakes has also dwindled , with the introduction of non @-@ native species including brook trout , and rainbow trout . Lake trout , westslope cutthroat trout , and Chiselmouth are rare native species , while chinook salmon , White sturgeon , Pacific lamprey , and Banff longnose dace are likely extirpated locally . The Banff longnose dace , once only found in Banff , is now an extinct species .
The Trans @-@ Canada Highway , passing through Banff , has been problematic , posing hazards for wildlife due to vehicle traffic and as an impediment to wildlife migration . Grizzly bears are among the species impacted by the highway , which together with other developments in Banff , has caused fragmentation of the landscape . Grizzly bears prefer the montane habitat , which has been most impacted by development . Wildlife crossings , including a series of underpasses , and six wildlife overpasses , have been constructed at a number of points along the Trans @-@ Canada Highway to help alleviate this problem .
= = = Fire management = = =
Parks Canada management practices , notably fire suppression , since Banff National Park was established have impacted the park 's ecosystem . Since 1983 , Parks Canada has adopted a strategy that employed prescribed burns , which helps to mimic effects of natural fires .
= = = Transportation = = =
Banff National Park is bisected by two highways that cross the Alberta / British Columbia border while another provides a third access within Alberta . The Trans @-@ Canada Highway ( Highway 1 ) bisects the park in an east @-@ west direction , connecting it to Vancouver to the west and Calgary to the east . Highway 93 bisects the park in a north @-@ south direction , connecting it to Cranbrook to the south and Jasper to the north . The portion of Highway 93 north of Lake Louise is known as the Icefields Parkway whereas the portion southwest of Castle Junction is known as the Banff @-@ Windermere Parkway . Highway 11 ( the David Thompson Highway ) connects the Icefields Parkway at Saskatchewan River Crossing to Rocky Mountain House to the northeast . Within the park , Highway 1A , also known as the Bow Valley Parkway , loosely parallels Highway 1 between Banff and Lake Louise .
Other transportation facilities within Banff National Park include a Canadian Pacific rail line that generally parallels Highway 1 and an airport known as the Banff Park Compound Heliport .
= = = Development = = =
In 1978 , expansion of Sunshine Village ski resort was approved , with added parking , hotel expansion , and development of Goat 's Eye Mountain . Implementation of this development proposal was delayed through the 1980s , while environmental assessments were conducted . In 1989 , Sunshine Village withdrew its development proposal , in light of government reservations , and submitted a revised proposal in 1992 . This plan was approved by the government , pending environmental review . Subsequently , Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society ( CPAWS ) filed a court injunction , which halted the development . CPAWS also put pressure on UNESCO to revoke Banff 's World Heritage Site status , over concerns that developments were harming the park 's ecological health .
= = = Banff @-@ Bow Valley Study = = =
While the National Parks Act and the 1988 amendment emphasize ecological integrity , in practice Banff has suffered from inconsistent application of the policies . In 1994 , the Banff @-@ Bow Valley Study was mandated by Sheila Copps , the minister responsible for Parks Canada , to provide recommendations on how to better manage human use and development , and maintain ecological integrity . While the two @-@ year Banff @-@ Bow Valley Study was underway , development projects were halted , including the expansion of Sunshine Village , and the twinning of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway between Castle Junction and Sunshine .
The panel issued over 500 recommendations , including limiting the growth of the Banff townsite , capping the town 's population at 10 @,@ 000 , placing quotas for popular hiking trails , and curtailing development in the park . Another recommendation was to fence off the townsite to reduce confrontations between people and elk . The proposed fencing was also intended to reduce access to this refuge for elk from predators , such as wolves that tended to avoid the townsite . Upon release of the report , Copps immediately moved to accept the proposal to cap the town population . She also ordered a small airstrip to be removed , along with a buffalo paddock , and cadet camp , that inhibited wildlife movement .
In response to concerns and recommendations raised by the Banff @-@ Bow Valley Study , a number of development plans were curtailed in the 1990s . Plans to add nine holes at the Banff Springs Golf Resort were withdrawn in 1996 .
= = = Canmore = = =
With the cap on growth in the town of Banff , Canmore , located just outside the Banff boundary , has been growing rapidly to serve increasing demands of tourists . Major development proposals for Canmore have included the Three Sisters Golf Resorts , proposed in 1992 , which has been the subject of contentious debate , with environmental groups arguing that the development would fragment important wildlife corridors in the Bow Valley .
= Hemmema =
A hemmema ( from Finnish " Hämeenmaa " , Tavastia ) was a type of warship built for the Swedish archipelago fleet and the Russian Baltic navy in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The hemmema was initially developed for use against the Russian Navy in the Archipelago Sea and along the coasts of Svealand and Finland . It was designed by the prolific and innovative Swedish naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman ( 1721 – 1808 ) in collaboration with Augustin Ehrensvärd ( 1710 – 1772 ) , an artillery officer and later commander of the Swedish archipelago fleet . The hemmema was a specialized vessel for use in the shallow waters and narrow passages that surround the thousands of islands and islets extending from the Swedish capital of Stockholm into the Gulf of Finland .
The hemmema replaced the galleys that had made up the core of the Swedish archipelago fleets until the mid @-@ 18th century . Compared to galleys , the hemmema had a deeper draft and was slower under oars , but offered superior accommodation for the crew , carried more stores , was more seaworthy and had roughly ten times as many heavy guns . It could be propelled by either sails or oars but was still smaller and more maneuverable than most sailing warships , which made it suitable for operations in confined waters .
Between 1764 and 1809 , Sweden built six hemmemas . The hemmema became the largest and most heavily armed vessel in the archipelago fleet and served in the Russo @-@ Swedish War of 1788 – 90 . Oden , the first hemmema , was relatively small and very similar to a turuma , a different type of " archipelago frigate " . Russia built six hemmemas based on the Swedish design between 1808 and 1823 after capturing three of the Swedish vessels at the surrender of Sveaborg in 1808 . The later versions , both Swedish and Russian , were much larger and much more heavily armed than Oden .
= = Background = =
Russian Tsar Peter the Great had established a new capital and powerful naval base in Saint Petersburg in 1703 . Russian naval power in the Baltic grew to challenge the interests of Sweden , the other leading power in the Baltic . Swedish holdings at that time included territory in Northern Germany , all of modern Finland and most of the Baltic states , a dominion depending on , and connected by , the Baltic Sea trade routes . During the Great Northern War ( 1700 – 1721 ) , Sweden lost all its territories in the Baltic states and suffered Russian raids in Finland and along the chain of islands and archipelagos stretching from the Gulf of Finland to Stockholm . The Swedes began to deploy inshore flotillas of shallow @-@ draft vessels , beginning with smaller versions of the traditional Mediterranean galleys . Most of these new vessels were more akin to galiots and were complemented with gun prams . The disastrous war with Russia ( 1741 – 43 ) and the minor involvement against Prussia in the Seven Years ' War ( 1757 – 62 ) showed the need for further expansion and development of the inshore flotillas with more specialized vessels .
Galleys were effective as troop transports for amphibious operations , but were severely under @-@ gunned , especially in relation to their large crews ; a galley with a 250 @-@ man crew , most of whom were rowers , would typically carry only one 24 @-@ pounder cannon and two 6 @-@ pounders , all in the bow . The galleys also lacked decks and adequate shelter for the rower @-@ soldiers , many of whom succumbed to illness as a result of exposure during the war of 1741 – 43 .
= = = Archipelago fleet = = =
After the Russian victory against Sweden in 1743 , the Swedes established a commission to identify weaknesses in the eastern defenses . In 1747 , the commission concluded that the fortifications in southeastern Finland needed to be improved and expanded , and that Sweden needed to build a strong coastal navy . Augustin Ehrensvärd ( 1710 – 72 ) , an artillery officer , was the driving force behind these changes . The committee based many of its conclusions and decisions on his ideas . In 1756 , Sweden established the archipelago fleet with the official name arméns flotta ( " fleet of the army " ) under the command of the army department , Krigskollegium , with Ehrensvärd as supreme commander . For two decades , the struggle for power between the Hats and the Caps , the dominant political factions at the time , and rivalries between army and navy brought about changes to the archipelago fleet . The parliamentary victory of the Hats in the Riksdag in 1769 – 70 and the coup d 'ètat by King Gustav III in 1772 secured the archipelago fleet 's status as an independent branch of the army . Starting in 1770 , the archipelago fleet merged with the Finnish Squadron ( Finska eskadern ) based at Sveaborg . In 1777 , it incorporated the Swedish Squadron ( Svenska eskadern ) , the galley fleet based at Stockholm . The Swedish armed forces invested considerable resources in the new army branch and made it a professional , independent organization . The archipelago fleet attracted members of the social and cultural elite who enjoyed the protection and patronage of King Gustav III , who had established himself as an absolute monarch in the 1772 coup .
After the poor performance of galleys in Russo – Swedish war of 1741 – 43 and the Pomeranian War ( 1757 – 62 ) , development of replacements became prioritized . During the Pomeranian War , trials had been made with " gun prams " ( skottpråmar ) , heavily armed , oar @-@ driven , flat @-@ bottomed barges with a shallow draft that carried guns in broadside arrangements . The prams carried more guns than the galleys , but proved far too slow to be effective . Augustin Ehrensvärd argued for new archipelago vessels that combined firepower , maneuverability , seaworthiness , and decent crew accommodations . He began a successful collaboration with shipwright Fredrik Henrik Chapman ( ennobled " af Chapman " in 1772 ) , and together they developed five new vessels : a gunboat with a 12 @-@ pounder gun and a schooner rigging , as well as four types of " archipelago frigates " ( skärgårdsfregatter ) : the smaller udema and pojama , and the larger turuma and hemmema . All four types have been called skärgårdsfregatter ( archipelago frigates ) in Swedish and English historical literature , though some authors have called the udema and pojama
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= = = American Pop and Fire and Ice ( 1979 – 1983 ) = = =
Following the production struggles of The Lord of the Rings , Bakshi decided to work on something more personal . He pitched American Pop to Columbia Pictures president Dan Melnick . Bakshi wanted to produce a film in which songs would be given a new context in juxtaposition to the visuals . American Pop follows four generations of a Russian Jewish immigrant family of musicians , whose careers parallel the history of American pop and starred actor Ron Thompson in a dual lead role . While the film does not reflect Bakshi 's own experiences , its themes were strongly influenced by people he had encountered in Brownsville . The film 's crew included character layout and design artist Louise Zingarelli , Vita , Barry E. Jackson , and Marcia Adams . Bakshi again used rotoscoping , in an attempt to capture the range of emotions and movement required for the film 's story . According to Bakshi , " Rotoscoping is terrible for subtleties , so it was tough to get facial performances to match the stage ones . " Bakshi was able to acquire the rights to an extensive soundtrack — including songs by Janis Joplin , The Doors , George Gershwin , The Mamas & the Papas , Herbie Hancock , Lou Reed , and Louis Prima — for under $ 1 million . Released on February 12 , 1981 , the film was a financial success . The New York Times ' Vincent Canby wrote , " I 'm amazed at the success that Mr. Bakshi has in turning animated characters into figures of real feelings . " Jerry Beck called it " one of Bakshi 's best films " . Due to music clearance issues , it was not released on home video until 1998 .
By 1982 , fantasy films such as The Beastmaster and Conan the Barbarian had proven successful at the box office , and Bakshi wanted to work with his long @-@ time friend , the fantasy illustrator Frank Frazetta . Fire and Ice was financed by some of American Pop 's investors for $ 1 @.@ 2 million , while 20th Century Fox agreed to distribute . Fire and Ice was the most action @-@ oriented story Bakshi had directed , so he again used rotoscoping ; the realism of the design and rotoscoped animation replicated Frazetta 's artwork . Bakshi and Frazetta were heavily involved in the production of the live @-@ action sequences , from casting sessions to the final shoot . The film 's crew included background artists James Gurney and Thomas Kinkade , layout artist Peter Chung , and established Bakshi Productions artists Sparey , Steve Gordon , Bell and Banks . Chung greatly admired Bakshi 's and Frazetta 's work , and animated his sequences while working for The Walt Disney Company . The film was given a limited release , and was financially unsuccessful . Andrew Leal wrote , " The plot is standard [ ... ] recalling nothing so much as a more graphic episode of Filmation 's He @-@ Man series . [ ... ] Fire and Ice essentially stands as a footnote to the spate of barbarian films that followed in the wake of Arnold Schwarzenegger 's appearance as Conan . "
= = = Unproduced projects and temporary retirement ( 1983 – 1986 ) = = =
After production of Fire and Ice wrapped , Bakshi attempted several projects that fell through , including adaptations of Hunter S. Thompson 's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas , William Kotzwinkle 's The Fan Man , Eric Rücker Eddison 's The Worm Ouroboros , Stephen Crane 's Maggie : A Girl of the Streets , Mickey Spillane 's Mike Hammer novels and an anthropomorphic depiction of Sherlock Holmes . He turned down offers to direct Ray Bradbury 's Something Wicked This Way Comes and Philip K. Dick 's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep ? He passed the latter to Ridley Scott , who adapted it into the 1982 film Blade Runner .
During this period , Bakshi reread J. D. Salinger 's The Catcher in the Rye , which he had first read in high school , and saw parallels between his situation and that of the book 's protagonist , Holden Caulfield . Inspired to seek the film rights , he intended to shoot the story 's bracketing sequences in live action and to animate the core flashback scenes . Salinger had rejected previous offers to adapt the novel , and had not made a public appearance since 1965 or granted an interview since 1980 . Bakshi sent Salinger a letter explaining why he should be allowed to adapt the novel ; the writer responded by thanking Bakshi and asserting that the novel was unfit for any medium other than its original form .
Prompted in part by Salinger 's letter , Bakshi briefly retired to focus on painting . During this time he completed the screenplay for If I Catch Her , I 'll Kill Her , a live @-@ action feature he had been developing since the late 1960s . United Artists and Paramount Pictures each paid Bakshi to develop the film in the 1970s , but were unwilling to produce it , as were the studios he pitched the film to in the 1980s . According to Bakshi , " They thought that no one was going to admit that women can — and do — cheat on their husbands . They thought it was too hot , which made no sense . " In 1985 , he received a phone call from The Rolling Stones ' manager , Tony King , who told Bakshi that the band had recorded a cover of Bob & Earl 's " Harlem Shuffle " , and wanted Bakshi to direct the music video . He was told that the live @-@ action shoot needed to be completed within one day ( January 28 , 1986 ) for it to be shown at the Grammy Awards . Production designer Wolf Kroeger was forced to drastically compact his sets , and animation director and designer John Kricfalusi had to push his team , including Lynne Naylor , Jim Smith and Bob Jaques , to complete the animation within a few weeks . The band 's arrival at the set was delayed by a snowstorm and several takes were ruined when the cameras crossed paths . Bakshi was forced to pay the union wages out of his own fees , and the continuity between Kricfalusi 's animation and the live @-@ action footage did not match ; however , the video was completed on time .
Bakshi recognized Kricfalusi 's talent , and wanted to put him in charge of a project that would showcase the young animator 's skills . Bakshi and Kricfalusi co @-@ wrote the screenplay Bobby 's Girl as a take on the teen films of the era . Jeff Sagansky , president of production at TriStar Pictures , put up $ 150 @,@ 000 to develop the project , prompting Bakshi to move back to Los Angeles . When Sagansky left TriStar , Bakshi was forced to pitch the film again , but the studio 's new executives did not understand its appeal and cut off financing . Bakshi and Zingarelli began to develop a feature about Hollywood 's Golden Age , and Bakshi Productions crewmembers worked on proposed cartoons influenced by pulp fiction . Bobby 's Girl was reworked as a potential prime time series called Suzy 's in Love , but attracted no serious interest .
= = = Return to television ( 1987 – 1989 ) = = =
In April 1987 , Bakshi set up a meeting with Judy Price , the head of CBS 's Saturday morning block . Three days before the meeting , Bakshi , Kricfalusi , Naylor , Tom Minton , Eddie Fitzgerald and Jim Reardon met to brainstorm . Bakshi remembers , " My car was packed to the windows . Judy was my last stop before driving cross country back to New York to my family . " Price rejected Bakshi 's prepared pitches , but asked what else he had . He told her that he had the rights to Mighty Mouse , and she agreed to purchase the series . However , Bakshi did not own the rights and did not know who did . While researching the rights , he learned that CBS had acquired the entire Terrytoons library in 1955 and forgotten about it . According to Bakshi , " I sold them a show they already owned , so they just gave me the rights for nothin ' ! "
Kricfalusi 's team wrote story outlines for thirteen episodes in a week and pitched them to Price . By the next week , Kricfalusi had hired animators he knew who had been working at other studios . Mighty Mouse : The New Adventures went into production the month it was greenlighted ; it was scheduled to premiere on September 19 , 1987 . This haste required the crew to be split into four teams , led by supervising director Kricfalusi , Fitzgerald , Steve Gordon and Bruce Woodside . Each team was given a handful of episodes , and operated almost entirely independently of the others . Although the scripts required approval by CBS executives , Kricfalusi insisted that the artists add visual gags as they drew . Bruce Timm , Andrew Stanton , Dave Marshall and Jeff Pidgeon were among the artists who worked on the series . Despite the time constraints , CBS was pleased with the way Bakshi Productions addressed the network 's notes .
During the production of the episode " The Littlest Tramp " , editor Tom Klein expressed concern that a sequence showing Mighty Mouse sniffing the remains of a crushed flower resembled cocaine use . Bakshi did not initially view the footage ; he believed that Klein was overreacting , but agreed to let him cut the scene . Kricfalusi expressed disbelief over the cut , insisting that the action was harmless and that the sequence should be restored . Following Kricfalusi 's advice , Bakshi told Klein to restore the scene , which had been approved by network executives and the CBS standards and practices department . The episode aired on October 31 , 1987 , without controversy .
In 1988 , Bakshi received an Annie Award for " Distinguished Contribution to the Art of Animation " . The same year , he began production on a series pilot loosely adapted from his Junktown comic strips . According to Bakshi , the proposed series " was going to be a revitalization of cartoon style from the ' 20s and ' 30s . It was gonna have Duke Ellington and Fats Waller jazzing up the soundtrack . " Nickelodeon was initially willing to greenlight 39 episodes of Junktown .
On June 6 , 1988 , Donald Wildmon , head of the American Family Association ( AFA ) , alleged that " The Littlest Tramp " depicted cocaine use , instigating a media frenzy . The AFA , during its incarnation as the National Federation for Decency , had previously targeted CBS as an " accessory to murder " after a mother killed her daughter following an airing of Exorcist II : The Heretic . Concerning Bakshi 's involvement with Mighty Mouse : The New Adventures , the AFA claimed that CBS " intentionally hired a known pornographer to do a cartoon for children , and then allowed him to insert a scene in which the cartoon hero is shown sniffing cocaine . " Bakshi responded , " You could pick a still out of Lady and the Tramp and get the same impression . Fritz the Cat wasn 't pornography . It was social commentary . This all smacks of burning books and the Third Reich . It smacks of McCarthyism . I 'm not going to get into who sniffs what . This is lunacy ! " On CBS 's order , Klein removed the sequence from the master broadcast footage . Wildmon claimed that the edits were " a de facto admission that , indeed , Mighty Mouse was snorting cocaine " . Despite receiving an award from Action for Children 's Television , favorable reviews , and a ranking in Time magazine 's " Best of ' 87 " feature , Mighty Mouse : The New Adventures was canceled by CBS following the controversy .
The incident had a ripple effect , weakening Nickelodeon 's commitment to Junktown . Bakshi has also stated that " we were trying something different [ ... ] but a series didn 't make sense . It just didn 't work " . The series was scrapped , and the completed pilot aired as a special , Christmas in Tattertown , in December 1988 . It was the first original animated special created for Nickelodeon . Bakshi moved into a warehouse loft in downtown Los Angeles to clear his head , and was offered $ 50 @,@ 000 to direct a half @-@ hour live @-@ action film for PBS 's Imagining America anthology series . Mark Bakshi produced the film , This Ain 't Bebop , his first professional collaboration with his father . Bakshi wrote a poem influenced by Jack Kerouac , jazz , the Beat Generation and Brooklyn that served as the narration , which was spoken by Harvey Keitel . After a car crash , Bakshi completed the post @-@ production in stitches and casts . Bakshi said of the work , " It 's the most proud I 've been of a picture since Coonskin — the last real thing I did with total integrity . "
As a result of the film , Bakshi received an offer to adapt Dr. Seuss 's The Butter Battle Book for TNT . Ted Geisel had never been satisfied with the previous screen versions of his Dr. Seuss work . Bakshi wanted to produce an entirely faithful adaptation , and Geisel — who agreed to storyboard the special himself — was pleased with the final product . Bakshi next directed the pilot Hound Town for NBC ; he described the result as " an embarrassing piece of shit " .
= = = Return to film , continued television projects and retirement ( 1990 – 1997 ) = = =
In 1990 , Bakshi pitched Cool World to Paramount Pictures as a partially animated horror film . The concept involved a cartoon and human having sex and conceiving a hybrid child who visits the real world to murder the father who abandoned him . The live @-@ action footage was intended to look like " a living , walk @-@ through painting " , a visual concept Bakshi had long wanted to achieve . Massive sets were constructed on a sound stage in Las Vegas , based on enlargements of designer Barry Jackson 's paintings . The animation was strongly influenced by the house styles of Fleischer Studios and Terrytoons . As the sets were being built , producer Frank Mancuso , Jr . , son of Paramount president Frank Mancuso , Sr. , had the screenplay rewritten in secret ; the new version , by Michael Grais and Mark Victor , was radically different from Bakshi 's original . Paramount threatened to sue Bakshi if he did not complete the film . As Bakshi and Mancuso wrangled over their creative differences , Bakshi and the studio also began to fight over the film 's casting . To keep actor Brad Pitt , Bakshi had to replace Drew Barrymore , his original choice for the character of Holli Would , with Kim Basinger , a bigger box office draw at the time . The film 's animators were never given a screenplay , and were instead told by Bakshi , " Do a scene that 's funny , whatever you want to do ! "
Designer Milton Knight recalled that " audiences actually wanted a wilder , raunchier Cool World . The premiere audience I saw it with certainly did . " The critical reaction to the film was generally negative . Roger Ebert wrote , " The DJ who was hosting the radio station 's free preview of Cool World leaped onto the stage and promised the audience : ' If you liked Roger Rabbit , you 'll love Cool World ! ' He was wrong , but you can 't blame him — he hadn 't seen the movie . I have , and I will now promise you that if you liked Roger Rabbit , quit while you 're ahead . " The film was a box @-@ office disappointment . While other film projects followed , Bakshi began to focus more attention on painting .
In 1993 , Lou Arkoff , the son of Samuel Z. Arkoff , approached Bakshi to write and direct a low @-@ budget live @-@ action feature for Showtime 's Rebel Highway series . For the third time , Bakshi revisited his screenplay for If I Catch Her , I 'll Kill Her , which he retitled Cool and the Crazy . The picture , which aired September 16 , 1994 , starred Jared Leto , Alicia Silverstone , Jennifer Blanc and Matthew Flint . Reviewer Todd Everett noted that it had the same " hyperdrive visual sense " of Bakshi 's animated films . He said , " Everything in ' Cool ' [ ... ] seems to exist in pastels and Bakshi shoots from more odd angles than any director since Sidney J. Furie in his heyday . And the closing sequences ably demonstrate how it 's possible to present strong violence without any blood being shed onscreen . Bakshi pulls strong [ performances ] from a cadre of youngish and largely unknown actors " .
In 1995 , Hanna @-@ Barbera producer Fred Seibert offered Bakshi the chance to create two animated short films for Cartoon Network 's What a Cartoon ! : Malcom and Melvin and Babe , He Calls Me , focusing on a trumpet @-@ playing cockroach named Malcom and his best friend , a clown named Melvin . Both were heavily edited after Bakshi turned them in and he disowned them as a result . Bakshi was subsequently contacted by HBO , which was looking to launch the first animated series specifically for adults , an interest stirred by discussions involving a series based upon Trey Parker and Matt Stone 's video Christmas card , Jesus vs. Santa . Bakshi enlisted a team of writers , including his son Preston , to develop Spicy Detective , later renamed Spicy City , an anthology series set in a noir @-@ ish , technology @-@ driven future . Each episode was narrated by a female host named Raven , voiced by Michelle Phillips . The series premiered in July 1997 — one month before the debut of Parker and Stone 's South Park — and thus became the first " adults only " cartoon series . Although critical reaction was largely unfavorable , Spicy City received acceptable ratings . A second season was approved , but the network wanted to fire Bakshi 's writing team and hire professional Los Angeles screenwriters . When Bakshi refused to cooperate , the series was canceled .
= = = Painting , teaching and new animation projects ( 2000 – 2013 ) = = =
Bakshi retired from animation once more , returning to his painting . In 2000 , he began teaching an undergraduate animation class at New York 's School of Visual Arts . In December 14 , 2001 , he did some paintings for the Cameron Crowe film Vanilla Sky . He later became involved in several screen projects , including a development deal with the Sci Fi Channel , In September 2002 , Bakshi , Liz and their dogs moved to New Mexico , where he became more productive than ever in his painting and began development on the Last Days of Coney Island film . In 2003 , he appeared as the Fire Chief in the episode " Fire Dogs 2 " of John Kricfalusi 's Ren & Stimpy " Adult Party Cartoon " ..
In September 2008 , Main Street Pictures announced that it would collaborate with Bakshi on a sequel to Wizards . In 2012 , Bakshi began producing the short film series Bakshi Blues . The first of these shorts , Trickle Dickle Down , contains reused animation from Coonskin and criticizes Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney . The shorts will focus on " old and new characters " and will comment on modern @-@ day America .
= = = Last Days of Coney Island ( 2013 – present ) = = =
In February 2013 , Bakshi launched a successful Kickstarter campaign to obtain funding for his latest film Last Days of Coney Island .
Actor Matthew Modine was cast in the film in February 2013 after Modine , a longtime Bakshi fan , came across the film 's Kickstarter campaign online .
LDOCI was released on Vimeo in 2015 .
= = Legacy = =
In 2003 , Bakshi received a Maverick Tribute Award at the Cinequest San Jose Film Festival . The same year , he began teaching an animaton class in New Mexico - this became The Bakshi School of Animation and Cartooning , which is run by Ralph 's son Edward and his partner Jess Gorell . The availability of Bakshi 's work on the Internet sparked a resurgence of interest in his career , resulting in a three @-@ day American Cinematheque retrospective held at Grauman 's Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood and the Aero Theater in Santa Monica , California , in April 2005 . Unfiltered : The Complete Ralph Bakshi , a hardcover book of Bakshi 's art , was released on April 1 , 2008 . The foreword was written by Quentin Tarantino and the afterword by Bakshi .
The Online Film Critics Society released a list of the " Top 100 Animated Features of All Time " in March 2003 that included four of Bakshi 's films : Fritz the Cat , The Lord of the Rings , Coonskin and Fire and Ice . Fritz the Cat was ranked number 56 in the 2004 poll conducted by Britain 's Channel 4 for its documentary The 100 Greatest Cartoons . The Museum of Modern Art has added Bakshi 's films to its collection for preservation .
After attending a Quentin Tarantino FilmFest in April 1999 where Coonskin was screened , Ain 't It Cool News head writer Harry Knowles wrote that American Pop was still his favorite Ralph Bakshi film .
Gore Verbinski commented about Ralph Bakshi and showed that he was inspired by him during an interview in The Hollywood Reporter for his first animated movie , Rango . Saying , " What happened to the Ralph Bakshis of the world ? We 're all sitting here talking family entertainment . Does animation have to be family entertainment ? Audiences want something new ; they just can 't articulate what . "
On January 12 , 2014 at The Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood , there was a special screening of Bakshi 's film American Pop with actors Ron Thompson and Mews Small in attendance , it was the first time lead actor Ron Thompson had ever introduced the film before a live audience .
At the Aero Theatre in Santa Monica , California on March 27 , 2015 , there was a screening of Heavy Traffic and American Pop with Ralph Bakshi , Ron Thompson and Mews Small attending .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
^ I Selected episodes ^ II Provided the voices of Connelly and Goldblum in the episode " Sex Drive " , and Stevie in the episode " Mano 's Hands " ^ III Provided the voice of the Super Hero ^ IV Animated in conjunction with Doug Compton ^ V Provided the voice of Fire Chief in the episode " Fire Dogs 2 "
= George Ripley ( transcendentalist ) =
George Ripley ( October 3 , 1802 – July 4 , 1880 ) was an American social reformer , Unitarian minister , and journalist associated with Transcendentalism . He was the founder of the short @-@ lived Utopian community Brook Farm in West Roxbury , Massachusetts .
Born in Greenfield , Massachusetts , George Ripley was pushed to attend Harvard College by his father and completed his studies in 1823 . He went on graduate from the Harvard Divinity School and the next year married Sophia Dana . Shortly after , he became ordained as the minister of the Purchase Street Church in Boston , Massachusetts , where he began to question traditional Unitarian beliefs . He became one of the founding members of the Transcendental Club and hosted its first official meeting in his home . Shortly after , he resigned from the church to put Transcendental beliefs in practice by founding an experimental commune called Brook Farm . The community later converted to a model based on the work of Charles Fourier , although the community was never financially stable in either format .
After Brook Farm 's failure , Ripley was hired by Horace Greeley at the New York Tribune . He also published the New American Cyclopaedia , which made him financially successful . He built a national reputation as an arbiter of taste and literature before his death in 1880 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Ripley 's ancestors had lived in Hingham , Massachusetts for 140 years before Jerome Ripley moved his family to Greenfield , a town in the western part of the state , in 1789 . He was moderately successful as the owner of a general store and tavern and was a prominent member of the community . His son George Ripley was born in Greenfield on October 3 , 1802 , the ninth child in the family .
George Ripley 's early life was heavily influenced by women . His nearest brother was thirteen years older than he was and he was raised primarily by his conservative mother , who was distantly related to Benjamin Franklin , and his sisters . He was sent to a private academy run by a Mr. Huntington in Hadley , Massachusetts to prepare for college . Before going to college , he spent three months in Lincoln with Ezra Ripley , a distant relative who was also the stepfather of Ralph Waldo Emerson . Although Ripley wanted to attend the religiously conservative Yale University , his Unitarian father pushed him to attend Harvard College , then known as a hotbed of liberal Unitarianism . Ripley was a good and dedicated student , although he was not popular with students because of his trust of the establishment . Early in his time at Harvard , he had sided with the administration during a student @-@ led protest against poor food , and his attempts at reconciling the two sides prompted ridicule from his peers . Ripley , seeking a socially useful role , found work as a teacher in Fitchburg during winter vacation of his senior year . He graduated in 1823 .
During his time at the school , Ripley became disenchanted with his father and his home town , admitting " no particular attachment to Greenfield " . He hoped to enroll at Andover but his father convinced him to stay in Cambridge to attend Harvard Divinity School . There , he was influenced by Levi Frisbie , Professor of Natural Religion , who was largely interested in moral philosophy , which he termed " the science of the principles and obligations of duty " . Ripley was becoming very interested in more " liberal " religious views , what he wrote to his mother as " so simple , scriptural , and reasonable " . He graduated in 1826 . A year later , on August 22 , 1827 , he married Sophia Dana , a fact which he originally kept a secret from his parents . He asked his sister Marianne to inform them shortly after .
= = = Early career = = =
Ripley officially became a minister at Boston 's Purchase Street Church on November 8 , 1826 , and became influential in the developing the Unitarian religion . Thest ten years of his tenure there were quiet and uneventful , until March 1836 , when Ripley published a long article titled " Schleiermacher as a Theologian " in the Christian Examiner . In it , Ripley praised Schleiermacher 's attempt to create a " religion of the heart " based on intuition and personal communion with God . Later that year , he published a review of British theologian James Martineau 's The Rationale of Religious Enquiry in the same publication . In the review , Ripley charged Unitarian church elders with religious intolerance because they forced the literal acceptance of miracles as a requirement for membership in their church . Andrews Norton , a leading theologian of the day , responded publicly and insisted that disbelief in miracles ultimately denied the truth of Christianity . Norton , formerly Ripley 's teacher at the Divinity School , had been labeled by many as the " hard @-@ headed Unitarian Pope " , and began his public battle with Ripley in the Boston Daily Advertiser on November 5 , 1836 , in an open letter charging Ripley with academic and professional incompetence . Ripley contended that to insist upon the reality of miracles was to demand material proof of spiritual matters , and that faith needed no such external confirmation ; but Norton and the mainstream of Unitarianism found this tantamount to heresy . This dispute laid the groundwork for the separation of a more extreme Transcendentalism from its liberal Unitarian roots . The debate between Norton and Ripley , which earned allies on both sides , continued until 1840 .
= = = Transcendental Club = = =
Ripley met with Ralph Waldo Emerson , Frederic Henry Hedge , and George Putnam in Cambridge , Massachusetts on September 8 , 1836 , to discuss the formation of a new club . Ten days later , on September 18 , 1836 , Ripley hosted their first official meeting at his house . The group at this first meeting of what would become known as the " Transcendental Club " included Bronson Alcott , Orestes Brownson , James Freeman Clarke , and Convers Francis as well as Hedge , Emerson , and Ripley . Future members would include Henry David Thoreau , William Henry Channing , Christopher Pearse Cranch , Sylvester Judd , and Jones Very . Female members included Sophia Ripley , Margaret Fuller , and Elizabeth Peabody . The group planned its meetings for times when Hedge was visiting from Bangor , Maine , leading to the early nickname " Hedge 's Club " . The name Transcendental Club was given to the group by the public and not by its participants . Hedge wrote : " There was no club in the strict sense ... only occasional meetings of like @-@ minded men and women " , earning the nickname " the brotherhood of the ' Like @-@ Minded ' " . Beginning in 1839 , Ripley edited Specimens of Foreign Standard Literature : fourteen volumes of translations meant to demonstrate the breadth of Transcendental thoughts .
= = = Separation from church = = =
Amid the Panic of 1837 , many began to criticize social institutions . That year , Ripley gave a sermon titled " The Temptations of the Times " , suggesting that the major problem in the country was " the inordinate pursuit , the extravagant worship of wealth " . Ripley had been asked by church proprietors to avoid controversial topics in his sermons . He said , " Unless a minister is expected to speak out on all subjects which are uppermost in his mind , with no fear of incurring the charge of heresy or compromising the interests of his congregation , he can never do justice to himself , to his people , or the truth which he is bound to declare " . In May 1840 , he offered his resignation from the Purchase Street Church but was convinced to stay . He soon decided he should leave the ministry altogether and , on October 3 , 1840 , he read a 7 @,@ 300 @-@ word lecture , Letter Addressed to the Congregational Church in Purchase Street , expressing his dissatisfaction with Unitarianism .
Because of his experience with the Specimens translations , Ripley was chosen to be the managing editor of the Transcendental publication The Dial at its inception , working alongside its first editor Margaret Fuller . In addition to overseeing distribution , subscriptions , printing , and finances , Ripley also contributed essays and reviews . In October 1841 , he resigned his post with The Dial as he prepared for an experiment in communal living . As he told Emerson , although he was happy seeing all the Transcendental thoughts in print , he could not be truly happy " without the attempt to realize them " .
= = = Brook Farm = = =
In the late 1830s Ripley became increasingly engaged in " Associationism " , an early Fourierist socialist movement . In October 1840 he announced to the Transcendental Club his plan to form an Associationist community based on Fourier 's Utopian plans . His goals were lofty . As he wrote , " If wisely executed , it will be a light over this country and this age . If not the sunrise , it will be the morning star . "
Ripley and his wife formed a joint stock company in 1841 along with 10 other initial investors . Shares of the company were sold for $ 500 apiece with a promise of five percent of the profits to each investor . The founding membership of the original community included Nathaniel Hawthorne . They chose the Ellis Farm in West Roxbury , Massachusetts as the site of their experiment , which they named Brook Farm . Its 170 acres ( 0 @.@ 69 km2 ) were about eight miles ( 13 km ) from Boston ; a pamphlet described the land as a " place of great natural beauty , combining a convenient nearness to the city with a degree of retirement and freedom from unfavorable influences unusual even in the country " . The land , however , turned out to be difficult to farm and the community struggled with financial difficulties as it built greenhouses and craft shops .
Brook Farm was initially based mostly on the ideals of Transcendentalism ; its founders believed that by pooling labor they could sustain the community and still have time for literary and scientific pursuits . The experiment meant to serve as an example for the rest of the world , established on the principles of " industry without drudgery , and true equality without its vulgarity " . Many in the community wrote of how much they enjoyed their experience . One participant , a man named John Codman , joined the community at the age of 27 in 1843 . He wrote , " It was for the meanest a life above humdrum , and for the greatest something far , infinitely far beyond . They looked into the gates of life and saw beyond charming visions , and hopes springing up for all " . In their free time , the members of Brook Farm enjoyed music , dancing , card games , drama , costume parties , sledding , and skating . Hawthorne , eventually elected treasurer of the community , did not enjoy his experience . He wrote to his wife @-@ to @-@ be Sophia Peabody , " labor is the curse of the world , and nobody can meddle with it without becoming proportionately brutified " .
Many outside the community were also critical , especially in the press . The New York Observer , for example , suggested that , " The Associationists , under the pretense of a desire to promote order and morals , design to overthrow the marriage institution , and in the place of the divine law , to substitute the ' passions ' as the proper regulator of the intercourse of the sexes " , concluding that they were " secretly and industriously aiming to destroy the foundation of society " .
In 1844 , the community , perpetually struggling financially , drafted an entirely new constitution and committed to following more closely the Fourierist model . Not everyone at the community supported the transition , and many left . Many were disappointed that the new , more structured daily routine de @-@ emphasized the carefree leisure time that had been a trademark . Ripley himself became a celebrity proponent of Fourierism and organized conventions throughout New England to discuss the community .
By May 1846 , troubled by the financial difficulties at Brook Farm , Ripley had made an informal split from the community . By its closure a year later , Brook Farm had amassed a total debt of $ 17 @,@ 445 . Ripley was devastated at the failure of his experiment and told a friend , " I can now understand how a man would feel if he could attend his own funeral " . His personal life was also taxed . His wife had converted to Catholicism in 1846 , encouraged by Orestes Brownson , and had become doubtful of his Associationist politics ; the Ripleys ' relationship became strained by the 1850s .
= = = Writing = = =
After Brook Farm , George Ripley began to work as a freelance journalist . In 1849 he was employed by Horace Greeley at the New York Tribune , taking the role left vacant by Margaret Fuller . Greeley had been a proponent of Brook Farm 's conversion to Fourierism . Ripley started his role with the Tribune at $ 12 a week and , at this wage , was not able to pay off the debt of
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On 24 November 2013 a RSL ( Restricted Service Licence ) was given to new station " Hull Community Radio " broadcasting on 87 @.@ 9 FM . As of 2014 , it is now broadcasting online only and is bidding for a licence from Ofcom to broadcast on FM to East Hull .
= = Sport = =
The Hull area has available a wide range of both spectator and participatory sporting clubs and organisations . There are various sports such as professional football , rugby league , golf , darts , athletics and watersports .
The city 's professional football club , Hull City A.F.C. ( The Tigers ) , play in the Premier League , the first tier of the English football league system , after promotion from the Championship in the 2016 play @-@ off final win against Sheffield Wednesday . The team play at the KCOM Stadium . There are also two non @-@ league clubs based in the city , Hall Road Rangers , who play at Haworth Park , and Hull United , who play at Craven Park . Both teams play in the Northern Counties East Division One .
Hull is also a rugby league hub , having two clubs who play in the Super League competition . Hull F.C. , alongside the city 's football club Hull City , play at the KCOM Stadium while Hull Kingston Rovers play at Craven Park in East Hull . There are also several lower league teams in the city , such as East Hull , West Hull , Hull Dockers and Hull Isberg , who all play in the National Conference League . Rugby union is catered for by Hull Ionians who play at Brantingham Park. and Hull RUFC who are based in the city .
The city has two athletics clubs based at the Costello Stadium in the west of the city – Kingston upon Hull Athletics Club and Hull Achilies Athletics Club .
Cycling wise the city is home to Hull Cycle Speedway Club situated at the Hessle raceway near the Humber bridge . The side race in the sports Northern league and won both the league titles in 2008 . Other cycling clubs also operate throughout the city including Hull Thursday , the areas road racing group .
The city also has Hull Arena , a large ice rink and concert venue , which was home to the Hull Pirates ice hockey team who played in the English Premier League . It is also home to the Kingston Kestrels sledge hockey team . In August 2010 , Hull Daily Mail reported that Hull Stingrays was facing closure , following a financial crisis . The club was subsequently saved from closure following a takeover by Coventry Blaze . But on 24 June 2015 , the club announced on its official website that it has been placed into liquidation .
The Hull Hornets American Football ( existed from 2005 until 2011 ) The Club which acquired full member status of the British American Football League on 5 November 2006 and played in the BAFL Division 2 Central league for 5 years . The Humber Warhawks formed in 2013 are now Hull 's American football team . Greyhound racing returned to the city on 25 October 2007 when The Boulevard stadium re @-@ opened as a venue for the sport . In mid @-@ 2006 Hull was home to the professional wrestling company One Pro Wrestling , which held the Devils Due event on 27 July in the Gemtec Arena . From 16 May 2008 , Hull gained its own homegrown wrestling company based at the Eastmount Recreation Centre- — New Generation Wrestling — -that have featured the likes of El Ligero , Kris Travis , Martin Kirby and Alex Shane .
Hull Lacrosse Club was formed in 2008 and currently plays in the Premier 3 division of the North of England Men 's Lacrosse Association .
The city played host to the Clipper Round the World Yacht Race , a tough 35 @,@ 000 miles ( 56 @,@ 000 km ) race around the globe , for the 2009 – 10 race which started on 13 September 2009 and finished on 17 July 2010 . The locally named yacht , Hull and Humber , captained by Danny Watson , achieved second place in the 2007 – 2008 race .
The city hosted The British Open Squash Championships at the KC Stadium in 2013 and 2014 .
= = Transport = =
The main road into and out of Hull is the M62 motorway / A63 road , one of the main east – west routes in Northern England . It provides a link to the cities of Leeds , Manchester and Liverpool , as well as the rest of the country via the UK motorway network . The motorway itself ends some distance from the city ; the rest of the route is along the A63 dual carriageway . This east – west route forms a small part of the European road route E20 .
Hull is close to the Humber Bridge , which provides road links to destinations south of the Humber . It was built between 1972 and 1981 , and at the time was the longest single @-@ span suspension bridge in the world . It is now seventh on the list .
Before the bridge was built , those wishing to cross the Humber had to either take a Humber Ferry or travel inland as far as Goole .
Public transport within the city is provided East Yorkshire Motor Services ( EYMS ) , Stagecoach in Hull and CT Plus . Stagecoach In Hull provide the inter @-@ city transport serving suburban areas such as Bransholme , Greatfield and Orchard Park , as well as going to places such as Cleethorpes , Grimsby and Scunthorpe . EYMS serve the outer @-@ city and the East Riding of Yorkshire as well as places such as Pocklington , Scarborough , Whitby and York .
Hull Paragon Interchange , opened on 16 September 2007 , is the city 's transport hub , combining the main bus and rail termini in an integrated complex . It is expected to have 24 @,@ 000 people passing through the complex each day . There is services that run to certain other parts of the UK . These include through expresses to London , up to seven per day provided by Hull Trains and one a day ( the Hull Executive ) by Virgin Trains East Coast . Other long @-@ distance rail services are provided by TransPennine Express serving Leeds and Manchester . The nearest access to fast East Coast Main Line services northwards to Teesside , Tyneside and Scotland is via either York or Doncaster , in either case requiring a connecting journey by local train from Hull . Hull also has no through trains to the West Midlands and beyond . Northern operates regular local stopping trains to Beverley , Brough and Goole , and the coastal towns of Bridlington and Scarborough , along with services to Selby , York , Doncaster and Sheffield .
P & O Ferries provide daily overnight ferry services from King George Dock in Hull to Zeebrugge and Rotterdam . Services to Rotterdam are worked by ferries MS Pride of Rotterdam and MS Pride of Hull . Services to Zeebrugge are worked by ferries MS Pride of Bruges and MS Pride of York ( previously named MS Norsea ) . Both Pride of Rotterdam and Pride of Hull are too wide to pass through the lock at Hull . Associated British Ports built a new terminal at Hull to accommodate the passengers using these two ferries . The Rotterdam Terminal at the Port of Hull , was built at a cost of £ 14 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 .
The nearest airport is Humberside Airport , 20 miles ( 32 km ) away in Lincolnshire , which provides a few charter flights but also has high @-@ frequency flights to Amsterdam with KLM and Aberdeen with Eastern Airways each day . Robin Hood Airport in South Yorkshire is 48 miles ( 77 km ) from Hull city centre and provides a wider choice of charter flights as well as a number of low @-@ cost flights to certain European destinations . The nearest airport with intercontinental flights is Leeds Bradford International Airport ( 70 miles ) .
Road transport in Hull suffers from delays caused both by the many bridges over the navigable River Hull , which bisects the city and which can cause disruption at busy times , and from the remaining three railway level crossings in the city . The level @-@ crossing problem was greatly relieved during the 1960s by the closure of the Hornsea and Withernsea branch lines , by the transfer of all goods traffic to the high @-@ level line that circles the city , and by the construction of two major road bridges on Hessle Road ( 1962 ) and Anlaby Road ( 1964 ) .
According to the 2001 census data cycling in the city is well above the national average of 2 % , with a 12 % share of the travel to work traffic . A report by the University of East London in 2011 ranked Hull as the fourth @-@ best cycling city in the United Kingdom .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Telephone system = = =
Hull is the only city in the UK with its own independent telephone network company , KCOM , formerly KC and Kingston Communications , a subsidiary of KCOM Group . Its distinctive cream telephone boxes can be seen across the city . KCOM produces its own ' White Pages ' telephone directory for Hull and the wider KC area . Colour Pages is KCOM 's business directory , the counterpart to Yellow Pages . The company was formed in 1902 as a municipal department by the City Council and is an early example of municipal enterprise . It remains the only locally operated telephone company in the UK , although it is now privatised . KCOM 's Internet brands are Karoo Broadband ( ISP serving Hull ) and Eclipse ( national ISP ) Initially Hull City Council retained a 44 @.@ 9 per cent interest in the company and used the proceeds from the sale of shares to fund the city 's sports venue , the KCOM Stadium , among other things . On 24 May 2007 it sold its remaining stake in the company for over £ 107 million .
KCOM ( Kingston Communications ) was one of the first telecoms operators in Europe to offer ADSL to business users , and the first in the world to run an interactive television service using ADSL , known as Kingston Interactive TV ( KiT ) , which has since been discontinued due to financial problems . In the last decade , the KCOM Group has expanded beyond Hull and diversified its service portfolio to become a nationwide provider of telephone , television , and Internet access services , having close to 180 @,@ 000 customers projected for 2007 . After its ambitious programme of expansion , KCOM has struggled in recent years and now has partnerships with other telecommunications firms such as BT who are contracted to manage its national infrastructure . Telephone House , on Carr Lane , the firm 's 1960s @-@ built headquarters , in stark modernist style , is a local landmark .
= = = Hydraulic power = = =
The first public hydraulic power network , supplying many companies , was constructed in Hull . The Hull Hydraulic Power Company began operation in 1877 , with Edward B. Ellington as its engineer and the main pumping station ( now a Grade II listed building ) in Catherine Street . Ellington was involved in most British networks , including those in London , Liverpool , Birmingham , Manchester and Glasgow , but the advent of electrical power combined with wartime damage meant the Hull company was wound up in 1947 .
= = = Public services = = =
Policing in Kingston upon Hull is provided by Humberside Police . In October 2006 the force was named ( jointly with Northamptonshire Police ) as the worst @-@ performing police force in the United Kingdom , based on data released from the Home Office . However , after a year of " major improvements " , the Home Office list released in October 2007 shows the force rising several places ( although still among the bottom six of 43 forces rated ) . Humberside Police received ratings of " good " or " fair " in most categories .
HM Prison Hull is located in the city and is operated by HM Prison Service . It caters for up to 1 @,@ 000 Category B / C adult male prisoners .
Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Humberside Fire and Rescue Service , which has its headquarters near Hessle and five fire stations in Hull . This service was formed in 1974 following local government reorganisation from the amalgamation of the East Riding of Yorkshire County Fire Service , Grimsby Borough Fire and Rescue Service , Kingston Upon Hull City Fire Brigade and part of the Lincoln ( Lindsey ) Fire Brigade and a small part of the West Riding of Yorkshire County Fire and Rescue Service .
Hull and East Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust provides healthcare from three sites , Hull Royal Infirmary , Castle Hill Hospital and , until 2010 , Princess Royal Hospital and there are several private hospitals including ones run by BUPA and Nuffield Hospitals . The Yorkshire Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport . NHS primary health care services are commissioned by the Hull Clinical Commissioning Group and are provided at several smaller clinics and general practitioner surgeries across the city . NHS Mental health services in Hull are provided by Humber NHS Foundation Trust . It runs a memory clinic in Coltman Street , west Hull designed to help older people with early onset dementia .
Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the local authority . The Waste Recycling Group is a company which works in partnership with the Hull City and East Riding of Yorkshire councils to deal with the waste produced by residents . The company plans to build an energy from waste plant at Salt End to deal with 240 @,@ 000 tonnes of rubbish and put waste to a productive use by providing power for the equivalent of 20 @,@ 000 houses . Hull 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is CE Electric UK ( YEDL ) ; there are no power stations in the city . Yorkshire Water manages Hull 's drinking and waste water . Drinking water is provided by boreholes and aquifers in the East Riding of Yorkshire , and it is abstracted from the River Hull at Tophill Low , near Hutton Cranswick . Should either supply experience difficulty meeting demand , water abstracted from the River Derwent at both Elvington and Loftsome Bridge can be moved to Hull via the Yorkshire water grid . There are many reservoirs in the area for storage of potable and non @-@ potable water . Waste water and sewage has to be transported in a wholly pumped system because of the flat nature of the terrain to a sewage treatment works at Salt End . The treatment works is partly powered by both a wind turbine and a biogas CHP engine .
= = Education = =
= = = Higher education = = =
= = = = University of Hull = = = =
Kingston upon Hull is home to the University of Hull , which was founded in 1927 and received its Royal Charter in 1954 . It now has a total student population of around 20 @,@ 000 across its main campuses in Hull and Scarborough . The main University campus is in North Hull , on Cottingham Road . Notable alumni include former Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott , the poet Philip Larkin , social scientist Lord Anthony Giddens , Woman 's Hour presenter and writer Jenni Murray , and the dramatist Anthony Minghella . Hull University is a partner in the new University Centre of the Grimsby Institute of Further and Higher Education ( GIFE ) being built in Grimsby , North Lincolnshire .
= = = = Hull York Medical School = = = =
The Hull York Medical School ( HYMS ) is a joint venture between the University of Hull and the University of York . It first admitted students in 2003 as a part of the British government 's attempts to train more doctors .
= = = = University of Lincoln = = = =
The University of Lincoln grew out of the University of Humberside , a former polytechnic based in Hull . In the 1990s the focus of the institution moved to nearby Lincoln and the administrative headquarters and management moved in 2001 . The University of Lincoln has retained a campus in George Street in Hull city centre whilst Hull University purchased the adjacent University of Lincoln campus site on Cottingham Road . Following government cuts to Higher Education funding , the George Street campus is due to close in 2013 with courses transferred to Lincoln .
= = = = Other institutions = = = =
The Hull School of Art , founded in 1861 , is regarded nationally and internationally for its excellence as a specialist creative centre for higher education .
The Northern Academy of Performing Arts and Northern Theatre School both provide education in musical theatre , performance and dance .
= = = Schools and colleges = = =
Hull has over 100 local schools ; of these , Hull City Council supports 14 secondary and 71 primary schools . The highest achieving state school in Hull is Malet Lambert School , Schools which are independent of the City Council include Hymers College and Hull Collegiate School . The latter , which is run by the United Church Schools Trust , was formed by the merging of Hull Grammar School and Hull High School . There is a further education college , Hull College , and two large sixth form colleges , Wyke College and Wilberforce College . East Riding College operates a small adult education campus in the city , and Endeavour Learning and Skills Centre is an adult education provision operated by HCC Training . Hull Trinity House Academy has been offering pre @-@ sea training to prospective mariners since 1787 . There are only two single @-@ sex schools in Hull : Trinity House Academy , which teaches only boys , and Newland School for Girls .
= = = = Schools ratings = = = =
The city has had a poor examination success rate for many years and is often at the bottom of government GCSE league tables . In the 2007 the city moved off the bottom of these tables for pupils who achieve five A * to C grades , including English and Maths , at General Certificate of Secondary Education by just one place when it came 149th out of 150 local education authorities . However , the improvement rate of 4 @.@ 1 per cent , from 25 @.@ 9 per cent in 2006 to 30 per cent in summer 2007 , was among the best in the country . They returned to the bottom of the table in 2008 when 29 @.@ 3 per cent achieved five A * to C grades which is well below the national average of 47 @.@ 2 per cent .
= = Dialect and accent = =
The local accent is quite distinctive and noticeably different from the rest of the East Riding ; however it is still categorised among Yorkshire accents . The most notable feature of the accent is the strong I @-@ mutation in words like goat , which is [ ˈɡəʊt ] in standard English and [ ˈɡoːt ] across most of Yorkshire , becomes [ ˈɡɵːt ] ( " gert " ) in and around parts of Hull , although there is variation across areas and generations . In common with much of England ( outside of the far north ) , another feature is dropping the H from the start of words , for example Hull is more often pronounced ' Ull in the city . The vowel in " Hull " is pronounced the same way as in northern English , however , and not as the very short / ʊ / that exists in Lincolnshire . Though the rhythm of the accent is more like that of northern Lincolnshire than that of the rural East Riding , which is perhaps due to migration from Lincolnshire to the city during its industrial growth , one feature that it does share with the surrounding rural area is that an / aɪ / sound in the middle of a word often becomes an / ɑː / : for example , " five " may sound like " fahve " , " time " like " tahme " .
The vowel sound in words such as burnt , nurse , first is pronounced with an / ɛ / sound , as is also heard in Middlesbrough and in areas of Liverpool yet this sound is very uncommon in most of Yorkshire . The word pairs spur / spare and fur / fair illustrate this . The generational and / or geographic variation can be heard in word pairs like pork / poke or cork / coke , or hall / hole , which some people pronounce almost identically , sounding to non @-@ locals like they are using the second of the two variations - while others make more of a vocal distinction ; anyone called " Paul " ( for example ) soon becomes aware of this ( pall / pole ) .
= = Notable people = =
Most of the notable people associated with the city can be found in the People from Kingston upon Hull and People associated with the University of Hull categories .
People from Hull are called " Hullensians " and the city has been the birthplace and home to many notable people . Amongst those of historic significance with a connection to Hull are former city MP William Wilberforce who was instrumental in the abolition of slavery and Amy Johnson , aviator who was the first woman to fly solo from England to Australia .
Entertainers from the city include ; Dorothy Mackaill , 1950 's singer David Whitfield , sports commentator Tony Green , actors Sir Tom Courtenay , Ian Carmichael , John Alderton and more recently Reece Shearsmith. and actress Maureen Lipman . Playwrights Richard Bean , John Godber and Alan Plater have close connections with Hull .
Musicians include ; Paul Heaton of The Housemartins and The Beautiful South and guitarist Mick Ronson and Trevor Bolder who worked with David Bowie and more recently 2000 's Indie band The Paddingtons . The logician John Venn hailed from Hull . The poet Philip Larkin lived in Hull for 30 years and wrote much of his mature work in the city . Artist David Remfry RA studied at Hull College of Art before moving to London and New York .
Chemist Professor George Gray , who had a 45 @-@ year career at the university , developed the first stable liquid crystals that became an immediate success for the screens of all sorts of electronic gadgets . Notable sportspeople include Clive Sullivan , rugby league player , who played for both of Hull 's professional rugby league teams and was the first black Briton to captain any national representative team . The main A63 road into the city from the Humber Bridge is named after him ( Clive Sullivan Way ) . Nick Barmby played for Tottenham Hotspur , Middlesbrough , Everton , Liverpool , and Leeds United before returning to play for his hometown club Hull City . He also won 23 England caps and played in the famous 5 @-@ 1 victory over Germany in 2001 . Another footballer is Dean Windass , who had two spells with Hull City . On accepting a peerage , Welsh @-@ born Baron Prescott of Kingston @-@ upon @-@ Hull ( former MP and Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott ) took his title from his adopted home city of Hull .
= = International relations = =
Hull has formal twinning arrangements with
The following cities are named directly after Hull :
Hull , Massachusetts , United States
Hull , Quebec , Canada
= = = Local rivalries = = =
Hull has a longstanding local rivalry with the southbank towns of Scunthorpe and Grimsby on the opposite side of the Humber .
= History of the Rove Formation =
The Rove Formation is located in the upper northeastern part of Cook County , Minnesota , United States , and extends into Ontario , Canada . It is the youngest of the many Animikie layers , a layer of sedimentary rocks .
Before the Rove sediments were laid down , during the Archean Eon , the Algoman orogeny added landmass along a border from South Dakota to the Lake Huron region ; this boundary is the Great Lakes tectonic zone . Several million years later a thin layer of hypervelocity impact ejecta from the Sudbury impact event was deposited on the older , underlying , Gunflint Iron Formation , and the Rove was then deposited on top of the ejecta ; it is estimated that at ground zero the earthquake generated by the meteor impact would have registered 10 @.@ 2 on the Richter scale .
During the Middle Precambrian a shallow inland sea covered much of the Lake Superior region and formed the Animikie Group , layers of sedimentary rocks overlying 2700 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Archean rocks . The Rove Formation is the youngest of the many Animikie layers .
After the Rove sediments were deposited , the Penokean orogeny added more land mass by accretion that occurred from the south . A few hundred million years later the proto @-@ North American continent nearly split in half along the Midcontinent Rift zone , which is a bow @-@ shaped rift extending from northeast Kansas , arcing through the present @-@ day Lake Superior Basin and then angling southeast through Michigan . Then came a period of advancing and retreating glaciers . The more resistant diabase sills and dikes remained , while the softer shales were bulldozed away by the glaciers . The north path of glaciation is transverse to the general trend on the valleys and ridges .
As a result of erosion of sandstone and the erosion @-@ resistant sills and dikes , the topography in Minnesota has repeated parallel hills and
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after his own psychiatrist . Chase had been fascinated by organized crime and the mafia from an early age , witnessing such people growing up , and having been raised on classic gangster films like The Public Enemy and the crime series The Untouchables . The series is partly inspired by the Boiardo family , a prominent New Jersey organized crime family when Chase was growing up , and partly on New Jersey 's DeCavalcante family . Chase has mentioned American playwrights Arthur Miller and Tennessee Williams as influences on his and the show 's writing and Italian director Federico Fellini as an important influence on the show 's cinematic style . The series was named after high school friends of his . Like the majority of the characters on the show , Chase is Italian @-@ American . His original family name is DeCesare .
Chase and producer Brad Grey , then of Brillstein @-@ Grey , pitched The Sopranos to several networks ; Fox showed interest but passed on it after Chase presented them the pilot script . Chase and Grey eventually pitched the show to Chris Albrecht , at the time president of HBO Original Programming , who decided to finance the shooting of a pilot episode .
The pilot episode — originally referred to as " Pilot " but renamed to " The Sopranos " on the DVD release — was shot in 1997 ; Chase directed it himself . After the pilot was finished and shown to the HBO executives , the show was put on hold for several months . During this time , Chase considered asking HBO for additional funding to shoot 45 more minutes of footage and release The Sopranos as a feature film . In December 1997 , HBO decided to produce the series and ordered 12 more episodes for a 13 @-@ episode season . The show premiered on HBO on January 10 , 1999 with the pilot episode . The Sopranos was the second hour @-@ long television drama series produced by HBO , the first being the prison drama Oz .
= = = = Baer v. Chase = = = =
Robert Baer ( a former North Jersey prosecutor and municipal judge ) lost a breach of contract lawsuit he filed against Chase in federal court in Trenton , New Jersey , alleging he helped create the show , but Baer won a ruling that a jury should decide if and how much Baer should be paid for services as a location scout , researcher , and consultant . The gist of Baer 's argument : in addition to Chase 's own sources and ideas , some characters , settings , and storylines portrayed in The Sopranos were allegedly inspired by tours and conversations the series creator had with Tony Spirito ( " a restaurateur and admitted gambler who says he often did ' favors ' such as chauffeuring for wiseguys he had known all his life . His old pals included reputed notorious figure John ' Uncle Johnny ' Riggi and Louis ' Fat Lou ' LaRasso , a late underboss of the DeCavalcante crime family " ) , Thomas Koczur ( a homicide detective for the Elizabeth Police Department ) , and people Spirito and Koczur introduced Chase to , in addition to communications and input provided by Baer , who 'd introduced Chase to Spirito and Koczur in the first place .
= = = Casting = = =
Like the characters they portray on the show , many of the actors on The Sopranos are Italian @-@ American . Many cast members had appeared together in films and television series before joining the cast of The Sopranos . The series shares a total of 27 actors with the 1990 Martin Scorsese gangster film , Goodfellas , including main cast members Lorraine Bracco , Michael Imperioli , and Tony Sirico .
The main cast was put together through a process of auditions and readings . Actors often did not know whether Chase liked their performances or not . Michael Imperioli , who beat out several actors for the part of Christopher Moltisanti , recalls " He 's got a poker face , so I thought he wasn 't into me , and he kept giving me notes and having me try it again , which often is a sign that you 're not doing it right . I thought , I 'm not getting this . So he said , ' Thank you , ' and I left . I didn 't expect to hear back . And then they called . " Chase also said he wanted Imperioli because he had been in Goodfellas . James Gandolfini was invited to audition for the part of Tony Soprano after casting director Susan Fitzgerald saw a short clip of his performance in the 1993 film True Romance . Lorraine Bracco , who had played the role of mob wife Karen Hill in Goodfellas , was originally asked to play the role of Carmela Soprano . She took the role of Dr. Jennifer Melfi instead because she wanted to try something different and felt the part of the highly educated Dr. Melfi would be more of a challenge for her . Tony Sirico , who has a criminal background , signed on to play Paulie Walnuts as long as his character was not to be a " rat " . Chase invited musician " Little Steven " Van Zandt ( known as the guitarist of Bruce Springsteen 's E Street Band ) to audition for a part in his series after seeing him live at the 1997 Rock & Roll Hall of Fame ceremony and being impressed with his appearance and presence . Van Zandt , who had never acted before , originally auditioned for the role of Tony Soprano but felt the role should go to an experienced actor . Van Zandt eventually agreed to star on the show as mob consigliere Silvio Dante and his real @-@ life spouse Maureen was cast as his on @-@ screen wife , Gabriella .
With the exception of Oscar nominee Bracco ( Goodfellas ) , Dominic Chianese ( The Godfather Part II , along with stage work ) and Emmy @-@ winner Nancy Marchand ( Lou Grant ) , the cast of the debut season of the series consisted of largely unknown actors . After the breakthrough success of the show , many cast members were noted for their acting ability and received mainstream attention for their performances . Subsequent seasons saw some established actors ( Joe Pantoliano , Robert Loggia , Steve Buscemi , Frank Vincent ) join the starring cast along with well @-@ known actors in recurring roles such as Peter Bogdanovich , John Heard , Robert Patrick , Peter Riegert , Annabella Sciorra , and David Strathairn . Several well @-@ known actors appeared in just one or two episodes , such as Lauren Bacall , Daniel Baldwin , Annette Bening , Polly Bergen , Sandra Bernhard , Charles S. Dutton , Jon Favreau , Janeane Garofalo , Hal Holbrook , Tim Kang , Elias Koteas , Ben Kingsley , Linda Lavin , Ken Leung , Julianna Margulies , Sydney Pollack , Wilmer Valderamma , Alicia Witt and Burt Young .
= = = Crew = = =
Series creator and executive producer David Chase served as showrunner and head writer for the production of all six seasons of the show . He was deeply involved with the general production of every episode and is noted for being a very controlling , demanding and specific producer . In addition to writing or co @-@ writing 2 – 7 episodes per season , Chase would oversee all the editing , consult with episode directors , give actors character motivation , approve casting choices and set designs and do extensive but uncredited re @-@ writes of episodes written by other writers . Brad Grey served as executive producer alongside Chase , but had no creative input on the show . Many members of the creative team behind The Sopranos were handpicked by Chase , some being old friends and colleagues of his ; others were selected after interviews conducted by producers of the show .
Many of the show 's writers worked in television prior to joining the writing staff of The Sopranos . Writing team and married couple Robin Green and Mitchell Burgess , who worked on the series as writers and producers from the first to the fifth season , had previously worked with Chase on Northern Exposure . Terence Winter , who joined the writing staff during the production of the second season and served as executive producer from season five onwards , practiced law for two years before deciding to pursue a career as a screenwriter . He eventually caught the attention of Chase through writer Frank Renzulli . Matthew Weiner , who served as staff writer and producer for the show 's fifth and sixth seasons , wrote a spec script for the series Mad Men in 2000 . The script was passed on to Chase who , after reading it , was so impressed that he immediately offered Weiner a job as a writer for The Sopranos . Cast members Michael Imperioli and Toni Kalem , who portray Christopher Moltisanti and Angie Bonpensiero , respectively , also wrote episodes for the show . Imperioli wrote five episodes of seasons two through five and Kalem wrote one episode of season five . Other writers the show employed throughout its run include Frank Renzulli , Todd A. Kessler ( known as the co @-@ creator of Damages ) , writing team Diane Frolov and Andrew Schneider ( worked with Chase on Northern Exposure ) and Lawrence Konner , who co @-@ created Almost Grown with Chase in 1988 . In total , 20 writers or writing teams ( 22 people ) are credited with writing episodes of The Sopranos . Of these , two ( Tim Van Patten and Maria Laurino ) receive a single story credit and eight are credited with writing a sole episode . The most prolific writers of the series were Chase ( 30 credited episodes , including story credits ) , Winter ( 25 episodes ) , Green and Burgess ( 22 episodes ) , Weiner ( 12 episodes ) and Renzulli ( 9 episodes ) .
Before directing The Sopranos , many of the directors had worked on other television series and in independent films . The most frequent directors of the series were Tim Van Patten ( 20 episodes ) , John Patterson ( 13 episodes ) , Allen Coulter ( 12 episodes ) , and Alan Taylor ( 9 episodes ) , all of whom have a background in television . Recurring cast members Steve Buscemi and Peter Bogdanovich also directed episodes of the series intermittently . Chase directed two episodes himself , the pilot episode and the series finale . Both episodes were photographed by the show 's original director of photography Alik Sakharov ; he later alternated episodes with Phil Abraham . The show 's photography and directing is noted for its feature film @-@ quality . This look was achieved by Chase collaborating with Sakharov : " David wanted a look that would have its own two feet . [ ... ] From the pilot , we would sit down with the whole script and break the scenes down into shots . That 's what you do with feature films . "
= = = Music = = =
The Sopranos is noted for its eclectic music selections and has received considerable critical attention for its effective use of previously recorded songs . Chase personally selected all of the show 's music with producer Martin Bruestle and music editor Kathryn Dayak , sometimes also consulting Steven Van Zandt . The music was usually selected once the production and editing of an episode was completed , but on occasion sequences were filmed to match preselected pieces of music .
The show 's opening theme is " Woke Up This Morning " ( Chosen One Mix ) , written by , remixed and performed by British band Alabama 3 . With few exceptions , a different song plays over the closing credits of each episode . Many songs are repeated multiple times through an episode , such as " Living on a Thin Line " by The Kinks in the season three episode " University " and " Glad Tidings " by Van Morrison in the season five finale " All Due Respect " . Other songs are heard several times throughout the series . A notable example is " Con te partirò " , performed by Italian singer Andrea Bocelli , which plays several times in relation to the character of Carmela Soprano . While the show utilizes a wealth of previously recorded music , it is also notable for its lack of originally composed incidental music , compared to other television programs .
Two soundtrack albums containing music from the series have been released . The first , titled The Sopranos : Music from the HBO Original Series , was released in 1999 . It contains selections from the show 's first two seasons and reached # 54 on the U.S. Billboard 200 . A second soundtrack compilation , titled The Sopranos - Peppers and Eggs : Music From The HBO Series , was released in 2001 . This double @-@ disc album contains songs and selected dialogue from the show 's first three seasons . It reached # 38 on the U.S. Billboard 200 .
= = = Sets and locations = = =
The majority of the exterior scenes taking place in New Jersey were filmed on location , with the majority of the interior shots — including most indoor shots of the Soprano residence , the back room of the strip club Bada Bing ! , and Dr. Melfi 's psychiatrist 's office — filmed at Silvercup Studios in New York City .
The pork store , a frequent hangout for the mobsters on the show , was in the pilot episode known as Centanni 's Meat Market , an actual butchery in Elizabeth , New Jersey . After the series was picked up by HBO , the producers leased a building with a store front in Kearny , New Jersey . For the remainder of the production period , this building served as the shooting location for scenes outside and inside the pork store , now renamed Satriale 's . After the series ended , the building was demolished .
Bada Bing ! , a strip club owned and operated by the character Silvio Dante on the show , is an actual strip club on Route 17 in Lodi , New Jersey . Exteriors and interiors ( except for the back room ) were shot on location . The club is called Satin Dolls and was an existing business before the show started . The club continued to operate during the eight years the show was filmed there . As such , a business arrangement was worked out with the owner . Locations manager Mark Kamine recalls that the owner was " very gracious " as long as the shooting did not " conflict with his business time . " Scenes set at the restaurant Vesuvio , owned and operated in the series by character Artie Bucco , were in the first episode filmed at a restaurant called Manolo 's located in Elizabeth . After the destruction of Vesuvio within the context of the series , Artie opened a new restaurant called Nuovo Vesuvio ; exterior scenes set there were filmed at an Italian restaurant called Punta Dura located in Long Island City . All the exterior and some interior shots of the Soprano residence were filmed on location at a private residence in North Caldwell , New Jersey .
= = = Title sequence = = =
Tony Soprano is seen emerging from the Lincoln Tunnel and passes through the tollbooth for the New Jersey Turnpike . Numerous landmarks in and around Newark and Elizabeth , New Jersey , are then shown passing by the camera as Tony drives down the highway . The sequence ends with Tony pulling into the driveway of his suburban home . Chase has said that the goal of the title sequence was to show that this particular mafia show was about New Jersey , as opposed to New York , where most similar dramas have been set .
In the first three seasons , between Tony leaving the tunnel and entering the Turnpike , an image of the World Trade Center towers is visible in his side rear @-@ view mirror . After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , this shot was removed , beginning with the show 's fourth season .
In a 2010 issue of TV Guide , the show ’ s opening title sequence ranked # 10 on a list of TV 's top 10 credits sequences , as selected by readers .
= = Cast and characters = =
The Sopranos features a large cast of characters , many of whom get significant amounts of character development — regardless of level of importance . Some only appear in certain seasons , while others appear ( sporadically or constantly ) throughout the entire series . All characters were created by David Chase , unless otherwise noted .
Tony Soprano ( James Gandolfini ) is the series ' protagonist . Tony is one of the capos ( and the unofficial underboss ) of the New Jersey @-@ based DiMeo crime family , at the beginning of the series ; he eventually becomes its undisputed boss . He is also the patriarch of the Soprano household . Throughout the series , Tony struggles to balance the conflicting requirements of his family — wife Carmela , daughter Meadow , son A. J. , and mother Livia — with those of the Mafia family he controls . Because he is prone to bouts of clinical depression , after a fainting spell ( triggered by a panic attack ) , Tony 's physician refers him for treatment from psychiatrist Dr. Jennifer Melfi ( Lorraine Bracco ) , in the show 's first episode . She treats Tony to the best of her ability despite the fact that they routinely clash over various issues . Melfi is usually thoughtful , rational and humane — a stark contrast to Tony 's personality . Tony , a serial womanizer , occasionally divulges his sexual attraction to Dr. Melfi ; Melfi harbors some degree of attraction to Tony , too , but never admits or acts on it . Melfi is far more attracted to Tony 's dangerousness and power . She is drawn to the challenge of helping such an unusual client , and naively assumes that their doctor @-@ patient relationship will not affect her personal life in any way .
Adding to Tony 's complicated life is his relationship with his wife Carmela ( Edie Falco ) , which is strained by his constant infidelity and her struggle to reconcile the reality of Tony 's business ( which she is often in denial of ) , with the affluent lifestyle and higher social status it brings her . Both have up @-@ and @-@ down relationships with their two children : the intelligent @-@ but @-@ rebellious Meadow ( Jamie @-@ Lynn Sigler ) , and underachiever A.J. ( i.e. , Anthony , Jr . ) ( Robert Iler ) , whose everyday teenage issues are further complicated by their eventual knowledge of their father 's criminal activities and reputation .
The starring cast includes members of Tony 's extended family , including : his disapproving , manipulative mother , Olivia " ' Livia " Soprano ( Nancy Marchand ) ; his aimless , histrionic older sister , Janice ( Aida Turturro ) ; his paternal uncle Corrado " Junior " Soprano ( Dominic Chianese ) , nominal boss of the crime family following the death of then @-@ acting boss Jackie Aprile , Sr. ; cousin Tony Blundetto ( Steve Buscemi ) ; and , Christopher Moltisanti ( Michael Imperioli ) , often referred to as Tony 's " nephew " ( but is actually his cousin by marriage ) . Both ' Livia and Janice are scheming , treacherous , shrewd manipulators with major @-@ yet @-@ unaddressed psychological issues of their own . The single @-@ mindedly ambitious Uncle Junior is chronically frustrated by having not been made boss of the DiMeo family , despite old @-@ school mob traditions entitling him to the position by virtue of seniority . He feels his authority is perpetually undermined by Tony 's greater influence in the organization , and barely contains his seething jealousy at having to watch both his younger brother ( Tony 's father ) and now Tony , himself , leapfrog him in the organization . As their professional tensions escalate , Uncle Junior employs increasingly desperate , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes measures to solve his problems with Tony , who still idolizes his uncle , and wants to retain Junior 's affection and approval . Uncle Junior and Christopher are fixtures in Tony 's real family , as well as his crime family , so their actions in one realm often create further conflicts in the other . Christopher , an entitled , insecure DiMeo associate who is as ambitious as he is insubordinate and incompetent , is also a chronic substance abuser . Tony Blundetto is a well @-@ respected DiMeo family soldier who returns after completing a lengthy prison sentence ; he leaves prison committed to " going straight " ( to Tony 's dismay ) , but also has an intense violent streak .
Tony 's close circle within the DiMeo crime family includes : Silvio Dante ( Steven Van Zandt ) , who runs the family 's strip club headquarters , and other businesses ; Paulie " Walnuts " Gualtieri ( Tony Sirico ) , a tough , short @-@ tempered , aging soldier who is fiercely loyal to Tony ; and , Salvatore " Big Pussy " Bonpensiero ( Vincent Pastore ) , a veteran gangster who runs an automotive body shop . Silvio is Tony 's consigliere and best friend . Paulie " Walnuts " and " Big Pussy " ( often called just , " Pussy " ) have worked with Tony and his father ; Also in Tony 's criminal organization are : Patsy Parisi ( Dan Grimaldi ) , and Furio Giunta ( Federico Castelluccio ) . Patsy is a soft @-@ spoken soldier with a head for figures ; Furio , an Italian national who joins the family later in the series , serves as Tony 's violent enforcer and bodyguard .
Other significant characters in the DiMeo family include : Bobby " Bacala " Baccalieri ( Steven R. Schirripa ) ; Richie Aprile ( David Proval ) ; Ralph Cifaretto ( Joe Pantoliano ) ; Eugene Pontecorvo ( Robert Funaro ) ; and Vito Spatafore ( Joseph R. Gannascoli ) . Bobby is a subordinate of Uncle Junior 's whom Tony initially bullies , but later accepts into his inner circle . Ralph is a clever , ambitious top @-@ earner ; but , his arrogance and obnoxious , disrespectful , and unpredictably violent tendencies turn Tony resentful . Richie Aprile is released from prison in season 2 , and quickly makes waves . Pontecorvo is a young soldier who becomes a " made " man alongside Christopher . Spatafore works his way up through the ranks to become top earner of the Aprile crew , but is secretly gay .
Friends of the Soprano family include : Herman " Hesh " Rabkin ( Jerry Adler ) ; Adriana La Cerva ( Drea de Matteo ) ; Rosalie Aprile ( Sharon Angela ) ; Angie Bonpensiero ( Toni Kalem ) , along with Artie ( John Ventimiglia ) and Charmaine Bucco ( Kathrine Narducci ) . Hesh is an invaluable adviser and friend to Tony , as he was when Tony 's father ran things . Adriana is Christopher 's loyal and long @-@ suffering girlfriend ; the two have a volatile relationship , but appear destined to stay together . Christopher often ignores Adriana 's advice , and winds up regretting it . Rosalie is the widow of previous DiMeo boss Jackie Aprile , Sr. , and a very close friend of Carmela . Angie is Salvatore Bonpensiero 's wife ; she later goes into " business " for herself , and quite successfully . Artie & Charmaine are childhood friends of the Sopranos , and owners of the popular restaurant , Vesuvio . Charmaine wishes to have no association with Tony and his crew due to fears that Tony 's criminal ways will ultimately ruin everything she and Artie have achieved . Artie , however — a law @-@ abiding , hard @-@ working man — is drawn to his childhood friend Tony 's glamorous , seemingly carefree lifestyle . Charmaine bitterly resents Artie 's chronic tendency to disregard her wishes while catering to Tony 's ; their marriage suffers greatly , as a result . Charmaine also had a brief sexual encounter with Tony ( when he and Carmela had temporarily broken @-@ up ) when all four were teenagers .
John " Johnny Sack " Sacramoni ( Vince Curatola ) , Phil Leotardo ( Frank Vincent ) and " Little " Carmine Lupertazzi , Jr . ( Ray Abruzzo ) are all significant characters from the New York City @-@ based Lupertazzi crime family , which shares a good amount of its business with the Soprano organization . Although the Lupertazzis ' and DiMeos ' interests are often at odds , Tony maintains a cordial , business @-@ like relationship with " Johnny Sack " , preferring to make mutually @-@ beneficial deals , not war . Johnny Sack 's second @-@ in @-@ command and eventual successor , Phil Leotardo , is less friendly and harder for Tony to do business with . Little Carmine is the son of the family 's first boss , and vies for power with its other members .
= = Episodes = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
When Tony Soprano collapses after suffering a panic attack , he begins therapy with Dr. Jennifer Melfi . Details of Tony 's upbringing — with his father 's influence looming large on his development as a gangster , but more so that Tony 's mother , Livia , was vengeful and possibly psychopathic — are revealed . His complicated relationship with his wife Carmela is also explored , as well as her feelings regarding her husband 's cosa nostra ties . Meadow and Anthony Jr . — Tony 's children — gain increasing knowledge of their father 's mob dealings . Later , federal indictments are brought as a result of someone in his organization talking to the FBI .
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s representations of Lakes with quiet trickling water was in keeping with his general theme of quiet dignity for public sculpture . On the day of the dedication the Chicago Daily News expressed this point with a photomontage juxtaposition of Taft 's fountain and Lake Michigan in all its fury .
After one got past the symbolism of the ladies as lakes , complaints existed about the lack of recognition of the contemporary form of female representation in art and literature which had gone from the Lillian Russell @-@ type to the Gibson Girl to the Lillie Langtry image while Taft had apparently chosen " packing house ladies " as his female form . When Taft presented live depictions of his sculptures with quintets of women , he faced complaints that three of his five sculptural compositions had nude upper torsos , while his live representations were fully clothed . The degree to which nudity in public art was more for the " sake of nudity than for the sake of art . " was a contemporary issue involving confiscated Paul Chabas fully nude painting , the Roman Catholic Church , critics , art dealers and collectors . All this led to a 1913 amendment to the Chicago municipal obscenity laws proposed by Mayor of Chicago Carter Harrison , Jr. to the Chicago City Council , which passed three months before the dedication of Taft 's partially nude fountain . Chicago Tribune writers stood behind Taft 's fountain using humor against what they described as a " streak of over @-@ accentuated puritanism " that could adversely affect public art .
Taft had Beaux @-@ Arts training that lent itself well to allegorical sculpture . For Fountain of the Great Lakes , Taft claimed an inspiration from the Greek mythology . Danaus ordered his 49 daughters to kill their husbands and condemned them to delivering water to a bottomless vessel in Hades . This was in keeping with Taft 's penchant for classical inspiration although this was a loose association where the number of daughters was reduced from 49 to 5 and the artist 's task did not seem to be nearly as cruel as the mythological one .
= Cannibal Holocaust =
Cannibal Holocaust is a 1980 Italian cannibal exploitation horror film directed by Ruggero Deodato from a screenplay by Gianfranco Clerici . It stars Carl Gabriel Yorke , Robert Kerman , Francesca Ciardi , Perry Pirkanen , and Luca Barbareschi . Influenced by the works of Mondo director Gualtiero Jacopetti , the film was inspired by Italian media reporting of Red Brigade terrorism . The coverage included news reports Deodato believed to be staged , an idea which became an integral aspect of the film 's story . Cannibal Holocaust was filmed primarily in the Amazon rainforest of Colombia with indigenous tribes interacting with American and Italian actors .
The film tells the story of a missing documentary film crew who had gone to the Amazon to film cannibal tribes . A rescue mission , led by the New York University anthropologist Harold Monroe , recovers the film crew 's lost cans of film , which an American television station wishes to broadcast . Upon viewing the reels , Monroe is appalled by the team 's actions , and after learning their fate , he objects to the station 's intent to air the documentary . The presentation of the film team 's lost footage , functioning similar to a flashback , revolutionized the found footage style of narrative filmmaking , later popularized by such films as The Blair Witch Project .
Cannibal Holocaust achieved notoriety as its graphic violence aroused a great deal of controversy . After its premiere in Italy , it was ordered to be seized by a local magistrate , and Deodato was arrested on obscenity charges . He was later charged with making a snuff film due to rumors that claimed some actors were killed on camera . Although Deodato was later cleared , the film was banned in Italy , Australia , and several other countries due to its portrayal of graphic brutality , sexual assault , and real depictions of violence toward animals . Some nations have since revoked the ban , though it is still upheld in several countries . Critics have suggested that the film is a commentary about civilized versus uncivilized society .
= = Plot = =
In 1979 , an American film crew disappears in the Amazon rainforest while on an expedition to film a documentary about indigenous cannibal tribes . The team consists of Alan Yates , the director ; Faye Daniels , his girlfriend and script girl ; and two cameramen , Jack Anders and Mark Tomaso . Harold Monroe , an anthropologist at New York University , agrees to lead a rescue team in hopes of finding the missing filmmakers alive . In anticipation of his arrival , the military conducts a raid on a local tribe known as the Yacumo and takes a young Yacumo male hostage in order to help negotiate with the natives . Monroe flies in via floatplane and is introduced to his guides , Chaco and his assistant , Miguel .
After several days of trekking through the jungle , the group encounters the Yacumo tribe . They arrange the release of their hostage in exchange for being taken to the Yacumo village . Once there , the group initially meets hostility and learns that the film team had caused great unrest among the people . The next day , Monroe and his guides head deeper into the rainforest to locate two warring cannibal tribes , the Ya ̧ nomamö and the Shamatari . They encounter a group of Shamatari warriors and follow them to a riverbank where they save a smaller group of Ya ̧ nomamö from certain death . Grateful , the Ya ̧ nomamö invite Monroe and his team back to their village , yet they treat the outsiders with suspicion . To gain their trust , Monroe bathes naked in a river . A group of friendly Ya ̧ nomamö women emerge to join him and playfully bathe with him . After , they take him to a shrine where he discovers the rotting remains of the missing American filmmakers . Upset and angered , Monroe decides it is of utmost importance to recover the films . He confronts the Ya ̧ nomamö , during which time he plays a tape recorder of tribal music for them . The intrigued natives agree to trade it for the first team 's surviving reels of film during a cannibalistic ceremony , in which Monroe has to take part .
Back in New York , executives of the Pan American Broadcasting System invite Monroe to host a broadcast of the documentary to be made from the recovered film . Monroe insists on viewing the raw footage first . The executives first introduce him to Alan 's work by showing an excerpt from his previous documentary , The Last Road to Hell . One of the executives tells Monroe that Alan staged the scene to get more exciting footage . Monroe then views the recovered footage , which first follows the group 's trek through the jungle . After walking for days , their guide , Felipe , is bitten by a venomous snake . The group amputates Felipe 's leg with a machete in an attempt to save his life , but he quickly dies and is left behind . The remaining four succeed in locating the Yacumo . Jack shoots one in the leg so they can easily follow him to the village . Once they arrive , the film crew forces the entire tribe into a hut and burn it down in order to stage a massacre for their film . Monroe expresses concern over the staged scenes and poor treatment of the natives , but his worries are ignored .
Monroe finishes viewing the footage and expresses his disgust to station executives about their decision to air the documentary . To convince them otherwise , he shows the remaining , unedited footage , which only he has seen . The final two reels begin with the team locating a young Ya ̧ nomamö girl , whom the men film and gang @-@ rape as Faye tries to intervene . Afterward , they encounter the same girl impaled on a wooden pole by a riverbank , where they claim the natives killed her . They move on and are attacked by the Ya ̧ nomamö in revenge for the girl 's rape and death . Jack is hit by a spear , and Alan shoots him so the team can film how the natives mutilate his corpse . As the three surviving team members try to escape the scene , Faye is captured . Alan insists that they try to rescue her . Mark continues to film as she is raped , beaten to death and beheaded . The Ya ̧ nomamö immediately locate the last two team members as the footage ends with Alan 's bloody face . Disturbed by what they have seen , the executives order the footage destroyed . As Monroe leaves the station , he ponders to himself , wondering " who the real cannibals are . "
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Production began in 1979 , when Deodato was contacted by German film producers to make a film similar to Jungle Holocaust , which was also directed by Deodato . He accepted the project and immediately went in search of a producer , choosing his friend Francesco Palaggi . The two first flew to Colombia to scout for filming locations . Leticia was chosen as the principal filming location after Deodato met a Colombian documentary filmmaker at the airport in Bogotá , who suggested the town as a location ideal for filming . Other locations had been considered , specifically the locations where the film Burn ! , directed by Gillo Pontecorvo , had been shot , but Deodato rejected these locations due to lack of suitable rainforest . Leticia was only accessible by aircraft , and from there , the cast and crew had to travel by boat to reach the set . The locale presented many problems for the production , in particular the heat and sudden rain storms , which sporadically delayed filming .
= = = Development and writing = = =
Deodato said he conceived of the film while talking to his son about news coverage of the terrorism of the Red Brigades . Deodato thought that the media focused on portraying violence with little regard for journalistic integrity and believed that the media staged certain news angles in order to obtain more sensational footage . He reflected this behavior in the film team in Cannibal Holocaust , whom he said symbolized the Italian media .
The Italian screenwriter Gianfranco Clerici wrote the script under the working title Green Inferno . He had collaborated with Deodato in his previous films Ultimo mondo cannibale and The House on the Edge of the Park , the latter of which was filmed before Cannibal Holocaust but released afterward . The names of certain characters in the film were changed from Clerici 's screenplay : the name " Mark Williams " was changed to " Mark Tomaso " , and " Shanda Tommaso " was changed to " Faye Daniels " .
Clerici also wrote several scenes that did not make the film 's final cut . One of which depicted a group of Ya ̧ nomamö cutting off the leg of a Shamatari warrior and feeding him to piranhas in the river . This scene was to take place directly after Monroe 's team rescues a smaller group of Ya ̧ nomamö from the Shamatari . Attempts were made to film this scene , but the underwater camera did not operate properly , and the piranha were difficult to control . As a result , Deodato abandoned his efforts , and still photographs taken during the scene are its only known depiction .
= = = Casting = = =
For the film , Deodato cast several inexperienced actors from the Actors Studio in New York City . Luca Giorgio Barbareschi and Francesca Ciardi were cast in part because they were Italian actors who also spoke English . Deodato decided to make the film in English to appeal to a wider audience and to lend the film credibility . However , he also needed to establish a European nationality so the film could be more easily distributed among European countries . Under Italian law , for the film to be recognized as Italian , Deodato had to have at least two native Italian @-@ speaking actors to star in the film .
Deodato also hired Perry Pirkanen and another actor from the Actors Studio to play Jack Anders and Alan Yates respectively . The latter dropped out shortly before the production team left for the Amazon ( he appears in the film as an ex @-@ colleague of Yates ) . Casting director Bill Williams chose Carl Gabriel Yorke for the role . Yorke , a stage actor who had studied under Uta Hagen and appeared in three national tours of One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest , was chosen in part because he was the right size for the costumes and boots , which had already been purchased . Because Cannibal Holocaust was a non @-@ Union production , Yorke originally wanted to be credited under the alias Christopher Savage .
Robert Kerman had years of experience working in adult films under the pseudonym R. Bolla , including the well @-@ known Debbie Does Dallas . Kerman was recommended to Deodato for his previous film , The Concorde Affair , in which Kerman played an air traffic controller . Kerman went on to star in the Italian cannibal films Eaten Alive ! and Cannibal Ferox , both directed by Umberto Lenzi . Kerman 's then @-@ girlfriend , Kate ( last name unknown ) , was cast as one of the station executives , as the production needed an actress to be available in both New York City and Rome .
= = = Direction = = =
Deodato drew influence from the works of Paolo Cavara , Gualtiero Jacopetti , and Franco Prosperi , documentary filmmakers of whom Deodato was a fan . Prosperi and Jacopetti produced several Mondo films , which are documentaries similar to the one made in Cannibal Holocaust . These documentaries focused on sensationalistic and graphic content from around the world , including bizarre local customs , death , and general cruelty . Deodato followed suit in ways of similar content , such as graphic violence and animal slayings . Although fictional , Deodato created a similar exposé of worldly violence , such as Cavara 's , Prosperi 's and Jacopetti 's Mondo Cane .
Deodato filmed Cannibal Holocaust using the cinéma vérité technique he learned from his mentor Roberto Rossellini , a style which production designer Massimo Antonello Gelend called " hyperrealistic . " Film historian David Kerekes contends that the film 's sense of reality is based on the direction and the treatment of the film team 's recovered footage , noting that the " shaky hand @-@ held camerawork commands a certain realism , and ' The Green Inferno , ' the ill @-@ fated team 's film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film here , is no exception , " and that " this very instability gives the ' Green Inferno ' film its authentic quality . " David Carter of the cult horror webzine Savage Cinema says that Deodato 's methods added a first @-@ person quality to the film team 's footage , claiming , " The viewer feels as if they are there with the crew , experiencing the horrors with them . " Deodato was proud of other aspects of the cinematography , namely the numerous moving shots using a standard , shoulder @-@ mounted camera ( that is , without the use of a steadicam ) .
Kerekes noted the animal slaughter and inclusion of footage from The Last Road to Hell as adding to the sense of reality of the film . Lloyd Kaufman of Troma Entertainment compares these scenes to Vsevolod Pudovkin 's theory of montage , saying , " In Cannibal Holocaust , we see the actors kill and rip apart a giant sea turtle and other animals . [ ... ] The brain has been conditioned to accept that which it 's now seeing as real . This mixture of real and staged violence , combined with the handheld camerawork and the rough , unedited quality of the second half of the movie , is certainly enough to convince someone that what they are watching is real . " Deodato says he included the execution footage in The Last Road to Hell to draw further similarities to Cannibal Holocaust and the Mondo filmmaking of Gualtiero Jacopetti .
Certain scenes in Cannibal Holocaust have also been noted as being similar to scenes in Antonio Climati 's Mondo film Savana violenta , specifically the scene in which Monroe bathes naked in the river and the scene of the forced abortion rite . The cinéma vérité style used heavily in Cannibal Holocaust was also used before in Climati 's first Mondo film , Ultime grida dalla savana , in a scene where a tourist is attacked and killed by a pride of lions . Another scene , in which a native man is captured , tortured , and murdered by mercenaries in South America , uses a similar filming style , and both scenes may have been influential on Deodato 's direction .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 4 June 1979 . The scenes featuring the film team were shot first with handheld 16mm cameras in a cinéma vérité style that mimicked an observational documentary . After shooting with the film team was completed , Kerman flew down to film his scenes in the rainforest and then to New York to film exterior shots in the city . The interior shots of New York were later filmed in a studio in Rome . Production on the film was delayed numerous times while filming in the Amazon . After the original actor to play Alan Yates dropped out , filming was halted for two weeks as new casting calls began , and the crew awaited the arrival of Yorke from New York City . During principal filming with Kerman , the father of the actor who played Miguel was murdered , and production was again halted as the actor flew back to Bogotá to attend his father 's funeral .
Tensions on the Amazonian set were high , due in part to the location and to the content of the film itself . Yorke describes the set as having " a level of cruelty unknown to me , " while Kerman described Deodato as remorseless and uncaring ; he and Deodato got into long , drawn @-@ out arguments every day of shooting , usually because of remarks made by Deodato . These tensions were further heightened by unscrupulous payment practices . Yorke 's first payment for the film came in the form of Colombian pesos and was less than what had been agreed upon . Yorke refused to continue shooting until he was paid fairly in United States dollars . The native extras also went unpaid for their work despite their involvement in numerous dangerous scenes , including a scene in which they were forced to stay inside a burning hut for a prolonged period of time . Robert Kerman also noted unfair treatment of the natives by Deodato , stating , " He was a sadist . He was particularly sadistic to people that couldn 't answer back , people that were Colombian , [ and ] people that were Italian but could be sent home " .
One particular aspect that led to disagreement amongst the crew was the genuine killing of animals . Kerman stormed off the set while the death of the coatimundi was filmed , and Yorke refused to participate in the killing of the pig , which he was originally scripted to execute , leaving the duty to Luca Barbareschi . When it was shot , the squeal of the pig subsequently caused Yorke to botch a long monologue , and retakes were not an option because they had no access to additional pigs . Perry Pirkanen cried after filming the butchering of a turtle , and crew members vomited off camera when a squirrel monkey was killed for the film . Actress Francesca Ciardi also objected to the film 's sexual content and did not want to bare her breasts during the sex scene between her and Carl Yorke . When she refused to comply with Deodato 's direction , he dragged her off the set and screamed at her in Italian . She had earlier suggested that she and Yorke actually have sex in the jungle before filming , in order to relieve the tension of the upcoming scene . When Yorke declined , she grew upset with him , alienating him for the rest of the shoot .
= = = Music = = =
The film 's soundtrack was composed entirely by Italian composer Riz Ortolani , whom Deodato specifically requested because of Ortolani 's work in Mondo Cane , particularly the film 's main theme , " Ti guarderò nel cuore " ( also known as " More " ) . The music itself is a variety of styles , from a gentle melody in the " Main Theme " , to a sad and flowing score in " Crucified Woman " , and faster and more upbeat tracks in " Cameraman 's Recreation " , " Relaxing in the Savannah " , and " Drinking Coco " . The instrumentals are equally mixed , ranging from full orchestras to electronics and synthesizers . Mondo Records and Death Waltz released the Official Soundtrack ( OST ) on vinyl in 2015 .
= = Reaction = =
Cannibal Holocaust premiered on 7 February 1980 in the Italian city of Milan . Although the courts confiscated the film based on a citizen 's complaint , the initial audience reaction was positive . After seeing the film , director Sergio Leone wrote a letter to Deodato , which stated ( translated ) , " Dear Ruggero , what a movie ! The second part is a masterpiece of cinematographic realism , but everything seems so real that I think you will get in trouble with all the world . " In the ten days before it was seized , the film had grossed approximately $ 200 million ; in Japan it grossed $ 21 milion , becoming the second highest @-@ grossing film of that time after E.T. the Extraterrestrial .
= = = Critical response = = =
Critics remain split on their stances of Cannibal Holocaust . Supporters of the film cite it as a serious and well @-@ made social commentary on the modern world . Sean Axmaker praised the structure and set @-@ up of the film , saying , " It 's a weird movie with an awkward narrative , which Deodato makes all the more effective with his grimy sheen of documentary realism , while Riz Ortolani 's unsettlingly lovely , elegiac score provides a weird undercurrent . " Jason Buchanan of Allmovie said , " While it 's hard to defend the director for some of the truly repugnant images with which he has chosen to convey his message , there is indeed an underlying point to the film , if one is able to look beyond the sometimes unwatchable images that assault the viewer . "
Detractors , however , criticize the over @-@ the @-@ top gore and the genuine animal slayings ; they also point to an alleged hypocrisy that the film presents . Nick Schager criticized the brutality of the film , saying , " As clearly elucidated by its shocking gruesomeness — as well as its unabashedly racist portrait of indigenous folks it purports to sympathize with [ the real indigenous peoples in Brazil whose names were used in the film — the Ya ̧ nomamö and Shamatari — are not fierce enemies as portrayed in the film , nor is either tribe truly cannibalistic , although the Ya ̧ nomamö do partake in a form of post @-@ mortem ritual cannibalism ] — the actual savages involved with Cannibal Holocaust are the ones behind the camera . "
Robert Firsching of Allmovie made similar criticisms of the film 's content , saying , " While the film is undoubtedly gruesome enough to satisfy fans , its mixture of nauseating mondo animal slaughter , repulsive sexual violence , and pie @-@ faced attempts at socially conscious moralizing make it rather distasteful morally as well . " Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson said it is " artful enough to demand serious critical consideration , yet foul enough to christen you a pervert for even bothering . " Cannibal Holocaust currently holds a 65 % " Fresh " rating on the film review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 1 / 10 .
In recent years , Cannibal Holocaust has received accolades in various publications as well as a cult following . The British film magazine Total Film ranked Cannibal Holocaust as the tenth greatest horror film of all time , and the film was included in a similar list of the top 25 horror films compiled by Wired . The film also came in eighth on IGN 's list of the ten greatest grindhouse films .
= = = Interpretations = = =
Cannibal Holocaust is seen by some as social commentary on various aspects of modern civilization by comparing Western society to that of the cannibals . David Carter says " Cannibal Holocaust is not merely focused on the societal taboo of flesh eating . The greater theme of the film is the difference between the civilized and the uncivilized . Though the graphic violence can be hard for most to stomach , the most disturbing aspect of the film is what Deodato is saying about modern society . The film asks the questions ' What is it to be ' civilized ' ? ' and ' Is it a good thing ? ' " Mark Goodall , author of Sweet & Savage : The World Through the Shockumentary Film Lens , also contends the film 's message is " the rape of the natural world by the unnatural ; the exploitation of ' primitive ' cultures for western entertainment . "
Deodato 's intentions regarding the Italian media coverage of the Red Brigades have also fallen under critical examination and has been expanded to include all sensationalism . Carter explores this , claiming that " [ The lack of journalistic integrity ] is shown through the interaction between Professor Monroe and the news agency that had backed the documentary crew . They continually push Monroe to finish editing the footage because blood and guts equal ratings . " Lloyd Kaufman claims that this form of exploitative journalism can still be seen in the media today and in programming such as reality television . Goodall and film historians David Slater and David Kerekes have also suggested that Deodato was attempting to comment on the documentary works of Antonio Climati with his film .
Despite these interpretations , Deodato has said in interviews that he had no intentions in Cannibal Holocaust but to make a film about cannibals . Actor Luca Barbareschi asserts this as well and believes that Deodato only uses his films to " put on a show " . Robert Kerman contradicts these assertions , however , stating that Deodato did tell him of political concerns involving the media in the making of this film .
These interpretations have also been criticized as hypocritical and poor justification for the film 's content , as Cannibal Holocaust itself is highly sensationalized . Firsching claims that " The fact that the film 's sole spokesperson for the anti @-@ exploitation perspective is played by porn star Robert Kerman should give an indication of where its sympathies lie " , while Schager says Deodato is " pathetically justifying the unrepentant carnage by posthumously damning his eaten filmmaker protagonists with a ' who are the real monsters – the cannibals or us ? ' anti @-@ imperialism morale " .
= = Controversy = =
Since its original release , Cannibal Holocaust has been the target of censorship by moral and animal activists . Other than graphic gore , the film contains several scenes of sexual violence and genuine cruelty to animals , issues which find Cannibal Holocaust in the midst of controversy to this day . Due to this notoriety , Cannibal Holocaust has been marketed as having been banned in over 50 countries . In 2006 , Entertainment Weekly magazine named Cannibal Holocaust as the 20th most controversial film of all time .
= = = Snuff film allegations = = =
Ten days after its premiere in Milan , Cannibal Holocaust was confiscated under the orders of a local magistrate , and Ruggero Deodato was arrested and charged with obscenity . As all copies were to be turned over to the authorities , the film was distributed internationally via subterfuge . In January 1981 , during the film 's theatrical run in France , the magazine Photo suggested that certain deaths depicted in the film were real , which would have made Cannibal Holocaust a snuff film . Following the publication of the Photo article , the charges against Deodato were amended to include murder . The courts believed that the actors who portrayed the missing film crew and the native actress featured in the impalement scene were killed for the camera .
Compounding matters was the fact that the supposedly deceased actors had signed contracts with the production which ensured that they would not appear in any type of media , motion pictures , or commercials for one year following the film 's release . This was done in order to promote the idea that Cannibal Holocaust was truly the recovered footage of missing documentarians . During the subsequent court proceedings , questions arose as to why the actors were in no other media if they were alive as Deodato claimed .
To prove his innocence , Deodato had Luca Barbareschi get in contact with the other three actors , and the four of them were interviewed for an Italian television show . Deodato also explained in court how the special effect in the impalement scene was achieved : a bicycle seat was attached to the end of an iron pole , upon which the actress sat . She then held a short length of balsa wood in her mouth and looked skyward , thus giving the appearance of impalement . Deodato also provided the court with pictures of the girl interacting with the crew after the scene had been filmed . After they were presented with this evidence , the courts dropped all murder charges against Deodato .
= = = Censorship = = =
Although the snuff film allegations were disproven , the courts decided to ban Cannibal Holocaust due to the genuine animal slayings , citing animal cruelty laws . Deodato , Franco Palaggi , Franco Di Nunzio , Gianfranco Clerici , producer Alda Pia and United Artists Europa representative Sandro Perotti each received a four @-@ month suspended sentence after they were all convicted of obscenity and violence . Deodato fought in the courts for three additional years to get his film unbanned . In 1984 , the courts ruled in favor of Deodato , and Cannibal Holocaust was granted a rating certificate of VM18 for a cut print . It would later be re @-@ released uncut .
Cannibal Holocaust also faced censorship issues in other countries around the world . In 1981 , video releases were not required to pass before the British Board of Film Censors ( BBFC ) , which had power to ban films in the United Kingdom . Cannibal Holocaust was released straight @-@ to @-@ video there , thus circumventing the possible banning of the film . In 1983 , the Department of Public Prosecutions compiled a list of 72 video releases that were not brought before the BBFC for certification and declared them prosecutable for obscenity . This list of " video nasties " included Cannibal Holocaust , which was successfully prosecuted and banned . The film was not approved for release in the UK until 2001 , albeit with nearly six minutes of mandated cuts . In 2011 , the BBFC waived all but one of these previous edits and passed Cannibal Holocaust with fifteen seconds of cuts . It was determined that the only scene that breached the BBFC 's guidelines was the killing of a coatimundi , and the BBFC acknowledged that previous cuts were reactionary to the film 's reputation .
The film was also banned in Australia , Norway , Finland , New Zealand , and several other countries in 1984 . In 2005 , the Office of Film and Literature Classification in Australia revoked the ban , passing Cannibal Holocaust with an R18 + rating for the uncut print , including the consumer advice , " High level sexual violence , high level violence , animal cruelty . " In 2006 , the film was rejected for classification and banned in its entirety by the OFLC in New Zealand . Cuts to retain an R18 classification were offered by the Office , but they were eventually refused .
= = = Animal cruelty = = =
Many of the censorship issues with Cannibal Holocaust concern the on @-@ screen killings of animals , which remains a controversial issue . Deodato himself has condemned his past actions , saying " I was stupid to introduce animals . " Although six animal deaths appear onscreen , seven animals were killed for the production , as the scene depicting the monkey 's death was shot twice , resulting in the death of two monkeys . Both of the animals were eaten by indigenous cast members , who consider monkey brains a delicacy . The animals killed onscreen were :
A coati ( mistaken for a muskrat in the film ) , killed with a knife .
A large turtle , decapitated and its limbs , shell , and entrails removed .
A tarantula , killed with a machete .
A boa constrictor , killed with a machete .
A squirrel monkey , decapitated with a machete .
A pig , shot in the head with a shotgun at point blank range .
Film historian Andrew DeVos has argued that the animal deaths have been harshly condemned because of the film 's classification as exploitation , whereas animal mutilations in films perceived by critics to be classics or art films are often ignored . DeVos cites several examples of this double standard , including Rules of the Game , El Topo , and Apocalypse Now . The BBFC made a similar conclusion regarding the censorship of scenes in which the deaths were quick and painless , noting , " Removing these sequences would be inconsistent with the BBFC 's decisions to permit quick clean kills in several other films , such as Apocalypse Now . "
= = Legacy = =
Cannibal Holocaust was innovative in its plot structure , specifically with the concept of the " found footage " being brought back to civilization and later viewed to determine the fate of the crew that shot it . This was later popularized as a distinct style in Hollywood cinema by The Last Broadcast and The Blair Witch Project , both of which use similar storytelling devices . Each film uses the idea of a lost film team making a documentary in the wilderness , and their footage returned . Advertisements for The Blair Witch Project also promoted the idea that the footage is genuine . Deodato has acknowledged the similarities between his film and The Blair Witch Project , and though he holds no malice against the producers , he is frustrated at the publicity that The Blair Witch Project received for being an original production . The producers of The Last Broadcast have denied that Cannibal Holocaust was a major influence . Nonetheless , the film was cited by director Paco Plaza as a source of inspiration for the found footage films REC and REC 2 .
Cannibal Holocaust has been regarded as the apex of the cannibal genre , and it bears similarities to subsequent cannibal films made during the same time period . Cannibal Ferox also stars Kerman and Pirkanen , and star Giovanni Lombardo Radice says it was made based on the success of Cannibal Holocaust . Cannibal ferox has also been noted as containing similar themes to Cannibal Holocaust , such as comparison of Western violence to perceived uncivilized cultures and anti @-@ imperialism . In a mixed review , film journalist Jay Slater claims , " Certainly a tough customer , Cannibal Ferox still fails where Deodato succeeds . [ ... ] Lenzi attempts to tackle cultural defilement and racial issues , but Cannibal Ferox is nothing more than a shoddy exercise in sadism and animal cruelty . " Reviewer Andrew Parkinson also notes , " At the end , there is a basic attempt to validate Cannibal Ferox , posing that old chestnut of whether civilised man is actually more savage than the uncivilised tribespeople . "
Cannibal Holocaust also spawned numerous and similar unofficial sequels within the genre . These films were originally released under different titles that were then changed for various releases , although none have been directed by or associated with Deodato . The first of said films came in 1985 with Mario Gariazzo 's Schiave bianche : violenza in Amazzonia . Known in English as Amazonia : The Catherine Miles Story , it has also been released as Cannibal Holocaust 2 : The Catherine Miles Story . Slater also notes similarities between the score in Amazonia and Riz Ortolani 's score in Cannibal Holocaust . In 1988 , mondo director Antonio Climati made his film Natura contro , which was released as Cannibal Holocaust II in Thailand and the United Kingdom . Italian director Bruno Mattei also made two straight @-@ to @-@ video films back to back in 2003 , which have been released as Cannibal Holocaust sequels in Japan .
In 2005 , Deodato officially announced that he planned to make a companion piece to Cannibal Holocaust entitled Cannibals . Deodato was originally hesitant about directing his new film , as he thought that he would make it too violent for American audiences . While in Prague filming his cameo appearance in Hostel : Part II , however , Deodato viewed the first film and decided that he would direct after all , citing Hostel as a similarly violent film that made a mainstream release in America . Although the screenplay , written by Christine Conradt , was completed , a financial conflict between Deodato and the film 's producer led to the project 's cancellation .
Eli Roth 's 2013 film The Green Inferno takes its title from the fictional film in Cannibal Holocaust and is an homage to this and other grindhouse cannibal films of the era .
The film 's influence has extended to other media as well . In 2001 , Death metal band Necrophagia released a song entitled " Cannibal Holocaust " from the eponymous record . British Author Saurav Dutt also published Cannibal Metropolis , a novel inspired by Cannibal Holocaust set in an urban location . Like Cannibal Holocaust , the novelization features explicit scenes of violence , horror , and rape .
= = Alternate versions = =
Due to its graphic content , there are several different versions of Cannibal Holocaust in circulation which are edited to varying degrees . In the UK , the film was originally released on VHS by Go Video in 1982 with approximately six minutes of cuts . These cuts were self @-@ imposed by the distributor , possibly due to technical limitations of the tape . In 2001 , the film was passed for release on DVD by the BBFC with 5 minutes and 44 seconds of cuts to remove scenes of animal cruelty and sexual violence ; all but 15 seconds of these cuts were waived for a re @-@ release in 2011 . The latter release also includes a new edit sponsored by Deodato which reduces the violence toward animals . The DVD released by Grindhouse Releasing contains a " Cruelty Free
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" version of the film . Other versions also contain alternate footage shot specifically for Middle Eastern markets that does not depict nudity .
There are multiple versions of the Last Road to Hell segment of the film , which causes variances even among uncensored releases . An extended version of The Last Road to Hell includes approximately ten seconds of footage not seen in an alternate , shorter version . This additional footage includes a wide @-@ angle shot of firing @-@ squad executions , a close @-@ up of a dead victim , and extended footage of bodies being carried into the back of a truck . The longer version also includes different titles that correctly name the film team as they appear in the final film , while the shorter version gives the names of the film team that originally appear in the script .
The longer version of The Last Road to Hell is no longer found in the film 's negatives , but it was included in the original Dutch Ultrabit DVD release by EC Entertainment in 1999 . This digital version has since been re @-@ released and licensed for other various DVD releases in Europe . The Grindhouse Releasing DVD release in the United States and the Siren Visual release in Australia have the shorter version of The Last Road to Hell within the feature film but include the extended version in the special features on the first disc .
= History of the Jews in Mauritius =
Judaism is a minor religion in Mauritius . The first Jews arrived from Haifa , British Palestine ( now Israel ) , in the 1940s because they were denied entry to Palestine by the British Government . There currently are about 43 Jews in total in Mauritius . There is a synagogue in Curepipe , and a Jewish cemetery in Bambous .
= = History = =
= = = Patria and World War II = = =
In September 1940 , the Atlantic , Milos , and Pacific , picked up 3 @,@ 600 Jews from Vienna , Gdańsk and Prague in Tulcea , Romania , to be sent to Palestine . The Jews that arrived in Palestine came without entry permits and were subsequently denied entry by the British government , specifically Sir Harold MacMichael , who was the High Commissioner . The British decided to deport the immigrants to either Trinidad and Tobago or Mauritius , both British colonies . On 25 November 1940 , the first ship carrying the 1 @,@ 800 Jews to Mauritius , the Patria , was accidentally bombed by the Haganah , who wanted the Jews to stay in Palestine . Their intentions were to cripple the ship . There were 260 fatalities and 172 injuries . There were only enough lifeboats for 805 , since the capacity was 805 when the Patria was a French ship . When the British repossessed the boat , they increased the capacity to 1 @,@ 800 but still had the same number of lifeboats .
The surviving Jews were sent to Atlit detainee camp . The remaining 1 @,@ 584 refugees from the Atlantic who were not on the Patria were initially also imprisoned in Atlit , but were sent to Mauritius on 9 December 1940 . When they arrived , they were sent to a detainment camp in Beau @-@ Bassin .
In the camp , the detainees suffered from tropical diseases and inadequate food and clothing . Jewish organizations such as the South African Jewish Board of Deputies , the Jewish Agency , and the Zionist Federation , sent food , clothing , medicine , and religious items to the detainees . Initially , a ban on interaction between the sexes was enforced ; the men were held in a former jailhouse and the women in adjacent iron huts . After the ban was lifted , 60 children were born in the camp . In total , 128 prisoners died in the camp , and were buried in the Jewish section of St. Martin Cemetery . At the end of World War II , the detainees were given the choice of returning to their former homes in Europe or immigrating to Palestine . Most chose Palestine , and on August 6 , 1945 , 1 @,@ 320 landed in Haifa .
= = = Present = = =
According to the population census of 2011 , there are 43 Jews in Mauritius . The current community is unrelated to the 1940s fugitives . The first Bar Mitzvah in Mauritius since World War II took place in 2000 .
There is also one synagogue in Curepipe , the Amicale Maurice Israel Center , which was opened in 2005 . The Saint Martin Cemetery in Saint Martin near Beau @-@ Bassin , is the only Jewish cemetery in Mauritus . The bodies of the 127 died detainees as well as other Jewish people are buried there . Part of this has been fictionalised in Natacha Appanah 's ' The Last Brother ' . It relates the childhood experiences of Raj and David , a little boy from Prague .
Many , if not most Mauritians are unaware of the existence of such a graveyard in Mauritius . Each grave recalls the story of deportee life in an alien country , the result of mass deportation from Haifa by the British of refugees who escaped Nazi barbarity , only to find themselves in jail in a tiny British island colony where they died of disease instead of creating new lives for themselves in Palestine / Israel .
= House sparrow =
The house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) is a bird of the sparrow family Passeridae , found in most parts of the world . A small bird , it has a typical length of 16 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 inches ) and a mass of 24 – 39 @.@ 5 grams ( 0 @.@ 85 – 1 @.@ 39 ounces ) . Females and young birds are coloured pale brown and grey , and males have brighter black , white , and brown markings . One of about 25 species in the genus Passer , the house sparrow is native to most of Europe , the Mediterranean region , and much of Asia . Its intentional or accidental introductions to many regions , including parts of Australia , Africa , and the Americas , make it the most widely distributed wild bird .
The house sparrow is strongly associated with human habitations , and can live in urban or rural settings . Though found in widely varied habitats and climates , it typically avoids extensive woodlands , grasslands , and deserts away from human development . It feeds mostly on the seeds of grains and weeds , but it is an opportunistic eater and commonly eats insects and many other foods . Its predators include domestic cats , hawks , owls , and many other predatory birds and mammals .
Because of its numbers , ubiquity and association with human settlements , the house sparrow is culturally prominent . It is extensively , and usually unsuccessfully , persecuted as an agricultural pest , but it has also often been kept as a pet as well as being a food item and a symbol of lust and sexual potency , as well as of commonness and vulgarity . Though it is widespread and abundant , its numbers have declined in some areas . The animal 's conservation status is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Description = =
= = = Measurements and shape = = =
The house sparrow is typically about 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) long , ranging from 14 to 18 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 to 7 @.@ 1 in ) . It is a compact bird with a full chest and a large rounded head . Its bill is stout and conical with a culmen length of 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 43 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) , strongly built as an adaptation for eating seeds . Its tail is short , at 5 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) long . The wing chord is 6 @.@ 7 – 8 @.@ 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) , and the tarsus is 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 63 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) . In mass , the house sparrow ranges from 24 to 39 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 85 to 1 @.@ 39 oz ) . Females usually are slightly smaller than males . The median mass on the European continent for both sexes is about 30 g ( 1 @.@ 1 oz ) , and in more southerly subspecies is around 26 g ( 0 @.@ 92 oz ) . Younger birds are smaller , males are larger during the winter , and females are larger during the breeding season . Birds at higher latitudes , colder climates , and sometimes higher altitudes are larger ( under Bergmann 's rule ) , both between and within subspecies .
= = = Plumage = = =
The plumage of the house sparrow is mostly different shades of grey and brown . The sexes exhibit strong dimorphism : the female is mostly buffish above and below , while the male has boldly coloured head markings , a reddish back , and grey underparts . The male has a dark grey crown from the top of its bill to its back , and chestnut brown flanking its crown on the sides of its head . It has black around its bill , on its throat , and on the spaces between its bill and eyes ( lores ) . It has a small white stripe between the lores and crown and small white spots immediately behind the eyes ( postoculars ) , with black patches below and above them . The underparts are pale grey or white , as are the cheeks , ear coverts , and stripes at the base of the head . The upper back and mantle are a warm brown , with broad black streaks , while the lower back , rump and uppertail coverts are greyish @-@ brown .
The male is duller in fresh non @-@ breeding plumage , with whitish tips on many feathers . Wear and preening expose many of the bright brown and black markings , including most of the black throat and chest patch , called the " bib " or " badge " . The badge is variable in width and general size , and some scientists have suggested that patches signal social status or fitness . This hypothesis has led to a " veritable ' cottage industry ' " of studies , which have only conclusively shown that patches increase in size with age . The male 's bill is black in the breeding season and horn ( dark grey ) during the rest of the year .
The female has no black markings or grey crown . Its upperparts and head are brown with darker streaks around the mantle and a distinct pale supercilium . Its underparts are pale grey @-@ brown . The female 's bill is brownish @-@ grey and becomes darker in breeding plumage approaching the black of the male 's bill .
Juveniles are similar to the adult female but deeper brown below and paler above , with paler and less defined supercilia . Juveniles have broader buff feather edges , and tend to have looser , scruffier plumage , like moulting adults . Juvenile males tend to have darker throats and white postoculars like adult males , while juvenile female tend to have white throats . However , juveniles cannot be reliably sexed by plumage : some juvenile males lack any markings of the adult male , and some juvenile females have male features . The bills of young birds are light yellow to straw , paler than the female 's bill . Immature males have paler versions of the adult male 's markings , which can be very indistinct in fresh plumage . By their first breeding season , young birds generally are indistinguishable from other adults , though they may still be paler during their first year .
= = = Voice = = =
Most house sparrow vocalisations are variations on its short and incessant chirping call . Transcribed as chirrup , tschilp , or philip , this note is made as a contact call by flocking or resting birds , or by males to proclaim nest ownership and invite pairing . In the breeding season the male gives this call repetitively , with emphasis and speed but not much rhythm , forming what is described either as a song or an " ecstatic call " similar to a song . Young birds also give a true song , especially in captivity , a warbling similar to that of the European greenfinch .
Aggressive males give a trilled version of their call , transcribed as " chur @-@ chur @-@ r @-@ r @-@ it @-@ it @-@ it @-@ it " . This call is also used by females in the breeding season , to establish dominance over males while displacing them to feed young or incubate eggs . House sparrows give a nasal alarm call , the basic sound of which is transcribed as quer , and a shrill chree call in great distress . Another vocalisation is the " appeasement call " , a soft quee given to inhibit aggression , usually given between birds of a mated pair . These vocalisations are not unique to the house sparrow , but are shared , with small variations , by all sparrows .
= = = Variation = = =
There is some variation in the twelve subspecies of house sparrow , which are divided into two groups , the Oriental indicus group , and the Palaearctic domesticus group . Birds of the domesticus group have grey cheeks , while indicus group birds have white cheeks as well as bright colouration on the crown , a smaller bill , and a longer black bib . The subspecies Passer domesticus tingitanus differs little from the nominate subspecies , except in the worn breeding plumage of the male , in which the head is speckled with black and underparts are paler . P. d. balearoibericus is slightly paler than the nominate but darker than P. d. bibilicus . P. d. bibilicus is paler than most subspecies , but has the grey cheeks of domesticus group birds . The similar P. d. persicus is paler and smaller , and P. d. niloticus is nearly identical but smaller . Of the less widespread indicus group subspecies , P. d. hyrcanus is larger than P. d. indicus , P. d. hufufae is paler , P. d. bactrianus is larger and paler , and P. d. parkini is larger and darker with more black on the breast than any other subspecies .
= = = Identification = = =
The house sparrow can be confused with a number of other seed @-@ eating birds , especially its relatives in the genus Passer . Many of these relatives are smaller , with an appearance that is neater or " cuter " , as with the Dead Sea sparrow . The dull @-@ coloured female can often not be distinguished from other females , and is nearly identical to the those of the Spanish and Italian sparrows . The Eurasian tree sparrow is smaller and more slender with a chestnut crown and a black patch on each cheek . The male Spanish sparrow and Italian sparrow are distinguished by their chestnut crowns . The Sind sparrow is very similar but smaller , with less black on the male 's throat and a distinct pale supercilium on the female .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
= = = Names = = =
The house sparrow was among the first animals to be given a scientific name in the modern system of biological classification , since it was described by Carl Linnaeus , in the 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae . It was described from a type specimen collected in Sweden , with the name Fringilla domestica . Later the genus name Fringilla came to be used only for the common chaffinch and its relatives , and the house sparrow has usually been placed in the genus Passer created by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 .
The bird 's scientific name and its usual English name have the same meaning . The Latin word passer , like the English word " sparrow " , is a term for small active birds , coming from a root word referring to speed . The Latin word domesticus means " belonging to the house " , like the common name a reference to its association with humans . The house sparrow is also called by a number of alternative English names , including English sparrow , chiefly in North America ; and Indian sparrow or Indian house sparrow , for the birds of the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia . Dialectal names include sparr , sparrer , spadger , spadgick , and philip , mainly in southern England ; spug and spuggy , mainly in northern England ; spur and sprig , mainly in Scotland ; and spatzie or spotsie , from the German Spatz , in North America .
= = = Taxonomy = = =
The genus Passer contains about 25 species , depending on the authority , 26 according to the Handbook of the Birds of the World . Most Passer species are dull @-@ coloured birds with short square tails and stubby conical beaks , between 11 and 18 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 and 7 @.@ 1 in ) long . Mitochondrial DNA studies suggest that speciation in the genus occurred during the Pleistocene and earlier , while other evidence suggests speciation occurred 25 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 years ago . Within Passer , the house sparrow is part of the " Palaearctic black @-@ bibbed sparrows " group and a close relative of the Mediterranean " willow sparrows " .
The taxonomy of the house sparrow and its Mediterranean relatives is highly complicated . The common type of " willow sparrow " is the Spanish sparrow , which resembles the house sparrow in many respects . It frequently prefers wetter habitats than the house sparrow , and it is often colonial and nomadic . In most of the Mediterranean , one or both species occur , with some degree of hybridisation . In North Africa , the two species hybridise extensively , forming highly variable mixed populations with a full range of characters from pure house sparrows to pure Spanish sparrows .
In much of Italy there is a form apparently intermediate between the house and Spanish sparrows , known as the Italian sparrow . It resembles a hybrid between the two species , and is in other respects intermediate . Its specific status and origin are the subject of much debate . In the Alps , the Italian sparrow intergrades over a roughly 20 km ( 12 mi ) strip with the house sparrow , but to the south it intergrades over the southern half of Italy and some Mediterranean islands with the Spanish sparrow . On the Mediterranean islands of Malta , Gozo , Crete , Rhodes , and Karpathos , there are other apparently intermediate birds of unknown status .
= = = Subspecies = = =
A large number of subspecies have been named , of which twelve were recognised in the Handbook of the Birds of the World . These subspecies are divided into two groups , the Palaearctic domesticus group , and the Oriental indicus group . Several Middle Eastern subspecies , including Passer domesticus biblicus , are sometimes considered a third , intermediate group . The subspecies P. d. indicus was described as a species , and was considered to be distinct by many ornithologists during the nineteenth century .
Migratory birds of the subspecies P. d. bactrianus in the indicus group were recorded overlapping with P. d. domesticus birds without hybridising in the 1970s , so the Soviet scientists Edward I. Gavrilov and M. N. Korelov proposed the separation of the indicus group as a separate species . However , indicus @-@ group and domesticus @-@ group birds intergrade in a large part of Iran , so this split is rarely recognised .
In North America , house sparrow populations are more differentiated than those in Europe . This variation follows predictable patterns , with birds at higher latitudes being larger and those in arid areas being paler . However , it is not clear how much this is caused by evolution or by environment . Similar observations have been made in New Zealand , and in South Africa . The introduced house sparrow populations may be distinct enough to merit subspecies status , especially in North America and southern Africa , and American ornithologist Harry Church Oberholser even gave the subspecies name plecticus to the paler birds of western North America .
domesticus group
P. d. domesticus , the nominate subspecies , is found in most of Europe , across northern Asia to Sakhalin and Kamchatka . It is the most widely introduced subspecies .
P. d. balearoibericus von Jordans , 1923 , described from Majorca , is found in the Balearic Islands , southern France , the Balkans , and Anatolia .
P. d. tingitanus ( Loche , 1867 ) , described from Algeria , is found in the Maghreb from Ajdabiya in Libya to Béni Abbès in Algeria , and to Morocco 's Atlantic coast . It hybridises extensively with the Spanish sparrow , especially in the eastern part of its range .
P. d. niloticus Nicoll and Bonhote , 1909 , described from Faiyum , Egypt , is found along the Nile north of Wadi Halfa , Sudan . It intergrades with bibilicus in the Sinai , and with rufidorsalis in a narrow zone around Wadi Halfa . It has been recorded in Somaliland .
P. d. persicus Zarudny and Kudashev , 1916 , described from the Karun River in Khuzestan , Iran , is found in the western and central Iran south of the Alborz mountains , intergrading with indicus in eastern Iran , and Afghanistan .
P. d. biblicus Hartert , 1910 , described from Palestine , is found in the Middle East from Cyprus and south @-@ eastern Turkey to the Sinai in the west and from Azerbaijan to Kuwait in the east .
indicus group
P. d. hyrcanus Zarudny and Kudashev , 1916 , described from Gorgan , Iran , is found along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea from Gorgan to south @-@ eastern Azerbaijan . It intergrades with persicus in the Alborz mountains , and with bibilicus to the west . It is the subspecies with the smallest range .
P. d. bactrianus Zarudny and Kudashev , 1916 , described from Tashkent , is found in southern Kazakhstan to the Tian Shan and northern Iran and Afghanistan . It intergrades with persicus in Baluchistan and with indicus across central Afghanistan . Unlike most other house sparrow subspecies , it is almost entirely migratory , wintering in the plains of the northern Indian subcontinent . It is found in open country rather than in settlements , which are occupied by the Eurasian tree sparrow in its range . There is an exceptional record from Sudan .
P. d. parkini Whistler , 1920 , described from Srinagar , Kashmir , is found in the western Himalayas from the Pamir Mountains to south @-@ eastern Nepal . It is migratory , like bactrianus .
P. d. indicus Jardine and Selby , 1831 , described from Bangalore , is found in the Indian subcontinent south of the Himalayas , in Sri Lanka , western Southeast Asia , eastern Iran , south @-@ western Arabia and southern Israel .
P. d. hufufae Ticehurst and Cheeseman , 1924 , described from Hofuf in Saudi Arabia , is found in north @-@ eastern Arabia .
P. d. rufidorsalis C. L. Brehm , 1855 , described from Khartoum , Sudan , is
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= = Track listing = =
= = = Formats = = =
It was released on VHS and later on Laserdisc , to this date no DVD release has been announced . It was also released as part of a three VHS box set The Madonna Collection in 2000 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Daniel Kleinman – director
James Foley – director ( opening sequence )
Simon Fields – producer
Jerry Watson – cinematography
Jan de Bont – cinematography ( opening sequence )
Mitchell Sinoway – editor
Kenneth C. Barrows – camera operator
Brad Jeffries – choreographer
Rick Uber – online editor
Limelight Productions – production company
Credits adapted from the video 's liner notes .
= New York State Route 317 =
New York State Route 317 ( NY 317 ) is a 3 @.@ 12 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 02 km ) long state highway within the town of Elbridge in Onondaga County , New York , in the United States . It begins at an intersection with NY 5 in the village of Elbridge and ends at a junction with NY 31 in the village of Jordan . The highway is known locally as Jordan Road and Main Street .
The route was once part of the Jordan and Skaneateles Plank Road , a plank road established by a New York State Legislature charter in the 1850s . It spanned a short distance from Jordan to the village of Skaneateles and was a successor to the Auburn and Syracuse Railroad , which ceased operations in 1834 . However , the plank road lasted less than two decades . In 1866 , the Legislature granted another charter , this time creating the Skaneateles Railroad and its corporation , which bought out most of the plank road company .
The alignment of Route 317 south of Jordan was originally County Route 105 ( CR 105 ) , a highway maintained by Onondaga County . The highway paralleled Valley Drive , which was designated as New York State Route 31C in the 1930s and located on the opposite ( western ) side of Skaneateles Creek . In 2002 , heavy flooding of the creek washed out a portion of Valley Drive . A bill to transfer maintenance of most of Valley Drive from the state of New York to local governments in exchange for maintenance of CR 105 was subsequently passed by the New York State Legislature and took effect April 1 , 2003 , at which time the NY 31C designation was removed . The former CR 105 and the portion of former NY 31C in Jordan were designated as NY 317 at the same time .
= = Route description = =
NY 317 begins at an intersection with NY 5 ( Main Street ) and South Street ( CR 122 ) in the Onondaga County village of Elbridge . The route heads northward from the central intersection , passing a small commercial lot to the west and several residential homes to the north and west . Just to the west of the highway is Valley Drive , formerly NY 31C , which parallels NY 317 for its entire length . Separating NY 317 and Valley Drive is Skaneateles Creek , which runs between the two highways .
After a short distance in the village , NY 317 , known as Jordan Road , continues northwest into the surrounding town of Elbridge , where roadside development ends and the highway passes through predominantly open fields . It loosely parallels Skaneateles Creek , turning slightly northward and northwestward to match curves in the waterway . It is during the latter northwest – southeast stretch that Valley Drive ends at a cul @-@ de @-@ sac amongst the woods that line the creek .
A short distance to the northwest , Valley Drive resumes near Crego Road . On NY 317 , the highway passes Maple Grove Cemetery , a small graveyard located in Elbridge . After this comes the intersection with Crego Road , one of two connectors between Valley Road and NY 317 . NY 317 then intersects with Whiting Road ( CR 183 ) , which heads to the east , before entering the village of Jordan .
In Jordan , NY 317 becomes Elbridge Street and turns west to intersect the northern terminus of Valley Drive . The highway proceeds through the southern portion of the village and crosses Skaneateles Creek to reach a junction with South Main Street . NY 317 turns north onto Main Street and has intersections with Mechanic Street ( CR 60 ) and North Hamilton Street ( designated as CR 271 south of Jordan ) before it terminates at a junction with NY 31 north of the village center but within the village limits .
= = History = =
= = = Jordan and Skaneateles Plank Road = = =
The modern routing of NY 317 was originally the northern part of the Jordan and Skaneateles Plank Road . Chartered in 1855 , the Jordan and Skaneateles Plank Road Company was set to provide a plank road from Jordan southward to Skaneateles . This plank road was constructed in the 1850s in place of the Syracuse and Auburn Railroad and a small railroad from Skaneateles to Skaneateles Junction , two crude railroads that were in the area which had ended service in 1836 and 1850 respectively . On March 25 , 1853 , the New York State Assembly proposed an additional toll gate to be constructed in Elbridge along the plank road . On June 15 , 1853 , the bill was passed by the Legislature and went into effect .
Although the plank road company lasted less than two decades , it had its share of controversy . In the January 1853 case of Wilson v. Rochester and Syracuse Railroad Company , Wilson , the plaintiff , was traveling southbound along the plank road through Elbridge . At a grade crossing with railroad tracks , Wilson fell off his horses and wagon upon hitting the tracks . He then fell onto the tracks below and was permanently injured as a result . In 1861 , during Jordan & Skaneateles Plank Road Company vs. Morley , the company sued Morley for evading the toll in Elbridge . Morley countered that the road was in disrepair . However , on the plaintiff 's side , the toll collector was aware that Morley had passed through the toll gate but took no action to enforce the toll . If Morley had paid , he would have been liable for $ 62 @.@ 50 ( equivalent to $ 1646 in 2016 ) .
On April 17 , 1866 , the plank road company was bought out by the Skaneateles Railroad Company . The state chartered the bill , the railroad was constructed and tolls were to be collected by the railroad company rather than the plank road company .
= = = Designation = = =
In 1908 , Valley Drive , a narrow , winding road along the western bank of Skaneateles Creek in the town of Elbridge , was included in Route 20 , an unsigned legislative route extending from Rochester in the west to Elbridge in the east . The highway was gradually taken over by the state of New York , beginning with the segment between the Elbridge and Jordan village lines . This section of Valley Drive was legislatively designated as part of State Highway 487 ( SH 487 ) and added to the state highway system on November 2 , 1908 . The portion within Elbridge was included in the state highway system on December 7 , 1911 , as part of SH 5080 . The Jordan segment was added to the state highway system as part of SH 5630 sometime after 1920 .
Valley Drive received its first posted designation in the mid @-@ 1920s when it was designated as NY 31A , a spur route of NY 31 that linked NY 31 in Jordan to NY 5 in Elbridge . The designation was short @-@ lived , however , as the route became the northernmost portion of NY 41 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 41 was truncated to its present northern terminus in Skaneateles c . 1933 . Its former routing between Elbridge and Jordan was redesignated as NY 31C .
NY 31C remained unchanged until 2002 when part of Valley Drive was washed out by flooding from the nearby creek . A bill ( S6534 , 2002 ) was introduced in the New York State Senate on March 18 , 2002 , that would transfer ownership and maintenance of CR 105 , an alternate route between Jordan and Elbridge on the eastern bank of Skaneateles Creek , from Onondaga County to the New York State Department of Transportation and give Valley Drive to the town of Elbridge and the villages of Jordan and Elbridge . S6534 was passed by the State Senate on April 29 and by the Assembly on June 20 . It was signed into law by Governor George Pataki on August 6 , 2002 , and took effect April 1 , 2003 .
On April 1 , 2003 , NY 31C was effectively renumbered to NY 317 and rerouted south of the intersection of Valley Drive and Elbridge Street in Jordan to follow the former CR 105 to Elbridge . The washed @-@ out section of Valley Drive was never repaired , leaving Valley Drive as two separate dead end streets . The New York State Department of Transportation has made plans to remove the bridge carrying Valley Drive ( former NY 31C ) over Skaneateles Creek in the town of Elbridge . Demolition of the structure is scheduled to begin in mid @-@ 2014 and cost $ 300 @,@ 000 . Once removed , the bridge , built in 1921 , will not be replaced .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Onondaga County .
= Lysergic Acid Diethylamide ( Fringe ) =
" Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " is the 19th episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 62nd episode overall . The narrative followed the Fringe team 's attempts to extract William Bell from Olivia 's brain by entering her mind with the help of LSD .
The episode 's teleplay was co @-@ written by J.H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , while Wyman and Pinkner co @-@ wrote the story with Akiva Goldsman . Joe Chappelle served as director . It marked the return of previous guest actor Leonard Nimoy , who had announced his retirement the previous year . Production of the animated portions was completed by Zoic Studios in an eight @-@ week effort , the longest amount of man hours placed into a Fringe episode .
The episode first aired on April 15 , 2011 in the United States on the Fox network . An estimated 3 @.@ 6 million viewers tuned in , helping the episode earn a 1 @.@ 4 ratings share for those 18 – 49 , tying a series low . Critical reception was generally positive , as multiple reviewers praised the creativity of the writers .
= = Plot = =
The mind of William Bell ( Leonard Nimoy ) still possesses Olivia 's ( Anna Torv ) body after several failed attempts to extract it to recently deceased corpses . Walter ( John Noble ) and William believe that they have less than a day before Olivia 's mind will be lost . They realize that Olivia is unaware that she has been possessed by William 's mind , and instead has likely locked her ego away , making it difficult to contact her by normal means . Walter comes up with a plan : he and Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) will enter Olivia 's mind with the aid of LSD to locate her ego and help it to regain dominance in her mind , while Walter hopes to download William 's mind into a computer .
Inside Olivia 's mind , Walter and Peter find they stand out as invaders , and the people that populate her mind , including a vision of her step @-@ father ( Chris Bradford ) , seek to stop them . Walter sees someone sending a Morse code signal from William Bell 's office in one of the World Trade Center buildings . After evading a crowd and a trap set by a false vision of Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) , they arrive at Bell 's office , where they find William waiting for them as an animated cartoon .
The three are unable to find clues to Olivia 's ego , something that William thought would be present if Olivia was looking to be found . Peter realizes that when Olivia is scared , she retreats to somewhere safe , and suggests they search her mind 's version of Jacksonville , her childhood home . As they travel by zeppelin , William tries to encourage Walter that he no longer needs Bell 's guidance . They are soon attacked by a man ( Ulrich Thomsen ) wearing an X @-@ marked t @-@ shirt , who tears open the side of the zeppelin ; Walter is pulled out by the rush of air and falls to his death — waking him back in the real world .
William and Peter safely land in Jacksonville , and Peter directs them to find the home among the military housing where Olivia stayed at as a child , marked by a red @-@ painted door by her birth @-@ father . Once there , Peter finds the adult Olivia waiting for him , but realizes by her eyes that this is not her . A younger Olivia reveals herself as Olivia 's true ego ; assured of Peter 's identity , she willingly goes with him and Bell . However , they are attacked by the image of her step @-@ father and several military personnel . Peter sacrifices himself to protect her , waking back up in the real world . Olivia is able to stand up against her past fears and stops their advance . William explains that she will be able to return to possession of her body as Walter , in the real world , attempts to extract William 's mind .
Olivia wakes back up to the real world , free of William 's mind . Walter find that his effort to store William 's mind has failed , and takes time to consider William 's last message he gave to Olivia : " I knew the dog wouldn 't hunt " . Later , Peter visits Olivia to rekindle their relationship when he notices a drawing of the same man in the X t @-@ shirt he saw in her mind . Olivia cannot name the man , but nonchalantly refers to him as the person who is going to kill her .
= = Production = =
The episode 's teleplay was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman , while Pinkner , Wyman , and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman co @-@ wrote the story . Executive producer Joe Chappelle served as director .
" Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " features the return of guest actor Leonard Nimoy to television , as he had previously announced his intention to retire from acting . Nimoy stated that when the writers approached him about the role , he jokingly commented on having experience playing characters returning from the dead — referring to the death of Spock in the Star Trek movies — but expressed interest because of his appreciation of the show and its writing in general . Nimoy has stated that if the writers wanted to use him in future episodes , he would be happy to continue to help .
= = = Filming = = =
The cast found out a couple of weeks before filming the episode that parts would be in animation . The animated portions were produced with Zoic Studios . Over an eight @-@ week period , the studio defined the primary Fringe characters into their animated counterparts , and used footage of the actors and fight scene choreography to provide motion for the characters . The animators used a stand @-@ in for Nimoy so that he did not have to fly to Vancouver from Los Angeles . The studio aimed to achieve a mixed look between stylized and authenticity to allow them to focus on animating the characters ' emotions . The work also include recreating some of the settings already established from Fringe , such as Bell 's office . Other parts of Olivia 's dreamscape were handpainted scenes , projected onto 3D plates and used within the animation software . Andrew Orloff , Zoic 's creative director commented , " This project was one of the most intensive and rewarding we have worked on in Zoic ’ s history . It was an incredible undertaking , from the amazing writers at Fringe to the animation production that is both steeped in tradition and groundbreaking . " The episode ultimately contained sixteen minutes of animation ; executive producer Jeff Pinkner noted that the amount of man hours placed into the episode was " by far " the longest the series has had to date . The writers have cited Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Waltz with Bashir as influences for the episode .
John Noble talked about the episode in an interview with A.V. Club , " This is part of the risk @-@ taking that our creators will go for . It hadn ’ t been done before . We wanted to find a solution to a plot problem . And we still had Leonard Nimoy ’ s presence there , even though he [ William Bell ] was dead . So they came up with the bizarre idea of putting his presence into Anna Torv , which is outrageous . Outrageous , and yet we did it , and had a lot of fun doing it . Then we had to get him out of it . Because Leonard ’ s officially retired , so we did the animation to use his voice . "
" Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " concluded Anna Torv 's " Bellivia " arc . Pinkner defended the storyline against some critical fans , " We understand that some people were frustrated , just like some people were frustrated with the idea of Bolivia having a baby . But there are things that we feel are entertaining to us , and that allow us to explore themes that ... we can ’ t otherwise access . And we think that if it ’ s entertaining , and it allows Anna a chance to stretch , and it gives Walter Bishop his old partner back for an episode so we can see what they were like together ... those are also perfectly valid reasons for doing those episodes . " Wyman added , " Yeah , it was important . I mean , you know , for people that say it was just a diversion , well , there was something really important involved in that Walter / William relationship . That was part of Walter ’ s self @-@ actualization , that moment when William Bell says , ' Look , you have to be on your own . You have to walk the path that you believe in . You gain some humility where there once was hubris , and it ’ s really important that you depend on yourself . ' Part of our plan has always been to get Walter to embrace his flaws and uniqueness as strengths , rather than thinking of them inhibiting his performance as a scientist and as a character . We were really anxious to get that across , and the best person to do that for us was William Bell , because Walter depended so much on William in so many different ways . So that story came around at a time where we really needed to have it . " Because the season finale did not resolve the plotline of Olivia and the man from the blimp , Pinkner commented in a post @-@ finale interview that " It ’ s definitely still in play . Without being too spoilery , there are things you think you have time to explore in any given season , but don ’ t . But yes , we are very interested in that moment and the implications of that . "
The live action parts of " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " were shot along west Hastings Street in Vancouver during the latter part of February 2011 .
= = = Marketing = = =
A fourth season of Fringe was announced on March 25 , 2011 . To celebrate this , Fox began a promotion the day " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " aired , lasting four weeks until the season finale . Fans of the series were given the opportunity to win unique replicas of certain Fringe props at Fox 's website or at the Facebook account for Fringe .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " , with the intention of having " students learn about wind power and turbine design . "
= = Cultural references = =
Astrid downloads the 1972 version of the PBS children 's show ZOOM for Walter on his tablet .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " was watched by 3 @.@ 6 million viewers on initial broadcast , with a 1 @.@ 4 rating in the target 18 – 49 age demographic , tying its previous season low . The episode lost 100 @,@ 000 viewers between the first half and the second . SFScope Fringe reviewer Sarah Stegall noted that the episode 's ratings were not surprising , considering the series had just returned from a three @-@ week break . Time shifted viewing led to an increase of 69 percent in the all @-@ important 18 @-@ 49 demographic , a 2 @.@ 2 rating share . This was the largest percent increase of the week .
= = = Reviews = = =
Writing for the Los Angeles Times , Andrew Hanson questioned whether the writers had been using drugs lately because of the surge of drug @-@ related episodes ; though he loved it , he acknowledged that the episode was one " you are either going to love or hate " , explaining that it " got a little crazy using Olivia ’ s mind as a setting , [ but ] it stays grounded through the emotional current running underneath ... you have to give Fringe credit for taking a risky , bold move . " SFScope writer Sarah Stegall called the episode " brilliant , risky , fascinating , and dangerous . It 's not a tack this show can afford to take very often , but I like it when it does . "
A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode with an A- , admitting that despite its faults , he " enjoyed the hell out of " it . He loved it for several reasons : he is a big fan of Anna Torv 's Bellivia performance and its plotline , the drugs incorporated into the plot , its Inception @-@ like qualities , the animation , and Bell 's final goodbye . IGN Fringe reviewer Ramsey Isler rated the episode 8 @.@ 0 / 10 , calling it " one of the most memorable Fringe episodes to date . " Like Murray , Isler also noted the similarities to Inception as well as to the 1968 film Yellow Submarine and the 1977 science fiction novel A Scanner Darkly . Isler did however remark that " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " " end [ ed ] a string of episodes that didn 't really have much point " , though it was a " beautiful episode that doesn 't really do much for the mythology of the series ... it sure was a blast to watch . "
TV Guide ranked " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " the 24th best television episode of the year , while The A.V. Club staff highlighted the episode in their review of the best television shows of 2011 . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " the fourteenth best episode of the series , explaining " Another nutty number 19 , another loony LSD trip , another chance for Fringe to get innovative : With William Bell occupying Olivia 's body and Olivia 's mind hidden away within her dense and tumultuous subconscious , Walter and Peter dropped acid and download into Olivia 's brain to rescue her . Among many memorable bits : The lengthy animated sequence ( Belly , why are you a cartoon ? ) , buttoned @-@ up Broyles loopy reaction to LSD exposure , and the mysterious Max X ( now believed to be a riff on
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Bell ) , the Zeppelin saboteur whom Olivia predicted would one day kill her . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
" Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " was nominated for Best Episode at the 2011 Portal Awards , given annually by Airlock Alpha . It lost to the Game of Thrones episode " Winter Is Coming " .
= Baron Munchausen =
Baron Munchausen / ˈmʌn.tʃaʊ.zən / is a fictional German nobleman created by the German writer Rudolf Erich Raspe in his 1785 book Baron Munchausen 's Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia . The character is loosely based on a real baron , Hieronymus Karl Friedrich , Freiherr von Münchhausen ( 1720 – 1797 , German pronunciation : [ ˈmʏnç ( h ) aʊzən ] ) .
Born in Bodenwerder , Electorate of Brunswick @-@ Luneburg , the real @-@ life Münchhausen fought for the Russian Empire in the Russo @-@ Turkish War . On retiring in 1760 , he became a minor celebrity within German aristocratic circles for telling outrageous tall tales based on his military career . After hearing some of Münchhausen 's stories , Raspe adapted them anonymously into literary form , first in German as ephemeral magazine pieces and then in English as the 1785 book , which was first published in Oxford by a bookseller named Smith . The book was soon translated into other European languages , including a German version expanded by the poet Gottfried August Bürger . The real @-@ life Münchhausen was deeply upset at the development of a fictional character bearing his name , and threatened legal proceedings against the book 's publisher . Perhaps fearing a libel suit , Raspe never acknowledged his authorship of the work , which was only established posthumously .
The fictional Baron 's exploits , narrated in the first @-@ person , focus on his impossible achievements as a sportsman , soldier , and traveller , for instance riding on a cannonball , fighting a forty @-@ foot crocodile , and travelling to the Moon . Intentionally comedic , the stories play on the absurdity and inconsistency of Munchausen 's claims , containing an undercurrent of social satire . The earliest illustrations of the character , perhaps created by Raspe himself , depict Munchausen as slim and youthful , although later illustrators have depicted him as an older man , and have added the sharply beaked nose and twirled moustache that have become part of the character 's definitive visual representation . Raspe 's book was a major international success , becoming the core text for numerous English , continental European , and American editions that were expanded and rewritten by other writers . The book in its various revised forms remained widely read throughout the nineteenth century , especially in editions for young readers .
Versions of the fictional Baron have appeared on stage , screen , radio , and television , as well as in other literary works . Though the Baron Munchausen stories are no longer well @-@ known in English @-@ speaking countries , they are still popular in continental Europe . The character has inspired numerous memorials and museums , and several medical conditions and other concepts are named after him , including Munchausen syndrome , the Münchhausen trilemma , and Munchausen numbers .
= = Historical figure = =
Hieronymus Karl Friedrich von Münchhausen was born on 11 May 1720 in Bodenwerder , Electorate of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg . He was a younger son of the " Black Line " of Rinteln @-@ Bodenwerder , an aristocratic family in the Duchy of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg . His cousin , Gerlach Adolph von Münchhausen , was the founder of the University of Göttingen and later the Prime Minister of the Electorate of Hanover . Münchhausen started as a page to Anthony Ulrich II of Brunswick @-@ Wolfenbüttel , and followed his employer to the Russian Empire during the Austro @-@ Russian – Turkish War ( 1735 – 39 ) . In 1739 , he was appointed a cornet in the Russian cavalry regiment , the Brunswick @-@ Cuirassiers . On 27 November 1740 , he was promoted to lieutenant . He was stationed in Riga , but participated in two campaigns against the Turks in 1740 and 1741 . In 1744 he married Jacobine von Dunten , and in 1750 he was promoted to Rittmeister ( cavalry captain ) .
In 1760 Münchhausen retired to live as a Freiherr at his estates in Bodenwerder , where he remained until his death in 1797 . It was there , especially at parties given for the area 's aristocrats , that he developed a reputation as an imaginative after @-@ dinner storyteller , creating witty and highly exaggerated accounts of his adventures in Russia . Over the ensuing thirty years , his storytelling abilities gained such renown that he frequently received visits from travelling nobles wanting to hear his stories . One guest described Münchhausen as telling his stories " cavalierly , indeed with military emphasis , yet without any concession to the whimsicality of the man of the world ; describing his adventures as one would incidents which were in the natural course of events " . Rather than being considered a liar , Münchhausen was seen as an honest man . As another contemporary put it , Münchhausen 's unbelievable narratives were designed not to deceive , but " to ridicule the disposition for the marvellous which he observed in some of his acquaintances " .
Münchhausen 's wife Jacobine von Dunten died in 1790 . In January 1794 , Münchhausen married Bernardine von Brunn , fifty @-@ seven years his junior . Von Brunn reportedly took ill soon after the marriage and spent the summer of 1794 in the spa town of Bad Pyrmont , although contemporary gossip claimed that she spent her time dancing and flirting . Von Brunn gave birth to a daughter , Maria Wilhemina , on 16 February 1795 , nine months after her summer trip . Münchhausen filed an official complaint that the child was not his , and spent the last years of his life in divorce proceedings and alimony litigation . Münchhausen died childless on 22 February 1797 .
= = Fictionalization = =
The fictionalized character was created by a German writer , scientist , and con artist , Rudolf Erich Raspe . Raspe probably met Hieronymus von Münchhausen while studying at the University of Göttingen , and may even have been invited to dine with him at the mansion at Bodenwerder . Raspe 's later career mixed writing and scientific scholarship with theft and swindling ; when the German police issued advertisements for his arrest in 1775 , he fled continental Europe and settled in England .
In his native German language , Raspe wrote a collection of anecdotes inspired by Münchhausen 's tales , calling the collection " M @-@ h @-@ s @-@ nsche Geschichten " ( " M @-@ h @-@ s @-@ n Stories " ) . It remains unclear how much of Raspe 's material comes directly from the Baron , but the majority of the stories are derived from older sources , including Heinrich Bebel 's Facetiæ ( 1508 ) and Samuel Gotthold Lange 's Deliciæ Academicæ ( 1765 ) . " M @-@ h @-@ s @-@ nsche Geschichten " appeared as a feature in the eighth issue of the Vade mecum für lustige Leute ( Handbook for Fun @-@ loving People ) , a Berlin humor magazine , in 1781 . Raspe published a sequel , " Noch zwei M @-@ Lügen " ( " Two more M @-@ Fibs " ) , in the tenth issue of the same magazine in 1783 . The hero and narrator of these stories was identified only as " M @-@ h @-@ s @-@ n " , keeping Raspe 's inspiration partly obscured while still allowing knowledgeable German readers to make the connection to Münchhausen . Raspe 's name did not appear at all .
In 1785 , while supervising mines at Dolcoath in Cornwall , Raspe adapted the Vade mecum anecdotes into a short English @-@ language book , this time identifying the narrator of the book as " Baron Munchausen " . Other than the anglicization of Münchhausen to " Munchausen " , Raspe this time made no attempt to hide the identity of the man who had inspired him , though he still withheld his own name .
This English edition , the first version of the text in which Munchausen appeared as a fully developed literary character , had a circuitous publication history . It first appeared anonymously as Baron Munchausen 's Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia , a 49 @-@ page book in 12mo size , published in Oxford by the bookseller Smith in late 1785 and sold for a shilling . A second edition released early the following year , retitled Singular Travels , Campaigns , Voyages , and Sporting Adventures of Baron Munnikhouson , commonly pronounced Munchausen , added five more stories and four illustrations ; though the book was still anonymous , the new text was probably by Raspe , and the illustrations may have been his work as well .
By May 1786 , Raspe no longer had control over the book , which was taken over by a different publisher , G. Kearsley . Kearsley , intending the book for a higher @-@ class audience than the original editions had been , commissioned extensive additions and revisions from other hands , including new stories , twelve new engravings , and much rewriting of Raspe 's prose . This third edition was sold at two shillings , twice the price of the original , as Gulliver Revived , or the Singular Travels , Campaigns , Voyages , and Adventures of Baron Munikhouson , commonly pronounced Munchausen .
Kearsley 's version was a marked popular success . Over the next few years , the publishing house issued further editions in quick succession , adding still more non @-@ Raspe material along the way ; even the full @-@ length Sequel to the Adventures of Baron Munchausen , again not by Raspe and originally published in 1792 by a rival printer , was quickly subsumed into the body of stories . In the process of revision , Raspe 's prose style was heavily modified ; instead of his conversational language and sportsmanlike turns of phrase , Kearsley 's writers opted for a blander and more formal tone imitating Augustan prose . Most ensuing English @-@ language editions , including even the major editions produced by Thomas Seccombe in 1895 and F. J. Harvey Darton in 1930 , reproduce one of the rewritten Kearsley versions rather than Raspe 's original text .
At least ten editions or translations of the book appeared before Raspe 's death in 1794 . Translations of the book into French , Spanish , and German were published in 1786 . The text reached the United States in 1805 , expanded to include American topical satire by an anonymous Federalist writer , probably Thomas Green Fessenden .
The first German translation , Wunderbare Reisen zu Wasser und Lande , was made by the German Romantic poet Gottfried August Bürger . Bürger 's text is a close translation of Smith 's second edition , but also includes an interpolated story , based on a German legend called " The Six Wonderful Servants " . Two new engravings were added to illustrate the interpolated material . The German version of the stories proved to be even more popular than the English one . A second German edition in 1788 included heavily altered material from an expanded Kearsley edition , and an original German sequel , Nachtrag zu den wunderbaren Reisen zu Wasser und Lande , was published in 1789 . After these publications , the English and Continental versions of the Raspe text continued to diverge , following increasingly different traditions of included material .
Raspe , probably for fear of a libel suit from the real @-@ life Baron von Münchhausen , never admitted his authorship of the book . It was often credited to Bürger , sometimes with an accompanying rumor that the real @-@ life Baron von Münchhausen had met Bürger in Pyrmont and dictated the entire work to him . Another rumor , which circulated widely soon after the German translation was published , claimed that it was a competitive collaboration by three University of Göttingen scholars — Bürger , Abraham Gotthelf Kästner , and Georg Christoph Lichtenberg — with each of the three trying to outdo one another by writing the most unbelievable tale . The scholar Johann Georg Meusel correctly credited Raspe for the core text , but mistakenly asserted that Raspe had written it in German and that an anonymous translator was responsible for the English version . Raspe 's authorship was finally proven in 1824 by Bürger 's biographer , Karl Reinhard .
In the first few years after publication , German readers widely assumed that the real @-@ life Baron von Münchhausen was responsible for the stories . According to witnesses , Münchhausen was deeply angry that the book had dragged his name into public consciousness and insulted his honor as a nobleman . Münchhausen became a recluse , refusing to host parties or tell any more stories , and he attempted without success to bring legal proceedings against Bürger and the publisher of the translation .
= = = Publication history = = =
The following tables summarize the early publication history of Raspe 's text , from 1785 to 1800 . Unless otherwise referenced , information in the tables comes from the Munchausen bibliography established by John Carswell .
= = Fictional character = =
The fictional Baron Munchausen is a braggart soldier , most strongly defined by his comically overexaggerated boasts about his own adventures ; all of the stories in Raspe 's book are told in first @-@ person narrative , with a prefatory note explaining that " the Baron is supposed to relate these extraordinary Adventures over his Bottle , when surrounded by his Friends " . The Baron 's stories imply him to be a superhuman figure who spends most of his time either getting out of absurd predicaments or indulging in equally absurd moments of gentle mischief . In some of his best @-@ known stories , the Baron rides a cannonball , travels to the Moon , is swallowed by a giant fish in the Mediterranean Sea , saves himself from drowning by pulling on his own hair , fights a forty @-@ foot crocodile , enlists a wolf to pull his sleigh , and uses laurel tree branches to fix his horse when the animal is accidentally cut in two .
In the stories he narrates , the Baron is shown as a calm , rational man , describing what he experiences with simple objectivity ; absurd happenings elicit , at most , mild surprise from him , and he shows serious doubt about any unlikely events he has not witnessed himself . The resulting narrative effect is an ironic tone , encouraging skepticism in the reader and marked by a running undercurrent of subtle social satire . In addition to his fearlessness when hunting and fighting , he is suggested to be a debonair , polite gentleman given to moments of gallantry , with a scholarly penchant for knowledge , a tendency to be pedantically accurate about details in his stories , and a deep appreciation for food and drink of all kinds . The Baron also provides a solid geographical and social context for his narratives , peppering them with topical allusions and satire about recent events ; indeed , many of the references in Raspe 's original text are to historical incidents in the real @-@ life Münchhausen 's military career .
Because the feats the Baron describes are overtly implausible , they are easily recognizable as fiction , with a strong implication that the Baron is a liar . Whether he expects his audience to believe him varies from version to version ; in Raspe 's original 1785 text , he simply narrates his stories without further comment , but in the later extended versions he is insistent that he is telling the truth . In any case , the Baron appears to believe every word of his own stories , no matter how internally inconsistent they become , and he usually appears tolerantly indifferent to any disbelief he encounters in others .
Illustrators of the Baron stories have included Thomas Rowlandson , Alfred Crowquill , George Cruikshank , Ernst Ludwig Riepenhausen , Theodor Hosemann , Adolf Schrödter , Gustave Doré , William Strang , W. Heath Robinson , and Ronald Searle . The Finnish @-@ American cartoonist Klaus Nordling featured the Baron in a weekly Baron Munchausen comic strip from 1935 to 1937 , and in 1962 , Raspe 's text was adapted for Classics Illustrated # 146 ( British series ) , with both interior and cover art by the British cartoonist Denis Gifford .
In the first published illustrations , which may have been drawn by Raspe himself , the Baron appears slim and youthful . For the 1792 Sequel to the Adventures of Baron Munchausen , an anonymous artist drew the Baron as a dignified but tired old soldier whose face is marred by injuries from his adventures ; this illustration remained the standard portrait of the Baron for about seventy years , and its imagery was echoed in Cruikshank 's depictions of the character . Doré , illustrating a Théophile Gautier fils translation in 1862 , retained the sharply beaked nose and twirled moustache from the 1792 portrait , but gave the Baron a healthier and more affable appearance ; the Doré Baron became the definitive visual representation for the character .
The relationship between the real and fictional Barons is complex . On the one hand , the fictional Baron Munchausen can be easily distinguished from the historical figure Hieronymus von Münchhausen ; the character is so separate from his namesake that at least one critic , the writer W. L. George , concluded that the namesake 's identity was irrelevant to the general reader , and Richard Asher named Munchausen syndrome using the anglicized spelling so that the disorder would reference the character rather than the real person . On the other hand , Münchhausen remains strongly connected to the character he inspired , and is still nicknamed the Lügenbaron ( " Baron of Lies " ) in German . As the Munchausen researcher Bernhard Wiebel has said , " These two barons are the same and they are not the same . "
= = Critical and popular reception = =
Reviewing the first edition of Raspe 's book in December 1785 , a writer in The Critical Review commented appreciatively :
This is a satirical production calculated to throw ridicule on the bold assertions of some parliamentary declaimers . If rant may be best foiled at its own weapons , the author 's design is not ill @-@ founded ; for the marvellous has never been carried to a more whimsical and ludicrous extent .
A writer for The English Review around the same time was less approving : " We do not understand how a collection of lies can be called a satire on lying , any more than the adventures of a woman of pleasure can be called a satire on fornication . "
W. L. George described the fictional Baron as a " comic giant " of literature , describing his boasts as " splendid , purposeless lie [ s ] born of the joy of life " . Théophile Gautier fils highlighted that the Baron 's adventures are endowed with an " absurd logic pushed to the extreme and which backs away from nothing " . According to an interview , Jules Verne relished reading the Baron stories as a child , and used them as inspiration for his own adventure novels . Thomas Seccombe commented that " Munchausen has undoubtedly achieved [ a permanent place in literature ] ... The Baron 's notoriety is universal , his character proverbial , and his name as familiar as that of Mr. Lemuel Gulliver , or Robinson Crusoe . "
Steven T. Byington wrote that " Munchausen 's modest seat in the Valhalla of classic literature is undisputed " , comparing the stories to American tall tales and concluding that the Baron is " the patriarch , the perfect model , the fadeless fragrant flower , of liberty from accuracy " . The folklore writer Alvin Schwartz cited the Baron stories as one of the most important influences on the American tall tale tradition . In a 2012 study of the Baron , the literary scholar Sarah Tindal Kareem noted that " Munchausen embodies , in his deadpan presentation of absurdities , the novelty of fictionality [ and ] the sophistication of aesthetic illusion " , adding that the additions to Raspe 's text made by Kearsley and others tend to mask these ironic literary qualities by emphasizing that the Baron is lying .
By the beginning of the nineteenth century , Kearsley 's phenomenally popular version of Raspe 's book had spread to abridged chapbook editions for young readers , who soon became the main audience for the stories . The book , especially in its adaptations for children , remained widely popular throughout the century . It was translated into nearly all languages spoken in Europe ; Robert Southey referred to it as " a book which everybody knows , because all boys read it " . Notable later translations include Gautier 's French rendering and Korney Chukovsky 's popular Russian adaptation . By the 1850s , Munchausen had come into slang use as a verb meaning " to tell extravagantly untruthful pseudo @-@ autobiographical stories " . Robert Chambers , in an 1863 almanac , cited the iconic 1792 illustration of the Baron by asking rhetorically :
Who is there that has not , in his youth , enjoyed The Surprising Travels and Adventures of Baron Munchausen in Russia , the Caspian Sea , Iceland , Turkey , & c. a slim volume — all too short , indeed — illustrated by a formidable portrait of the baron in front , with his broad @-@ sword laid over his shoulder , and several deep gashes on his manly countenance ? I presume they must be few .
Though Raspe 's book is no longer widely read by English speakers , the Munchausen stories remain popular in Europe , especially in Germany and in Russia .
= = In culture = =
= = = Literature = = =
As well as the many augmented and adapted editions of Raspe 's text , the fictional Baron has occasionally appeared in other standalone works . In 1838 – 39 , Karl Leberecht Immermann published the long novel Münchhausen : Eine Geschichte in Arabesken ( Münchhausen : A History of Arabesques ) as an homage to the character , and Adolf Ellissen 's Munchausens Lügenabenteur , an elaborate expansion of the stories , appeared in 1846 . In his 1886 philosophical treatise Beyond Good and Evil , Friedrich Nietzsche uses one of the Baron 's adventures , the one in which he rescues himself from a swamp , as a metaphor for belief in complete metaphysical free will ; Nietzsche calls this belief an attempt " to pull oneself up into existence by the hair , out of the swamps of nothingness " .
In the late nineteenth century , the Baron appeared as a character in John Kendrick Bangs 's comic novels A House @-@ Boat on the Styx , Pursuit of the House @-@ Boat , and The Enchanted Type @-@ Writer . Shortly after , in 1901 , Bangs published Mr. Munchausen , a collection of new Munchausen stories , closely following the style and humor of the original tales . Hugo Gernsback 's second novel , Baron Münchhausen 's New Scientific Adventures , put the Baron character in a science fiction setting ; the novel was serialized in The Electrical Experimenter from May 1915 to February 1917 .
Pierre Henri Cami 's character Baron de Crac , a French soldier and courtier under Louis XV , is an imitation of the Baron Munchausen stories . In 1998 , the British game designer James Wallis used the Baron character to create a multi @-@ player storytelling game , The Extraordinary Adventures of Baron Munchausen , in which players improvise Munchausen @-@ like first @-@ person stories while overcoming objections and other interruptions from opponents .
= = = Stage and audio = = =
On stage , Harlequin Munchausen , or the Fountain of Love , a pantomime based on the Raspe text , was produced in London in 1818 , and Herbert Eulenberg made the Baron the main character of a 1900 play , Münchhausen . The Expressionist writer Walter Hasenclever turned the stories into a comedy , Münchhausen , in 1934 . Grigori Gorin used the Baron as the hero of his 1976 play That Very Munchausen ; a film version was made in 1980 . Baron Prášil , a Czech musical about the Baron , opened in 2010 in Prague . The following year , the National Black Light Theatre of Prague toured the United Kingdom with a nonmusical production of The Adventures of Baron Munchausen .
In 1932 , the comedy writer Billy Wells adapted Baron Munchausen for a radio comedy routine starring the comedians Jack Pearl and Cliff Hall . In the routine , Pearl 's Baron would relate his unbelievable experiences in a thick German accent to Hall 's " straight man " character , Charlie . When Charlie had had enough and expressed disbelief , the Baron would invariably retort : " Vass you dere , Sharlie ? " The line became a popular and much @-@ quoted catchphrase , and by early 1933 The Jack Pearl Show was the second most popular series on American radio ( after Eddie Cantor 's program ) . Pearl attempted to adapt his portrayal to film in Meet the Baron in 1933 , playing a modern character mistaken for the Baron , but the film was not a success . Pearl 's popularity gradually declined between 1933 and 1937 , though he attempted to revive the Baron character several times before ending his last radio series in 1951 .
For a 1972 Caedmon Records recording of some of the stories , Peter Ustinov voiced the Baron . A review in The Reading Teacher noted that Ustinov 's portrayal highlighted " the braggadocio personality of the Baron " , with " self @-@ adulation ... plainly discernible in the intonational innuendo " .
= = = Film = = =
The early French filmmaker Georges Méliès , who greatly admired the Baron Munchausen stories , filmed Baron Munchausen 's Dream in 1911 . Méliès 's short silent film , which has little in common with the Raspe text , follows a sleeping Baron through a surrealistic succession of intoxication @-@ induced dreams . Méliès may also have used the Baron 's journey to the moon as an inspiration for his well @-@ known 1902 film A Trip to the Moon . In the late 1930s , he planned to collaborate with the Dada artist Hans Richter on a new film version of the Baron stories , but the project was left unfinished at his death in 1938 . Richter attempted to complete it the following year , taking on Jacques Prévert , Jacques Brunius , and Maurice Henry as screenwriters , but the beginning of the Second World War put a permanent halt to the production .
The French animator Emile Cohl produced a version of the stories using silhouette cutout animation in 1913 ; other animated versions were produced by Richard Felgenauer in Germany in
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s influence . Elsewhere he asserted that it " explores this prelude with extraordinary narrative virtuosity . "
Biographer Pierre Assouline stated that the story was " clearly influenced ... in spirit if not in detail " by Robert Louis Stevenson 's book , Treasure Island in that it " seemed to cater to a need for escapism " . He described the adventure as " a new development in Hergé 's work , a flight from the topical to epics of pirate adventures set in distant horizons " . Assouline also expressed the view that the ancestral figure of Sir Francis Haddock reflected Hergé 's attempt to incorporate one of his own family secrets , that he had an aristocratic ancestor , into the story .
Michael Farr believed that the " most remarkable " factor of the book was its introduction of Sir Francis Haddock , highlighting that in his mannerisms and visual depiction , he is " scarely distinguishable " from Captain Haddock . He also highlighted that the scenes in which Captain Haddock relates the tale of his ancestor carries on the " merging of dreams and reality " that Hergé had " experimented with " in The Crab with the Golden Claws and The Shooting Star . Noting that unlike The Shooting Star , this two @-@ book story arc contains " scarcely an allusion to occupation and war " , he praised the arc 's narrative as " perfectly paced , without that feeling of haste " present in some of Hergé 's earlier work .
In his psychoanalytical study of the Adventures of Tintin , the academic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès characterised the Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc as being about the characters going on a " treasure hunt that turns out to be at the same time a search for their roots . " He stated that the arc delves into Haddock 's ancestry , and in doing so " deals with the meanings of symbolic relations within personal life " . Discussing the character of Sir Francis Haddock , he states that this ancestral figure resembles both Tintin and Haddock , " the foundling and the bastard " , thus making the duo brothers as well as close friends . He adds that when Captain Haddock reenacts his ancestor 's fight with Rackham , he adopts his " very soul , his mana , and is transformed in the process . " Comparing Sir Francis Haddock to Robinson Crusoe , he also draws a comparison between the way that the Caribbean natives deified Sir Francis Haddock by erecting a statue of him in the same manner that the Congolese deify Tintin at the end of Tintin in the Congo . Apostolidès also discusses Red Rackham , noting that the name " Red " conjures up " the forbidden colour of blood and wine " while " Rackham " combines raca ( " false brother " ) with the French word for scum ( racaille ) , then highlighting a potential link between Rackham 's name and that of Rascar Capac , an Incan mummy who appears in The Seven Crystal Balls . He further draws parallels between the model ships containing the secret parchments with the Arumbaya fetish containing a rare diamond which appears in The Broken Ear .
Literary critic Tom McCarthy highlighted the scene in which Tintin was imprisoned in the Marlinspike crypt , observing that it had parallels with Tintin 's exploration of tombs and other secret chambers throughout the series . He identified the mystery left in Francis Haddock 's parchments to be another appearance of Tintin 's adventures being " framed by enigmas " . To this he adds that in solving the enigma , Tintin shows that he is " the best reader " in the series , and it is this which establishes him as " the oeuvre 's hero " . McCarthy praised Hergé 's Silk as one of the pivotal characters in the series who can " exude a presence far beyond that which we might expect from a novelist , let alone a cartoonist " .
Pierre Fresnault @-@ Deruelle discussed the scene in the story in which Tintin was imprisoned in the crypt of Marlinspike Hall . He stated that in this section , " Hergé offers us an embedded story , a kind of interlude in which the artist , setting aside the use value of objects , takes the liberty of giving them mischievous powers , akin to a certain surrealism . "
= = Adaptations = =
In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , a series of daily five @-@ minute colour adaptations based upon Hergé 's original comics . The Secret of the Unicorn was the fourth to be adapted in the second animated series ; it was directed by Ray Goossens and written by Greg , a well @-@ known cartoonist who was to become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .
In 1991 , a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana adapted 21 of the stories into a series of episodes . The Secret of the Unicorn was the ninth story of The Adventures of Tintin to be produced and was divided into two thirty @-@ minute episodes . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " to the original comics , to the extent that the animation was directly adopted from Hergé 's original panels .
A 2011 motion capture feature film The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn , directed by Steven Spielberg and produced by Peter Jackson , was released in most of the world October – November 2011 and in the US on 21 December 2011 . The film is based partly upon The Secret of the Unicorn and partly on both Red Rackham 's Treasure and The Crab with the Golden Claws . A video @-@ game tie @-@ in to the movie was released October 2011 .
= Hamlet =
The Tragedy of Hamlet , Prince of Denmark , often shortened to Hamlet ( / ˈhæmlᵻt / ) , is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare at an uncertain date between 1599 and 1602 . Set in the Kingdom of Denmark , the play dramatises the revenge Prince Hamlet is called to wreak upon his uncle , Claudius , by the ghost of Hamlet 's father , King Hamlet . Claudius had murdered his own brother and seized the throne , also marrying his deceased brother 's widow . Hamlet is Shakespeare 's longest play , and is ranked among the most powerful and influential tragedies in English literature , with a story capable of " seemingly endless retelling and adaptation by others " . The play likely was one of Shakespeare 's most popular works during his lifetime , and still ranks among his most performed , topping the performance list of the Royal Shakespeare Company and its predecessors in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon since 1879 . It has inspired many other writers – from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Charles Dickens to James Joyce and Iris Murdoch – and has been described as " the world 's most filmed story after Cinderella " . The story of Shakespeare 's Hamlet was derived from the legend of Amleth , preserved by 13th @-@ century chronicler Saxo Grammaticus in his Gesta Danorum , as subsequently retold by 16th @-@ century scholar François de Belleforest . Shakespeare may also have drawn on an earlier ( hypothetical ) Elizabethan play known today as the Ur @-@ Hamlet , though some scholars believe he himself wrote the Ur @-@ Hamlet , later revising it to create the version of Hamlet we now have . He almost certainly wrote his version of the title role for his fellow actor , Richard Burbage , the leading tragedian of Shakespeare 's time . In the 400 years since its inception , the role has been performed by numerous highly acclaimed actors in each successive century .
Three different early versions of the play are extant : the First Quarto ( Q1 , 1603 ) ; the Second Quarto ( Q2 , 1604 ) ; and the First Folio ( F1 , 1623 ) . Each version includes lines and entire scenes missing from the others . The play 's structure and depth of characterisation have inspired much critical scrutiny . One such example is the centuries @-@ old debate about Hamlet 's hesitation to kill his uncle , which some see as merely a plot device to prolong the action , but which others argue is a dramatisation of the complex philosophical and ethical issues that surround cold @-@ blooded murder , calculated revenge , and thwarted desire . More recently , psychoanalytic critics have examined Hamlet 's unconscious desires , while feminist critics have re @-@ evaluated and attempted to rehabilitate the often maligned characters of Ophelia and Gertrude .
= = Characters = =
= = Plot = =
Act I
The protagonist of Hamlet is Prince Hamlet of Denmark , son of the recently deceased King Hamlet , and nephew of King Claudius , his father 's brother and successor . Claudius hastily married King Hamlet 's widow , Gertrude , Hamlet 's mother , and took the throne for himself . Denmark has a long @-@ standing feud with neighboring Norway , which culminated when King Hamlet slew King Fortinbras of Norway in a battle years ago . Although Denmark defeated Norway , and the Norwegian throne fell to King Fortinbras 's infirm brother , Denmark fears that an invasion led by the dead Norwegian king 's son , Prince Fortinbras , is imminent .
On a cold night on the ramparts of Elsinore , the Danish royal castle , the sentries Bernardo and Marcellus and Hamlet 's friend Horatio encounter a ghost that looks like the late King Hamlet . They vow to tell Prince Hamlet what they have witnessed .
As the Court gathers the next day , while King Claudius and Queen Gertrude discuss affairs of state with their elderly adviser Polonius , Hamlet looks on glumly . After the Court exits , Hamlet despairs of his father 's death and his mother 's hasty remarriage . Learning of the Ghost from Horatio , Hamlet resolves to see it himself .
As Polonius 's son Laertes prepares to depart for a visit to France , Polonius gives him contradictory advice that culminates in the ironic maxim " to thine own self be true " . Polonius 's daughter , Ophelia , admits her interest in Hamlet , but both Polonius and Laertes warn her against seeking the prince 's attention . That night on the rampart , the Ghost appears to Hamlet , telling the prince that he was murdered by Claudius and demanding that Hamlet avenge him . Hamlet agrees and the Ghost vanishes . The prince confides to Horatio and the sentries that from now on he plans to " put an antic disposition on " and forces them to swear to keep his plans for revenge secret . Privately , however , he remains uncertain of the Ghost 's reliability .
Act II
Soon thereafter
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Laertes that Hamlet is solely responsible , but a letter soon arrives indicating that Hamlet has returned to Denmark , foiling Claudius 's plan . Claudius switches tactics , proposing a fencing match between Laertes and Hamlet to settle their differences . Laertes will be given a poison @-@ tipped foil , and Claudius will offer Hamlet poisoned wine as a congratulation if that fails . Gertrude interrupts to report that Ophelia has drowned , though it is unclear whether it was suicide or an accident exacerbated by her madness .
Act V
Horatio has received a letter from Hamlet , explaining that the prince escaped by negotiating with pirates who attempted to attack his England @-@ bound ship , and the friends reunite offstage . Two gravediggers discuss Ophelia 's apparent suicide while digging her grave . Hamlet arrives with Horatio and banters with one of the gravediggers , who unearths the skull of a jester from Hamlet 's childhood , Yorick . Hamlet picks up the skull , saying " alas , poor Yorick " as he contemplates mortality . Ophelia 's funeral procession approaches , led by Laertes . Hamlet and Horatio initially hide , but when Hamlet realizes that Ophelia is the one being buried , he reveals himself , proclaiming his love for her . Laertes and Hamlet fight by Ophelia 's graveside , but the brawl is broken up .
Back at Elsinore , Hamlet explains to Horatio that he had discovered Claudius 's letter with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern 's belongings and replaced it with a forged copy indicating that his former friends should be killed instead . A foppish courtier , Osric , interrupts the conversation to deliver the fencing challenge to Hamlet . Hamlet , despite Horatio 's advice , accepts it . Hamlet does well at first , leading the match by two hits to none , and Gertrude raises a toast to him using the poisoned glass of wine Claudius had set aside for Hamlet . Claudius tries to stop her , but is too late : she drinks , and Laertes realizes the plot will be revealed . Laertes slashes Hamlet with his poisoned blade . In the ensuing scuffle , they switch weapons and Hamlet wounds Laertes with his own poisoned sword . Gertrude collapses and , claiming she has been poisoned , dies . In his dying moments , Laertes reconciles with Hamlet and reveals Claudius 's plan . Hamlet rushes at Claudius and kills him . As the poison takes effect , Hamlet , hearing that Fortinbras is marching through the area , names the Norwegian prince as his successor . Horatio , distraught at the thought of being the last survivor , says he will commit suicide by drinking the dregs of Gertrude 's poisoned wine , but Hamlet begs him to live on and tell his story . Hamlet dies , proclaiming " the rest is silence " . Fortinbras , who was ostensibly marching towards Poland with his army , arrives at the palace , along with an English ambassador bringing news of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern 's deaths . Horatio promises to recount the full story of what happened , and Fortinbras , seeing the entire Danish royal family dead , takes the crown for himself .
= = Date = =
" Any dating of Hamlet must be tentative " , cautions the New Cambridge editor , Phillip Edwards . The earliest date estimate relies on Hamlet 's frequent allusions to Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar , itself dated to mid @-@ 1599 . The latest date estimate is based on an entry , of 26 July 1602 , in the Register of the Stationers ' Company , indicating that Hamlet was " latelie Acted by the Lo : Chamberleyne his servantes " .
In 1598 , Francis Meres published his Palladis Tamia , a survey of English literature from Chaucer to its present day , within which twelve of Shakespeare 's plays are named . Hamlet is not among them , suggesting that it had not yet been written . As Hamlet was very popular , Bernard Lott , the series editor of New Swan , believes it " unlikely that he [ Meres ] would have overlooked ... so significant a piece " .
The phrase " little eyases " in the First Folio ( F1 ) may allude to the Children of the Chapel , whose popularity in London forced the Globe company into provincial touring . This became known as the War of the Theatres , and supports a 1601 dating . Katherine Duncan @-@ Jones accepts a 1600 – 1 attribution for the date Hamlet was written , but notes that the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , playing Hamlet in the 3000 @-@ capacity Globe , were unlikely to be put to any disadvantage by an audience of " barely one hundred " for the Children of the Chapel 's equivalent play , Antonio 's Revenge ; she believes that Shakespeare , confident in the superiority of his own work , was making a playful and charitable allusion to his friend John Marston 's very similar piece .
A contemporary of Shakespeare 's , Gabriel Harvey , wrote a marginal note in his copy of the 1598 edition of Chaucer 's works , which some scholars use as dating evidence . Harvey 's note says that " the wiser sort " enjoy Hamlet , and implies that the Earl of Essex — executed in February 1601 for rebellion — was still alive . Other scholars consider this inconclusive . Edwards , for example , concludes that the " sense of time is so confused in Harvey 's note that it is really of little use in trying to date Hamlet " . This is because the same note also refers to Spenser and Watson as if they were still alive ( " our flourishing metricians " ) , but also mentions " Owen 's new epigrams " , published in 1607 .
= = Texts = =
Three early editions of the text have survived , making attempts to establish a single " authentic " text problematic . Each is different from the others :
First Quarto ( Q1 ) : In 1603 the booksellers Nicholas Ling and John Trundell published , and Valentine Simmes printed , the so @-@ called " bad " first quarto . Q1 contains just over half of the text of the later second quarto .
Second Quarto ( Q2 ) : In 1604 Nicholas Ling published , and James Roberts printed , the second quarto . Some copies are dated 1605 , which may indicate a second impression ; consequently , Q2 is often dated " 1604 / 5 " . Q2 is the longest early edition , although it omits about 77 lines found in F1 ( most likely to avoid offending James I 's queen , Anne of Denmark ) .
First Folio ( F1 ) : In 1623 Edward Blount and William and Isaac Jaggard published the First Folio , the first edition of Shakespeare 's Complete Works .
Other folios and quartos were subsequently published — including John Smethwick 's Q3 , Q4 , and Q5 ( 1611 – 37 ) — but these are regarded as derivatives of the first three editions .
Early editors of Shakespeare 's works , beginning with Nicholas Rowe ( 1709 ) and Lewis Theobald ( 1733 ) , combined material from the two earliest sources of Hamlet available at the time , Q2 and F1 . Each text contains material that the other lacks , with many minor differences in wording : scarcely 200 lines are identical in the two . Editors have combined them in an effort to create one " inclusive " text that reflects an imagined " ideal " of Shakespeare 's original . Theobald 's version became standard for a long time , and his " full text " approach continues to influence editorial practice to the present day . Some contemporary scholarship , however , discounts this approach , instead considering " an authentic Hamlet an unrealisable ideal . ... there are texts of this play but no text " . The 2006 publication by Arden Shakespeare of different Hamlet texts in different volumes is perhaps evidence of this shifting focus and emphasis . Other editors have continued to argue the need for well @-@ edited editions taking material from all versions of the play . Colin Burrow has argued that " most of us should read a text that is made up by conflating all three versions ... it 's about as likely that Shakespeare wrote : " To be or not to be , ay , there 's the point " [ in Q1 ] , as that he wrote the works of Francis Bacon . I suspect most people just won 't want to read a three @-@ text play ... [ multi @-@ text editions are ] a version of the play that is out of touch with the needs of a wider public . "
Traditionally , editors of Shakespeare 's plays have divided them into five acts . None of the early texts of Hamlet , however , were arranged this way , and the play 's division into acts and scenes derives from a 1676 quarto . Modern editors generally follow this traditional division , but consider it unsatisfactory ; for example , after Hamlet drags Polonius 's body out of Gertrude 's bedchamber , there is an act @-@ break after which the action appears to continue uninterrupted .
The discovery in 1823 of Q1 — whose existence had been quite unsuspected — caused considerable interest and excitement , raising many questions of editorial practice and interpretation . Scholars immediately identified apparent deficiencies in Q1 , which was instrumental in the development of the concept of a Shakespearean " bad quarto " . Yet Q1 has value : it contains stage directions ( such as Ophelia entering with a lute and her hair down ) that reveal actual stage practices in a way that Q2 and F1 do not ; it contains an entire scene ( usually labelled 4 @.@ 6 ) that does not appear in either Q2 or F1 ; and it is useful for comparison with the later editions . The major deficiency of Q1 is in the language : particularly noticeable in the opening lines of the famous " To be , or not to be " soliloquy : " To be , or not to be , aye there 's the point . / To die , to sleep , is that all ? Aye all : / No , to sleep , to dream , aye marry there it goes . " However , the scene order is more coherent , without the problems of Q2 and F1 of Hamlet seeming to resolve something in one scene and enter the next drowning in indecision . New Cambridge editor Kathleen Irace has noted that " Q1 's more linear plot design is certainly easier [ … ] to follow [ … ] but the simplicity of the Q1 plot arrangement eliminates the alternating plot elements that correspond to Hamlet 's shifts in mood . "
Q1 is considerably shorter than Q2 or F1 and may be a memorial reconstruction of the play as Shakespeare 's company performed it , by an actor who played a minor role ( most likely Marcellus ) . Scholars disagree whether the reconstruction was pirated or authorised . It is suggested by Irace that Q1 is an abridged version intended especially for travelling productions , thus the question of length may be considered as separate from issues of poor textual quality . Editing Q1 thus poses problems in whether or not to " correct " differences from Q2 and F. Irace , in her introduction to Q1 , wrote that " I have avoided as many other alterations as possible , because the differences ... are especially intriguing ... I have recorded a selection of Q2 / F readings in the collation . " The idea that Q1 is not riddled with error but is instead eminently fit for the stage has led to at least 28 different Q1 productions since 1881 . Other productions have used the probably superior Q2 and Folio texts , but used Q1 's running order , in particular moving the to be or not to be soliloquy earlier . Developing this , some editors such as Jonathan Bate have argued that Q2 may represent " a ' reading ' text as opposed to a ' performance ' one " of Hamlet , analogous to how modern films released on disc may include deleted scenes : an edition containing all of Shakespeare 's material for the play for the pleasure of readers , so not representing the play as it would have been staged .
= = Analysis and criticism = =
= = = Critical history = = =
From the early 17th century , the play was famous for its ghost and vivid dramatisation of melancholy and insanity , leading to a procession of mad courtiers and ladies in Jacobean and Caroline drama . Though it remained popular with mass audiences , late 17th @-@ century Restoration critics saw Hamlet as primitive and disapproved of its lack of unity and decorum . This view changed drastically in the 18th century , when critics regarded Hamlet as a hero — a pure , brilliant young man thrust into unfortunate circumstances . By the mid @-@ 18th century , however , the advent of Gothic literature brought psychological and mystical readings , returning madness and the Ghost to the forefront . Not until the late 18th century did critics and performers begin to view Hamlet as confusing and inconsistent . Before then , he was either mad , or not ; either a hero , or not ; with no in @-@ betweens . These developments represented a fundamental change in literary criticism , which came to focus more on character and less on plot . By the 19th century , Romantic critics valued Hamlet for its internal , individual conflict reflecting the strong contemporary emphasis on internal struggles and inner character in general . Then too , critics started to focus on Hamlet 's delay as a character trait , rather than a plot device . This focus on character and internal struggle continued into the 20th century , when criticism branched in several directions , discussed in context and interpretation below .
= = = Dramatic structure = = =
Hamlet departed from contemporary dramatic convention in several ways . For example , in Shakespeare 's day , plays were usually expected to follow the advice of Aristotle in his Poetics : that a drama should focus on action , not character . In Hamlet , Shakespeare reverses this so that it is through the soliloquies , not the action , that the audience learns Hamlet 's motives and thoughts . The play is full of seeming discontinuities and irregularities of action , except in the " bad " quarto . At one point , as in the Gravedigger scene , Hamlet seems resolved to kill Claudius : in the next scene , however , when Claudius appears , he is suddenly tame . Scholars still debate whether these twists are mistakes or intentional additions to add to the play 's themes of confusion and duality . Finally , in a period when most plays ran for two hours or so , the full text of Hamlet — Shakespeare 's longest play , with 4 @,@ 042 lines , totalling 29 @,@ 551 words — often takes over four hours to deliver . Even today the play is rarely performed in its entirety , and has only once been dramatised on film completely , in Kenneth Branagh 's 1996 version . Hamlet also contains a favourite Shakespearean device , a play within the play , a literary device or conceit in which one story is told during the action of another story .
= = = Language = = =
Much of Hamlet 's language is courtly : elaborate , witty discourse , as recommended by Baldassare Castiglione 's 1528 etiquette guide , The Courtier . This work specifically advises royal retainers to amuse their masters with inventive language . Osric and Polonius , especially , seem to respect this injunction . Claudius 's speech is rich with rhetorical figures — as is Hamlet 's and , at times , Ophelia 's — while the language of Horatio , the guards , and the gravediggers is simpler . Claudius 's high status is reinforced by using the royal first person plural ( " we " or " us " ) , and anaphora mixed with metaphor to resonate with Greek political speeches .
Hamlet is the most skilled of all at rhetoric . He uses highly developed metaphors , stichomythia , and in nine memorable words deploys both anaphora and asyndeton : " to die : to sleep — / To sleep , perchance to dream " . In contrast , when occasion demands , he is precise and straightforward , as when he explains his inward emotion to his mother : " But I have that within which passes show , / These but the trappings and the suits of woe " . At times , he relies heavily on puns to express his true thoughts while simultaneously concealing them . His " nunnery " remarks to Ophelia are an example of a cruel double meaning as nunnery was Elizabethan slang for brothel . His very first words in the play are a pun ; when Claudius addresses him as " my cousin Hamlet , and my son " , Hamlet says as an aside : " A little more than kin , and less than kind . "
An unusual rhetorical device , hendiadys , appears in several places in the play . Examples are found in Ophelia 's speech at the end of the nunnery scene : " Th 'expectancy and rose of the fair state " and " And I , of ladies most deject and wretched " . Many scholars have found it odd that Shakespeare would , seemingly arbitrarily , use this rhetorical form throughout the play . One explanation may be that Hamlet was written later in Shakespeare 's life , when he was adept at matching rhetorical devices to characters and the plot . Linguist George T. Wright suggests that hendiadys had been used deliberately to heighten the play 's sense of duality and dislocation . Pauline Kiernan argues that Shakespeare changed English drama forever in Hamlet because he " showed how a character 's language can often be saying several things at once , and contradictory meanings at that , to reflect fragmented thoughts and disturbed feelings " . She gives the example of Hamlet 's advice to Ophelia , " get thee to a nunnery " , which is simultaneously a reference to a place of chastity and a slang term for a brothel , reflecting Hamlet 's confused feelings about female sexuality .
Hamlet 's soliloquies have also captured the attention of scholars . Hamlet interrupts himself , vocalising either disgust or agreement with himself , and embellishing his own words . He has difficulty expressing himself directly and instead blunts the thrust of his thought with wordplay . It is not until late in the play , after his experience with the pirates , that Hamlet is able to articulate his feelings freely .
= = Context and interpretation = =
= = = Religious = = =
Written at a time of religious upheaval , and in the wake of the English Reformation , the play is alternately Catholic ( or piously medieval ) and Protestant ( or consciously modern ) . The Ghost describes himself as being in purgatory , and as dying without last rites . This and Ophelia 's burial ceremony , which is characteristically Catholic , make up most of the play 's Catholic connections . Some scholars have observed that revenge tragedies come from traditionally Catholic countries , such as Spain and Italy ; and they present a contradiction , since according to Catholic doctrine the strongest duty is to God and family . Hamlet 's conundrum , then , is whether to avenge his father and kill Claudius , or to leave the vengeance to God , as his religion requires .
Much of the play 's Protestantism derives from its location in Denmark — both then and now a predominantly Protestant country , though it is unclear whether the fictional Denmark of the play is intended to mirror this fact . The play does mention Wittenberg , where Hamlet , Horatio , and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern attend university , and where Martin Luther first proposed his 95 theses in 1517 , effectively ushering in the Protestant Reformation .
= = = Philosophical = = =
Hamlet is often perceived as a philosophical character , expounding ideas that are now described as relativist , existentialist , and sceptical . For example , he expresses a subjectivistic idea when he says to Rosencrantz : " there is nothing either good or bad , but thinking makes it so " . The idea that nothing is real except in the mind of the individual finds its roots in the Greek Sophists , who argued that since nothing can be perceived except through the senses — and since all individuals sense , and therefore perceive things differently — there is no absolute truth , but rather only relative truth . The clearest alleged instance of existentialism is in the " to be , or not to be " speech , where Hamlet is thought by some to use " being " to allude to life and action , and " not being " to death and inaction .
Hamlet reflects the contemporary scepticism promoted by the French Renaissance humanist Michel de Montaigne . Prior to Montaigne 's time , humanists such as Pico della Mirandola had argued that man was God 's greatest creation , made in God 's image and able to choose his own nature , but this view was subsequently challenged in Montaigne 's Essais of 1580 . Hamlet 's " What a piece of work is a man " could supposedly echo many of Montaigne 's ideas , and many scholars have disagreed on whether Shakespeare drew directly from Montaigne or whether both men were simply reacting similarly to the spirit of the times .
= = = Psychoanalytic = = =
In the first half of the 20th century , when psychoanalysis was at the height of its influence , its concepts were applied to Hamlet , notably by Sigmund Freud , Ernest Jones , and Jacques Lacan , and these studies influenced theatrical productions . In his The Interpretation of Dreams ( 1900 ) , Freud 's analysis starts from the premise that " the play is built up on Hamlet 's hesitations over fulfilling the task of revenge that is assigned to him ; but its text offers no reasons or motives for these hesitations " . After reviewing various literary theories , Freud concludes that Hamlet has an " Oedipal desire for his mother and the subsequent guilt [ is ] preventing him from murdering the man [ Claudius ] who has done what he unconsciously wanted to do " . Confronted with his repressed desires , Hamlet realises that " he himself is literally no better than the sinner whom he is to punish " . Freud suggests that Hamlet 's apparent " distaste for sexuality " — articulated in his " nunnery " conversation with Ophelia — accords with this interpretation . John Barrymore 's long @-@ running 1922 performance in New York , directed by Thomas Hopkins , " broke new ground in its Freudian approach to character " , in keeping with the post @-@ World War I rebellion against everything Victorian .
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He had a " blunter intention " than presenting the genteel , sweet prince of 19th @-@ century tradition , imbuing his character with virility and lust .
Beginning in 1910 , with the publication of " The Œdipus @-@ Complex as an Explanation of Hamlet 's Mystery : A Study in Motive " Ernest Jones — a psychoanalyst and Freud 's biographer — developed Freud 's ideas into a series of essays that culminated in his book Hamlet and Oedipus ( 1949 ) . Influenced by Jones 's psychoanalytic approach , several productions have portrayed the " closet scene " , where Hamlet confronts his mother in her private quarters , in a sexual light . In this reading , Hamlet is disgusted by his mother 's " incestuous " relationship with Claudius while simultaneously fearful of killing him , as this would clear Hamlet 's path to his mother 's bed . Ophelia 's madness after her father 's death may also be read through the Freudian lens : as a reaction to the death of her hoped @-@ for lover , her father . She is overwhelmed by having her unfulfilled love for him so abruptly terminated and drifts into the oblivion of insanity . In 1937 , Tyrone Guthrie directed Laurence Olivier in a Jones @-@ inspired Hamlet at The Old Vic . Olivier later used some of these same ideas in his 1948 film version of the play .
In the 1950s , Lacan 's structuralist theories about Hamlet were first presented in a series of seminars given in Paris and later published in " Desire and the Interpretation of Desire in Hamlet " . Lacan postulated that the human psyche is determined by structures of language and that the linguistic structures of Hamlet shed light on human desire . His point of departure is Freud 's Oedipal theories , and the central theme of mourning that runs through Hamlet . In Lacan 's analysis , Hamlet unconsciously assumes the role of phallus — the cause of his inaction — and is increasingly distanced from reality " by mourning , fantasy , narcissism and psychosis " , which create holes ( or lack ) in the real , imaginary , and symbolic aspects of his psyche . Lacan 's theories influenced literary criticism of Hamlet because of his alternative vision of the play and his use of semantics to explore the play 's psychological landscape .
In the Bloom 's Shakespeare Through the Ages volume on Hamlet , editors Bloom and Foster express a conviction that the intentions of Shakespeare in portraying the character of Hamlet in the play exceeded the capacity of the Freudian Oedipus complex to completely encompass the extent of characteristics depicted in Hamlet throughout the tragedy : " For once , Freud regressed in attempting to fasten the Oedipus Complex upon Hamlet : it will not stick , and merely showed that Freud did better than T.S. Eliot , who preferred Coriolanus to Hamlet , or so he said . Who can believe Eliot , when he exposes his own Hamlet Complex by declaring the play to be an aesthetic failure ? " The book also notes James Joyce 's interpretation , stating that he " did far better in the Library Scene of Ulysses , where Stephen marvelously credits Shakespeare , in this play , with universal fatherhood while accurately implying that Hamlet is fatherless , thus opening a pragmatic gap between Shakespeare and Hamlet . "
Joshua Rothman has written in The New Yorker that " we tell the story wrong when we say that Freud used the idea of the Oedipus complex to understand Hamlet " . Rothman suggests that " it was the other way around : Hamlet helped Freud understand , and perhaps even invent , psychoanalysis " . He concludes , " The Oedipus complex is a misnomer . It should be called the ' Hamlet complex ' . "
In the essay " Hamlet Made Simple " , David P. Gontar turns the tables on the psychoanalysts by suggesting that Claudius is not a symbolic father figure but actually Prince Hamlet 's biological father . The hesitation in killing Claudius results from an unwillingness on Hamlet 's part to slay his real father . If Hamlet is the biological son of Claudius , that explains many things . Hamlet doesn 't become King of Denmark on the occasion of the King 's death inasmuch as it is an open secret in court that he is Claudius 's biological son , and as such he is merely a court bastard not in the line of succession . He is angry with his mother because of her long standing affair with a man Hamlet hates , and Hamlet must face the fact that he has been sired by the man he loathes . That point overturns T. S. Eliot 's complaint that the play is a failure for not furnishing an " objective correlative " to account for Hamlet 's rage at his mother . Gontar suggests that if the reader assumes that Hamlet is not who he seems to be , the objective correlative becomes apparent . Hamlet is suicidal in the first soliloquy not because his mother quickly remarries but because of her adulterous affair with the despised Claudius which makes Hamlet his son . Finally , the Ghost 's confirmation of an alternative fatherhood for Hamlet is a fabrication that gives the Prince a motive for revenge .
= = = Feminist = = =
In the 20th century , feminist critics opened up new approaches to Gertrude and Ophelia . New Historicist and cultural materialist critics examined the play in its historical context , attempting to piece together its original cultural environment . They focused on the gender system of early modern England , pointing to the common trinity of maid , wife , or widow , with whores outside of that stereotype . In this analysis , the essence of Hamlet is the central character 's changed perception of his mother as a whore because of her failure to remain faithful to Old Hamlet . In consequence , Hamlet loses his faith in all women , treating Ophelia as if she too were a whore and dishonest with Hamlet . Ophelia , by some critics , can be seen as honest and fair ; however , it is virtually impossible to link these two traits , since ' fairness ' is an outward trait , while ' honesty ' is an inward trait .
Carolyn Heilbrun 's 1957 essay " The Character of Hamlet 's Mother " defends Gertrude , arguing that the text never hints that Gertrude knew of Claudius poisoning King Hamlet . This analysis has been praised by many feminist critics , combating what is , by Heilbrun 's argument , centuries ' worth of misinterpretation . By this account , Gertrude 's worst crime is of pragmatically marrying her brother @-@ in @-@ law in order to avoid a power vacuum . This is borne out by the fact that King Hamlet 's ghost tells Hamlet to leave Gertrude out of Hamlet 's revenge , to leave her to heaven , an arbitrary mercy to grant to a conspirator to murder . This view has not been without objection from some critics .
Ophelia has also been defended by feminist critics , most notably Elaine Showalter . Ophelia is surrounded by powerful men : her father , brother , and Hamlet . All three disappear : Laertes leaves , Hamlet abandons her , and Polonius dies . Conventional theories had argued that without these three powerful men making decisions for her , Ophelia is driven into madness . Feminist theorists argue that she goes mad with guilt because , when Hamlet kills her father , he has fulfilled her sexual desire to have Hamlet kill her father so they can be together . Showalter points out that Ophelia has become the symbol of the distraught and hysterical woman in modern culture .
= = Influence = =
See also Literary influence of Hamlet
Hamlet is one of the most quoted works in the English language , and is often included on lists of the world 's greatest literature . As such , it reverberates through the writing of later centuries . Academic Laurie Osborne identifies the direct influence of Hamlet in numerous modern narratives , and divides them into four main categories : fictional accounts of the play 's composition , simplifications of the story for young readers , stories expanding the role of one or more characters , and narratives featuring performances of the play .
Henry Fielding 's Tom Jones , published about 1749 , describes a visit to Hamlet by Tom Jones and Mr Partridge , with similarities to the " play within a play " . In contrast , Goethe 's Bildungsroman Wilhelm Meister 's Apprenticeship , written between 1776 and 1796 , not only has a production of Hamlet at its core but also creates parallels between the Ghost and Wilhelm Meister 's dead father . In the early 1850s , in Pierre , Herman Melville focuses on a Hamlet @-@ like character 's long development as a writer . Ten years later , Dickens 's Great Expectations contains many Hamlet @-@ like plot elements : it is driven by revenge @-@ motivated actions , contains ghost @-@ like characters ( Abel Magwitch and Miss Havisham ) , and focuses on the hero 's guilt . Academic Alexander Welsh notes that Great Expectations is an " autobiographical novel " and " anticipates psychoanalytic readings of Hamlet itself " . About the same time , George Eliot 's The Mill on the Floss was published , introducing Maggie Tulliver " who is explicitly compared with Hamlet " though " with a reputation for sanity " .
L. Frank Baum 's first published short story was " They Played a New Hamlet " ( 1895 ) . When Baum had been touring New York State in the title role , the actor playing the ghost fell through the floorboards , and the rural audience thought it was part of the show and demanded that the actor repeat the fall , because they thought it was funny . Baum would later recount the actual story in an article , but the short story is told from the point of view of the actor playing the Ghost .
In the 1920s , James Joyce managed " a more upbeat version " of Hamlet — stripped of obsession and revenge — in Ulysses , though its main parallels are with Homer 's Odyssey . In the 1990s , two novelists were explicitly influenced by Hamlet . In Angela Carter 's Wise Children , To be or not to be is reworked as a song and dance routine , and Iris Murdoch 's The Black Prince has Oedipal themes and murder intertwined with a love affair between a Hamlet @-@ obsessed writer , Bradley Pearson , and the daughter of his rival .
There is the story of the woman who read Hamlet for the first time and said , " I don 't see why people admire that play so . It is nothing but a bunch of quotations strung together . "
— Isaac Asimov , Asimov 's Guide to Shakespeare , pg vii , Avenal Books , 1970
= = Performance history = =
= = = Shakespeare 's day to the Interregnum = = =
Shakespeare almost certainly wrote the role of Hamlet for Richard Burbage . He was the chief tragedian of the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , with a capacious memory for lines and a wide emotional range . Judging by the number of reprints , Hamlet appears to have been Shakespeare 's fourth most popular play during his lifetime — only Henry IV Part 1 , Richard III and Pericles eclipsed it . Shakespeare provides no clear indication of when his play is set ; however , as Elizabethan actors performed at the Globe in contemporary dress on minimal sets , this would not have affected the staging .
Firm evidence for specific early performances of the play is scant . What is known is that the crew of the ship Red Dragon , anchored off Sierra Leone , performed Hamlet in September 1607 ; that the play toured in Germany within five years of Shakespeare 's death ; and that it was performed before James I in 1619 and Charles I in 1637 . Oxford editor George Hibbard argues that , since the contemporary literature contains many allusions and references to Hamlet ( only Falstaff is mentioned more , from Shakespeare ) , the play was surely performed with a frequency that the historical record misses .
All theatres were closed down by the Puritan government during the Interregnum . Even during this time , however , playlets known as drolls were often performed illegally , including one called The Grave @-@ Makers based on Act 5 , Scene 1 of Hamlet .
= = = Restoration and 18th century = = =
The play was revived early in the Restoration . When the existing stock of pre @-@ civil war plays was divided between the two newly created patent theatre companies , Hamlet was the only Shakespearean favourite that Sir William Davenant 's Duke 's Company secured . It became the first of Shakespeare 's plays to be presented with movable flats painted with generic scenery behind the proscenium arch of Lincoln 's Inn Fields Theatre . This new stage convention highlighted the frequency with which Shakespeare shifts dramatic location , encouraging the recurrent criticisms of his violation of the neoclassical principle of maintaining a unity of place . Davenant cast Thomas Betterton in the eponymous role , and he continued to play the Dane until he was 74 . David Garrick at Drury Lane produced a version that adapted Shakespeare heavily ; he declared : " I had sworn I would not leave the stage till I had rescued that noble play from all the rubbish of the fifth act . I have brought it forth without the grave @-@ digger 's trick , Osrick , & the fencing match " . The first actor known to have played Hamlet in North America is Lewis Hallam . Jr . , in the American Company 's production in Philadelphia in 1759 .
John Philip Kemble made his Drury Lane debut as Hamlet in 1783 . His performance was said to be 20 minutes longer than anyone else 's , and his lengthy pauses provoked the suggestion by Richard Brinsley Sheridan that " music should be played between the words " . Sarah Siddons was the first actress known to play Hamlet ; many women have since played him as a breeches role , to great acclaim . In 1748 , Alexander Sumarokov wrote a Russian adaptation that focused on Prince Hamlet as the embodiment of an opposition to Claudius 's tyranny — a treatment that would recur in Eastern European versions into the 20th century . In the years following America 's independence , Thomas Apthorpe Cooper , the young nation 's leading tragedian , performed Hamlet among other plays at the Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia , and at the Park Theatre in New York . Although chided for " acknowledging acquaintances in the audience " and " inadequate memorisation of his lines " , he became a national celebrity .
= = = 19th century = = =
From around 1810 to 1840 , the best @-@ known Shakespearean performances in the United States were tours by leading London actors — including George Frederick Cooke , Junius Brutus Booth , Edmund Kean , William Charles Macready , and Charles Kemble . Of these , Booth remained to make his career in the States , fathering the nation 's most notorious actor , John Wilkes Booth ( who later assassinated Abraham Lincoln ) , and its most famous Hamlet , Edwin Booth . Edwin Booth 's Hamlet at the Fifth Avenue Theatre in 1875 was described as " … the dark , sad , dreamy , mysterious hero of a poem . … [ acted ] in an ideal manner , as far removed as possible from the plane of actual life " . Booth played Hamlet for 100 nights in the 1864 / 5 season at The Winter Garden Theatre , inaugurating the era of long @-@ run Shakespeare in America .
In the United Kingdom , the actor @-@ managers of the Victorian era ( including Kean , Samuel Phelps , Macready , and Henry Irving ) staged Shakespeare in a grand manner , with elaborate scenery and costumes . The tendency of actor @-@ managers to emphasise the importance of their own central character did not always meet with the critics ' approval . George Bernard Shaw 's praise for Johnston Forbes @-@ Robertson 's performance contains a sideswipe at Irving : " The story of the play was perfectly intelligible , and quite took the attention of the audience off the principal actor at moments . What is the Lyceum coming to ? "
In London , Edmund Kean was the first Hamlet to abandon the regal finery usually associated with the role in favour of a plain costume , and he is said to have surprised his audience by playing Hamlet as serious and introspective . In stark contrast to earlier opulence , William Poel 's 1881 production of the Q1 text was an early attempt at reconstructing the Elizabethan theatre 's austerity ; his only backdrop was a set of red curtains . Sarah Bernhardt played the prince in her popular 1899 London production . In contrast to the " effeminate " view of the central character that usually accompanied a female casting , she described her character as " manly and resolute , but nonetheless thoughtful ... [ he ] thinks before he acts , a trait indicative of great strength and great spiritual power " .
In France , Charles Kemble initiated an enthusiasm for Shakespeare ; and leading members of the Romantic movement such as Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas saw his 1827 Paris performance of Hamlet , particularly admiring the madness of Harriet Smithson 's Ophelia . In Germany , Hamlet had become so assimilated by the mid @-@ 19th century that Ferdinand Freiligrath declared that " Germany is Hamlet " . From the 1850s , the Parsi theatre tradition in India transformed Hamlet into folk performances , with dozens of songs added .
= = = 20th century = = =
Apart from some western troupes ' 19th @-@ century visits , the first professional performance of Hamlet in Japan was Otojirō Kawakami 's 1903 Shimpa ( " new school theatre " ) adaptation . Shoyo Tsubouchi translated Hamlet and produced a performance in 1911 that blended Shingeki ( " new drama " ) and Kabuki styles . This hybrid @-@ genre reached its peak in Tsuneari Fukuda 's 1955 Hamlet . In 1998 , Yukio Ninagawa produced an acclaimed version of Hamlet in the style of Nō theatre , which he took to London .
Constantin Stanislavski and Edward Gordon Craig — two of the 20th century 's most influential theatre practitioners — collaborated on the Moscow Art Theatre 's seminal production of 1911 – 12 . While Craig favoured stylised abstraction , Stanislavski , armed with his ' system , ' explored psychological motivation . Craig conceived of the play as a symbolist monodrama , offering a dream @-@ like vision as seen through Hamlet 's eyes alone . This was most evident in the staging of the first court scene . The most famous aspect of the production is Craig 's use of large , abstract screens that altered the size and shape of the acting area for each scene , representing the character 's state of mind spatially or visualising a dramaturgical progression . The production attracted enthusiastic and unprecedented world @-@ wide attention for the theatre and placed it " on the cultural map for Western Europe " .
Hamlet is often played with contemporary political overtones . Leopold Jessner 's 1926 production at the Berlin Staatstheater portrayed Claudius 's court as a parody of the corrupt and fawning court of Kaiser Wilhelm . In Poland , the number of productions of Hamlet has tended to increase at times of political unrest , since its political themes ( suspected crimes , coups , surveillance ) can be used to comment on a contemporary situation . Similarly , Czech directors have used the play at times of occupation : a 1941 Vinohrady Theatre production " emphasised , with due caution , the helpless situation of an intellectual attempting to endure in a ruthless environment " . In China , performances of Hamlet often have political significance : Gu Wuwei 's 1916 The Usurper of State Power , an amalgam of Hamlet and Macbeth , was an attack on Yuan Shikai 's attempt to overthrow the republic . In 1942 , Jiao Juyin directed the play in a Confucian temple in Sichuan Province , to which the government had retreated from the advancing Japanese . In the immediate aftermath of the collapse of the protests at Tiananmen Square , Lin Zhaohua staged a 1990 Hamlet in which the prince was an ordinary individual tortured by a loss of meaning . In this production , the actors playing Hamlet , Claudius and Polonius exchanged roles at crucial moments in the performance , including the moment of Claudius 's death , at which point the actor mainly associated with Hamlet fell to the ground .
Notable stagings in London and New York include Barrymore 's 1925 production at the Haymarket ; it influenced subsequent performances by John Gielgud and Laurence Olivier . Gielgud played the central role many times : his 1936 New York production ran for 132 performances , leading to the accolade that he was " the finest interpreter of the role since Barrymore " . Although " posterity has treated Maurice Evans less kindly " , throughout the 1930s and 1940s he was regarded by many as the leading interpreter of Shakespeare in the United States and in the 1938 / 9 season he presented Broadway 's first uncut Hamlet , running four and a half hours . Evans later performed a highly truncated version of the play that he played for South Pacific war zones during World War II which made the prince a more decisive character . The staging , known as the " G.I. Hamlet , " was produced on Broadway for 131 performances in 1945 / 46 . Olivier 's 1937 performance at The Old Vic was popular with audiences but not with critics , with James Agate writing in a famous review in The Sunday Times , " Mr. Olivier does not speak poetry badly . He does not speak it at all . " . In 1937 Tyrone Guthrie directed the play at Elsinore , Denmark with Laurence Olivier as Hamlet and Vivien Leigh as Ophelia .
In 1963 , Olivier directed Peter O 'Toole as Hamlet in the inaugural performance of the newly formed National Theatre ; critics found resonance between O 'Toole 's Hamlet and John Osborne 's hero , Jimmy Porter , from Look Back in Anger .
Richard Burton received his third Tony Award nomination when he played his second Hamlet , his first under John Gielgud 's direction , in 1964 in a production that holds the record for the longest run of the play in Broadway history ( 137 performances ) . The performance was set on a bare stage , conceived to appear like a dress rehearsal , with Burton in a black v @-@ neck sweater , and Gielgud himself tape @-@ recorded the voice for the Ghost ( which appeared as a looming shadow ) . It was immortalised both on record and on a film that played in US theatres for a week in 1964 as well as being the subject of books written by cast members William Redfield and Richard L. Sterne . Other New York portrayals of Hamlet of note include that of Ralph Fiennes 's in 1995 ( for which he won the Tony Award for Best Actor ) – which ran , from first preview to closing night , a total of one hundred performances . About the Fiennes Hamlet Vincent Canby wrote in The New York Times that it was " … not one for literary sleuths and Shakespeare scholars . It respects the play , but it doesn 't provide any new material for arcane debates on what it all means . Instead it 's an intelligent , beautifully read … " Stacy Keach played the role with an all @-@ star cast at Joseph Papp 's Delacorte Theatre in the early 70s , with Colleen Dewhurst 's Gertrude , James Earl Jones 's King , Barnard Hughes 's Polonius , Sam Waterston 's Laertes and Raúl Juliá 's Osric . Sam Waterston later played the role himself at the Delacorte for the New York Shakespeare Festival , and the show transferred to the Vivian Beaumont Theatre in 1975 ( Stephen Lang played Bernardo and other roles ) . Stephen Lang 's Hamlet for the Roundabout Theatre Company in 1992 received mixed reviews and ran for sixty @-@ one performances . David Warner played the role with the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 1965 . William Hurt ( at Circle Rep Off @-@ Broadway , memorably performing " To Be Or Not to Be " while lying on the floor ) , Jon Voight at Rutgers , and Christopher Walken ( fiercely ) at Stratford CT have all played the role , as has Diane Venora at the Public Theatre . Off Broadway , the Riverside Shakespeare Company mounted an uncut first folio Hamlet in 1978 at Columbia University , with a playing time of under three hours . In fact , Hamlet is the most produced Shakespeare play in New York theatre history , with sixty @-@ four recorded productions on Broadway , and an untold number Off Broadway .
Ian Charleson performed Hamlet from 9 October to 13 November 1989 , in Richard Eyre 's production at the Olivier Theatre , replacing Daniel Day @-@ Lewis , who had abandoned the production . Seriously ill from AIDS at the time , Charleson died eight weeks after his last performance . Fellow actor and friend , Sir Ian McKellen , said that Charleson played Hamlet so well it was as if he had rehearsed the role all his life ; McKellen called it " the perfect Hamlet " . The performance garnered other major accolades as well , some critics echoing McKellen in calling it the definitive Hamlet performance .
= = = 21st century = = =
Hamlet continues to be staged regularly , with actors such as Simon Russell Beale , Ben Whishaw , David Tennant , Angela Winkler , Samuel West , Christopher Eccleston , Maxine Peake , Rory Kinnear , Christian Camargo and Andrew Scott , performing the lead role .
In May 2009 , Hamlet opened with Jude Law in the title role at the Donmar Warehouse West End season at Wyndham 's Theatre . The production officially opened on 3 June and ran through 22 August 2009 . A further production of the play ran at Elsinore Castle in Denmark from 25 – 30 August 2009 . The Jude Law Hamlet then moved to Broadway , and ran for 12 weeks at the Broadhurst Theatre in New York .
In 2013 , American actor Paul Giamatti won critical acclaim for his performance on stage in the title role of Hamlet , performed in modern dress , at the Yale Repertory Theater , at Yale University in New Haven , Connecticut .
The Globe Theatre of London initiated a project in 2014 to perform Hamlet in every country in the world in the space of two years . Titled Globe to Globe Hamlet , it began its tour on 23 April 2014 , the 450th anniversary of Shakespeare 's birth . As of 23 February 2016 , the project had performed in 170 different countries .
Benedict Cumberbatch played the role for a 12 @-@ week run in a production at the Barbican Theatre , opening on 25 August 2015 . The play was produced by Sonia Friedman , and directed by Lyndsey Turner , with set design by Es Devlin . It was called the " most in @-@ demand theatre production of all time " . The entire run sold out in seven hours after tickets went on sale 11 August 2014 , more than a year before the play opened .
= = = Film and TV performances = = =
The earliest screen success for Hamlet was Sarah Bernhardt 's five @-@ minute film of the fencing scene , which was produced in 1900 . The film was an early attempt at combining sound and film , music and words were recorded on phonograph records , to be played along with the film . Silent versions were released in 1907 , 1908 , 1910 , 1913 , 1917 , and 1920 . In the 1920 version , Asta Nielsen played the role of Hamlet as a woman who spends her life disguised as a man .
Laurence Olivier 's 1948 moody black @-@ and @-@ white Hamlet won best picture and best actor Oscars , and is still , as of 2015 , the only Shakespeare film to have done so . His interpretation stressed the Oedipal overtones of the play , and cast 28 @-@ year @-@ old Eileen Herlie as Hamlet 's mother , opposite himself , at 41 , as Hamlet . In 1953 , actor Jack Manning performed the play in 15 @-@ minute segments over two weeks in the short @-@ lived late night DuMont series Monodrama Theater . New York Times TV critic Jack Gould praised Manning 's performance as Hamlet .
Shakespeare experts Sir John Gielgud and Kenneth Branagh consider the definitive rendition of the Bard 's tragic tale to be the 1964 Russian film Gamlet ( Russian : Гамлет ) based on a translation by Boris Pasternak and directed by Grigori Kozintsev , with a score by Dmitri Shostakovich . Innokenty Smoktunovsky was cast in the role of Hamlet ; he was particularly praised by Sir Laurence Olivier .
John Gielgud directed Richard Burton in a Broadway production at the Lunt @-@ Fontanne Theatre in 1964 – 5 , the longest @-@ running Hamlet in the U.S. to date . A live film of the production was produced using " Electronovision " , a method of recording a live performance with multiple video cameras and converting the image to film . Eileen Herlie repeated her role from Olivier 's film version as the Queen , and the voice of Gielgud was heard as the Ghost . The Gielgud / Burton production was also recorded complete and released on LP by Columbia Masterworks .
The first Hamlet in color was a 1969 film directed by Tony Richardson with Nicol Williamson as Hamlet and Marianne Faithfull as Ophelia .
In 1990 Franco Zeffirelli , whose Shakespeare films have been described as " sensual rather than cerebral " , cast Mel Gibson — then famous for the Mad Max and Lethal Weapon movies — in the title role of his 1990 version ; Glenn Close — then famous as the psychotic " other woman " in Fatal Attraction — played Gertrude , and Paul Scofield played Hamlet 's father . In contrast to Zeffirelli , whose Hamlet was heavily cut , Kenneth Branagh adapted , directed , and starred in a 1996 version containing every word of Shakespeare 's play , combining the material from the F1 and Q2 texts . Branagh 's Hamlet runs for around four hours . Branagh set the film with late 19th @-@ century costuming and furnishings ; and Blenheim Palace , built in the early 18th century , became Elsinore Castle in the external scenes . The film is structured as an epic and makes frequent use of flashbacks to highlight elements not made explicit in the play : Hamlet 's sexual relationship with Kate Winslet 's Ophelia , for example , or his childhood affection for Yorick ( played by Ken Dodd ) .
In 2000 , Michael Almereyda 's Hamlet set the story in contemporary Manhattan , with Ethan Hawke playing Hamlet as a film student . Claudius ( played by Kyle MacLachlan ) became the CEO of " Denmark Corporation " , having taken over the company by killing his brother .
Notable made @-@ for @-@ television productions of Hamlet include those starring Christopher Plummer ( 1964 ) , Richard Chamberlain ( 1970 ; Hallmark Hall of Fame ) , Derek Jacobi ( 1980 ; Royal Shakespeare Company , BBC ) , Kevin Kline ( 1990 ) , Campbell Scott ( 2000 ) and David Tennant ( 2009 ; Royal Shakespeare Company , BBC ) .
There have also been several films that transposed the general storyline of Hamlet or elements thereof to other settings . There have also been many films which included performances of scenes from Hamlet as a play @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film . See Hamlet on screen for further details .
= = Stage pastiches = =
There have been various " derivative works " of Hamlet which recast the story from the point of view of other characters , or transpose the story into a new setting or act as sequels or
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, two other sons of Ibn Tulun , Ali and Shayban , murdered their nephew and assumed control of the Tulunid state . Far from halting the decline , this event alienated key commanders in Syria and led to the rapid and relatively unopposed reconquest of Syria and Egypt by the Abbasids under Muhammad ibn Sulayman al @-@ Katib , who entered Fustat in January 905 . With the exception of the great Mosque of Ibn Tulun , the victorious Abbasid troops pillaged al @-@ Qata 'i and razed it to the ground .
= = = Offspring = = =
According to al @-@ Balawi , from his various wives and concubines , Ibn Tulun had 33 children , 17 sons and 16 daughters . The only modern edition of al @-@ Balawi provides the following list :
Male children : Abū al @-@ Faḍl al @-@ ʿAbbās ( the eldest ) , Abū al @-@ Jaysh Khumārawayh , Abū al @-@ Ashāʾir Muḍar , Abū al @-@ Mukarram Rabīʿah , Abū al @-@ Maqānib Shaybān , Abū Nāhiḍ ' Iyāḍ , Abū Maʿd ʿAdnān , Abū al @-@ Karādīs Kazraj , Abū Ḥabshūn ʿAdī , Abū Shujāʿ Kindah , Abū Manṣūr Aghlab , Abū Lahjah Maysarah , Abū al @-@ Baqāʾ Hudā , Abū al @-@ Mufawwaḍ Ghassān , Abū al @-@ Faraj Mubārak , Abū ʿAbdallāh Muhammad , and Abū al @-@ Fataj Muẓaffar .
Female children ( note that only 15 names are listed ) : Fāṭimah , Lamīs , ( unreadable ) , Ṣafiyyah , Khadījah , Maymūnah , Maryam , ʿĀʾishah , Umm al @-@ Hudā , Muʾminah , ʿAzīzah , Zaynab , Samānah , Sārah , and Ghurayrah .
= = Legacy = =
Despite the downfall of his dynasty , Ibn Tulun 's rule was a seminal event not only for Egypt , but for the entire Islamic world . For Egypt itself , his reign marks a turning point as the country for the first time since the Pharaohs ceased being a passive province subject to a foreign imperial power , and became once again a centre of power in its own right . The new realm he forged , encompassing Egypt and Syria as well as the Jazira and Cilicia , and to a lesser extent the eastern parts of the Maghreb , established a new political zone separated from the Islamic lands further east , restoring in a fashion the frontier that had existed between the Byzantine and Sassanid Persian realms in Antiquity . Egypt was the basis of Ibn Tulun 's power ; he paid particular attention to restoring its economy , as well as establishing an autonomous bureaucracy , army , and navy . These policies were continued by later Egypt @-@ based regimes , the Ikhshidids ( 935 – 969 ) and eventually the Fatimids ( 969 – 1171 ) , who likewise used Egypt 's wealth to establish control over parts or even most of Syria . Indeed , as Thierry Bianquis remarks , the territory ruled by Ibn Tulun in Syria was remarkably similar to that controlled by the later , similarly Egypt @-@ based regimes of Saladin and the Mamluk Sultanate .
Ibn Tulun 's relations with and quest for autonomy from the Abbasids is a " central problem of Tulunid history " . Modern scholars see in Ibn Tulun 's policies a " careful balancing act " ( Matthew S. Gordon ) and notice that he never fully severed himself from the Caliphate , remaining conspicuously loyal to the person of al @-@ Mu 'tamid , who , after all , was a powerless figurehead . Nevertheless , the move towards increasing autonomy is evident throughout his reign . His relations with the Abbasid government were dominated by his conflict with al @-@ Muwaffaq , resulting from the latter 's attempts to establish control over Egypt — whose wealth was direly needed during the costly war against the Zanj — and prevent the further rise of Ibn Tulun . In a certain sense , writes Matthew Gordon , many of Ibn Tulun 's measures " were as much the means by which imperial interests were protected against the ambitions of al @-@ Muwaffaq and his ( largely Turkish ) military coterie in Iraq as they were efforts to secure Tulunid authority " . Given that Ibn Tulun at least twice ( in 871 and 875 / 6 ) remitted huge sums to the caliphal treasury , it remains an open question whether without the conflict with al @-@ Muwaffaq , this would have been a more regular occurrence .
Ibn Tulun 's role in the wider Islamic history is as the herald of the Abbasid Caliphate 's disintegration and the rise of local dynasties . This became particularly evident with the succession of Khumarawayh : as Thierry Bianquis explains , " this was the first time in Abbasid history with regard to the government of so large and rich a territory , that a wāli , whose legitimacy derived from the caliph who had designated him , was succeeded openly by an amīr who claimed his legitimacy by inheritance " . Thus Zaky M. Hassan calls Ibn Tulun a " typical example of the Turkish slaves who from the time of Harun al @-@ Rashid were enlisted in the private service of the caliph and the principal officers of state , and whose ambition and spirit of intrigue and independence [ eventually made ] them the real masters of Islam " .
= Gunnerkrigg Court =
Gunnerkrigg Court is a science @-@ fantasy webcomic created by Tom Siddell and launched in April 2005 . It is updated online three days a week , and the first volume of the comic was published in print format by Archaia Studios Press and Titan Books ( in the UK and Ireland ) . The comic has been critically acclaimed and has won numerous Web Cartoonists ' Choice Awards , as well as receiving positive reviews for its artwork and storytelling .
The comic tells the story of Antimony Carver , a young girl who has just started attending a strange and mysterious school called Gunnerkrigg Court , and the events that unfold around her as she becomes embroiled in political intrigues between Gunnerkrigg Court and the inhabitants of the Gillitie Wood , a forest outside the school . The comic 's style and themes include elements from science , fantasy creatures , mythology from a variety of traditions , and alchemical symbols and theories ; the literary style is heavily influenced by mystery and manga comics .
= = Production = =
Gunnerkrigg Court was first posted online on 4 April 2005 , and was originally updated two days per week . The comic began updating three days per week on 25 December 2006 . The end of the seventh chapter in May 2006 marked the end of the " first book , " which Siddell published through Lulu.com in 2007 ; that book is no longer in print . In August 2008 , Tom Siddell explained that the comic had a standard " comic book format " which was useful when he had sufficient pages to print a hard copy . The first fourteen chapters of the webcomic were printed as the first Archaia Studios Press edition of 296 pages bound in a hardcover collection titled " Orientation " . In 2012 he announced that he had quit his regular job to work on the comic full @-@ time . In addition to books and merchandising the comic is supported through crowdfunding by Patreon since July 2014 .
= = = Format = = =
The Gunnerkrigg Court webcomic is told in a series of episodic chapters such that each , while forming part of the overall storyline , also functions individually as a stand @-@ alone plot arc . The themes and topics of the chapters vary widely : as one reviewer describes , " You are also not subjected to 400 @-@ plus pages of intricate plot movement . While there is an overall story arc , there are also lighter chapters that focus on unusual classes ... or small moments that build the main characters . " Each chapter begins with a title page and ends with one or more " bonus pages , " which are not integral to the main storyline but often offer ancillary details about the world of Gunnerkrigg Court or about minor characters . The chapters have varied in length from four pages to over eighty . Each page is drawn in traditional ( A4 ; 210 × 297 mm ) page format and divided arbitrarily into frames . At the bottom of the most recent page is a link to a comments thread for that page , in which readers may comment on and discuss that day 's comic .
= = = Influences = = =
Siddell has stated that he enjoyed reading Alfred Hitchcock & The Three Investigators as a child , and that it has heavily influenced the literary style of his comic . His artistic style is influenced by many artists , among which he cites as his favorites Jamie Hewlett , Yukito Kishiro , and Mike Mignola , as well as the manga Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Dragon Ball .
One notable feature of the comic is the blending of mythological elements from many different cultural traditions , especially from the British Isles and Native American mythology . Siddell attributes this style to his experience as a child : " I moved about a lot when I was younger and had the opportunity to grow up hearing stories from different parts of the world and I 've always been fascinated by them . " In addition to mythology , Siddell makes heavy use of alchemical themes ; for example , the main character is named Antimony , after a toxic chemical element , and many pages feature artistic depictions of alchemical symbols . The symbol for antimony appears frequently in Gunnerkrigg Court : the character Antimony wears a necklace shaped like that symbol , the character Reynardine has the symbol imprinted on his wolf body , and the symbol is used to mark the end of a chapter .
The artwork of Gunnerkrigg Court has been described as " stylized , " with simple character designs . At least one reviewer , on the other hand , has noticed that the backgrounds , in contrast to the characters , are often very elaborate . The comic has also been described as having a " rich " look in spite of its limited color palette , and Siddell himself has stated that he first developed the idea for the comic using only a limited number of colors . The pieces of artwork that Siddell has posted at the end of each printed book , entitled " Treatise " and " Second Treatise , " demonstrate many such of Siddell 's artistic and storytelling motifs : they integrate alchemical symbols , mythological figures , nature , and technology .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Gunnerkrigg Court is set in a boarding school in a country that resembles the United Kingdom , identifiable from the grey skies and mandatory uniforms . The comic contains other clues about the setting , such as the house system that is described at the end of the first chapter . This system is similar to that used by many UK schools , including the one the author attended ; Siddell has even stated that the school in which Gunnerkrigg Court takes place is modeled after his own secondary school .
Gunnerkrigg Court , the fictional school around which the story revolves , is a mysterious and vast establishment that many characters suspect hides much more than just a school . The school appears to actively recruit many talented or extraordinary students . As the story progresses , it is soon revealed that the school is inhabited by a wide variety of both supernatural creatures — many of which become characters involved in the story 's plot — and ultra @-@ modern technology . One character explains that " the Court was founded on a union between technological and etheric design . " Another describes it as " man 's endeavor to become god . "
The court is built on the edge of a wide chasm , on the other side of which lies the Gillitie Wood , which is inhabited by " etheric " or magical creatures . At the time when the main story takes place , the two sides exist in a kind of truce , with the Court as the realm of science and technology and the Wood the realm of nature and the etheric . The denizens of the Gillitie Wood do not allow technology in the Wood , and the rules of the Court forbid students from leaving school grounds .
= = = Plot = = =
The story of Gunnerkrigg Court involves several different ongoing plot arcs . The main story is that of the protagonist , Antimony Carver , and her deepening involvement in the intrigues between Gunnerkrigg Court and the Gillitie Wood , the forest outside Gunnerkrigg Court ; she is accompanied throughout the storyline by her friend and classmate Katerina Donlan and her companion Reynardine , a demon living within her stuffed animal . As the story progresses , Antimony and her companions also slowly learn more about their surroundings , the relationship between Gunnerkrigg Court and the Gillitie Wood , and the beings they encounter .
The story begins when Antimony builds a robot to transport a mysterious shadow into Gillitie Wood , the forest outside Gunnerkrigg Court . Several chapters later in the comic , and apparently several months later in the story 's timeline , the robot reappears on the bridge outside Gunnerkrigg Court ; being controlled by a malevolent creature from Gillitie Wood , it pushes Antimony off the bridge when she goes out to it . Antimony spends a night at the banks of the river below the bridge , and encounters a ghost , before she is rescued by Kat and taken back to the school . Her brief time outside Gunnerkrigg Court , though , sets off a dispute between Gunnerkrigg Court and the Gillitie Wood . Not long after Antimony 's return , the Court is visited by Coyote , a god from the Gillitie Wood , and General Ysengrin , the being who caused the robot to attack Antimony at the bridge . They express anger over the robot 's visit to the forest , and over the damage Antimony caused when she left the Court .
During the time that the robot is gone , Antimony meets a creature named Reynardine , who tries to take over her body but , by accident , instead becomes trapped in the body of a stuffed animal she carries ; and becomes subject to her command . Because of her relationship with Reynardine and the events with Coyote and Ysengrin , Antimony is nominated to begin training to become a medium , one of the individuals who moderate disputes between the Wood and the Court and communicates with etheric beings , and she decides to return to the woods to speak with Coyote . When Antimony visits Coyote , she learns that in the past Coyote had travelled across the sea to find Reynardine and Ysengrin and make them into " powerful being [ s ] " like himself . He had given Ysengrin " power over the trees " and given Reynardine the power to take bodies , but bodies that Reynardine took always died after he left them and Ysengrin was hardly strong enough to stand without the help of Coyote 's tree armor . Reynardine had been in love with Antimony 's mother , Surma , and had used his power to steal a young man 's body and woo Surma ; the man died , however
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onian period also included events of momentous religious significance . The conversion of the Bulgarians , Serbs and Rus ' to Orthodox Christianity permanently changed the religious map of Europe and still resonates today . Cyril and Methodius , two Byzantine Greek brothers from Thessaloniki , contributed significantly to the Christianization of the Slavs and in the process devised the Glagolitic alphabet , ancestor to the Cyrillic script .
In 1054 , relations between the Eastern and Western traditions within the Christian Church reached a terminal crisis , known as the East – West Schism . Although there was a formal declaration of institutional separation , on July 16 , when three papal legates entered the Hagia Sophia during Divine Liturgy on a Saturday afternoon and placed a bull of excommunication on the altar , the so @-@ called Great Schism was actually the culmination of centuries of gradual separation .
= = = Crisis and fragmentation = = =
The Empire soon fell into a period of difficulties , caused to a large extent by the undermining of the theme system and the neglect of the military . Nikephoros II , John Tzimiskes , and Basil II changed the military divisions ( τάγματα , tagmata ) from a rapid response , primarily defensive , citizen army into a professional , campaigning army , increasingly manned by mercenaries . Mercenaries were expensive , however , and as the threat of invasion receded in the 10th century , so did the need for maintaining large garrisons and expensive fortifications . Basil II left a burgeoning treasury upon his death , but he neglected to plan for his succession . None of his immediate successors had any particular military or political talent and the administration of the Empire increasingly fell into the hands of the civil service . Efforts to revive the Byzantine economy only resulted in inflation and a debased gold coinage . The army was now seen as both an unnecessary expense and a political threat . Native troops were therefore cashiered and replaced by foreign mercenaries on specific contract .
At the same time , the Empire was faced with new enemies . Provinces in southern Italy faced the Normans , who arrived in Italy at the beginning of the 11th century . During a period of strife between Constantinople and Rome culminating in the East @-@ West Schism of 1054 , the Normans began to advance , slowly but steadily , into Byzantine Italy . Reggio , the capital of the tagma of Calabria , was captured in 1060 by Robert Guiscard , followed by Otranto in 1068 . Bari , the main Byzantine stronghold in Apulia , was besieged in August 1068 and fell in April 1071 . The Byzantines also lost their influence over the Dalmatian coastal cities to Peter Krešimir IV of Croatia ( r . 1058 – 1074 / 1075 ) in 1069 .
The greatest disaster took place in Asia Minor , however , where the Seljuq Turks made their first explorations across the Byzantine frontier into Armenia in 1065 and 1067 . The emergency lent weight to the military aristocracy in Anatolia , who in 1068 secured the election of one of their own , Romanos Diogenes , as emperor . In the summer of 1071 , Romanos undertook a massive eastern campaign to draw the Seljuks into a general engagement with the Byzantine army . At the Battle of Manzikert , Romanos suffered a surprise defeat by Sultan Alp Arslan , and he was captured . Alp Arslan treated him with respect and imposed no harsh terms on the Byzantines . In Constantinople , however , a coup put in power Michael Doukas , who soon faced the opposition of Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Botaneiates . By 1081 , the Seljuks had expanded their rule over virtually the entire Anatolian plateau from Armenia in the east to Bithynia in the west , and they had founded their capital at Nicaea , just 90 kilometres ( 56 miles ) from Constantinople .
= = = Komnenian dynasty and the crusaders = = =
During the Komnenian , or Comnenian , period from about 1081 to about 1185 , the five emperors of the Komnenos dynasty ( Alexios I , John II , Manuel I , Alexios II , and Andronikos I ) presided over a sustained , though ultimately incomplete , restoration of the military , territorial , economic , and political position of the Byzantine Empire . Although the Seljuk Turks occupied the heartland of the Empire in Anatolia , most Byzantine military efforts during this period were directed against Western powers , particularly the Normans .
The Empire under the Komnenoi played a key role in the history of the Crusades in the Holy Land , which Alexios I had helped bring about , while also exerting enormous cultural and political influence in Europe , the Near East , and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea under John and Manuel . Contact between Byzantium and the " Latin " West , including the Crusader states , increased significantly during the Komnenian period . Venetian and other Italian traders became resident in large numbers in Constantinople and the empire ( there were an estimated 60 @,@ 000 Latins in Constantinople alone , out of a population of three to four hundred thousand ) , and their presence together with the numerous Latin mercenaries who were employed by Manuel helped to spread Byzantine technology , art , literature and culture throughout the Latin West , while also leading to a flow of Western ideas and customs into the Empire .
In terms of prosperity and cultural life , the Komnenian period was one of the peaks in Byzantine history , and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size , wealth , and culture . There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy , as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek . Byzantine art and literature held a pre @-@ eminent place in Europe , and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the west during this period was enormous and of long lasting significance .
= = = = Alexios I and the First Crusade = = = =
After Manzikert , a partial recovery ( referred to as the Komnenian restoration ) was made possible by the Komnenian dynasty . The first Komnenian emperor was Isaac I ( 1057 – 1059 ) , after which the Doukas dynasty held power ( 1059 – 81 ) . The Komnenoi attained power again under Alexios I in 1081 . From the outset of his reign , Alexios faced a formidable attack by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund of Taranto , who captured Dyrrhachium and Corfu , and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly . Robert Guiscard 's death in 1085 temporarily eased the Norman problem . The following year , the Seljuq sultan died , and the sultanate was split by internal rivalries . By his own efforts , Alexios defeated the Pechenegs ; they were caught by surprise and annihilated at the Battle of Levounion on 28 April 1091 .
Having achieved stability in the West , Alexios could turn his attention to the severe economic difficulties and the disintegration of the Empire 's traditional defences . However , he still did not have enough manpower to recover the lost territories in Asia Minor and to advance against the Seljuks . At the Council of Piacenza in 1095 , envoys from Alexios spoke to Pope Urban II about the suffering of the Christians of the East , and underscored that without help from the West they would continue to suffer under Muslim rule .
Urban saw Alexios 's request as a dual opportunity to cement Western Europe and reunite the Eastern Orthodox Church with the Roman Catholic Church under his rule . On 27 November 1095 , Pope Urban II called together the Council of Clermont , and urged all those present to take up arms under the sign of the Cross and launch an armed pilgrimage to recover Jerusalem and the East from the Muslims . The response in Western Europe was overwhelming .
Alexios had anticipated help in the form of mercenary forces from the West , but he was totally unprepared for the immense and undisciplined force that soon arrived in Byzantine territory . It was no comfort to Alexios to learn that four of the eight leaders of the main body of the Crusade were Normans , among them Bohemund . Since the crusade had to pass through Constantinople , however , the Emperor had some control over it . He required its leaders to swear to restore to the empire any towns or territories they might reconquer from the Turks on their way to the Holy Land . In return , he gave them guides and a military escort .
Alexios was able to recover a number of important cities and islands , and in fact much of western Asia Minor . Nevertheless , the Catholic / Latin crusaders believed their oaths were invalidated when Alexios did not help them during the siege of Antioch ( he had in fact set out on the road to Antioch but had been persuaded to turn back by Stephen of Blois , who assured him that all was lost and that the expedition had already failed ) . Bohemund , who had set himself up as Prince of Antioch , briefly went to war with the Byzantines , but he agreed to become Alexios ' vassal under the Treaty of Devol in 1108 , which marked the end of the Norman threat during Alexios ' reign .
= = = = John II , Manuel I and the Second Crusade = = = =
Alexios 's son John II Komnenos succeeded him in 1118 and ruled until 1143 . John was a pious and dedicated Emperor who was determined to undo the damage to the empire suffered at the Battle of Manzikert , half a century earlier . Famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign , John was an exceptional example of a moral ruler at a time when cruelty was the norm . For this reason , he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius .
During his twenty @-@ five year reign , John made alliances with the Holy Roman Empire in the West and decisively defeated the Pechenegs at the Battle of Beroia . He thwarted Hungarian and Serbian threats during the 1120s , and in 1130 he allied himself with the German emperor Lothair III against the Norman king Roger II of Sicily .
In the later part of his reign , John focused his activities on the East , personally leading numerous campaigns against the Turks in Asia Minor . His campaigns fundamentally altered the balance of power in the East , forcing the Turks onto the defensive , while restoring many towns , fortresses , and cities across the peninsula to the Byzantines . He defeated the Danishmend Emirate of Melitene and reconquered all of Cilicia , while forcing Raymond of Poitiers , Prince of Antioch , to recognise Byzantine suzerainty . In an effort to demonstrate the Emperor 's role as the leader of the Christian world , John marched into the Holy Land at the head of the combined forces of the Empire and the Crusader states ; yet despite his great vigour pressing the campaign , his hopes were disappointed by the treachery of his Crusader allies . In 1142 , John returned to press his claims to Antioch , but he died in the spring of 1143 following a hunting accident . Raymond was emboldened to invade Cilicia , but he was defeated and forced to go to Constantinople to beg mercy from the new Emperor .
John 's chosen heir was his fourth son , Manuel I Komnenos , who campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east . In Palestine , Manuel allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and sent a large fleet to participate in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt . Manuel reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states , with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with Raynald , Prince of Antioch , and Amalric , King of Jerusalem . In an effort to restore Byzantine control over the ports of southern Italy , he sent an expedition to Italy in 1155 , but disputes within the coalition led to the eventual failure of the campaign . Despite this military setback , Manuel 's armies successfully invaded the Southern parts of Kingdom of Hungary in 1167 , defeating the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium . By 1168 , nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel 's hands . Manuel made several alliances with the Pope and Western Christian kingdoms , and he successfully handled the passage of the Second Crusade through his empire .
In the east , however , Manuel suffered a major defeat in 1176 at the Battle of Myriokephalon , against the Turks . Yet the losses were quickly recovered , and in the following year Manuel 's forces inflicted a defeat upon a force of " picked Turks " . The Byzantine commander John Vatatzes , who destroyed the Turkish invaders at the Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir , not only brought troops from the capital but also was able to gather an army along the way , a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western Asia Minor was still successful .
= = = = 12th @-@ century Renaissance = = = =
John and Manuel pursued active military policies , and both deployed considerable resources on sieges and on city defences ; aggressive fortification policies were at the heart of their imperial military policies . Despite the defeat at Myriokephalon , the policies of Alexios , John and Manuel resulted in vast territorial gains , increased frontier stability in Asia Minor , and secured the stabilisation of the Empire 's European frontiers . From c . 1081 to c . 1180 , the Komnenian army assured the Empire 's security , enabling Byzantine civilisation to flourish .
This allowed the Western provinces to achieve an economic revival that continued until the close of the century . It has been argued that Byzantium under the Komnenian rule was more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasions of the 7th century . During the 12th century , population levels rose and extensive tracts of new agricultural land were brought into production . Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows a considerable increase in the size of urban settlements , together with a notable upsurge in new towns . Trade was also flourishing ; the Venetians , the Genoese and others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce , shipping goods from the Crusader kingdoms of Outremer and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with the Empire via Constantinople .
In artistic terms , there was a revival in mosaic , and regional schools of architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences . During the 12th century , the Byzantines provided their model of early humanism as a renaissance of interest in classical authors . In Eustathius of Thessalonica , Byzantine humanism found its most characteristic expression . In philosophy , there was resurgence of classical learning not seen since the 7th century , characterised by a significant increase in the publication of commentaries on classical works . In addition , the first transmission of classical Greek knowledge to the West occurred during the Komnenian period .
= = = Decline and disintegration = = =
= = = = Angelid dynasty = = = =
Manuel 's death on 24 September 1180 left his 11 @-@ year @-@ old son Alexios II Komnenos on the throne . Alexios was highly incompetent at the office , but it was his mother , Maria of Antioch , and her Frankish background that made his regency unpopular . Eventually , Andronikos I Komnenos , a grandson of Alexios I , launched a revolt against his younger relative and managed to overthrow him in a violent coup d 'état . Utilizing his good looks and his immense popularity with the army , he marched on to Constantinople in August 1182 and incited a massacre of the Latins . After eliminating his potential rivals , he had himself crowned as co @-@ emperor in September 1183 . He eliminated Alexios II , and took his 12 @-@ year @-@ old wife Agnes of France for himself .
Andronikos began his reign well ; in particular , the measures he took to reform the government of the Empire have been praised by historians . According to George Ostrogorsky , Andronikos was determined to root out corruption : Under his rule , the sale of offices ceased ; selection was based on merit , rather than favouritism ; officials were paid an adequate salary so as to reduce the temptation of bribery . In the provinces , Andronikos 's reforms produced a speedy and marked improvement . The aristocrats were infuriated against him , and to make matters worse , Andronikos seems to have become increasingly unbalanced ; executions and violence became increasingly common , and his reign turned into a reign of terror . Andronikos seemed almost to seek the extermination of the aristocracy as a whole . The struggle against the aristocracy turned into wholesale slaughter , while the Emperor resorted to ever more ruthless measures to shore up his regime .
Despite his military background , Andronikos failed to deal with Isaac Komnenos , Béla III of Hungary ( r . 1172 – 1196 ) who reincorporated Croatian territories into Hungary , and Stephen Nemanja of Serbia ( r . 1166 – 1196 ) who declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire . Yet , none of these troubles would compare to William II of Sicily 's ( r . 1166 – 1189 ) invasion force of 300 ships and 80 @,@ 000 men , arriving in 1185 . Andronikos mobilised a small fleet of 100 ships to defend the capital , but other than that he was indifferent to the populace . He was finally overthrown when Isaac Angelos , surviving an imperial assassination attempt , seized power with the aid of the people and had Andronikos killed .
The reign of Isaac II , and more so that of his brother Alexios III , saw the collapse of what remained of the centralised machinery of Byzantine government and defence . Although the Normans were driven out of Greece , in 1186 the Vlachs and Bulgars began a rebellion that led to the formation of the Second Bulgarian Empire . The internal policy of the Angeloi was characterised by the squandering of the public treasure and fiscal maladministration . Imperial authority was severely weakened , and the growing power vacuum at the center of the Empire encouraged fragmentation . There is evidence that some Komnenian heirs had set up a semi @-@ independent state in Trebizond before 1204 . According to Alexander Vasiliev , " the dynasty of the Angeloi , Greek in its origin , ... accelerated the ruin of the Empire , already weakened without and disunited within . "
= = = = Fourth Crusade = = = =
In 1198 , Pope Innocent III broached the subject of a new crusade through legates and encyclical letters . The stated intent of the crusade was to conquer Egypt , now the centre of Muslim power in the Levant . The crusader army that arrived at Venice in the summer of 1202 was somewhat smaller than had been anticipated , and there were not sufficient funds to pay the Venetians , whose fleet was hired by the crusaders to take them to Egypt . Venetian policy under the ageing and blind but still ambitious Doge Enrico Dandolo was potentially at variance with that of the Pope and the crusaders , because Venice was closely related commercially with Egypt . The crusaders accepted the suggestion that in lieu of payment they assist the Venetians in the capture of the ( Christian ) port of Zara in Dalmatia ( vassal city of Venice , which had rebelled and placed itself under Hungary 's protection in 1186 ) . The city fell in November 1202 after a brief siege . Innocent tried to forbid this political attack on a Christian city , but was ignored . Reluctant to jeopardise his own agenda for the Crusade , he gave conditional absolution to the crusaders — not , however , to the Venet
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Más " ( " I Can 't Take it Anymore " ) was chosen as the fourth and last single , peaking at number 15 in the Billboard Top Latin Songs and at number nine in the Regional Mexican Songs charts , respectively .
= = Track listing = =
Source :
= = Chart performance = =
El Ejemplo debuted and peaked at number eight in the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart in the week of May 13 , 1995 , being the second highest debut of the week after Cuando los Ángeles Lloran by Maná at number seven . The album reached a peak of number two in the Regional Mexican Albums chart in the week of September 16 , 1995 , being held at the top by Selena 's Amor Prohibido . The band earned the Regional Mexican Album of the Year , Duo or Group Award at the Billboard Latin Music Awards of 1996 . El Ejemplo was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , the first for the band . By 1999 , the album had sold over 650 @,@ 000 copies .
= Cyclone Lua =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Lua affected a sparsely populated region of Western Australia during mid @-@ March 2012 . Originating in a broad low pressure area that formed northwest of Australia by 8 March , the storm was plagued by inhibiting wind shear for the duration of its formative stages . However , it gradually organized , and received the name Lua on 13 March . The cyclone meandered for the first several days of its existence , caught between weak and competing steering currents . After the cyclone drifted northwestward , a building ridge of high pressure to the north drove Lua southeastward toward the Pilbara region . Ultimately intensifying into a borderline Category 4 severe tropical cyclone with maximum sustained 10 @-@ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , Lua made landfall near the remote community of Pardoo , about 150 km ( 95 mi ) east of Port Hedland . It steadily weakened as it progressed south over interior Western Australia , diminishing below tropical cyclone status on 18 March .
The threat of the impending cyclone halted local industries such as oil production and iron ore mining and exporting . The Port of Port Hedland , a highly important iron ore shipping terminal , was forced to close for about 52 hours , contributing to inflated iron ore prices and delayed shipments . Multiple companies suspended work at oil fields and mines throughout the region , cutting national oil production by 25 % and iron ore exports by 4 @.@ 7 % versus the previous month . Overall , Lua is attributed to $ 217 million ( 2012 AUD ; $ 230 million 2012 USD ) in lost revenue . Lua produced strong winds and widespread rainfall on land , but damage was limited by the lack of population in the storm 's path . The Pardoo Roadhouse bore the brunt of the storm , and damage was reported at several other cattle stations and homesteads ; at these sites , the storm damaged the exteriors of various structures and brought down swaths of trees . Central Western Australia endured several days of record @-@ breaking rainfall and cool weather . The Government of Western Australia provided disaster relief funds to the hardest @-@ hit areas , and Lua was later retired from the list of tropical cyclone names .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Lua originated in a broad area of disturbed weather that was spawned by a deep trough of low pressure and enhanced by a Madden – Julian oscillation pulse . The precursor to Lua was first identified through satellite imagery by 8 March 2012 , while situated about 1 @,@ 100 km ( 680 mi ) to the north @-@ northwest of Learmonth . Analysis of the disturbance revealed a diffuse low @-@ level center of circulation loosely bounded by sporadic , but multiplying , convection . On 9 March , the Bureau of Meteorology 's ( BoM ) Tropical Cyclone Warning Center ( TCWC ) in Perth recognized the developing system and remarked on the potential for tropical cyclone formation over the following several days . The low pressure area meandered for several days , making some progress toward the east , and gradually consolidated .
By 12 March , the system had developed persistent deep convection over the eastern half of its core and organized banding features elsewhere . Moderate vertical wind shear initially hampered intensification , though the BoM designated the system Tropical Low 16U ; at the time , it was centered roughly 230 km ( 140 mi ) northwest of Karratha , Western Australia . At 2300 UTC on 12 March , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . With increasingly favorable environmental conditions — including warm ocean waters and dwindling wind shear — the low organized significantly between 12 and 13 March , and at 0600 UTC on the 13th , TCWC Perth upgraded the low to Tropical Cyclone Lua . Simultaneously , the JTWC issued its first tropical cyclone warning on 17S . Contrary to real @-@ time operations , the official BoM " best track " database does not list the storm as having attained Category 1 tropical cyclone intensity until 0000 UTC on 14 March .
At the time of its designation , Lua was nearly stationary in terms of forward movement , caught in the equilibrium between a blocking ridge to the southwest and increasing monsoonal winds from the northwest . The ridge began to drive Lua north @-@ northwestward at up to 20 km / h ( 12 mph ) , before the storm resumed its slow pace on 14 March . The storm remained relatively disorganized , its strengthening limited by moderate wind shear and dry air entering its center . Consequently , a large void of thunderstorm activity created a " horseshoe pattern " . Nonetheless , Lua proved resilient , and good outflow helped compensate for the adverse shear . The southwesterly steering currents weakened , causing the storm to begin its anticipated curve toward the east and east @-@ southeast . According to the JTWC , the storm completed a small loop as a result of competing steering factors . At the same time , the upper levels of the atmosphere became far more conducive to the cyclone 's intensification , and the storm 's banding pattern tightened . With a building ridge to its north , Lua accelerated east @-@ southeastward on 15 March , and with wind shear oscillating but generally decreasing , the storm became a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone at 1800 UTC .
Continuing to intensify , Lua began to exhibit an ill @-@ defined eye on visible satellite imagery on 16 March . The storm was expansive , producing storm @-@ force winds in a circular area 850 km ( 530 mi ) across . Still , the deepest convection and most favorable outflow was focused away from the eastern semicircle due to persistent light easterly wind shear . The storm 's structure improved throughout the day and into the night , and at 2000 UTC on 16 March , the storm attained its peak 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , classifying it as a low @-@ end Category 4 severe tropical cyclone . Early on 17 March , the storm turned due south toward the Pilbara coast , and the JTWC reported that Lua 's peak strength was marked by 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , at 0600 UTC . At its deepest , the storm possessed a central barometric pressure of 930 hPa ( 27 inHg ) . Lua made landfall near Pardoo , about 150 km ( 95 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Port Hedland , at 0700 UTC while still at peak intensity . The cyclone steadily weakened as it progressed southward , tracking directly over the Yarrie mine before passing about halfway between Newman and Jigalong . With little extant convection and a shallow , exposed center , Lua deteriorated below tropical cyclone status early on 18 March near Wiluna . The cyclone 's remnants later entered the Goldfields @-@ Esperance region .
= = Preparations and economic impact = =
The BoM hoisted its first Cyclone Watch on 14 March for coastal areas between Mardie Station and Cape Leveque . A Cyclone Warning was posted the next day for a smaller stretch of coastline within that range . As Lua approached the coastline , the Cyclone Warning was in place from Cape Leveque to Dampier . Communities between Bidyadanga and Port Hedland were under a Red Alert , the highest level of caution issued by the Fire and Emergency Services Authority of Western Australia ( FESA ) . The alert advised included residents to " go to shelter immediately " . Localities elsewhere between Broome and Whim Creek were on Yellow Alert , while a Blue Alert was issued between Whim Creek and Dampier , to the west of the Yellow Alert area . Work at multiple oil fields and mining sites was suspended or slowed , with non @-@ essential staff being removed at the sites remaining in operation . It was estimated that national oil production was reduced by about 25 % during the storm 's approach .
Officials of the Port of Port Hedland , an important iron ore exporting terminal , closed and evacuated the port by the morning of 16 March , operating under standard emergency preparedness procedure . Overall , nearly 40 ships in the port were relocated from the port out of the path of the storm . The Port of Dampier was also closed . The Port of Port Hedland reopened to shipping on 18 March , about 52 hours after its closure , with little or no damage reported , though the downtime drove iron ore prices up for a time , and reduced exports of the raw material by 4 @.@ 7 % compared to the previous month . In total , Lua cost natural resources companies over $ 217 million ( 2012 AUD ; $ 230 million 2012 USD ) in stunted industry , accounting for nearly all of the monetary losses resulting from the storm .
With the destruction wrought by Cyclone Laurence in 2009 still fresh in their minds , residents , business owners , and farmers worked hurriedly to prepare their properties and livestock for Lua 's onslaught . Horizon Power temporarily redirected power supply in the towns of Marble Bar and Nullagine from solar power stations to diesel generator stations . Evacuation shelters were opened to refugees of the storm with no safe living arrangements starting 16 March . About 110 individuals sought shelter at one such location in Nullagine . As the storm moved inland , flood warnings were posted throughout the Kimberley and the Pilbara , where officials closed public access to Karijini National Park . The impending cyclone forced the closure of the Great Northern and North West Coast highways , while flights to and from several airports were cancelled .
= = Meteorological effects and aftermath = =
On coming ashore , Cyclona Lua produced strong winds , gusting to 150 km / h ( 93 mph ) at Port Hedland , and appreciable rainfall , peaking at 88 @.@ 6 mm ( 3 @.@ 49 in ) at Bidyadanga . The precipitation was widespread , affecting a large area of interior Western Australia . The overcast weather led to abnormally cool temperatures , which broke monthly records in portions of the central and eastern Pilbara . For instance , the Port Hedland Airport recorded a maximum temperature of 24 @.@ 1 ° C on 17 March , the coldest March day in the station 's history ; the previous record of 25 @.@ 8 ° C was set 64 years prior . As the remnants of Lua continued poleward , they continued to drop heavy rainfall , including a daily total ( 19 March ) of 75 @.@ 0 mm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) at Edjudina , setting the record for the wettest March day there . A barometer reading of 939 hPa ( 27 @.@ 7 inHg ) at Rowley Shoals represented the lowest observed pressure associated with the storm .
Striking a relatively isolated area , the cyclone 's effects were limited , and no fatalities or injuries were reported . Indeed , a FESA official noted that initial reports of damage were " scant " . Preliminary assessments suggested that Pardoo Roadhouse and the small surrounding community bore the brunt of the storm , as most towns and farms in the region escaped relatively unscathed . The manager of the roadhouse relayed that the height of the storm was " absolutely horrific " , downing numerous trees and causing some structural damage . Some destruction was also observed at the Yarrie Homestead , where return to normalcy was expected to take as long as 12 months . Numerous buildings on the Warrawagine Homestead sustained damage such as compromised roofs and doors , which amounted to an estimated $ 70 @,@ 000 ( 2012 AUD ; 74 @,@ 000 2012 USD ) . Several head of cattle were killed by the storm . Moderate to major flooding took place in several areas , especially along the De Grey River drainage basin , though the rainfall proved beneficial in much of the climatologically dry area . The above @-@ normal precipitation allowed farmers to get a head @-@ start on planting winter crops .
In the aftermath of the storm , the Western Australia state government allocated relief funds to offset the cost of recovery and cleanup in several of the affected towns . Individuals and families became eligible to apply for personal grants and small business owners would be considered for special interest rates on new loans . Local government entities listed under the proclamation were the shires of Ashburton , Broome , East Pilbara , Meekatharra , and the Town of Port Hedland . Disaster assistance money in these jurisdictions would be used to restore public assets and infrastructure impaired by the storm . The name Lua was later retired from the cyclical list of tropical cyclone names due to the system 's adverse effects on land and was replaced by the name Luana .
= South Park ( season 13 ) =
The thirteenth season of South Park , an American animated television comedy series , originally aired in the United States on Comedy Central between March 11 and November 18 , 2009 . The season was headed by the series creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone , who served as executive producers along with Anne Garefino . The season continued to focus on the exploits of protagonists Stan , Kyle , Cartman , Kenny and Butters in the fictional Colorado mountain town of South Park .
The season was the first of three new seasons Parker and Stone agreed to produce for the network under a renewal deal . It consisted of fourteen 22 @-@ minute episodes , which aired in two groups of seven episodes separated by a six @-@ month gap . Prior to the season 's premiere , all South Park episodes were made available for free viewing on the official series website , South Park Studios . The 13th season was the first to be broadcast in high definition and in widescreen . Continuing their practice from previous seasons , Parker and Stone wrote and produced each episode within the week before its broadcast date .
The 13th season satirized such topics as the ACORN scandal , Japanese whaling , piracy in Somalia and the marketing tactics of the Walt Disney Company . Celebrities were spoofed throughout the season , including the Jonas Brothers , Kanye West , Carlos Mencia , Paul Watson and Glenn Beck , all of whom publicly responded to their portrayals . The episode " Fishsticks " attracted particular media attention due to rapper Kanye West 's declaration that its jokes about his arrogance were funny but hurt his feelings . " The F Word " , in which the central characters attempt to change the definition of the word " fag " , was especially controversial and prompted complaints from the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation . A broadcast of " Pinewood Derby " in Mexico was pulled , allegedly due to its depiction of Mexican President Felipe Calderón . " Fatbeard " was praised by the crew of the USS Bainbridge , which was involved in the 2009 rescue of the MV Maersk Alabama from Somali pirates .
The 13th season received mixed reviews : some critics called it one of South Park 's strongest seasons , while others claimed the series was starting to decline in quality . The season maintained the average Nielsen rating viewership for the series , around 3 million viewers per episode . The episode " Margaritaville " , which satirized the global recession then affecting much of the industrialized world , won the 2009 Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) .
= = Episodes = =
= = Production = =
= = = Crew = = =
Series creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone were the executive producers of the 13th season of South Park , along with Anne Garefino . The season was distributed by Comedy Central , where the series has aired since its inception in 1997 . Frank C. Agnone II served as supervising producer , while Eric Stough , Adrien Beard , Vernon Chatman , Bruce Howell and Erica Rivinoja worked as producers . Parker also served as director and writer for the thirteenth season . Saturday Night Live cast member Bill Hader , who had previously worked as a consultant on the show , was credited as a producer starting in season 13 . Hader said of his role with the show , " It 's really Trey and Matt who kind of write everything , and you 're just in the room kind of helping them . Basically , I 'm friends with them and they 're just nice enough to invite me into the room and let me goof around . " Ryan Quincy served as director of animation during the 13th season .
= = = Development = = =
South Park was set to expire in 2008 , but in August 2007 it was announced the series would be renewed for at least three more seasons , extending it through 2011 . The new seasons , 13 , 14 and 15 , were each to consist of 14 episodes . Stone said of the announcement , " Three more years of South Park will give us the opportunity to offend that many more people . " Parker and Stone also announced they would partner with Comedy Central to create a Los Angeles – based digital animation studio called South Park Digital Studios , which would serve as the center for all digital extensions of the South Park franchise and other animated projects .
Prior to the broadcast of the 13th season , Parker and Stone made every episode from the previous 12 seasons of South Park available for free viewing on the official series website , South Park Studios . New episodes from the 13th season were made available for one week after the original airdate , then removed for 30 days , after which they were returned to the site permanently . The episodes were uncensored and ad @-@ supported , so no membership fees were required to view the shows . In a statement , Parker and Stone said , " We got really sick of having to download our own show illegally all the time . So we gave ourselves a legal alternative . "
Two months before the 13th season premiered , South Park Studios announced that it would be the first season to be broadcast in high definition and presented in widescreen . Episodes from previous seasons were also converted to high definition . The season 's episodes first aired in the United States on Wednesdays at 10 p.m. Eastern Standard Time on Comedy Central , and were repeated Wednesdays at 12 a.m. , Thursdays at 10 p.m. and 12 a.m. , and Sundays at 11 p.m. and 2 a.m. , all EST . The first seven episodes of the season aired from March 11 , 2009 , premiering with " The Ring " , and ended on April 22 with the mid @-@ season finale " Fatbeard " . The season returned with seven more episodes , resuming on October 7 with " Dead Celebrities " , and ending on November 18 with the season finale , " Pee " .
= = = Writing = = =
Continuing their practice from previous seasons , Parker and Stone wrote and produced each episode within the week before its broadcast date , although as in previous seasons , only Parker was listed as writer in the end credits . The duo conceived a list of episode ideas at the start of the season , but said they preferred to wait until the last minute to start working . Deadline pressure , they explained , energized them as if they were doing a live show . Stone said of the practice , " We kind of need that [ chaos ] to work . We 're , like , ' We have to do something right now . It 's going on the air in just a few minutes . ' " For example , three days before the broadcast of the season premiere , " The Ring " , the script was only half @-@ finished and the animation was incomplete . Likewise , they did not start work on " Whale Whores " until five days before the episode aired , and the scripts for " Margaritaville " and " Pee " were both still being finished the day before the episodes were first broadcast . Parker and Stone said " Dead Celebrities " was a particularly challenging episode to make — they were up all night working on it the day before it aired , and did not finish until 11 a.m. on its broadcast date . Some critics have said that this short turnaround process helps South Park stay fresh and allows the show to address current events in a timely fashion .
The 13th season introduced the characters Katie and Katherine , stars of a television show , The Queef Sisters , that consists largely of vaginal flatulence jokes . They are female equivalents of long @-@ time characters Terrance and Phillip , who are initially angered at the competition from Katie and Katherine , but end up romantically involved with them . Season 13 also marked the final appearance of long @-@ time supporting character Gordon Stoltski , the third grade student who read the morning announcements for South Park Elementary . In the episode " Dances with Smurfs " , Gordon is murdered while reading the announcements by a gunman who mistakes him for a truck driver who slept with his wife . Some critics found the scene disturbing and inappropriate in the light of recent school shootings in the United States .
The running gag of killing protagonist Kenny McCormick continued , though he was killed only three times during the season : in the episode " The Ring " , he contracts syphilis after engaging in oral sex ; in " W.T.F. " , he is shot by a rocket launcher during a professional wrestling match ; and in " Pee " , he drowns in the urine that inundates the water park . During the final half of the season , aliens were hidden in images throughout the episodes as part of a contest offered by South Park Studios . Viewers able to find the alien in the episode could enter a contest , with the grand winner getting an animated version of himself or herself placed in the South Park opening credits starting the next season . In December 2009 , Matthew Klinner was announced winner of the contest .
= = = Cultural references = = =
The 13th season also continued a South Park tradition of lampooning celebrities and timely issues . The episode " Margaritaville " satirized the global recession affecting much of the industrialized world at the time of the episode 's broadcast . Parker and Stone said they had long planned to do an episode about the recession , but did not want to rush it because they wanted to make sure the script was strong . " Fatbeard " was based on real @-@ life piracy in Somalia , which began receiving increasing international media attention in 2008 ; the Somali pirates are portrayed in a sympathetic light in the episode . " Dances with Smurfs " parodied the political commentary of Glenn Beck , a nationally syndicated radio show host and Fox News Channel political pundit . In the episode , Cartman makes outrageous claims with no basis in fact under the guise that he is simply asking rhetorical questions and seeking further discussion , a practice for which Beck has been criticized .
The episode " Whale Whores " addressed the controversies surrounding Japanese whaling , condemning not only the whalers who engaged in the practice , but shows like Whale Wars and activists like television celebrity Paul Watson who profit from fighting whaling . " Butters ' Bottom Bitch " featured a scene in which Butters visits an ACORN office seeking benefits for prostitutes working for him , a reference to a similar 2009 scandal . The episode " Eat , Pray , Queef " demonstrated a double standard between rights of men and women by showing the South Park men , who have no problem with farting , strongly objecting to vaginal flatulence from women . The season finale , " Pee " , satirized the disaster film genre , especially the movie 2012 , which was released five days before the episode aired . Cartman interprets the large number of minorities at his favorite water park as a sign of the 2012 phenomenon , the prediction that cataclysmic events will occur in the year 2012 , which is said to be the end of the Mayan Long Count calendar .
" The Ring " featured parodies of the pop @-@ rock boy band Jonas Brothers and a foul @-@ mouthed , greedy , physically violent Mickey Mouse , satirizing the Walt Disney Company 's exploitation of family @-@ friendly morals to disguise its profit motive . " The Coon " served as a parody of dark @-@ toned comic book movies , like The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) , The Spirit ( 2008 ) and Watchmen ( 2009 ) . " Dead Celebrities " mocked numerous recently deceased celebrities , including Michael Jackson , Billy Mays and David Carradine , as well as the show Ghost Hunters . " Dances with Smurfs " mocked the 2009 James Cameron film
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fs " delivered significant social commentary . Isler described " Fishsticks " as a well @-@ timed , hilarious episode that became a " phenomenon " . Ben Flanagan of The Tuscaloosa News said the 13th season was one of the strongest yet for South Park , and that the series continued its tradition of entertainingly combining gross @-@ out comedy with social satire . He wrote , " Whether they tackle the Jonas Brothers , Somali pirates , Kanye West , The Dark Knight , the current economic woes or just the frequent greed and foolishness of the human race , the show continues to solidify itself as not only the funniest show on TV , but the best . "
Not all reviews of the season were positive . A.V. Club writer Sean O 'Neal called it " one of the more hit @-@ or @-@ miss seasons of South Park in the show ’ s history " , but said he was confident the series could do better and that it had yet not entered the " staggering animal begging to be put out of its misery stage of a show 's lifetime " . He described the season as a " weekly exercise in South Park schizophrenia " , with some episodes faring better than others , although he said the first half of the season was generally strong . Josh Modell , also of the A.V. Club , agreed that the season was uneven , with several episodes " you kinda shrugged your shoulders at " , but others like " Butters ' Bottom Bitch " that he found " pretty damn funny " .
" Fishsticks " particularly attracted media attention , and some critics declared it one of the best episodes of the season . In the episode , Jimmy writes a joke that becomes a national sensation , while Cartman tries to steal the credit . A fictionalized version of rapper Kanye West fails to understand the joke . He cannot admit that he does not get it because , in reference to a perceived ego problem on the part of the real West , he considers himself a genius . On September 13 , 2009 , during the MTV Video Music Awards , West interrupted an acceptance speech by country singer Taylor Swift , walking on stage , grabbing the microphone and praising her competitor Beyoncé Knowles . The incident received considerable press coverage and , as a result , Comedy Central rebroadcast " Fishsticks " for two straight hours on September 15 .
" The F Word " was especially controversial , even by South Park standards . In the episode , the South Park boys attempt to change the official definition of the word " fag " from an anti @-@ homosexual slur to a term describing loud and obnoxious Harley bikers . The uncensored word is voiced casually and very frequently throughout the episode . A.V. Club critic Genevieve Koski argued that " The F Word " advocates a philosophy that language is ever @-@ changing and that taboo words receive their stigma purely due to social circumstance . Although some LGBT activists accepted that the episode had noble intentions , the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation nevertheless objected to it , claiming that it still used " fag " as a means of insulting others and could be unintentionally harmful to the gay community . Some critics praised the episode and said it addressed an important and difficult issue , whereas others felt the satire was ineffective and unfunny .
= = = Celebrity reactions = = =
Some celebrities who were spoofed in 13th season episodes responded to their portrayals . The day after " Fishsticks " aired , West wrote on his blog , " South Park murdered me last night and it 's pretty damn funny . It hurts my feelings but what can you expect from South Park ! " West thanked the South Park writers in his blog entry and acknowledged he has a problem with his ego , but said he was trying to change . The blog post drew substantial media attention ; Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone said : " Many have tried , all have failed , but in the end it only took four animated children from Colorado to topple Kanye West 's ego . " Carlos Mencia , host of the Comedy Central show Mind of Mencia , was also spoofed in " Fishsticks " . He is portrayed as knowingly stealing credit for a joke he did not write , which is a reference to accusations other comedians have made that Mencia plagiarizes jokes from other people . After the episode aired , Mencia wrote on his Twitter feed , " They just made fun of me on South Park . I thought it was hysterical . Catch the rerun . "
In " The Coon " , Butters suspects heavyset comedian Bruce Vilanch is Cartman 's superhero alter ego based on his physique . After the episode aired , Vilanch sent a card to Parker and Stone thanking them for referring to him . Shortly after " Whale Whores " aired , Paul Watson said he was not offended by his portrayal in the episode , and was glad South Park brought the issue of dolphin and whale slaughter , and the Japanese role in it , to a large audience . After Billy Mays appeared in " Dead Celebrities " , his son Billy Mays III said he loved the episode and found its portrayal of his father tasteful and respectful . Jason Hawes and Grant Wilson , the stars of Ghost Hunters who were also mocked in " Dead Celebrities " , said they loved the parody and encouraged fans to watch the show on their Twitter accounts . The day after " Dances with Smurfs " originally aired , Glenn Beck discussed the episode on his radio program and said he took the parody as a compliment . The Jonas Brothers ' publicist specifically forbade reporters from asking the band members about their portrayal in " The Ring " . Nevertheless , Nick Jonas said , " We are always open to make fun of ourselves . "
" Pinewood Derby " drew considerable media attention in Mexico when it first aired due to its depiction of Mexican President Felipe Calderón . The episode was due to air in Spanish on MTV Latin America on February 8 , 2010 , but it was pulled a few hours before the scheduled time . Media reports indicated the decision stemmed from the episode 's depiction of Calderón irritating the international community and frivolously spending alien @-@ provided " space cash " on water parks . MTV said the South Park creators did not get a special permit needed to broadcast an image of Mexico 's flag , but the explanation was met with skepticism by Mexican South Park fans , some of whom accused MTV of censorship .
" Fatbeard " included prominent references to the April 2009 hijacking of the MV Maersk Alabama by Somalian pirates . The crew of the USS Bainbridge , the Arleigh Burke – class guided @-@ missile destroyer that participated in the rescue of Richard Phillips from Maersk Alabama , contacted the South Park creators to commend them on the episode . Ensign Jonathan Sieg , the Bainbridge public relations officer , wrote , " Pretty much everyone onboard our ship — from Captain to seaman — is a huge fan of South Park , and when we heard about the episode ' Fatbeard ' , as you can imagine , we were thrilled and very interested to watch . "
= = = Ratings = = =
The 13th season of South Park generally maintained the average Nielsen rating viewership for the series , around 3 million viewers per episode . The season premiere , " The Ring " , was seen in 3 @.@ 41 million households . That would prove to be the largest individual viewership for any Comedy Central show that season , outperforming even a highly anticipated and publicized episode of The Daily Show involving Jon Stewart 's ongoing feud with CNBC and pundit Jim Cramer . The 13th season of South Park received its lowest viewership in the episodes " Dances with Smurfs " , seen in 1 @.@ 47 million households ; " W.T.F. " , seen in 1 @.@ 37 million households ; and " The F Word " , seen in 1 @.@ 99 million households . However , " The F Word " was the highest rated show of the season among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , and outperformed The Jay Leno Show , NBC 's primetime talk show . The season finale , " Pee " , was seen in 2 @.@ 87 million households , which made it the most watched cable show of the night . Likewise , " The Coon " , seen in 3 @.@ 27 million households , was the most watched cable program among ages 18 to 49 the week it aired . Several episodes from the 13th season of South Park were the most watched Comedy Central shows the week they aired , including " Margaritaville " ( 2 @.@ 77 million households ) , " Fatbeard " ( 2 @.@ 59 million households ) , " Eat , Pray , Queef " ( 3 million households ) and " Fishsticks " ( 3 @.@ 1 million households ) . The latter two episodes were watched by over 1 million more viewers than the network 's second @-@ highest @-@ rated shows in their respective weeks .
= = = Awards = = =
Parker and Stone decided to submit " Margaritaville " for an Emmy Award because they had received a large amount of positive feedback about the episode from adult viewers . Since most Emmy voters are older , they decided " Margaritaville " stood the best chance of winning . Stone joked , " If an Emmy voter were to watch this , they might think the show was smarter than it was , so they might be fooled into voting for us . " " Margaritaville " ultimately won the 2009 Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program for Programming Less Than One Hour against competing nominees Robot Chicken , The Simpsons and American Dad ! . The victory marked the third consecutive Emmy win for South Park , which won in the same category in 2007 for the 10th season episode " Make Love , Not Warcraft " , and won the award for Outstanding Animated Program for Programming One Hour or More for the 11th season episode " Imaginationland " . Parker , Stone , Agnone , Stough , Beard , Howell , Rivinoja , Chatman , Hader and Quincy were all recipients of the Emmy .
In February 2010 , " Whale Whores " was nominated for a Genesis Award in the television comedy category . The Genesis Awards honor news and entertainment media for outstanding work that raises public understanding of animal issues . " Whale Whores " ultimately lost to the Family Guy episode " Dog Gone . "
= = Home release = =
The season was released by Paramount Home Entertainment in the United States on March 16 , 2010 , on both DVD ( as a three @-@ disc set ) and Blu @-@ ray ( as a two @-@ disc set ) . Each set included all 14 uncensored episodes in 1080p video and Dolby TrueHD sound , as well as brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , seven deleted scenes , codes for unlocking a character and challenge levels in South Park Let 's Go Tower Defense Play ! on Xbox Live Arcade , and a special mini @-@ feature , Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , describing the show 's animation process .
= Dust My Broom =
" Dust My Broom " is a blues song originally recorded as " I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " by American blues artist Robert Johnson in 1936 . It is a solo performance in the Delta blues @-@ style with Johnson 's vocal accompanied by his acoustic guitar . As with many of his songs , it is based on earlier blues songs , the earliest of which has been identified as " I Believe I 'll Make a Change " , recorded by the Sparks brothers as " Pinetop and Lindberg " in 1932 . Johnson 's guitar work features an early use of a boogie rhythm pattern , which is seen as a major innovation , as well as a repeating triplets figure . " I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " was issued before blues records were tracked by recording industry trade publications and , as with most of Johnson 's recordings , has not been otherwise identified as a big seller at the time .
However , Elmore James ' 1951 recording as " Dust My Broom " " made it the classic as we know it " , according to blues historian Gerard Herzhaft . James ' slide guitar adaptation of Johnson 's triplet figure has been identified as one of the most famous blues guitar riffs and has inspired many rock performers . The song has become a blues standard , with numerous renditions by a variety of musicians . It also has been selected for the Blues Foundation Blues Hall of Fame , the Grammy Hall of Fame , and the Library of Congress ' National Recording Registry .
= = Earlier songs = =
Elements of " Dust My Broom " have been traced back to several earlier blues songs . Blues researcher @-@ writer Edward Komara has suggested that Johnson may have begun developing his version as early as 1933 . The Sparks brothers ' 1932 recording of " I Believe I 'll Make A Change " and Jack Kelly 's " Believe I 'll Go Back Home " in 1933 both use a similar melody and lyrics . Some verses are also found in Carl Rafferty 's 1933 " Mr. Carl 's Blues " :
Kokomo Arnold , whose " Old Original Kokomo Blues " served as the basis for Johnson 's " Sweet Home Chicago " , recorded two songs with similar lines , " Sagefield Woman Blues " in 1934 :
and " Sissy Man Blues " in 1935 :
The melody that Johnson uses is also found in 1934 recordings of " I Believe I 'll Make a Change " by Leroy Carr and Josh White .
= = Lyrics and interpretation = =
Johnson 's " I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " combines lyrics , also identified as " floating verses " , from the earlier songs and adds two new verses of his own . Music historian Elijah Wald calls the result " a more cohesive lyric than either of the Arnold pieces [ and ] concentrates on the theme of traveling , and being away from the girl he loves " . Attempts have been made to read a hoodoo significance into the phrase " dust my broom " . However , bluesman Big Joe Williams , who knew Johnson and was familiar with folk magic , explained it as " leaving for good ... I 'm putting you down , I won 't be back no more " . Music writer Ted Gioia also likens the phrase to the biblical passages about shaking the dust from the feet and symbolizing " the rambling ways of the blues musician " :
While Johnson is disillusioned with one woman , he also yearns for another :
The last verse shows Johnson 's unusual use of geographical references . These are taken from topical events , including the Second Italo @-@ Ethiopian War , the Japanese invasion of Manchuria , and the creation of the Commonwealth of the Philippines . However , their use in Johnson 's song is seen as escapism by music writer Greil Marcus . Music writer Thomas Beebee notes that while the world of many blues listeners was limited to the Mississippi Delta ,
The last stanza of the song raises the stakes , exploding into a fantastic geography — the singer 's voice trails a bit behind the guitar line here , as if burdened by the imaginative leap involved ... Mixed with all the bitterness , after all , is a geographic expansiveness that suddenly stretches the thirty miles of Arkansas backroads into a trip around the world .
" Sweet Home Chicago " ( the next song Johnson recorded ) includes the refrain " Back to the land of California , to my sweet home Chicago " . Comparing the two , Marcus comments , " ' Chicago ' functioned in the lyric as a place as distant as ' the Philippine Islands ' ; ' California ' was a place as mythical as ' Ethiopia ' " .
= = Recording and composition = =
" I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " was recorded by Johnson during his first recording session on November 23 , 1936 . The recording took place in a makeshift studio in Room 414 at the Gunter Hotel in San Antonio , Texas , and was produced by Art Satherley and Don Law . It was the second song that Johnson recorded and followed " Kind Hearted Woman Blues " . As with most of his recordings , it appears that a second take of the song was recorded and assigned a reference number . Stephen LaVere , who manages Johnson 's recording legacy , notes that this take , along with several others , " remain [ s ] unfound , if ever issued ; destroyed after being recorded ( if ever ) ; or otherwise unknown to collectors " .
Johnson recorded the song as an upbeat boogie shuffle . As with several other Johnson songs and typical of Delta blues from the era , he does not adhere to a strict twelve @-@ bar blues structure , but rather varies the timing to suit his whim . The song is performed in the key of E at a moderate tempo of 100 – 105 beats per minute . Unlike some of the earlier songs that influenced Johnson , " I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " does not feature a bottleneck or slide guitar . Instead , Johnson employs a fingerstyle guitar in which melodic lines are played against a driving bass boogie figure , creating an effect similar to the then popular combination of piano and guitar accompaniment . Wald has identified the use of the boogie bass line , adapted for guitar from the piano boogie style , as a major innovation by Johnson , although it had been used in a 1935 recording by Johnny Temple , titled " Lead Pencil Blues ( It Just Won 't Write ) " . To facilitate his fingerpicking style , Johnson also used an open tuning . Komara describes it as a modified open @-@ A tuning with the fifth string retuned from A to B , giving a new tuning of E – B – E – A – C ♯ – E or a standard open E tuning of E – B – E – G ♯ – B – E.
The song also features Johnson 's use of a repeating guitar figure consisting of fast high @-@ note triplets . This riff came to define the song , although Johnson also used it in several other of his songs , including a slide version for " Ramblin ' on My Mind " .
= = Releases = =
" I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " was released in 1937 by three related record companies : Vocalion Records ( using catalogue number 03475 ) , ARC ( no . 7 @-@ 02 @-@ 81 ) , and Conqueror Records ( no . 8871 ) . These were issued on the then standard ten @-@ inch 78 rpm record , backed with Johnson 's " Dead Shrimp Blues " . The single was Johnson 's third record of eleven released during his lifetime .
As one of three Johnson songs to become early blues standards , Wald questions why " I Believe I 'll Dust My Broom " was not included on the first reissue of his recordings , the King of the Delta Blues Singers album released by Columbia in 1961 . Authors Pearson and McCulloch note that its place on the album " would have connected Johnson to the rightful inheritors of his musical ideas — big @-@ city African American artists whose high @-@ powered , electrically amplified blues remained solidly in touch with Johnson 's musical legacy " . In 1970 , the song was included on Columbia 's second Johnson compilation , King of the Delta Blues Singers , Vol . II , in 1990 , on the The Complete Recordings box set , and on several compilation albums .
= = Elmore James renditions = =
= = = Background = = =
" Dust My Broom " was one of the earliest songs Elmore James performed regularly while he was still living in the Mississippi Delta in the late 1930s . Blues historian Ray Topping has suggested that James may have encountered Robert Johnson during this time , when he learned how to play the song . James often performed with Aleck Rice Miller , better known as Sonny Boy Williamson II as a duo . However , his music career was interrupted by a stint in the U.S. Navy during World War II . After his discharge , he again joined up with Williamson , who regularly performed on radio . In January 1951 , Williamson was offered the opportunity to record some songs for Trumpet Records , where , by one account , he was accompanied by James . In August , the duo auditioned " Dust My Broom " for Trumpet owner Lillian McMurry , who signed James to a recording contract . Meanwhile , two versions of " Dust My Broom " were recorded — Arthur " Big Boy " Crudup in 1949 and Robert Lockwood in
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leading him to drink heavily in the subsequent episode " 99 Problems " when Sam summons him for answers about the actions of the people in a town . Castiel reveals that they are dealing with the Whore of Babylon and provides the stake that can kill her , but as he is no longer a true servant of Heaven , is unable to do it himself . He gets Pastor Gideon so they can have him do it and tries to hold the Whore in place so the Pastor can stab her . However , she casts a spell that causes him great pain and knocks him out of the fight . In the end , Dean stabs her with the stake , identifying himself as a true servant of heaven .
= = = Powerless = = =
In " Point of No Return , " Castiel helps Sam to keep Dean from becoming Michael 's vessel . He leaves after hearing a signal from the angels , and finds a resurrected Adam Milligan – Sam and Dean 's half @-@ brother who had been previously killed by ghouls . When Dean escapes and tries to contact the angels , Castiel finds him , and angrily attacks him for making Castiel 's rebelling against Heaven worthless . Later , he carves a banishing sigil into his own chest and activates it in the presence of multiple angels in order to clear the way for Sam and Dean to attack Zachariah and save Adam . The effects of the sigil send him onto a fishing boat , now completely human . Despite his lack of power , he is able to defeat the Horseman Pestilence using what appears to be what little is left of his angelic strength , and assists Bobby and Sam in preventing nationwide distribution of the Croatoan virus . In the fifth season finale , " Swan Song " , Castiel loses faith after Sam fails to overpower Lucifer when he possesses him and suggests they get drunk and wait for the end to come . When Dean refuses to give up , Castiel and Bobby follow him and Castiel uses a Molotov cocktail of Holy Fire to temporarily banish Michael to buy Dean time to try to reach Sam . Angry that Castiel attacked his brother , Lucifer obliterates Castiel with a snap of his fingers . After Sam and Dean avert the Apocalypse , Castiel is resurrected once more by God , now more powerful than ever . He heals Dean 's injuries and resurrects Bobby and reminds Dean that he got what he wanted : no Apocalypse , no Paradise , just more of the same . Castiel then heads back to Heaven to restore order and become its new leader , believing it to be in chaos as Sam trapped Michael in Lucifer 's Cage as well .
= = = Post @-@ Apocalyptic alliances = = =
A year after the Apocalypse , Castiel returns to Earth in " The Third Man " to get Sam and Dean 's help to find the Staff of Moses , which , along with many other weapons of Heaven , has been stolen during the war . They soon discover that the angel Balthazar has stolen it and sold pieces of it to people in exchange for their souls . They confront Balthazar , but are interrupted by Raphael . Before Raphael is able to get his revenge against Castiel , Balthazar destroys Raphael 's vessel and sends him back to Heaven . After trapping Balthazar within a ring of ignited holy oil and forcing him to restore the souls he has taken , Castiel sets him free , claiming his debt has been paid off .
In " Family Matters " , Castiel returns to " diagnose " Sam by asking him several questions . Sam , still dizzy and unsure of what is going on after being knocked unconscious by Dean , reveals that he no longer sleeps and has become a better hunter . Castiel has an idea of what 's wrong and decides to read Sam 's soul by reaching inside him , and the truth is finally revealed : that Sam has no soul , and it was locked in the cage with Lucifer . Both Dean and Castiel are unsure whether Sam is still Sam without his soul , but they let Sam go and Castiel heals his wounds from being beaten by Dean .
In " Caged Heat " , Sam tries to trick Castiel into coming to Earth to help the brothers get Sam 's soul back . When he comes , Sam threatens Castiel saying that if he does not help , then he will hunt him down and kill him . Despite knowing Sam never could , he helps them . Later , while Sam and Dean are doing research , Castiel discovers porn on TV ; when Dean asks why he was watching porn , he replies , " It was there . "
Castiel later discovers Sam and Dean are working with a demon named Meg , whom he refers to as an abomination . When Crowley admits that he cannot get Sam 's soul back , Castiel burns Crowley 's human remains .
At the end of the episode Castiel explains to Sam and Dean that the celestial war is not going well for him and he would rather be on Earth with them , but leaves anyway to continue fighting , but promises to take care of Crowley 's captured monsters first . After acquiring the holy weapons from Balthazar in " The French Mistake " , Castiel suggests that he now has a military advantage in the war . Unfortunately , this advantage seems limited ; he orders Balthazar in " My Heart Will Go On " to save the Titanic , spawning 50 @,@ 000 new souls to empower his side . However , Fate works to undo the impossible births and begins killing them . Once the brothers encounter the string of odd deaths Fate takes this opportunity to eliminate them due to their part of undoing the destined Apocalypse . This forces Castiel to concede the loss and re @-@ sink the Titanic .
In " Frontierland , " Sam and Dean call for Castiel to send them back in time as they have learned that the ashes of a Phoenix can kill Eve and that Samuel Colt killed one in the past with The Colt . Rachel , Castiel 's lieutenant comes instead and berates the boys for only calling for him when they need something of him , but Castiel arrives himself and sends Rachel away . Castiel is able to send Dean and Sam back in time , but warns them that he has to retrieve them in 24 hours or they 'll be stuck in the past forever and tells Bobby to pray for him when the time comes . While waiting , Rachel approaches him about his plans and attacks him . Castiel kills her , but is left weakened by a stab wound she managed to inflict on him first . Castiel manages to teleport to Bobby 's and draws a sigil to hide himself from the other angels before passing out . He wakes in time to retrieve the Winchesters , but his weakened state prevents this so he is forced to draw power from Bobby 's soul . While Dean killed the Phoenix , Castiel brought them back before they could gather the ashes so it all appears for nothing and he lacks the power to send them back . Luckily , Samuel Colt collected the ashes and sent a package with them to be delivered to Bobby 's after the boys return .
In " Mommy Dearest " , it is discovered that there is a possibility Crowley may have faked his death and might still be alive ; suggesting that perhaps Castiel had burned the wrong bones by mistake . Eve reveals this to Sam and Dean when they try to hunt her down . During the hunt , Eve is able to suppress Castiel 's powers as she is older than him . After Dean kills Eve , Castiel 's powers return and he kills all of her monsters with a blast of white light before transporting the group to the home of the uncle of two young boys who were turned into monsters . There , they find them dead , having been killed by demons , and Castiel promises to look into Crowley 's possible survival to find out for sure if he 's dead or not . However , Castiel is instead seen with a very alive Crowley who states that he is " tired of cleaning up after [ Castiel 's ] messes , " implying that Castiel had full knowledge of burning the wrong bones and that both he and Crowley have some sort of agreement between them and / or may be working together as partners .
In " The Man Who Would Be King " , it is revealed that Castiel was the one who partially raised Sam from Hell , though due to the complication of the cage it was impossible to retrieve his soul , and that he has made a deal with Crowley in a desperate attempt to win the war . Sam and Dean also learn of his partnership with Crowley when he slips up and reveals he is spying on them .
In " Let it Bleed , " Castiel is enraged to learn that Lisa and Ben Braeden have been kidnapped by Crowley and tries to get him to reveal where they are to no avail . Castiel saves Dean from a demon and tries and fails to convince him to back off . Later , after Lisa is mortally wounded by a demon possessing her in an attempt to force Dean not to exorcise her , Castiel arrives at the hospital and without being asked , heals her wounds and at Dean 's request , erases all of her and her son Ben 's memories of Dean . He does this as a final act of friendship towards Dean though both admit it doesn 't change the fact that they are now enemies . Castiel also spends the episode one step ahead of Bobby investigating H.P. Lovecraft 's opening of Purgatory in an attempt to find a way to open it himself .
= = = Godhood = = =
In " The Man Who Knew Too Much " , Castiel tricks Crowley and Raphael , eventually absorbing the souls from Purgatory . He demonstrates his new power by killing Raphael with a simple snap of his fingers . While talking to Dean , who unsuccessfully begs him to give up the power , Sam sneaks up behind them and attempts to kill him with an angelic blade by stabbing Castiel in the back , but it has no effect . Castiel removes the blade , explains that he is no longer an angel , declaring himself their new God . He then glances at the three hunters before delivering an ultimatum : to profess their own loyalty and love unto him , or be destroyed .
In " Meet the New Boss " , Castiel begins exacting his new supremacy over the planet , working miracles and punishing religious hypocrites alike . However , when Castiel 's vessel begins to become damaged and he begins to lose control of his power , Death reveals that he also absorbed creatures known as Leviathans from Purgatory . The Leviathans will destroy him if they are not released . Castiel seeks out the Winchesters ' help , and reopens the portal with Death 's assistance . Although the souls are returned , the Leviathans evade reentering Purgatory and take control of Castiel 's vessel . In " Hello , Cruel World " , the vessel begins to quickly break down . The Leviathans are forced to leave , dispersing into the local water supply nearby and leaving behind only Castiel 's trench coat .
= = = Return to madness = = =
In " The Born @-@ Again Identity " , it 's revealed that Castiel survived . After the Leviathans left him , he made his way out of the river , naked , and ran into his future wife Daphne . However , the experience renders Castiel amnesic , but with his angelic powers intact . Going by the name " Emanuel , " Castiel used his powers to heal people , though he didn 't know where that ability and his power to see demon 's true faces came from . After Sam is committed to a mental hospital as a result of the hallucinations of Lucifer he is suffering due to Castiel breaking his " mental wall " , Dean searches for " Emanuel " and kills a demon that is holding his wife hostage . Castiel agrees to help Dean who doesn 't tell him who he really is , but mentions what " Cas " had done to Sam . The two are joined by Meg , but upon reaching the hospital , find demons surrounding the entrance . As Castiel is the only one who can take them all down , Dean is forced to tell him the truth about who he really is and insists he has the power to kill the demons . Castiel manages to summon his power to kill demons and kills all of them , but doing so restores his memories . Castiel shows remorse for his previous actions and initially wants to leave , but Dean is able to convince him to help by giving him back his trench coat . Castiel finds Sam in time to save him from a demon torturing him to death with electro @-@ shock therapy and tries to restore his mental wall , but can 't as it 's completely gone . Feeling sorry for what he had done , Castiel transfers the problem to himself and is haunted by visions of Lucifer like Sam was . Castiel is committed to the mental hospital , but is safe from the demons as only Meg knows he 's alive and she takes a job at the hospital , presumably to look after him . In " Party On , Garth , " Dean calls Meg and she reveals that Castiel 's in the same condition , which Sam feels guilty about .
In " Reading is Fundamental " , Castiel is awakened when the Word of God – a tablet with information inscribed by an angel as dictated by God – is found by Sam and Dean . Although his torment has driven him insane , he explains that taking on Sam 's pain has helped relieve some of his past burdens . He then explains what the Word of God is , but is unable to read it . Two angels from his former garrison arrive in pursuit of Kevin , a prophet who was awakened by the Word of God and drawn to it . The angel Hester tries to kill Castiel out of anger for his past actions , but she is instead killed by Meg . The other angel offers Castiel the chance to return to Heaven with him , but Castiel declines , explaining that he feels he no longer belongs there . The other angel then leaves , taking Kevin away to safety . Castiel comments to the Winchesters that he finds it amazing that he does not know what he is going to do next , and teleports away after giving them his blood .
In " Survival of the Fittest , " after finding his garrison wiped out , Castiel has Meg take him to the Winchesters where he explains what he has discovered . Crowley arrives and is furious to see him , but Castiel no longer has a wish to fight and when Crowley realizes he 's insane , he decides to put off his feud with Castiel for a time when he 's sane again . Crowley , after giving them his blood , disappears but tells them Castiel can help them kill Dick . Castiel refuses to help as he doesn 't want to fight and after he disappears to retrieve a board game , Meg explains that since Castiel had the Leviathans within him , he is able to tell them apart even in their human forms and can pick out the real Dick Roman . Castiel watches as Sam and Dean burn Bobby 's flask and put him at rest and later takes Dean to where he has stored the Impala and agrees to help . Castiel , Sam and Dean infiltrate Sucrocorp thanks to a distraction from Meg and he and Dean confront Dick Roman in the labs . Dick throws Castiel across the room when he tries to attack , but after Dean fails to kill Dick , Castiel holds his head in place from behind allowing Dean to stab Dick through the neck with the weapon , killing him . As a result of this , Castiel and Dean are sucked into Purgatory with Dick 's soul and after letting Dean know this and that they are more likely to die than get out , Castiel disappears , leaving Dean alone .
= = = Out of Purgatory = = =
In " We Need To Talk About Kevin , " Dean escapes Purgatory with the help of the vampire Benny , but Castiel is not with him . He later tells Sam that things got hairy near the end and that Castiel didn 't make it , that he " let go . " While Dean doesn 't elaborate , he is clearly affected by this . In a flashback scene , Dean is shown looking for Castiel in Purgatory , interrogating a vampire for his location . As a result , he meets Benny and only agrees to Benny 's deal to get out if they find Castiel first and help him escape too . Castiel appears in flashbacks in the following episode , where he reveals that he fled Dean to keep him safe from the Leviathans and other monsters that are angry at Castiel , but Dean refuses to leave Purgatory without Castiel . When talking with another angel at an auction for the second Word of God tablet , Dean again states that Castiel did not make it out of Purgatory . He later escapes with the aid of an army of angels sent to rescue him – having initially remained behind as penance for his actions to stop a duo of Leviathans that were trying to attack Dean and Benny as they left Purgatory – but the other angels not only erase his memory that they were responsible for his escape , but also erase his memory of their subsequent ' check @-@ ins ' to discuss the Winchesters ' actions , with Castiel forced to tell them about the Winchesters ' progress in the search for the tablet . Apparently back to full power , Castiel helps the Winchesters save Kevin from Crowley- who has been abducting future Prophets to try to find another means of reading the Word of God tablet- and destroy the tablet to prevent Crowley using it , retaining half of the tablet while Crowley flees with the other half . Afterwards , in " Hunteri Heroici , " Castiel cuts off his ability to listen into the other angels and decides to become a full @-@ time hunter to avoid facing the other angels about what he has done . Castiel proves instrumental in solving the case , using his abilities to enter the mind of a man with reality warping powers , allowing Sam to bring him back to reality with a speech about not running from it . Later , at the request of the man , Fred , Castiel strips him of his powers so he is no longer a danger to anyone though it leaves him mentally damaged . Castiel , having listened to Sam 's speech about running from reality as well as Fred , decides to return to Heaven to try to make up for what he did , but is forbidden by Naomi , the angel who ordered his rescue . Instead , Castiel stays to watch out for Fred for a while , but accepts that he can no longer run from what he has done .
In " Torn and Frayed , " as his penance , Castiel has turned back on his " angel radio " and travels around helping people who have need of help or healing . He demonstrates this by healing a sick infant that won 't stop crying . After getting a distress call from Samandriel , Naomi summons Castiel to rescue the angel . Castiel enlists Dean 's help and repeatedly wonders where Sam is , unaware that Sam and Dean are currently not getting along . After getting the ingredients for a " demon bomb , " Castiel gets Sam as they will need all the help they can get to rescue Samandriel and yells at Sam and Dean for their behavior . At the warehouse , Castiel tells Sam and Dean what symbols to neutralize and where so he can enter and gives Sam his sword so he has a weapon against demons . After Sam and Dean clear the way , Castiel enters , but is weakened by the other sigils in the building . Samandriel 's screams cause him to remember being tied down by Naomi who approaches his eye with a mysterious instrument and is unable to help Sam and Dean in breaking into the room where Samandriel is . After they get in , Castiel frees Samandriel while Sam and Dean deal with the demons guarding him and takes the other angel outside . There , Samandriel begs for Castiel not to return him to Heaven and tries to warn him that " they " are controlling him . Before Samandriel can explain , Naomi forces Castiel to kill him for being a " traitor . " Castiel is horrified by this , but Naomi reveals that Samandriel telling Crowley about the angel Word of God tablet puts all in angels in danger and Castiel is a hero . Under her orders , he claims to Sam and Dean that he was forced to kill Samandriel in self @-@ defense and that he is taking him back to Heaven to put him to rest ( in reality so Naomi can determine just how much he broke ) , but his weird behavior and the fact that his eye starts bleeding arouses Sam and Dean 's suspicions that he is being controlled .
= = = On the run from Heaven = = =
In " Goodbye Stranger , " Castiel has been completely brainwashed by Naomi and has killed thousands of copies of Dean ruthlessly . Castiel is sent to find the angel tablet and tortures and kills the demons also looking for it , drawing Sam and Dean 's attention . Sam and Dean track down someone who knows the location of one of Lucifer 's Crypts where the angel tablet is and in ensuing scuffle , Sam ends up in trouble . Castiel saves Sam and captures one of the demons , claiming under Naomi 's orders that he is searching for the second half of the demon tablet and that the demons are searching for a parchment that will allow them to translate it without a Prophet . Castiel tortures the demon who tells them where to find Meg , but kills her before she can reveal the truth to Sam and Dean . Castiel heads off alone and rescues Meg who explains what the demons really want . While Naomi initially wants her killed to prevent that , Castiel is able to make a case to keep her alive . The group then go to the warehouse where the crypt is and before heading inside with Dean , Castiel reveals that Sam is damaged by his trials on a level that even Castiel can 't fix . Castiel and Dean locate the angel tablet and Castiel has to have Dean get it as it is warded against angels . However , Naomi orders Castiel to kill Dean and though he fights it , he has no control over his actions . As he is about to kill him , Dean manages to break through to Castiel 's heart and he breaks free of Naomi 's influence . He picks up the angel tablet which completely severs Naomi 's connection to and control over him . Castiel heals Dean and explains what happened , but senses that he must now protect the tablet from everyone , even Dean . Castiel is later seen traveling on a bus to an unknown destination with the tablet . Despite losing the tablet , Naomi is somewhat satisfied as according to her , Castiel is doing what he is supposed to be doing . Naomi later comes to Dean . In an attempt to gain his trust , presumably because she knows Castiel is one of his weak spots , she lies to Dean about Castiel and claims that he misinterpreted everything she has done and is still insane . Dean , of course , doesn 't believe her . Despite this , Castiel is eventually captured by Naomi 's forces , but the angel tablet is claimed by Crowley after one of Naomi 's angels betrays their location , although this gives Castiel time to escape and reunite with the Winchesters after killing the angel guarding him .
= = = Metatron 's betrayal = = =
With Heaven in chaos , Metatron ( the Scribe of God , recently rediscovered ) convinces Castiel that they must seal the gates of Heaven to force the angels together to make peace . The first trial is to cut out the heart of a nephilim , the child of a human and an angel , which Castiel is forced to kill when the selected target attacks him . They manage to complete the second trial ( retrieving the bow of a cupid ) , but Metatron subsequently reveals that his true intentions are to exile all the angels from Heaven for forcing him to leave Heaven ages ago . He takes Castiel 's grace from him as the third ingredient for this spell , leaving Castiel human and banished to Earth before the other angels begin to fall as well .
= = = Back to humanity = = =
With the angels expelled from Heaven , many of them begin searching for Castiel , whom they believe is responsible . Castiel decides he wants to help his fallen brethren find " direction " when he encounters an angel named Hale who requests his guidance . When Castiel contacts the Winchesters , however , Dean tells him to leave Hale and make his way the Men of Letters bunker where he will be safe from the angels hunting him . Following this , Castiel attempts to leave Hale behind but is captured by her instead whereby she reveals her plans to possess him . Castiel escapes and kills Hale then continues to make his way to the bunker , abandoning his usual attire along the way . Castiel is nearly caught several times by the angels searching for him and gets a tattoo that will ward him against angels . In response , the angels send freelance Reapers after him and he is eventually caught by one of them . The Reaper tortures Castiel and kills him when the Winchesters show up to rescue him . Dean has the angel secretly possessing Sam heal Castiel and takes him back to the bunker but later asks him to leave when Ezekiel , the angel inside Sam , requests it .
Castiel gets a job at a gas station and attempts to adjust to his new life as a human . He helps Dean hunt a rogue angel that is killing people in emotional pain , but later prays for help when Dean sends him away for the second time on Ezekiel 's orders . Castiel is found by the neutral angel Muriel who heard his prayer . Muriel agrees to provide information but the two are captured by angels that have been trailing Muriel . Castiel and Muriel are taken to the anarchist angel Malachi , the leader of one side of the angel civil war ( the other side being headed by the angel Bartholomew ) , and tortured for information on Metatron . Muriel is killed in the process .
= = = Stolen Grace = = =
Eventually , Malachi leaves Castiel with the angel Theo who tells Castiel he wants to defect to Metatron 's side . Castiel tricks Theo into releasing him and steals his Grace , transforming Castiel into an angel once more and at least restoring his powers . Castiel calls Dean and tells him that while he was held captive by Malachi he learned that the angel Ezekiel is dead and so the angel possessing Sam must be an impostor .
After being contacted by Dean , Castiel , now wearing a new suit and trenchcoat and driving a stolen car as he can no longer teleport , returns to the bunker where he comes up with the plan to have Crowley help expel Gadreel from Sam . Castiel knocks Gadreel out and comforts Dean when the torture they have Crowley perform to bring forth Sam 's mind proves too much for Dean . Castiel is furious to learn that it is Gadreel , blaming him for all the evil in the universe , but Dean calms him down . When Gadreel proves resistant to their efforts to expel him , Dean tries to have Castiel possess Sam to let him know of the situation but he can 't without Sam 's permission . Crowley agrees to do it instead in exchange for his freedom and though Castiel is reluctant , he removes Sam 's anti @-@ possession tattoo . The plan works and Sam expels Gadreel . After leaving Crowley to deal with Abaddon , Castiel heals Sam 's injuries from the torture and informs him he can finish his healing from the Trials over time as Gadreel did most of the job . He remains behind with Sam as Dean leaves on his own .
= = = Facing Metatron = = =
With his angelic powers partially restored , Castiel sets out to try and stop the angelic civil war . Having killed Bartholomew in self @-@ defence , Castiel takes command of most of the Earth @-@ bound angels , but finds himself opposed by Metatron , who is rallying angels to his side with the intention of painting Castiel as the villain of the piece . Although Castiel learns that his stolen grace will kill him eventually , he refuses Metatron 's offer to side with him , eventually convincing Gadreel to ally with him in opposing Metatron 's attempt to stage a coup of Heaven even as Metatron tricks the other angels into follow him by presenting Castiel as a despot willing to destroy everything to win the war , convincing angels to ' suicide bomb ' themselves and claim that Castiel told them to do it . Having gained access to Heaven 's ' back door ' after Gadreel sacrifices himself , Castiel defeats Metatron and throws him into Heaven 's prison .
= = = Lack of Grace = = =
Despite his defeat of Metatron and access to Heaven having been restored , Castiel continues to face challenges on a personal and large scale , as some angels prefer to remain on Earth and his stolen Grace continues to consume him . Although Metatron has hinted that he may be able to
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help Castiel with a remaining fragment of his original Grace , Castiel has rejected the option of making a deal with Metatron to save his own life . Sam and Dean remain ignorant of Castiel 's fate , although Crowley is aware of Castiel 's condition , at one point killing another angel to transfer her Grace to Castiel so that Castiel could help Sam cure the now @-@ demonic Dean after he was transformed by the Mark of Cain .
When Hannah decides to return to Heaven to give her vessel a chance at returning to her life , Castiel is prompted to look up Jimmy 's daughter Claire , revealing that Jimmy has been ' dead ' and in Heaven ever since Jimmy 's body was destroyed during his first confrontation with Raphael . Although Claire initially resents Castiel 's return to her life , she comes to accept him and the Winchesters after they save her from being sold as a prostitute by a man she believed had been helping her .
= = = Grace restored = = =
Seeking to help Dean find a cure for the Mark of Cain , Castiel breaks Metatron out of Heaven and removes his Grace so that the Winchesters can interrogate him . Although he fails to provide any new information , Metatron is able to lead Castiel to the library where he hid the remaining fragments of Castiel 's Grace . With his powers restored , Castiel helps Claire find her long @-@ lost mother , but although Amelia sacrifices herself to save Claire , Claire accepts that the Winchesters and Castiel meant well , even speculating that she will become a Hunter herself . When Rowena – Crowley 's long @-@ lost mother – casts a spell to remove the Mark , she also casts a spell that causes Castiel to attack Crowley while she escapes , leaving Castiel driven by a greater rage to the point that he kills two angels until Rowena is forced to cure him .
= = = Lucifer 's Vessel = = =
Faced with the threat of the Darkness- revealed over the course of the series to be God 's ' sister ' , sacrificed to create the world- Castiel agrees to act as Lucifer 's vessel when Lucifer claims to be the only one with the power to defeat the Darkness , since God is absent and all other archangels are dead or insane . After killing Rowena , apparently the only person capable of re @-@ opening the Cage , Lucifer spends some time re @-@ establishing his power base in Hell while acting as Castiel to interact with the Winchesters and follow their research into Amara , but his true identity is revealed after the Winchesters attempt to travel back in time to recover a Hand of God from a submarine before it sank in 1943 . Castiel is able to regain control long enough to explain the situation to Sam and stop himself killing his friend , Dean subsequently banishing Lucifer and vowing to find a way to free Castiel from his control . Crowley , forced to act as Lucifer 's slave , is forced on the run after he fails to kill Lucifer with another salvaged Hand of God . The Winchesters manage to get through to Castiel when preparing for a new confrontation with Amara , but Castiel resolves to remain as Lucifer 's Vessel until her defeat , only for the Hand of God to fail against Amara 's power . With Castiel / Lucifer now Amara 's prisoner , she decides to torture an archangel to try and lure God out , leaving the Winchesters to speculate that Lucifer couldn 't use the Hand of God due to the fact that he is a fallen archangel .
= = Characterization = =
Castiel typically displays very little emotion and always exhibits an extremely somber disposition . Although it has been suggested angels possibly do not possess the ability to truly feel emotion , Castiel frequently exhibits affection towards Dean . This attachment and growing ability to feel even causes him to be " demoted " , as his superiors fear emotions are clouding his judgment . Throughout his appearances in the fourth season , he also seems to , at the very least , come close to expressing regret , hesitance , and anger several times , and has once quietly laughed at a joke Dean made in " It 's the Great Pumpkin , Sam Winchester " . Actor Misha Collins feels , through Dean , " [ Castiel is ] learning a little bit about humanity and re @-@ learning something about [ his ] own humanity from that exposure . So ... there ’ s a humanizing of Castiel going on . " Castiel begins having an internal struggle between what is right and what is wrong , and whether or not to obey orders from Heaven . Collins feels this is because interactions with Sam and Dean have made the angel " uncertain " and " more fragile " . Collins believes Castiel envies Dean 's decisiveness and desires to emulate him . Having lost his connection to Heaven in the fifth season , Castiel 's humanization seems to have quickened by the episode " Free to Be You and Me " , as he appears extremely anxious while in a whorehouse , is visibly distraught when asking Dean for help , and refers to the Archangel Raphael as " my little bitch " . Despite becoming very arrogant when he becomes the " new God , " Castiel still shows his caring side and ultimately returns the souls to Purgatory and shows remorse for his actions , promising to Dean to find a way to redeem himself in Dean 's eyes , showing that he cares about how Dean views him . After losing his memory , Castiel is more human than ever , but still displays some of his emotionless side . After his memory returns , he shows real regret when he can 't undo the damage he did to Sam and essentially sacrifices himself to save him out of remorse for his actions . After Castiel wakes up from his catatonic state , he is now depicted as insane with tendencies to ramble about random topics . However , parts of Castiel 's original personality are still shown with him still being happy to help Sam and Dean out and still knowledgeable about various supernatural things , but not willing to actually fight anymore even when his life is threatened . Castiel describes himself as " bad luck " and doesn 't believe he should be around the Winchesters as a result . After traveling to Purgatory , Castiel regained his sanity , but still carries a lot of guilt about his previous actions . He is also now less distant from Sam and Dean and more appreciative of human things such as television .
Contrary to depictions of angels in popular culture , Castiel and his peers are not out helping people in need . Contrary to his angel siblings he has a conscience and cares about humanity 's welfare — he finds humans to be " works of art " . Speaking of his character , actor Misha Collins stated , " I think that these angels are at least loosely derived from some Biblical angel stories , and those angels are [ very tough ] . They just destroy . I picked up Revelations , and they destroy , they destroy , they destroy . There ’ s no mention of cherubs and harps or any of that . "
= = Development = =
The character was created for the fourth season to introduce Christian mythology to the series . With series creator Eric Kripke wanting to keep the introduction of an angel a secret , the character was described as a demon during auditions . Once Collins got the part , the main direction Kripke gave him of the character was there is " an otherworldly quality to the character , and that he hasn 't been up close with human beings . He 's been watching human beings from a great distance for the last two thousand years , so angels haven 't been on Earth mingling with human beings for the last two thousand years . So when [ he is ] interacting with human beings , there 's a naive curiosity about their behavior . It 's as if [ he is ] inspecting some sort of alien beings . " As well , director Kim Manners wanted to see a " piousness " to Castiel . Kripke based Castiel 's appearance on the comic book character John Constantine .
To prepare for the role , Collins read the Book of Revelation . As well , Collins has said he somewhat based his character around his younger brother , who has something " angelic about him " , as he " has this way of , very calmly , just staring into someone 's eyes " making one feel " like he can get into your soul . " To avoid the biblically toned dialogue from sounding too " campy " , Collins does his best to " play it as real as possible " . Because Castiel 's true voice shattered windows in his premiere episode , Collins decided to use a " gruff , resonant voice " for the character . However , when portraying the angel 's host Jimmy Novak , he tried to create a distinction between the two characters , providing different physical and personality traits , as well as using a " more boyish kind of sound " for Jimmy 's voice .
Speaking of the fifth season and Castiel 's more frequent interactions with humans , Collins commented , " Obviously the big joke is that he doesn 't understand human beings and how they behave . And there is something inherently funny in that , especially if he 's the straight man . " The actor noted he was a little hesitant at making the character into " the funny guy " , and was apprehensive about some moments in the early episodes of the season . However , he believes the writers have found " the line " , allowing for the jokes to be " more subtle " and " a little more believable " .
= = Reception = =
Critical response to the character has been extremely favorable . Castiel ranked ninth on TV.com 's top ten list of best new supporting characters of 2008 . The staff and voters of TelevisionWithoutPity both agreed Castiel was the 2008 – 2009 Most Welcome New Character on television , and BuddyTV 's John Kubicek listed him as one of the ten " TV Characters Who Deserve Their Own Spin @-@ Offs " . TV Squad ranked him as the top reason to watch the series , noting the " slightly awkward , frighteningly precise angel ... has done an amazing job of selling the underlying menace and vengefulness of God 's most heavenly creatures . "
Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune described the concept of Castiel as " genius " and the actor Collins as " fabulous " . Deeming Castiel to be a " fascinating new element " , Diana Steenbergen of IGN ranked Castiel fourth in her list of the " Ten Things We Love About Supernatural " . She posited that Collins plays the role with " somber intensity " , and " brings a sense of curiosity about humans to the character " . The angel 's interactions with Dean were " one of the highlights of the [ fourth ] season " . She especially praised Collins for his dual role as Castiel and the angel 's host Jimmy Novak in the episode " The Rapture " , and wrote , " It is a tribute to Collins 's acting that the audience knows immediately that the person we are seeing is not Castiel . "
Fan response to the character has also been positive . Collins believed that the character would end up being just another role for him , and never expected such a reaction from the fans . According to him , " The enthusiasm that I 've been met with is something new and not something I 'm really prepared for . " The character was originally intended for only a six @-@ episode story arc , but his role was rewritten to continue throughout the rest of the season . Upon Supernatural 's renewal for a fifth season , Collins was promoted to a series regular , something he believes to be mainly due to fan support .
= 2002 – 03 South Pacific cyclone season =
The 2002 – 03 South Pacific cyclone season was the most active and longest tropical cyclone season since 1997 – 98 , with ten tropical cyclones occurring within the South Pacific basin between 160 ° E and 120 ° W. The season started earlier than normal , with two systems developing before the official start of the season on November 1 , 2002 , while the final system dissipated on June 9 , 2003 , after the season had officially ended on April 30 . During the season , tropical cyclones were officially monitored by the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre ( RSMC ) in Nadi , Fiji and the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres in Brisbane , Australia and Wellington , New Zealand . The United States Armed Forces through the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , also monitored the basin and issued unofficial warnings for American interests . RSMC Nadi attaches a number and an F suffix to tropical disturbances that occur within the basin , while the JTWC designates significant tropical cyclones with a number and a P suffix . RSMC Nadi , TCWC Wellington and TCWC Brisbane all use the Australian Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale and estimate windspeeds over a ten @-@ minute period , while the JTWC estimates sustained winds over a one @-@ minute period , which are subsequently compared to the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale ( SSHS ) .
The season began with Tropical Depression 17F on July 3 , several months prior to the official start of the season . In late December , the strongest cyclone of the season , Cyclone Zoe severely affected many islands in the South Pacific , particularly the island of Tikopia . Zoe remains the strongest cyclone recorded in the Southern Hemisphere . Shortly after , in mid @-@ January , Cyclone Ami struck Fiji as a Category 3 cyclone , where it caused US $ 51 @.@ 2 million in damage . Cyclone Erica caused considerable damage to New Caledonia as a Category 4 cyclone , causing numerous power outages . The final storm of the season , Cyclone Gina , formed well outside the bounds of the conventional tropical cyclone season , existing entirely in the month of June and causing some damage to Tikopia . As a result of tropical cyclones in the 2002 – 03 season , US $ 67 @.@ 2 million in damages was caused , along with 20 fatalities .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
During November 2002 , New Zealand 's National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research predicted that there would be an eastwards shift in activity during the season , with more tropical cyclones than normal expected to the east of the date line , due to well established weak to moderate El Niño conditions . As a result , the island nations of Wallis and Futuna , Niue , Samoa , Tokelau , and the Southern Cook Islands were predicted to experience a higher than average number of tropical cyclones . The Solomon Islands , Fiji , Tuvalu , Tonga , French Polynesia , New Zealand and the Northern Cook Islands were predicted to experience an average number of tropical cyclones , while Southern Papua New Guinea , Vanuatu and New Caledonia were predicted to experience a reduced number of tropical cyclones . In January 2003 , NIWA issued an updated outlook , listing the Northern Cook Islands and French Polynesia as areas predicted to experience an above average number of tropical cyclones . In contrast , Vanuatu was predicted to experience below average cyclone activity . The Solomon Islands and Tonga were now predicted to experience a reduced number of tropical cyclones , with all other countries expected to face the same risk as the November outlook .
= = Seasonal summary = =
After three seasons of below average cyclone activity , the 2002 – 03 season was slightly above average , featuring ten cyclones and seven severe tropical cyclones . One of the cyclones , Cyclone Erica , originated from the Australian region but later moved into the South Pacific , where it impacted New Caledonia . Throughout the season , a moderately warm El Niño – Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) generated a shift of cyclone activity away from Australia and towards the open waters of the southern Atlantic . As a result , the Southern Oscillation Index ( SOI ) between November 2002 and June 2003 was negative , averaging -7.2 . Sea surface temperatures ( SSTs ) in the Pacific were above average ; for most of the tropical regions , SSTs were above 29 ° C ( 84 ° C ) . At various times , Madden – Julian oscillation ( MJO ) pulses increased convective activity and thus cyclone development in the basin . Five pulses of the MJO and Equatorial Rossby waves ( ER ) were responsible for most of the cyclone activity during the season . Cyclone Zoe , the strongest cyclone of the season , was the only cyclone with no connection to any identified MJO or ER wave . By April , an easterly trade wind anomaly took place , signifying the end of the El Niño pattern that had persisted for much of the year .
Over the course of the season , cyclones were active for a total of 40 days , and severe tropical cyclones were active for a total of 19 days , both above average . A total of five tropical disturbances formed during 2002 , of which two were cyclones . The first disturbance of the season , Tropical Depression 17F , along with another depression , 01F , formed well before the start of the cyclone season on July 3 and October 21 respectively . Cyclone Yolande was the first cyclone of the season , forming on November 29 , but did not impact any land masses . In December , two disturbances formed , Tropical Depression 03F and Cyclone Zoe . The latter was the season 's strongest cyclone and the strongest cyclone ever recorded in the Southern Hemisphere , affecting areas of the Solomon Islands .
In the first half of 2003 , thirteen disturbances formed , of which eight developed into tropical cyclones ; six intensified further and became severe tropical cyclones . January 2003 featured four disturbances and three cyclones . Cyclones Ami and Beni were both severe tropical cyclones , with the first extensively impacting Fiji . The month of February was less active compared to January ; only two disturbances formed , Cyclone Dovi and Tropical Disturbance 10F , although Dovi would become a Category 5 cyclone on the Australian cyclone scale . March was slightly more active than February ; the month featured three tropical depressions and two severe tropical cyclones , Cyclone Erica and Cyclone Eseta , although Erica originally formed west of 160 ° E. After an easterly wind anomaly arose in April , cyclone activity was suppressed during the month , totalling three tropical disturbances and one cyclone . In June , Cyclone Gina formed as a result of a strong ER wave and later became a severe tropical cyclone , well after the end of the season . Its dissipation on June 9 marked the end of the cyclone season .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Cyclone Yolande = = =
Cyclone Yolande developed on November 29 from a broad area of thunderstorms embedded within a monsoonal trough , originating from a westerly wind burst associated with El Niño conditions ; the same area of disturbed weather would later generate Typhoon Pongsona on December 2 . At the time , the tropical depression was moving towards the southeast , but strong wind shear displaced the cyclone 's strongest winds and convection northeast of its circulation center . Convective activity fluctuated under strong diurnal temperature variation . After moving into an area of less wind shear , the system was able to organize and develop good outflow currents . This was reflected with a slight drop in minimum barometric pressure down to 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . As a result , at 2255 UTC on December 4 , the depression attained cyclone status and was given the name Yolande , east of Tonga . After being named , Cyclone Yolande began to accelerate into an area of strong wind shear , and convection became increasingly displaced from the center of circulation . By 1200 UTC on December 5 , the convection was already sheared 160 km ( 100 mi ) from the northwest of the circulation center , and as such the cyclone was downgraded to depression status . By this time , Yolande had completed a transition into an extratropical cyclone , after interacting with a baroclinic zone to the southwest . Yolande 's extratropical remnants continued to track towards the southeast before dissipating entirely on December 11 , 2700 km ( 1700 mi ) to the southeast of Papeete , French Polynesia . As a result of remaining at sea , Yolande only caused minimal damage .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Zoe = = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Zoe was the most intense tropical cyclone in the Southern Hemisphere in recorded history , severely affecting areas of the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu . Cyclone Zoe developed from the South Pacific Convergence Zone ( SPCZ ) on January 23 , east of Tuvalu . Initially developing slowly as a tropical depression , the predecessor to Zoe moved toward the west @-@ southwest under the influence of a high pressure area . However , the storm entered an area of very favorable cyclone conditions . After reaching cyclone strength on December 25 , rapid intensification ensued . By the next day , Zoe had already strengthened to a severe tropical cyclone . On December 27 , Zoe attained wind speeds equivalent to Category 5 status on both the Australian and Saffir – Simpson hurricane scales . An upper – level trough of low pressure forced Zoe towards the southwest , moving into the vicinity of the Solomon Islands . The next day , Zoe intensified to a record low barometric pressure of 890 mbar ( 26 @.@ 28 inHg ) , with winds of 290 km / h ( 180 mph ) . However , conditions would deteriorate , and the cyclone would consequently weaken . By January 1 , the storm had already degenerated into an extratropical cyclone , and its remnants dissipated just three days later .
Cyclone Zoe severely impacted the islands of the Solomon island chain , particularly the islands of Tikopia and Anuta . In Anuta , agricultural activities were disrupted . Various fruit trees and crops , especially in gardens on the island 's hills , were destroyed by high winds and heavy rain . In addition , communications with other islands were disrupted . The impact on Tikopia was much greater ; agricultural productivity on the island was said to have been wiped out . Fruit trees were estimated only to begin producing fruit again at least two years after Zoe 's impact . Topsoil was left dry by the cyclone , preventing any immediate replacement of lost crops .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Ami = = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Ami was one of the worst cyclones ever to affect Fiji . Cyclone Ami developed from a low @-@ pressure area east of Tuvalu on January 12 . The storm moved slowly towards the southwest early in its existence . Influenced by an upper @-@ level trough , Ami slowed down and began moving towards the south and then southeast . The cyclone attained severe tropical cyclone intensity on January 13 . Ami made its first landfall at Vanua Levu , before subsequently making another landfall on Taveuni . Ami reached peak intensity as an equivalent Category 3 cyclone on the Australian cyclone scale on January 14 . Accelerating to the southeast , the cyclone began to cross over cool sea surface temperatures and encountered wind shear . Ami transitioned into an extratropical cyclone the day after .
Cyclone Ami severely impacted parts of Fiji , mainly through flooding . Numerous landslides and power outages were caused by the heavy rains . The damage was particularly severe in Labasa , where the entire city was inundated . Sugar cane production decreased by 15 % , and other crops also suffered heavily . In Tonga , damage was not as severe , but two ships were grounded . Ami caused F $ 104 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 51 @.@ 2 million ) in damages and 14 deaths , primarily on Fiji . Following the deaths and damage , the name " Ami " was later retired .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Beni = = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Beni was an intense tropical cyclone that affected areas of the southern Pacific Ocean , particularly in New Caledonia . It developed from a tropical disturbance on January 20 south of the Solomon Islands , and at first moved slowly towards the west . On January 25 , the disturbance gained enough strength and organization to be named Beni . It quickly made a clockwise loop , maintaining its intensity , and later headed south . After fluctuating in intensity , Beni entered more conducive conditions and began to strengthen , this time heading southeast . Traveling between Vanuatu and New Caledonia , Beni reached its peak intensity as a Category 5 tropical cyclone on January 29 , the highest rating on the Australian cyclone scale , with winds of 235 km / h ( 146 mph ) . It only maintained this intensity for a short time before an increase in wind shear and less favorable conditions induced its weakening . After nearing Vanuatu , a strengthening ridge forced Beni towards the southwest , away from Vanuatu . The cyclone made its closest approach to the island of New Caledonia on January 30 , but only as a marginal Category 1 cyclone . Continuing to weaken under strong wind shear , Beni was downgraded to a tropical depression the same day . After crossing New Caledonia , Beni exited the South Pacific basin and entered the Australian region .
During Beni 's existence , parts of the Solomon Islands , Vanuatu , and Queensland were affected by the storm . The cyclone caused flooding and a food shortage in the Solomon Islands . An estimated 2 @,@ 000 people were evacuated as a result . Rough seas and storm surge , as well as strong gusts , were the primary effects of Beni on Vanuatu and New Caledonia . New Caledonia was hit by power outages , and Vanuatu mainly suffered beach erosion .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Cilla = = =
Cyclone Cilla affected several islands in the South Pacific . The cyclone developed from a monsoon trough on January 26 northwest of Fiji , and initially moved to the east in conditions unfavourable for cyclones . After wind shear lessened , Cilla reached its peak intensity on January 28 , attaining maximum winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) sustained over 10 minutes . After slightly weakening , Cilla was able to intensify again to match this intensity on January 29 . Strong vertical wind shear conditions then returned , and Cilla transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
Cilla dropped heavy rainfall over islands along its path . As a depression the storm dropped rain over Fiji , which had already been effected by Cyclone Ami just two weeks earlier . Damage in Tonga was mostly limited to vegetation and fruit trees ; damage to infrastructure was relatively minor . Rain also fell on American Samoa , although no damage was reported . After the season , the name " Cilla " was retired .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Dovi = = =
Cyclone Dovi developed on February 5 from an area of circulation within the SPCZ near the northern Cook Islands . Dovi therefore saw
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seemingly random patterns , interacting with their environment . Upon the engine 's first release , it rivaled competing engines such as LucasArts ' SCUMM engine , and Sierra 's Creative Interpreter , due to its then high level of artificial intelligence .
Another advantage of the engine is that it is a cross @-@ platform engine . It was also faster on the Amiga than the C code that was used by many USA programmers at that time . Compared to the Sierra titles , the engine became in this respect more sophisticated , a reason why Revolution did the conversion of King 's Quest VI to the Amiga .
All of the in @-@ game objects ( including non @-@ player characters ) in Virtual Theatre occupied space , which was a unique feature for an engine at the time . Consequently , non @-@ player characters had to side @-@ step the player 's protogonist and any other object they came across , as well as the player had to side step them . When a non @-@ player character bypassed the protagonist , he or she uttered a comment ( like " Excuse me , Sir " ) . As the result , the engine achieved a more realistic game world than previous engines were able to provide , though non @-@ player characters could unwittingly block a path as the player was traversing the game scene . This was remedied with the release of Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars , where the protagonist , if found his way blocked by another character , could simply walk through him .
Two games ( Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars and Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror ) that use a Virtual Theatre variant engine can now be played on modern hardware using ScummVM . Consequently , those games using the engine may run on the platforms the titles were not officially released on .
= Greg Young =
Gregory James " Greg " Young ( born 25 April 1983 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a defender for Northern Premier League Premier Division club Buxton .
Young started his career with the Sheffield Wednesday youth system and after being released in 2002 he joined Grimsby Town of the First Division . He made his first team debut on the last day of the 2002 – 03 season with the team having already been relegated and he suffered a second relegation the following season , during which he made 19 appearances . During the 2004 – 05 season he spent two periods on loan at Conference National team Northwich Victoria before joining Halifax Town in 2005 .
He made 35 appearances for Halifax during the 2005 – 06 season and started in the 2006 Conference National play @-@ off Final at the Walkers Stadium , which was lost to Hereford United . Following loans with former club Northwich and Conference North team Alfreton Town he joined Altrincham in early 2008 . He played for Altrincham as a semi @-@ professional and after making over 100 appearances in two and a half seasons he joined York City in 2010 . After a season at the club he returned to Alfreton .
= = Career = =
= = = Grimsby Town = = =
Born in Doncaster , South Yorkshire , Young started his career with the Sheffield Wednesday youth system , where he also played in the reserve team . He was released at the end of the 2001 – 02 season , and was signed by fellow First Division team Grimsby Town in July 2002 following a trial , initially playing in the reserves . He eventually made his first team debut by starting in a 2 – 1 defeat to Reading on 26 April 2003 , the last day of the 2002 – 03 season , with Grimsby having already been relegated to the Second Division . He signed a new contract with Grimsby on 3 June 2003 , with manager Paul Groves saying " Greg has improved since he arrived at the club . He did well on his debut at Reading , but it did show that there is a big step up from the reserves for him to make . "
His first appearance of the 2003 – 04 season came as a half @-@ time substitute in a 1 – 0 victory at Blackpool on 30 September 2003 . The season saw him initially used as a stand @-@ in left back as cover for injuries , but after the arrival of Nicky Law as manager , he became a regular starter as a central defender . Young was described as the " stand @-@ out performer " in a 4 – 4 draw at Chesterfield on 27 March 2004 , despite suffering a dislocated shoulder during the match . He made a " brave " return in the final game of the season on 8 May 2004 , a 2 – 1 defeat at Tranmere Rovers , which condemned Grimsby to relegation to League Two . He finished the season with 19 appearances for Grimsby and he signed a new two @-@ year contract with the club in June 2004 .
He was still suffering from the shoulder injury in June and under new manager Russell Slade Young endured a frustrating spell . A cold Young was suffering from in August required treatment from physio Dave Moore as it put him out of action . He joined Conference National team Northwich Victoria on a one @-@ month loan on 7 October 2004 , after having made five appearances for Grimsby up to that point during the 2004 – 05 season . He made his debut two days later in a 0 – 0 draw with Crawley Town and in his third game scored in a 3 – 1 victory over Forest Green Rovers . He was recalled by Grimsby later that month due to injuries after making three appearances for Northwich . He rejoined Northwich on another one @-@ month loan on 3 December 2004 , with injury restricting him to three appearances before returning to Grimsby on 6 January 2005 .
= = = Halifax Town = = =
Young moved to Conference National team Halifax Town on a free transfer on 25 February 2005 after signing a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract . He made his debut as a 57th @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 2 draw with former club Northwich the following day . His first goal for the club came on his sixth appearance against Tamworth after heading in a Martin Foster corner kick , with the game ending in a 3 – 3 draw . He finished the season with 13 appearances and two goals for Halifax . Young suffered an injury in August 2005 and he made his return in a 4 – 0 victory over Tamworth on 10 September 2005 . His only goal of the 2005 – 06 season came after he headed in from a Matt Doughty corner for the opening goal in a 1 – 1 draw with Stevenage Borough on 14 April 2006 . He played in both legs of Halifax 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final victory over Grays Athletic , which the team won 5 – 4 on aggregate . He started in the 2006 Conference National play @-@ off Final at the Walkers Stadium on 20 May , being substituted on 61 minutes , which was lost 3 – 2 to Hereford United after extra time . He finished the season with 35 appearances and one goal .
He was affected by a shoulder injury towards the end of the season and he had a successful operation on this in May 2006 . After recovering from this operation he made his return in a 2 – 1 victory at Cambridge United on 29 August 2006 . He joined Northwich for the third time after signing a one @-@ month loan in November 2006 , after having made eight appearances for Halifax up to that point during the 2006 – 07 season . He made three appearances for Northwich before being recalled by Halifax on 18 December 2006 . He made three appearances after returning and his season was ended due to a knee injury sustained on 1 January 2007 in a 1 – 1 draw with Altrincham , after having made 11 appearances for Halifax that season .
He joined Conference North team Alfreton Town on a one @-@ month loan in August 2007 , making his debut and return from injury in a 2 – 1 defeat to Southport on 18 August . He made six appearances before returning to Halifax on 18 September 2007 . He made an immediate return to the team after coming on as a substitute on 88 minutes in a 1 – 1 draw with Rushden & Diamonds on 22 September 2007 .
= = = Altrincham = = =
Young was released by Halifax while they were enduring financial difficulties and he signed for Altrincham as a semi @-@ professional on a contract until the end of the 2007 – 08 season shortly afterwards on 4 January 2008 . He made his debut a day later as a 60th @-@ minute substitute in a 4 – 0 defeat to Oxford United and his full debut came after starting in a 2 – 1 victory over Kidderminster Harriers . His only goal of the season came from the edge of the box in a 2 – 1 defeat at Burton Albion on 8 April 2008 . He finished the season with 22 appearances and one goal for Altrincham and he signed a new two @-@ year contract in the summer of 2008 .
Young featured for Altrincham in their FA Cup first round game and first round replay against League Two team Luton Town , with the latter being lost 4 – 2 in a penalty shoot @-@ out . His first goal of the 2008 – 09 season came after he scored from close range in a 1 – 0 victory over Northwich Victoria on 26 December 2008 . His second goal of the season was the winner in a 1 – 0 victory at Wrexham on 13 April 2009 , a result that ensured Altrincham would not finish the season in the relegation zone . He finished the season with 51 appearances and two goals .
He contracted mumps in September 2009 and made his return to action against Rushden on 3 October . Young 's first goal of the 2009 – 10 season came with the winner in a 1 – 0 victory over Wrexham in an FA Trophy first round replay . His first league goal of the season came after scoring the winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory at Ebbsfleet United after heading in a Doughty corner on 16 January 2010 . Young 's fourth goal of the season came against Wrexham came after he scored an 82nd @-@ minute equaliser on 9 March 2010 . He scored the winning goal in a 3 – 2 victory over Kidderminster after shooting from 12 yards on 3 April 2010 . He finished the season with 44 appearances and six goals .
= = = York City = = =
Young joined fellow Conference Premier team York City on a one @-@ year contract on 24 May 2010 and so returned to playing full @-@ time . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 defeat at Fleetwood Town on 30 August 2010 and he scored York 's only goal in the 87th minute with a header from an Alex Lawless cross . After initially being used as an outfield substitute Young played in goal for the second half of York 's 5 – 0 defeat at Luton Town on 18 January 2011 , conceding one goal , after Michael Ingham was sent off in the 15th minute .
Young returned to former club Altrincham on an emergency loan until the end of the 2010 – 11 season on 7 February 2011 . His first appearance after returning to the club came in a 2 – 1 defeat at Kidderminster on 12 February 2011 . After making 11 appearances and scoring one goal for Altrincham , Young returned to York after being recalled on 20 April 2011 due to an injury to Danny Parslow . He did not play following his return and finished the season with 12 appearances and one goal for York .
= = = Alfreton Town = = =
Young signed a two @-@ year contract with former club Alfreton Town , who had recently been promoted to the Conference Premier , on 1 June 2011 . He finished the 2011 – 12 season with 35 appearances for Alfreton .
= = = Gainsborough Trinity = = =
On 14 June 2012 , Young signed for Conference North side Gainsborough Trinity and made his debut in their 2012 – 13 opening day 1 – 0 defeat at home to Gloucester City on 18 August .
= = = Buxton = = =
Young signed with Buxton of the Northern Premier League Premier Division in July 2014 . He made 47 appearances and scored six goals as Buxton finished tenth in the table in the 2014 – 15 season .
= = Style of play = =
Young primarily plays as a left @-@ footed centre @-@ back and is also able to play at left @-@ back . While at Altrincham , he was also deployed as an auxiliary striker . While being a " classy centre @-@ half " , he is an " aggressive player who likes to win the ball " and his play has been described as " shackling " . On his goalscoring record , Young said " It ’ s something I have worked on in my own game during the last couple of years . I made a point of improving my scoring record and I ’ ve done that slightly " in 2010 .
= = Personal life = =
Young studied for a degree in sport and exercise science at university while playing part @-@ time for Altrincham .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 26 April 2014 .
= Climate =
Climate is the statistics ( usually , mean or variability ) of weather , usually over a 30 @-@ year interval . It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , precipitation , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time . Climate differs from weather , in that weather only describes the short @-@ term conditions of these variables in a given region .
A region 's climate is generated by the climate system , which has five components : atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere .
The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , terrain , and altitude , as well as nearby water bodies and their currents . Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables , most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used classification scheme was Köppen climate classification originally developed by Wladimir Köppen . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948 , incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and the potential effects on it of climate changes . The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region .
Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates . Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century , paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non @-@ biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores , and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral . Climate models are mathematical models of past , present and future climates . Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors ; recent warming is discussed in global warming .
= = Definition = =
Climate ( from Ancient Greek klima , meaning inclination ) is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period . The standard averaging period is 30 years , but other periods may be used depending on the purpose . Climate also includes statistics other than the average , such as the magnitudes of day @-@ to @-@ day or year @-@ to @-@ year variations . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) 2001 glossary definition is as follows :
Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the " average weather , " or more rigorously , as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions of years . The classical period is 30 years , as defined by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) . These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature , precipitation , and wind . Climate in a wider sense is the state , including a statistical description , of the climate system .
The World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) describes climate " normals " as " reference points used by climatologists to compare current climatological trends to that of the past or what is considered ' normal ' . A Normal is defined as the arithmetic average of a climate element ( e.g. temperature ) over a 30 @-@ year period . A 30 year period is used , as it is long enough to filter out any interannual variation or anomalies , but also short enough to be able to show longer climatic trends . " The WMO originated from the International Meteorological Organization which set up a technical commission for climatology in 1929 . At its 1934 Wiesbaden meeting the technical commission designated the thirty @-@ year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference time frame for climatological standard normals . In 1982 the WMO agreed to update climate normals , and in these were subsequently completed on the basis of climate data from 1 January 1961 to 31 December 1990 .
The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase " Climate is what you expect , weather is what you get . " Over historical time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate , including latitude , altitude , proportion of land to water , and proximity to oceans and mountains . These change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics . Other climate determinants are more dynamic : the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) warming of the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins . Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale . The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption , water retention , and rainfall on a regional level . Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet , leading to global warming or global cooling . The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex , but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood , at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned .
= = Climate classification = =
There are several ways to classify climates into similar regimes . Originally , climes were defined in Ancient Greece to describe the weather depending upon a location 's latitude . Modern climate classification methods can be broadly divided into genetic methods , which focus on the causes of climate , and empiric methods , which focus on the effects of climate . Examples of genetic classification include methods based on the relative frequency of different air mass types or locations within synoptic weather disturbances . Examples of empiric classifications include climate zones defined by plant hardiness , evapotranspiration , or more generally the Köppen climate classification which was originally designed to identify the climates associated with certain biomes . A common shortcoming of these classification schemes is that they produce distinct boundaries between the zones they define , rather than the gradual transition of climate properties more common in nature .
= = = Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic = = =
The simplest classification is that involving air masses . The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form of air mass classification . Air mass classification involves three letters . The first letter describes its moisture properties , with c used for continental air masses ( dry ) and m for maritime air masses ( moist ) . The second letter describes the thermal characteristic of its source region : T for tropical , P for polar , A for Arctic or Antarctic , M for monsoon , E for equatorial , and S for superior air ( dry air formed by significant downward motion in the atmosphere ) . The third letter is used to designate the stability of the atmosphere . If the air mass is colder than the ground below it , it is labeled k . If the air mass is warmer than the ground below it , it is labeled w . While air mass identification was originally used in weather forecasting during the 1950s , climatologists began to establish synoptic climatologies based on this idea in 1973 .
Based upon the Bergeron classification scheme is the Spatial Synoptic Classification system ( SSC ) . There are six categories within the SSC scheme : Dry Polar ( similar to continental polar ) , Dry Moderate ( similar to maritime superior ) , Dry Tropical ( similar to continental tropical ) , Moist Polar ( similar to maritime polar ) , Moist Moderate ( a hybrid between maritime polar and maritime tropical ) , and Moist Tropical ( similar to maritime tropical , maritime monsoon , or maritime equatorial ) .
= = = Köppen = = =
The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. These primary types are A , tropical ; B , dry ; C , mild mid @-@ latitude ; D , cold mid @-@ latitude ; and E , polar . The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as rain forest , monsoon , tropical savanna , humid subtropical , humid continental , oceanic climate , Mediterranean climate , steppe , subarctic climate , tundra , polar ice cap , and desert .
Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall , with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1 @,@ 750 millimetres ( 69 in ) and 2 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 79 in ) . Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) during all months of the year .
A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind which lasts for several months , ushering in a region 's rainy season . Regions within North America , South America , Sub @-@ Saharan Africa , Australia and East Asia are monsoon regimes .
A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semiarid to semi @-@ humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes , with average temperatures remain at or above 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) year round and rainfall between 750 millimetres ( 30 in ) and 1 @,@ 270 millimetres ( 50 in ) a year . They are widespread on Africa , and are found in India , the northern parts of South America , Malaysia , and Australia .
The humid subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall ( and sometimes snowfall ) is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east . Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones . Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents , roughly between latitudes 20 ° and 40 ° degrees away from the equator .
A humid continental climate is marked by variable weather patterns and a large seasonal temperature variance . Places with more than three months of average daily temperatures above 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) and a coldest month temperature below − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) and which do not meet the criteria for an arid or semiarid climate , are classified as continental .
An oceanic climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world 's continents , and in southeastern Australia , and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year round .
The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin , parts of western North America , parts of Western and South Australia , in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile . The climate is characterized by hot , dry summers and cool , wet winters .
A steppe is a dry grassland with an annual temperature range in the summer of up to 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) and during the winter down to − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) .
A subarctic climate has little precipitation , and monthly temperatures which are above 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) for one to three months of the year , with permafrost in large parts of the area due to the cold winters . Winters within subarctic climates usually include up to six months of temperatures averaging below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) .
Tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere , north of the taiga belt , including vast areas of northern Russia and Canada .
A polar ice cap , or polar ice sheet , is a high @-@ latitude region of a planet or moon that is covered in ice . Ice caps form because high @-@ latitude regions receive less energy as solar radiation from the sun than equatorial regions , resulting in lower surface temperatures .
A desert is a landscape form or region that receives very little precipitation . Deserts usually have a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range , with high or low , depending on location daytime temperatures ( in summer up to 45 ° C or 113 ° F ) , and low nighttime temperatures ( in winter down to 0 ° C or 32 ° F ) due to extremely low humidity . Many deserts are formed by rain shadows , as mountains block the path of moisture and precipitation to the desert .
= = = Thornthwaite = = =
Devised by the American climatologist and geographer C. W. Thornthwaite , this climate classification method monitors the soil water budget using evapotranspiration . It monitors the portion of total precipitation used to nourish vegetation over a certain area . It uses indices such as a humidity index and an aridity index to determine an area 's moisture regime based upon its average temperature , average rainfall , and average vegetation type . The lower the value of the index in any given area , the drier
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of the Northern Hemisphere .
Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex :
Simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy
this can be expanded vertically ( radiative @-@ convective models ) , or horizontally
finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere – ocean – sea ice global climate models discretise and solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange .
Climate forecasting is a way by some scientists are using to predict climate change . In 1997 the prediction division of the International Research Institute for Climate and Society at Columbia University began generating seasonal climate forecasts on a real @-@ time basis . To produce these forecasts an extensive suite of forecasting tools was developed , including a multimodel ensemble approach that required thorough validation of each model 's accuracy level in simulating interannual climate variability .
= Metric system =
The metric system is an internationally agreed decimal system of measurement . It was originally based on the mètre des Archives and the kilogramme des Archives introduced by the First French Republic in 1799 , but over the years the definitions of the metre and the kilogram have been refined , and the metric system has been extended to incorporate many more units . Although a number of variants of the metric system emerged in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , the term is now often used as a synonym for " SI " or the " International System of Units " — the official system of measurement in almost every country in the world .
The metric system has been officially sanctioned for use in the United States since 1866 , but the US remains the only industrialised country that has not adopted the metric system as its official system of measurement . Many sources also cite Liberia and Myanmar as the only other countries not to have done so . Although the United Kingdom uses the metric system for most administrative and trade purposes , Imperial units are widely used by the public and are permitted or obligatory for some purposes , such as road signs .
Although the originators intended to devise a system that was equally accessible to all , it proved necessary to use prototype units in the custody of national or local authorities as standards . Control of the prototype units of measure was maintained by the French government until 1875 , when it was passed to an intergovernmental organisation , the General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) .
From its beginning , the main features of the metric system were the standard set of interrelated base units and a standard set of prefixes in powers of ten . These base units are used to derive larger and smaller units that could replace a huge number of other units of measure in existence . Although the system was first developed for commercial use , the development of coherent units of measure made it particularly suitable for science and engineering .
The uncoordinated use of the metric system by different scientific and engineering disciplines , particularly in the late 19th century , resulted in different choices of base units even though all were based on the same definitions of the metre and the kilogram . During the 20th century , efforts were made to rationalise these units , and in 1960 , the CGPM published the International System of Units , which has since then been the internationally recognised standard metric system .
= = Features = =
Although the metric system has changed and developed since its inception , its basic concepts have hardly changed . Designed for transnational use , it consisted of a basic set of units of measurement , now known as base units . Derived units were built up from the base units using logical rather than empirical relationships while multiples and submultiples of both base and derived units were decimal @-@ based and identified by a standard set of prefixes .
= = = Universality = = =
At the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 , most countries and even some cities had their own system of measurement . Although different countries might have used units of measure with the same name , such as the foot , or local language equivalents such as pied , Fuß and voet , there was no consistency in the magnitude of those units , nor in the relationships with their multiples and submultiples , much like the modern @-@ day differences between the US and the UK pints and gallons .
The metric system was designed to be universal — in the words of the French philosopher Marquis de Condorcet it was to be " for all people for all time " . It was designed for ordinary people , for engineers who worked in human @-@ related measurements and for astronomers and physicists who worked with numbers both small and large , hence the huge range of the prefixes that have been defined in SI .
When the French Government first investigated the idea of overhauling their system of measurement , the concept of universality was put into practice in 1789 : Maurice de Talleyrand , acting on Condorcet 's advice , invited John Riggs Miller , a British parliamentarian and Thomas Jefferson , the American Secretary of State to George Washington , to work with the French in producing an international standard by promoting legislation in their respective legislative bodies . However , these early overtures failed and the custody of the metric system remained in the hands of the French government until 1875 .
In languages where the distinction is made , unit names are common nouns ( i.e. not proper nouns ) . They use the character set and follow the grammatical rules of the language concerned , for example " kilometre " , " kilómetro " , but each unit has a symbol that is independent of language , for example " km " for " kilometre " , " V " for " volts " etc .
= = = Decimal multiples = = =
In the metric system , multiples and submultiples of units follow a decimal pattern , a concept identified as a possibility in 1586 by Simon Stevin , the Flemish mathematician who had introduced decimal fractions into Europe . This is done at the cost of losing the simplicity associated with many traditional systems of units where division by 3 does not result in awkward fractions ; for example one third of a foot is four inches , a simplicity that in 1790 was debated , but rejected by the originators of the metric system . In 1854 , in the introduction to the proceedings of the [ British ] Decimal Association , the mathematician Augustus de Morgan summarised the advantages of a decimal @-@ based system over a non @-@ decimal system thus : " In the simple rules of arithmetic , we practice a pure decimal system , nowhere interrupted by the entrance of any other system : from column to column we never carry anything but tens " .
A common set of decimal @-@ based prefixes that have the effect of multiplication or division by an integer power of ten can be applied to units which are themselves too large or too small for practical use . The concept of using consistent classical ( Latin or Greek ) names for the prefixes was first proposed in a report by the [ French Revolutionary ] Commission on Weights and Measures in May 1793 . The prefix kilo , for example , is used to multiply the unit by 1000 , and the prefix milli is to indicate a one @-@ thousandth part of the unit . Thus the kilogram and kilometre are a thousand grams and metres respectively , and a milligram and millimetre are one thousandth of a gram and metre respectively . These relations can be written symbolically as :
1 mg
= 0 @.@ 001 g
1 km =
1000 m
In the early days , multipliers that were positive powers of ten were given Greek @-@ derived prefixes such as kilo- and mega- , and those that were negative powers of ten were given Latin @-@ derived prefixes such as centi- and milli- . However , 1935 extensions to the prefix system did not follow this convention : the prefixes nano- and micro- , for example have Greek roots . During the 19th century the prefix myria- , derived from the Greek word μύριοι ( mýrioi ) , was used as a multiplier for 10000 .
When applying prefixes to derived units of area and volume that are expressed in terms of units of length squared or cubed , the square and cube operators are applied to the unit of length including the prefix , as illustrated below .
Prefixes are not usually used to indicate multiples of a second greater than 1 ; the non @-@ SI units of minute , hour and day are used instead . On the other hand , prefixes are used for multiples of the non @-@ SI unit of volume , the litre ( l , L ) such as millilitres ( ml ) .
= = = Realisability and replicable prototypes = = =
The base units used in the metric system must be realisable , ideally with reference to natural phenomena rather than unique artefacts . Each of the base units in SI is accompanied by a mise en pratique [ practical realisation ] published by the BIPM that describes in detail at least one way in which the base unit can be measured . Where possible , definitions of the base units were developed so that any laboratory equipped with proper instruments would be able to realise a standard without reliance on an artefact held by another country . In practice , such realisation is done under the auspices of a mutual acceptance arrangement ( MAA ) .
= = = = Metre and kilogram = = = =
In the original version of the metric system the base units could be derived from a specified length ( the metre ) and the weight [ mass ] of a specified volume ( 1 ⁄ 1000 of a cubic metre ) of pure water . Initially the de facto French Government of the day , the Assemblée nationale constituante , considered defining the metre as the length of a pendulum that has a period of one second at 45 ° N and an altitude equal to sea level . The altitude and latitude were specified to accommodate variations in gravity ; the specified latitude was a compromise between the latitude of London ( 51 ° 30'N ) , Paris ( 48 ° 50'N ) and the median parallel of the United States ( 38 ° N ) to accommodate variations . However the mathematician Borda persuaded the assembly that a survey having its ends at sea level and based on a meridian that spanned at least 10 % of the earth 's quadrant would be more appropriate for such a basis .
The available technology of the 1790s made it impracticable to use these definitions as the basis of the kilogram and the metre , so prototypes that represented these quantities insofar as was practicable were manufactured . On 22 June 1799 these prototypes were adopted as the definitive reference pieces , deposited in the Archives nationales and became known as the mètre des Archives and the kilogramme des Archives . Copies were made and distributed around France . These artefacts were replaced in 1889 by the new prototypes manufactured under international supervision . Insofar as was possible , the new prototypes were exact copies of the original prototypes , but used a later technology to ensure better stability . One of each of the kilogram and metre prototypes were chosen by lot to serve as the definitive international reference piece with the remainder being distributed to signatories of the Metre Convention . In 1889 there was no generally accepted theory regarding the nature of light but by 1960 the wavelength of specific light spectra could give a more accurate and reproducible value than a prototype metre . In that year the prototype metre was replaced by a formal definition which defines the metre in terms of the wavelength of specified light spectra . By 1983 it was accepted that the speed of light in vacuum was constant and that this constant provided a more reproducible procedure for measuring length . Therefore , the metre was redefined in terms of the speed of light . These definitions give a much better reproducibility and also allow anyone , anywhere with a suitably equipped laboratory , to make a standard metre .
= = = = Other base units = = = =
None of the other base units rely on a prototype – all are based on phenomena that are directly observable and had been in use for many years before formally becoming part of the metric system .
The second first became a de facto base unit within the metric system when , in 1832 , Carl Friedrich Gauss used it , the centimetre and the gram to derive the units associated with values of absolute measurements of the Earth 's magnetic field . The second , if based on the Earth 's rotation , is not a constant as the Earth 's rotation is slowing down — in 2008 the solar day was 0 @.@ 002 s longer than in 1820 . This had been known for many years ; consequently in 1952 the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) defined the second in terms of the Earth 's rotation in the year 1900 . Measurements of time were made using extrapolation from readings based on astronomy . With the launch of SI in 1960 , the 11th CGPM adopted the IAU definition . In the years that followed , atomic clocks became significantly more reliable and precise ; and in 1968 the 13th CGPM redefined the second in terms of a specific frequency from the emission spectrum of the caesium 133 atom , a component of atomic clocks . This provided the means to measure the time associated with astronomical phenomena rather than using astronomical phenomena as the basis from which time measurements were made .
The CGS absolute unit of electric current , the abampere , had been defined in terms of the force between two parallel current @-@ carrying wires in 1881 . In the 1940s , the International Electrotechnical Commission adopted an MKS variant of this definition for the ampere which was adopted in 1948 by the CGPM .
Temperature has always been based on observable phenomena — in 1744 the degree Centigrade was based on the freezing and boiling points of water . In 1948 the CGPM adopted the Centigrade scale , renamed it the " Celsius " temperature scale name and defined it in terms of the triple point of water .
When the mole and the candela were accepted by the CGPM in 1971 and 1975 respectively , both had been defined by third parties by reference to phenomena rather than artefacts .
= = = Coherence = = =
Each variant of the metric system has a degree of coherence — the various derived units are directly related to the base units without the need for intermediate conversion factors . For example , in a coherent system the units of force , energy and power are chosen so that the equations
hold without the introduction of unit conversion factors . Once a set of coherent units have been defined , other relationships in physics that use those units will automatically be true . Therefore , Einstein 's mass @-@ energy equation , E = mc2 , does not require extraneous constants when expressed in coherent units .
The CGS system had two units of energy , the erg that was related to mechanics and the calorie that was related to thermal energy ; so only one of them ( the erg ) could bear a coherent relationship to the base units . Coherence was a design aim of SI resulting in only one unit of energy being defined – the joule .
In SI , which is a coherent system , the unit of power is the " watt " which is defined as " one joule per second " . In the US customary system of measurement , which is non @-@ coherent , the unit of power is the " horsepower " which is defined as " 550 foot @-@ pounds per second " ( the pound in this context being the pound @-@ force ) . Similarly , neither the US gallon nor the imperial gallon is one cubic foot or one cubic yard — the US gallon is 231 cubic inches and the imperial gallon is 277 @.@ 42 cubic inches .
The concept of coherence was only introduced into the metric system in the third quarter of the 19th century ; in its original form the metric system was non @-@ coherent — in particular the litre was 0 @.@ 001 m3 and the are ( from which the hectare derives ) was 100 m2 . However the units of mass and length were related to each other through the physical properties of water , the gram having been designed as being the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at its freezing point .
= = History = =
In 1586 the Flemish mathematician Simon Stevin published a small pamphlet called De Thiende ( " the tenth " ) . Decimal fractions had been employed for the extraction of square roots some five centuries before his time , but nobody used decimal numbers in daily life . Stevin declared that using decimals was so important that the universal introduction of decimal weights , measures and coinage was only a matter of time .
One of the earliest proposals for a decimal system in which length , area , volume and mass were linked to each other was made by John Wilkins , first secretary of the Royal Society of London in his 1668 essay " An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language " . His proposal used a pendulum that had a beat of one second as the basis of the unit of length . Two years later , in 1670 , Gabriel Mouton , a French abbot and scientist , proposed a decimal system of length based on the circumference of the Earth . His suggestion was that a unit , the milliare , be defined as a minute of arc along a meridian . He then suggested a system of sub @-@ units , dividing successively by factors of ten into the centuria , decuria , virga , virgula , decima , centesima , and millesima . His ideas attracted interest at the time , and were supported by both Jean Picard and Christiaan Huygens in 1673 , and also studied at the Royal Society in London . In the same year , Gottfried Leibniz independently made proposals similar to those of Mouton .
In pre @-@ revolutionary Europe , each state had its own system of units of measure . Some countries , such as Spain and Russia , saw the advantages of harmonising their units of measure with those of their trading partners . However , vested interests who profited from variations in units of measure opposed this . This was particularly prevalent in France where the huge inconsistency in the size of units of measure was one of the causes that , in 1789 , led to the outbreak of the French Revolution . During the early years of the revolution , savants including the Marquis de Condorcet , Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace , Adrien @-@ Marie Legendre , Antoine Lavoisier and Jean @-@ Charles de Borda set up a Commission of Weights and Measures . The commission was of the opinion that the country should adopt a completely new system of measure based on the principles of logic and natural phenomena . Logic dictated that such a system should be based on the radix used for counting . Their report of March 1791 to the Assemblée nationale constituante considered but rejected the view of Laplace that a duodecimal system of counting should replace the existing decimal system ; the view such a system was bound to fail prevailed . The commission 's final recommendation was that the assembly should promote a decimal @-@ based system of measurement . The leaders of the assembly accepted the views of the commission .
Initially France attempted to work with other countries towards the adoption of a common set of units of measure . Among the supporters of such an international system of units was Thomas Jefferson who , in 1790 , presented a document Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage , Weights , and Measures of the United States to Congress in which he advocated a decimal system that used traditional names for units ( such as ten inches per foot ) . The report was considered but not adopted by Congress .
= = = Original metric system = = =
The French law of 18 Germinal , Year III ( 7 April 1795 ) defined five units of measure :
The mètre for length
The are ( 100 m2 ) for area [ of land ]
The stère ( 1 m3 ) for volume of stacked firewood
The litre ( 1 dm3 ) for volumes of liquid
The gramme for mass .
This system continued the tradition of having separate base units for geometrically related dimensions , e.g. , mètre for lengths , are ( 100 m2 ) for areas , stère ( 1 m3 ) for dry capacities , and litre ( 1 dm3 ) for liquid capacities . The hectare , equal to a hundred ares , the area of a square 100 metres on a side ( about 2 @.@ 47 acres ) , is still in use . The early metric system included only a few prefixes from milli ( one thousandth ) to myria ( ten thousand ) .
Originally the kilogramme , defined as being one pinte ( later renamed the litre ) of water at the melting point of ice , was called the grave ; the gramme being an alternative name for a thousandth of a grave . However , the word grave , being a synonym for the title " count " , had aristocratic connotations and was renamed the kilogramme . The name mètre was suggested by Auguste @-@ Savinien Leblond in May 1790 .
France officially adopted the metric system on 10 December 1799 . Although it was decreed that its use was to be mandatory in Paris that year and across the provinces the following year , the decree was not universally observed across France .
= = = International adoption = = =
Areas annexed by France during the Napoleonic era were the first to inherit the metric system . In 1812 Napoleon introduced a system known as mesures usuelles which used the names of pre @-@ metric units of measure , but defined them in terms of metric units – for example , the livre metrique ( metric pound ) was 500 g and the toise metrique ( metric fathom ) was 2 metres . After the Congress of Vienna in 1815 , France lost the territories that she had annexed ; some , such as the Papal States reverted to their pre @-@ revolutionary units of measure , others such as Baden adopted a modified version of the mesures usuelles , but France kept her system of measurement intact .
In 1817 the Netherlands reintroduced the metric system , but used pre @-@ revolutionary names — for example 1 centimetre became the duim ( thumb ) , the ons ( ounce ) became 100 g and so on . Certain German states adopted similar systems and in 1852 the German Zollverein ( customs union ) adopted the zollpfund ( customs pound ) of 500 g for intrastate commerce . In 1872 the newly formed German Empire adopted the metric system as its official system of weights and measures and the newly formed Kingdom of Italy likewise , following the lead given by Piedmont , adopted the metric system in 1861 .
The Exposition Universelle ( 1867 ) ( Paris Exhibition ) devoted a stand to the metric system and by 1875 two thirds of the European population and close to half the world 's population had adopted the metric system . By 1872 the only principal European countries not to have adopted the metric system were Russia and the United Kingdom .
By 1920 countries comprising 22 % of the world 's population , mainly English @-@ speaking , used the imperial system ; 25 % used mainly the metric system and the remaining 53 % used neither .
In 1927 several million people in the United States sent over 100 @,@ 000 petitions backed by the Metric Association and The General Federation of Women 's Clubs urging Congress to adopt the metric system . The petition was opposed by the manufacturing industry , citing the cost of the conversion .
= = = International standards = = =
In 1861 a committee of the British Association for Advancement of Science ( BAAS ) including William Thomson ( later Lord Kelvin ) , James Clerk Maxwell and James Prescott Joule introduced the concept of a coherent system of units based on the metre , gram and second which , in 1873 , was extended to include electrical units .
On 20 May 1875 an international treaty known as the Convention du Mètre ( Metre Convention ) was signed by 17 states . This treaty established the following organisations to conduct international activities relating to a uniform system for measurements :
General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) , an intergovernmental conference of official delegates of member nations and the supreme authority for all actions ;
International Committee for Weights and Measures ( CIPM ) , consisting of selected scientists and metrologists , which prepares and executes the decisions of the CGPM and is responsible for the supervision of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures ( BIPM ) ;
International Bureau of Weights and Measures ( BIPM ) , a permanent laboratory and world centre of scientific metrology , the activities of which include the establishment of the basic standards and scales of
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at Mandalay Bay . The second leg of the tour was sponsored by Samsung . In conjunction with entertainment company WFX , they offered a cell @-@ phone service that featured collectible merchandise and a membership card with access to backstage reports directly from Spears . She stated that " [ the offering ] is an exciting new way for me to stay connected with my fans " .
= = Development = =
The name of the tour was based on Edgar Allan Poe 's poem of the same name . The tour was directed and choreographed by Australian choreographer Wade Robson . He explained the concept of the tour , saying ,
" The show is gonna be really , really theatrical — it 's really complicated . It 's a massive show with a lot of new music . It 's just gonna be really different . [ ... ] You 're gonna learn a lot more about her as a person . The show is gonna be really about how she 's becoming a woman , how she 's finding herself and her independence . She knows what she wants to do , she knows who she wants to be , and that 's what the show 's about . "
The stage was designed by production designer Steven Cohen and production manager Rob Brenner for the HBO special . This was the first time Spears used an entire new stage design after having used a typical end @-@ stage with a ramp and stairs at the center as on her first 3 tours ( the ... Baby One More Time Tour , the ( You Drive Me ) Crazy Tour , and the Oops ! ... I Did It Again Tour ) . Cohen designed the main stage with an oval shape so that Spears could perform around the stage and so that it would look good from multiple camera angles . He said that the rest of the stage was created with three main components in mind : a runway , a B @-@ stage , and a flying device over the crowd . The last was developed , as explained by Cohen , " around this Cleopatra 's barge concept I got into my head while designing when the movie Cleopatra was playing in the background . It needed to be elegant and stylized but also high tech , because it was going to have to be traveling on conventional motors and transport mechanisms . Plus , it had to have a big enough performance area for her and the dancers . " Brenner continued , " I wanted to try to give the kid in the back of the house the same experience as the one in the first 10 rows . " The runway uniting the main stage and the B @-@ stage was suggested by one of Spears 's managers , Johnny Wright . The entire stage was built by Michael Tait from Tait Towers . Cohen said , " We took a more expanded role in preparing the drawings for Michael . We wanted to retain the essence of the look of the show , both in its overall footprint and in the execution of these various pieces . [ ... ] [ He ] did a great job on executing the fine details like the hand railings and the floor lights and the MR @-@ 16 covers . When you 're doing something for TV , all of those pieces are foreground pieces . The mirrors on the platforms and the floor painting made the show look better on TV . "
The video screens showed both live shoots and special footage directed by Robson . Cohen worked by Danny O 'Brien at BCC Video to create double @-@ sided custom video LED cubes that hanged above stage right . There were three larger @-@ sized video screens above the stage area . The gyrating wheel in which Spears opened the show was made by Branam Enterprises and was attached to a platform also created by Tait Towers . 171 white light yag lasers were provided by Spectra . The giant music box from which Spears emerged in " Born to Make You Happy " ( 1999 ) was designed by Michael Cotton . Confetti was shot from machines provided by Pyrotek . Pyrotechnics were done by Gerb Fountains , whereas artificial snow was provided by Little Blizzard . During the encore performance of " ... Baby One More Time " ( 1998 ) , there was a water screen in which it was poured nearly two tons of water pumped at 360 gallons a minute . Cohen said , " The water screen is the keystone of the entire design because it impacts every system — electrics , staging , dancing . Rob discovered the company ( Chameleon Productions of Orlando , Florida ) that makes the screen , and I immediately looked at what they had in stock , which was a straight line . And I knew we didn 't want a straight line . We wanted a circular water screen so we could physically build a shower for her to stand in the middle of and not get wet and then walk through when she wanted to . Of course , everyone thought I was crazy , so I suggested a six @-@ sided shape . Everyone was concerned that the gaps between the sections might cause gaps in the actual sheets of water . But I kept saying that if you put them 40 ' to 50 ' up in the air , gravity will cause the water to attach to itself , so you end up getting a solid sheet . "
The lighting was designed by Cohen and his partner in Steve Cohen Productions , Joel Young , who served as the tour 's lighting director . Cohen continued saying , " All of our shows [ are ] heavily color @-@ based — everything is rich in color . There is a lot of layering that is not confusing so the purity comes through " . Young programmed the show on a Flying Pig Systems Wholehog II console , which he ran while simultaneously calling the 13 followspots for each show . There were eight truss spots and five house spots : four Lycian 2 @.@ 5 kW instruments on the back , four Robert Juliats on the front truss , four FOH spots and one in the back . " Steve Cohen Productions also served as the tour 's lighting vendor and sublet the gear they required from Westsun and Fourth Phase / LSD . Syncrolite provided its own 3k lights . Apart from the Syncrolites , the rest of the lighting was a combination of Coemar and High End Systems automated fixtures and conventional luminaries . There were a total of 215 active lights .
A week before the tour began , Spears said of the show : " I come from Broadway , so I want it to be very theatrical . The whole process for me is magical . Hopefully it will be something people have never even imagined or envisioned in their head . I was going through a run @-@ through yesterday and was thinking , ' By the time I 'm 30 , there 's not going to be anything left for me to do ' " . Initial rehearsals for the band started on September 9 , 2001 . She joined them later after rehearsing the choreography in Los Angeles . The setlist was composed mostly by songs from Britney . She explained her decision in a press conference , saying , " I just want my fans to see me in a different light than they have ever seen me [ in ] before . This music I am singing right now is such a reflection of me and who I am . Hopefully [ the fans ] will come to the show and be inspired and have a lot of fun . " Several songs from her previous albums ... Baby One More Time and Oops ! ... I Did It Again were remixed by Robson to " take [ them ] in a new direction – flip [ them ] up a bit " .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The show began with a woman dressed in an 18th @-@ century white nightgown who talked to the audience briefly before disappearing . There was a video introduction in which different people told their dreams . At the end of the video , Spears appeared sleeping in a bubble . A platform with a wheel attached rose several feet above the ground , and she appeared strapped to it while wearing a black ensemble . She started rotating in a similar way to a target girl while starting to perform " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " with her dancers . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was performed next with Spears captured by her dancers . She left the stage for a costume change while her dancers performed . " Overprotected " was performed next with Spears ( dressed in a futuristic version of one of Elvis Presley 's jumpsuit ) surrounded by laser lights . The video backdrop showed images of a bald Spears , with her hair growing as the song went along . In the next section , a giant musical box was raised , and Spears emerged from the middle as a ballerina to perform " Born To Make You Happy " . She tore off her tutu and put on a long white satin cote to perform " Lucky " while confetti was shot . The medley ended with a performance of " Sometimes " for which she donned a bathrobe .
She returned to the stage wearing a tank top with glittery tomboy looking suspenders and pants for a dance @-@ oriented performance of " Boys " . The show continued with " Stronger " , in which she wore a paint @-@ covered robe and in some shows a bowler hat . At the end of the performance , she sat down next to a piano player and talked to the audience before moving into a performance of " I 'm Not A Girl , Not Yet A Woman " . A video interlude spoofing Making the Band @-@ type shows followed , showing Spears and her dancers as a struggling band . She took the stage again in a barge ( wearing a black , silver , and gray rock star style jacket and green pants ) along with four female dancers to perform " I Love Rock ' n ' Roll " . The barge was lifted by wires , but pyrotechnics below it made it seem as if it was lifted by fire . When it was above the B @-@ stage , Spears jumped to it with bungee cords . There was a skit in which her dancers chased her , before Spears loses the rock star jacket revealing a glittery red and purple halter top for a performance of " What It 's Like To Be Me " in the small stage . She returned to the main stage for a performance of " Lonely " , in which she danced to a video projection of herself . The dancers and the band performed the " Breakdown " interlude . In " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " , she sang on an elevated platform wearing a white evening gown , while two of her dancers performed a routine . Artificial snow fell from the ceiling during the performance .
After a brief interlude , she returned for a performance of " Anticipating " where she wore a patched denim skirt . The set was made of giant coloring book drawings of houses and cars . She took out the costume to reveal a green top and small brown skirt for " I 'm a Slave 4 U " in a jungle setting while surrounded by artificial fog and laser lights . After the song ended , she bowed and thanked the audience before exiting the stage . The encore began with a giant projection of a hologram of Spears onto a water screen . The projection gradually shrunk until Spears rose from the stage while wearing a plastic cowboy hat , blue hip @-@ huggers , and a matching bra top . She began performing " ... Baby One More Time " in a ballad version until reaching the end of the runway . Pyrotechnics surrounded the stage while the song changed to a more uptempo version with elements of techno . Her dancers took the main stage while she returned to it running through the runway . They jumped on the barge while it was lifted into the air and continued to dance . At the end , Spears jumped off the barge with the bungee cords and landed in the main stage and descended from it .
After the announcement of the 2002 extension of the tour , some changes were made to the setlist . The original mix of " Overprotected " was replaced by the Darkchild remix of the song . " Boys " was replaced by the remix featuring Pharrell while Spears replaced the outfit with tomboy suspenders for a black leather top . A new song called " Mystic Man " was added after " Stronger " . It was described by Corey Moss of MTV as " similar to [ " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " ] , but with a bit more traditional R & B flair , a la Alicia Keys " . The song was often replaced with other new songs throughout the tour . Some other changes were also made ; the video screens did not have such a prominent role , and the backdrops of " Overprotected " were taken out .
= = Reception = =
Larry Nager of The National Enquirer commented that " [ the concert ] packed more technical wizardry than Harry Potter , but almost no actual singing " . He summarized his review saying " If it wasn 't quite a real concert , it was a great show . " Ann Powers of The New York Times said the show was " dazzling " and commented that the performance did not suffer from music being its least important element , adding " This dream extravaganza perhaps unwittingly suggested that the Britney we know is herself a dream , an artist whose genius is not for singing [ ... ] but for teasing out the cravings and fears that haunt the modern world . Ms. Spears now wants to awaken to an adult persona , but she may find that the netherworld of desire is her natural home . " Jim Farber of the New York Daily News compared it to tours of other teenage artists , saying " her latest 90 @-@ minute extravaganza had to be the costliest , most elaborate and , to be honest , least tacky to date " . He was also impressed with the stage , calling it " the largest proscenium I 've ever seen at a pop show . " Camille Lamb of The Daily Collegian named the show " an elaborate , highly homogenized display of capitalism at its finest " . She also said the show fulfilled its expectations , saying " [ it brought ] a teenage fantasy to a tangible reality . "
Neva Chonin of the San Francisco Chronicle believed the show " was pure Britney excess , [ ... ] hugely entertaining " and added that " while it 's all too easy to deride Spears ' contrivances from a distance , in person there 's no denying her charisma or her archetypal appeal . She 's like a refugee from David Lynch 's Mulholland Drive , a gleaming dream cipher waiting to be filled with an audience 's fantasies . And she works that role with flawless professionalism , punctuating her choreographed moves with an amiable accessibility that drew fans into her airtight world even as it kept them at a safe distance . In short , she connected — through smiles , giggles and what seemed to be genuine pleasure in performing . " While reviewing the Femme Fatale Tour in 2011 , Jim Harrington of the Oakland Tribune deemed the show as " one of the best pop music productions I ’ ve ever witnessed . " The tour was a commercial success . According to Spears 's booking agent David Zedeck , the 2001 leg was largely sold out , with the concerts attended by over 400 @,@ 000 people . It grossed $ 43 @.@ 7 million , the second highest grossing tour of the year by a female artist behind Cher 's Farewell Tour .
= = Lubbock Power Outage cancellation = =
The show on June 14 , 2002 at the United Spirit Arena in Lubbock , Texas was cancelled due to a transformer blowing out during the 2nd song which put the whole show on auxiliary power making it unsafe for Spears and the entire production to continue . The show initially was going to be rescheduled according to Band member Skip but it apparently never did .
= = Mexico cancellation = =
On July 28 , 2002 , during the second concert at Foro Sol in Mexico City , Spears left the stage after the performance of " Stronger " while saying , " I 'm sorry , Mexico . I love you , bye . " Shortly after , an announcement was made through the speakers confirming the show was cancelled . According to local newspapers Milenio and El Universal , fans screamed " Fraud ! " , booed and hurled chairs and other items . Two days later , a statement was released by Spears that said : " I 'm sorry I couldn 't finish the show for my fans . The Mexican fans are one of the best audiences to play for . We decided that we had no choice but to cancel the show after the storm and lightning showed no signs of clearing up . " Concert promoter Ocesa Presenta director Guillermo Parra explained to El Universal that " there was no trick nor deceit , but climatic conditions cannot be controlled " . It was announced that fans could receive a full refund starting on August 1 , 2002 . Jive Records released a statement
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saying ,
" A hazardous lightning storm made it essential for Spears to depart the stage . Spears began the show during a break between two rainstorms , but the degree of risk to the audience and stage crew associated with the second storm , an electrical storm , made it impossible for the show to continue . "
= = Broadcasts and recordings = =
On March 1 , 2001 , HBO announced that a Las Vegas show at MGM Grand Arena would be broadcast on November 18 , 2001 . The special was directed and produced by Marty Callner . Spears requested that HBO aired the concert to the American Forces Network ( AFN ) on its AFN @-@ Atlantic and AFN @-@ Pacific channels at no cost . She also interacted with soldiers based at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton , Naval Base San Diego , Fort Polk , and Lackland Air Force Base . The special won an Emmy for Outstanding Technical Direction on the 2002 ceremony . In January 2002 , Jive Records released the DVD Live from Las Vegas ; it was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 200 @,@ 000 copies in units . On September 18 , 2002 , Jive Records announced the release of a photographic book and DVD titled Stages and Stages : Three Days in Mexico . The DVD was directed by Albert Maysles and chronicled her stay in Mexico and Japan . Spears explained the release , saying , " I wanted to share with my fans all the things that they never get to see that make it all so special for me . It 's my way of saying thank you . "
= = Setlist = =
Source :
= = Shows = =
= = Personnel = =
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= Binky ( polar bear ) =
Binky ( 1975 – July 20 , 1995 ) was a polar bear who lived at the Alaska Zoo in Anchorage . Found as an orphan on Alaska 's North Slope , he was taken to the zoo and quickly became one of its most popular attractions . He became a local hero and received international news coverage after mauling two zoo visitors in separate incidents in 1994 . Binky died in 1995 from sarcocystosis , a parasitic disease .
= = Early life = =
Binky was found orphaned on Cape Beaufort , North Slope , Alaska in May 1975 and was rescued by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game . He was then given to the Alaska Children 's Zoo ( later the Alaska Zoo ) in Anchorage , where he quickly became one of the zoo 's most popular attractions . His keeper commented in 1976 that Binky was a performer and cried in the evenings when his applauding , laughing visitors left for the day .
Binky was initially placed in a 13 foot by 20 foot oval cage , which he quickly outgrew . The prospect of raising the estimated $ 150 @,@ 000 needed for a new , larger enclosure was uncertain , and zoo officials feared Binky would have to be sent to the Milwaukee Zoo . A fundraiser and open house were held to raise money for the effort , and a number of schools and businesses participated . Ultimately , the greatest contribution to the zoo 's effort was the city 's purchase of the zoo land for $ 100 @,@ 000 , which the zoo agreed to buy back in 55 annual installments of $ 2 @,@ 500 . Binky 's new enclosure opened in May 1977 . That year , Binky made an appearance as " my dog Spot " in one of Cal Worthington 's car dealership commercials .
As Binky approached sexual maturity , zoo officials negotiated for the purchase of a female polar bear named Mimi from the Tulsa Zoo in Oklahoma . As the transfer was being finalized , however , Mimi died from a viral disease in Tulsa . In February 1979 , young polar bear twins ( Nuka , a female , and Siku , a male ) joined Binky in his enclosure . Binky got along poorly with Siku , however , so Siku was given to a zoo in Morelia , Mexico in 1981 .
As a full @-@ grown bear , Binky weighed 1 @,@ 200 pounds . He was an aggressive bear ; in 1980 , he bit off a zoo employee 's finger . His keeper commented in 1983 , " Binky is stubborn [ and ] independent , and he likes to play games . When he 's really feeling obstinate , he walks halfway into his den and sits down . He knows I can 't close it . He 's a very smart bear . "
= = Maulings , celebrity , and death = =
In July 1994 , 29 @-@ year @-@ old Australian tourist Kathryn Warburton jumped over two safety rails to get a close @-@ up photograph of Binky in his cage . When Binky stuck his head through the bars and grabbed her , she suffered a broken leg and bite wounds . Another tourist caught the event on tape . Binky kept the woman 's shoe for three days before it could be retrieved by zoo officials , and the day after the attack Alaska Star photographer Rob Layman took a photo of Binky , holding the shoe in his mouth , that was printed in almost every press account of the incident . Warburton gave the other shoe to the Bird House , a bar in nearby Bird Creek that has since burned down .
Six weeks later , Binky was involved in another mauling . Drunken local teenagers approached the bear 's enclosure , apparently hoping to swim in its pool , and one 19 @-@ year @-@ old was hospitalized with leg lacerations after he was mauled . The zoo did not confirm that Binky was the attacker , but the bear had blood on his face following the incident .
After these attacks , Binky received international news coverage . Binky merchandise was created , including T @-@ shirts , mugs , and bumper stickers , often adorned with the shoe photo or with the slogan " Send another tourist , this one got away " . Local letters to the editor supported Binky during both incidents , most often arguing that polar bears ' dangerousness should be respected . The Zoo 's director , Sammye Seawell , criticized Warburton 's actions in the Anchorage Daily News , saying " [ s ] he violated the rules and jeopardized the bear 's life . " Though Seawell initially insisted that the attack would not change how the zoo was run , security around Binky 's cage was upgraded to keep zoo visitors out .
In 1995 , Binky 's cagemate Nuka suddenly became sick with the parasitic disease sarcocystosis , dying from associated liver failure on July 14 , a week after her symptoms began . Shortly thereafter , Binky showed signs of the disease . On the morning of July 20 , he went into convulsions and died . Zoo visitors left bouquets of flowers outside the bears ' empty enclosure , and the zoo 's memorial service saw a high turnout despite pouring rain . The bears were buried on zoo grounds .
= Mormon handcart pioneers =
The Mormon handcart pioneers were participants in the migration of members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( also known as the LDS Church ) to Salt Lake City , Utah , who used handcarts to transport their belongings . The Mormon handcart movement began in 1856 and continued until 1860 .
Motivated to join their fellow Church members in Utah but lacking funds for full ox or horse teams , nearly 3 @,@ 000 Mormon pioneers from England , Wales , Scotland and Scandinavia made the journey from Iowa or Nebraska to Utah in ten handcart companies . The trek was disastrous for two of the companies , which started their journey dangerously late and were caught by heavy snow and severe temperatures in central Wyoming . Despite a dramatic rescue effort , more than 210 of the 980 pioneers in these two companies died along the way . John Chislett , a survivor , wrote , " Many a father pulled his cart , with his little children on it , until the day preceding his death . "
Although fewer than 10 percent of the 1846 – 68 Latter @-@ day Saint emigrants made the journey west using handcarts , the handcart pioneers have become an important symbol in LDS culture , representing the faithfulness and sacrifice of the pioneer generation . They continue to be recognized and honored in events such as Pioneer Day , Church pageants , and similar commemorations .
= = Background to the migration = =
The Latter Day Saints were first organized in 1830 . Early members of the Church often encountered hostility , primarily due to their practice of withdrawing from secular society and gathering in locales to practice their distinct religious beliefs . Their neighbors felt threatened by the Church 's rapid growth in numbers , its tendency to vote as a bloc and acquire political power , its claims of divine favor , and , later , the practice of polygamy . Violence directed against the Church and its members caused the body of the Church to move from Ohio to Missouri , then to Illinois . Despite the frequent moves , Church members were unable to escape opposition , which culminated in the extermination order against all Mormons living in the state by Missouri Governor Lilburn Boggs in 1838 and the death of their leader Joseph Smith in 1844 . Brigham Young said that he had received divine direction to organize the church members and head beyond the western frontier of the United States .
= = Need for handcart companies = =
Soon after the first Mormon pioneers reached Utah in 1847 , the Church began encouraging its converts in the British Isles and elsewhere in Europe to emigrate to Utah . From 1849 to 1855 , about 16 @,@ 000 European Latter @-@ day Saints traveled to the United States by ship , through the eastern states by rail , and to Utah by ox and wagon . Although most of these emigrants paid their own expenses , the Church established the Perpetual Emigration Fund to provide financial assistance for poor emigrants to trek west , which they would repay as they were able . Contributions to expand the fund were encouraged .
When contributions and loan repayments dropped off in 1855 after a poor harvest in Utah , President Young decided to begin using handcarts because the Latter @-@ day Saints who remained in Europe were mostly poor . Young also believed it would speed the journey .
Young proposed the plan in a letter to Franklin D. Richards , President of the European Mission , in September 1855 . His letter was published in the Millennial Star , the Church 's England @-@ based periodical , on December 22 , 1855 , along with an editorial by Richards endorsing the project . The cost of the migration was expected to be reduced by one @-@ third . The response was overwhelming — in 1856 the Perpetual Emigration Fund supported the travel of 2 @,@ 012 European emigrants , compared with 1 @,@ 161 the year before .
= = Outfitting = =
Emigrants departed from an English port ( generally Liverpool ) and travelled by ship to New York or Boston , then by railroad to Iowa City , Iowa , the western terminus of the rail line , where they would be outfitted with handcarts and other supplies .
Built to Brigham Young 's design , the handcarts resembled a large wheelbarrow , with two wheels five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter and a single axle four and a half feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) wide , and weighing 60 pounds ( 27 kg ) . Running along each side of the bed were seven @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) pull shafts ending with a three @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) crossbar at the front . The crossbar allowed the carts to be pushed or pulled . Cargo was carried in a box about three feet by four feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m by 1 @.@ 2 m ) , with 8 inch ( 0 @.@ 2 m ) walls . The handcarts generally carried up to 250 pounds ( 110 kg ) of supplies and luggage , though they were capable of handling loads as heavy as 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) . Carts used in the first year 's migration were made entirely of wood ( " Iowa hickory or oak " ) ; in later years a stronger design was substituted , which included metal elements .
The handcart companies were organized using the handcarts and sleeping tents as the primary units . Five persons were assigned per handcart , with each individual limited to 17 pounds ( 7 @.@ 7 kg ) of clothing and bedding . Each round tent , supported by a center pole , housed 20 occupants and was supervised by a tent captain . Five tents were supervised by the captain of a hundred ( or " sub @-@ captain " ) . Provisions for each group of one hundred emigrants were carried in an ox wagon , and were distributed by the tent captains .
= = 1856 : First three companies = =
The first two ships departed England in late March and mid @-@ April and sailed to Boston . The emigrants spent several weeks in Iowa City , where they constructed their handcarts and were outfitted with supplies before beginning their trek of about 1 @,@ 300 miles ( 2 @,@ 093 km ) .
About 815 emigrants from the first two ships were organized into the first three handcart companies , headed by captains Edmund Ellsworth , Daniel D. McArthur , and Edward Bunker . The captains were missionaries returning to their homes in Utah and were familiar with the route . Most of the sub @-@ captains were also returning missionaries .
Across Iowa they followed an existing road about 275 miles ( 443 km ) to Council Bluffs , following a route that is close to current U.S. Route 6 . After crossing the Missouri River , they paused for a few days at a Mormon outpost in Florence , Nebraska ( now part of Omaha ) , for repairs , before beginning the remaining 1 @,@ 030 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 658 km ) journey along the Mormon Trail to Salt Lake City .
Initial problems with the carts occurred because the wood used to construct them was said to have been " green timber " , with many more breakdowns than anticipated . When the First Handcart Company reached Winter Quarters , Edmund Ellsworth had a member of the company " tin " the wooden axles and also installed " thick hoop iron skeins " which enabled the handcart axles to turn more easily and resist breakage much better . This feature became a standard part of handcarts in following years , including frequent greasing to keep the wheels lubricated .
The companies made good time , and their trips were largely uneventful . The emigrant companies included many children and elderly individuals , and pushing and pulling handcarts was difficult work . Journals and recollections describe periods of illness and hunger . Like other companies traveling on the Emigrant Trail , deaths occurred along the way . Hafen and Hafen 's Handcarts to Zion lists 13 deaths from the first company , seven from the second , and fewer than seven from the third . Journal entries reflect the optimism of the handcart pioneers , even amid their hardships :
The first two companies arrived in Salt Lake City on September 26 and the third followed less than a week later . The first three companies were regarded as having demonstrated the feasibility of emigrating using handcarts .
= = 1856 : Willie and Martin handcart companies = =
The last two handcart companies of 1856 departed late from England . The ship Thornton , carrying the emigrants who became the Willie Company , did not leave England until May 4 . The leader of the Latter @-@ day Saints on the Thornton was James G. Willie . Another three weeks passed before the Horizon , carrying the emigrants who formed the Martin Company , departed . The late departures may have been the result of difficulties in procuring ships in response to the unexpected demand , but the results would be tragic .
With slow communications in the era before the transatlantic telegraph , the Church agents in Iowa City were not expecting the additional emigrants and had to make frantic preparations for their arrival . Critical weeks were spent hastily assembling the carts and outfitting the companies . When the companies reached Florence , additional time was lost making repairs to the poorly built carts . Emigrant John Chislett describes the problems with the carts :
Prior to the Willie Company departing Florence , the company met to debate the wisdom of such a late departure . Because the emigrants were unfamiliar with the trail and the climate , they deferred to the returning missionaries and Church agents . One of the returning missionaries , Levi Savage , urged them to spend the winter in Nebraska . He argued that such a late departure with a company consisting of the elderly , women and young children would lead to suffering , sickness and even death . All of the other Church elders argued that the trip should go forward , expressing optimism that the company would be protected by divine intervention . Some members of the company , perhaps as many as 100 , decided to spend the winter in Florence or in Iowa , but the majority , about 404 in number ( including Savage ) continued the journey west . The Willie Company left Florence on August 17 and the Martin Company on August 27 . Two ox @-@ wagon trains , led by captains W.B. Hodgett and John A. Hunt , followed the Martin Company .
Near Wood River , Nebraska , a herd of bison caused the Willie Company 's cattle to stampede , and nearly 30 cattle were lost . Left without enough cattle to pull all of the wagons , each handcart was required to take on an additional 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) of flour .
In early September , Franklin D. Richards , returning from Europe where he had served as the Church 's mission president , passed the emigrant companies . Richards and the 12 returning missionaries who accompanied him , traveling in carriages and light wagons pulled by horses and mules , pressed on to Utah to obtain assistance for the emigrants .
= = = Disaster and rescue = = =
In early October the two companies reached Fort Laramie , Wyoming , where they expected to be restocked with provisions , but no provisions were there for them . The companies had to cut back food rations , hoping that their supplies would last until help could be sent from Utah . To lighten their loads , the Martin Company cut the luggage allowance to 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) per person , discarding clothing and blankets that soon would be desperately needed .
On October 4 the Richards party reached Salt Lake City and conferred with president Brigham Young and other Church leaders . The next morning the Church was meeting in a general conference , where Young and the other speakers called on the Church members to provide wagons , mules , supplies , and teamsters for a rescue mission . On the morning of October 7 the first rescue party left Salt Lake City with 16 wagon @-@ loads of food and supplies , pulled by four @-@ mule teams with 27 young men serving as teamsters and rescuers . The party elected George D. Grant as their captain . Throughout October more wagon trains were assembled , and by the end of the month 250 relief wagons were on the road .
Meanwhile , the Willie and Martin companies were running out of food and encountering bitterly cold temperatures . On October 19 a blizzard struck the region , halting the two companies and the relief party . The Willie Company was along the Sweetwater River approaching the Continental Divide . A scouting party sent ahead by the main rescue party found and greeted the emigrants , gave them a small amount of flour , encouraged them that rescue was near , and then rushed onward to try to locate the Martin Company . The members of the Willie Company had just reached the end of their flour supplies . They began slaughtering the handful of broken @-@ down cattle that still remained while their death toll mounted . On October 20 Captain Willie and Joseph Elder went ahead by mule through the snow to locate the supply train and inform them of the company 's desperate situation . They arrived at the rescue party 's campsite near South Pass that evening , and by the next evening the rescue party reached the Willie Company and provided them with food and assistance . Half of the rescue party remained to assist the Willie Company while the other half pressed forward to assist the Martin Company . The difficulties of the Willie Company were not yet over . On October 23 , the second day after the main rescue party had arrived , the Willie Company faced the most difficult section of the trail — the ascent up Rocky Ridge . The climb took place during a howling snowstorm through knee @-@ deep snow . That night 13 emigrants died .
On October 19 , the Martin Company was about 110 miles ( 177 km ) further east , making its last crossing of the North Platte River near present @-@ day Casper , Wyoming . Shortly after completing the crossing , the blizzard struck . Many members of the company suffered from hypothermia or frostbite after wading through the frigid river . They set up camp at Red Bluffs , unable to continue forward through the snow . Meanwhile , the original scouting party continued eastward until it reached a small vacant fort at Devil 's Gate , where they had been instructed to wait for the rest of the rescue party if they had not found the Martin Company . When the main rescue party rejoined them , another scouting party consisting of Joseph Young , Abel Garr , and Daniel Webster Jones was sent forward . The Martin company remained in their camp at Red Bluffs for nine days until the three scouts finally arrived on October 28 . By the time the scouts arrived , 56 members of the company had died . The scouts urged the emigrants to begin moving again . Three days later the main rescue party met the Martin Company and the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies and helped them on to Devil 's Gate .
George D. Grant , who headed the rescue party , reported to President Young :
At Devil 's Gate the rescue party unloaded the baggage carried in the wagons of the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies that had been following the Martin Company so the wagons could be used to transport the weakest emigrants . A small group led by Daniel Webster Jones remained at Devil 's Gate over the winter to protect the property . On November 4 the company had to cross the Sweetwater River , which was about 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) deep and 90 to 120 feet ( 27 to 37 m ) wide . The stream was clogged with floating ice . Some of the men of the rescue party spent hours pulling the carts and carrying many of the emigrants across the river . However , many members of the company crossed the river themselves , some even pulling their own handcarts across . The severe weather forced the Martin Company to halt for another five days at Martin 's Cove , a few miles west of Devil 's Gate .
The rescue parties escorted the emigrants from both companies to Utah through more snow and severe weather while their members continued to suffer death from disease and exposure . The Willie Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 9 ; 68 members of the company had lost their lives .
Meanwhile , a backup relief party of 77 teams and wagons was making its way east to provide additional assistance to the Martin Company . After passing Fort Bridger the leaders of the backup party concluded that the Martin Company must have wintered east of the Rockies , so they turned back . When word of the returning backup relief party was communicated to Young , he ordered the courier to return and tell them to turn back east and continue until they found the handcart company , but several days had been lost . On November 18 the backup party met the Martin Company with the greatly needed supplies . At last all the members of the handcart party were now able to ride in wagons . The 104 wagons carrying the Martin Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 30 ; at least 145 members of the company had lost their lives . Many of the survivors had to have fingers , toes , or limbs amputated due to severe frostbite .
After the companies arrived in Utah , the residents generously opened their homes to the arriving emigrants , feeding and caring for them over the winter . The emigrants would eventually go on to Latter @-@ day Saint settlements throughout Utah and the West .
= = = Responsibility for the tragedy = = =
American West historian , Wallace Stegner , described the inadequate planning and improvident decisions leading to the tragedy when he wrote ,
In urging the method upon Europe 's poor , Brigham and the priesthood would over @-@ reach themselves ; in shepherding them from Liverpool to the valley , the ordinarily reliable missionary and emigration organization would break down at several critical points ; in accepting the assurances of their leaders and the wishful importunities of their own hope , the emigrants would commit themselves to greater sacrifices than even the Nauvoo refugees ; and in rallying from compound fatal error to bring the survivors in , the priesthood and the people of Mormondom would show themselves at their compassionate and efficient best .
As early as November 2 , 1856 , while the Willie and Martin companies were still making their way to safety , Brigham Young responded to criticism of his own leadership by rebuking Franklin Richards and Daniel Spencer for allowing the companies to leave so late . However , many authors argued that Young , as author of the plan , was responsible . Ann Eliza Young , daughter of one of the men in charge of building the carts and a former plural wife of Brigham Young , described her ex @-@ husband 's plan as a " cold @-@ blooded , scheming , blasphemous policy . " Stegner described Richards as a scapegoat for Young 's fundamental errors in planning , though Howard Christy , professor emeritus and former senior editor of scholarly publications at Brigham Young University , noted that Richards , as the highest @-@ ranking official in Florence , Nebraska area , was , in fact , the official who would have had the authority and capability to have averted the tragedy by halting their late departure . Christy also pointed out that Brigham Young and the other members of the First Presidency had consistently pointed out that departure from what is now Omaha , Nebraska needed to happen by the end of May to safely make the journey .
Many survivors of the tragedy refused to blame anyone . Survivor John Jacques wrote , " I blame nobody . I am not anxious to blame anybody ... I have no doubt that those who had to do with its management meant well and tried to do the best they could under the circumstances . " Another survivor , Francis Webster , was quoted as having said , " Was I sorry that I chose to come by hand cart ? No . Neither then nor any minute of my life since . The price we paid to become acquainted
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with God was a privilege to pay and I am thankful that I was privileged to come in the Martin Hand Cart Company . " On the other hand , survivor John Chislett , who later left the Church , wrote bitterly of Richards promising them that " we should get to Zion in safety . "
In May 2006 , a panel of researchers at the annual conference of the Mormon History Association blamed the tragedy on a failure of leadership . Lyndia Carter , a trails historian , said Franklin D. Richards " was responsible , in my mind , for the late departure " because " he started the snowball down the slope " that eventually " added up to disaster . " Christy agreed that " leadership from the top , from the outset , was seriously short of the mark . " Robert Briggs , an attorney , said " It 's almost a foregone conclusion ... there is evidence of negligence . With leaders all the way up to Brigham Young , there was mismanagement . " On the other hand , Rebecca Bartholomew and Leonard J. Arrington wrote , " Memories of what was perhaps the worst disaster in the history of western migration have been palliated by what could also be regarded as the most heroic rescue of the Mormon frontier . "
= = 1857 – 60 : Last five companies = =
A number of lessons had been learned from the 1856 disaster that allowed the Church to continue the handcart system while avoiding another disaster . Never again would a handcart company depart Florence later than July 7 . The construction of the handcarts was modified to strengthen them and reduce repairs . The handcarts would now be regularly greased . Arrangements were made to replenish supplies along the route .
By 1857 the Perpetual Emigration Fund was exhausted ; almost all of the handcart emigrants that year and in subsequent years had to pay their own way . With the increased cost , the number of handcart emigrants dropped from nearly 2 @,@ 000 in 1856 to about 480 in 1857 . Nevertheless , in 1857 two companies made the trek , both arriving in Salt Lake City by September 13 . Perhaps the most notable incident was when a captain of the U.S. Army 's Utah Expedition , on its way to Utah to confront Young and the Mormons , donated an ox to the hungry emigrants .
With the uncertainty caused by the Utah War , the Church called off all European emigration for 1858 . In 1859 one handcart company crossed the plains . The emigrants were now able to travel by rail to Saint Joseph , Missouri , after which they went by riverboat to Florence where they were outfitted with handcarts and supplies . When the 1859 company reached Fort Laramie , they discovered their food was running dangerously short , so they cut back on rations . When they reached Devil 's Gate the last flour was distributed . Emigrant Ebeneezer B. Beesley recalled an incident in which a group of rough mountain men fed the hungry emigrants . One of the mountain men then asked a young woman from the company to stay with him , which the tired woman agreed to do . ( William Atkin recalled another version of the story in which two young women married two mountain men . ) The hunger worsened when expected supplies were not available when they reached the Green River . Three days later wagons from Utah carrying provisions finally rescued the famished emigrants .
The last two handcart companies made the journey in 1860 , again following the route through St. Joseph . Although the journey proved to be difficult for the emigrants , these companies had relatively uneventful trips and experienced little loss of life .
After 1860 handcarts were no longer used . The Church implemented a new system of emigration , in which wagon trains travelled east from Salt Lake City in the spring and returned with emigrants in the summer . The transcontinental railroad was being constructed , and the railroad terminus gradually moved westward , shortening the trip .
= = Legacy = =
Handcart pioneers and the handcart movement are important parts of LDS culture , music and fiction . Arthur King Peters described the importance of this part of Mormon history in Seven Trails West :
Wallace Stegner praised the examples of those of the handcart companies , particularly in comparison to other pioneer parties :
= = = Reenactments = = =
Reenactments , in which a group dressed in 19th century garb travels for one or more days pushing and pulling handcarts , have become a popular activity among LDS wards , youth groups , and families . The reenactments have been lauded by LDS leaders ; for example , M. Russell Ballard of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles said , " Through music , drama , and stirring reenactments , we will be reminded of incredible pioneer journeys , both temporal and spiritual . " The reenactments have become so popular that the Bureau of Land Management is studying the impact on the trail and its environment , especially in the area around Rocky Ridge , Wyoming . According to the Casper Star @-@ Tribune , the BLM has had to impose a fee to offset the costs of monitoring the impacts of reenactors and other campers on the trail .
A re @-@ creation of the 1856 handcart disaster was featured on the History Channel show , Wild West Tech .
= = = 150th anniversary = = =
A number of events were held during 2006 to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the 1856 handcart companies :
The 2006 conference of the Mormon History Association was held in Casper , Wyoming from May 25 – May 28 and featured a specially commissioned concert opera by Harriet Petherick Bushman , " 1856 : Long Walk Home , " as well as several research papers on the handcart trek .
From June 9 – June 11 , a symposium and festival were held in Iowa City on the anniversary of the departure of the first company . Gordon B. Hinckley , the then @-@ current president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints , spoke at the closing ceremony fireside .
A musical called 1856 , produced by Cory Ellsworth , a descendant of Edmund Ellsworth , was performed in Mesa , Arizona and Salt Lake City in July 2006 .
Filmmaker Lee Groberg and writer / historian Heidi Swinton created a documentary for PBS , Sweetwater Rescue : The Willie & Martin Handcart Story , which features reenactments of the rescue . The one @-@ hour film was shown nationally in the United States on December 18 , 2006 . A companion book was also published .
Brigham Young University created a daily journal of the Willie Handcart Company on its Web site .
= = = Artistic depictions = = =
Film
Handcart . Directed by Kels Goodman . 2002 . Made as part of the wave of Mormon films in the early 2000s .
17 Miracles . Directed by T. C. Christensen , distributed by Excel Entertainment Group . June 2011 . About the Willie and Martin Handcart Companies , especially Levi Savage .
Ephraim 's Rescue Directed by T. C. Christensen , distributed by Excel Entertainment Group . May 2013 . The story of the rescue of the Willie and Martin Handcart Companies , primarily told from the point of view of Ephraim Hanks .
Theater
Handcarts West . Play , by Nathan & Ruth Hale .
The Trail of Dreams . Musical , written by James Arrington , Steven Kapp Perry , and Marvin Payne. premiered at Utah Valley State College in 1997 . Also played at the SCERA Center for the Arts in Orem , Utah . The cast recording won the 1999 Pearl Award for " Best Soundtrack of the Year , " and Steven Kapp Perry was nominated as " Songwriter of the Year " for his work on this project .
Music
The handcart treks were a familiar theme in 19th @-@ century Mormon folk music .
Fiction
George the Handcart Boy . By Howard R. Driggs . Aladdin , 1952 . Young adult novel .
Fire of the Covenant . By Gerald N. Lund . Deseret Book , 1999 . ISBN 1570086850 OCLC 42892048
Charlotte 's Rose . By Ann Edwards Cannon . Random House , 2002 . Young adult novel .
Miracles of the Martin Handcart Company . By JoAnn Mellor Felix , 2006 . Teen , Young Adult and Adult novel .
Independence Rock . By Debra Terry Hulet . Cedar Fort , 2011 . Young adult novel .
True Sisters . By Sandra Dallas . St. Martin 's Press , 2012 . Adult novel .
In the Company of Angels . By David Farland .
" West " . By Orson Scott Card . Science @-@ fiction short story .
= = = Notable handcart pioneers = = =
Edward Bunker – Captain of the third company .
C. C. A. Christensen – Sub @-@ captain of the seventh company and an artist known for his illustrations of LDS history .
John Jaques – Member of the Martin Company , missionary , and company historian .
Levi Savage Jr . – Sub @-@ captain of the Willie Company who argued against the late departure .
Jens Nielson , Danish entrepreneur that later settled several communities in the Cedar City Historic District .
Nellie Unthank – Member of the Martin Company .
Emily H. Woodmansee – Member of the Willie Handcart Company and one of the most influential Mormon poets in the 19th century .
= = = Notable members of the rescue parties = = =
Ephraim Hanks – Scout , member of the second rescue party .
Daniel Webster Jones – Member of advance party who found the Martin Company . Jones spent the winter at Devil 's Gate guarding the equipment that was left there .
Hosea Stout – Member of the second rescue party who carried messages to and from Salt Lake City .
Joseph Angell Young – Son of Brigham Young and member of the advance rescue party that found the Martin Company .
= HMS Raven II =
HMS Raven II was a seaplane carrier of the Royal Navy used during World War I. Converted from the captured German freighter Rabenfels , the ship 's aircraft conducted aerial reconnaissance , observation and bombing missions in the Eastern Mediterranean and Red Sea during 1915 – 17 even though the ship was not commissioned into the Royal Navy until mid @-@ 1915 . She fruitlessly searched the Indian Ocean for the German commerce raider Wolf in mid @-@ 1917 . Raven II was decommissioned in late 1917 and became a Merchant Navy collier for the last year of the war . She was sold off in 1923 and had a succession of owners and names until she was sunk during World War II while under Japanese ownership .
= = Description = =
Raven II was 394 feet 5 inches ( 120 @.@ 22 m ) long , had a beam of 51 feet 6 inches ( 15 @.@ 7 m ) , and a draught of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 38 m ) . She was rated at 4 @,@ 706 GRT . The ship had one propeller shaft powered by one quadruple @-@ expansion steam engine that used steam generated by an unknown number of coal @-@ fired boilers . Raven II had a maximum speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = Career = =
The German freighter SS Rabenfels was built by Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson and completed in December 1903 . On the outbreak of war in August 1914 , she was seized by the British authorities whilst in Port Said , Egypt and was requisitioned for service under the Red Ensign in January 1915 to operate seaplanes . No special modifications were made to the ship ; the aircraft were stowed on the aft hatch covers and handled with her cargo booms . Aenne Rickmers operated two French Nieuport floatplanes that had been off @-@ loaded by the French seaplane carrier Foudre ; they were flown by French pilots with British observers . Later , the ship operated included British Short Type 184 , Sopwith Schneider , Sopwith Baby and Short Admiralty Type 827 floatplanes .
For the first two months of 1915 , the ship and her aircraft supported Allied operations in Syria , Palestine and the Sinai Peninsula . Aside from reconnaissance duties , they delivered and recovered Allied spies as well as observed for ships performing coastal bombardments . Around 20 March , Rabenfels arrived in Mudros to load the aircraft and crew of the damaged Aenne Rickmers ( later HMS Anne ) . The ship was commissioned into the Royal Navy on 12 June 1915 and renamed HMS Raven II . On 17 August , both Anne and Raven II spotted for the French armoured cruiser Jeanne d 'Arc as she bombarded Tarsus . In January 1916 , she was assigned to the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron together with the carriers Empress , Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree and Anne . The squadron was under the command of the General Officer Commanding , Egypt and its primary duty was to watch Turkish positions and movements in southern Palestine and the Sinai in early 1916 .
At the end of March , Raven II was sent to the Red Sea to attack Turkish troops threatening Aden ; she carried one two @-@ seat Short floatplane and five Sopwith Schneiders for this operation . After a preliminary reconnaissance mission , on 2 – 3 April her aircraft dropped ninety @-@ one 20 @-@ pound ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) bombs as well as leaflets urging the Arab auxiliaries to desert . The ship returned to the Syrian coast for patrols and was transferred to Kastellorizo in early July to conduct aerial reconnaissance and bombing missions in that area . Raven II was transferred to the Gulf of Aqaba later that month to take aerial photographs of the head of gulf as well as the east coast of the Red Sea . Her aircraft observed for the monitor M21 as she bombarded a Turkish encampment in the Sinai . One aircraft was forced to land , but it was taken in tow by the monitor and delivered back to Raven II .
The East Indies and Egypt Squadron reassembled in late August with Raven II , Anne and Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree and the aircraft from the three carriers attacked the Turkish supply dump at El Afule for thirty minutes . The squadron then steamed south along the Palestinian coast where they encountered two Turkish supply dhows . One was sunk by the escorting French destroyer Arbalète while the other was captured . The squadron flew off seven aircraft that attacked an encampment at Bureir and a nearby railroad viaduct . Raven II was then sent to the Adalia area on the Turkish coast where her aircraft bombed a factory at Fineka and searched for U @-@ boat bases On 1 September , the ship was in Port Said preparing for another sortie into the Red Sea when she was hit by a bomb dropped by a German aircraft ( probably the first successful air attack on an aviation vessel ) . Although Raven II was only lightly damaged , Anne was sent in her place . Raven II relieved Anne on 26 October in the Red Sea and her aircraft bombed Turkish forces advancing on Rabigh and Yenbo on 10 December . Shortly afterwards , the ship was transferred back to the Eastern Mediterranean where her aircraft attacked a bridge over the Ceyhan River with one 65 @-@ pound ( 29 kg ) bomb and eight 16 @-@ pound ( 7 @.@ 3 kg ) bombs on 27 December .
On 10 March 1917 , Raven II and the French armoured cruiser Pothuau sailed for the Indian Ocean to hunt for the German Q @-@ ship Wolf . For this mission she carried a Short Baby and two Short 184s . The two ships searched the Laccadive Islands en route to Colombo , Ceylon , which they reached on 2 April . They then searched the Chagos Archipelago and the Maldive Islands and returned to Colombo . Engine problems forced a Short 184 to make an emergency landing on 21 April in the Maldives ; the crew rejoined the ship on 6 May after a series of adventures that inspired Rudyard Kipling 's story " A Flight of Fact " . Raven II recovered the floatplane and its aircraft continued to fly search missions from Colombo until 21 May . She then joined a convoy bound for Egypt and arrived back in Port Said on 10 June . In early November , the ship 's aircraft observed fire for a variety of ships during the Third Battle of Gaza .
= = = Commercial service = = =
HMS Raven II was paid off shortly afterwards and , renamed Ravenrock , served as a collier under the Red Ensign from January 1918 until the end of the war under the management of Grahams & Co . She was sold to British Dominion Steamship Co. in 1923 and resold later that year to Karafuto Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha ( KKK ) , which renamed her Heiyei Maru No. 7 . In 1935 , the ship was sold to Inuri KKK and she was renamed Heiei Maru No. 7 in 1938 . The ship was sunk during World War II , although the circumstances are unknown .
= Hurricane Bertha ( 1990 ) =
Hurricane Bertha caused minor damage in the United States , Bermuda , and Atlantic Canada in July and August 1990 . The third tropical cyclone , second named storm , and first hurricane of the 1990 Atlantic hurricane season , Bertha developed from a frontal low pressure area offshore of North Carolina on July 24 . Initially subtropical , it slowly acquired tropical characteristics while tracked southeast and then southwestward . By early on July 27 , the cyclone was re @-@ classified as a tropical depression . Following its transition , the depression intensified and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bertha on July 28 . The storm then curved northeastward and rapidly strengthened . Bertha became a hurricane early on July 29 , though it weakened back to a tropical storm later that day . On the following day , Bertha re @-@ intensified into a hurricane and peaked as an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) Category 1 hurricane on July 31 .
Early on August 2 , Bertha made landfall near Sydney , Nova Scotia while weakening and transitioning back into an extratropical cyclone . Large waves impacted the East Coast of the United States ; 25 to 50 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 to 15 @.@ 2 m ) waves were reported along the coast of North Carolina . In Florida , rough seas caused two fatalities by drowning , as well as at least 200 lifeguard rescues . Seven other drowning deaths occurred offshore when the S.S. Corazon sank near Cape Cod . Minimal impact occurred on Bermuda , limited to mainly tropical storm force wind gusts . In Canada , strong winds caused moderate crop damage on Prince Edward Island and collapsed a suspension bridge in Nova Scotia . Rainfall caused minor flooding in the region . Overall , Bertha caused nine fatalities and approximately $ 3 @.@ 91 million ( 1990 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
A cold front moved eastward through the United States in the middle part of July , and reached the East Coast of the United States on July 23 . By the following day , a low pressure area developed just southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina ahead of the frontal zone , and quickly formed into a subtropical depression . In association with a nearby upper @-@ level low , the depression tracked quickly southeastward before turning to the southwest . The subtropical depression gradually organized , and satellite classifications began subsequent to merging with a tropical wave on July 25 . Convection developed closer to the center of circulation as it gradually decelerated while continuing southwestward and on July 27 , the system organized into Tropical Depression Three while located about 335 miles ( 539 @.@ 1 km ) east of Daytona Beach , Florida .
Upon transitioning into a tropical cyclone , the depression executed an elongated counter @-@ clockwise loop to the northeast . Conditions favored further intensification , and based on ship reports , it is estimated the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Bertha early on July 28 . Bertha quickly strengthened to attain hurricane status early on July 29 about halfway between Cape Canaveral , Florida and Bermuda . The strengthening trend was brief , however , as increased vertical wind shear weakened it back to a tropical storm late on July 29 , with the center exposed from the deep convection . Bertha continued slowly northeastward to ridging from the Bermuda high extending westward to the United States .
Operationally , forecasters at the National Hurricane Center speculated whether Bertha was transitioning into a subtropical cyclone , due to its deep convection being located , at times , over 200 miles ( 321 @.@ 8 km ) from the center . However , the convection progressively returned to the center and by late on July 30 , Bertha re @-@ intensified into a hurricane as the convection covered the center , about 415 miles ( 667 @.@ 8 km ) east of where it first formed . Early on July 31 , the hurricane briefly attained peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) before weakening and accelerated northeastward as the ridge of high pressure was slowly eroded . Bertha maintained hurricane status as it approached Atlantic Canada , and briefly reached winds of 80 mph ( 129 km / h ) before weakening and making landfall near Sydney , Nova Scotia on August 1 as a 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) tropical storm . The storm was transitioning into an extratropical cyclone while approaching Atlantic Canada , and lost all tropical characteristics shortly after moving ashore . The weakening extratropical remnants of Bertha turned northward into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and lost its identity shortly thereafter .
= = Preparations and Impact = =
The formation of Bertha in close proximity of the East Coast of the United States prompted residents to stock up on emergency supplies and monitor the storm . The Maritimes Weather Center and National Hurricane Center began to issue warnings for Nova Scotia and most of Atlantic Canada on July 31 and August 1 . By the following day , all warnings and advisories for Atlantic Canada were dropped as Bertha dissipated .
Bertha 's broad circulation produced high waves which were reported along the southeastern coast of the United States , in North Carolina , the storm produced waves of 25 – 50 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 @-@ 15 @.@ 2 m ) . The waves caused minor beach erosion along the North Carolina coastline including the Outer Banks . In Florida , rip currents from Bertha caused two drowning fatalities . 200 other swimmers were rescued from the rough seas . The vortex of Bertha forced warm air and blocked sea breezes from South Florida . As a result , record high temperatures were reported in West Palm Beach , Miami , Hollywood , and Miami Beach ; temperatures also tied records in Fort Lauderdale . The extreme heat also shattered numerous sliding glass doors and exhausted several air conditioners .
Offshore , several ships came in contact with Bertha , many reported sustained winds of 35 @-@ 58 mph ( 56 – 93 km / h ) and a Canadian ship reported a barometric pressure of 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . The only reported shipwreck caused by Bertha was when the Corazon , a Greek freighter capsized and sank during the storm . The ship , which was off the coast of Cape Cod at the time of its sinking , was experiencing strong winds up to 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) and 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) waves . The rough seas caused the ship 's keel to break , causing the crewmen to send a distress signal and evacuate the sinking vessel . During the evacuation , one crewman drowned when trying to board a lifeboat , his body was later found by a Soviet merchant ship . Another merchant ship , the Vyapel , spotted twelve of the 27 sailors in their liferaft and the crew of the Vyapel tried to rescue the sailors but to no avail as the rough seas caused the liferaft to drift near the ships propeller and rudder area . The turbulence caused by the ships propeller knocked seven sailors into the water , five of them drowned and a search for their bodies continued until the following day . The remaining 21 sailors were later rescued by crews of other freighters and merchant ships . An investigation by the United States Coast Guard revealed that the Corazon 's lifeboats were in too poor of a condition to use in case of an emergency .
Initially , the National Hurricane Center noted the possibility of Bertha impacting Bermuda . However , the storm bypassed Bermuda , which caused only minor effects on the island ; limited to rough seas and wind gusts reaching 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) .
In Atlantic Canada , Bertha brought strong tropical storm force winds and heavy rainfall . Two weather stations in Braddeck , Nova Scotia and Hunter 's Mountain recorded 7 inches ( 177 @.@ 8 mm ) of rainfall . In Prince Edward Island , the storm produced a wind gust of 71 mph ( 115 km / h ) and 4 @.@ 72 inches ( 101 @.@ 6 mm ) of rain . A weather station in Port @-@ aux @-@ Basques , Newfoundland and Labrador reported a wind gust of 63 mph ( 102 km / h ) and 2 @.@ 51 inches ( 50 mm ) of rain . The high winds brought by Bertha caused moderate damage to tobacco and corn crops in Prince Edward Island and damaged a suspension bridge in Nova Scotia . Heavy rainfall from Bertha caused minimal flooding at a golf course . In Peggys Cove , Nova Scotia , six people were injured when waves from Bertha washed them into the sea . Damage was estimated at $ 4 @.@ 427 million ( 1990 CAD , $ 3 @.@ 912 million 1990 USD ) .
= Keynsham =
Keynsham / ˈkeɪnʃəm / is a town and civil parish between Bristol and Bath in Somerset , south @-@ west England . It has a population of 16 @,@ 000 . It was listed in the Domesday Book as Cainesham , which is believed to mean the home of Saint Keyne .
The site of the town has been occupied since prehistoric times , and may have been the site of the Roman settlement of Trajectus . The remains of at least two Roman villas have been excavated , and an additional 15 Roman buildings have been detected beneath the Keynsham Hams . Keynsham developed into a medieval market town after Keynsham Abbey was founded around 1170 . It is situated at the confluence of the River Chew and River Avon and was subject to serious flooding before the creation of Chew Valley Lake and river level controls at Keynsham Lock in 1727 . The Great Flood of 1968 inundated large parts of the town . It was home to the Cadbury 's chocolate factory , Somerdale , which opened in 1935 as a major employer in the town .
It is home to Memorial Park , which is used for the annual town festival and several nature reserves . The town is served by Keynsham railway station on the London @-@ Bristol and Bristol @-@ Southampton trunk routes and is close to the A4 road which bypassed the town in 1964 . There are schools , religious , sporting , and cultural clubs and venues .
= = History = =
= = = Roman Trajectus = = =
Evidence of occupation dates back to prehistoric times , and during the Roman period , Keynsham may have been the site of the Roman settlement of Trajectus , which is the Latin word for " bridgehead . " It is believed that a settlement around a Roman ford over the River Avon existed somewhere in the vicinity , and the numerous Roman ruins discovered in Keynsham make it a likely candidate for this lost settlement .
In 1877 during construction of the Durley Hill Cemetery , the remains of a grand Roman villa with over 30 rooms was discovered . Unfortunately , construction of the cemetery went ahead , and the majority of the villa is now located beneath the Victorian cemetery and an adjacent road . The cemetery was expanded in 1922 , and an archeological dig was carried out ahead of the interments , leading to the excavation of 17 rooms and the rescue of 10 elaborate mosaics .
At the same time as the grand Roman villa was being excavated at Durley Hill Cemetery , a second , much smaller Roman villas was discovered during the construction of Fry 's Somerdale Chocolate Factory . Two fine stone coffins were also excavated , interred with the remains of a male and a female . The villa and coffins were removed from the site , and reconstructed near the gates of the factory grounds , and construction on the factory went ahead . Fry 's constructed a museum on the grounds of the factory , which house the Durley Hill mosaics , the coffins , and numerous other artifacts for many years . The factory was shuttered in 2011 , and the property sold to Taylor Wimpey for redevelopment into a housing community . In 2012 , Taylor Wimpey carried out a detailed geophysical assessment of the area , and discovered an additional 15 Roman buildings centered around a Roman road beneath Keynsham Hams , with evidence of additional Roman buildings that have been disturbed by quarrying . Currently , there are no plans to excavate the Roman ruins at Keynsham Hams .
= = = Medieval Keynsham = = =
According to legend , Saint Keyne , daughter of King Brychan of Brycheiniog ( Brecon ) , lived here on the banks of the River Avon during the 5th century . Before settling here , she had been warned by the local King that the marshy area was swarming with snakes , which prevented habitation . St Keyne prayed to the heavens and turned the snakes to stone . The fossil ammonites found in the area were believed to be the result . However , there is no evidence that her cult was ever celebrated in Keynsham .
Some scattered archeological evidence suggests that an Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement existed in Keynsham in the High Street area , and that in the 9th century a Minster church existed in Keynsham as well . The earliest documentary reference to Keynsham is in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , ( c . 980 ) which refers to it as Cægineshamme , Old English for ' Cæga 's Hamm . ' The town is also listed in the Domesday Book of 1086 as " Cainesham . " It has therefore been suggested that the origin of Keynsham 's name is not , in fact Saint Keyne , but from " Ceagin ( Caega ) . "
Around 1170 , Keynsham Abbey was founded by the Victorine congregation of canon regulars . Archeological evidence suggests that the abbey was built over the site of the previous Saxon Minster church . The settlement developed into a medieval market town , and the abbey of Keynsham was given ownership of the Keynsham Hundred . The Abbey survived until the dissolution of the monasteries in 1539 , and a house was subsequently built on the site . The remains have been designated as a Grade I listed building by English Heritage .
= = = Modern history = = =
Keynsham played a part in the Civil War as the Roundheads saved the town and also camped there for the night , using the pub now known as the Lock Keeper Inn as a guard post . During the Monmouth Rebellion of 1685 the town was the site of a battle between royalist forces and the rebel Duke of Monmouth . Bridges Almshouses were built around 1685 and may have been for the widows of those killed in the rebellion .
= = = Post World War II = = =
Before the creation of Chew Valley Lake and river level controls at Keynsham Lock and weir , Keynsham was prone to flooding . The Great Flood of 1968 inundated large parts of the town , destroying the town 's bridges including the county bridge over the Avon which had stood since medieval times , and private premises on Dapps Hill ; the devastation was viewed by the Duke of Edinburgh . After the flood the Memorial Park , which had been laid out after World War II was extended .
Keynsham rose to fame during the late 1950s and early 1960s when it featured in a long @-@ running series of advertisements on Radio Luxembourg for Horace Batchelor 's Infra @-@ draw betting system . To obtain the system , listeners had to write to Batchelor 's Keynsham post office box , and Keynsham was always painstakingly spelled out on @-@ air , with Batchelor famously intoning " Keynsham – spelt K @-@ E @-@ Y @-@ N @-@ S @-@ H @-@ A @-@ M – Keynsham , Bristol " . This was done because the proper pronunciation of Keynsham – " Cane @-@ sham " – does not make the spelling of Keynsham immediately obvious to the radio listener .
Since the 1950s Keynsham has become a dormitory town for Bristol and Bath . The High Street shopping area has been remodelled , and a Town Hall , Library , and Clock Tower were built in the mid @-@ 1960s .
= = = 2010s regeneration = = =
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New Jersey , due to high tides and strong winds . In the state of Maryland , the storm 's effects resulted in severe crop damage , and many boats and piers were damaged or destroyed due to high tides and storm surge . The hurricane produced heavy rainfall along its path , with a peak of 13 @.@ 28 inches ( 337 @.@ 3 mm ) in York , Pennsylvania . Overall , the hurricane caused $ 27 million in damage. and 31 deaths .
= = = Tropical Storm Seven = = =
The seventh tropical storm of the season was first observed in the eastern Caribbean on August 14 . It strengthened to reach winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . After passing just south of Jamaica , the storm turned to the northwest and crossed over both the Isle of Youth and western Cuba on August 18 . It curved northward and dissipated west of Florida on August 21 .
On Trinidad , rainfall from this storm and a subsequent tropical depression were the heaviest in nine years , which caused rivers to overflow and flooded parts of the island . Several boats were damaged or driven ashore from rough seas . The two storms caused damage to fields , highways , and houses , and caused the loss of crops such as cocoa and bananas . In all , damage totaled $ 3 million and there were 13 deaths on Trinidad . The storm produced heavy rainfall in eastern Jamaica , including a record 24 @-@ hour total of 12 @.@ 2 inches ( 310 mm ) in the Corporate Area , and Dallas Castle received 20 @.@ 2 inches ( 510 mm ) in 24 hours . This flooded and damaged properties and water systems in Kingston and Saint Andrew , leading to a water famine until the water mains were fixed . Damage totaled to over $ 2 @.@ 5 million , and 70 people were reported killed due to the flooding . Damage was minimal in both Cuba and Florida .
= = = Hurricane Eight = = =
The eighth storm of the season was one of two storms in the 1933 Atlantic hurricane season to reach the intensity of a Category 5 strength on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . It formed on August 22 off the west coast of Africa , and for much of its duration it maintained a west @-@ northwest track . The system intensified into a tropical storm on August 26 and into a hurricane on August 28 . Passing north of the Lesser Antilles , the hurricane rapidly intensified as it approached the Turks and Caicos islands . It reached Category 5 status and its peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) on August 31 . Subsequently , it weakened before striking northern Cuba on September 1 with winds of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . In the country , the hurricane left about 100 @,@ 000 people homeless and killed over 70 people . Damage was heaviest near the storm 's path , and the strong winds destroyed houses and left areas without power . Damage was estimated at $ 11 million .
After exiting from Cuba , the hurricane entered the Gulf of Mexico and restrengthened . On September 2 , it re @-@ attained winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Initially the hurricane posed a threat to the area around Corpus Christi , Texas , and the local United States Weather Bureau forecaster advised people to stay away from the Texas coastline during the busy Labor Day Weekend . Officials declared martial law in the city and mandated evacuations . However , the hurricane turned more to the west and struck near Brownsville early on September 5 with winds estimated at 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . It quickly dissipated after causing heavy damage in the Rio Grande Valley . High winds caused heavy damage to the citrus crop . The hurricane left $ 16 @.@ 9 million in damage and 40 deaths in southern Texas .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
On August 23 , another tropical storm was observed north of Puerto Rico . It moved northwestward for three days , slowly strengthening as it moved over the open ocean . The storm turned to the northeast and reached peak sustained winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) a short distance to the west of Bermuda . It began weakening shortly thereafter , and on August 30 the storm became extratropical to the southeast of Newfoundland . It continued to the northeast and was last observed on August 31 over the north @-@ central Atlantic Ocean . It did not cause significant effects on land .
= = = Tropical Storm Ten = = =
A tropical storm formed in the Bay of Campeche . It initially moved to the northwest . The cyclone remained a minimal tropical storm for most of its lifetime . On August 29 , the storm turned to the west @-@ southwest and made landfall near Tampico , Mexico , dissipating shortly thereafter . The tropical storm caused heavy rains near the coast , although winds were minor . Due to uncertainty as to its course , tropical storm warnings were issued for portions of the southern Texas coastline .
= = = Hurricane Eleven = = =
A tropical storm was first observed on August 31 , 225 miles ( 360 km ) north @-@ northeast of the island of Antigua . The storm rapidly intensified as it moved quickly to the west @-@ northwest , attaining hurricane status later that day , and major hurricane strength on September 1 , while located to the north of Puerto Rico . It continued west @-@ northwestward and attained its peak intensity , with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) , on September 2 . The hurricane , then at Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , moved through the northern Bahamas at peak intensity and weakened slightly before making landfall on Jupiter , Florida , with winds of 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) on September 4 . The system weakened rapidly over Florida to tropical storm status , and after turning to the north , decelerated . The weakening storm slowly moved through Georgia before dissipating near the Georgia / South Carolina border on September 7 .
On Eleuthera Island , the Category 4 hurricane blew away the roofs of buildings , wrecked wharves , and lost boats . Hurricane warnings were issued for the eastern Florida coastline , and 3 @,@ 000 people were evacuated around Lake Okeechobee to safer areas . In southeastern Florida , the strong winds broke many glass windows and downed trees and power lines ; severe house damage was reported near the landfall location . The hurricane 's powerful winds also severely damaged crops , including 4 million boxes of citrus fruit across the state . In total , Florida suffered $ 2 million in damage and two deaths .
= = = Hurricane Twelve = = =
On September 8 , an area of disturbed weather to the east of the Lesser Antilles organized into a tropical storm . It moved north @-@ northeastward , and after a turn to the northwest , the system intensified to hurricane strength on September 10 . It steadily intensified and reached a peak strength of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) on September 15 . It slowed as it turned to the north , striking southeastern North Carolina just west of Cape Hatteras as a Category 2 hurricane . After moving through the Outer Banks , the system accelerated to the northeast and became extratropical on September 18 about halfway between Cape Cod and the southern tip of Nova Scotia . The extratropical storm passed over Nova Scotia , Newfoundland , and Labrador before dissipating east of Greenland on September 22 .
Strong winds from the hurricane downed trees and power lines in southeastern North Carolina , causing damage to many houses . The hurricane produced a storm surge that flooded coastal streets with 3 to 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water . In all , the hurricane caused at least 21 deaths , primarily due to drowning in high waters . Damage totaled around $ 4 @.@ 5 million .
= = = Hurricane Thirteen = = =
On September 10 , as Hurricane Twelve was intensifying over the waters of the Atlantic Ocean , another area of disturbed weather developed into a tropical storm over the western Caribbean Sea off the coast of Guatemala . It moved slowly northward and strengthened , becoming a hurricane on September 12 just east of Belize . On the next day , the hurricane made landfall on the Mexican state of Quintana Roo , and the system weakened to a tropical storm as it moved northwestward across the Yucatán Peninsula . On September 14 it again regained hurricane status over the Bay of Campeche . The hurricane struck Tampico on September 15 and then dissipated .
The storm caused severe damage in Tampico and further inland , leaving several thousand homeless . According to The New York Times , at least 67 people were killed . Tuxpan , south of Tampico , also suffered heavy damage with many houses and office buildings destroyed . Total property losses were estimated at several million dollars .
= = = Hurricane Fourteen = = =
On the other side of the Caribbean Sea , what would become the second Category 5 hurricane of the season , and the 14th tropical storm of the year , was first observed on September 16 to the east of the southern Leeward Islands . The cyclone , then a tropical depression , tracked to the west @-@ northwest through the islands , slowly strengthening into a tropical storm on September 18 . It attained hurricane strength on September 19 near Jamaica , then began a period of rapid intensification south of that island . On September 21 , a ship measured a central pressure of 929 millibars ( 27 inHg ) , indicating that the hurricane had intensified to a peak of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . Continuing west @-@ northwestward , the hurricane weakened somewhat and made landfall 40 miles ( 65 km ) south of Cozumel Island on September 22 . Winds at landfall were estimated to have been 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) , equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane by modern classification . The hurricane weakened slightly over the Yucatán Peninsula , but then re @-@ strengthened over the Gulf of Mexico to reach a second peak intensity of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) on September 24 . Shortly thereafter , the storm made landfall near Tampico . It dissipated on September 25 over Mexico .
Near Jamaica , the hurricane caused rough seas , although damage , if any , is unknown . While moving across the Yucatán Peninsula , the storm produced heavy rainfall and strong winds . In Cozumel , the winds destroyed a 300 @-@ foot ( 91 m ) pier and several buildings . Rough seas sunk several ships , and one person drowned . The rainfall caused several rivers to overflow , causing flooding and damage to roads and railroads in the state of Veracruz . Many people in low @-@ lying areas around Tampico evacuated for the storm .
Reports indicate much of the city of Tampico was destroyed , and the total number of deaths and injuries amounted to over 5 @,@ 000 . Most of the deaths occurred from flood waters , which were 10 to 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 6 m ) deep and covered the entire city ; many bodies were washed out to sea , and were never recovered . The flooding washed out roads and railroads , delaying relief efforts into the devastated area . Water and food supplies in and around Tampico were damaged or contaminated , resulting in a threat of famine or disease that further aggravated the situation . Torrential rains caused more flooding , and the powerful winds damaged or destroyed nearly every building in the city and left many homeless . The strong winds downed numerous power lines , leaving the entire city in blackout , and destroyed two large water towers . There were at least 10 cases of looting ; all of the perpetrators were executed . Damage in and around Tampico totaled over $ 10 million , and the storm killed over 184 people .
The thousands of victims took refuge in churches , theatres , and public buildings . Immediately after the storm , the Mexican military placed the city under martial law . Military and federal authorities dispatched trains with food , water , and medicine , and planes bearing engineers and doctors . Mexican president Abelardo L. Rodríguez rallied citizens to aid the affected people in the storm area . The local chamber of deputies allowed $ 140 @,@ 000 in funds for the storm victims .
= = = Hurricane Fifteen = = =
A storm of extratropical origin developed into a small tropical storm on September 24 southwest of the Azores . Initially the storm moved north @-@ northwestward , and based on ship reports , it is estimated the system intensified into a hurricane on September 26 . It passed west of the Azores as it turned to the north @-@ northeast , weakening to a tropical storm later that day . On September 27 the storm became extratropical , and the next day it dissipated .
= = = Tropical Storm Sixteen = = =
A tropical disturbance moved through the Lesser Antilles in late September . After crossing Hispaniola , a tropical depression developed on October 1 north of the Dominican Republic . It moved northwestward initially and quickly intensified into a tropical storm . It had a broad wind field , indicating characteristics of a subtropical cyclone . After reaching peak winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , the storm turned to the northeast and weakened . It dissipated on October 4 to the southeast of Bermuda .
= = = Hurricane Seventeen = = =
On October 1 , a tropical storm developed off the northeast coast of Nicaragua . It moved slowly northward and steadily intensified , becoming a hurricane on October 3 just west of Jamaica . The hurricane turned to the north @-@ northwest and hit the Cuban province of La Habana with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) on October 4 . The hurricane passed over Havana and turned to the northeast and strengthened , becoming a major hurricane as it moved south of Miami , Florida . The hurricane reached a peak intensity of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) while passing through the Bahamas on October 6 . The hurricane weakened as it accelerated to the northeast , and it became extratropical on October 8 to the south of Nova Scotia . It paralleled the Nova Scotia coast , turned to the east @-@ southeast , and lost its tropical characteristics on October 9 over the open north Atlantic Ocean .
One person was killed in Jamaica due to flooding . In Cuba , people boarded up numerous buildings , and emergency workers assisted authorities in spreading the word about the impending storm ; residents in vulnerable areas evacuated to shelters on higher ground . The hurricane 's powerful winds destroyed several houses in Camagüey , and heavy rainfall overflowed numerous rivers in low @-@ lying districts . The winds damaged and disrupted telephone and telegraph lines and injured a few people in Havana . Despite government orders for police to kill any looters , large @-@ scale looting occurred in Havana after the storm . Two looters were shot to death , and a third was injured . Two civilians were also wounded by snipers who fired to disperse thieves . Residents in southeast Florida boarded up for the storm while the National Weather Bureau issued storm warnings for portions of the coastline . The hurricane produced strong winds and rain in the Florida Keys and extreme southern Florida , but damage was minimal . In northwest Miami , the hurricane spawned a tornado that damaged three houses and injured two . In Nova Scotia , the former hurricane left heavy damage to crops due to strong winds and heavy rain . Sunken boats killed nine people , and damage was estimated at around $ 1 million ( 1933 CAD ) , including $ 250 @,@ 000 in lost apple crop .
= = = Hurricane Eighteen = = =
After a two @-@ week period of inactivity , a tropical depression was detected in the western Caribbean Sea on October 25 . It moved to the east @-@ northeast then curved to the northwest while slowly intensifying . On October 29 , it strengthened into a hurricane near Jamaica and reached peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) before striking the western portion of the island . The hurricane turned to the northeast and weakened . It made landfall on southeastern Cuba as a strong tropical storm on October 31 . The weakening storm changed its course to the north @-@ northwest , as it drifted through Cuba and the Bahamas . On November 4 , the storm turned once more to the northeast , accelerated , and was absorbed by an approaching cold front on November 7 near Bermuda .
While moving near western Jamaica , the hurricane produced strong winds of about 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , which wrecked about 90 % of the banana crop . One plantation lost 500 banana trees , and there was also damage to corn , coffee , and yams . Many houses were wrecked or washed away , leaving hundreds homeless . The storm cut power and telegraph lines and blocked roads , limiting communication . Rail lines were cut , and small bridges were washed away . Damage was estimated at $ 3 million , and there were 23 deaths . The storm also produced strong winds and rainfall in Cuba .
= = = Tropical Storm Nineteen = = =
Almost simultaneous to Hurricane 19 , a tropical storm developed a short distance east of the central Bahamas on October 26 . It moved north @-@ northeastward , then northeastward , steadily strengthening along its path . On October 27 , a barometric pressure of 993 mbar ( 29 @.@ 32 inHg ) was recorded within the storm , and on October 28 the storm reached a peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . On October 29 , the storm became extratropical and turned north to hit Nova Scotia . Wedged between two high pressure systems , it continued northward until dissipating over extreme eastern portions of Quebec on October 30 .
In Atlantic Canada , the former tropical storm produced winds of 52 mph ( 83 km / h ) in Nova Scotia , along with heavy rainfall of 2 @.@ 3 in ( 58 mm ) in Amherst . The storm sank one boat and washed another ashore . Winds were strong enough to knock down telephone and telegraph lines , mainly due to fallen trees which also covered roads and damaged houses . Flooding washed out several bridges and roads , covering one highway with 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of water , and entered the basements of houses . In New Brunswick , the storm damaged or destroyed 72 bridges . One man was struck by a car due to poor visibility from the storm .
= = = Tropical Storm Twenty = = =
After another calm period , the final tropical storm of the season was first observed on November 15 in the southwestern Caribbean Sea . It moved slowly westward , never strengthening beyond a minimal tropical storm in its short lifetime . On November 16 , it struck the southeastern coast of Nicaragua , and it dissipated soon after on November 17 .
= = Seasonal effects = =
This is a table of the storms in 1933 and their landfall ( s ) in bold , if any . The minimum pressures , in most cases , are based on limited observations and may not have occurred at their peak intensity .
= Fresh Bones =
" Fresh Bones " is the fifteenth episode of the second season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 3 , 1995 . It was written by Howard Gordon , directed by Rob Bowman , and featured guest appearances by Kevin Conway , Daniel Benzali , and Matt Hill . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Fresh Bones " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 3 , being watched by 10 @.@ 8 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Mulder and Scully discover a voodoo symbol drawn on a tree after a soldier , Private Jack McAlpin , crashes his car into it following two separate hallucinatory incidents . This leads the two to a processing center for Haitian refugees where suspicion falls on one of the Haitians identified by the colonel in charge .
Howard Gordon was inspired to write the episode after reading two articles involving suicides of servicemen in Haiti . The Haitian refugee camp was shot in a derelict building in a North Vancouver shipyard ; originally , the producers wanted to set the episode in Haiti and actually film in the country . This endeavor , however , proved unsuccessful .
= = Plot = =
In Folkstone , North Carolina , Jack McAlpin , an agitated Marine Corps private , drives his car into a tree after several hallucinatory episodes and is apparently killed . On the tree is a veve , a drawn voodoo religious symbol .
McAlpin is the second purported suicide among troops stationed at an INS compound processing refugees from Haiti . Fox Mulder and Dana Scully visit the compound to investigate McAlpin 's death . There , a young boy named Chester Bonaparte sells a good luck charm to Mulder . After meeting with Colonel Wharton , head of the compound , Mulder meets with an imprisoned refugee , Pierre Bauvais , and an associate of McAlpin 's , Harry Dunham . When Scully attempts to perform an autopsy on McAlpin 's body , she finds a dog carcass in its place at the morgue .
While driving down the road , Mulder and Scully discover a still @-@ living McAlpin , who doesn 't remember what has happened to him . Tetrodotoxin , a chemical Mulder believes is part of Haitian zombification rituals , is found in McAlpin 's blood . The agents go to the local graveyard to investigate the corpse of the other dead soldier , but find the grave robbed . They also find Chester , who collects frogs at the cemetery and sells them to Bauvais . Dunham approaches Mulder , telling him that Wharton has begun abusing the refugees as a means of retaliation against Bauvais ; Wharton denies the accusations , but later has Bauvais beaten to death .
Scully cuts her hand on the thorn of a twig left in her car . When she drives off , a veve is seen on the ground under her car . Mulder has a meeting with X , who tells him that he and Scully will soon be called back to Washington and that the camp will be restricted to military personnel only . Mulder believes Wharton is persecuting the refugees after the suicide of some of his men during a previous trip to Haiti . Scully finds Dunham dead in a bathtub , and Mulder catches McAlpin with a knife nearby . Although he has no recollection of the event , McAlpin confesses to the murder under the influence of Wharton , who tells the agents that Bauvais committed suicide and that their investigation is over .
McAlpin 's wife provides the agents with a photo of Wharton with Bauvais in Haiti , causing the agents to go through his office . They find that both Dunham and McAlpin had filed complaints against Wharton over his treatment of the detainees . The agents head to the cemetery , where Wharton is performing a voodoo rite over Bauvais ' coffin . When Mulder confronts him , Wharton harms him through sympathetic magic . Meanwhile , in a hallucinatory episode , a man emerges from the small cut in Scully 's hand and strangles her , but the illusion disappears when she grabs the charm Chester sold them . Bauvais appears and stops Wharton by blowing zombie powder in his face . Scully arrives to assist Mulder and pronounces Wharton dead .
The next day the agents say goodbye to McAlpin , who reveals that Chester was a boy who had died in a riot six weeks earlier . The episode ends with Wharton being unwittingly buried alive by the graveyard watchman .
= = Production = =
Writer Howard Gordon was inspired to write the episode after reading two articles involving suicides of servicemen in Haiti . The refugee plot was used due to the producers being unable to film in Haiti . Colonel Wharton was portrayed by Daniel Benzali , who later went on to star in the ABC series Murder One . While the producers agreed that he did not look like a military man , they felt he had the quality they were looking for in the role . For the sequence where a man emerges from Scully 's hand and strangles her , a male actor pushed his gelatine covered fingers through a mechanical hand . The episode started production in late December 1994 , and after a Christmas break was completed in January 1995 . The Haitian refugee camp was shot in a derelict building in a North Vancouver shipyard . Sump pumps had to be used on the graveyard of the episode 's ending as it was shot during a particularly rainy January .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Fresh Bones " premiered on the Fox network on February 3 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 3 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 10 @.@ 8 million households . " Fresh Bones " was the highest rated episode of the first two seasons .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Writer Gordon stated that director
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Bowman did a great job in mining his script for chills . In their book , X @-@ Treme Possibilities , authors Keith Topping and Paul Cornell praised the episode , including Benzali 's performance and the sequence in the graveyard at the end of the episode . Series creator Chris Carter called the episode one of the ones he was most proud of from the second season , stating that Gordon did a good job with the script and Bowman did a great job with the directing .
Not all of the reviews were glowing . Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a B- and a more mixed review , writing that the episode was " Not one for the ages , despite some jarring moments ( car meets tree , Scully 's hoodoo hallucinations , and that final shot — whoa ) . " Reviewer Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a C , and wrote that " the biggest problems here are the lack of focus and the chaotic pacing . The episode rumbles along in first gear for about three @-@ quarters of its running time and then abruptly shifts into high gear at the end , moving toward an apocalyptic finish that doesn 't feel wholly earned . There 's good stuff in ' Fresh Bones , ' but the bulk of the episode disappoints . "
= Attack of the Alligators ! =
" Attack of the Alligators ! " is the 23rd episode of Thunderbirds , a British 1960s Supermarionation television series co @-@ created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson . One of the final episodes of Series One , it was written by Alan Pattillo and directed by David Lane , and was first broadcast on ATV Midlands on 10 March 1966 . In this episode , set in South America , alligators grow to an enormous size after a swamp is contaminated by a newly invented growth chemical . When the animals proceed to attack a house , International Rescue must save the occupants trapped inside .
Combining science @-@ fiction and haunted house horror themes , with a plot written to be " nightmarish " , the episode was filmed in late 1965 . It is remembered for containing footage of actual crocodiles , doubling as re @-@ sized alligators on scale model sets – the first appearance of live animals in an Anderson production . However , the animals ' slowness and unpredictability complicated and delayed the filming , which involved the use of electric shocks to induce movement from the crocodiles . Although the AP Films Studios were briefly investigated by the RSPCA , animal abuse allegations were not upheld .
A critic and fan favourite , despite the controversy of its production , " Attack of the Alligators " is commonly ranked as one of the best episodes of Thunderbirds . Since the filming of this episode and a later instalment , " The Cham @-@ Cham " , went over @-@ time and over @-@ budget , the series finale was re @-@ written as a clip show to lower costs and simplify the shooting schedule . Ten years after first airing , " Attack of the Alligators ! " provided the inspiration for an episode of The New Avengers , by ex @-@ Thunderbirds scriptwriter Dennis Spooner .
= = Plot = =
A businessman , Blackmer , visits the reclusive Dr Orchard , a scientist who lives in a remote house on the Ambro River in South America . From the local plant Sidonicus americanus , Orchard has developed a food additive called Theramine ; if administered to animals , the chemical causes them to grow beyond their original size . Enlargement of animal stock would offer a simple solution to world famine and present other economic advantages . Blackmer 's boatman , Culp , eavesdrops on the meeting . After a storm forces Blackmer to stay at the house for the night , Culp resolves to steal the Theramine and sell it to the highest bidder . Waiting until the other occupants fall asleep , he steals the keys to Orchard 's laboratory from the housekeeper , Mrs Files . While filling a vial with a quantity of the chemical , Culp accidentally knocks the rest of the supply into a sink , and the Theramine drains into the Ambro River .
Shortly after Blackmer and Culp depart the next morning , their boat is attacked by an alligator , now enlarged because of the contamination . Orchard 's assistant , Hector McGill , manages to rescue Blackmer , but Culp is believed killed . The house is quickly surrounded by three giant alligators , which throw themselves at the building with Orchard , McGill , Blackmer and Mrs Files trapped inside . On the advice of Mrs Files , McGill contacts International Rescue and John ( voiced by Ray Barrett ) alerts Tracy Island . Jeff ( Peter Dyneley ) dispatches Thunderbirds 1 and 2 . Arriving at the scene , Scott ( Shane Rimmer ) briefly dispels the reptiles with his hoverjet cannon and accesses the house through the laboratory window . Eventually the laboratory caves in , forcing Scott and the others to move to the lounge . There , the group is confronted by none other than Culp , who survived the alligator attack and holds them at gunpoint .
Virgil ( David Holliday ) arrives in Thunderbird 2 and scatters the alligators with aircraft 's vertical landing jets . Alan ( Matt Zimmerman ) and Gordon ( David Graham ) subdue two of the animals with heavy @-@ duty tranquiliser guns . When the third returns to the house , Alan exits Thunderbird 2 on a hoverjet to lure the alligator away . He collides with a tree and falls from the hoverjet , but is saved by Gordon , who shoots the oncoming alligator before it can attack Alan . Culp threatens to empty the whole Theramine vial into the Ambro River unless he is granted safe passage upstream . Launching Thunderbird 4 , Gordon encounters a fourth , far larger reptile that ravages Blackmer 's boat and stops Culp . Virgil disposes of the creature with a missile fired from Thunderbird 2 . Although it is feared at first that the vial has been smashed , Gordon retrieves it from the riverbed intact . Later , on Tracy Island , Jeff announces that Theramine will be subject to international security restrictions , and Culp will be going to jail . Tin @-@ Tin ( Christine Finn ) has been away on a shopping trip and has bought Alan a present for his upcoming birthday – a pygmy alligator .
= = Production = =
Inspiration for " Attack of the Alligators ! " was derived partly from H. G. Wells ' 1904 novel The Food of the Gods and How It Came to Earth , in which animal re @-@ sizing is a major theme . Another source was the 1927 film The Cat and the Canary and its 1939 re @-@ make , both of which feature haunted house premises and stalkers . Scriptwriter Alan Pattillo , who according to special effects director Derek Meddings " had tried to come up with the most nightmarish rescue situation he could " , wanted to direct the episode as well ; the position was ultimately given to David Lane . " Attack of the Alligators ! " was filmed in October and November 1965 , overrunning its one @-@ month shooting window and forcing the production staff to work overtime , and sometimes long into the night , to complete the recording . Ian Wingrove , a special effects technician for AP Films , remembers that the episode 's complex technical aspects resulted in the crew " [ working ] day and night ... through a weekend " .
Although it was series co @-@ creator and producer Gerry Anderson 's original plan to film with actual alligators , AP Films instead acquired a group of juvenile crocodiles from a private zoo in northern England ; these would double as re @-@ sized alligators on scale model sets and water tanks . With the exception of a five @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) specimen , which was too aggressive to be removed from its box , the animals were three feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) long . The crew kept the on @-@ set water tanks heated to a suitably warm temperature and used electric shocks to induce movement from the reptiles . They were unpredictable and very difficult to control and film , either bathing in the heat of the studio lights or disappearing into the tanks and remaining submerged for hours . To make the crocodiles more visible to the cameras , the crew fixed them to guiding rods and co @-@ ordinated their movements . The heavy presence of the animals in both puppet and scale model shots resulted in a closer @-@ than @-@ normal degree of collaboration between the puppet and effects crews .
Objecting on animal welfare grounds , effects director Brian Johnson was one of several crewmembers who refused to participate in the production . Camera operator Alan Perry has no memory of ill treatment ; series supervising director Desmond Saunders , however , recalls that more than one crocodile died of pneumonia after being left overnight in an un @-@ heated tank . Director David Elliott , though filming a different episode at the time , remembers that another dislocated a limb after receiving an unexpected jolt from a shocker . Puppet operator Christine Glanville admitted that the filming could not have been a pleasant experience for the " guest stars " , since the tanks were " filled with all sorts of dirty paint water , oil and soapy water to make it look swampy . " Saunders comments : " It was scandalous . It was one of the great episodes . Nevertheless there was a price to be paid for it . "
Concerns over the animals ' safety prompted an anonymous telephone call to the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ( RSPCA ) , which dispatched a representative . Initial tests with shocking had yielded disappointing results , necessitating an increase in voltage . According to Anderson , " Meddings explained that his team were laying the crocodiles down and they weren 't doing anything . They were just lying there . The RSPCA man said , well , they would , because of the warmth of the lamps . So Derek said , ' We 've been giving them a touch with an electrode just to make them move . ' The guy asked what voltage they were using and Derek said it was about 20 volts , and the guy said , ' Oh , they 've got terribly thick skins , you know . If you want them to move , you 'll have to pump it up to 60 . ' " Following an initial investigation of AP Films Studios , the allegations of mistreatment were not pursued further ; the RSPCA officer later joined the crocodiles ' handler in assisting with the filming .
Filming involving the reptiles frequently proved to be hazardous . During a promotional shoot with Supermarionation puppets , one of the crocodiles suddenly grabbed the Lady Penelope marionette ( which does not appear in the episode ) and , to the upset of Glanville , ripped apart one the legs . During the filming of a scene in which an alligator swims after a boat , Meddings was using a rope to guide the crocodile forwards when it was discovered that the animal had slipped out of its harness ; in his book , 21st – Century Visions , Meddings wrote of the incident : " My crew never saw me move as fast as I did to get out of the tank when I pulled the rope and realised the creature was free . " Of the largest crocodile , which was wetted with damp strips at the back of the stage while un @-@ used , Wingrove recalls : " You would forget that it was there , then one day someone shouted ' Look out ! ' and we turned round to see this big crocodile walking across the stage – which cleared of people very quickly ! "
= = Broadcast = =
" Attack of the Alligators ! " achieved ratings of 4 @.@ 78 million viewers for its BBC2 network broadcast on 20 March 1992 . The BBC repeated Thunderbirds in 2001 , a year known for a number of major rail accidents in the UK ( notably the Great Heck rail crash ; others occurred in Tisbury , Wiltshire and Hither Green , Lewisham , London ) . Consequently , it was decided to delay the transmission of the episodes " The Perils of Penelope " and " Brink of Disaster " ( both of which feature disasters involving trains ) until the end of the broadcast schedule . " Attack of the Alligators ! " substituted for " Brink of Disaster " , and was the 11th episode to be repeated on BBC Two .
= = Reception = =
" Attack of the Alligators ! " , a popular instalment , is widely considered to be one of the best episodes of Thunderbirds . It is series co @-@ creator Sylvia Anderson 's favourite episode , while commentator Stephen La Rivière judges the plot to be one of the most unusual of the series . Lew Grade , head of distributor ITC , expressed high satisfaction with the filming during a visit to AP Films Studios in 1965 .
In 2004 , " Attack of the Alligators ! " was re @-@ issued on Region 1 DVD as part of A & E Video 's The Best of Thunderbirds : The Favorite Episodes , whose content was selected based on the results of a fan poll hosted on the A & E website . In a review for the website DVD Verdict , David Gutierrez awarded " Attack of the Alligators ! " a perfect score of 100 , judging it the best of the collection and praising its production values : " It 's like a beautifully directed short film " . He elaborated : " ' Attack of the Alligators ! ' serves as a terrific example of how strong Thunderbirds can look . It 's not Howdy Doody sporting a jetpack – it 's an hour @-@ long programme that feels like a motion picture . "
Susanna Lazarus of Radio Times argues that the episode is memorable specifically for the alligator footage . The techniques used to produce the animal sequences have resulted in the episode being considered " controversial " by some sources . Mark Pickavance of the website Den of Geek is critical from a visual standpoint , suggesting that the use of scale sets and young crocodiles , " shot in super close @-@ up to make them seem huge " , does not produce a convincing illusion of giant , re @-@ sized alligators . Author Dave Thompson relates the giant reptile plot to Swamp Thing , a hybrid superorganism featured in the DC Comics Universe .
Since " Attack of the Alligators ! " and " The Cham @-@ Cham " exceeded their allotted budgets , the scriptwriters re @-@ wrote the Series One finale to be a clip show , " Security Hazard " . A shot of a stormy sky , present at the start of the episode , later introduced the opening titles of the TV series The Prisoner . In 1976 , Thunderbirds writer Dennis Spooner adapted the premise of " Attack of the Alligators ! " for an episode of The New Avengers ; the episode " Gnaws " features a wild rat , which grows to an enormous size after drinking from a water source contaminated by a dangerous chemical .
= Tintinhull Garden =
Tintinhull Garden , located in Tintinhull , near Yeovil in the English county of Somerset , is a small 20th century Arts and Crafts garden surrounding a 17th @-@ century Grade I listed house . The property is in the ownership of the National Trust . It is visited by around 25 @,@ 000 people per year .
The house started as a small farmhouse in 1630 but was enlarged into its current form in the 18th century . The house was the property of the Napper family for centuries . It was given to the National Trust in 1954 . The Arts and Crafts style garden is modeled on that at Hidcote Manor Garden in Gloucestershire . It was originally laid out by Phyllis Reiss and developed by Penelope Hobhouse .
= = House = =
The original farmhouse which forms the basis of the current Tintinhull House was built of Hamstone 1630 . It was reshaped and enlarged around 1722 when the west façade was added .
The house was the property of the Napper family , who acquired the manor after the Dissolution of the Monasteries and also owned Tintinhull Court , and was passed down in the family until they sold it sometime after 1814 .
The Nappers let it to the Pitt family until the death of John Napper in 1791 . It passed through several hands until 1835 , when it was bought by Jeremiah Penny . In 1898 the then owner , Arthur Cobbett , added a single @-@ storey extension to the east front before selling it to his tenant the botanist , Dr. S.J.M. Price . In 1933 it was bought by Phyllis Reiss and her husband , Capt. F.E. Reiss .
The house includes several paintings from the National Trust 's collection , including a painting of the front of the house by John S. Goodall .
The house is a Grade I listed building and can be booked for holiday lets from the National trust .
= = Garden = =
The garden is laid out into areas separated by walls and hedges .
The garden layout was developed in the early 20th century , by Dr. Price , including laying down traingular and diamond shaped flagstone paths . The ornamental domes of box were planted in the 1920s . The early landscaping was expanded and planted starting in 1933 by Phyllis Reiss in a Arts and Crafts " Hidcote " style . The 1 @.@ 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 61 ha ) garden is separated into " rooms " by Yew hedges and walls . The different areas include Eagle Court ( the former courtyard ) , Middle Garden , Fountain Garden and Pool Garden . The pool garden is the site of a former tennis court .
In 1954 Reiss gave the house and garden to the National Trust , but continued to live in the house and care for the garden until her death in 1961 . From then on , the Trust let the house to a variety of tenants , including the garden designer and writer Penelope Hobhouse and her husband Prof John Malins from 1980 to 1993 .
The gardens are included in the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens and include small pools and an azelea garden .
= Amchitka =
Amchitka ( / æmˈtʃɪtkə / ; Aleut : Amchixtax ̂ ) is a volcanic , tectonically unstable island in the Rat Islands group of the Aleutian Islands in southwest Alaska . It is part of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge . The island is about 68 kilometers ( 42 mi ) long , and from 3 to 6 km ( 1 @.@ 9 to 3 @.@ 7 mi ) wide . The area has a maritime climate , with many storms , and mostly overcast skies .
Amchitka was populated for more than 2 @,@ 500 years by the Aleut people , but has had no permanent population since 1832 . The island has been part of the United States since the Alaska Purchase of 1867 . During World War II , it was used as an airfield by US forces in the Aleutian Islands Campaign .
Amchitka was selected by the United States Atomic Energy Commission to be the site for underground detonations of nuclear weapons . Three such tests were carried out : Long Shot , an 80 @-@ kiloton ( 330 TJ ) blast in 1965 ; Milrow , a 1 @-@ megaton ( 4 @.@ 2 PJ ) blast in 1969 ; and Cannikin in 1971 – at 5 Mt ( 21 PJ ) , the largest underground test ever conducted by the United States . The tests were highly controversial , with environmental groups fearing that the Cannikin explosion , in particular , would cause severe earthquakes and tsunamis . Amchitka is no longer used for nuclear testing . It is still monitored for the leakage of radioactive materials .
= = Geography = =
Amchitka is the southernmost of the Rat Islands group in the Aleutian Chain , located between 51 ° 21 ′ N 178 ° 37 ′ E and 51 ° 39 ′ N 179 ° 29 ′ E. It is bounded by the Bering Sea to the north and east , and the Pacific Ocean to the south and west .
The eastern part of the island is a lowland plateau , with isolated ponds and gently rolling hills . There is low but abundant vegetation , consisting of mosses , lichens , liverworts , ferns , grasses , sedges , and crowberry . The center of the island is mountainous , and the western end is barren and vegetation is sparse .
Amchitka has a maritime climate , often foggy and windswept , with cloud cover 98 percent of the time . While temperatures are moderated by the ocean , storms are frequent . Geologically , the island is volcanic , being a part of a small crustal block on the Aleutian Arc that is being torn apart by oblique subduction . It is " one of the least stable tectonic environments in the United States . "
= = Early history = =
The human history of Amchitka dates back at least 2 @,@ 500 years , with the Aleut people . Human remains , thought to be of an Aleut dating from about 1000 AD , were discovered in 1980 .
Amchitka is said to have been seen and named St. Makarius by Bering in 1741 , was sighted by Billings in 1790 , and visited by Shishmaref in 1820 .
In 1783 , Daikokuya Kōdayū and 15 Japanese castaways landed on Amchitka after drifting for seven months . The castaways were taken care of by Russian employees of Zhigarev and hunted with indigenous people . Six of the castaways died in three years .
= = World War II and after = =
In June 1942 , the Japanese occupied some of the western Aleutian islands , and hoped to occupy Amchitka . Eager to remove the Japanese , the Joint Chiefs of Staff agreed to move quickly to regain the territory . American planners decided to build a series of airfields to the west of Umnak , from which bombers could attack the invading forces .
The U.S. Army established bases at Adak and 13 other locations . At the War Department 's suggestion , an initial reconnaissance of Amchitka was carried out in September 1942 , which found that it would be difficult to build an airstrip on the island . Nevertheless , planners decided on December 13 that the airfield " had to be built " to prevent the Japanese from doing the same . A further reconnaissance mission visited Amchitka from 17 to 19 December , and reported that a fighter strip could be built in two to three weeks , and a main airfield in three to four months . The plan was approved and began in 1942 .
American forces made an unopposed landing on Amchitka on January 12 , 1943 . Despite facing difficult weather conditions and bombing from the Japanese , the airfield was usable by February 16 . The Alaska Command was now 80 km ( 50 mi ) away from their target , Kiska . The military eventually built numerous buildings , roads , and a total of three airstrips on the island ,
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52 ( predeceasing both parents and his wife . )
= = Career = =
Asch began his teaching career at Brooklyn College . In 1947 , he moved to Swarthmore College , where he stayed for 19 years ( 1947 @-@ 1966 ) . Swarthmore was the major center for scholars of Gestalt psychology at that time in the United States . Wolfgang Kohler , a German immigrant ; W. C. H. Prentice , and Hans Wallach were faculty members at that time as well .
In 1966 , Asch left to found the Institute for Cognitive Studies at Rutgers University ( 1966 @-@ 1972 ) . In 1972 , Asch moved to the University of Pennsylvania . He taught there as a professor of psychology until he retired in 1979 , and was Emeritus until 1996 . Asch also had visiting posts at Harvard and MIT .
= = = Impression formation = = =
Asch was interested in how humans form impressions of other human beings . He was intrigued how we are able to easily form impressions of humans even though we have such complex structures . He specifically was interested in how impressions of other people were established and if there were any principles that regulated these impressions . Asch concluded " to know a person is to have a grasp of a particular structure " . He demonstrated through his experiments that forming an impression has the following elements :
1 ) it is an organized process ,
2 ) the characteristics are perceived differently in relation to other characteristics ,
3 ) central qualities are discovered , causing a distinction between them and peripheral qualities ,
4 ) relations of harmony and contradiction are observed .
Asch conducted many experiments in which he asked participants to form an impression of a hypothetical person based on several characteristics said to belong to them .
Central characteristics on impression formation In one experiment , two groups , A and B , were exposed to a list of exactly the same characteristics except one , cold vs. warm . The list of characteristics given to each group are listed below :
Group A : intelligent @-@ skillful @-@ industrious @-@ warm @-@ determined @-@ practical @-@ cautious
Group B : intelligent @-@ skillful @-@ industrious @-@ cold @-@ determined @-@ practical @-@ cautious
One group of people were told that the person was warm and another group of people were told the person is " cold " . Participants were asked to write a brief description of the impression they formed after hearing these characteristics . The experimenters also produced a check list consisting of pairs of opposite traits , such as generous / ungenerous , shrewd / wise , etc . These words were related to the first list of characteristics they heard . Participants were asked to indicate which of these traits matched with the hypothetical person who had just been described to them .
Asch found that very different impressions were found based on this one characteristic in the list . In general , the " A " impressions were far more positive than the " B " impressions . Based on the results of the written descriptions of the hypothetical person , the meaning of the other characteristics in the list seemed to change , related to whether the hypothetical person was described as a " warm " or " cold " person .
Not all qualities were changed by this word . Words such as " honest " , " strong " , " serious " , and " reliable " were not affected . The words " warm " and " cold " were shown to be of more importance in forming participant 's impressions than other characteristics . They were considered to be basic to understanding the person , whereas other characteristics would be considered secondary . Thus , if another characteristic in this list was changed between two subjects , such as manipulating the words " polite " and " blunt " , instead of the words " warm " and " cold " , it would not affect the impression of the person as much as did " warm " and " cold " . Asch called " warm " and " cold " " central " characteristics , and " polite " and " blunt " peripheral characteristics .
Order effects on impression formation
In another experiment , Asch found that the order in which he presented the traits of a hypothetical person drastically influenced the impression formed by participants formed . For example , participants were read one of the following lists below :
A. intelligent @-@ industrious @-@ impulsive @-@ critical @-@ stubborn @-@ envious
B. envious @-@ stubborn @-@ critical @-@ impulsive @-@ industrious @-@ intelligent
Series A starts with desirable qualities and ends with undesirable qualities , while the reverse is true for Series B. As a result of this slight difference , people perceive person A as someone who is an " able person who possesses certain shortcomings which , do not , however , overshadow his merits " . But , people perceive person B as a " problem , whose abilities are hampered by his serious difficulties " . The meaning of the other words in this list also change in the majority of subjects between list A and list B. Words such as " impulsive " and " critical " take on a positive meaning with A , but a negative meaning with B.
Similarity and difference of impression
In another central experiment , Asch presented participants with four groups of characteristics . Each participant was exposed to the group of words listed below .
Set 1 : Quick , Skillful , Helpful
Set 2 : Quick , Clumsy , Helpful
Set 3 : Slow , Skillful , Helpful
Set 4 : Slow , Clumsy , Helpful
Notice that only one characteristic , " helpful " , is the same throughout all of the four sets . Participants were asked 1 ) which of the other three sets most resemble Set I , and 2 ) which of the other sets most resembles Set 2 . In 87 percent of the cases , Set 1 was seen most similar with Set 3 . In only 13 percent of the cases , people reported Set 1 to be similar to Set 2 . Also , Set 2 was said to resemble Set 4 in 85 percent of the cases and only 9 percent of the cases was it said to resemble Set I was the closest .
However , there are more " identical elements " in Set 1 and 2 and in Set 3 and 4 . Notice that two of the three words are the same in Set 1 and 2 and in Set 3 and 4 . The similarity in sets can not be based on the number of shared elements in the set . Participants also reported that the word " quick " of set 1 was most similar in meaning to " slow " of set 3 . Similarly , " quick " of set 2 was perceived to be most similar in meaning to " slow " of set 4 .
Asch reached the following conclusions based on this experiment :
1 ) The meaning of a characteristic changes based on a change in the " environment " it 's in . Thus , the meanings of the words " quick " and " slow " change based on what other words it is presented with or associated with in real life . The meaning of the word " quick " in set 1 is associated more with " one of assurance , of smoothness of movement " while in set 2 the word is associated with " forced quickness , in an effort to be helpful " . In everyday life , we perceive a quick , skillful person to be very different from a quick , clumsy person . However , we perceive someone who is " quick and skillful " and " slow and skillful " as being similar and sharing the same quality of being more of an expert .
2 ) The change in the meaning of the characteristic is determined by its relationship with other characteristics . " [ Set ] I is quick because he is skillful ; [ Set ] 2 is clumsy because he is fast " " In [ Set ] 3 slowness indicates care , prides in work well @-@ done . Slowness in [ Set ] 4 indicates sluggishness , poor motor coordinate , some physical retardation " We perceive our overall impression by integrating the relationships of the different qualities of a person . Therefore , we form very different impressions when one of these qualities differ .
3 ) " Dynamic consequences are grasped in the interaction of qualities " , ( Asch , pg . 280 ) . Participants considered " quick " and " skillful " and " slow " and " skillful " as characteristics that cooperate together , but they think of " quick " and " clumsy " as characteristics that cancel one another .
= = = Prestige suggestion = = =
As a result of World War II in the 1940s , Asch and other social psychologists were interested in propaganda . They wondered : How do you get people to believe what you want them to believe ? How do you get people to believe they should sacrifice for the war effort ?
In everyday life , psychologists noticed that people are persuaded by messages differently based on the identity of the author . It seemed that the more prestige the author / speaker has , the more likely the person will believe them . Many social psychologists prior to Asch had studied this phenomenon . However , Asch disagreed with many of them and critiqued their interpretations . His main conclusion was that a change in evaluation requires a change in the content and meaning of the response as a result of the change in context . Therefore , the meaning of the message is interpreted differently depending on who is the author of the message . He suggests that participants are not blindly accepting a message based on the author , but rather they are making meaning of the quote based on the author .
Asch called into question the present theory for the underlying psychological process concerning the effect of group forces on the formation and change of opinions and attitudes . Asch critiques the experimental approach of many different psychologists , including Zillig , Moore , Marple , Sherif , Thorndike , and Lorge , in their investigations of evaluation change . Lorge 's and Sherif 's investigation of the effects of " prestige " on the evaluation of statements were investigated in detail in one of Asch 's articles .
The same basic procedure was used by all of the above @-@ mentioned psychologists . A participant makes a judgment about some particular issue . At a later time , they judge the same problem again but with information of how certain groups or prestigious people have evaluated the same problem . If the subject changes his judgment in the same direction as the evaluations of these groups of people or prestigious people , then this is considered a degree of influence that they have exerted on the participant 's judgment .
Lorge critique
Lorge 's main finding was that " prestige " can alter evaluations of statements of serious political and economic questions .
In his experiment , subjects rated a set of 50 quotations on a 5 @-@ point scale of " agreement " or " disagreement " with the statement . The quotes were followed by the names of two public people . Subjects were informed that one of the names was the author of the true source and were asked to select the true author . After about a month , the subjects again rated the same quotation but with the true author only listed below the quotation . Subjects also rated earlier their " respect for the political opinions of each of these individuals " . This was used as a measure of prestige . Lorge found that the participants rated the same statement differently when it was referred to a different author . More specifically , the rating of a statement tended to rise when it was referred to a more " prestigious " author .
One of Lorge 's main conclusions is that " an unchanged object of judgment undergoes a change of evaluation " . Therefore , the prestige of the author is viewed as acting arbitrarily on the statement regardless of the content or merit of the statement . Participants simply view the statement as having higher value when the author has higher prestige .
Asch , however , reinterprets Lorge 's findings and suggests that there was " a change in the object of judgment , rather than in the judgment of the object " ( Asch , 1940 ) . He suggests that a person will redefine the object of judgment based on the content of the evaluations . Therefore , the person will base the meaning of the quote in the context of what he / she believes to be true about the person who said the quote , resulting in different meanings of the statements based on the author .
In evidence of his claims , Asch conducted an experiment in which college students read statements with the name of one author below each statement . They were instructed to describe what the statement meant to them . Two groups of students read the same statements but with different authors associated with them . The main finding was that there was a " cognitive reorganization " of the statement based on what was understood about the author of the statement . Participant 's felt the meaning of the quote differed depending on who wrote the statement .
For example , the following quote was presented to both groups of subjects : " Only the willfully blind can fail to see that the old style capitalism of a primitive freebooting period is gone forever . The capitalism of complete laissez @-@ faire , which thrived on low wages and maximum profits for minimum turnover , which rejected collective bargaining and fought against justified public regulation of the competitive process , is a thing of the past . " When participants thought that Bridges ( a well @-@ known union leader ) was the author , they interpreted the passage to be an " expression of the accomplishments of labor in the face of opposition from capital and contained a resolve to defend these gains from attack " . However , when Johnston ( president of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce at the time ) was the author , they interpreted the passage to be " a perspective of policy in the interest of business , especially of ' enlightened ' business " . Asch conducted a very similar and classic study with participants reading statements either attributed to Jefferson or Lenin .
One of the major points that Asch makes is that participants are not completely blind in the experiment and making arbitrary choices based on this bias . Asch claims that participants were acting reasonable in their change of evaluation of the judgment because the context of the judgment and thus the meaning of the judgment had changed . Lorge , however , suggested that if the participants were behaving logical , their evaluations should have remained the same despite the change in author .
Sherif critique
Muzafer Sherif conducted an experiment , very similar to Lorge , in which he investigated how prestige affects the evaluation of literary materials . College students were asked to rank a set of prose passages according to their literary quality . Each passage also included the name of a well @-@ known author . However , all of the passages were actually written by the same author . Participants rated the authors earlier in terms of their literary standing . Sherif found that passages that were identified with highly acclaimed authors received higher rankings .
Asch suggested that Sherif 's results could be largely influenced from the environment of a laboratory experiment . Because the experiment was designed to have each of the passages have very few differences between them , participants were faced with a dilemma when asked to distinguish between them . The experimenter and other neighboring participants may appear to find the task obvious , so the participant attends to any clues that might help him make the decision . In fear of looking ridiculous , the participant might now approach the task as , " Which of these am I expected to like and dislike ? " With the only information that varies being the author , the participant might make conclusions about the quotes based on this one piece of information that varies .
= = = Conformity experiments = = =
Asch is most well known for his conformity experiments . His main finding was that group pressure can change opinion , of even obvious facts .
Asch wanted to examine throughout his experiments to 1 ) What extent do social forces alter people 's opinions ? and also 2 ) Which aspect of the group influence is most important @-@ the size of the majority or the unanimity ?
Asch 's conformity experiment was conducted using 123 male participants who were told that they would be part of an experiment in visual judgment . Each participant was put into a group with 5 to 7 confederates ( people who knew the true aims of the experiment , but were introduced as participants to the naive " real " participant ) . The participants were shown a card with a line on it , followed by another card with 3 lines on it labeled a , b , and c . The participants were then asked to say which line matched the line on the first card in length . Each line question was called a " trial " . The " real " participant answered last or penultimately . For the first two trials , the subject would feel at ease in the experiment , as he and the other " participants " gave the obvious , correct answer . However , after the fourth trial , all of the confederates respond with the clearly wrong answer at certain points such that in 12 of the 18 trials they all said the wrong answer . The 12 trials in which the confederates answered incorrectly were considered the " critical trials " . The participant could thus either ignore the majority and go with his own senses or he could go along with the majority and ignore the clearly obvious fact . The aim was to see whether the real participant would change his answer and respond the same way as the confederates or stick with the clearly obvious answer .
Asch found that a considerable percentage followed the majority . Asch suggested that this procedure created a doubt in the participants ' mind about the seemingly obvious answer . Participants reported that the correct but rejected line was almost but not quite equal to the standard line . Asch also found that the effectiveness of the group pressure increased significantly from 1 person to 3 people unanimously responding incorrectly . However , there was not much increase after that . He also found that when the participant had a confederate pose as a supporting partner who also responded correctly , the power of the majority to influence the participant decreased substantially .
Asch told his colleagues that his idea to study conformity was brought about by his childhood experiences in Poland . He recalls being seven years old and staying up for his first Passover night . He recalls seeing his grandmother pour an extra glass of wine . When he asked who the glass of wine was for , she said that it was for the prophet Elijah . He then asked her whether he would really take a sip from the glass and his uncle assured him that he would . His uncle told him to watch very closely when the time came . " Filled with a sense of suggestion and expectation " Asch " thought he saw the level of wine in the cup drop just a bit " . Thus , early in life , Asch succumbed to conformity , which fostered his idea to investigate conformity later in life .
= = = Other work = = =
Metaphors
Asch looked at metaphors in a variety of different languages , such as Old Testament Hebrew , Homeric Greek , Chinese , Thai , Malayam , and Hausa . He found that there was a similar meaning for the sensory term , such as " cold " in English , and the corresponding personality trait . He concluded that metaphors , and thus language , reflects a person 's attempt to understand the true properties of a person or object .
Unitary and nonunitary associations
Asch showed that simple properties would enter into associations much easier when they are part of the same unit than when they are from different units .
= = Notable influences = =
Asch was Stanley Milgram 's advisor at Princeton University , and Milgram completed his dissertation on national differences under conformity under Asch . Asch also largely influenced the theory of many other social psychologists , such as Harold Kelley .
= = Legacy = =
According to Levine ( 1999 ) , Asch 's research has led to four critical ideas that persist in social influence research . First , Asch believed that social interaction reflects the ability of individual people to synthesize information about group norms , the viewpoints of others and their own perceptions of themselves as group members . This point of view has been manifested in at least two important theories ( social identity theory and self @-@ categorization theory ) , and has been a source of inspiration for the work of many social psychologists ( See Hardin & Higgins , 1996 ; Weick & Roberts , 1993 ) .
Second , Asch emphasized that independent thought and disagreement among group members is a cornerstone of group functioning . He believed that only by settling our differences with other group members can we actually understand the shortcomings of our own beliefs ( Levine , 1999 ) . This notion has been embraced by social scientists like Moscovici , who has pursued this rationale as the basis for his theory of minority influence in group situations , and has also been incorporated into sociocognitive conflict theory .
Asch also believed the relationship between conformity and non @-@ conformity was not as simple as one being the opposite of the other . This was Asch 's third influential idea , and he suggested that conformity and resistance might be explained by their own unique social psychological processes . Conformity , for instance , could be a function of how aware a person is that they are being influenced by the group ( distortion of perception ) , the degree to which the person believes that the group consensus is correct ( distortion of judgement ) , and how badly the person wants to be accepted by the group ( distortion of action ) . Although these exact terms have not been directly ported over to the literature , researchers such as Moscovici and Nemeth have adopted the perspective that majority and minority influence are moderated by multiple processes ( Levine , 1999 ) .
Lastly , Asch suggested that group influence can change how people perceive stimuli ( See Asch , 1940 for an example ) . This is the most obscure of Asch 's major ideas , in large part because it has not been cited frequently ( Levine , 1999 ) , but is none @-@ the @-@ less important because it speaks to the power of group influence .
= = End of life = =
Asch was disappointed and concerned by the direction social psychology was going in the 1980s . He wrote , " Why do I sense , together with the current expansion , a shrinking of vision , an expansion of surface rather than depth , a failure of imagination ? .... Why is not social psychology more exciting , more human in the most usual sense of that term ? To sum up , is this discipline perhaps on the wrong track ? " ( Asch , p. x ) Asch was worried that social psychologists were not asking the deeper questions that would help change and improve the world . Asch died at the age of 88 on February 21 , 1996 in his home in Haverford , Pennsylvania .
= = Selected work = =
Asch E. ( 1989 ) . Letter to Irvin Rock .
Asch S. E. ( 1929 ) . A study of scatter on the Stanford revision of the Binet scale . Unpublished MA thesis .
Asch S. E. ( 1932a ) . Personality development of Hopi children . Unpublished paper .
Asch S. E. ( 1932b ) . " An experimental study of variability in learning " . Archives of Psychology , 143 , 1 @-@ 55
Asch , S. E. ( 1940 ) . Studies in the principles of judgements and attitudes : II . Determination of judgements by group and ego standards . Journal of Social Psychology , 12 , 433 @-@ 465 .
Asch S. E. ( 1946 ) . " Forming impressions of personality " . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 41 , 258 @-@ 290 .
Asch S. E. ( 1948 ) . " The doctrine of suggestion , prestige , and imitation in social psychology " . Psychological Review , 55 , 250 @-@ 276 .
Asch S. E. ( 1952 ) . " Social psychology " . Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice @-@ Hall .
Asch S. E. ( 1955 ) . " On the use of metaphor in the description of persons " . In H. Werner ( Ed . ) , On expressive language ( 29 @-@ 38 ) . Worcester , MA : Clark University Press .
Asch . S. E. ( 1955 ) . Opinions and Social Pressure
Asch S. E. ( 1956 ) . " Studies of independence and conformity : I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority " . Psychological Monographs , 70 , 1 @-@ 70 .
Asch S. E. ( 1958 ) . " The metaphor : a psychological inquiry " . In R. Tagiuri & L. Petrullo ( Eds . ) , Person perception and interpersonal behavior ( pp. 86 – 94 ) , California : Stanford University Press .
Asch S. E. ( 1962 ) . " A problem in the theory of associations " . Psychologische Beitrage , 6 , 553 @-@ 563 .
Asch S. E. ( 1964 ) . " The process of free recall " . In C. Scheerer ( Ed . ) , Cognition : Theory , research , promise ( pp. 79 – 88 ) . New York : Harper and Row .
Asch S. E. ( 1968a ) . " The doctrinal tyranny of associationism " . In T. R. Dixon & D. L. Horton ( Eds . ) , Verbal behavior and general behavior theory ( pp. 214 – 228 ) . Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice @-@ Hall .
Asch S. E. ( 1968b ) . " Wolfgang Köhler " . American Journal of Psychology , 81 , 110 @-@ 119 .
Asch S. E. ( 1969 ) . " A reformulation of the problem of associations " . American Psychologist , 24 , 92 @-@ 102 .
Asch S. E. , Ceraso J. , & Heimer W. ( 1960 ) . " Perceptual conditions of association " . Psychological Monographs , 74 ( 3 ) , 1 @-@ 48 .
Asch S. E. , & Ebenholtz S. M. ( 1962a ) . " The principle of associative symmetry " . Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society , 106 , 135 @-@ 163 .
Asch S. E. , & Ebenholtz S. M. ( 1962b ) . " The process of free recall : evidence for non @-@ associative factors in acquisition and retention " . Journal of Psychology , 54 , 3 @-@ 31 .
Asch S. E. , Hay J. , & Mendoza R. ( 1960 ) . " Perceptual organization in serial rote @-@ learning " . American Journal of Psychology , 73 , 177 @-@ 198 .
Asch S. E. , & Lindner M. ( 1963 ) . " A note on strength of association " . Journal of Psychology , 55 , 199 @-@ 209 .
Asch S. E. , & Prentice W. C. H. ( 1958 ) . " Paired association with related and unrelated pairs of nonsense figures " . American Journal of Psychology , 71 , 247 @-@ 254 .
Asch S. E. , & Witkin H. A. ( 1948a ) . " Studies in space orientation : I. Perception of the upright with displaced visual fields " . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 38 , 325 @-@ 337 .
Asch S. E. , & Witkin H. A. ( 1948b ) . " Studies in space orientation : II . Perception of the upright with displaced visual fields and with body tilted " . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 38 , 455- 477 .
Hardin , C. D. & Higgins , E. T. ( 1996 ) . Shared reality : How social verification makes the subjective objective . In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins ( Eds . ) , Handbook of motivation and cognition ( Vol . 3 , pp. 28 – 84 ) . New York : Guilford .
Levine , J. M. ( 1999 ) . Solomon Asch 's Legacy for group research . Personality and Social Psychology , 3 ( 4 ) , 358 @-@ 364 .
Weick , K. E. & Roberts , K. H. ( 1993 ) . Collective mind in organizations : Heedful interrelating on flight decks . Administrative Science Quarterly , 38 , 357 @-@ 381 .
= Blue Jay Way =
" Blue Jay Way " is a song recorded by the English rock group the Beatles . Written by George Harrison , it was released in 1967 on the band 's Magical Mystery Tour EP and album . The song was named after a street in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles where Harrison stayed in August 1967 , shortly before visiting the Haight @-@ Ashbury district of San Francisco . The lyrics document Harrison 's wait for music publicist Derek Taylor to find his way to Blue Jay Way through the fog @-@ ridden hills , while Harrison struggled to stay awake after the flight from London to Los Angeles .
As with several of Harrison 's compositions from this period , " Blue Jay Way " incorporates aspects of Indian classical music , although the Beatles used only Western instrumentation on the track , including a drone @-@ like Hammond organ part played by Harrison . Created during the group 's psychedelic period , the track makes extensive use of studio techniques such as flanging , Leslie rotary effect , and reversed tape sounds . The song appeared in the Beatles ' 1967 television film Magical Mystery Tour , in a sequence that visually re @-@ creates the sense of haziness and dislocation evident on the recording .
While some reviewers have dismissed the song as monotonous , many others have admired its yearning quality and dark musical mood . The website Consequence of Sound describes " Blue Jay Way " as " a haunted house of a hit , adding an ethereal , creepy mythos to the City of Angels " . Among its continued links with Los Angeles , the song was one of the first Beatles tracks that cult leader Charles Manson adopted as the foundation for his Helter Skelter theory of an American race @-@ related countercultural revolution . Artists who have covered the song include Bud Shank , Colin Newman , Tracy Bonham , Siouxsie and the Banshees and Greg Hawkes .
= = Background and inspiration = =
George Harrison wrote " Blue Jay Way " after arriving in Los Angeles on 1 August 1967 with his wife Pattie Boyd and Beatles aides Neil Aspinall and Alex Mardas . The purpose of the trip was to spend a week with Derek Taylor , the Beatles ' former press officer and latterly the publicist for California @-@ based acts such as the Byrds and the Beach Boys . The visit also allowed Harrison to reunite with his sitar tutor , Ravi Shankar , whose Kinnara School of Music and upcoming concert at the Hollywood Bowl he helped publicise .
The title of the song came from a street named Blue Jay Way , one of the " bird streets " high in the Hollywood Hills West area overlooking the Sunset Strip , where Harrison had rented a house for his stay . Jet @-@ lagged after the flight from London , he began writing the composition on a Hammond organ as he and Boyd waited for Taylor and the latter 's wife , Joan , to join them . The home 's location , on a hillside of narrow , winding roads , together with the foggy conditions that night , created the backdrop for the song 's opening lines : " There 's a fog upon L.A. / And my friends have lost their way . " Harrison had almost completed the song by the time the Taylors arrived , around two hours later than planned .
The week with Taylor proved to be important for the direction of the Beatles . At the height of the Summer of Love and the popularity of the band 's Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band album , Harrison , Taylor and their small entourage visited the international " hippie capital " of Haight @-@ Ashbury , in San Francisco , on 7 August . Harrison had expected to encounter an enlightened community engaged in artistic pursuits and working to create a viable alternative lifestyle ; instead , he was disappointed that Haight @-@ Ashbury appeared to be populated by drug addicts , dropouts and " hypocrites " . Following his return to England two days later , Harrison completed work on " Blue Jay Way " at his home in Esher . He also shared his disillusionment about Haight @-@ Ashbury with John Lennon , soon after which the Beatles publicly denounced the popular hallucinogen LSD ( or " acid " ) and other drugs in favour of Transcendental Meditation under Maharishi Mahesh Yogi . While noting Harrison 's role in " inspir
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he thought of him till she began to chide herself for defrauding the dead , and , determining to grieve for Ann , she dwelt on Henry 's misfortune and ill health . . . she thought with rapture that there was one person in the world who had an affection for her , and that person she admired — had a friendship for . He had called her his dear girl . . . My child ! His child , what an association of ideas ! If I had a father , such a father ! — She could not dwell on the thoughts , the wishes which obtruded themselves . Her mind was unhinged , and passion unperceived filled her whole soul .
In Johnson 's interpretation , Mary does not replace Ann with a masculine lover as one might expect in a sentimental novel but rather with a " feminine " , yet still acceptably male , lover .
= = = Genius and the autobiographical self = = =
In describing her heroine , Wollstonecraft drew on the emerging 18th @-@ century conception of the genius , a word that was slowly changing meaning from " a peculiar , distinctive , or identifying character or spirit " to " extraordinary intellectual power especially as manifested in creative activity " . She offered readers the first representation of a female genius . The masculinity , particularly the " energy and decisiveness " , that characterizes Mary is therefore portrayed positively and contrasted with the " passivity and sickliness " of the feminized Ann and Henry . It is Mary 's " strong , original opinions " and her resistance to " conventional wisdom " that mark her as a genius . Making her heroine a genius allowed Wollstonecraft to criticize marriage as well : geniuses were " enchained " rather than enriched by marriage .
Strength of mind , by which Wollstonecraft meant " the degree to which [ the mind ] can independently reach its own conclusions " ( emphasis in original ) , is central to her idea of the female genius . Merely imitating others is not enough , even if one imitates the " correct " actions and thoughts . Reason , for Wollstonecraft , is what controls the emotions ; without reason , she contends , people would fail to understand their own feelings . Moreover , reason allows for the distinction between a useful sensibility and a harmful sensualism . She writes : " sensibility is indeed the foundation of all our happiness ; but these raptures are unknown to the depraved sensualist , who is only moved by what strikes his gross senses . " Useful sensibility allows Mary to embark upon charity projects . Yet , this highly attuned sensibility separates the classes along emotional lines : only the middle @-@ class Mary is able to understand what the poor around her require .
Wollstonecraft modelled Mary after herself , even to the point of giving the heroine her own name . Using free indirect discourse , which blurs the line between the third @-@ person narrator and the first @-@ person dialogue of a text , she ties the narrator 's voice , which resembles the " Wollstonecraft " of the advertisement , to the heroine . This rhetorical device highlights the autobiographical elements in the story and emphasizes the reality of " the fiction " .
= = Reception = =
Although Wollstonecraft initially felt proud of Mary , a decade after its publication she no longer believed that the work aptly demonstrated her talents as an author ; she wrote to Everina in 1797 : " as for my Mary , I consider it as a crude production , and do not very willingly put it in the way of people whose good opinion , as a writer , I wish for ; but you may have it to make up the sum of laughter " . Wollstonecraft 's husband , William Godwin , disagreed , however , in his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman :
This little work , if Mary had never produced any thing else , would serve , with persons of true taste and sensibility , to establish the eminence of her genius . The story is nothing . He that looks into the book only for incident , will probably lay it down with disgust . But the feelings are of the truest and most exquisite class ; every circumstance is adorned with that species of imagination , which enlists itself under the banners of delicacy and sentiment .
Most scholars agree with Wollstonecraft 's assessment of her writing . Nevertheless , they still believe that the novel is important because it attempts to depict a liberated and reasoning female genius . As feminist scholar Mitzi Myers argues , " in her focus on the subjective vision and internal life of her heroine , in her reliance on emotional nuance rather than plot , Wollstonecraft both transforms the traditions of late eighteenth @-@ century sentimental fiction for feminist purposes and anticipates twentieth @-@ century trends in the novel of feminine consciousness . " Mary helped initiate a tradition that would blossom in novels such as Charlotte Brontë 's Jane Eyre ( 1847 ) and Villette ( 1853 ) .
Published by Joseph Johnson , Mary itself was moderately successful , and sections of it were included in several collections of sentimental extracts that were popular at the time , such as The Young Gentleman and Lady 's Instructor ( 1809 ) . However , Johnson was still trying to sell copies of it in the 1790s and consistently listed it in the advertisements for her other works . It was not reprinted until the 1970s , when scholars became interested in Wollstonecraft and women 's writing more generally .
= = Modern reprints = =
Wollstonecraft , Mary . The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft . Ed . Janet Todd and Marilyn Butler . 7 vols . London : William Pickering , 1989 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8147 @-@ 9225 @-@ 1 .
Wollstonecraft , Mary . Mary and The Wrongs of Woman . Ed . Gary Kelly . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 283536 @-@ X.
Wollstonecraft , Mary . Mary : A Fiction . Ed . Gina Luria . New York : Garland , 1974 .
Wollstonecraft , Mary . Mary ; Maria ; Matilda . Ed . Janet Todd . New York : New York University Press , 1992 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8147 @-@ 9252 @-@ 9
= Mind Meld =
Mind Meld : Secrets Behind the Voyage of a Lifetime is a 2001 American documentary film in which actors William Shatner and Leonard Nimoy discuss the Star Trek science fiction franchise and its effects on their lives . Shatner and Nimoy portrayed the characters James T. Kirk and Spock respectively in the 1960s Star Trek television series , the 1970s animated television series , and their film sequels . They talk about differences they had with Gene Roddenberry , the creator of Star Trek , and about the strained relationships between Shatner and some of the other cast members . It was in this film that Nimoy first publicly revealed that he had struggled with alcoholism while he was acting in the original television series . Shatner talks about the death of his third wife , Nerine Kidd , who accidentally drowned in a pool in 1999 after suffering from alcoholism .
Mind Meld was produced to advertise Shatner 's personal website . Filming took place at Nimoy 's home on September 5 , 2001 , and Billy West narrated the title sequence . The film 's title refers to a fictional practice in Star Trek — a mind meld is a telepathic link that Vulcans are able to create with other organisms . Mind Meld was released for sale on Shatner 's website on November 6 , 2001 , coinciding with the release of the director 's cut of Star Trek : The Motion Picture . Mind Meld attracted some notoriety because of an unintended sound in one scene that became a popular subject of flatulence humor among Star Trek fans and on morning zoo radio programs . Shatner denied being the source of this sound in multiple interviews ; he and Mind Meld 's director , Peter Jaysen , attributed it to equipment on set .
The film received mixed reviews from critics . Scott Brown of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an " F " , and said that the only people likely to watch the film were extreme Star Trek fans and people interested in hearing Shatner 's supposed flatulence . Laurence Lerman of Video Business praised the film for not " rehash [ ing ] anecdotes that have long been staples of Star Trek conventions and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes memoirs " , and instead for dealing with such topics as alcoholism , career difficulties , and conflicts on the set of Star Trek .
= = Contents = =
William Shatner and Leonard Nimoy respectively portrayed James T. Kirk and Spock in Star Trek , first in the 1960s television series ( later retitled Star Trek : The Original Series ) , then in the 1970s television series Star Trek : The Animated Series , and subsequently in several Star Trek films between 1979 and 1994 . In Mind Meld , they discuss the Star Trek media franchise and its enduring success . The film is , except for the title sequence , composed entirely of Shatner and Nimoy in conversation . Many of the topics they discuss were inspired by online questions from fans . The film starts in Nimoy 's backyard , where the two sit on patio chairs , and then moves into Nimoy 's library , which is filled with souvenirs .
The film focuses on the effects Star Trek had on the lives of Shatner and Nimoy , with each actor interviewing the other about his fame . They talk about Star Trek 's origins and the death of DeForest Kelley , who had portrayed Leonard McCoy in both The Original Series and The Animated Series . Shatner and Nimoy also discuss interactions between themselves and others on the set of Star Trek , including conflicts . Both Shatner and Nimoy describe having had strained relationships with Gene Roddenberry , the creator of Star Trek , and attest to other members of the Original Series cast disliking Shatner . Only one of these cast members is referred to by name : Nichelle Nichols , who portrayed Nyota Uhura . " I never fully comprehended what it was that was bothering them " , says Shatner .
Both men describe Star Trek as having put personal pressures on them that negatively affected their family lives . The conversation is mostly guided by Shatner , who prompts Nimoy to discuss issues he had regarding the legitimacy of consistently portraying an extraterrestrial , and other struggles with his acting career at the time . " It took me a while , " Nimoy says , " but I got rid of all that anger when I realized that I never had to worry about work ever since Star Trek went on the air . " Nimoy reveals that he was an alcoholic at the time of the original Star Trek series — something that was not publicly known before Mind Meld . He developed " a major drinking habit , probably during the second or third year " of the series , he says , and had his secretary bring him alcohol in paper cups at the end of each day of filming . Nimoy suggests that he became dependent on alcohol because of the deterioration of his marriage to Sandra Zober , his first wife . He says that , since divorcing Zober in 1987 and marrying actress Susan Bay in 1988 , he has been a teetotaler .
Shatner says that acting in Star Trek was " life @-@ consuming " and left him " barely any time for family " , and that this was the reason for his divorce from Gloria Rand , his first wife . He describes a subsequent succession of sexual partners , including , he says , Star Trek actresses . He also talks about the death of his father , Joseph Shatner , and of his third wife , Nerine Kidd , who accidentally drowned in a pool in 1999 , losing a battle with alcoholism . Shatner recalls that Nimoy had expressed concern about Kidd 's alcoholism and warned him about marrying her . Another topic is Nimoy 's fine @-@ art photography , which deals with spirituality and sensuality . Both Shatner and Nimoy say that , while they are glad that Star Trek became successful , they wish their subsequent fame had encroached less on their privacy . They also describe having been typecast as a result of their roles in Star Trek , and say that this has had repercussions on their respective acting careers . Shatner recounts his initial surprise that , at science fiction conventions , the fans seem to like each other more than they like the science fiction actors . The film concludes with Nimoy putting his arm around Shatner 's shoulder and saying , " You 're my best friend . "
= = Production = =
Mind Meld was produced as a way of advertising Shatner 's personal website , williamshatner.com , which offered features including the Shatner and Friends fan club 's quarterly newsletter , semi @-@ regular updates on Shatner 's life , and a photograph of Shatner with the gorilla Koko . Shatner said that another reason they decided to make the film was because Nimoy was visibly getting old . Shatner asked Nimoy if he would be willing to discuss his experiences with alcoholism in the film , and Nimoy agreed . Nimoy later said that no one had ever asked him about this part of his past , and that discussing it in Mind Meld " was an opportunity to put out some information that might be helpful to some people . "
Filming took place on September 5 , 2001 , in high @-@ definition video at Nimoy 's home , under the direction of Peter Jaysen . There was no script ; the conversation between Shatner and Nimoy was ad lib . The title sequence of Mind Meld is narrated by veteran voice actor Billy West , who had previously voiced such characters as Zim in the television series Invader Zim , Ralph in Joe 's Apartment , and Elmer Fudd in Looney Tunes : Back in Action . While the filming session resulted in approximately two hours of footage , a significant portion of this was not used , resulting in a final runtime of 75 minutes . In an interview with science fiction magazine Starlog , Shatner said , " I don 't think ... that anything was cut because it was too personal or inflammatory . Edits were only made for time . " The title of the film refers to a fictional practice in Star Trek ; a mind meld is a telepathic link that Spock is able to create with other organisms because he is half @-@ Vulcan . Shatner summarized the film as being " two friends talking one @-@ on @-@ one " .
= = Release = =
Mind Meld was released on VHS and DVD for sale on Shatner 's website on November 6 , 2001 , coinciding with the release of the director 's cut of Star Trek : The Motion Picture , a film that Shatner and Nimoy agreed was not as good as they had hoped it would be . Mind Meld was produced by Creative Light Entertainment , a company that produced another filmed interview the following year — Stan Lee 's Mutants , Monsters & Marvels , an interview of Marvel Comics publisher Stan Lee by film director Kevin Smith . The Mind Meld DVD offers widescreen and fullscreen options , Dolby Digital surround sound , and a five @-@ minute " making of " featurette . Mind Meld T @-@ shirts were available on Shatner 's website . The film 's release prompted Wil Wheaton , who had portrayed Wesley Crusher in Star Trek : The Next Generation , to change the name of his comic science fiction improvisational theatre company from " Mind Meld " to " EarnestBorg9 " .
Shatner referred to The Original Series as " cartoonish " in Mind Meld , but later , upon questioning by a reporter , said , " I never thought it was a cartoon ... I never thought it was beneath me . " In a February 2002 interview on Larry King Live , Shatner said Mind Meld was similar to My Dinner with Andre , and indicated that he and Nimoy were hoping to produce more films of a similar nature . Nimoy said of the film , " This is the most personal insight the fans will get into our relationship and into aspects of Bill and myself they 've never heard before . " In April 2002 , Mind Meld was screened at the Newport Beach Film Festival . Two years later , Mind Meld was included in the bonus material when the first six Star Trek films were re @-@ released as a special edition box set .
= = = Alleged flatulence = = =
Around 52 minutes and 47 seconds into the film , when Shatner is talking about the other Original Series actors disliking him , he shifts in his chair and a sound evocative of flatulence is audible . This sound , apparently unnoticed by the filmmakers , was first mentioned in the media by Adam Buckman in the New York Post on October 10 , 2001 . Buckman wrote that he played the sound for more than six colleagues who all agreed that it came from Shatner . This scene became a popular subject of flatulence humor among Star Trek fans and on morning zoo radio programs . Reviewers identified as many as six other similar noises in Mind Meld , between the 52 @-@ minute mark and the end .
Howard Stern played the sound on his radio show several times , including when Shatner appeared on the show to promote his upcoming television series Iron Chef USA on November 13 , 2001 . When Stern asked about the sound , Shatner said it had been produced by the boom operator . A similar claim was made on Shatner 's website , where the noise was attributed to a squeaky jib . On Conan O 'Brien 's Late Night program on November 14 , Shatner called it " outrageous " that Buckman should assume him to be the source of the sound rather than Nimoy . O 'Brien responded , " You 're the captain ! You outrank him ! It 's your responsibility ! " Pressed further by O 'Brien on the sound 's provenance , Shatner suggested that it may have been a dog bark or a bird call . According to Jaysen , the sound did not emanate from Shatner , and was most likely caused by cables rubbing against each other while a camera moved . " It was probably some machine that nobody heard " , Shatner said in a September 2002 interview . " The controversy is over . "
Jim Dawson devoted an entire chapter of his 2006 Modern History of the Fart to Shatner 's alleged flatulence in Mind Meld , which he compares to the sound of someone stepping on a tribble . G. Noel Gross of DVD Talk compared the excitement over this sound to that evinced by adolescent boys watching pornography , and compared the level of scrutiny devoted to the scene to that received by the Zapruder film of the Kennedy assassination .
= = Reception = =
Sarah Sloboda of The New York Times wrote that Mind Meld " provides a genuine glimpse of the lives of the stars shadowed by the roles that defined their public personas , and the mutual experience that binds them as friends " . Gross praised the video quality , but criticized the DVD functionality and features . He also wrote that " even in the heavier parts of this conversation , there 's a warmth and comradery there that 's rife with good humor " . Scott Brown of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an F , saying that the only people likely to watch the film other than extreme Star Trek fans are people interested in hearing the sound alleged to be Shatner 's flatulence , which Brown said can be clearly heard . He called the film " seemingly interminable " and said the discussion between Shatner and Nimoy shows that they " rival black holes in sheer self @-@ absorption " . According to John Henzell , writing for The Press of New Zealand , Mind Meld 's trailer took its subject matter so seriously that it became comical .
Vern Perry of the Orange County Register called the film fascinating , writing that it skilfully combined humor and earnestness . He wrote that it was moving to see the two actors talk about their personal lives with such vulnerability — particularly when Nimoy discusses his experiences with alcoholism . Greg Stacy of OC Weekly reported being " thoroughly charmed " by the film , and called " the affection between [ Shatner and Nimoy ] obvious and touching . "
Laurence Lerman of Video Business praised Mind Meld for not " rehash [ ing ] anecdotes that have long been staples of Star Trek conventions and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes memoirs " , but instead dealing with such topics as alcoholism , career difficulties , and conflicts on the set of Star Trek . Mike Clark of USA Today praised Shatner 's interviewing abilities and wrote that the film was engaging . Clark called Shatner 's and Nimoy 's conversation " surprisingly frank " , but added that Shatner was " full of himself " . A review in British newspaper The Guardian summarized Mind Meld as " a couple of gents sitting around talking " .
= French battleship Provence =
Provence was a battleship of the French Navy built in the 1910s , named in honor of the French region of Provence . She was a member of the Bretagne class , alongside her two sister ships , Bretagne and Lorraine . Provence was laid down in May 1912 at the Arsenal de Lorient , launched in April 1913 , and commissioned into the fleet in March 1916 , after the outbreak of World War I. She was armed with a main battery of ten 340 mm ( 13 @.@ 4 in ) guns and had a top speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
Provence spent the bulk of her career in the French Mediterranean Squadron , where she served as the fleet flagship . During World War I , she was stationed at Corfu to prevent the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet from leaving the Adriatic Sea , but she saw no action . She was modernized significantly in the 1920s and 1930s , and conducted normal peace @-@ time cruises and training maneuvers in the Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean . She participated in non @-@ intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War .
In the early days of World War II , Provence conducted patrols and sweeps into the Atlantic to search for German surface raiders . She was stationed in Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir when France surrendered on 22 June 1940 . Fearful that the Germans would seize the French Navy , the British Royal Navy attacked the ships at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir . Provence was damaged and sank in the harbor , though she was refloated and moved to Toulon , where she became the flagship of the training fleet there . In late November 1942 , the Germans occupied Toulon and , to prevent them from seizing the fleet , the French scuttled their ships , including Provence . She was raised in July 1943 , and some of her guns were used for coastal defense in the area ; the Germans scuttled her a second time in Toulon as a blockship in 1944 . Provence was ultimately raised in April 1949 and sold to ship breakers .
= = Design = =
Provence was laid down at the Arsenal de Lorient on 1 May 1912 , launched on 20 April 1913 , and completed in June 1915 . She was commissioned into the French Navy on 1 March 1916 . The ship was 166 meters ( 544 ft 7 in ) long overall and had a beam of 26 @.@ 9 m ( 88 ft 3 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 9 @.@ 8 m ( 32 ft 2 in ) . She displaced around 25 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 25 @,@ 000 long tons ) at full load and had a crew of between 1124 and 1133 officers and enlisted men . She was powered by four Parsons steam turbines with eighteen Belleville boilers . They
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why they 're honoring me . I think the real reason they are honoring me is to help raise money for the theater company . Whenever the economy gets hit hard , one of the first thing [ sic ] to go is people 's giving , and last on that list of things people give to is the arts because they feel it 's not essential . I guess I 'm here to remind people that the arts are essential to our mental health as a country . "
In 2009 , Hawke appeared in two plays under British director Sam Mendes : as Trofimov in Chekhov 's The Cherry Orchard and as Autolycus in Shakespeare 's The Winter 's Tale . The two productions , launched in New York as part of the Bridge Project , went on an eight @-@ month tour in six countries . The Cherry Orchard won a mixed review from the New York Daily News , which wrote " Ethan Hawke ... fits the image of the ' mangy ' student Trofimov , but one wishes he didn 't speak with a perennial frog in his throat . " Hawke 's performance in The Winter 's Tale was better received , earning him a Drama Desk Award nomination for Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play .
In January 2010 , Hawke directed his second play , A Lie of the Mind , by Sam Shepard on the New York stage . It was the first major Off @-@ Broadway revival of the play since its 1985 premiere . Hawke said that he was drawn to the play 's take on " the nature of reality " , and its " weird juxtaposition of humor and mysticism " . In his review for the New York Times , Ben Brantley noted the production 's " scary , splendid clarity " , and praised Hawke for eliciting a performance that " connoisseurs of precision acting will be savoring for years to come " . Entertainment Weekly commented that although A Lie of the Mind " wobbles a bit in its late stages " , Hawke 's " hearty " revival managed to " resurrect the spellbinding uneasiness of the original " . The production garnered five Lucille Lortel Award nominations including Outstanding Revival , and earned Hawke a Drama Desk Award nomination for Outstanding Director of a Play .
Hawke next starred in the Off @-@ Broadway premiere of a new play , Tommy Nohilly 's Blood from a Stone , from December 2010 to February 2011 . The play was not a critical success , but Hawke 's portrayal of the central character Travis earned positive feedback ; The New York Times said he was " remarkably good at communicating the buried sensitivity beneath Travis 's veneer of wary resignation . " A contributor from the New York Post noted it was Hawke 's " best performance in years " . Hawke won an Obie Award for his role in Blood from a Stone . The following year Hawke played the title role in Chekhov 's Ivanov at the Classic Stage Company . In early 2013 he starred in and directed a new play Clive , inspired by Bertolt Brecht 's Baal and written by Jonathan Marc Sherman . He then returned to Broadway to take the title role in Macbeth at the Lincoln Center Theater , but his performance failed to win over the critics , with the New York Post calling it " underwhelming " for showing untimely restraint in a flashy production .
= = Personal life = =
Hawke lives in Boerum Hill , a Brooklyn neighborhood in New York City , and owns a small island in Nova Scotia , Canada . Hawke is a great @-@ grandnephew of Tennessee Williams on his father 's side . Hawke 's maternal grandfather , Howard Lemuel Green , served five terms in the Texas Legislature and was a minor @-@ league baseball commissioner .
= = = Family = = =
On May 1 , 1998 , Hawke married actress Uma Thurman , whom he had met on the set of Gattaca in 1996 . They have two children : daughter Maya ( b . 1998 ) and son Levon ( b . 2002 ) . The couple separated in 2003 , amid allegations of Hawke 's infidelity , and filed for divorce the following year . The divorce was finalized in August 2005 .
Hawke married for a second time in June 2008 , wedding Ryan Shawhughes , who had briefly worked as a nanny to his and Thurman 's children before graduating from Columbia University . Dismissing speculation about their relationship , Hawke said , " ... my [ first ] marriage disintegrated due to many pressures , none of which were remotely connected to Ryan . " They have two daughters : Clementine Jane ( b . 2008 ) and Indiana ( b . 2011 ) .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Hawke is a long @-@ time supporter of the Doe Fund which helps homeless people obtain housing and employment . He has served as a co @-@ chair of the New York Public Library 's Young Lions Committee , one of New York 's major philanthropic boards . In 2001 Hawke co @-@ founded the Young Lions Fiction Award , an annual prize for achievements in fiction writing by authors under age 35 . In November 2010 , he was honored as a Library Lion by the New York Public Library . In May 2016 , Hawke joined the library ’ s board of trustees .
= = = Politics = = =
He supports the United States Democratic Party , and supported Bill Bradley , John Kerry and Barack Obama for President of the United States in 2000 , 2004 and 2008 , respectively . Hawke is also an activist for gay rights and in March 2011 , he and his wife released a video supporting same @-@ sex marriage in New York .
In an October 2012 interview , Hawke said that he prefers great art over politics , explaining that his preference shows " how little " he cares about the latter :
... I think about the first people of our generation to do great art . I see Michael Chabon write a great book ; when I see Philip Seymour Hoffman do Death of a Salesman last year — I see people of my generation being fully realized in their work , and I find that really kind of exciting . But politics ? I don 't know . Paul Ryan is certainly not my man .
= = Filmography = =
= = Publications = =
Hawke , Ethan ( 1996 ) . The Hottest State : A Novel ( 1st ed . ) . Boston : Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 54083 @-@ 4 . OCLC 34474927 .
Hawke , Ethan ( 2002 ) . Ash Wednesday : A Novel ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 41326 @-@ 1 . OCLC 48967928 .
Hawke , Ethan ( 2015 ) . Rules for a Knight ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978 @-@ 0307962331 .
Hawke , Ethan ( 2016 ) . Indeh : A Story of the Apache Wars ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Grand Central Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 401 @-@ 31099 @-@ 8 .
Hawke , Ethan ( April 2009 ) . " The Last Outlaw Poet " . Rolling Stone ( 1076 ) : 50 – 61 , 78 – 79 . ISSN 0035 @-@ 791X . Archived from the original on April 10 , 2009 .
= Washington Park Subdivision =
The Washington Park Subdivision is the name of the historic 3 @-@ city block by 8 @-@ city block subdivision in the northwest corner of the Woodlawn community area , on the South Side of Chicago in Illinois that stands in the place of the original Washington Park Race Track . The area evolved as a redevelopment of the land previously occupied by the racetrack . It was originally an exclusively white neighborhood that included residential housing , amusement parks , and beer gardens .
During the late 1920s and 1930s , the area became the subject of discriminatory twenty @-@ year covenants , which were determined to be invalid by the United States Supreme Court , when challenged in a seminal case by Carl Hansberry . The case is a vital part of legal studies and considered an important part of a broad class of histories . The play Raisin in the Sun is based on Lorraine Hansberry 's struggles in this neighborhood .
= = Location = =
Due to the non @-@ rectangular shape of the Washington Park community area , the original Washington Park Race Track actually occupied the Southern two @-@ thirds of the Washington Park Subdivision , which is an 8 @-@ city block by 3 @-@ city block area in northwest corner of the Woodlawn community area and bounded by Dr. Martin Luther King Drive to the west , South Cottage Grove Avenue to the East , East 60th Street to the North and East 63rd Street to the South . This is the area directly south of Washington Park and both south and east of the Washington Park community area . It would be part of the Washington Park community area if the community area were to complete its logical proper rectangle .
= = Historical significance = =
Between 1884 and 1905 , the race track occupied part of the area now known as Washington Park Subdivision . After the city outlawed gambling , the area was redeveloped as a residential housing subdivision with neighboring commercial recreation such as the White City amusement park that flourished until the Great Depression . The neighborhood also included a beer garden that was remodeled by Frank Lloyd Wright .
Between 1900 and 1934 , the African American population in Chicago grew from 30 @,@ 000 to 236 @,@ 000 . In this time , Chicago 's demographics changed so that instead of having this population diluted in scattered places , it was concentrated in two large strips of land . The concentration was enforced by violence at first , but restrictive covenants became the preferred way to enforce segregation after a few decades .
When necessary , community organizations used violence to pursue their segregationist purposes , and between 1917 and 1921 , bomb use discouraged encroachment into majority white neighborhoods . The bombs were used at the residences of African Americans as well as the properties of real estate agents and bankers . In 1919 , African American banking magnate Jesse Binga , the owner of the first Chicago bank to be operated by African Americans , and the first African American who lived in the Washington Park Subdivison , endured five bombings of his home by angry whites . Binga lived on the block diagonally northwest of the northwest boundary of the subdivision at 5922 South Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr . Drive .
Although they were previously rare , racially restrictive covenants among property owners that outlawed the purchase , lease , or occupation of their properties by African Americans became common in Chicago in the 1920s , following the Great Migration . Local businessmen and the University of Chicago became alarmed at the prospect of poorer African Americans moving from the Black Belt due to a combination of racial succession and economic decline . In 1926 , the United States Supreme Court upheld racially restrictive covenants in Corrigan v. Buckley ( 271 U.S. 323 ( 1926 ) ) . In 1927 , the Chicago Real Estate Board ( CREB ) sent representatives throughout the city to promote such covenants , which it viewed as a progressive alternative to violence . The board representatives provided model contracts drafted by the Chicago Plan Commission as part of their efforts . By 1928 , the Hyde Park Herald reported that the covenants prevailed throughout the South Side , and 95 % of the homes in the subdivision were covenanted . Most African American neighborhoods were bounded by covenanted areas since 85 % of Chicago was covenanted .
= = Legal issues = =
Between 1928 and 1940 , the subdivision was a legal battleground . In 1928 , landlords in the subdivision signed the covenants in which they agreed that they would not rent to non @-@ whites . The language of the covenants state that no properties in the subdivision " ... shall be sold , given , conveyed or leased to any negro or negroes , and no permission or license to use or occupy any part thereof shall be given to any negro except house servants or janitors or chauffeurs employed thereon ... " The covenants were signed by " owners of land on the one or the other side of Evans , Langley , Champlain , St. Lawrence , Rhodes , Eberhart , Vernon and South Park Avenues , between 60th and 63rd Streets and on 60th , 61st and 62nd Streets between South Park and Cottage Grove Avenues " on September 30 , 1927 , and they were recorded at the Cook County Register of Deeds on February 1 , 1928 . They were intended to be valid and in force until January 1 , 1948 .
The Great Depression decreased white demand for the subdivision 's properties . A few well @-@ off African Americans convinced some owners to sell properties to them . The most famous case was that of Dr. James L. Hall , who rented a property located at 419 E. 60th St. from the white Issac Kleiman . In 1933 , Olive Ida Burke ( the wife of Mr. Burke — a future defendant in the famous Hansberry v. Lee case ) sued Kleiman in the case now known as Burke v. Kleiman . The circuit court granted an injunction in favor of the plaintiffs , which was upheld on appeal by the Supreme Court of Illinois . The plaintiffs stipulated that as of 1928 more than 95 % of the property owners signed the covenant . This stipulation was later proved false — only 54 % had actually signed .
In 1937 , Carl Hansberry purchased a property from James Joseph Burke located at 6140 South Rhodes . Anna M. Lee , and other promoters of the covenants , sued to prevent Hansberry 's family from living in the neighborhood . This led to the Hansberry v. Lee , 311 U.S. 32 ( 1940 ) case . Defendants argued that the stipulation made previously in Burke v. Kleiman that more than 95 % of the owners had signed the covenant was false and the case should be reajudicated . Plaintiffs , while admitting to the fact , contended that the principle of res judicata barred courts from rehearing the old arguments . The Illinois courts ruled in favor of plaintiffs . However the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People decided to represent the buyer in the United States Supreme Court . The case caught the attention of national real estate magazines and African American newspapers . The U. S. Supreme Court eventually reversed that ruling stating the application of res judicata in this case would violate Fourteenth Amendment . The play Raisin in the Sun was inspired by Lorraine Hansberry 's time in the neighborhood after her father won the repeal of restrictive covenants .
The result of Hansberry v. Lee led to racial succession . White tenants were often evicted to make way for higher @-@ paying African American renters . By 1950 , the subdivision was over 99 percent African American . The Hansberry case is a seminal case in civil procedure and class action legal studies . It is also considered an important study of African American , Chicago and legal history .
While the purchase case proceeded , some landlords subdivided properties and rented them to blacks at a premium . Some realtors began encouraging white families to move out so that they could rent properties to African Americans . Smaller property owners were pressed to sell to realtors or directly to African Americans because the neighborhood was undergoing a racial transformation . The conditions of this neighborhood are described in a section of Black Metropolis by St. Clair Drake and Horace Roscoe Cayton .
The Supreme Court ruling and several similar rulings led to the racial transformation of the Woodlawn and Hyde Park community areas . Political futures were determined by positions taken on this issue . Future five @-@ term Mayor of Chicago Richard J. Daley ran for Cook County Sheriff in 1946 as a progressive anti @-@ covenant candidate . Eventually , in Shelley v. Kraemer , 334 U.S. 1 ( 1948 ) , which was argued by Thurgood Marshall , the U. S. Supreme Court declared restrictive covenants in general unenforceable .
= André Laguerre =
Marc André Laguerre ( February 21 , 1915 – January 18 , 1979 ) was a journalist and magazine editor , best known as the managing editor of Sports Illustrated from 1960 to 1974 , during which time he oversaw the growth in the magazine from a niche publication to become the industry leader in weekly sports magazines . It was under his leadership that the annual Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue was first published . When he retired in 1974 , he had been managing editor of the magazine for 704 issues , then a record among magazines published by Time , Inc . , SI 's parent company .
= = Early life and family = =
André Laguerre was born June 7 , 1915 in England to Frenchman Léon James Laguerre and his English wife , Dorothy . He was the oldest of three children ; he had a younger brother , Leon and a younger sister , Odette . His father was in the French diplomatic corps , and the family moved frequently during his early years . Before the age of ten , Andre had lived in England , France and Syria . In the summer of 1927 , his father took a post at the French Consulate General in San Francisco . The family lived in the upper @-@ class neighborhood of Sea Cliff , and Andre attended a number of private schools , including the Santa Monica School and St. Ignatius College Preparatory . While in San Francisco , he became a fan of American sports , especially baseball , and also had his first job in journalism , as a copyboy for the San Francisco Chronicle . In 1929 , he was sent back to England for school . He graduated in 1931 , having earned an Oxford Certificate , but he declined to matriculate at Oxford University , instead preferring to pursue a career as a journalist . He enrolled in a correspondence course , and took a job at a book store to support himself .
= = Early career and military service = =
He worked hard for many years as a freelance journalist , and began to be noticed for his writing . He wrote for both English language and French language publications . In 1938 , he covered the Munich Agreement for the French daily Paris @-@ Soir . When World War II broke out , he enlisted in the French Army as a corporal . His first assignment was on patrol on the Maginot Line . He later served as a liaison to the British forces at Arras , and remained with them until the Battle of Arras forced their retreat . He stayed with the British forces until the Dunkirk evacuation in 1940 , where he was one of the last to be evacuated . His evacuation ship was sunk by a mine , and he was rescued by a British destroyer , bleeding heavily from a neck wound . Laguerre credited his rescue to his ease with the English language ( his rescuers took him for British ) . He criticised his rescuers in later years for refusing to help Frenchmen who were around him ; many of them drowned .
After his rescue and recovery from his injuries , days after Charles de Gaulle
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for which she collaborated with numerous designers and fashion houses . The set list of the shows in 2013 included songs from all four studio albums of Beyoncé 's solo career . After the release of her eponymous fifth studio album , the 2014 shows were changed to incorporate tracks from the album . The tour was lauded by music critics who praised Beyoncé for her energetic performances , dancing and vocal abilities .
Following the announcement of the tour , all the tickets made available for the shows sold out , which prompted more dates to be added to the itinerary . The tour grossed $ 188 @.@ 6 million in 2013 and the 2014 shows grossed $ 41 @.@ 1 million , bringing the tour 's total gross revenue to $ 229 @.@ 7 million . This made The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour the highest @-@ grossing female and solo tour of 2013 , Beyoncé 's highest @-@ grossing tour to date , and one of the highest @-@ grossing tours of the decade . Performances of numerous songs from the tour were broadcast and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage was released .
= = Background = =
During a press conference for Super Bowl XLVII on January 31 , 2013 , Beyoncé revealed that she would make an announcement after her performance at the halftime show and added that " fans should just stay tuned to see " . Beyoncé announced the tour and its name after her performance the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show on February 3 . The tour 's title refers to her marriage with Shawn ' Jay @-@ Z ' Carter . However , the official poster of the tour with the name written on it was leaked on the ticket 's website Live Nation prior to the official announcement . It shows Beyoncé wearing a Victorian golden royal top and a crown , referencing Queen Elizabeth I. Rosie Swash of The Guardian described it as a " visual stamp of authority " . Along with the tour 's name , initial dates in Europe and North America were announced , and later more were added in Latin America , Australia , and New Zealand .
Following the announcement of the tour 's title , Beyoncé was criticized by several critics and feminists alike for entitling it after her husband 's name as she has been regarded as a feminist . Questions were raised about how Beyoncé agreed to be known as a bride of another celebrity person . During an interview with Vogue , Beyoncé described herself as a " modern @-@ day feminist " and further spoke about her decision to reference her husband 's name : " I feel like Mrs. Carter is who I am , but more bold and more fearless than I 've ever been ..... It comes from knowing my purpose and really meeting myself once I saw my child . I was like , ' OK , this is what you were born to do ' . The purpose of my body became completely different . " After the second European leg was announced on December 11 , 2013 , a new poster was revealed and used for the promotion of all the newly added shows .
= = Development = =
The concert at The O2 Arena in London was announced on February 3 , along with a short advertisement for the tour ; an extended version of the clip appeared in late February . It shows Beyoncé dressed with a golden corset and a royal gown with jewels . She is seen walking into a dance hall in slow @-@ motion with several servants and a DJ , dressed as a jester tries to distract her . The end of the advertisement shows black @-@ and @-@ white snippets of behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the video . Alexis L. Loinaz of E ! compared her aristocratic look in the video to Marie Antoinette , Queen Elizabeth I , and Lady Gaga . In March 2013 , Beyoncé posted a new poster for the tour on her official Facebook page showing her striking four different poses , wearing a blond wig , a white top and blue shorts . In May 2013 , Beyoncé launched an online store for the tour in which different clothes were available for purchase . The following month , she added a limited edition to her Heat line of perfumes , titled Heat : The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour . Inspired by the tour , Beyoncé stated that the fragrance was meant to " give them [ fans ] a special remembrance of this tour and ... reflect the power , passion and playfulness I put into my performances " .
On April 24 , 2013 , it was announced by Beyoncé 's publicist that all photographers except Beyoncé 's personal photographer Frank Micelotta , were banned from the tour stating that " no photo credentials " will be present . The ban was interpreted as a reaction to the " unflattering " pictures from Beyoncé 's Super Bowl XLVII halftime performance showing her " jubilant exertions " , that appeared on websites such as Gawker and BuzzFeed . The pictures were not removed even after her publicist Yvette Noel @-@ Schure asked the websites through an e @-@ mail to change their articles , using " some better photos " . On May 13 , 2013 , the general counsel of the National Press Photographers Association ( NPPA ) Mickey H. Osterreicher , wrote a letter to Noel @-@ Schure on behalf of 19 other organizations requesting from him to " immediately revise your guidelines to restore photo credentialing " for the rest of the tour in Europe and the US . For the tour , the singer took part in " Miss A Meal " , a food @-@ donation campaign and supported the charity Goodwill during her tour , where fans were asked to bring food , clothes and household goods at the stops . Throughout the tour , an auction for the campaign was held by Beyoncé and her mother , Tina Knowles on the website Charitybuzz in which the auction value was $ 25 @,@ 000 . The winner got a chance to work behind the scenes of Beyoncé 's concert in Los Angeles and assist Knowles in the wardrobe department , got a VIP ticket for the concert and had a personal meeting with the singer .
Eight hundred dancers auditioned to be included in Beyoncé 's performance at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show and a selected group of them , consisting only of females , were chosen for the performance as well as for the tour . French dancing duo Les Twins also accompanied Beyoncé on stage performing street dances . Three backing singers The Mamas , and an eleven @-@ piece female band who had also supported the singer during her previous tours performed during the concerts . Two stages were used during the performances : a main stage where the singer performed throughout most of the concert and a B @-@ stage closer to the audience where she was transferred with a rope , flying over the crowd midway through the set , performing three songs there . The set list of the 2013 portion of the tour included approximately twenty five songs from Beyoncé 's four solo studio albums : Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) , B 'Day ( 2006 ) , I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) , and 4 ( 2011 ) . The majority of the songs originated from 4 – seven songs were performed from that album . Many of the tracks performed contained different choreographies and arrangements compared to the previous performances by the singer ; several of them were intertwined with other artists ' material . For the 2014 shows many of the previously performed songs were removed and eight new songs from Beyoncé 's fifth self @-@ titled studio album were added to the concert 's set list .
= = Fashion = =
For the 2013 shows , Beyoncé worked with multiple designers for the tour 's costumes including Emilio Pucci , Riccardo Tisci from Givenchy , The Blonds , Julien MacDonald , Dean and Dan Caten ( DSQUARED2 ) , creative director Tamara Ralph of Ralph & Russo who was personally requested by the singer to design an outfit , David Koma , Alon Livné , Vrettos Vrettakos designers from Kenzo , Gucci , Roberto Cavalli and Dennis Kolpodinos . For the performance at the 2013 Made in America , Beyoncé wore a new costume designed by Timothy White , accomponied with shoes made by Reed Krakoff . The outfit designed by DSQUARED2 was from their spring / summer 2013 collection at the Glamazon catwalk show and was inspired by models of the ' 90s . Several costumes were also designed by Emilio Pucci 's Peter Dundas who described them as a " modern take on glamour " , taking them from his fall / winter 2013 collection . He focused on the singer being able to perform the choreography during her performances . Stuart Weitzman designed the shoes for Beyoncé , her back @-@ up dancers and band collaborating with stylists Ty Hunter , Raquel Smith , and Beyoncé 's mother Tina Knowles . Weitzman created them in different colors with military elements . Beyoncé wanted Weitzman to focus on her being able to dance wearing the shoes without noticing they were on her feet . One of Beyoncé 's costumes which was worn during the first concerts was a gold bodysuit designed by The Blonds embellished with golden breasts complete with a nipple detail . The costume was a collaboration between the group , Beyoncé , Knowles , and Hunter . It was hand embroidered in 600 hours with approximately 30 @,@ 000 Swarovski crystals . According to The Blonds , it was meant to give the illusion of being covered in crystallized honey and reflect Beyoncé 's personality for the tour . They were inspired by Beyoncé 's songs of female empowerment and female nudes painted by Tamara de Lempicka . The costume received wide media and fan attention and divided critics ' opinions . InStyle 's Meghan Blalock described the costume as the " most scandalous " that the singer has worn in her career . For the 2014 shows , the singer wore numerous new designs collaborating again with DSQUARED2 , Givenchy , Pucci and Weitzman as well as with new designers such as Tom Ford , Versace and Karen Langley .
Beyoncé 's makeup for the tour focused on trying to emulate cosmic stars with the underlying themes based on the stratosphere . Other references used as inspiration for the makeup included : film noir , 60 's London , cyber beauty , cosmic constellations , and felines . The tourbook for The Mrs. Carter Show was meant to artistically illustrate all the different visual aspects of the tour through multi @-@ media collage and image manipulation . By using collage , Beyoncé 's team created images inspired by the singer and her songs and image manipulation was explored , with photos being solarized , layered and stacked . With the tourbook , fans had an opportunity to " bring a part of the tour home with them " , as Beyoncé 's team stated . A dress created by Amato Haute Couture 's Furne One which was worn by Beyoncé for the tour book was originally designed and worn by Estonian singer @-@ songwriter Kerli during her Utopia EP photoshoot who praised the look after seeing it .
The concert included several costume changes during which video interludes were projected on the screen during the singer 's absence . An 18th Century France influence was found in the white @-@ powder makeup and the opening costume as well as a Louis XVI theme throughout the show with oversized wigs and bustiers . The dresses and looks were also noted to channel queens Marie Antionette , Cleopatra , and Elizabeth I by several critics . The Observer 's Kitty Empire described the concert as a fashion show with a regal , Dangerous Liaisons theme . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News described the costumes as " Eye @-@ catching ... dazzling ... [ and ] provocative " . Rosa Silverman of The Daily Telegraph commented that Beyoncé was " mesmerizing the crowds with her showstopping outfits ... she took to the stage in a series of racy costumes that made no attempt to hide her famous curves . " Erika Ramirez of Billboard commented that most of Beyoncé 's " stunning " costumes were dazzled with sequins .
= = Concert synopsis = =
= = = 2013 shows = = =
The concert opened with a pre @-@ recorded video montage showing black and white footage of gothic architecture as well as dancers dressed in white , marching across a stage length screen , preparing to crown Beyoncé who was dressed as a queen . The montage continued as female dancers wearing hoop @-@ skirt cages and masks started appearing on stage . The video wall raised afterwards and a brief pyrotechnics display began as Beyoncé appeared onstage standing for several seconds prior to the performance of " Run the World ( Girls ) " preceded by an extended timpani interlude . She sang the song while performing a choreography which included a routine of faux kicking her male dancers . " End of Time " followed with Beyoncé dancing as fireworks were also displayed on stage . " Flaws and All " was performed as the third song on the set list with Beyoncé dedicating it to her fan group , the BeyHive . " If I Were a Boy " was mashed with The Verve 's song " Bitter Sweet Symphony " taking the latter 's string motif and incorporating several lines . " Get Me Bodied " saw Beyoncé interacting with the audience through call and response , asking them to repeat " Hey , Mrs. Carter " . " Baby Boy " was performed against a holographic background as Beyoncé and several female dancers performed synchronised moves in front of the screen which flashed realistic images of more identical dancers . The singer concluded the song with a Dutty Wine dance at the end of the performance , before immediately continuing with " Diva " which was set to the groove of " Clique " . " Naughty Girl " was later performed into a neon strip @-@ lit with a snippet of Donna Summer 's " Love to Love You Baby " interpolated within it . Beyoncé also performed a seductive dance in front of an open fire display onstage . " Party " was performed after with a prominent Las Vegas showgirl theme . For " Freakum Dress " two ballerinas appeared on stage and performed a choreography along with a video projection on the screen . Beyoncé later appeared in a deep @-@ plunging , thigh @-@ high split long red dress performing the song along with her dancers .
For " I Care " the singer was dressed in a black leather fedora , seated on a bar stool . Beyoncé sang " I Miss You " while shadow dancing was illustrated on the screen behind her . " Schoolin ' Life " was performed with a light show complete with ' 80s neon lights while she performed a dance routine with her dancers . An uptempo version of " Why Don 't You Love Me " with a choreography by Beyoncé and Les Twins was preceded by a video projection showing a vintage montage of her . The singer performed the song with a call and response interaction between her and the audience dressed in a 1920s fringed dress . The performance of " 1 + 1 " saw Beyoncé in a blue cat @-@ suit kneeling and laying atop a grand piano . During the end of " 1 + 1 " , she was transformed from the main stage to the B @-@ stage , located closer to the crowd with a wire through a cloud of glitter . " Irreplaceable " was performed after that with an audience sing @-@ along . " Love on Top " and an abbreviated version of Destiny 's Child 's " Survivor " followed ; Beyoncé dedicated the latter song to the members of the aforementioned girl group , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams . Beyoncé was taken back to the main stage being transferred with the same wire . " Crazy in Love " was the first song performed on the main stage with a new brassy arrangement , different from Beyoncé 's other live performances of the song . During " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , she integrated a snippet from the song " Movin ' on Up " . Images of pyramids , animated lions and elephants and a portrait of the singer wearing a Nefertiti @-@ style crown were displayed on the screen before the performance of " Grown Woman " , keeping in line with the song 's African influence . During the performance , the singer and her dancers wore African @-@ inspired costumes . A montage was shown with the song " I Was Here " being played in the background showing footage of the singer with Barack Obama , taking part in charity work , during a vacation with Jay @-@ Z and excerpts of her 2013 performance at the Super Bowl . An a cappella performance of the opening lines of " I Will Always Love You " preceded " Halo " as the closing song of the concert . " Green Light " and " Suga Mama " were used for the encore of the concert at numerous stops .
= = = 2014 shows = = =
The performances of the songs that had already been performed during the 2013 shows remained the same ; however some of them were shortened and mixed together . Many new songs from the singer 's fifth album were added to the set list with a specific staging and theme . The projections shown on the stage followed the concept behind the singer 's visual album . The performance of " Flawless " , the second song on the set , opened with the words from Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie 's TED talk projected with big letters on the screen and later Beyoncé performed a choreography with her female dancers similarly to the song 's music video . A performance of " Yoncé " followed with a new choreography with her dancers . " Blow " was merged with " Naughty Girl " ( 2003 ) and featured a burlesque and disco @-@ era theme . During the end of the performance a projection of Pac @-@ Man , the character of the game with the same name , eating cherries was projected on an LED screen onstage . " Partition " was performed in a similar fashion to its music video with Beyoncé appearing with a silhouette , dancing on a couch in front of a purple light . For " Drunk in Love " , the singer performed a choreographed chair dance . During " Haunted " , strobing lights and dancers were present on stage . " Heaven " and " XO " were performed as the concert 's last songs along with " Halo " .
= = Critical reception = =
Mike Wass from the website Idolator called the show a " concert extravaganza in the style of Michael Jackson or Madonna " praising the fact that the singer made a progress in the production values compared with her previous performances , mostly due to the expensive and high @-@ quality visual projections which " create atmosphere and add another layer to the production " . He further praised the singer 's " extraordinary talent " during the performances hailing her as " the greatest entertainer of her generation " after seeing the show which showcased " an icon at top of her game " . Tiffany Poole from The Oklahoman praised the fashion , video backdrops and " some of the most impersonated dance moves on YouTube " concluding , " To say that Beyoncé puts on a good show would be grossly understated . " Billboard writer Gail Mitchell hailed the concert as a " musical and visual extravaganza " complete with a kaleidoscope of colorful imagery and dancing , which according to him enhanced the music complete with the singer 's strong vocals , rather than overshadowing it . He concluded that the tour
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a performance by the choir from Tettenhall College , Speight 's former school , and his coffin was carried out of the church accompanied by the theme tune of SMart . He was later cremated and his ashes were interred in Tettenhall . In May , the inquest resumed and determined that Speight was deeply depressed by his fiancee 's death . It was also disclosed that suicide notes had been found , one in his left pocket , and one addressed to his parents in his diary at his home . The notes described how he could not " contemplate life without [ Collins ] " . The coroner , Dr Paul Knapman , said there were no suspicious circumstances surrounding the death . In May 2008 , Speight 's father created a foundation , Speight of the Art , or SP8 of the Art and launched it at a memorial service that took place on what would have been his 43rd birthday , 6 August 2008 , at St Paul 's Church in Covent Garden , London .
= Dr. Bonham 's Case =
Thomas Bonham v College of Physicians , commonly known as Dr. Bonham 's Case or simply Bonham 's Case , was decided in 1610 by the Court of Common Pleas in England under Sir Edward Coke , the court 's Chief Justice . Coke said that " in many cases , the common law will control Acts of Parliament " , and explained why he thought so . Coke 's meaning has been disputed over the years ; according to one interpretation , Coke intended the kind of judicial review that would later develop in the United States , whereas other scholars contend that Coke only meant to construe a statute without challenging Parliamentary sovereignty . If Coke intended the former , then he may have eventually changed his view . This statement by Coke is sometimes considered obiter dicta , rather than part of the rationale of the case .
Whatever Coke 's meaning , after an initial period when his decision enjoyed some support ( but during which no statutes were declared void ) , Bonham 's Case was thrown aside in favour of the growing doctrine of Parliamentary sovereignty . In one of the most prominent early treatises supporting that doctrine , William Blackstone wrote that Parliament is the sovereign law @-@ maker , preventing the common law courts from throwing aside or reviewing statutes in the fashion Coke suggested . Parliamentary sovereignty is now the accepted judicial doctrine in the legal system of England and Wales . Bonham 's Case was met with mixed reactions at the time , with King James I and the Lord Chancellor , Lord Ellesmere , both deeply unhappy with it ; it has been suggested as one of the reasons for Coke 's dismissal from the Common Pleas in 1613 . Academics in the 19th and 20th centuries have been scarcely more favourable , calling it " a foolish doctrine alleged to have been laid down extra @-@ judicially " , and simply an " abortion " .
In the United States , Coke 's decision met with a better reaction . During the legal and public campaigns against the writs of assistance and Stamp Act of 1765 , Bonham 's Case was given as a justification for nullifying the legislation , although by 1772 Blackstone 's views gained acceptance . Marbury v. Madison , the American case which in 1803 formed the basis for the exercise of judicial review in the United States under Article III of the Constitution , used the words " void " and " repugnant " , although Marbury 's usage was somewhat different from Coke 's usage . Academics have argued that Coke 's work in Bonham 's Case forms the basis of judicial review in the United States ; other academics disagree , with one scholar calling this " one of the most enduring myths of American constitutional law and theory , to say nothing of history " .
= = Background = =
The College of Physicians ( renamed in 1674 the Royal College of Physicians ) was historically an elite organisation . Created by royal charter in 1518 , the college was founded by six English academic doctors trained in English universities . It only admitted British men who had trained at a university and passed a three @-@ part Latin exam in medical theory . Only 24 Fellows were allowed , and if an entrant came at a time when all 24 Fellowships were full , he would instead become a Candidate , with the most senior Candidate admitted to the first vacant Fellowship . An Act of Parliament confirming their royal charter also gave the college the ability to act as a court , judging other practitioners and punishing those acting badly or practising without a licence . A second Act , the College of Physicians Act 1553 , amended the charter and gave them the right to imprison , indefinitely , those they judged . This " flew in the face of the common law assumption that to practice medicine one needed only the consent of the patient " ; Despite this , on 8 April 1602 , John Popham , the Chief Justice , upheld the college 's authority to imprison and fine , saying " That no man , though never so learned a Phisition , or doctor may Practise in London , or within seaven myles , without the Colledge Lycense " and " That a free man of London , may lawfully be imprysoned by the Colledge " .
Thomas Bonham had been admitted to St John 's College , Cambridge , in 1581 . Earning a Bachelor 's degree in 1584 , he completed a Master 's by 1588 and studied for a medical doctorate at Cambridge , later granted by the University of Oxford . By 1602 he had completed his studies and moved to London , where he practised medicine and associated himself with the Barber @-@ Surgeons ' Company , campaigning for it to be allowed to authorise medical practitioners in a similar way to the College of Physicians . Apparently giving up after a failed petition to Parliament in 1605 , Bonham petitioned to join the college on 6 December 1605 , but was rejected and told to return after further study . Returning on 14 April 1606 , he was again told he could not join , and fined £ 5 and threatened with imprisonment for continuing to practise . Bonham ignored this , and kept working as a doctor ; on 3 October it was announced he was to be arrested and fined £ 10 . Bonham again appeared before the college , this time with a lawyer , on 7 November . He announced that he would continue to practise without seeking the college 's permission , since he claimed they had no power over graduates of Oxford or Cambridge . On this he was imprisoned – some say at Fleet Prison , some at Newgate Prison — for contempt , but his lawyer had a writ of habeas corpus issued by the Court of Common Pleas which freed him on 13 November .
Bonham 's successful writ worried the college , whose previous success with Popham and " keen cultivation " of Popham , Lord Ellesmere ( the Lord Chancellor ) and other Crown officials had left them assured that their jurisdiction would be maintained . As such , the college appealed directly to the Crown officers , and on 1 May met with a committee of judges at Ellesmere 's house . This committee was composed of Ellesmere , Popham , Thomas Fleming , two judges from the Court of Common Pleas and two from the Court of King 's Bench . These judges all agreed that " for not well doeing useing or practicing the facultie or arte of physike or for disobedience or contempte donne and committed against anye ordynaunce made by the colledge ... they may committ the offenders without bayle or mayneprise " . This success spurred the college to move against Bonham yet again , this time by suing him in the King 's Bench for £ 60 for maintaining an illicit practice . In a counterattack , Bonham brought a suit in the Common Pleas requesting £ 100 damages , alleging that they had trespassed against his person and wrongfully imprisoned him " against the law and custom of this kingdom of England " .
= = Case = =
The case was heard in the Court of Common Pleas by Warburton J , Daniel J , Foster J , Walmisley J and the Chief Justice Sir Edward Coke , with a decision finally reached in the winter of 1610 . The college 's lawyers had argued that the two Acts of Parliament and the royal charter " intends , that none shall practise here but those who are most learned and expert , more than ordinary " . As such , the college was free to punish for both practising without a licence and for malpractice , with the 1553 Act giving them the authority to imprison those they judged . Bonham 's lawyers replied by arguing that the Acts and charter were intended to prevent malpractice , not practising without a licence . Moreover , Bonham 's study " [ in the texts at university ] is practise [ sic ] " , and that to become a doctor means to have been considered capable of teaching : " when a man brings with him the ensign of doctrine , there is no reason that he should be examined again , for then if thou will not allow of him , he shall not be allowed , though he is a learned and grave man , and it is not the intent of the King to make a monopoly of this practise " . As such , the Act " doth not inhibit a doctor to practice [ sic ] , but [ only ] punisheth him for ill using , exercising , and making [ of physic ] " ; it covered malpractice , not for illicit practice .
Walmisley and Foster sided with the college , with Walmisley delivering the joint opinion . He said that since the statute clearly said " no person " could practise without the college 's licence , only one verdict was acceptable , because the college had a valid licensing authority . The royal charter was to be interpreted as granting the college a duty on behalf of the King :
It is the office of a King to survey his subjects , and he is a physician to cure their maladies , and to remove leprosies amongst them , and also to remove all fumes and smells , which may offend or be prejudicial to their health ... and so if a man be not right in his wits , the King is to have the protection and government of him , lest he being infirm , waste or consume his lands or goods ; and it is not sufficient for him that his subjects live , but that they should live happily ; and [ he ] discharges not his office , if his subjects live a life , but [ only ] if they live and flourish ; and he hath cure as well of their bodies as of their lands and goods for health for the body is as necessary as virtue to the mind .
As such , in Walmisley 's mind , the King had a duty to protect the health of his subjects , which he had delegated to the college . In addition , Bonham had given " an absurd and contemptuous answer " when he claimed that he would not submit to the college , and " it should be a vain law if it did not provide punishment for them that offend against that " . The monarch had delegated part of his prerogative powers to the college , for the purposes of punishment and imprisonment , and as such it had the right to sit as a court . Coke delivered the majority opinion in favour of Bonham , with Daniel and Warburton assenting . He undertook a closer reading of the college 's charter and associated Acts , and divided the relevant passage into two clauses . The first gave it the power to fine practitioners without licences . The second specified that they could imprison a practitioner for " not well doing , using or practicing physic " . He argued that these constituted separate powers and issues ; the first dealt with authorisation to punish for illicit practise , while the second covered punishment for malpractice . Simply practising without a licence did not constitute malpractice . As such , the college did not have the power to imprison Bonham , who was accused of practising without a licence , not practising dangerously . Coke also went further , arguing against the validity of the charter and its associated Acts . The Acts gave the college the right to act as both judge and a party to a case , which " provided for an absurdity " . Therefore :
One cannot be Judge and attorney for any of the parties ... And it appears in our books , that in many cases , the common law will control Acts of Parliament , and sometimes adjudge them to be utterly void ; for when an act of Parliament is against common right and reason , or repugnant , or impossible to be performed , the common law will control it , and adjudge such an Act to be void ; and , therefore in … Thomas Tregor 's case … Herle saith , some statutes are made against law and right ,
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which those who made them perceiving would not put them in execution .
Because of this and four other reasons given by Coke , the college was to cease trying to supervise medical practice , and to cease arbitrating and acting as a court . In support of his judgment , Coke cited not only Tregor 's Case , but also two anonymous cases given the academic names of Cessavit 42 and Annuitie 11 respectively .
= = Significance = =
= = = Assessment = = =
The decision in Bonham 's Case has been described by John Campbell ( Lord Chief Justice and Lord Chancellor in the 19th century ) as " a foolish doctrine alleged to have been laid down extra @-@ judicially " . Philip Allott , in the Cambridge Law Journal , simply called it an " abortion " . Coke was later dismissed from his judicial posts , and Ellesmere immediately began making veiled criticisms . Ellesmere maintained it was unconscionable to allow the judges power to throw aside Acts of Parliament if they were repugnant or contrary to reason ; however , he spoke " not of impossibilities or direct repugnancies " . It was acceptable to overturn an Act if it was clearly and obviously repugnant , but not otherwise .
Coke has come under criticism for the examples he drew on to justify his decision . The first case he gave , Tregor 's Case , was seriously misquoted . Coke stated that " Herle said some statutes are made against law and right , which those who made them perceiving , would not put into execution " . In fact no reference to " law and right " is found in the original ; Herle wrote that " there are some statutes made which he himself who made them does not will to put into execution " , and only meant that some statutes are poorly drafted , and if they cannot be interpreted to work , Parliament would accept the courts not applying them . Theodore Plucknett wrote that " Whoever reads the whole of Herle 's remarks can see that he did not regard the statute then under discussion as falling within this category ; on the contrary , he suggested a perfectly obvious and straightforward interpretation of it .... Coke 's first authority is far from convincing " . His second authority , Cessavit 42 , " goes much further to support his thesis " , and concerns a situation where William Bereford refused to apply an Act of Parliament because it would undermine several common law principles . However , Plucknett notes the distinction that in Cessavit 42 " the statute is not held void ; it is just ignored . To this fact Coke has really added an explanation and a theory of his own " .
His third example , Annuitie 11 , was based on the Statute of Carlisle , which required all religious orders to have seals , placed in the custody of the prior and four of the " worthiest brethren " so that the Abbot could not use it without their knowledge . Any decisions made without the seal kept in this fashion were invalid . This clashed with church law , and was incredibly difficult for small religious orders ; as such , Sir Anthony Fitzherbert said that the statute was void , as it was " impertinent " or " impossible " . However , Plucknett again casts doubt on the validity , stating that it " would have looked strong ... [ but ] is , in fact , of doubtful import " .
Bonham 's Case was deeply unpopular with the Crown ; Coke was removed from the Common Pleas and sent to the King 's Bench , theoretically a more senior office ( but in practice a less rewarding one ) in 1613 due to his work , and in June 1616 suspended from office and ordered to " correct " his case reports . In October 1617 King James I demanded Coke explain the reasoning behind Bonham 's Case ; Coke claimed that " the words of my report do not import any new opinion , but only a relation of such authorities of law , as had been adjudged and resolved in former times , and were cited in the argument of Bonham 's case " . He refused to admit to any flaws with his writings , and his only corrections were minor typos and rearrangements of the language . If he meant his opinion in this case as an endorsement of judicial review instead of Parliamentary sovereignty , then withdrawal of that endorsement has been inferred from his later writings .
= = = Meaning = = =
The meaning of Coke 's decision is debated ; it can be construed as marking the supremacy of the common law over Parliament through judicial review , or simply as being another form of statutory interpretation . Noah Feldman suggested that the dispute over the two meanings has its origins in 1930s America , where frustration over judicial review of elements of the New Deal spilled into the academic world . James Kent , in his Commentaries on American Law , argued that Bonham 's Case and cases like it only meant that statutes should be given a " reasonable construction " . Charles Gray , in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society , argues that Coke as a judge never intended to advocate the judicial review of statutes . Bernard Bailyn writes that " Coke had not meant ... ' that there were superior principles of right and justice which Acts of Parliament might not contravene ' " , and also writes that by " saying that courts might ' void ' a legislative provision that violated the constitution he meant only that the courts were to construe statutes so as to bring them into conformity with recognized legal principles " . William Searle Holdsworth agreed that it would be a mistake to view isolated statements by Coke in Bonham ’ s Case as endorsing limitations upon Parliament , for several reasons including that Coke himself elsewhere acknowledged the power of Parliament as being " so transcendent and absolute that it cannot be confined either for causes or persons within any bounds " .
Raoul Berger , in the University of Pennsylvania Law Review , disagrees with this ; the words of the statute were clear , and the only application it could have was unjust . Statutory interpretation allows for the ignoring of unjust extraneous meanings , but what Coke did was nullify the statute as a whole , along with its main intention . John V. Orth , writing in the Constitutional Commentary , concurs , saying that " If that were so , why did they not say so ? Is it likely that the royal judges , confronting a case involving a statute that had necessarily passed both houses of parliament and received the royal assent , would lightly use the word ' void ' ? "
Research by Samuel Thomas and Sir John Baker has led to a reassessment . During the early 17th century , non @-@ common law courts were claiming an " Imperial , almost legislative discretion over statutory interpretation , free from any supervisory jurisdiction of the common law courts " . Coke 's decision can therefore be seen as him reminding those courts that such interpretations were themselves subject to the law , and not down to individual discretion .
= = = Further development = = =
During Coke 's lifetime he was judicially dominant , and his ideas were upheld by his successor as Chief Justice , Sir Henry Hobart , in Day v Savadge and Lord Sheffield v Ratcliffe . After Coke 's death , however , his jurisprudence " naturally suffered an eclipse " , and the next appearance is in Godden v Hales , in 1686 , where the doctrine was twisted to argue that the Crown had the prerogative to dismiss laws of government . Plucknett notes that " the Revolution of 1688 marks the abandonment of the doctrine of Bonham 's Case " , but in 1701 the common law judges cited Coke 's decision with approval in City of London v Wood , with John Holt concluding that Coke 's statement is " a very reasonable and true saying " . His position was of treating statutes in the same way as other documents for the purpose of judicial review ; this was followed for decades . Outside of the judiciary , John Lilburne used Bonham 's Case in his book The Legall Fundamentall Liberties of the People of England , and later in his 1649 treason trial , to justify his attack on the Rump Parliament .
With the growth of Parliamentary sovereignty as a doctrine , Coke 's theory gradually died out ; William Blackstone , in the first edition of his Commentaries on the Laws of England , wrote that " if the parliament will positively enact a thing to be done which is unreasonable , I know of no power that can control it : and the examples alleged in support of this sense of the rule do none of them prove , that where the main object of a statute is unreasonable the judges are at liberty to reject it ; for that were to set the judicial power above that of the legislature , which would be subversive of all government " . Parliamentary sovereignty is now upheld by the English judiciary as a " central principle of British constitutionalism " , albeit with some issues due to membership in the European Union . The case 's modern irrelevance is such that Philip Hamburger , writing in 2008 , notes that " Bonham 's Case scarcely deserves mention in a history of judicial duty , except for reasons that are now largely forgotten " .
= = = Impact in America = = =
In the Thirteen Colonies , there were instances when Coke 's statement was interpreted to mean that the common law was superior to statute . For example , drawing on Coke 's statement , James Otis , Jr. declared during the struggle over writs of assistance that it was the duty of the courts to ignore Acts of Parliament " against the constitution and against natural equity " , an argument and struggle that had a significant impact on John Adams . When the Stamp Act of 1765 was declared invalid by the Massachusetts Assembly , the rationale was that it was " against Magna Charta and the natural rights of Englishmen , and therefore , according to the Lord Coke , null and void " . By 1772 , Otis and others had reversed course , adopting Blackstone 's position that judges could not challenge acts of parliament . Even before that point , there were few episodes in which Dr. Bonham 's Case was used as a rallying cry in America , and instead judicial review in America grew primarily from other political and intellectual sources .
In Marbury v. Madison ( 1803 ) , the American case that forms the basis for the exercise of judicial review in the United States under Article III of the Constitution , Chief Justice John Marshall stated that " the particular phraseology of the Constitution of the United States confirms and strengthens the principle , supposed to be essential to all written constitutions , that a law repugnant to the constitution is void , and that courts , as well as other departments , are bound by that instrument " . Here , Marshall specifically used the words " void " and " repugnant " , which has been characterised as a deliberate reference to Coke , but Marshall 's principle involved repugnancy to the written Constitution instead of repugnancy to reason . In the later case of Hurtado v. California ( 1884 ) , the U. S. Supreme Court discussed Bonham 's Case specifically , saying that it had not affected the omnipotence of parliament over the common law .
Edward Samuel Corwin , writing in the Harvard Law Review , praised the idea of a fundamental higher law of reason enforceable by judges , and accordingly endorsed " the ratification which Coke 's doctrine received in American constitutional law and theory " . Gary McDowell , writing in The Review of Politics , calls this " one of the most enduring myths of American constitutional law and theory , to say nothing of history " . As evidence , McDowell points out that Coke and Bonham 's Case were never discussed during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 . During the ratification conventions , Coke was mentioned , but not in debates over the striking down of unconstitutional statutes . Bonham 's Case itself was never brought up , only Coke 's other writings . An additional point of view is that the United States Supreme Court has come “ full circle to the dictum in Bonham 's Case ” by using the Due Process Clause to strike down what the Court deems " unreasonable " legislation .
= Donkey Kong Country =
Donkey Kong Country is a 1994 platforming video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . It was first released in November 1994 , and under the name Super Donkey Kong ( スーパードンキーコング , Sūpā Donkī Kongu ) in Japan . The game was later re @-@ released for the Game Boy Color ( 2000 ) , Game Boy Advance ( 2003 ) , Wii Virtual Console ( 2007 ) , Wii U Virtual Console ( 2014 ) , and New Nintendo 3DS ( 2016 ) with a perfect pixel mode .
The game is set on " Donkey Kong Island " and centres around Donkey Kong and his nephew Diddy Kong , who must recover their stolen hoard of bananas from King K. Rool and the Kremlings . Development of the game first began shortly after Rare 's Tim and Chris Stamper ran experiments with a Silicon Graphics workstation , rendering realistic 3D sprites . Nintendo became interested in Rare 's work and soon acquired 49 % of the company which culminated in the production of a new title using Alias and SGI technology for the SNES console . The Stamper brothers expressed an interest to create a standalone Donkey Kong game , and assembled a team of 12 to work on the game over an 18 @-@ month development cycle .
Donkey Kong Country is the first Donkey Kong game that was not produced or directed by Shigeru Miyamoto , the character 's original creator . It was directed by Tim Stamper instead , although Miyamoto was still involved with the project . Following an intense marketing campaign , Donkey Kong Country received critical acclaim and more than nine million copies were sold worldwide , making it the second @-@ best @-@ selling SNES game .
= = Gameplay = =
Donkey Kong Country is a platform game where players must complete forty different side @-@ scrolling levels ( forty @-@ one in the Game Boy Color version ) and recover the Kongs ' banana hoard , which has been stolen by the Kremlings . Each level is uniquely themed and consists of varying tasks such as swimming , riding in mine carts , launching out of barrel cannons , or swinging from vine to vine . The player begins with a minimum of six lives . Players lose a life if they get hit by any enemy or fall off the screen . To defeat an enemy , players can either execute a roll , jump or hand slap ( a move only usable by Donkey Kong ) . However , some enemies cannot be taken down in this manner , so the player must throw a barrel or use the assistance of an animal . Enemies vary in difficulty , usually becoming tougher to take down as the game progresses . When the player has lost all their lives , the game is over . However , the player can gain additional lives by collecting items scattered throughout the levels , including bananas , golden letters that spell out K – O – N – G , extra life balloons , and golden animal tokens that lead to bonus levels . There are also many secret passages that can lead to bonus games where the player can earn additional lives or other items , as well as gain possible shortcuts through the level .
Players of Donkey Kong Country control one of two characters : Donkey Kong or his nephew Diddy . The player can switch between characters if they are both on the screen . Donkey is the larger of the two , and can defeat enemies more easily while Diddy is faster and more agile . In several levels , players can gain assistance from various animals , who are found by breaking open crates . These helpers include Rambi the Rhino , Expresso the Ostrich , Enguarde the Swordfish , Winky the Frog , and Squawks the Parrot . Each animal can be found in an appropriately themed level : for example , Enguarde can only be found underwater , and Squawks is found in one cave level . Some animals can also give players access to bonus games .
The game offers single @-@ player and multiplayer game modes . Multiplayer allows two players to play alternatively in one of two different modes : the competitive " Contest " mode or the cooperative " Team " mode . In Contest mode , each player controls a different set of Kongs and take turns playing each level as quickly as possible ; the objective is to complete the most levels in the fastest time . In Team mode , each player takes the role of one of the two Kongs and play as a tag team : the active player 's Kong will control the progression of the two players while the other player is dormant ; the other player takes control if the active player loses his Kong from damage or if the active decides to switch out .
Donkey Kong Country uses a series of map screens to track the players ' progress . Between each level , players control their character on the map screen , navigating to the next level they want to play . Each level on the map is marked with an icon : unfinished levels are marked by Kremlings ( the game 's main enemy ) , while friendly areas are marked by members of the Kong family . Every individual world map screen has one boss enemy at the end of the course , which must be defeated to travel back to the main map screen of the whole island . It is possible to access previous world maps without defeating the boss by finding Funky Kong and borrowing his barrel plane . Players use this ability to select the world from the main screen , then the level within it . During play the game interface hides most game @-@ related information , such as the number of bananas , letters , and animal tokens collected , as well as the number of lives remaining . When an item is collected , the relevant information briefly appears on the screen .
= = Plot = =
Donkey Kong , after investigating his " Kong 's Banana Hoard " , located just below his home , and discovering that his banana hoard has disappeared , embarks on a journey to recover it from King K. Rool and the Kremlings . While collecting bananas on the island 's vastly different regions , Donkey Kong defeats various enemies , including the reptilian Kremlings , and other hazardous creatures native to the island . Aiding him in his quest are some of the other Kongs : Diddy accompanies Donkey Kong on his quest , Cranky provides hints and comic relief , Candy operates the island 's save points , and Funky offers a means of transportation around the island . Also assisting Donkey Kong at times are various ' animal buddies ' ( Rambi the Rhino , Expresso the Ostrich , Enguarde the Swordfish , Winky the Frog , and Squawks the Parrot ) , each with their own unique abilities . After progressing through the island 's different areas , Donkey Kong ultimately arrives on a pirate ship called Gangplank Galleon , where Donkey Kong 's nemesis and the leader of the Kremlings , King K. Rool , awaits with Donkey Kong 's banana hoard . Upon his defeat , the game ends with a final shot of Donkey Kong 's banana hoard restored to its former glory , filled with bananas once again .
= = Development = =
Before Donkey Kong Country 's production , Rare 's Tim and Chris Stamper invested and programmed experiments with a Silicon Graphics Challenge workstation , with their initial focus centred on a boxing game . Although never reaching beyond the stages of initial development , senior Nintendo staff who visited their Twycross studio were impressed with their progress after being shown a working demo . Genyo Takeda was dispatched to Japan to advise then @-@ president of Nintendo Hiroshi Yamauchi on securing a deal with Rare . Following talks between Yamauchi and Rare staff , Nintendo acquired
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pre @-@ rendered 3D together with fully 3D objects . Rare took significant financial risks in purchasing the expensive SGI equipment used to render the graphics . David Wise , Rare 's composer from 1985 to 1994 , admitted that the workstations Rare purchased were worth £ 80 @,@ 000 each . A new compression technique they developed in house allowed them to incorporate more detail and animation for each sprite for a given memory footprint than previously achieved on the SNES , which better captured the pre @-@ rendered graphics . Both Nintendo and Rare refer to the technique for creating the game 's graphics as " ACM " ( Advanced Computer Modelling ) .
= = = Marketing = = =
Donkey Kong Country had a marketing budget of $ 3 @.@ 76 million in the United States . As a part of Nintendo 's marketing campaign , a 15 @-@ minute VHS tape titled Donkey Kong Country : Exposed was sent to subscribers of Nintendo Power magazine . Hosted by comedian Josh Wolf , the video shows a brief tour of Nintendo of America 's headquarters in Redmond , Washington , and footage from the game when it was in the final stages of development . Several game testers provide tips on how to access bonus levels and perform tricks throughout the game . Various interviews promote the level of graphical complexity as being revolutionary for game systems at that time . A segment at the end of the video reminds viewers that the game is available only on Nintendo 's 16 @-@ bit Super Nintendo Entertainment System console and not on rival 32 @-@ bit and CD @-@ ROM based consoles ( e.g. , Sega 32X and Sega CD ) that boasted superior processing power . In a " hidden " section at the end of the cassette , the host of the video opens a door and discovers that Nintendo of America testers are playing an early development version of the Killer Instinct arcade . A character resembling Chief Thunder is shown with notable differences .
Nintendo of America partnered with Kellogg 's for a promotional campaign running from the game 's release in November 1994 until April 1995 , in which the packaging for all of Kellogg 's breakfast cereals would feature Donkey Kong Country character art and announce a prize giveaway .
= = = Audio = = =
David Wise composed the majority of the music for Donkey Kong Country , with Eveline Fischer and Robin Beanland also contributing . Wise had started making compositions for the game when he was still a freelance musician . He has said that he originally assumed the music he composed for the game would later be replaced with compositions by a Japanese composer , since he understood how important the Donkey Kong licence was to Nintendo . But he was later asked by Rare to record three jungle demo tunes , which were connected together to become the " DK Swing " : " I guess someone thought the music was suitable , as they offered me a full time position at Rare . "
Donkey Kong Country is known for its atmospheric music , mixing natural environmental sounds with prominent melodic and percussive accompaniment . It features a wide variety of different musical styles that attempt to be evocative of the environments in which they appear . This varies with the differing areas of the game , and includes music from levels set in Africa @-@ inspired jungles , caverns , oceanic reefs , frozen landscapes , and industrial factories . Wise cited Koji Kondo 's music for the Mario and Zelda games , Tim and Geoff Follin 's music for Plok , synthesiser @-@ based film soundtracks released in the 1980s and a lot of rock and dance music released that same decade as influences in creator the music for Donkey Kong Country . He has stated that he wanted the music produced by the SNES 's SPC700 chip for the game to sound similar to the Korg Wavestation synthesiser , but ended up composing most of the music himself .
Donkey Kong Country also had a soundtrack which was released on CD under the title DK Jamz . It was sent to news media and retailers in November 1994 as a promotional item , and released to the general public in March 1995 . DK Jamz consists of fifty tracks , of which tracks 24 – 48 are completely silent , and the remaining two tracks in the end are " secret " bonus tracks not listed in the back of the disc cover . The soundtrack was also the focus of an OverClocked ReMix collaboration titled " Kong in Concert " , later praised by Wise .
= = Reception = =
Donkey Kong Country was very successful upon release in November 1994 , receiving critical acclaim and high praise in retrospective reviews , with an 89 percent approval rating at the review aggregator GameRankings . Many critics consider that Donkey Kong Country " saved " the Super Nintendo Entertainment system from the growing influence of rivals such as the new PlayStation and the rising popularity of the Sonic the Hedgehog series .
Reviewers praised the game 's vibrant , colourful and " groundbreaking " graphics . IGN 's Lucas Thomas expressed surprise about how Nintendo 's 16 @-@ bit system could deliver rendered 3D models and praised the detailed character animations , " lush backgrounds " and the " verdant jungle " setting of the game . GamePro declared in their review that " DKC has all the elements of a classic : outstanding graphics , involving game play , and lots of hidden stuff " . Later , the game was released as a pack @-@ in game in the SNES " Donkey Kong Set " ( which contained a console , controller , connections and the game ) . This facilitated sales of over 1 million copies , making it a Player 's Choice re @-@ release title around 1998 . At review aggregator GameRankings , the SNES version received an 89 % score , the Game Boy Color version 90 % , and the Game Boy Advance version 79 % . Nintendo Power gave a positive review to the Game Boy Color version of the game finding that the game was " improved with multiplayer minigames and a GB Printer feature " while noting that " the graphics lack the detail of the classic , they 're still worth going ape over . "
The game was awarded best graphic achievement at the 1994 Consumer Electronics Show by GamePro . It won several awards from Electronic Gaming Monthly in their 1994 video game awards , including Best SNES Game , Best Animation , Best Game Duo and Game of the Year . It was the only video game to be listed in Time 's top ten " Best Products " of 1994 . However , it was also considered by the magazine to be one of the Top 10 Most Over @-@ rated Games of All Time before their 200th issue anniversary in 2005 . The game also made the # 9 spot in GameSpy 's 2003 list of the 25 most over @-@ rated games of all time . Donkey Kong creator Shigeru Miyamoto allegedly criticised the game , calling its gameplay mediocre . However , he has since addressed these rumors and expressed fondness for the game . Despite this , it was rated the 90th @-@ best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list in 2006 . It also received a Nintendo Power Award for Best Overall Game of 1994 and two Kids ' Choice awards , one of each for Favourite Video Game of 1994 and 1995 . The game would go on to eventually sell a total of 9 million copies .
= = Legacy = =
Donkey Kong Country 's financial success was a major factor in keeping the SNES ' sales records high at a time when the next generation of consoles were being released , including the PlayStation and the Sega Saturn . Donkey Kong Country sold six million units within its first holiday season . After selling nine million units , Donkey Kong Country became the second @-@ best selling SNES game . Rare 's re @-@ design of the Donkey Kong character would then become a standard for all future Nintendo games featuring him , including his appearances in the Super Smash Bros. series and various Mario Kart games . Furthermore , Donkey Kong Country 's popularity managed to extend its own series - following up with a sequel , Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest , which was released the following year to critical acclaim . The character of Diddy Kong also gained enough popularity to spawn his own game , Diddy Kong Racing was released for the Nintendo 64 in 1997 .
= = = Re @-@ releases = = =
In 2000 , a version of Donkey Kong Country was released for the Game Boy Color . The GBC version had a new stage in Chimp Caverns , " Necky Nutmare " , as well as a revamped and longer Winky 's Walkway . The GBC version had some of the music scrapped and replaced , often with music that originated in Donkey Kong Land . In 2003 , another version of the game was released for the Game Boy Advance . This version had increased brightness , at the cost of contrast and colour saturation , to make the game easier to see on an unlit LCD screen . Both games had some new features , including new minigames , hidden pictures , and a Time Trial mode ; additionally , the GBA version had multiplayer games . Both versions also had lower sound fidelity and a number of minor changes . Candy Kong no longer runs a save point , so players can save the game in any area .
Donkey Kong Country was re @-@ released on the Virtual Console for the Wii in Oceania on 7 December 2006 , Europe the next day , and North America on 19 February 2007 . The Donkey Kong Country series titles were removed from the Wii store in November 2012 , but were ultimately reinstated for the Wii U Virtual Console in 2014 . In Europe , Donkey Kong Country was released on the Wii U Virtual Console on 16 October 2014 , and in Japan on 26 November . On 26 February 2015 , the first three Donkey Kong Country games were released on the Wii U Virtual Console , and were reinstated for the Wii Virtual Console in the United States . On 24 March 2016 , Donkey Kong Country was released for the New Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console .
= Boletus aereus =
Boletus aereus , the dark cep or bronze bolete , is a highly prized and much sought @-@ after edible mushroom in the family Boletaceae . The bolete is widely consumed in Spain ( Basque Country and Navarre ) , France , Italy , Greece , and generally throughout the Mediterranean . Described as a new species in 1789 by French mycologist Pierre Bulliard , it is closely related to several other European boletes , including B. reticulatus , B. pinophilus , and the popular B. edulis . Some populations in North Africa have been classified as a separate species , B. mamorensis , although they are phylogenetically very close .
The fungus predominantly grows in habitats with broad @-@ leaved trees and shrubs , forming symbiotic ectomycorrhizal associations in which the underground roots of these plants are enveloped with sheaths of fungal tissue ( hyphae ) . The cork oak ( Quercus suber ) is a key host . The fungus produces spore @-@ bearing fruit bodies above ground in summer and autumn . The fruit body has a large dark brown cap , which can reach 30 cm ( 12 in ) in diameter . Like other boletes , B. aereus has tubes extending downward from the underside of the cap , rather than gills ; spores escape at maturity through the tube openings , or pores . The pore surface of the fruit body is whitish when young , but ages to a greenish @-@ yellow . The squat brown stipe , or stem , is up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) tall and 10 cm ( 4 in ) thick and partially covered with a raised network pattern , or reticulation .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
French mycologist Pierre Bulliard described Boletus aereus in 1789 . The species epithet is the Latin adjective aerěus , meaning " made with bronze or copper " . His countryman Lucien Quélet transferred the species to the now @-@ obsolete genus Dictyopus in 1886 , which resulted in the synonym Dictyopus aereus , while René Maire reclassified it as a subspecies of B. edulis in 1937 . In 1940 , Manuel Cabral de Rezende @-@ Pinto published the variety B. aereus var. squarrosus from collections made in Brazil , but this taxon is not considered to be taxonomically distinct .
In works published before 1987 , the binomial name was written fully as Boletus aereus Fr . , as the description by Bulliard had been sanctioned ( i.e. , treated as if conserved against earlier homonyms and competing synonyms ) in 1821 by the " father of mycology " , Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries . The starting date for all the mycota had been set by general agreement as 1 January 1821 , the date of Fries ' work . The 1987 edition of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi ; names can now be considered valid as far back as 1 May 1753 , hence predating publication of Bulliard 's work .
Moroccan collections under the cork oak ( Quercus suber ) that were initially regarded as B. aereus were described as a separate species — Boletus mamorensis — in 1978 , on the basis of a rufous chestnut cap and a rooting stipe , or stem , with a reticulation often limited to the top ( apex ) . In 2010 however , molecular phylogenetic studies by Bryn Dentinger and colleagues placed these collections close to B. aereus , likely suggesting an ecological variant or subspecies rather than a distinct species . American mycologist Harry Thiers reported Boletus aereus from California in 1975 ; however , a taxonomic revision of western North American porcini boletes in 2008 formally established them as a separate species , Boletus regineus . These differ from B. aereus by nature of their more gelatinous cap skin ( pileipellis ) , and belong in a different porcini lineage .
Boletus aereus is classified in Boletus section Boletus , alongside close relatives such as B. reticulatus , B. edulis , and B. pinophilus . A genetic study of the four European species found that B. aereus was sister to B. reticulatus . More extensive testing of worldwide taxa revealed that B. aereus and the genetically close B. mamorensis were sister to a lineage that had split into B. reticulatus and two lineages that had been classified as B. edulis from southern China and Korea / northern China respectively . Molecular analysis suggests that the B. aereus / mamorensis and B. reticulatus / Chinese B. " edulis " lineages diverged around 6 to 7 million years ago .
= = = Common names = = =
Bulliard gave Boletus aereus the common name of le bolet bronzé ( the bronze bolete ) in 1789 , noting that it was called the cep noir ( black cep ) in other countries . It is commonly known as ontto beltza ( black fungus ) in Basque , porcino nero ( black piglet ) in Italian , and tête de nègre ( negro 's head ) in French . In Greek it is known as vasilikό ( the royal one ) , or kalogeraki ( little monk ) . The English common name is dark cep , while the British Mycological Society also approved the name bronze bolete .
= = Description = =
The cap is hemispherical to convex , reaching 15 – 30 cm ( 6 – 12 in ) in diameter , although specimens of 40 cm ( 16 in ) have been found in some cases . Slightly velvety and lobed or dented , it is dark brown , greyish @-@ brown , violet brown , or purple brown , often with copper , golden , or olivaceous patches . The stipe is 6 – 15 cm ( 2 1 ⁄ 4 – 6 in ) high by 5 – 10 cm ( 2 – 4 in ) wide , usually shorter than the cap diameter , initially barrel shaped but gradually becoming club shaped and tapering at the base . The stipe is pale brown , chestnut , or reddish brown in colour , covered in a brown or concolorous reticulation . Like in other boletes , there are tubes rather than gills on the underside of the cap . The tube openings — known as pores — are small and rounded . Whitish or greyish @-@ white when young , they slowly become yellowish or greenish yellow at maturity , and can turn wine coloured with bruising . The tubes themselves are initially white , later becoming yellowish or olivaceous . The thick flesh is white , exudes a robust and pleasant smell reminiscent of hazelnuts , and has a mild sweet taste .
The spores are spindle shaped and measure 10 @.@ 5 – 19 by 4 – 7 μm . The pileipellis is a trichodermium of interwoven septate hyphae , with long cylindrical cells .
= = = Similar species = = =
Boletus reticulatus is very similar to B. aereus , also occurring during the summer months under broad @-@ leaved trees . It has a paler , often cracked cap and a usually paler stipe covered in a more elaborate and pronounced whitish reticulation , often extending to the stipe base .
Boletus pinophilus occurs under conifers , mostly Pinus sylvestris , and has a reddish @-@ brown cap . Microscopically , it can be separated by the more inflated , club- to spindle @-@ shaped hyphal ends of the pileipellis .
Boletus edulis occurs later in the season during lower temperatures , mostly under Picea . It has a paler viscid cap , and a paler stipe with an acute white reticulation . Microscopically , it has gelatinised hyphal ends in the pileipellis .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Found mainly in Central and Southern Europe as well as North Africa , Boletus aereus is rare in colder climates such as England , and classified as a vulnerable species in the Czech Republic . Boletus aereus can be locally abundant ; it is the most common bolete in the woodlands of Madonie Regional Natural Park in northern Sicily . In contrast , it has been placed on a provisional Red List of endangered species of Montenegro . Boletus aereus has been reported from several other island ecosystems across the Mediterranean , such as Corsica , Cyprus , Lesvos , and Naxos .
Mushrooms are mostly found during hot spells in summer and autumn , growing in mycorrhizal association with various broad @-@ leaved trees and sclerophyllous shrubs , especially oak ( Quercus ) , beech ( Fagus ) , chestnut ( Castanea ) , strawberry trees ( Arbutus ) , treeheath ( Erica ) , and rockrose ( Cistus ) , showing a preference for acid soils . Roadsides and parks are common habitats . The cork oak in particular is an important symbiont , and the distribution of B. aereus ( along with B. mamorensis ) aligns with the tree across Europe and North Africa . The ectomycorrhizae that B. aereus forms with sweet chestnut ( Castanea sativa ) and downy oak ( Quercus pubescens ) have been described in detail . They are characterized by a lack of hyphal clamps , a plectenchymatous mantle ( made of parallel @-@ orientated hyphae with little branching or overlap ) , and rhizomorphs with differentiated hyphae . A 2007 field study on four species of boletes revealed little correlation between the abundance of fruit bodies and presence of its mycelia below ground , even when soil samples were taken from directly beneath the mushroom ; the study concluded that the triggers leading to formation of mycorrhizae and production of the fruit bodies appear to be more complex than previously thought .
In the past the fungus had been reported in China . Recent molecular studies , however , show that Asian porcini appear to belong to different species .
= = Edibility and culinary uses = =
A choice edible species , Boletus aereus is highly appreciated in Southern Europe for its culinary qualities , and is considered by many to be gastronomically superior to Boletus edulis . In the vicinity of Borgotaro in the Province of Parma of northern Italy , the four species Boletus edulis , B. aereus , B. aestivalis , and B. pinophilus have been recognised for their superior taste and officially termed Fungo di Borgotaro . Here , these mushrooms have been collected and exported commercially for centuries . Throughout Spain , it is one of the wild edible fungi most commonly collected for the table , particularly in Aragon , where it is harvested for sale in markets .
When collected , the skin of the cap is left intact , and dirt is brushed off the surface . Pores are left unless old and soft . Boletus aereus is especially suited for drying , a process which enhances its flavour and aroma . Like other boletes , the mushrooms can be dried by being sliced and strung separately on twine , then hung close to the ceiling of a kitchen . Alternatively , the mushrooms can be dried by cleaning with a brush ( washing is not recommended ) , and then placed in a wicker basket or bamboo steamer on top of a boiler or hot water tank . Once dry , they are kept in an airtight jar . They are easily reconstituted by soaking in hot , but not boiling , water for about twenty minutes ; the water is infused with the mushroom aroma and can be used as stock in subsequent cooking . When dried , a small amount of the mushroom can improve the taste of less flavoursome fungi @-@ based dishes .
= = = Nutritional value = = =
Based on analyses of fruit bodies collected in Portugal , there are 367 kilocalories per 100 grams of bolete ( as dry weight ) . The macronutrient composition of 100 grams of dried bolete includes 17 @.@ 9 grams of protein , 72 @.@ 8 grams of carbohydrates , and 0 @.@ 4 grams of fat . By weight , fresh fruit bodies are about 92 % water . The predominant sugar is trehalose ( 4 @.@ 7 grams / 100 grams dry weight ; all following values assume this mass ) , with lesser amounts of mannitol ( 1 @.@ 3 grams ) . There are 6 grams of tocopherols , the majority of which is gamma @-@ tocopherol ( vitamin E ) , and 3 @.@ 7 grams of ascorbic acid .
= Norm O 'Neill =
Norman Clifford Louis O 'Neill OAM ( 19 February 1937 – 3 March 2008 ) was a cricketer who played for New South Wales and Australia . A right @-@ handed batsman known for his back foot strokeplay , O 'Neill made his state debut aged 18 , before progressing to Test selection aged 21 in late 1958 . Early in his career , O 'Neill was one of the foremost batsmen in the Australian team , scoring three Test centuries and topping the run scoring aggregates on a 1959 – 60 tour of the Indian subcontinent which helped Australia win its last Test and series on Pakistani soil for 39 years , as well as another series in India . His career peaked in 1960 – 61 when he scored 181 in the Tied Test against the West Indies , and at the end of the series , had a career average of 58 @.@ 25 . His performances on the 1961 tour of England saw him named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year . Thereafter his form was less formidable , characterised by nervousness and fidgeting at the start of his innings . Persistent knee problems as well as a controversial media attack on the legality of West Indian bowler Charlie Griffith saw him dropped from the Australian team after 1965 . O 'Neill also bowled occasional leg spin and was regarded as one of the finest fielders of his era . He later became a cricket commentator and his son Mark O 'Neill also played cricket at state level .
= = Early years = =
The son of a builder , O 'Neill was born in Carlton , New South Wales . He had no cricketing associations on his father 's side of the family , but his maternal uncle , Ron Campion , played for the Glebe club in Sydney Grade Cricket . Campion trained for cricket near the O 'Neill family home , at Bexley Oval . O 'Neill accompanied his uncle to cricket from the age of seven and was given batting practice at the end of each session . At Bexley Primary school , O 'Neill was denied a chance to play cricket as the school did not field a team . Moving on to Kogarah Intermediate High School , O 'Neill played cricket in defiance of a teacher who recommended that he take up athletics . As a teenager , O 'Neill idolised Keith Miller after his uncle took him to the Sydney Cricket Ground : O 'Neill saw Miller play that day and was impressed with the way he hit the ball off the back foot .
Under his uncle 's guidance , O 'Neill joined
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the St George Cricket Club club , in the Sydney Grade competition . He steadily moved up through the grades and broke into the first grade side at the age of 16 . Sensing his potential , the club 's selectors informed him that regardless of form , he would play the full season , which allowed him to be uninhibited in his batting . He made 108 in seven innings . The next season , he was out 12 times leg before wicket in 15 innings , and run out in the other three . O 'Neill attributed his failures to over @-@ aggressiveness and resolved to improve his patience . In the second match of the new season , the 17 @-@ year @-@ old O 'Neill made his first century . With all five state selectors onlooking , he made 28 in the next match and was called into the state squad .
= = Shield debut = =
O 'Neill made his debut for New South Wales at the age of 18 against South Australia during the 1955 – 56 season . His lack of contribution was highlighted against the backdrop of his team 's crushing innings victory : O 'Neill failed to score a run or take a wicket . New South Wales bowled first and had South Australia at 6 / 49 when Miller introduced O 'Neill 's occasional leg spin , presumably to ease the debutant 's nerves by bringing him into the game . The home team struck 18 from three overs . O 'Neill was listed to bat in the lower middle order but after the top order had made a big start , Miller brought O 'Neill up . He came in against the second new ball and was clean bowled . O 'Neill was dropped and did not play another match for the season , but had gained invaluable experience .
O 'Neill steadily rose in the 1956 – 57 season . At the start of the season , with many players still on international duty during the closing stages of the tour to England and the subsequent stopover in the Indian subcontinent , O 'Neill was recalled and made 60 and 63 not out against Queensland at the start of the season . This saw him retain his place when the Test players returned . After making a pair of single @-@ figures scored , he made a sequence of three 60s against South Australia , Victoria and Western Australia , He was rewarded with selection in the one @-@ off match between Ray Lindwall 's XI and Neil Harvey 's XI , which doubled as a national selection trial , before making his first ton ( 127 ) against South Australia . He ended the season with 567 runs at 43 @.@ 61 , and earned selection for a non @-@ Test tour of New Zealand under Ian Craig , in a team composed mainly of young players . He made 102 not out in the only " Test " match that he played , helping to set up a ten @-@ wicket win. heading the tour averages with 218 runs at 72 @.@ 66 . Despite this , he was overlooked for the 1957 – 58 Test tour of South Africa . It was regarded as one of the most controversial decisions of the decade .
O 'Neill responded during the 1957 – 58 Sheffield Shield season weakened by the absence of the Test players , aggregating 1 @,@ 005 runs at 83 @.@ 75 and taking 26 wickets at 20 @.@ 42 with his leg spinners , thus topping the national bowling and batting averages . Prior to the season , he had never taken a first @-@ class wicket . In the opening match of the summer , he took 3 / 74 against Queensland . He then took a total of 5 / 51 scored 33 and 48 not out in a six @-@ wicket win over Western Australia before taking 3 / 52 and adding two fifties in the return match . He then broke through for his first century of the season , scoring 114 and taking 3 / 44 in a ten @-@ wicket win over South Australia . However , he reached more productive levels in the second half of the season .
This comprised 175 against Victoria , 74 and 48 against Queensland , 125 and 23 * against South Australia and 233 against Victoria . His 233 was made in little over four hours and featured 38 fours . It was the first time that a New South Welshman ( let alone a twenty @-@ year @-@ old ) had scored 1 @,@ 000 in a Shield season . Bradman and Bill Ponsford were the only others before him . He added 12 wickets in the final four matches , including 2 / 50 and 4 / 40 in the match against Queensland . O 'Neill 's performances played a large part in his state 's fifth consecutive title .
These performances led former Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly to compare him to Bradman and former Test opening batsman Jack Fingleton to lament his non @-@ selection for the South African tour and its reflection on the plight of Australian cricket .
At the time , his employers refused to make allowances for him to play sport , forcing him to begin work at six in the morning . As a result , he considered moving to South Australia , where a grocery magnate offered him employment and financial incentives . However , he stayed after state officials intervened , with Sir Ronald Irish , the Australian chairman of Rothmans , providing him with a job in Sydney . At the time , O 'Neill had another offer . Having represented his state in baseball and been nominated in the All @-@ Australian team in 1957 , he was approached by the New York Yankees , having had experience at a pitcher and short stop . O 'Neill was offered a fee more than 25 times that for a single Test match , as well as travel costs and accommodation , to trial with the Yankees . He agreed , but Irish dissuaded him less than a week before his scheduled departure .
= = Test debut = =
Identified as a future Test prospect , he was selected in a Western Australia Combined XI for a match against the touring England cricket team at the start of the 1958 – 59 season in Perth . Prior to the match , O 'Neill was hounded by the media . The tourists decided to test him with short @-@ pitched bowling , especially Fred Trueman . O 'Neill decided to abstain from hooking , while attacking the spin of Jim Laker with a series of sweep shots . After four and a half hours of uncharacteristic restraint , he compiled 104 with an emphasis on off side play . He took a total of 2 / 67 , removing Fred Trueman and Arthur Milton .
He scored 85 against Western Australia and then made 84 not out for New South Wales against England . He was selected for an Australian XI , which played the tourists in a dress rehearsal before the Tests . He made one and two as Australia were crushed by 345 runs .
Nevertheless , O 'Neill was selected to make his debut in the five @-@ Test series against England , playing in all of the matches . The First Test in Brisbane was a low scoring match described by Australian captain Richie Benaud as producing " some of the slowest and worst cricket imaginable " , O 'Neill made 34 in Australia 's first innings of 186 to help secure a lead of 52 . He then top @-@ scored with an unbeaten 71 in the second innings , guiding Australia to an eight @-@ wicket victory . O 'Neill scored 71 of the last 89 runs scored while he was at the crease , refusing to be dried up by the England 's usage of leg theory . It enlivened a match plagued by time @-@ wasting , and best remembered for a depressingly slow innings by England 's Trevor Bailey , who scored 68 from 426 balls in seven and a half hours . England captain Peter May described O 'Neill 's innings as " sparkling " and said that it made " everything which had gone before look even more wretched " . Retired English player Ian Peebles , writing in the Sunday Times , said " Although O 'Neill is in the very early stages of his career , it is already something of an occasion when he comes to the wicket , and one can sense the expectancy of the crowd and the heightened tension of the opposition " . Wisden opined that O 'Neill had " saved a game that had been tortuous for days " . For his part , O 'Neill said that the dour play was " unbelievable " and that he was " just about falling to sleep " in the field .
He struck 77 in the rain @-@ affected drawn Third Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground and followed this with 56 in the Fourth Test in Adelaide . Despite making a duck in the Fifth Test , he ended the series as the second highest runscorer with 282 at 56 @.@ 40 as Australia took the series 4 – 0 . He bowled two overs without success . Outside the Tests , O 'Neill scored 155 and 128 against Victoria and Western Australia respectively as New South Wales completed their sixth successive Sheffield Shield win .
= = Career peak = =
The following season O 'Neill was Australia 's leading batsman during the 1959 – 60 tour to Pakistan and India , where he was a part of the last Australian team to win a Test on Pakistani soil for 39 years . After a quiet match in the First Test eigh @-@ wicket win in Dacca in East Pakistan ( now Bangladesh ) , in which he scored two and 26 not out , O 'Neill played a key role in the victory in the Second Test in Lahore that was to Australia 's last in Pakistan until 1998 . O 'Neill made his maiden Test century of 134 in the first innings to give Australia a 245 @-@ run lead . He then took his maiden Test wicket in Pakistan 's second innings , that of Shujauddin . This left Australia chasing a target of 122 in the last two hours on the final day . The chase was on schedule with O 'Neill partnering Neil Harvey when the Pakistanis began wasting time to prevent an Australian victory . This was implemented by swapping fielders very slowly when the left and rightt @-@ handed combination of Harvey and O 'Neill took a single , and overs began taking seven minutes instead of three . To counter this , Harvey deliberately backed away when a ball was aimed at the stumps and threw away his wicket by letting himself be bowled for 37 . This allowed Benaud to come in and bat with O 'Neill so that the two rightt @-@ handed batsmen would give no opportunity to waste time by switching the field . Benaud then threatened Pakistani captain Imtiaz Ahmed with a formal complaint over the time @-@ wasting , and proceesings returned to their normal pace . Australia made the target with a few minutes to spare , with O 'Neill on 43 . O 'Neill failed to make double figures in the final Test , which was drawn , but ended the series with 218 runs at 72 @.@ 66 . In another tour match , against the President 's XI , O 'Neill scored an unbeaten 52 in a low @-@ scoring match as Australia stumbled to their target of 116 with only three wickets in hand .
O 'Neill 's performances in Pakistan was such that the parents in one cricket @-@ following Karachi family named their new son Anil for its resemblance to O 'Neill . Anil Dalpat went on to become the first Hindu to represent Pakistan , playing nine Tests in the 1980s as a wicketkeeper .
On the five @-@ Test Indian series which followed , O 'Neill started slowly , aggregating 60 runs in the first two Tests , which were shared 1 – 1 . He returned to form with a leg @-@ side dominated 163 in a high @-@ scoring draw in the Third Test at Brabourne Stadium in Bombay . After scoring 40 in an innings victory in the Fourth Test in Madras , Australia needed a draw in the Fifth Test in Calcutta with four players injured or ill , while Benaud had a dislocated spinning finger . O 'Neill scored 113 in the first innings to help a depleted team take a 137 @-@ run first innings lead and prevent India from squaring the series . He was Australia 's leading scorer in the Tests , with 376 runs at 62 @.@ 66 . He also made his highest first @-@ class score of 284 , against an Indian President 's XI in Ahmedabad . He was the top scorer for the whole subcontinental Test tour , with 594 runs in eight matches at 66 @.@ 00 .
He returned to Australia and played in one match for New South Wales at the end of the 1959 – 60 season , scoring 175 as his state defeated Western Australia and won a seventh Shield in a row . Prior to the following Australian summer , O 'Neill was part of an International Cavaliers team that toured South Africa . He scored 133 runs at 21 @.@ 83 .
In the lead @-@ up to the 1960 – 61 home Tests series against the West Indies , O 'Neill scored 156 not to set up an innings win for his state over the tourists . He then struck 181 in the first innings of the opening match at Brisbane , his highest Test score . The innings prompted team @-@ mate Bob Simpson to say " if God gave me an hour to watch someone I 'd seen , I 'd request to see Norman O 'Neill . He had the style . " Australia took a first innings lead and O 'Neill made 26 in the second innings as Australia collapsed towards a likely defeat before recovering ; the match ended in the first Tied Test in history . This was the peak of O 'Neill 's career . Having played 14 Tests , he was averaging 67 @.@ 68 with the bat .
He then struck 114 as his state defeated the tourists by an innings , and he made 40 and a duck as the Australians took the series lead in the Second Test . He made 70 and 71 in the Third Test loss in Sydney , one of the few players able to combat Lance Gibbs effectively , top @-@ scoring in the first innings and second top @-@ scoring in the second innings . He then made 65 in the second innings in the Fourth Test at Adelaide , where Australia held on by one wicket for a draw . He contributed 48 in the second innings of the Fifth Test as Australia appeared headed for a series victory . However , a late collapse ensued , and Australia scraped home by two wickets to take the series 2 – 1 . O 'Neill ended the series with 522 runs at 52 @.@ 20 . O 'Neill gained attention during the summer for frequently losing his wicket by impulsively sweeping . This was attributed to the dominance of his bottom hand , which saw his bat swinging across the line of flight of the ball . Despite the criticism , he was at the peak of his international career , having made 1398 runs at
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on 21 September . The brigade , now part of XV Corps , became the island 's garrison . In December the 23rd Indian Infantry Division was sent from Seremban to Java , and the brigade was moved to replace them .
By 17 December the situation in Java had worsened , and the brigade was moved again , sent as reinforcements to assist the Indian division . They arrived at Batavia three days later . The brigade 's mission was to restore law and order and disarm the Japanese military forces in the area . They were told to expect to remain in Java until relieved by units of the Royal Netherlands Army . Under the command of the 23rd Indian Infantry Division , the brigade carried out Operation Pounce , clearing the town and surrounding region of dissidents . In January 1946 they were moved to garrison Semarang .
At the time Semarang had a population of around 210 @,@ 000 , a mixture of Indonesians , Chinese , Koreans , Dutch and Japanese . During the fighting before the brigade 's arrival considerable damage had been caused to the town 's infrastructure . There were no public utilities or medical services , food or water , so the brigade 's engineers and medics were tasked to rectify the situation . To protect the inhabitants , the brigade 's three battalions established a defensive perimeter around the outskirts of the town . Their main concern was Indonesian nationalists whose stated aim was to " slaughter all the Dutch and Chinese " . To assist with security , a Japanese battalion was rearmed and given a sector of the defences to man . The 4th Anti @-@ Tank Battery carried out patrols inside the town limits , while the Royal Army Service Corps platoon distributed food supplies . The brigade remained in Semarang until relieved by the Dutch ' T ' Brigade Group on 26 April 1946 , and then returned to Singapore .
= = = Mutiny and disbandment = = =
On their return from Java , the 13th Parachute Battalion was stationed at Muar Camp in Malaya . The camp consisted of tents with no electricity , and no facilities for washing , cooking or recreation . Unhappy with the conditions , at 07 : 00 on 14 May around 260 privates grouped together and refused to disperse when ordered to do so by the orderly officer . The commanding officer then spoke to the men and ordered them to return to duty , which they again refused to do . That afternoon the commanding general arrived and spoke to them . They were then ordered to fall in and when they failed to comply , 258 men were taken into military custody . A Court of Inquiry was held which decided the 258 men were to stand trial for mutiny . In the trial , three men were acquitted , eight were sentenced to five years ' penal servitude and discharged from the army , and the rest were given two years imprisonment with hard labour and discharged . Two days after sentencing , the Secretary of State for War quashed all the convictions , stating that the Judge Advocate @-@ General had advised him that there were , " a number of irregularities of a substantial nature which may well have prejudiced the accused individually . These irregularities in his opinion rendered the trial as a whole so unsatisfactory that the convictions ought not to be allowed to stand . "
The brigade spent two months in Malaya , before being ordered to rejoin the 6th Airborne Division in Palestine . The 13th Parachute Battalion was disbanded before leaving Malaya , and the remainder of the brigade arrived at Nathanya in Palestine on 5 August 1946 . Shortly after disembarking , orders were received that the brigade was to be disbanded . Of the two remaining parachute battalions , the 7th was amalgamated with the 17th Parachute Battalion , retaining the number of the senior battalion , and the 12th Parachute Battalion was disbanded . Any men not immediately demobbed were distributed among the other battalions in the division . On 13 September , the 22nd Independent Parachute Company , no longer part of the brigade by this time , was also disbanded .
= = Territorial Army = =
In 1947 , a new 5th Parachute Brigade ( Territorial ) was raised as part of the Territorial Army and assigned to the 16th Airborne Division . It comprised the 12th Battalion Parachute Regiment , the 17th Battalion Parachute Regiment and the 18th Battalion , Parachute Regiment . In 1950 , the brigade was renumbered the 45th Parachute Brigade ( TA ) .
= = Order of battle = =
Commanders
Brigadier Edwin Flavell
Brigadier Nigel Poett
Brigadier Kenneth Darling
Units – Europe
7th Parachute Battalion
12th Parachute Battalion
13th Parachute Battalion
'D ' Company , 2nd Battalion , Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry
225th Parachute Field Ambulance , Royal Army Medical Corps
4th Airlanding Anti @-@ Tank Battery , Royal Artillery
591st ( Antrim ) Parachute Squadron , Royal Engineers
Units – Far East
7th Parachute Battalion
12th Parachute Battalion
13th Parachute Battalion
225th Parachute Field Ambulance , Royal Army Medical Corps
4th Airlanding Anti @-@ Tank Battery , Royal Artillery
22nd Independent Parachute Company , Army Air Corps
591st ( Antrim ) Parachute Squadron , Royal Engineers
Parachute Platoon , Light Composite Company , Royal Army Service Corps
= Noël Coward =
Sir Noël Peirce Coward ( 16 December 1899 – 26 March 1973 ) was an English playwright , composer , director , actor and singer , known for his wit , flamboyance , and what Time magazine called " a sense of personal style , a combination of cheek and chic , pose and poise " .
Born in Teddington , south @-@ west London , Coward attended a dance academy in London as a child , making his professional stage début at the age of eleven . As a teenager he was introduced into the high society in which most of his plays would be set . Coward achieved enduring success as a playwright , publishing more than 50 plays from his teens onwards . Many of his works , such as Hay Fever , Private Lives , Design for Living , Present Laughter and Blithe Spirit , have remained in the regular theatre repertoire . He composed hundreds of songs , in addition to well over a dozen musical theatre works ( including the operetta Bitter Sweet and comic revues ) , screenplays , poetry , several volumes of short stories , the novel Pomp and Circumstance , and a three @-@ volume autobiography . Coward 's stage and film acting and directing career spanned six decades , during which he starred in many of his own works .
At the outbreak of the Second World War Coward volunteered for war work , running the British propaganda office in Paris . He also worked with the Secret Service , seeking to use his influence to persuade the American public and government to help Britain . Coward won an Academy Honorary Award in 1943 for his naval film drama , In Which We Serve , and was knighted in 1969 . In the 1950s he achieved fresh success as a cabaret performer , performing his own songs , such as " Mad Dogs and Englishmen " , " London Pride " and " I Went to a Marvellous Party " .
His plays and songs achieved new popularity in the 1960s and 1970s , and his work and style continue to influence popular culture . Coward did not publicly acknowledge his homosexuality , but it was discussed candidly after his death by biographers including Graham Payn , his long @-@ time partner , and in Coward 's diaries and letters , published posthumously . The former Albery Theatre ( originally the New Theatre ) in London was renamed the Noël Coward Theatre in his honour in 2006 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Coward was born in 1899 in Teddington , Middlesex , a south @-@ western suburb of London . His parents were Arthur Sabin Coward ( 1856 – 1937 ) , a piano salesman , and Violet Agnes Coward ( 1863 – 1954 ) , daughter of Henry Gordon Veitch , a captain and surveyor in the Royal Navy . Noël Coward was the second of their three sons , the eldest of whom had died in 1898 at the age of six . Coward 's father lacked ambition and industry , and family finances were often poor . Coward was bitten by the performing bug early and appeared in amateur concerts by the age of seven . He attended the Chapel Royal Choir School as a young child . He had little formal schooling but was a voracious reader .
Encouraged by his ambitious mother , who sent him to a dance academy in London , Coward 's first professional engagement was in January 1911 as Prince Mussel in the children 's play The Goldfish . In Present Indicative , his first volume of memoirs , Coward wrote :
One day ... a little advertisement appeared in the Daily Mirror .... It stated that a talented boy of attractive appearance was required by a Miss Lila Field to appear in her production of an all @-@ children fairy play : The Goldfish . This seemed to dispose of all argument . I was a talented boy , God knows , and , when washed and smarmed down a bit , passably attractive . There appeared to be no earthly reason why Miss Lila Field shouldn 't jump at me , and we both believed that she would be a fool indeed to miss such a magnificent opportunity .
The leading actor @-@ manager Charles Hawtrey , whom the young Coward idolised and from whom he learned a great deal about the theatre , cast him in the children 's play Where the Rainbow Ends . Coward played in the piece in 1911 and 1912 at the Garrick Theatre in London 's West End . In 1912 Coward also appeared at the Savoy Theatre in An Autumn Idyll ( as a dancer in the ballet ) and at the London Coliseum in A Little Fowl Play , by Harold Owen , in which Hawtrey starred . Italia Conti engaged Coward to appear at the Liverpool Repertory Theatre in 1913 , and in the same year he was cast as the Lost Boy Slightly in Peter Pan . He reappeared in Peter Pan the following year , and in 1915 he was again in Where the Rainbow Ends . He worked with other child actors in this period , including Hermione Gingold ( whose mother threatened to turn " that naughty boy " out ) ; Fabia Drake ; Esmé Wynne , with whom he collaborated on his earliest plays ; Alfred Willmore , later known as Micheál MacLíammóir ; and Gertrude Lawrence who , Coward wrote in his memoirs , " gave me an orange and told me a few mildly dirty stories , and I loved her from then onwards . "
In 1914 , when Coward was fourteen , he became the protégé and probably the lover of Philip Streatfeild , a society painter . Streatfeild introduced him to Mrs Astley Cooper and her high society friends . Streatfeild died from tuberculosis in 1915 , but Mrs Astley Cooper continued to encourage her late friend 's protégé , who remained a frequent guest at her estate , Hambleton Hall .
Coward continued to perform during most of the First World War , appearing at the Prince of Wales 's Theatre in 1916 in The Happy Family and on tour with Amy Brandon Thomas 's company in Charley 's Aunt . In 1917 , he appeared in The Saving Grace , a comedy produced by Hawtrey . Coward recalled in his memoirs , " My part was reasonably large and I was really quite good in it , owing to the kindness and care of Hawtrey 's direction . He took endless trouble with me ... and taught me during those two short weeks many technical points of comedy acting which I use to this day . "
In 1918 , Coward was conscripted into the Artists Rifles but was assessed as unfit for active service because of a tubercular tendency , and he was
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shire by nine wickets . Hollies 's 8 / 107 was the best innings bowling figures against the Australians for the summer and earned him selection for the Fifth Test , where he famously dismissed Bradman in his final Test innings for a duck . Australia proceeded to face and draw with Lancashire for the second time on the tour . Bradman made 28 after being dropped twice in Australia 's 321 , before taking two catches as the tourists took a 191 @-@ run lead . He then came in at 1 / 16 and put on 161 for the second wicket with Barnes , and was unbeaten on 133 when he declared at 3 / 265 . The home side hung on for a draw at 7 / 199 when time ran out . Bradman then rested himself during the non @-@ first @-@ class match against Durham , a rain @-@ affected draw that was washed out after the first day .
= = Fifth Test = =
After the match against Durham , Australia headed south to The Oval for the Fifth Test , which started on 14 August . Barnes and Tallon returned from injury , while Ernie Toshack was omitted with knee troubles , and the leg spin of Doug Ring replaced Johnson 's off spin . Overnight , hundreds of spectators had slept on wet pavements in rainy weather to queue for tickets . Bradman had already announced that he would retire at the end of the season , and the public were anxious to witness his last Test appearance .
English skipper Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch . Yardley 's decision was regarded as a surprise ; although The Oval had traditionally been a batting paradise , weather conditions suggested that bowlers would have the advantage . Jack Fingleton speculated that Australia would have bowled first if Bradman had won the toss . Propelled by Lindwall 's 6 / 20 , England were dismissed for 52 in 42 @.@ 1 overs on the first afternoon .
In contrast , Australia batted much more fluently as the overcast skies cleared and the sun came out . Australia had reached 100 at 17 : 30 with Barnes on 52 and Morris on 47 . The score had reached 117 before Barnes was removed by Hollies for 61 . This brought Bradman to the crease shortly before 18 : 00 , late on the first day . As Bradman had announced that the tour was his last at international level , the innings would be his last at Test level if Australia batted only once . The crowd gave him a standing ovation as he walked out to bat . Yardley led the Englishmen in giving his Australian counterpart three cheers before shaking Bradman 's hand . With 6996 Test career runs , he only needed four runs to average 100 in Test cricket . Bradman took guard and played the first ball from Hollies from the back foot . Hollies pitched the next ball up , bowling Bradman for a duck with a googly that went between bat and pad as the batsman leaned forward . Bradman appeared stunned by what had happened and slowly turned around and walked back to the pavilion , receiving another large round of applause . Australia went on to make 389 and then bowled England out for 188 to win by an innings and 149 runs .
This result sealed the series 4 – 0 in favour of Australia . The match was followed by a series of congratulatory speeches .
Bradman said
No matter what you may read to the contrary , this is definitely my last Test match ever . I am sorry my personal contribution has been so small ... It has been a great pleasure for me to come on this tour and I would like you all to know how much I have appreciated it ... We have played against a very lovable opening skipper ... It will not be my pleasure to play ever again on this Oval but I hope it will not be the last time I come to England .
Yardley said
In saying good @-@ bye to Don we are saying good @-@ bye to the greatest cricketer of all time . He is not only a great cricketer but a great sportsman , on and off the field . I hope this is not the last time we see Don Bradman in this country .
Bradman was then given three cheers and the crowd sung " For he 's a jolly good fellow " before dispersing .
= = Later tour matches = =
Seven matches remained on Bradman 's quest to complete an English season without defeat . Australia batted first against Kent and Bradman made 65 , putting on 104 with Brown as Australia made 361 and won by an innings . In the next match against the Gentlemen of England , Bradman came to the crease at 1 / 40 and featured in a 180 @-@ run second wicket partnership with Brown , before adding another 110 with Hassett . He was out for 150 at 3 / 331 before declaring at 5 / 610 against a team that included eight Test players . Australia went on to win by an innings . He then rested himself as Australia defeated Somerset by an innings and 374 runs . Bradman returned to make 143 against the South of England , adding 188 for the third wicket with Hassett . Australia declared at 7 / 522 and bowled out the hosts for 298 before rain ended the match .
Australia 's biggest challenge in the post @-@ Test tour matches was against the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI starting on 8 September , its last first @-@ class match for the tour . During the last tour in 1938 , this team was effectively a full @-@ strength England outfit and had defeated Australia , but this time Bradman insisted that only six current Test players be allowed to represent the hosts . Bradman then fielded a full @-@ strength team ; the only difference from the Fifth Test team was Johnson 's inclusion at the expense of Ring . His bowlers skittled the hosts for 177 , and Morris and Barnes put on an opening stand of 102 before Morris was out for 62 . Bradman joined Barnes and they put on 225 runs for the second wicket . Bradman top @-@ scored with 153 as Australia declared at 8 / 469 late on the final day . Upon reaching 153 , he threw away his wicket with a lofted cover drive , having decided to attempt sixes to give Alec Bedser his wicket . He was already running towards the pavilion before the catch was taken , ending his last first @-@ class innings in England . The hosts were 2 / 75 when the match ended in a draw after multiple rain delays . When it became obvious that Australia would not lose , Bradman bowled his only over of the tour , conceding two runs .
The tour ended with two non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland . In the first match , Bradman made 27 of Australia 's 236 as the tourists took an innings victory . In the second match , Bradman top @-@ scored with 123 not out batting at No. 6 , hitting 17 fours and two sixes in 89 minutes as Australia declared at 6 / 407 . Australia ended the tour with another innings victory . Once Australia were in an unassailable position during Scotland 's second innings , Bradman relaxed and allowed nine players to bowl , including the wicket @-@ keeper Tallon , who took two wickets , while Johnson stood in as the wicket @-@ keeper . When the victory was sealed on 18 September , Bradman 's men became the first side to go through an English season without defeat .
= = Role = =
Along with Chappie Dwyer and Jack Ryder , Bradman was one of the three selectors who chose the squad to tour England . This gave Bradman more power than other Australian captains , who did not have an explicit vote in team selection . This was further magnified by Bradman being a member of the Board of Control while an active player , a threefold combination that he alone has occupied in Australian cricket history . According to Gideon Haigh , he " was the dominant figure in Australian cricket " , who went on to become an " unimpeachable figure " .
Turning 40 in August during the tour , Bradman was by far the most senior and oldest player on the team . Bill Brown was the next oldest , making his third tour of England at 36 . His vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett was the third @-@ oldest player , at the age of 35 . Ernie Toshack was born in December 1914 , and the remaining 13 players were born in 1916 or later . Five players , including Ray Lindwall , Bill Johnston and Morris , his two most prolific Test bowlers and batsman respectively , were more than 12 years younger than he was . Neil Harvey , the youngest player at the age of 19 , was only two months old when Bradman made his Test debut . Bradman was viewed as a father figure by players such as Harvey and Sam Loxton . Before the tour , Bradman had played 47 Tests ; Brown , the only other member who had played regularly before the Second World War , had appeared in 20 Tests . For Bradman , it was the most personally fulfilling period of his playing days , as the divisiveness within the team of the 1930s had passed . He wrote :
Knowing the personnel , I was confident that here at last was the great opportunity which I had longed for . A team of cricketers whose respect and loyalty were unquestioned , who would regard me in a fatherly sense and listen to my advice , follow my guidance and not question my handling of affairs ... there are no longer any fears that they will query the wisdom of what you do . The result is a sense of freedom to give full reign to your own creative ability and personal judgment .
However , some players expressed displeasure at Bradman 's ruthless obsession towards annihilating the opposition . The all rounder Keith Miller , who was one of two bowling spearheads , deliberated allowed himself to be bowled first ball for duck during the match against Essex , while Bradman was his batting partner , in a protest against Australia 's world record of scoring 721 runs in one day . Miller also deplored Bradman 's hard @-@ nosed attitude in the match against Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI , which was traditionally regarded as a " festival match " . Feeling that Bradman was needlessly batting Australia far beyond impregnability , Miller played with reckless aggression , rather than a measured style in line with Bradman 's aim of remaining undefeated . Bradman 's later letter revealed his hostility towards Miller . Sid Barnes later criticised Bradman for his reluctance to allow Ron Hamence — one of the reserve batsmen — to partake in meaningful matchplay ; due to Bradman 's reluctance to risk Australia 's unbeaten run , Hamence usually batted low in the order and had limited opportunities because the senior batsmen were rarely dismissed cheaply . Along with fringe bowlers Doug Ring and Colin McCool , Hamence called himself " Ground Staff " due to the trio 's lack of on @-@ field duties , and they often sang ironic songs about their status .
Bradman 's relentless use of his pace attack and fieldsmen also raised eyebrows . At the time , Lindwall and Miller were groundbreaking fast bowlers , with high pace and the ability to deliver menacing short @-@ pitched bowling at the upper body of the English batsmen . Prior to the Second World War , pace bowlers were generally much slower and did not often bowl at the body . England had yet to develop bowlers such as Lindwall and Miller , and as a result , Australia were able to pepper the upper body of the opposition without fear of retaliation . At times , the public found Lindwall and Miller 's short @-@ pitched bowling to be excessive and booed the Australians . On the fielding front , Barnes was deployed as close to the bat as possible at either forward short @-@ leg or point , with one foot on the pitch . This had an intimidatory effect on the batsmen and led many to question whether it was in the spirit of the game .
Bradman 's dominant cricketing stature was also a key platform of his team 's popularity with the public . The leading English writer R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow said " we want him to do well . We feel we have a share in him . He is more than Australian . He is a world batsman . " Haigh opined that " perhaps no touring cricketer ... has been as feted as Bradman in that northern summer " . The Australians were invariably greeted by record crowds and gate receipts across the country . The attendance at the Fourth Test remains a record for a Test on English soil . The Australian journalist Andy Flanagan said that " cities , towns and hotels are beflagged , carpets set down , and dignitaries wait to extend an official welcome . He is the Prince of Cricketers . " Haigh said that " cricket approached the 50s at the peak of its popularity , albeit , after Bradman 's final Test ... without the player chiefly responsible for it " . Bradman received hundreds of personal letters every day , and one of his dinner speeches was broadcast live , causing the British Broadcasting Corporation to postpone the news bulletin . Of Bradman 's retirement , Robertson @-@ Glasgow said " ... a miracle has been removed from among us ... So must ancient Italy have felt when she heard of the death of Hannibal . "
Bradman ended the first @-@ class matches atop the batting aggregates and averages , with 2428 runs at 89 @.@ 92 , and eleven centuries , the most by any player . The next most prolific scorer was Morris with 1922 runs , and Hassett had the next best average with 74 @.@ 42 . His highest score of the tour was 187 against Essex , and he reached 150 on four occasions . Despite his success , he also gained attention for his troubles against Alec Bedser 's leg trap ; Bradman was dismissed three consecutive times in the Tests in this manner , and twice outside the Tests to other bowlers using the same ploy . Robertson @-@ Glasgow said " at last his batting showed human fallibility . Often , especially at the start of the innings , he played where the ball wasn 't , and spectators rubbed their eyes " . In the Tests , Bradman finished with 508 runs at 72 @.@ 57 and two centuries . Only Morris and Barnes averaged higher and only Morris and Denis Compton of England aggregated more . Apart from the match against Leicestershire , when he batted at No. 4 , and the two non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland , Bradman always batted at No. 3.N- He bowled only one over during the tour , against the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI when the result of the match was beyond doubt .
= = = Statistical note = = =
= New York State Route 386 =
New York State Route 386 ( NY 386 ) is a north – south state highway located in the western suburbs of the city of Rochester in Monroe County , New York , in the United States . Its southern terminus is at an intersection with NY 383 in the village of Scottsville . The northern end of the highway is located at a junction with NY 104 in the town of Greece . NY 386 meets Interstate 490 ( I @-@ 490 ) in Chili and NY 531 in Gates and has short overlaps with NY 33A in Chili and NY 33 in Gates . The portion of the route south of NY 33A passes through mostly rural areas while the section north of NY 33A serves areas of mostly residential nature .
The portion of NY 386 between Scottsville and Chili was originally designated as part of Route 16 , an unsigned legislative route , in 1908 . This section of Route 16 became part of Route 15 in 1921 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , this segment of Route 15 was incorporated into NY 251 , a new route established as part of the renumbering . NY 386 was assigned by the following year to the portion of its modern routing north of NY 31 . It was extended south to Scottsville over former NY 251 in the late 1970s . In 2007 , ownership and maintenance of most of NY 386 between NY 33A and NY 104 was transferred from the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) to Monroe County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government .
= = Route description = =
NY 386 begins at a three @-@ way intersection with NY 383 on the west side of the village of Scottsville . From this junction , NY 383 heads south and east while NY 386 takes the west exit , passing under the Rochester and Southern Railroad and turning to the northwest as it encircles the village . At North Road , which acts as a westward extension of NY 253 , NY 386 passes the middle and high schools of the Wheatland – Chili Central School District and becomes Scottsville – Chili Road . The route continues onward , leaving Scottsville and entering an open , rural area of the town of Wheatland . NY 386 remains on a northwesterly track to the Chili town line , where it curves to the north as it approaches and crosses over the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) .
The highway continues generally northward through Chili , traversing open fields and crossing over Black Creek ahead of an intersection with NY 252 . Roughly 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 6 km ) to the northwest , NY 386 intersects NY 33A . NY 386 turns east here , overlapping NY 33A for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east to the hamlet of Chili Center . The amount of development along the overlap remains low until the highway crosses the CSX Transportation @-@ owned West Shore Subdivision , at which point the fields that had surrounded the route are replaced with homes and businesses . In Chili Center , the commercial center of the town of Chili , the concurrency ends at an intersection that also includes the former western terminus of NY 252A . NY 386 takes the north path out of the junction , becoming Chili Center – Coldwater Road . At this point , ownership and maintenance of NY 386 shifts from NYSDOT to Monroe County .
About 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Chili Center , NY 386 connects to I @-@ 490 at exit 5 . North of the exit , Chili Center – Coldwater Road comes to an end at West Side Drive , forcing NY 386 to turn east onto West Side Drive for 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) before returning north and entering the town of Gates on Coldwater Road . While on Coldwater Road , NY 386 crosses the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision as it heads northward to a junction with NY 33 . NY 386 turns east , sharing Buffalo Road with NY 33 for one block to Elmgrove Road , where it turns northward once again .
Proceeding north on Elmgrove Road , NY 386 passes the sprawling Rochester Tech Park and the Total Sports Experience prior to intersecting NY 531 by way of an interchange . This exit , the final on NY 531 eastbound before it merges with I @-@ 490 , is also the starting point for the two service roads that parallel the expressway between Elmgrove and Manitou Roads . Past NY 531 , NY 386 enters the hamlet of Elmgrove , centered around the junction between NY 31 and NY 386 . The route continues onward , passing through mostly residential areas as it proceeds into the town of Greece . In Greece , the surroundings remain unchanged as NY 386 heads northward to an area of town known as South Greece , where it crosses over the Erie Canal . The route ends 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) later at a junction with NY 104 near Elm Ridge Plaza .
= = History = =
The portion of NY 386 between Scottsville and NY 33A in Chili was originally designated as part of Route 16 , an unsigned legislative route extending from Cuba to Rochester , in 1908 . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 16 was truncated to end at Route 6 ( modern NY 5 ) in Le Roy as part of a partial renumbering of New York 's legislative route system . The portion of former Route 16 north of Caledonia became part of Route 15 . The section of Route 15 between Scottsville and Chili became part of NY 251 , a new route stretching from NY 33 in Gates to then @-@ NY 15 in Victor , in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 386 , meanwhile , was assigned by the following year to the portion of Elmgrove Road between NY 31 in Gates and U.S. Route 104 ( now NY 104 ) in Greece .
NY 251 was truncated to its present terminus in Scottsville in the late 1970s , at which time NY 386 was extended south along the former routing of NY 251 to Scottsville . Reference markers for NY 251 are still posted along its former routing . NY 386 utilized a previously unnumbered portion of Elmgrove Road between NY 31 and NY 33 to reach NY 251 's former alignment . This part of NY 386 is maintained by Monroe County as the unsigned County Route 158 ( CR 158 ) .
In 2007 , ownership and maintenance of the remainder of the Elmgrove Road portion of NY 386 and the section of NY 386 between NY 33 and NY 33A were transferred from the state of New York to Monroe County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . A bill ( S4856 , 2007 ) to enact the swap was introduced in the New York State Senate on April 23 and passed by both the Senate and the New York State Assembly on June 20 . The act was signed into law by Governor Eliot Spitzer on August 28 . Under the terms of the act , it took effect 90 days after it was signed into law ; thus , the maintenance swap officially took place on November 26 , 2007 .
As a result of the swap , all of NY 386 north of NY 33A — except for the section that overlaps NY 33 — is overlapped by unsigned county routes . The portion of NY 386 on Chili Center – Coldwater Road is co @-@ designated as CR 256 . Along Westside Drive , NY 386 is part of CR 119 , the designation for all of Westside Drive . The Coldwater Road segment , meanwhile , is also CR 198 while CR 158 was extended north to cover all of Elmgrove Road .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Monroe County .
= The Fairy @-@ Queen =
The Fairy @-@ Queen ( 1692 ; Purcell catalogue number Z.629 ) is a masque or semi @-@ opera by Henry Purcell ; a " Restoration spectacular " . The libretto is an anonymous adaptation of William Shakespeare 's wedding comedy A Midsummer Night 's Dream . First performed in 1692 , The Fairy @-@ Queen was composed three years before Purcell 's death at the age of 35 . Following his death , the score was lost and only rediscovered early in the twentieth century .
Purcell did not set any of Shakespeare 's text to music ; instead he composed music for short masques in every act but the first . The play itself was also slightly modernised in keeping with seventeenth @-@ century dramatic conventions , but in the main the spoken text is as Shakespeare wrote it . The masques are related to the play metaphorically , rather than literally . Many critics have stated erroneously that they bear no relationship to the play , but recent scholarship has shown that the opera , which ends with a masque featuring Hymen , the God of Marriage , was actually composed for the fifteenth wedding anniversary of William and Mary .
Growing interest in Baroque music and the rise of the countertenor contributed to the work 's re @-@ entry into the repertoire . The opera received several full @-@ length recordings in the latter part of the 20th century and several of its arias , including " The Plaint " ( " O let me weep " ) , have become popular recital pieces .
In July 2009 , in celebration of the 350th anniversary of Purcell 's birth , The Fairy @-@ Queen was performed by Glyndebourne Festival Opera using a new edition of the score , prepared for the Purcell Society by Bruce Wood and Andrew Pinnock .
= = Original production = =
The Fairy @-@ Queen was first performed on 2 May 1692 at the Queen 's Theatre , Dorset Garden in London by the United Company . The author or at least co @-@ author of the libretto was presumably Thomas Betterton , the manager of Dorset Garden Theatre , with whom Purcell worked regularly . This belief is based on an analysis of Betterton 's stage directions . A collaboration between several playwrights is also feasible . Choreography for the various dances was provided by Josias Priest , who also worked on Dioclesian and King Arthur , and who was associated with Dido and Aeneas .
A letter describing the original performance shows that the parts of Titania and Oberon were played by children of eight or nine . Presumably other fairies were also played by children ; this affects our perspective on the staging .
= = Context and analysis = =
Following the huge success of his operas Dioclesian ( 1690 ) and King Arthur ( 1691 ) , Purcell composed The Fairy @-@ Queen in 1692 . Purcell 's " First " and " Second Music " were played while the audience were taking their seats . The " Act Tunes " are played between acts , as the curtain was normally raised at the beginning of a performance and not lowered until the end . After Act I , each act commences with a short symphony ( 3 – 5 minutes ) .
The English tradition of semi @-@ opera , to which The Fairy @-@ Queen belongs , demanded that most of the music within the play be introduced through the agency of supernatural beings , the exception being pastoral or drunken characters . All the masques in The Fairy @-@ Queen are presented by Titania or Oberon . Originally Act I contained no music , but due to the work 's enormous success it was revived in 1693 , when Purcell added the scene of the Drunken Poet and two further songs later on in the work ; " Ye gentle spirits of the air " and " The Plaint " . As noted above , each masque is subtly related to the action in the play during that particular act in a metaphorical way . In this manner we have Night and Sleep in Act II , which is apt as that act of the play consists of Oberon 's plans to use the power of the " love @-@ in @-@ idleness " flower to confuse various loves , and it is therefore appropriate for the allegorical figures of Secrecy , Mystery et al. to usher in a night of enchantment . The masque for Bottom in Act III includes metamorphoses , songs of both
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real and feigned love , and beings who are not what they seem . The Reconciliation masque between Oberon and Titania at the end of Act IV prefigures the final masque . The scene changes to a Garden of Fountains , denoting King William 's hobby , just after Oberon says " bless these Lovers ' Nuptial Day " . The Four Seasons tell us that the marriage here celebrated is a good one all year round and " All Salute the rising Sun " / ... The Birthday of King Oberon " . The kings of England were traditionally likened to the sun ( Oberon = William . Significantly , William and Mary were married on his birthday , 4 November . ) . The Chinese scene in the final masque is in homage to Queen Mary 's famous collection of china . The garden shown above it and the exotic animals bring King William back into the picture and Hymen 's song in praise of their marriage , plus the stage direction bringing ( Mary 's ) china vases containing ( William 's ) orange trees to the front of the stage complete the symbolism .
= = The music = =
Written as he approached the end of his brief career , The Fairy @-@ Queen contains some of Purcell 's finest theatre music , as musicologists have agreed for generations . In particular , Constant Lambert was a great admirer ; from it he arranged a suite and in collaboration with Edward Dent arranged the work to form the then new Covent Garden opera company 's first postwar production . It shows to excellent effect Purcell 's complete mastery of the pungent English style of Baroque counterpoint , as well as displaying his absorption of Italian influences . Several arias such as " The Plaint " , " Thrice happy lovers " and " Hark ! the echoing air " have entered the discographic repertory of many singers outside their original context .
The orchestra for The Fairy @-@ Queen consists of two recorders , two oboes , two trumpets , kettledrums , string instruments and harpsichord continuo .
= = Performance history = =
Following Purcell 's premature death , his opera Dioclesian remained popular until well into the eighteenth century , but the score of The Fairy @-@ Queen was lost and only rediscovered early in the twentieth century . Other works like it fell into obscurity . Changing tastes were not the only reason for this ; the voices employed had also become difficult to find . The list of singers below shows the frequent employment of the male alto , or countertenor , in the semi @-@ opera , a voice which , after Purcell , essentially vanished from the stage , probably due to the rise of Italian opera and the attendant castrati . After that Romantic opera emerged , with the attendant predominance of the tenor . Until the early music revival , the male alto survived mainly in the ecclesiastical tradition of all @-@ male church choirs and twentieth @-@ century American vocal quartets .
However , Purcell 's music ( and with it The Fairy @-@ Queen ) was resuscitated by two related movements : a growing interest in Baroque music and the rise of the countertenor , led by pioneers such as Alfred Deller and Russell Oberlin . The former movement led to performances of long @-@ neglected composers such as Purcell , John Dowland , John Blow and even George Frideric Handel , while the latter complemented it by providing a way of making such performances as authentic as possible as regards the original music and the composer 's intentions ( less true for Handel , where countertenors appear as castrati replacements ) . This has led to The Fairy @-@ Queen 's increased popularity , and numerous recordings have been made , often using period instruments . The format of the work presents problems to modern directors , who must decide whether or not to present Purcell 's music as part of the original play , which uncut is rather lengthy . Savage calculated a length of four hours . The decision to curtail the play is usually taken together with the resolution to modernise to such an extent that the cohesion between music , text and action sketched above is entirely lost , a criticism levelled at the English National Opera 's 1995 production directed by David Pountney . The production was released on video the same year , and revived by the company in 2002 . A bold approach was taken at the Brazilian Opera Company 's 2000 staging by Luiz Päetow , with the libretto becoming unstuck in time .
In July 2009 , two months before the 350th anniversary of Purcell 's birth , The Fairy @-@ Queen was performed in a new edition , prepared for The Purcell Society by Bruce Wood and Andrew Pinnock , which restored the entire theatrical entertainment as well as the original pitch used by Purcell . The performance by Glyndebourne Festival Opera with the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment conducted by William Christie was repeated later that month at the Royal Albert Hall as part of the BBC Proms .
= = Roles = =
The role of Mopsa was originally performed by a soprano ; however , a later revision by Purcell stated that it was to be performed by " Mr. Pate in woman 's habit " , presumably to have a grotesque effect and highlight the refrain " No , no , no , no , no ; no kissing at all " in the dialogue between Corydon and Mopsa . Also , it is not entirely clear what the word " countertenor " means in this context . The record is ambivalent as to whether Purcell ( himself a countertenor ) used a tenor with a particularly high range ( though lighter at the top ) and tessitura ( known sometimes as a haute @-@ contre , the descendants of the contratenors alti of medieval polyphony ) or a falsettist . It seems that throughout his career he used both . However , purely for reasons of dramatic verisimilitude , it is more likely than not that the travesty role of Mopsa was taken by a falsettist , and the presence of a duet for two male altos ( " Let the fifes and the clarions " ) makes it seem more probable that for this work falsettists were employed .
For a list of non @-@ singing characters see A Midsummer Night 's Dream , with the exception of Hippolyta . That character was cut by Purcell 's librettist .
= = Synopsis = =
For the plot of the play see A Midsummer Night 's Dream . Only a synopsis of scenes provided with music is given here .
= = = Act 1 = = =
The first scene set to music occurs after Titania has left Oberon , following an argument over the ownership of a little Indian boy . Two of her fairies sing of the delights of the countryside ( " Come , come , come , come , let us leave the town " ) . A drunken , stuttering poet enters , singing " Fill up the bowl " . The stuttering has led many to believe the scene is based on the habits of Thomas d 'Urfey . However , it may also be poking fun at Elkanah Settle , who stuttered as well and was long thought to be the librettist , due to an error in his 1910 biography .
The fairies mock the drunken poet and drive him away .
= = = Act 2 = = =
It begins after Oberon has ordered Puck to anoint the eyes of Demetrius with the love @-@ juice . Titania and her fairies merrily revel ( " Come all ye songsters of the sky " ) , and Night ( " See , even Night " ) , Mystery ( " Mystery 's song " ) , Secrecy ( " One charming night " ) and Sleep ( " Hush , no more , be silent all " ) lull them asleep and leave them to pleasant dreams .
= = = Act 3 = = =
Titania has fallen in love with Bottom ( now equipped with his ass ' head ) , much to Oberon 's gratification . A Nymph sings of the pleasures and torments of love ( " If love 's a sweet passion " ) and after several dances , Titania and Bottom are entertained by the foolish , loving banter of two haymakers , Corydon and Mopsa .
= = = Act 4 = = =
It begins after Titania has been freed from her enchantment , commencing with a brief divertissement to celebrate Oberon 's birthday ( " Now the Night " , and the abovementioned " Let the fifes and the clarions " ) , but for the most part it is a masque of the god Phoebus ( " When the cruel winter " ) and the Four Seasons ( Spring ; " Thus , the ever grateful spring " , Summer ; " Here 's the Summer " , Autumn ; " See my many coloured fields " , and Winter ; " Now Winter comes slowly " ) .
= = = Act 5 = = =
After Theseus has been told of the lovers ' adventures in the wood , it begins with the goddess Juno singing an epithalamium , " Thrice happy lovers " , followed by a woman who sings the well @-@ known " The Plaint " ( " O let me weep " ) . A Chinese man and woman enter singing several songs about the joys of their world . ( " Thus , the gloomy world " , " Thus happy and free " and " Yes , Xansi " ) . Two other Chinese women summon Hymen , who sings in praise of married bliss , thus uniting the wedding theme of A Midsummer Night 's Dream , with the celebration of William and Mary 's anniversary .
= = Recordings = =
Audio
Bruno Maderna , ( Excerpts ) Orchestra dell 'Angelicum of Milan , ( 1 LP ) - 1957 - Fonit Angelicum LPA970 . This was also the first recording of Cathy Berberian mentioned on the cover as Catherine Berio .
Benjamin Britten , English Chamber Orchestra , Ambrosian Opera Chorus , ( 2 CDs ) - 1970 - Decca 4685612
Alfred Deller , The Deller Consort , Stour Music Chorus ( 2 CDs ) — 1972 — Harmonia Mundi
John Eliot Gardiner , The English Baroque Soloists The Monteverdi Choir , ( 2 CDs ) — 1982 — Archiv Produktion 419 221 – 2
William Christie , Les Arts Florissants ( 2 CDs ) — 1989 — Harmonia Mundi HMC 90 1308 / 0
David van Asch , The Scholars Baroque Ensemble ( 2 CDs ) - 1992 - Naxos 8 @.@ 550660 @-@ 1
Roger Norrington , The London Classical Players , The Schütz Choir of London ( 2 CDs ) — 1994 — EMI Classics 7243 5 55234 2 6
Harry Christophers , The Sixteen , ( 2 CDs ) - 1993 - ( Coro COR16005
Ton Koopman , Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir , ( 2 CDs ) — 1994 — Erato 98507
Nikolaus Harnoncourt , Concentus Musicus Wien , Arnold Schoenberg Chor ( 2 CDs ) — 1995 — Teldec Classics 4509 @-@ 97684 @-@ 2
Antony Walker , Cantillation , Orchestra of the Antipodes , ( 2 CDs ) - 2005 - ABC Classics ABC4762879
Christopher Monks , Armonico Consort , ( 1 CD ) - 2006 - Deux @-@ Elles DXL1120
Ottavio Dantone , Accademia Bizantina & New English Voices , ( 2 CDs ) - 2012 - Brilliant Classics 94221
Video
Nicholas Kok , David Pountney ( stage director ) , English National Opera , ( 1 DVD ) - 1995 - Arthaus Musik 100200
William Christie , Jonathan Kent ( stage director ) , The Glyndebourne Chorus & Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment , ( 2 DVDs ) - 2010 - Opus Arte OA1031D
= Historic Michigan Boulevard District =
The Historic Michigan Boulevard District is a historic district in the Loop community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States encompassing Michigan Avenue between 11th ( 1100 south in the street numbering system ) or Roosevelt Road ( 1200 south ) , depending on the source , and Randolph Streets ( 150 north ) and named after the nearby Lake Michigan . It was designated a Chicago Landmark on February 27 , 2002 . The district includes numerous significant buildings on Michigan Avenue facing Grant Park . In addition , this section of Michigan Avenue includes the point recognized as the end of U.S. Route 66 . This district is one of the world 's best known one @-@ sided streets rivalling Fifth Avenue in New York City and Edinburgh 's Princes Street . It lies immediately south of the Michigan – Wacker Historic District and east of the Loop Retail Historic District .
= = History = =
Michigan Avenue is named after Lake Michigan , which it once ran alongside at 100 east in the city 's street numbering system until land reclamation for Grant Park ( then Lake Park ) pushed the shoreline east . The one @-@ sided street feature is due in large part to the legal battles of Aaron Montgomery Ward with the city over cleaning up the park and removing most of the structures in it . Ward opposed the development of Grant Park with public buildings along the lake
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pygmy hippos for short ) . A male pygmy hippopotamus is known as a bull , a female as a cow , and a baby as a calf . A group of hippopotami is known as a herd or a bloat .
The pygmy hippopotamus is a member of the family Hippopotamidae where it is classified as a member of either the genus Choeropsis ( " resembling a hog " ) or , the genus Hexaprotodon ( " six front teeth " ) . Members of Hippopotamidae are sometimes known as hippopotamids . Sometimes the sub @-@ family Hippopotaminae is used . Further , some taxonomists group hippopotami and anthracotheres in the superfamily Anthracotheroidea or Hippopotamoidea .
A sister species of the pygmy hippopotamus may have been the little @-@ studied Malagasy pygmy hippopotamus ( Hexaprotodon madagascariensis or Hippopotamus madagascariensis ) , one of three recently extinct species from Madagascar . C. madagascariensis was the same size as C. liberiensis and shared its terrestrial behavior , inhabiting the forested highlands of Madagascar , rather than open rivers . It is believed to have gone extinct within the last 500 years .
The taxonomy of the genus of the pygmy hippopotamus has changed as understanding of the animal has developed . Samuel G. Morton initially classified the animal as Hippopotamus minor , but later determined it was distinct enough to warrant its own genus , and labeled it Choeropsis . In 1977 , Shirley C. Coryndon proposed that the pygmy hippopotamus was closely related to Hexaprotodon , a genus that consisted of prehistoric hippos mostly native to Asia .
This assertion was widely accepted , until Boisserie asserted in 2005 that the pygmy hippopotamus was not a member of Hexaprotodon , after a thorough examination of the phylogeny of Hippopotamidae . He suggested instead that the pygmy hippopotamus was a distinct genus , and returned the animal to Choeropsis . All agree that the modern pygmy hippopotamus , be it H. liberiensis or C. liberiensis , is the only extant member of its genus .
= = = Nigerian subspecies = = =
A distinct subspecies of pygmy hippopotamus lived in Nigeria until at least the 20th century , though the validity of this has been questioned . The existence of the subspecies , makes Choeropsis liberiensis liberiensis ( or Hexaprotodon liberiensis liberiensis under the old classification ) the full trinomial nomenclature for the Liberian pygmy hippopotamus . The Nigerian pygmy hippopotamus was never studied in the wild and never captured . All research and all zoo specimens are the Liberian subspecies . The Nigerian subspecies is classified as C. liberiensis heslopi .
The Nigerian pygmy hippopotamus ranged in the Niger River Delta , especially near Port Harcourt , but no reliable reports exist after the collection of the museum specimens secured by I. R. P. Heslop , a British colonial officer , in the early 1940s . It is probably extinct . The subspecies is separated by over 1 @,@ 800 km ( 1 @,@ 100 mi ) and the Dahomey Gap , a region of savanna that divides the forest regions of West Africa . The subspecies is named after I. R. P. Heslop , who claimed in 1945 to have shot a pygmy hippo in the Niger Delta region and collected several skulls . He estimated that perhaps no more than 30 pygmy hippos remained in the region .
Heslop reportedly sent four pygmy hippopotamus skulls he collected to the British Museum of Natural History in London . These specimens were not subjected to taxonomic evaluation , however , until 1969 when G. B. Corbet classified the skulls as belonging to a separate subspecies based on consistent variations in the proportions of the skulls . The Nigerian pygmy hippos were seen or shot in Rivers State , Imo State and Bayelsa State , Nigeria . While some local populations are aware that the species once existed , its history in the region is poorly documented .
= = = Evolution = = =
The evolution of the pygmy hippopotamus is most often studied in the context of its larger cousin . Both species were long believed to be most closely related to the family Suidae ( pigs and hogs ) or Tayassuidae ( peccaries ) , but research within the last 10 years has determined that pygmy hippos and hippos are most closely related to cetaceans ( whales and dolphins ) . Hippos and whales shared a common semi @-@ aquatic ancestor that branched off from other artiodactyls around 60 mya .
This hypothesized ancestor likely split into two branches about six million years later . One branch would evolve into cetaceans , the other branch became the anthracotheres , a large family of four @-@ legged beasts , whose earliest member , from the Late Eocene , would have resembled narrow hippopotami with comparatively small and thin heads .
Hippopotamids are deeply nested within the family Anthracotheriidae . The oldest known hippopotamid is the genus Kenyapotamus , which lived in Africa from 16 to 8 mya . Kenyapotamus is known only through fragmentary fossils , but was similar in size to C. liberiensis . The Hippopotamidae are believed to have evolved in Africa , and while at one point the species spread across Asia and Europe , no hippopotami have ever been discovered in the Americas . Starting 7 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 8 mya the Archaeopotamus , likely ancestors to the genus Hippopotamus and Hexaprotodon , lived in Africa and the Middle East .
While the fossil record of hippos is still poorly understood , the lineages of the two modern genera , Hippopotamus and Choeropsis , may have diverged as far back as 8 mya . The ancestral form of the pygmy hippopotamus may be the genus Saotherium . Saotherium and Choeropsis are significantly more basal than Hippopotamus and Hexaprotodon , and thus more closely resemble the ancestral species of hippos .
= = = Extinct pygmy and dwarf hippos = = =
Several species of small hippopotamids have also become extinct in the Mediterranean in the late Pleistocene or early Holocene . Though these species are sometimes known as " pygmy hippopotami " they are not believed to be closely related to C. liberiensis . These include the Cretan dwarf hippopotamus ( Hippopotamus creutzburgi ) , the Sicilian hippopotamus ( Hippopotamus pentlandi ) , the Maltese hippopotamus ( Hippopotamus melitensis ) and the Cyprus dwarf hippopotamus ( Hippopotamus minor ) .
These species , though comparable in size to the pygmy hippopotamus , are considered dwarf hippopotamuses , rather than pygmies . They are likely descended from a full @-@ sized species of European hippopotamus , and reached their small size through the evolutionary process of insular dwarfism which is common on islands ; the ancestors of pygmy hippopotami were also small and thus there was never a dwarfing process . There were also several species of pygmy hippo on the island of Madagascar ( see Malagasy hippopotamus ) .
= = Description = =
Pygmy hippos share the same general form as a hippopotamus . They have a graviportal skeleton , with four stubby legs and four toes on each foot , supporting a portly frame . The pygmy hippo , however , is only half as tall as the hippopotamus and weighs less than 1 / 4 as much as its larger cousin . Adult pygmy hippos stand about 75 – 100 cm ( 2 @.@ 46 – 3 @.@ 28 ft ) high at the shoulder , are 150 – 175 cm ( 4 @.@ 92 – 5 @.@ 74 ft ) in length and weigh 180 – 275 kg ( 397 – 606 lb ) . Their lifespan in captivity ranges from 30 to 55 years , though it is unlikely that they live this long in the wild .
The skin is greenish @-@ black or brown , shading to a creamy gray on the lower body . Their skin is very similar to the common hippo 's , with a thin epidermis over a dermis that is several centimeters thick . Pygmy hippos have the same unusual secretion as common hippos , that gives a pinkish tinge to their bodies , and is sometimes described as " blood sweat " though the secretion is neither sweat nor blood . The highly alkaline substance is believed to have antiseptic and sunscreening properties . The skin of hippos dries out quickly and cracks , which is why both species spend so much time in water .
The skeleton of C. liberiensis is more gracile than that of the common hippopotamus , meaning their bones are proportionally thinner . The common hippo 's spine is parallel with the ground ; the pygmy hippo 's back slopes forward , a likely adaptation to pass more easily through dense forest vegetation . Proportionally , the pygmy hippo 's legs and neck are longer and its head smaller .
The orbits and nostrils of a pygmy hippo are much less pronounced , an adaptation from spending less time in deep water ( where pronounced orbits and nostrils help the common hippo breathe and see ) . The feet of pygmy hippos are narrower , but the toes are more spread out and have less webbing , to assist in walking on the forest floor .
Despite adaptations to a more terrestrial life than the common hippopotamus , pygmy hippos are still more aquatic than all other even @-@ toed ungulates . The ears and nostrils of pygmy hippos have strong muscular valves to aid submerging underwater , and the skin physiology is dependent on the availability of water .
= = Behavior = =
The behavior of the pygmy hippo differs from the common hippo in many ways . Much of its behavior is more similar to that of a tapir , though this is an effect of convergent evolution . While the common hippopotamus is gregarious , pygmy hippos live either alone or in small groups , typically a mated pair or a mother and calf . Pygmy hippos tend to ignore each other rather than fight when they meet . Field studies have estimated that male pygmy hippos range over 1 @.@ 85 km2 ( 460 acres ) , while the range of a female is 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 6 km2 ( 99 – 148 acres ) .
Pygmy hippos spend most of the day hidden in rivers . They will rest in the same spot for several days in a row , before moving to a new spot . At least some pygmy hippos make use of dens or burrows that form in river banks . It is unknown if the pygmy hippos help create these dens , or how common it is to use them . Though a pygmy hippo has never been observed burrowing , other artiodactyls , such as warthogs , are burrowers .
= = = Diet = = =
Like the common hippopotamus , the pygmy hippo emerges from the water at dusk to feed . It relies on game trails to travel through dense forest vegetation . It marks trails by vigorously waving its tail while defecating to further spread its feces . The pygmy hippo spends about six hours a day foraging for food .
Pygmy hippos are herbivorous . They do not eat aquatic vegetation to a significant extent and rarely eat grass because it is uncommon in the thick forests they inhabit . The bulk of a pygmy hippo 's diet consists of ferns , broad @-@ leaved plants and fruits that have fallen to the forest floor . The wide variety of plants pygmy hippos have been observed eating suggests that they will eat any plants available . This diet is of higher quality than that of the common hippopotamus .
= = = Reproduction = = =
A study of breeding behavior in the wild has never been conducted ; the artificial conditions of captivity may cause the observed behavior of pygmy hippos in zoos to differ from natural conditions . Sexual maturity for the pygmy hippopotamus occurs
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Philadelphia subway station was completed . This included restoring the Glenwood Avenue headhouses , closed for decades before , which improved connections to the mainline station .
= Superman Returns =
Superman Returns is a 2006 American superhero film directed and produced by Bryan Singer . It is based on the DC Comics character Superman and serves as a homage sequel to the motion pictures Superman ( 1978 ) and Superman II ( 1980 ) , ignoring the events of Superman III ( 1983 ) and Superman IV : The Quest for Peace ( 1987 ) . The film stars Brandon Routh as Clark Kent / Superman , Kate Bosworth as Lois Lane , Kevin Spacey as Lex Luthor , with James Marsden , Frank Langella , and Parker Posey . The film tells the story of the title character returning to Earth after a five @-@ year absence . He finds that his love interest Lois Lane has moved on with her life , and that his archenemy Lex Luthor is plotting a scheme that will destroy Superman and the world .
After a series of unsuccessful projects to resurrect Superman on the screen , Warner Bros. hired Bryan Singer to direct and develop Superman Returns in July 2004 . The majority of principal photography took place at Fox Studios Australia , Sydney , while the visual effects sequences were created by a number of studios , including Sony Pictures Imageworks , Rhythm & Hues , Framestore , Rising Sun Pictures , and The Orphanage ; filming ended in November 2005 .
Superman Returns received positive reviews , with critics praising its story , visual effects , musical score , and style . However , it received mixed reviews from audiences , who criticized the film for its length , the story , and lack of action sequences . Warner Bros. was also disappointed with the worldwide box office return . A sequel was planned for a summer 2009 release , but the project was later canceled . The Superman film series was rebooted in 2013 with the film Man of Steel , directed by Zack Snyder and starring Henry Cavill as Superman .
= = Plot = =
For five years , Superman ( Brandon Routh ) has abandoned his adopted home of Earth while on a journey to visit the remains of Krypton . His seemingly selfish decision has ruined his image in the eyes of many , including journalist Lois Lane ( Kate Bosworth ) , who writes a scathing article claiming that the world " doesn 't need Superman " . Scientist Lex Luthor ( Kevin Spacey ) , who lost his fame and fortune after being exposed as a criminal by Superman , secures an early release from prison and marries an old heiress , whose subsequent death makes him wealthy once again . Upon returning to Metropolis , Superman , in his human identity of Clark Kent , is shocked to discover the consequences of his disappearance . While covering the launch of a space shuttle , he narrowly saves a plane carrying Lois and other observers from crashing after a mysterious power failure , an act that earns him much goodwill . Unbeknownst to anyone , the accident was triggered by Luthor using Kryptonian technology stolen from the Fortress of Solitude .
Clark tries to fix his relationship with Lois , but soon learns that she is engaged to Richard White ( James Marsden ) , nephew of Daily Planet editor @-@ in @-@ chief Perry White ( Frank Langella ) , with whom she shares a young , asthmatic son , Jason ( Tristan Lake Leabu ) . Luthor has his aide Kitty ( Parker Posey ) distract Superman , allowing Lex to steal a sample of kryptonite from a museum . Suspecting his involvement , Lois requests an off @-@ the @-@ record interview aboard his private yacht . Luthor admits that he is indeed responsible and reveals his true plan : to create a new continent modeled after Krypton that he can shape in his image , while triggering massive tsunamis that will wipe out the nations of the world and force humanity to turn to him for survival . Jason has an asthmatic attack when Luthor reveals the kryptonite , but has no subsequent reaction when Luthor holds the stone near him .
Jason is sitting by the piano and the Yacht starts to rock from the waves . When one of Luthor 's henchmen threatens Lois , Jason pushes the piano towards the henchmen showing Lois that Jason is Superman 's son . Luthor and his thugs escape by helicopter as the new landmass emerges from the ocean . While working to contain the damage to Metropolis , Superman learns from Richard that Lois is in danger and saves her and Jason seconds before the yacht sinks .
Superman tries to apprehend Luthor , but the kryptonite @-@ poisoned atmosphere quickly strips him of his powers . After letting his men beat him into submission , Luthor stabs Superman with a Kryptonite shard and leaves him to die . With Richard 's help , Lois gets him to safety and removes the shard . Fueled by the sun 's radiation , Superman defeats Luthor 's gang and covers the landmass with soil , allowing him to safely throw it into space . While helping Luthor escape , a disillusioned Kitty allows the helicopter to crash on a remote island , trapping him . Complications from Kryptonite exposure cause Superman to fall into a coma , and while doctors are able to remove most of the fragments , they cannot revive him . Lois visits him and whispers something into his ear while glancing at Jason , after which Superman comes to . Acknowledging that he has a much greater responsibility than himself , he recalls Jor @-@ El 's ( Marlon Brando ) last speech to Jason as he sleeps . Lois starts writing another article , titled " Why the World Needs Superman " . Superman reassures her that he is now back to stay , and flies off into space , where he gazes down at the world .
= = Cast = =
Brandon Routh as Clark Kent / Superman : The Kryptonian superhero who disguises himself as a journalist . Stephan Bender portrays the teenage Clark Kent in a flashback scene . Director Singer believed only an unknown actor would be suitable for the part . Routh was chosen from thousands of candidates interviewed at casting calls in the United States , United Kingdom , Canada and Australia . He had coincidentally auditioned for Clark Kent in the television series Smallville , but lost to Tom Welling . Routh had also met director Joseph " McG " Nichol for the role during pre @-@ production of Superman : Flyby . Dana Reeve , wife of Christopher Reeve , believed Routh 's physical resemblance to her late husband was striking . To obtain the muscular physique to play Superman convincingly , Routh underwent a strict bodybuilding exercise regimen . Prior to Routh 's casting , Singer had X2 actor Daniel Cudmore audition .
Kate Bosworth as Lois Lane : A reporter who works with Clark Kent at the Daily Planet , and former lover of Superman . Spacey recommended Singer to cast Bosworth in the role because she co @-@ starred with Spacey in Beyond the Sea ( 2004 ) as Sandra Dee . Claire Danes and Keri Russell were reportedly considered for the role . Amy Adams , who would later be cast as Lois Lane in the 2013 reboot Man of Steel , confirmed in an interview that she had also auditioned for Lois in 2005 . Adams had previously auditioned for Lois in 2003 when Brett Ratner was planning to direct Superman : Flyby . Bosworth studied Katharine Hepburn 's acting for inspiration , particularly in The Philadelphia Story ( 1940 ) and Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner ( 1967 ) , as well as Julia Roberts in Erin Brockovich ( 2000 ) .
Kevin Spacey as Lex Luthor : An evil sociopath armed with vast resources and an extensive knowledge of science who is Superman 's nemesis . Because of his Academy Award @-@ winning performance in Singer 's film The Usual Suspects ( 1995 ) , and friendship with the director , Spacey was the only actor considered for Lex Luthor . The writers specifically had Spacey in mind for the part when writing the script . Spacey 's version of Luthor has the same comically exaggerated vanity and pompous arrogance of the earlier Gene Hackman version as well as the same strong interest in real estate , but Spacey 's version is far less campy and more serious . Spacey later said that director Singer told him to play the character as " darker and more bitter " compared to Hackman and not to use the earlier portrayal as an inspiration .
James Marsden as Richard White : The nephew of the Daily Planet editor @-@ in @-@ chief Perry White and fiancé to Lois Lane . Marsden said Richard acts as an emotional challenge for Superman , since the hero comes back to find that " Lois Lane picks somebody who 's very Supermanesque " .
Parker Posey as Kitty Kowalski : Lex Luthor 's henchwoman . She served as a prison nurse and would give Lex his examinations . The character is based on Eve Teschmacher from the 1978 film , portrayed by Valerie Perrine . Posey was the only actress considered for the role .
Marlon Brando as Jor @-@ El : Superman 's biological father . Brando ( who died in 2004 ) reprises his role from the 1978 film through the use of previous footage combined with computer @-@ generated imagery . This required negotiations with Brando 's estate for permission to have his footage used . Singer explained , " We had access to all of the Brando footage that was shot . There was unused footage that had Brando reciting poems , trailing off subject and swearing like a sailor . "
Tristan Lake Leabu as Jason White : The son of Lois Lane and Superman . The question of whether Superman or Richard is Jason 's father is initially unclear . He suffers from asthma and other ailments , but it is later revealed that he is the son of Superman , when he displays superhuman strength and discomfort around Kryptonite .
Other cast members include Frank Langella , who plays Daily Planet editor Perry White , a role originally attached to Hugh Laurie ; Sam Huntington as Daily Planet photographer Jimmy Olsen , Eva Marie Saint as Clark Kent 's adoptive mother Martha Kent , and Kal Penn as one of Luthor 's henchmen , Stanford . Jack Larson , who portrayed Jimmy Olsen in the 1950s television series Adventures of Superman , makes a cameo appearance as a bartender . Noel Neill — who portrayed Lois Lane in the television series and the film serials Superman ( 1948 ) and Atom Man vs. Superman ( 1950 ) -- appears as Luthor 's elderly wife Gertrude Vanderworth . Richard Branson cameos as the engineer aboard the space shuttle . Another of Luthor 's henchmen ( Riley ) is played by former Australian Rugby League player Ian Roberts .
= = Development = =
Director and producer Bryan Singer conceived the storyline of " Superman returning to Earth after a five @-@ year absence " during the filming of X2 ( 2003 ) . He presented the idea to Lauren Shuler Donner and her husband Richard Donner , director of Superman ( 1978 ) . Donner greeted Singer 's idea with positive feedback . In March 2004 , Warner Bros. was commencing pre @-@ production on Superman : Flyby , which had a target theatrical release date of June 2006 . McG was signed to direct with a script by J. J. Abrams , but dropped out in June 2004 . That same month , Singer was approached by Warner Bros. to pitch his idea for Superman Returns , as he was preparing to leave for Hawaii on a short vacation with his X2 writers Michael Dougherty and Dan Harris . While in Hawaii , Singer , Dougherty and Harris began to outline the film treatment . In July 2004 , Singer signed on to direct and develop Superman Returns .
Although he was not a comic book fan , Singer was most impressed with Donner 's 1978 film , citing it as an influence of his , Dougherty and Harris 's writing . With Singer 's hiring , he dropped out of X @-@ Men : The Last Stand ( 2006 ) and also had the Logan 's Run remake pushed back . Superman Returns was financed 50 / 50 between Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures , and pre @-@ production began in November 2004 . By February 2005 , Dougherty and Harris had written six drafts of the script . Early versions of the script contained references to the September 11 attacks before they were removed .
= = = Production = = =
Warner Bros. considered shooting Superman Returns at Warner Roadshow Studios in the Gold Coast , Queensland , Australia . After filming , this could have been used as an attraction for the adjoining Warner Bros. Movie World theme park , but the idea was scrapped for being too expensive . Set construction started in January 2005 at Fox Studios Australia for the film 's 60 setpieces , while the start date was pushed back for two weeks . In an attempt
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to the Women 's Knockout Championship match and the Three Way Tag Team match . The Elevation X match received the lowest rating of the review with a zero out of ten . The main event was rated a five out of ten , while the Stand By Your Man Strap match was ranked a three out of ten . The Fish Market Street Fight was rated four out of ten . Clevett felt Destination X " was not a bad pay per view , " but " it wasn ’ t particularly good . " Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch , in his published review of the event , rated the main event three and one @-@ quarter stars out of five , the Elevation X match one star out of five , the Stand By Your Man Strap match one and one @-@ quarter stars out of five , and the Fish Market Street Fight two stars out of five . The Women 's Knockout Championship match and the main event were the highest rated matches in the review , with the Elevation X match the lowest . Keller thought the main event was a " good six @-@ man tag match , but it didn 't feel substantial enough to be a PPV main event . " Regrading the Elevation X match , Keller felt it was " pretty bad . " Commenting on the Stand By Your Man Strap match , Keller said it was a " letdown . " Remarking on the Women 's Knockout Championship match , Keller thought that " in some ways , just excellent " and that it was a " strong showing again by these women . " The event was released on DVD on May 13 , 2008 , by TNA Home Video .
= = Aftermath = =
Following Destination X , Samoa Joe went on to Lockdown on April 13 , 2008 , to face Kurt Angle in a Six Sides of Steel Cage match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . This match was announced on the March 13 , 2008 , episode of Impact ! by Management Director Jim Cornette . On the April 10 , 2008 , episode of Impact ! , a stipulation was added that if Joe lost he would retire from professional wrestling . At Lockdown , Joe defeated Angle to win the championship .
Christian Cage and Tomko were announced as the annual team captains in the 2008 Lethal Lockdown match by Cornette on the March 13 episode of Impact ! . Over the weeks leading up to the event the two picked their team members , ending up with Team Cage consisting of Cage , Rhino , Kevin Nash , Sting , and Matt Morgan , while Team Tomko was made up of Tomko , A.J. Styles , James Storm , and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) . At Lockdown , Team Cage defeated Team Tomko in a Five @-@ on @-@ Five Lethal Lockdown match .
With the return of Sharmell at Destination X , an Intergender Tag Team Six Sides of Steel Cage match was held at Lockdown , pitting Sharmell and Booker T against Payton Banks and Robert Roode . The bout was announced on the March 20 , 2008 , episode of Impact ! by Cornette . Sharmell and Booker were the victors in the contest at Lockdown , thus ending the feud between Booker T and Roode .
TNA X Division Champion Jay Lethal went on to defend the title in an Xscape match at Lockdown . The match was promoted on the March 13 episode of Impact ! , with qualifying matches held leading up to Lockdown . The wrestlers who qualified for the bout were Shark Boy , Curry Man , Johnny Devine , Sonjay Dutt , and Consequences Creed . Lethal ended up retaining the title at the event . Lethal eventually lost the title on the April 17 , 2008 , episode of Impact ! , when Petey Williams used his TNA X Division Feast of Fired Title shot .
LAX ( Hernandez and Homicide ) became number one contenders to the TNA World Tag Team Championship at Destination X. They were given their championship match on the April 17 episode of Impact ! , however at Lockdown the team of Eric Young and Kaz won a Cuffed in the Cage match earning them a championship match as well . Due to this , it became a Three Way Tag Team match between LAX , the team of Young and Kaz , and TNA World Tag Team Champions Styles and Tomko . Young and Kaz won the bout , however , due to a controversial finish the championship was vacated by Cornette . Cornette then set up the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament heading into TNA 's Sacrifice PPV event on May 11 , 2008 , to crown new champions . LAX went on to the event to win the tournament , thus winning the championship .
= = Results = =
= Chicago Spire =
The Chicago Spire was a supertall skyscraper project at 400 N. Lake Shore Drive in Chicago , Illinois that failed financially after beginning construction . When originally proposed as the Fordham Spire in July 2005 , the design had 116 stories and would have included a hotel and condominiums and been topped with a broadcast antenna mast . The design was by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava , and Chicago developer Christopher T. Carley of the Fordham Company was spearheading the project . On 16 March 2006 , the initial design of the building passed unanimously during that day 's meeting of the Chicago Plan Commission . A court ruling on 4 November 2014 brought to a close the original development plan and the extended litigation over the nine @-@ year @-@ old project ; developer Garrett Kelleher signed over the property location to the project 's biggest creditor , Related Midwest , who announced that they would not build the Spire .
= = Planning = =
The building was originally proposed as the Fordham Spire in July 2005 ; Chicago developer Christopher T. Carley of the Fordham Company was spearheading the project . It was to have had 116 stories and to include a hotel and condominiums and be topped by a tall broadcast antenna mast . On March 16 , 2006 , the initial design of the building passed unanimously during that day 's meeting of the Chicago Plan Commission and on March 23 , 2006 , the same happened at the city 's Zoning Committee meeting . On March 29 , 2006 , the Chicago city council also approved that design . As part of the approval process , the council passed a measure that raised the height limit on structures at the site to accommodate the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 610 m ) design height . It would have become the second tallest building in the entire world , surpassed only by the Burj Khalifa . It would have also surpassed the CN Tower to become the tallest freestanding structure and the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere .
The building was designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava and was being developed by St Patrick 's Athletic owner Garrett Kelleher of Shelbourne Development Group , Inc .
There was widespread support for the original design of the building among both the residents of the immediate neighborhood and the city of Chicago as a whole , partly because the building would block less sunlight and obscure less of the skyline than the lower buildings for which the land was originally zoned . Chicago Mayor Daley said he approved of the design , stating that it was environmentally friendly . Burton F. Natarus , who was the 42nd @-@ ward alderman when the building was announced , said : " This is a very unique opportunity for the city of Chicago . This building belongs to Chicago and should be in Chicago . "
Some opposition from neighborhood residents originated from concerns with increased congestion . Donald Trump immediately voiced opposition to the building , stating that the tall structure would be a target for terrorists and did not even seem to be a viable project . The opposing comment by Trump was made while he himself was developing a supertall tower in Chicago , the Trump International Hotel and Tower . Trump 's tower completed construction in January 2009 , just a few blocks west of the Chicago Spire site . If the Chicago Spire had been built as planned , it would have replaced the Trump International Hotel and Tower as the tallest residential structure in the United States , and the two towers would have been in direct competition in selling residential units .
= = Development = =
= = = Initial financial problems = = =
After several months of development in 2005 , Carley failed to obtain sufficient financing for the construction of the building . Irish developer Garrett Kelleher , executive chairman of Shelbourne Development Group , Inc . , acquired the land and took over the project . It was announced that he would put up 100 % of the equity , something Carley had been unable to do . He also had financial backing to acquire the land , something Carley lacked . Kelleher stated he would consider using Carley 's services on the development and that " Carley will be paid an unspecified sum for his involvement in the deal so far . " Kelleher later renamed the project " Chicago Spire " after shortly going by " 400 North Lake Shore Drive " , as it was no longer a Fordham project .
= = = New designs = = =
In the final quarter of 2006 , Shelbourne Development issued two separate press releases regarding the construction and design of the spire . A November 2006 press release stated that construction of the Chicago Spire would begin in June 2007 . In early December 2006 , Shelbourne Development issued another press release stating that the design of the building had been revised . This included the removal of the hotel and the antenna mast , making the building consist solely of condominium units . The design change altered the twist to be consolidated towards the base of the building , which was also wider than the original plan . Additionally , the spire no longer tapered at the top , resulting in an increase in floor space and overall floor count . The revision also removed the separate parking structure from the original plan , instead incorporating underground parking into the spire itself . This first major redesign of the Chicago Spire was criticized by architectural critics and city officials .
In late December 2006 , the Chicago Tribune reported that the developer was soliciting opinions on a further revision from community leaders . Several weeks following that report the Chicago Tribune held an exclusive interview with architect Santiago Calatrava and lead developer Garrett Kelleher . During the interview , Calatrava drew out design ideas restoring the rotating design of the building and showcasing his vision for the Chicago Spire 's lobby . On March 26 , 2007 , further revisions were shown during a public presentation by Shelbourne Development showcasing the most recent design .
= = = Approval = = =
Following the March 26 , 2007 public presentation by Shelbourne Development , residents showed favorable reaction to the newest design of the Chicago Spire . The Chicago Plan Commission approved the final plans of the Chicago Spire on April 19 , 2007
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